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The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders "radiate" outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a stylized star when viewed from the front, and is called a "star engine" in some other languages.
The radial configuration was commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant.
Engine operation
Since the axes of the cylinders are coplanar, the connecting rods cannot all be directly attached to the crankshaft unless mechanically complex forked connecting rods are used, none of which have been successful. Instead, the pistons are connected to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod assembly. One piston, the uppermost one in the animation, has a master rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods' attachments to rings around the edge of the master rod. Extra "rows" of radial cylinders can be added in order to increase the capacity of the engine without adding to its diameter.
Four-stroke radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order can be maintained, providing smooth operation. For example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, and back to cylinder 1. Moreover, this always leaves a one-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps compress the next cylinder to fire, making the motion more uniform. If an even number of cylinders were used, an equally timed firing cycle would not be feasible. The prototype radial Zoche aero-diesels (below) have an even number of cylinders, either four or eight; but this is not problematic, because they are two-stroke engines, with twice the number of power strokes as a four-stroke engine per crankshaft rotation.
As with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the four strokes of each piston (intake, compression, combustion, exhaust). The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the opposite direction to the crankshaft. Its cam lobes are placed in two rows; one for the intake valves and one for the exhaust valves. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types. For example, in the engine in the animated illustration, four cam lobes serve all 10 valves across the five cylinders, whereas 10 would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves.
Most radial engines use overhead poppet valves driven by pushrods and lifters on a cam plate which is concentric with the crankshaft, with a few smaller radials, like the Kinner B-5 and Russian Shvetsov M-11, using individual camshafts within the crankcase for each cylinder. A few engines use sleeve valves such as the 14-cylinder Bristol Hercules and the 18-cylinder Bristol Centaurus, which are quieter and smoother running but require much tighter manufacturing tolerances.
History
Aircraft
C. M. Manly constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, a conversion of one of Stephen Balzer's rotary engines, for Langley's Aerodrome aircraft. Manly's engine produced at 950 rpm.
In 1903–1904 Jacob Ellehammer used his experience constructing motorcycles to build the world's first air-cooled radial engine, a three-cylinder engine which he used as the basis for a more powerful five-cylinder model in 1907. This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops.
Another early radial engine was the three-cylinder Anzani, originally built as a W3 "fan" configuration, one of which powered Louis Blériot's Blériot XI across the English Channel. Before 1914, Alessandro Anzani had developed radial engines ranging from 3 cylinders (spaced 120° apart) — early enough to have been used on a few French-built examples of the famous Blériot XI from the original Blériot factory — to a massive 20-cylinder engine of , with its cylinders arranged in four rows of five cylinders apiece.
Most radial engines are air-cooled, but one of the most successful of the early radial engines (and the earliest "stationary" design produced for World War I combat aircraft) was the Salmson 9Z series of nine-cylinder water-cooled radial engines that were produced in large numbers. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the original engine design in 1909, offering it to the Salmson company; the engine was often known as the Canton-Unné.
From 1909 to 1919 the radial engine was overshadowed by its close relative, the rotary engine, which differed from the so-called "stationary" radial in that the crankcase and cylinders revolved with the propeller. It was similar in concept to the later radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine, and the crankshaft to the airframe. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a major factor with the early "stationary" radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow.
In World War I many French and other Allied aircraft flew with Gnome, Le Rhône, Clerget, and Bentley rotary engines, the ultimate examples of which reached although none of those over were successful. By 1917 rotary engine development was lagging behind new inline and V-type engines, which by 1918 were producing as much as , and were powering almost all of the new French and British combat aircraft.
Most German aircraft of the time used water-cooled inline 6-cylinder engines. Motorenfabrik Oberursel made licensed copies of the Gnome and Le Rhône rotary powerplants, and Siemens-Halske built their own designs, including the Siemens-Halske Sh.III eleven-cylinder rotary engine, which was unusual for the period in being geared through a bevel geartrain in the rear end of the crankcase without the crankshaft being firmly mounted to the aircraft's airframe, so that the engine's internal working components (fully internal crankshaft "floating" in its crankcase bearings, with its conrods and pistons) were spun in the opposing direction to the crankcase and cylinders, which still rotated as the propeller itself did since it was still firmly fastened to the crankcase's frontside, as with regular umlaufmotor German rotaries.
By the end of the war the rotary engine had reached the limits of the design, particularly in regard to the amount of fuel and air that could be drawn into the cylinders through the hollow crankshaft, while advances in both metallurgy and cylinder cooling finally allowed stationary radial engines to supersede rotary engines. In the early 1920s Le Rhône converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines.
By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the water-cooled inline engine and air-cooled rotary engine that had powered World War I aircraft were appreciated but were unrealized. British designers had produced the ABC Dragonfly radial in 1917, but were unable to resolve the cooling problems, and it was not until the 1920s that Bristol and Armstrong Siddeley produced reliable air-cooled radials such as the Bristol Jupiter and the Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar.
In the United States the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) noted in 1920 that air-cooled radials could offer an increase in power-to-weight ratio and reliability; by 1921 the U.S. Navy had announced it would only order aircraft fitted with air-cooled radials and other naval air arms followed suit. Charles Lawrance's J-1 engine was developed in 1922 with Navy funding, and using aluminum cylinders with steel liners ran for an unprecedented 300 hours, at a time when 50 hours endurance was normal. At the urging of the Army and Navy the Wright Aeronautical Corporation bought Lawrance's company, and subsequent engines were built under the Wright name. The radial engines gave confidence to Navy pilots performing long-range overwater flights.
Wright's J-5 Whirlwind radial engine of 1925 was widely claimed as "the first truly reliable aircraft engine". Wright employed Giuseppe Mario Bellanca to design an aircraft to showcase it, and the result was the Wright-Bellanca WB-1, which first flew later that year. The J-5 was used on many advanced aircraft of the day, including Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis, in which he made the first solo trans-Atlantic flight.
In 1925 the American Pratt & Whitney company was founded, competing with Wright's radial engines. Pratt & Whitney's initial offering, the R-1340 Wasp, was test run later that year, beginning a line of engines over the next 25 years that included the 14-cylinder, twin-row Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp. More Twin Wasps were produced than any other aviation piston engine in the history of aviation; nearly 175,000 were built.
In the United Kingdom the Bristol Aeroplane Company was concentrating on developing radials such as the Jupiter, Mercury, and sleeve valve Hercules radials. Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union started with building licensed versions of the Armstrong Siddeley, Bristol, Wright, or Pratt & Whitney radials before producing their own improved versions. France continued its development of various rotary engines but also produced engines derived from Bristol designs, especially the Jupiter.
Although other piston configurations and turboprops have taken over in modern propeller-driven aircraft, Rare Bear, which is a Grumman F8F Bearcat equipped with a Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone radial engine, is still the fastest piston-powered aircraft.
125,334 of the American twin-row, 18-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp, with a displacement of 2,800 in³ (46 L) and between 2,000 and 2,400 hp (1,500-1,800 kW), powered the American single-engine Vought F4U Corsair, Grumman F6F Hellcat, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, twin-engine Martin B-26 Marauder, Douglas A-26 Invader, Northrop P-61 Black Widow, etc. The same firm's aforementioned smaller-displacement (at 30 litres), Twin Wasp 14-cylinder twin-row radial was used as the main engine design for the B-24 Liberator, PBY Catalina, and Douglas C-47, each design being among the production leaders in all-time production numbers for each type of airframe design.
The American Wright Cyclone series twin-row radials powered American warplanes: the nearly-43 litre displacement, 14-cylinder Twin Cyclone powered the single-engine Grumman TBF Avenger, twin-engine North American B-25 Mitchell, and some versions of the Douglas A-20 Havoc, with the massive twin-row, nearly 55-litre displacement, 18-cylinder Duplex-Cyclone powering the four-engine Boeing B-29 Superfortress and others.
The Soviet Shvetsov OKB-19 design bureau was the sole source of design for all of the Soviet government factory-produced radial engines used in its World War II aircraft, starting with the Shvetsov M-25 (itself based on the American Wright Cyclone 9's design) and going on to design the 41-litre displacement Shvetsov ASh-82 fourteen cylinder radial for fighters, and the massive, 58-litre displacement Shvetsov ASh-73 eighteen-cylinder radial in 1946 - the smallest-displacement radial design from the Shvetsov OKB during the war was the indigenously designed, 8.6 litre displacement Shvetsov M-11 five cylinder radial.
Over 28,000 of the German 42-litre displacement, 14-cylinder, two-row BMW 801, with between 1,560 and 2,000 PS (1,540-1,970 hp, or 1,150-1,470 kW), powered the German single-seat, single-engine Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Würger, and twin-engine Junkers Ju 88.
In Japan, most airplanes were powered by air-cooled radial engines like the 14-cylinder Mitsubishi Zuisei (11,903 units, e.g. Kawasaki Ki-45), Mitsubishi Kinsei (12,228 units, e.g. Aichi D3A), Mitsubishi Kasei (16,486 units, e.g. Kawanishi H8K), Nakajima Sakae (30,233 units, e.g. Mitsubishi A6M and Nakajima Ki-43), and 18-cylinder Nakajima Homare (9,089 units, e.g. Nakajima Ki-84). The Kawasaki Ki-61 and Yokosuka D4Y were rare examples of Japanese liquid-cooled inline engine aircraft at that time but later, they were also redesigned to fit radial engines as the Kawasaki Ki-100 and Yokosuka D4Y3.
In Britain, Bristol produced both sleeve valved and conventional poppet valved radials: of the sleeve valved designs, more than 57,400 Hercules engines powered the Vickers Wellington, Short Stirling, Handley Page Halifax, and some versions of the Avro Lancaster, over 8,000 of the pioneering sleeve-valved Bristol Perseus were used in various types, and more than 2,500 of the largest-displacement production British radial from the Bristol firm to use sleeve valving, the Bristol Centaurus were used to power the Hawker Tempest II and Sea Fury. The same firm's poppet-valved radials included: around 32,000 of Bristol Pegasus used in the Short Sunderland, Handley Page Hampden, and Fairey Swordfish and over 20,000 examples of the firm's 1925-origin nine-cylinder Mercury were used to power the Westland Lysander, Bristol Blenheim, and Blackburn Skua.
Tanks
In the years leading up to World War II, as the need for armored vehicles was realized, designers were faced with the problem of how to power the vehicles, and turned to using aircraft engines, among them radial types. The radial aircraft engines provided greater power-to-weight ratios and were more reliable than conventional inline vehicle engines available at the time. This reliance had a downside though: if the engines were mounted vertically, as in the M3 Lee and M4 Sherman, their comparatively large diameter gave the tank a higher silhouette than designs using inline engines.
The Continental R-670, a 7-cylinder radial aero engine which first flew in 1931, became a widely used tank powerplant, being installed in the M1 Combat Car, M2 Light Tank, M3 Stuart, M3 Lee, and LVT-2 Water Buffalo.
The Guiberson T-1020, a 9-cylinder radial diesel aero engine, was used in the M1A1E1, while the Continental R975 saw service in the M4 Sherman, M7 Priest, M18 Hellcat tank destroyer, and the M44 self propelled howitzer.
Modern radials
A number of companies continue to build radials today. Vedeneyev produces the M-14P radial of as used on Yakovlev and Sukhoi aerobatic aircraft. The M-14P is also used by builders of homebuilt aircraft, such as the Culp Special, and Culp Sopwith Pup, Pitts S12 "Monster" and the Murphy "Moose". 7-cylinder and 9-cylinder engines are available from Australia's Rotec Aerosport. HCI Aviation offers the R180 5-cylinder () and R220 7-cylinder (), available "ready to fly" and as a build-it-yourself kit. Verner Motor of the Czech Republic builds several radial engines ranging in power from . Miniature radial engines for model airplanes are available from O. S. Engines, Saito Seisakusho of Japan, and Shijiazhuang of China, and Evolution (designed by Wolfgang Seidel of Germany, and made in India) and Technopower in the US.
Comparison with inline engines
Liquid cooling systems are generally more vulnerable to battle damage. Even minor shrapnel damage can easily result in a loss of coolant and consequent engine overheating, while an air-cooled radial engine may be largely unaffected by minor damage. Radials have shorter and stiffer crankshafts, a single-bank radial engine needing only two crankshaft bearings as opposed to the seven required for a liquid-cooled, six-cylinder, inline engine of similar stiffness.
While a single-bank radial permits all cylinders to be cooled equally, the same is not true for multi-row engines where the rear cylinders can be affected by the heat coming off the front row, and air flow being masked.
A potential disadvantage of radial engines is that having the cylinders exposed to the airflow increases drag considerably. The answer was the addition of specially designed cowlings with baffles to force the air between the cylinders. The first effective drag-reducing cowling that didn't impair engine cooling was the British Townend ring or "drag ring" which formed a narrow band around the engine covering the cylinder heads, reducing drag. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics studied the problem, developing the NACA cowling which further reduced drag and improved cooling. Nearly all aircraft radial engines since have used NACA-type cowlings.{{refn|group=Note|It has been claimed that the NACA cowling generated extra thrust due to the Meredith Effect, whereby the heat added to the air being forced through the ducts between the cylinders expanded the exhausting cooling air, producing thrust when forced through a nozzle. The Meredith effect requires high airspeed and careful design to generate a suitable high speed exhaust of the heated air – the NACA cowling was not designed to achieve this, nor would the effect have been significant at low airspeeds.<ref name=becker>Becker, J.; [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-445/ch5-5.htm The high-speed frontier: Case histories of four NACA programs, 1920- SP-445, NASA (1980), Chapter 5: High-speed Cowlings, Air Inlets and Outlets, and Internal-Flow Systems: The ramjet investigation]</ref> The effect was put to use in the radiators of several mid-1940s aircraft that used liquid-cooled engines such as the Spitfire and Mustang, and it offered a minor improvement in later radial-engined aircraft, including the Fw 190.}}
While inline liquid-cooled engines continued to be common in new designs until late in World War II, radial engines dominated afterwards until overtaken by jet engines, with the late-war Hawker Sea Fury and Grumman F8F Bearcat, two of the fastest production piston-engined aircraft ever built, using radial engines.
Hydrolock
Whenever a radial engine remains shut down for more than a few minutes, oil or fuel may drain into the combustion chambers of the lower cylinders or accumulate in the lower intake pipes, ready to be drawn into the cylinders when the engine starts. As the piston approaches TDC of the compression stroke, this liquid, being incompressible, stops piston movement. Starting or attempting to start the engine in such condition may result in a bent or broken connecting rod.
Other types of radial engine
Multi-row radials
Originally radial engines had one row of cylinders, but as engine sizes increased it became necessary to add extra rows. The first radial-configuration engine known to use a twin-row design was the 160 hp Gnôme "Double Lambda" rotary engine of 1912, designed as a 14-cylinder twin-row version of the firm's 80 hp Lambda single-row seven-cylinder rotary, however reliability and cooling problems limited its success.
Two-row designs began to appear in large numbers during the 1930s, when aircraft size and weight grew to the point where single-row engines of the required power were simply too large to be practical. Two-row designs often had cooling problems with the rear bank of cylinders, but a variety of baffles and fins were introduced that largely eliminated these problems. The downside was a relatively large frontal area that had to be left open to provide enough airflow, which increased drag. This led to significant arguments in the industry in the late 1930s about the possibility of using radials for high-speed aircraft like modern fighters.
The solution was introduced with the BMW 801 14-cylinder twin-row radial. Kurt Tank designed a new cooling system for this engine that used a high-speed fan to blow compressed air into channels that carry air to the middle of the banks, where a series of baffles directed the air over all of the cylinders. This allowed the cowling to be tightly fitted around the engine, reducing drag, while still providing (after a number of experiments and modifications) enough cooling air to the rear. This basic concept was soon copied by many other manufacturers, and many late-WWII aircraft returned to the radial design as newer and much larger designs began to be introduced. Examples include the Bristol Centaurus in the Hawker Sea Fury, and the Shvetsov ASh-82 in the Lavochkin La-7.
For even greater power, adding further rows was not considered viable due to the difficulty of providing the required airflow to the rear banks. Larger engines were designed, mostly using water cooling although this greatly increased complexity and eliminated some of the advantages of the radial air-cooled design. One example of this concept is the BMW 803, which never entered service.
A major study into the airflow around radials using wind tunnels and other systems was carried out in the US, and demonstrated that ample airflow was available with careful design. This led to the R-4360, which has 28 cylinders arranged in a 4 row corncob'' configuration. The R-4360 saw service on large American aircraft in the post-World War II period. The US and Soviet Union continued experiments with larger radials, but the UK abandoned such designs in favour of newer versions of the Centaurus and rapid movement to the use of turboprops such as the Armstrong Siddeley Python and Bristol Proteus, which easily produced more power than radials without the weight or complexity.
Large radials continued to be built for other uses, although they are no longer common. An example is the 5-ton Zvezda M503 diesel engine with 42 cylinders in 6 rows of 7, displacing and producing . Three of these were used on the fast Osa class missile boats. Another one was the Lycoming XR-7755 which was the largest piston aircraft engine ever built in the United States with 36 cylinders totaling about 7,750 in³ (127 L) of displacement and a power output of 5,000 horsepower (3,700 kilowatts).
Diesel radials
While most radial engines have been produced for gasoline, there have been diesel radial engines. Two major advantages favour diesel engines — lower fuel consumption and reduced fire risk.
Packard
Packard designed and built a 9-cylinder 980 cubic inch (16.06 litre) displacement diesel radial aircraft engine, the DR-980, in 1928. On 28 May 1931, a DR-980 powered Bellanca CH-300, with 481 gallons of fuel, piloted by Walter Edwin Lees and Frederick Brossy set a record for staying aloft for 84 hours and 32 minutes without being refueled. This record stood for 55 years until broken by the Rutan Voyager.
Bristol
The experimental Bristol Phoenix of 1928–1932 was successfully flight tested in a Westland Wapiti and set altitude records in 1934 that lasted until World War II.
Clerget
In 1932 the French company Clerget developed the 14D, a 14-cylinder two-stroke diesel radial engine. After a series of improvements, in 1938 the 14F2 model produced at 1910 rpm cruise power, with a power-to-weight ratio near that of contemporary gasoline engines and a specific fuel consumption of roughly 80% that for an equivalent gasoline engine. During WWII the research continued, but no mass-production occurred because of the Nazi occupation. By 1943 the engine had grown to produce over with a turbocharger. After the war, the Clerget company was integrated in the SNECMA company and had plans for a 32-cylinder diesel engine of , but in 1947 the company abandoned piston engine development in favour of the emerging turbine engines.
Nordberg
The Nordberg Manufacturing Company of the United States developed and produced a series of large two-stroke radial diesel engines from the late 1940s for electrical production, primarily at aluminum smelters and for pumping water. They differed from most radials in that they had an even number of cylinders in a single bank (or row) and an unusual double master connecting rod. Variants were built that could be run on either diesel oil or gasoline or mixtures of both. A number of powerhouse installations utilising large numbers of these engines were made in the U.S.
EMD
Electro-Motive Diesel (EMD) built the "pancake" engines 16-184 and 16-338 for marine use.
Compressed air radial engines
A number of radial motors operating on compressed air have been designed, mostly for use in model airplanes and in gas compressors.
Model radial engines
A number of multi-cylinder 4-stroke model engines have been commercially available in a radial configuration, beginning with the Japanese O.S. Max firm's FR5-300 five-cylinder, 3.0 cu.in. (50 cm3) displacement "Sirius" radial in 1986. The American "Technopower" firm had made smaller-displacement five- and seven-cylinder model radial engines as early as 1976, but the OS firm's engine was the first mass-produced radial engine design in aeromodelling history. The rival Saito Seisakusho firm in Japan has since produced a similarly sized five-cylinder radial four-stroke model engine of their own as a direct rival to the OS design, with Saito also creating a series of three-cylinder methanol and gasoline-fueled model radial engines ranging from 0.90 cu.in. (15 cm3) to 4.50 cu.in. (75 cm3) in displacement, also all now available in spark-ignition format up to 84 cm3 displacement for use with gasoline. The German Seidel firm formerly made both seven- and nine-cylinder "large" (starting at 35 cm3 displacement) radio control model radial engines, mostly for glow plug ignition, with an experimental fourteen-cylinder twin-row radial being tried out - the American Evolution firm now sells the Seidel-designed radials, with their manufacturing being done in India.
See also
List of aircraft engines
Swashplate engine
Quasiturbine
Wankel engine
Notes
References
External links
Cutaway radial engine in operation video on You Tube
Piston engine configurations
Engines by cylinder layout | wiki |
The culture of Dubai, an emirate of the United Arab Emirates. Simultaneously, increasing globalization and the settling of various immigrant groups have transformed the city into a melting pot of different nationalities and have given rise to a cosmopolitan culture that is in sync with other global cities. The UAE culture mainly revolves around the religion of Islam and traditional Arab culture. The influence of Islamic and Arab culture on its architecture, music, attire, cuisine, and lifestyle are very prominent as well. Five times every day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques which are scattered around the country. Since 2006, the weekend has been Friday-Saturday, as a compromise between Friday's holiness to Muslims and the Western weekend of Saturday-Sunday. In 2005, 84% of the population of metropolitan Dubai was foreign-born, about half of them from India. The city's cultural imprint as a small, ethnically homogenous pearling community was changed with the arrival of other ethnic groups and nationals—first by the Iranians in the early 1900s, and later by Indians and Pakistanis in the 1960s.
History
Laid-back attitude
Due to the touristic approach of many Dubaites in the entrepreneurial sector and the high standard of living, Dubai's culture has gradually evolved towards one of luxury, opulence, and lavishness with high regard for leisure-related extravagance. A combination of local prosperity and visions of a Dubaian tourist Mecca by successive Dubaian rulers have resulted in numerous forms of infrastructure that caters to self-indulgence, coziness, and a pleasurable sense of living the high-life.
Prosperity
The process of urbanizing Dubai with futuristic architecture has led to derivative terms iconizing Dubai as the world center of pioneering, ultramodern and cutting-edge buildings. This design has been described by some publishers as a blueprint of state-of-the-art aesthetic contours along with record-breaking ornamental features and technology, which is a model to be followed by other nations. The present participle "Dubaizing" and other Dubai suffixed lemmas have become neologisms in other regions indicating prosperity.
Art
See also
Culture Village
Dubai Culture and Arts Authority
DUCTAC
References | wiki |
Vento may refer to:
Vento (surname), a Finnish and Italian surname
Vento (motorcycle manufacturer), an Italian motorcycle manufacturer
Volkswagen Vento (A3), a German compact sedan
Volkswagen Vento (A05), a German subcompact sedan
VinFast Vento, an electric scooter by VinFast from Vingroup | wiki |
La Chinesca is a neighborhood located in the Mexican city of Mexicali. The location is home to about 15,000 people of Chinese origin, historically the largest Chinese community in Mexico. However, as of 2012, this number was surpassed by Tijuana's La Mesa District which is home to approximately 15,000 Chinese immigrants and people of Chinese descent. While this number does not compare to other cities worldwide with a prominent Chinese diaspora, early in the 20th century Mexicali was numerically and culturally more Chinese than other immigrant groups. The Chinese arrived to the area as laborers for the Colorado River Land Company, an American enterprise which designed and built an extensive irrigation system in the Valley of Mexicali. Some immigrants came from the United States, often fleeing anti-Chinese policies there, while others sailed directly from China.
History
Many of the Chinese laborers who came to the irrigation system stayed on after its completion, congregating in an area of Mexicali today known as Chinesca. During Prohibition in the U.S., many Chinese laborers and farmers came to the town to open bars, restaurants and hotels to cater their American clients, Chinesca eventually housed just about all of the city's casinos and bars, and a tunnel system to connect bordellos and opium dens to Calexico on the U.S. side. Bootleggers also used this route to supply the U.S. with alcohol purchased in Mexico.
By 1920, Mexicali's Chinese population outnumbered the Mexican 10,000 to 700. A group of 5,000 single Chinese males started the Asociación China, a Mexicali social organization at least partly devoted to finding Chinese wives from overseas. This organization remains active to present day. In 1927, a series of Tong wars here and other parts of Northern Mexico erupted over control of gambling and prostitution rings. Mexican alarm over the Chinese organized crime led to the government-encouraged Movimiento Anti-Chino. In the late 1920s, a wave of anti-immigrant sentiment that swept the country and led to the torture and murder of hundreds of Chinese in northern Mexico. However, the Chinese in this city were numerous enough and politically strong enough to protect themselves.
The percentage of Chinese was so high here that in the 1940s the town had only two cinemas, both of which played Chinese movies almost exclusively. However, in the later half of the 20th century, steady influx of Mexican migrants here diluted the Chinese population, until once again they became a minority.
After anti-Chinese sentiment faded, more Chinese arrived here, and it became the Mexican headquarters for the Kuomintang, or the Nationalist Chinese Party and the Anti-Communist League. After events during World War II and the Chinese Communist Revolution, a large number of Chinese refugees came to Mexico in the mid-century. Ho Feng-Shan, the Chinese diplomat known as "China's Schindler" is known to have visited Mexicali. The town was the site of the Taiwan based Republic of China consulate in the 1960s until Mexico withdrew its recognition of the island nation, ending immigration of ethnic Chinese to this area. For a while after 1960, Chinese Mexican community organizations continued to stay
strong: at the beginning of the 1960s new Chinese Mexican seminaries continued to open, and in
the 1970s a school opened to teach art, Chinese culture, and sports to Chinese Mexicans living in
downtown Mexicali.
Neighborhood
La Chinesca exists near the U.S. border close to the intersection of Avenida Madero and Calle Melgar. The neighborhood boasts more Chinese restaurants per capita than any other place in Mexico, more than 100 for the whole city, most with Cantonese-style cuisine. Local Chinese associations struggle to preserve the arts and culture of the homeland through the sponsorship of Chinese festivals, calligraphy clubs, and language classes. However, much of Chinese cultural life here has blended with local Mexican and American traditions to create a unique, hybrid culture.
Like many Chinese restaurants outside of Asia, cooks here have adapted their native cuisine to local tastes. For example, restaurants here serve their dishes with a small bowl of a sauce that is similar to a steak sauce, common in Northern Mexico. In many of these restaurants, it is not uncommon to see Chinese men wearing stiff straw cowboy hats, meeting over hamburgers and green tea and speaking a mixture of Cantonese and Spanish. Along with burgers and chow mein, many restaurants here also offer shark-fin tacos.
Since 2000, new migrants from China to Mexicali come from many of the same areas as
before 1960, with perhaps 90% from Guangdong or Hong Kong.
The following are Chinese associations and organizations based in Mexicali (Auyon Gerardo 2003:89-102). The associations are formed according to regional origin, surname, occupation, religion, or other characteristics.
Asociación China de Mexicali (): The main Chinese organization of Mexicali. Founded 1919. Avenida Juárez #120.
Ming Chih Tang (): Also called the Logia Masónica China en Baja California, Numero 20. Founded 1914. This group helped found the Asociación China de Mexicali ().
Kuomintang (): Founded 1920. 600 members in 1928.
Asociación Chung Shan de Baja California: Founded in 1915 with 200 members. Membership based on regional origin from Zhongshan. Branches were opened in Ensenada and Tijuana in 1963.
Asociación Sam Egap de B.C. (): Membership based on regional origin from Sam Yup.
Asociación Leon Chong How Tong (): Membership based on surname Leon (梁).
Asociación Hoy Yin (): Membership based on regional origin from Haiyan, part of Taishan municipality.
Asociación Chew Lun (): Membership based on surnames Tam, Tham, Hiu, Che. Founded in 1920.
Asociación Lim Sei Ho Tong (): Membership based on surname Lim.
Asociación Ma Kiem Tu Tong: Membership based on surname Ma.
Asociación Yee Fong Toy Tong (): Membership based on surname Yee.
Asociación Chee Puen Ko Tong (): Membership based on surname Chee.
Asociación Sui Yue Tong (): Membership based on surnames Luis, Fon, Kon.
Asociación Hu Suy Shan Tong (): Membership based on surname Hu.
Asociación Wong Kong Har Tong (): Membership based on surnames Wong and Hu.
Asociación Wong Wun Sun (): Membership based on surname.
Asociación Nam Ping (): Membership based on regional origin from Enping.
Asociación Long Kong (): Membership based on surnames Liu, Kuan, Chiong, Chio.
Asociación Lon Sai (): Membership based on surnames Kuan, Pan, Lee, Chu.
Asociación Gee How Oak Tin (): Membership based on surnames Chan, Wo, Yen.
Asociación Lun Tack Tong: Membership based on surname Loo.
Asociación Chi Tak Tong (): Membership based on surnames Chiu, Choi, Hu, Cao, Yon.
Asociación Yat Juan: Membership based on regional origin from Kaiping.
Other organizations include (Auyon Gerardo 2003:105-115):
Escuela China de Mexicali
Club Shung Wah
Boletín de la Colonia China
Periódico Kiu Lum (seminario)
Academia Chung Shan
Centro de la Investigación de la Cultura China de Baja California
See also
Chinese immigration to Mexicali
La Mesa
Barrio Chino
References
External links
Asociacion China de Mexicali
Mexicali
Restaurant districts and streets in Mexico
Geography of Baja California
Chinatowns in Mexico | wiki |
A grifter may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Grifters (band), a 1990s American indie rock band
The Grifters (novel), a 1963 American novel by Jim Thompson
The Grifters (film), a 1990 American adaptation of the novel
Grifter (character), a fictional comic book superhero
Other uses
Grifter, a practitioner of confidence tricks
No. 84 Squadron RAF (call sign: GRIFTER), a British search and rescue air squadron
Raleigh Grifter, an English children's bicycle made by Raleigh 1976–1983
See also
The Grifter's Hymnal, a 2012 album by American Ray Wylie Hubbard
Tachigui: The Amazing Lives of the Fast Food Grifters, a 2006 Japanese film directed by Mamoru Oshii
Grift (disambiguation)
Hustle (disambiguation) | wiki |
Spider-Man is a 2002 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero of the same name. Directed by Sam Raimi from a screenplay by David Koepp, it is the first installment in Raimi's Spider-Man trilogy, and stars Tobey Maguire as the titular character, alongside Willem Dafoe, Kirsten Dunst, James Franco, Cliff Robertson, and Rosemary Harris. The film chronicles Spider-Man's origin story and early superhero career. After being bitten by a genetically-altered spider, outcast teenager Peter Parker develops spider-like superhuman abilities and adopts a masked superhero identity to fight crime and injustice in New York City, facing the sinister Green Goblin (Dafoe) in the process.
Development on a live-action Spider-Man film began in the 1980s. Filmmakers Tobe Hooper, James Cameron, and Joseph Zito were all attached to direct the film at one point. However, the project would languish in development hell due to licensing and financial issues. After progress on the film stalled for nearly 25 years, it was licensed for a worldwide release by Columbia Pictures in 1999 after it acquired options from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) on all previous scripts developed by Cannon Films, Carolco, and New Cannon. Exercising its option on just two elements from the multi-script acquisition (a different screenplay was written by James Cameron, Ted Newsom, John Brancato, Barney Cohen, and Joseph Goldman), Sony hired Koepp to create a working screenplay (credited as Cameron's), and Koepp received sole credit in final billing. Directors Roland Emmerich, Ang Lee, Chris Columbus, Barry Sonnenfeld, Tim Burton, Michael Bay, Jan de Bont, M. Night Shyamalan, Tony Scott, and David Fincher were considered to direct the project before Raimi was hired as director in 2000. The Koepp script was rewritten by Scott Rosenberg during pre-production and received a dialogue polish from Alvin Sargent during production. Filming took place in Los Angeles and New York City from January to June 2001. Sony Pictures Imageworks handled the film's visual effects.
Spider-Man premiered at the Mann Village Theater on April 29, 2002, and was released in the United States on May 3. The film received positive reviews from audiences and critics who praised Raimi's direction, the story, the performances, visual effects, action sequences, and musical score. It was the first film to reach $100 million in a single weekend as well as the most successful film based on a comic book at the time. With a box office gross of over $825 million worldwide, it was the third highest-grossing film of 2002 (after Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets and The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers), the highest-grossing superhero film (surpassing Batman) and the sixth highest-grossing film overall at the time of its release. Spider-Man is credited for redefining the modern superhero genre, as well as the summer blockbuster. After its success, the film spawned two sequels, Spider-Man 2 and Spider-Man 3, released in 2004 and 2007 respectively. Maguire and Dafoe later reprised their roles in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021), which dealt with the concept of the multiverse and linked the Raimi trilogy to the MCU.
Plot
On a school trip, high-school senior Peter Parker visits a Columbia University genetics laboratory with his friend Harry Osborn and his love interest Mary Jane Watson. There, a genetically engineered "super-spider" bites him, and he falls ill upon returning home. Meanwhile, Harry's father Norman Osborn, a scientist and the founder and owner of Oscorp, tries to secure an important military contract. He experiments on himself with an unstable performance-enhancing chemical and goes insane, killing his assistant.
The next day, Peter finds he is no longer near-sighted and has developed spider-like abilities: he can shoot webs out of his wrists and has quick reflexes, superhuman speed and strength, and a heightened ability to sense danger. Brushing off his Uncle Ben's advice that "with great power comes great responsibility", Peter considers buying a car to impress Mary Jane. He enters an underground wrestling event to win the money for it and wins his first match, but the promoter cheats him out of his earnings. When a thief robs the promoter's office, Peter allows him to escape. Moments later, he discovers Ben was carjacked and killed. Peter pursues the carjacker, only to find out it was the thief he let escape. The thief attempts to flee but dies after falling out a window. Meanwhile, a crazed Norman interrupts a product test by Oscorp's rival Quest Aerospace and kills several people.
Upon graduating, Peter begins using his abilities to fight injustice, donning a spandex costume and the masked persona of Spider-Man. J. Jonah Jameson, publisher of the Daily Bugle newspaper, hires Peter as a freelance photographer, since he is the only person providing clear images of Spider-Man. Upon discovering that Oscorp's board plans to oust him to sell the company to Quest, Norman assassinates them. Jameson dubs the mysterious killer the "Green Goblin."
The Goblin offers Peter a place at his side, but he refuses. They fight, and Peter is wounded. At Thanksgiving dinner, Peter's Aunt May invites Mary Jane, Harry, and Norman. During the dinner, Norman sees the wound and realizes Peter's identity. Thinking the only way to defeat Peter is to attack those special to him, Norman later attacks May, forcing her to be hospitalized. While visiting Aunt May at the hospital, Mary Jane admits her infatuation with Spider-Man, who has rescued her on two occasions. Harry, who is dating Mary Jane, sees her holding Peter's hand and assumes she has feelings for him. Devastated, Harry tells his father that Peter loves Mary Jane, unknowingly revealing Spider-Man's biggest weakness.
Norman holds Mary Jane and a Roosevelt Island Tram car full of children hostage alongside the Queensboro Bridge. He forces Peter to choose whom he wants to save and drops them both. Peter saves both Mary Jane and the tram car. Norman then throws him into a nearby abandoned building and brutally beats him. Peter gains the upper hand, and Norman reveals himself and begs for forgiveness while subtly getting his glider ready to impale Peter from behind. Warned by his spider-sense, Peter dodges the attack, and the glider impales Norman instead. Norman tells Peter not to reveal his identity as the Goblin to Harry before dying. Peter takes Norman's body to the Osborn house and is confronted by Harry, who pulls a gun on him, but Peter escapes.
At Norman's funeral, Harry swears vengeance on Spider-Man, whom he holds responsible for his father's death. Mary Jane confesses to Peter that she loves him. Peter, however, feels he must protect her from the unwanted attention of his enemies, so he hides his true feelings and tells Mary Jane that they can only be friends. As Peter leaves, he recalls Ben's words and accepts his new responsibility as Spider-Man.
Cast
Tobey Maguire as Peter Parker / Spider-Man:An academically-gifted high school student who is socially inept. After a genetically engineered spider bites him, he gains spider-like powers, including super-strength, enhanced reflexes, a "spider sense" that warns him of incoming danger, and the ability to climb walls and shoot spiderwebs (in a departure from the comics, where he utilizes web-shooters). Following a personal tragedy, he decides to use his newfound powers for good, and begins fighting crime and injustice as Spider-Man.
Willem Dafoe as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin:A scientist and the CEO of Oscorp who tests an unstable strength enhancer on himself and develops a crazed alternate personality. He later becomes a costumed villain using advanced Oscorp armor and equipment, such as a weaponized glider and pumpkin-shaped explosives; the media dubs his alter-ego the "Green Goblin". Norman develops animosity for Spider-Man after the hero refuses to join him, and makes constant attempts to get back at him. Ironically, he quickly takes a liking to Peter, and sees himself as a father figure for the boy, while ignoring his own son, Harry.
Kirsten Dunst as Mary Jane "MJ" Watson:Peter's love interest ever since he was six years old. Mary Jane has an abusive father, and aspires to become an actress, but gets a job as a waitress at a run down diner, a fact she hides from her boyfriend Harry. She later develops feelings for Peter as they spend more time together, and for his alter-ego, after he saves her on multiple occasions.
James Franco as Harry Osborn: Peter's best friend and flatmate, Mary Jane's boyfriend and Norman's son who is envious of his father's apparent closeness with Peter. Before being cast as Harry, Franco had screen tested for Spider-Man himself.
Cliff Robertson as Ben Parker: May Parker's husband and Peter's uncle, a laid off electrician who is trying to find a new job. He is killed by a carjacker whom Peter had earlier refused to stop, and leaves Peter with the message, "With great power comes great responsibility."
Rosemary Harris as May Parker: Ben Parker's wife and Peter's aunt.
J. K. Simmons portrays J. Jonah Jameson, the grouchy publisher of the Daily Bugle newspaper who considers Spider-Man a criminal. Ron Perkins portrays Mendel Stromm, Osborn's head scientist, while Gerry Becker and Jack Betts play board members Maximillian Fargas and Henry Balkan. Stanley Anderson plays General Slocum and Jim Ward plays the Project Coordinator. John Paxton portrays Bernard Houseman, the butler to the Osborn family. Joe Manganiello portrays Parker's bully and rival Flash Thompson, while Sally Livingstone portrays Liz Allan. Jason Padgett portrays Flash's Crony. Bill Nunn, Ted Raimi and Elizabeth Banks portray Daily Bugle editor Robbie Robertson, Daily Bugle employees Ted Hoffman, and Jameson's secretary Betty Brant, respectively. Michael Papajohn appears as "The Carjacker", the robber who kills Ben Parker. Bruce Campbell, a long-time colleague of director Sam Raimi, cameoed as the announcer at the wrestling ring Parker takes part in. Raimi himself appeared off-screen, throwing popcorn at Parker as he enters the arena to wrestle Bonesaw McGraw (played by former professional wrestler "Macho Man" Randy Savage), while Jack Murdock (played by former professional wrestler Scott L. Schwartz) is carried off on a stretcher. Spider-Man co-creator Stan Lee briefly appears in the film to grab a young girl from falling debris during the battle between Spider-Man and the Green Goblin at the World Unity Fair in Times Square. Raimi originally thought Stan Lee doing a cameo in the film was a bad idea.
Octavia Spencer appears as a staff member at Parker's wrestling match. Tig Notaro was offered the role by Raimi and auditioned, but lost it to Spencer. R&B/soul singer Macy Gray appears as herself performing at the World Unity Fair. Lucy Lawless also appears as a punk rock girl who says "Guy with eight hands... sounds hot." She did the appearance as a favor to her husband, Xena: Warrior Princess creator Rob Tapert, on which Raimi had served as an executive producer alongside Tapert. One of the stunt performers in this film is actor Johnny Tri Nguyen. Kickboxer Benny "The Jet" Urquidez has an uncredited cameo as a mugger who attacks Mary Jane. Comedian Jim Norton shows up in one scene as a truck driver who has an unfavorable opinion of Spider-Man. R.C. Everbeck was intended to play Eddie Brock, but his scenes were unreleased; Brock eventually appeared in Spider-Man 3, portrayed by Topher Grace. Sara Ramirez appears as a police officer at Uncle Ben's death scene. K. K. Dodds plays Simkins, Scott Spiegel plays a Marine Cop, while Larry Joshua plays a promoter who cheats Parker out of his winnings. Hugh Jackman, who played Logan / Wolverine in Fox's X-Men film series was planned to have a cameo appearance as the character, with Jackman even arriving in New York to shoot the scene, only for it to be scrapped after the production team realized they did not have the character's suit.
Production
Development
In the early 1980s, Marvel Comics was in negotiations with film producers to bring their flagship character Spider-Man to the big screen. Producer Roger Corman was the first to hold an option on the Spider-Man property and began to develop the film at Orion Pictures. Spider-Man co-creator Stan Lee was brought on to write a screenplay which featured Cold War themes and Doctor Octopus as the primary antagonist. The project did not come into fruition following budgetary disputes between Corman and Lee. The film rights were then acquired by Menahem Golan and Yoram Globus of The Cannon Group for $225,000 in 1985. The two were not familiar with the character's background and mistook Spider-Man for being similar to a werewolf-like character. Leslie Stevens, creator of The Outer Limits, was hired to write a screenplay based on this concept. Stevens' script featured Peter Parker as an ID-badge photographer who becomes subject to a mad scientist's experiment which transforms him into a human tarantula. Tobe Hooper, who was preparing to shoot The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 and Invaders from Mars for Cannon, signed on to direct. Stan Lee hated the horror route the studio was taking with the character and demanded that a new script be written that was closer to the source material.
By 1985, a new script was being written by Ted Newsom and John Brancato. In this version, Peter Parker receives his spider-like abilities from a cyclotron experiment. Doctor Octopus served as the antagonist and was written as Parker's mentor turned enemy. Barney Cohen was brought in to do a rewrite which added humor, additional action scenes, and a supporting villain. Newsom and Brancato had John Cusack in mind for the part of Peter Parker. Cannon hired Joseph Zito to direct the film having previously directed the commercially successful Invasion U.S.A. for the studio. For the role of Peter Parker/Spider-Man, the studio considered Tom Cruise while Zito was interested in casting actor and stuntman Scott Leva who had previously done promotional appearances as Spider-Man for Marvel. Bob Hoskins was considered for Doctor Octopus while Lauren Bacall and Katharine Hepburn were considered for Aunt May. Stan Lee expressed his desire to play J. Jonah Jameson in the film. The project was tentatively titled Spider-Man: The Movie and was budgeted between $15–20 million. Following the critical and financial failure of Superman IV: The Quest for Peace and Masters of the Universe which were produced by Cannon, the budget for Spider-Man: The Movie was cut to $7 million. Joseph Zito was unwilling to compromise and stepped down as director. He was replaced by Albert Pyun who was willing to make the film at a lower budget. The project was cancelled following Cannon's acquisition by Pathé and Golan's departure from the studio.
Golan extended his option on Spider-Man during his tenure as CEO of 21st Century Film Corporation. By 1989, Golan attempted to revive the project using the original script, budget, and storyboards developed at Cannon. In order to receive production funds, Golan sold the television rights to Viacom, home video rights to Columbia Pictures, and theatrical rights to Carolco Pictures where James Cameron became attached to write and direct the film. Cameron had previously met with Stan Lee to discuss a possible X-Men film until Lee convinced Cameron that he would be a good choice to direct a Spider-Man film. Cameron said superheroes were always fanciful to him. James Cameron submitted a treatment to Carolco in 1993, which served as a darker, more mature take on the character's mythos. In addition to featuring Spider-Man's origin story, it also included reimagined versions of the villains Electro and Sandman; the former was portrayed as a megalomaniacal businessman named Carlton Strand, while the latter was written as Strand's personal bodyguard named Boyd. Cameron's treatment also featured heavy profanity, and a sex scene between Spider-Man and Mary Jane Watson atop the Brooklyn Bridge. Carolco set a $50 million budget for Spider-Man, but progress stalled when Golan sued Carolco for attempting to make the film without his involvement. Cameron had recently completed True Lies for 20th Century Fox as part of a production deal with the studio. Fox attempted to acquire the film rights to Spider-Man for Cameron but this proved unsuccessful. At this point, James Cameron had abandoned the project and began work on Titanic. He would reveal in a 1997 interview on The Howard Stern Show that he had Titanic star Leonardo DiCaprio in mind for the lead role. Charlie Sheen and Edward Furlong were also in consideration for Cameron's Spider-Man. In 1995, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) acquired 21st Century Film Corporation which had given them access to the previous Spider-Man scripts. MGM then sued Viacom, Sony Pictures, and Marvel, who they accused of fraud in the original deal with Cannon. The following year, 21st Century, Carolco, and Marvel would all file for bankruptcy.
No film studio showed interest in a Spider-Man movie following the disastrous reception of Batman & Robin in 1997, which made film studios to not take the superhero genre seriously and have the perception that "comic books were for kids". However, the release of Blade by New Line Cinema in 1998 and the development of X-Men by 20th Century Fox convinced some studios that a Marvel character "could carry on" a movie. Marvel would emerge from bankruptcy in 1998 and declare that Menahem Golan's option had expired and that the rights had reverted to them. Marvel would then sell the film rights to Sony Pictures Entertainment, Columbia Pictures' parent company for $7 million. The deal came to effect in March 1999.
While John Calley was in work, training at Columbia, he sought with Kevin McClory's claim to develop an unofficial James Bond movie franchise, partially based on the material used on Thunderball, and also had the rights to the novel Casino Royale. MGM and Danjaq also had to sue Sony Pictures and Spectre Associates, regarding claims of how the McClory film with Sony has been demonstrated. The final blow came in March 1999, when Sony traded the Casino Royale film rights to MGM for the company's own Spider-Man project, thus starting right to production.
In April 1999, although Sony Pictures optioned from MGM all preceding script versions of a Spider-Man film, it only exercised the options on "the Cameron material", which contractually included a multi-author screenplay and a forty-five-page "scriptment" credited only to James Cameron. The studio announced they were not hiring Cameron himself to direct the film nor would they be using his script. The studio lined up Roland Emmerich, Tony Scott, Chris Columbus, Barry Sonnenfeld, Tim Burton, Michael Bay, Ang Lee, David Fincher, Jan de Bont and M. Night Shyamalan as potential directors. However, most of the directors approached were less interested in the job than in the story itself. Fincher did not want to depict the origin story, pitching the film as being based on The Night Gwen Stacy Died storyline, but the studio disagreed. Columbus would later pass on the project to direct Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone instead. Burton expressed a lack of interest by remarking that he was "just A DC guy", given his past work in Batman and Batman Returns. Amy Pascal's choice for director was Sam Raimi. Raimi was attached to direct in January 2000, for a summer 2001 release. He had been a fan of the comic book during his youth, and his passion for Spider-Man earned him the job. Raimi's agent Josh Donen warned him that he was not Sony's preferred choice for the job, leading Raimi to cite all his reasons for which he would be the ideal director for the project during a meeting with Pascal, producer Laura Ziskin, Calley, Marvel Studios chief Avi Arad and film executive Matt Tolmach before abruptly ending his pitch after one hour, not wanting to overstay if Sony's executives did not want him.
Cameron's work became the basis of David Koepp's first draft screenplay, often word for word. Koepp said that Cameron's script was "influential". Koepp pitched the idea of having Peter Parker not getting his Spider-Man suit until after the film's first forty five minutes so they could stretch out the origin story and that Peter and Mary Jane would not get together at the end, feeling that them ending apart was romantic. Cameron's versions of the Marvel villains Electro and Sandman remained the antagonists. Koepp's rewrite substituted the Green Goblin as the main antagonist and added Doctor Octopus as the secondary antagonist. Raimi felt the Green Goblin and the surrogate father-son theme between Norman Osborn and Peter Parker would be more interesting, thus, he dropped Doctor Octopus from the film. In June, Columbia hired Scott Rosenberg to rewrite Koepp's material. Remaining a constant in all the rewrites was the "organic webshooter" idea from the Cameron "scriptment". Raimi felt he would stretch the audience's suspension of disbelief too far to have Parker invent mechanical webshooters.
Rosenberg removed Doctor Octopus and created several new action sequences. Raimi felt adding a third origin story would make the film too complex. Sequences removed from the final film had Spider-Man protecting Maximilian Fargas, the wheelchair-using Oscorp executive, from the Goblin, and Spider-Man defusing a hostage situation on a train. As production neared, Ziskin hired award-winning writer Alvin Sargent, to polish the dialogue, primarily between Parker and Mary Jane. Columbia gave the Writers Guild of America a list of four writers as contributors to the final Spider-Man script: Rosenberg, Sargent and James Cameron, all three of whom voluntarily relinquished credit to the fourth, Koepp.
Casting
For the titular role, the filmmakers wanted someone who was not "extraordinarily tall or handsome as Christopher Reeve", but who could have the "heart and soul" for the audience to identify with. The studio had expressed interest in actors Leonardo DiCaprio, Freddie Prinze Jr., Chris O'Donnell, Jude Law, Chris Klein, Ewan McGregor, Wes Bentley, and Heath Ledger. DiCaprio had been considered by James Cameron for the role in 1995, while Raimi joked that Prinze "won't even be allowed to buy a ticket to see this film". Sony made overtures to Law about Spider-Man. Pascal and her fellow executives pursued Ledger for the role due to her past collaborations, whereas Raimi met with Bentley but did not meet with DiCaprio or Ledger. Bentley turned down the role as he was uninterested doing Superhero movies. In addition, actors Scott Speedman, Jay Rodan and James Franco were involved in screen tests for the lead role (Franco would ultimately land the role of Harry Osborn). Joe Manganiello also auditioned for the role. He would eventually win the role as Parker's bully, Eugene "Flash" Thompson. Tobey Maguire was cast as Peter Parker/Spider-Man in July 2000, having been Sam Raimi's primary choice for the role after he saw The Cider House Rules. The studio was initially hesitant to cast someone who did not seem to fit the ranks of "adrenaline-pumping, tail-kicking titans", but Maguire managed to impress studio executives with his audition. The actor was signed for a deal in the range of $3 to $4 million with higher salary options for two sequels. To prepare, Maguire was trained by a physical trainer, a yoga instructor, a martial arts expert, and a climbing expert, taking several months to improve his physique. Maguire studied spiders and worked with a wire man to simulate the arachnid-like motion and had a special diet, though he tried to be as fit as possible due to being a vegan.
Nicolas Cage, Jason Isaacs and John Malkovich were considered for the role of Norman Osborn/Green Goblin, but turned down the role. Willem Dafoe was cast as Norman Osborn/Green Goblin in November 2000. Raimi met with Dafoe while he was filming a movie in Spain. He felt attracted at the prospect of working with Raimi and the idea of making a comic book movie. Dafoe insisted on wearing the uncomfortable costume as he felt that a stuntman would not convey the character's necessary body language. The 580-piece suit took half an hour to put on.
Kate Bosworth unsuccessfully auditioned for the role of Mary Jane Watson. Elizabeth Banks also auditioned for the role but she was told by Producer Laura Ziskin that she was too old for the role and was cast as Betty Brant instead. Kate Hudson turned down the role. Eliza Dushku, Mena Suvari and Jaime King also auditioned for the role. Before Raimi cast Dunst, he had expressed his interest in casting Alicia Witt. Dunst decided to audition after learning Maguire had been cast, feeling the film would have a more independent feel. Dunst earned the role a month before shooting in an audition in Berlin. Her hair was dyed in the front and she wore a half-wig. The crew wanted her to straighten her teeth but she refused.
J.K. Simmons was cast as J. Jonah Jameson, though he learned about his casting through a Spider-Man fan who had read the news of his casting at a fan website three hours before his agent contacted him to inform him that he had gotten the role. Despite Stan Lee's longtime interest in playing Jameson, the filmmakers agreed that he was too old to convincingly play the part, but Lee was supportive of Simmons' casting, feeling that Simmons did better than what he would have done.
Hugh Jackman, who starred as Logan / Wolverine in the X-Men film series, stated in September 2013 that he was approached to appear as Wolverine in the film in either a gag or just for a cameo appearance. However, when Jackman arrived to New York to shoot the scene, plans for his appearance never materialized because the filmmakers were unable to get the costume Jackman had used in X-Men.
Filming
With Spider-Man cast, filming was set to begin November 2000 in New York City and on Sony soundstages. The film was set for release in November 2001, but was postponed to be released on May 3, 2002 due to an expected extended post-production schedule.
Principal photography officially began on January 8, 2001, in Culver City, California. After the September 11 attacks happened that year, certain sequences were re-filmed, and certain images of the Twin Towers were digitally erased from the film. Sony's Stage 29 was used for Parker's Forest Hills home, and Stage 27 was used for the wrestling sequence where Parker takes on Bonesaw McGraw (Randy Savage). Stage 27 was also used for the complex Times Square sequence where Spider-Man and the Goblin battle for the first time, where a three-story set with a breakaway balcony piece was built. The scene also required shooting in Downey, California. On March 6, 45-year-old construction worker Tim Holcombe was killed when a forklift modified as a construction crane crashed into a construction basket that he was in. The following court case led to the California Division of Occupational Safety and Health to fine Sony $58,805. Raimi rented out a Warner Bros. Studio lot for the set to use to film the upside down kiss scene. Kirsten Dunst said that filming the upside down kiss scene was not so romantic, she said that Maguire could not breathe as water was pouring down into his nose while hanging upside down. Dunst also called shooting the scene "awful". Maguire also said that he was gasping for air. He and Franco had tension on set due to Franco's infatuation with Dunst, who was dating Maguire at the time. Randy Savage refused a Stunt Double to do a mid-flip so Savage did the stunt and injured himself.
In Los Angeles, locations included the Natural History Museum (for the Columbia University lab where Parker is bitten and receives his powers), the Pacific Electricity Building (the Daily Bugle offices) and Greystone Mansion (for the interiors of Norman Osborn's home), the latter of which was the set that was used for Batman. In April, 4 of the Spider-Man costumes were stolen, and Sony put up a $25,000 reward for their return. They were recovered after 18 months and a former movie studio security guard and an accomplice were arrested. Production moved to New York City for two weeks, taking in locations such as the Queensboro Bridge, the exteriors of Columbia University's Low Memorial Library and the New York Public Library, and a rooftop garden in the Rockefeller Center. The crew returned to Los Angeles where production continued, filming wrapped in June 2001. The Flatiron Building was used for the Daily Bugle.
Design
The Green Goblin's original headgear was an animatronic mask created by Amalgamated Dynamics. Dafoe described it as a "Halloween mask" and "kind of silly-looking", and the designers instead came up with a modern, angular helmet. Dafoe also wanted the costume to be flexible enough to allow him to do splits.
To create Spider-Man's costume, Maguire was fitted for the skintight suit, being covered with layers of substance to create the suit's shape. One concept costume designer James Acheson became fond of was the idea of having a red emblem over a black costume. Another, which would eventually lead to the final product, featured an enlarged logo on the chest and red stripes going down the sides of the legs. In early development, Acheson experimented with a potential helmet-like design for the suit, which was then scrapped. It was designed as a single piece, including the mask. A hard shell was worn underneath the mask to make the shape of the head look better and to keep the mask tight while keeping the wearer comfortable. For scenes in which Spider-Man would take his mask off, there was an alternate suit where the mask was a separate piece. The webbing, which accented the costume, was cut by computer. The mask eye lenses were designed to have a mirror look.
Visual effects
Visual effects supervisor John Dykstra was hired to produce the film's visual effects in May 2000. Dykstra met with Raimi while he was filming The Gift (2000). He convinced Raimi to make many of the stunts computer-generated imagery, as they would have been physically impossible. Raimi had used more traditional special effects in his previous films and learned a lot about using computers during production. Raimi worked hard to plan all the sequences of Spider-Man swinging from buildings, which he described as, "ballet in the sky." The complexity of such sequences meant the budget rose from an initially planned $70 million to around $100 million. Shots were made more complicated because of the main characters' individual color schemes, so Spider-Man and the Green Goblin had to be shot separately for effects shots: Spider-Man was shot in front of a greenscreen, while the Green Goblin was shot against bluescreen. Shooting them together would have resulted in one character being erased from a shot.
Dykstra said the biggest difficulty of creating Spider-Man was that as the character was masked, it immediately lost a lot of characterization. Without the context of eyes or mouth, a lot of body language had to be put in so that there would be emotional content. Raimi wanted to convey the essence of Spider-Man as being, "the transition that occurs between him being a young man going through puberty and being a superhero." Dykstra said his crew of animators had never reached such a level of sophistication to give subtle hints of still making Spider-Man feel like a human being. When two studio executives were shown shots of the computer generated character, they believed it was actually Maguire performing stunts. In addition, Dykstra's crew had to composite areas of New York City and replaced every car in shots with digital models. Raimi did not want it to feel entirely like animation, so none of the shots were 100% computer-generated.
Music
Danny Elfman composed the music for the film. Its soundtrack combines traditional orchestration, ethnic percussion, and electronic elements. Its distinct ethnic characteristics are credited to Elfman, who spent a year in Africa studying its unique percussion.
Release
Marketing
After the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001, Sony recalled teaser posters which showed a close-up of Spider-Man's head with the New York skyline (including, prominently, the World Trade Center towers) reflected in his eyes. The film's original teaser trailer, released that same year, featured a mini-film plot involving a group of bank robbers escaping in a Eurocopter AS355 Twin Squirrel helicopter, which gets caught from behind and propelled backward into what at first appears to be a net, then is shown to be a gigantic spider web spun between the World Trade Center towers. This trailer was attached to the screenings of Jurassic Park III, American Pie 2, Rush Hour 2, Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, Planet of the Apes, and other films. According to Sony, the trailer did not contain any actual footage from the film itself. Both the trailer and poster were removed after the events of the attacks, but can be found online. New teaser posters featuring Spider-Man and the Green Goblin were unveiled in November 2001. Meanwhile, a new trailer deemed acceptable by Sony was later released during Temptation Island and online on December 13, 2001. It made its theatrical debut six days later with the opening of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. Raimi later stated that the scene was, in fact, originally in the film but removed due to the recency of the attacks. Another Spider-Man trailer premiered online on March 27, 2002 and in theaters with the releases of Panic Room and The Rookie just two days later on March 29.
To promote the release of the film, Sony partnered with CKE Restaurants to release kids meal toys at Hardee's and Carl's Jr. restaurants. Beginning in April 2002, the locations offered customers three different Spider-Man collector's cups and patrons could purchase a Spider-Man figure to attach to their car radio antenna. A month later in May, "Cool Combos for Kids" would feature one of four different toys highlighting Spider-Man or his nemesis, the Green Goblin. KFC would then follow suit, releasing their own Spider-Man kids meal toys at their locations in the United Kingdom. Other promotional partners included Dr Pepper, Hershey's, Kellogg's, and Reebok.
Theatrical
In the U.S., the film was almost given an "R" rating by the MPAA due to the intensity of the final fight between Spider-Man and the Green Goblin, thus leading to the scene being toned down slightly. Ultimately, it was rated "PG-13" for "stylized violence and action". Before the film's British theatrical release in June 2002, the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) gave the film a "12" certificate. Due to Spider-Mans popularity with younger children, this prompted much controversy. The BBFC defended its decision, arguing that the film could have been given a "15". Despite this, North Norfolk and Breckland District Councils, in East Anglia, changed it to a "PG", and Tameside council, Manchester, denoted it a "PG-12". In late August, the BBFC relaxed its policy to "12A", leading Sony to re-release the film.
Home media
Spider-Man was released on DVD and VHS on November 1, 2002 in North America and Australia, and on November 25, 2002 in the UK. Over 7 million DVD copies were sold on the first day of release. The film would hold the record for having the highest single-day DVD sales until it was taken by Finding Nemo in 2003. As of 2022, it has the single-day record for any live-action film. In just a few days, the DVD release sold more than 11 million copies, beating Monsters, Inc. and setting records for any DVD release. While the VHS release sold over 6.5 million copies, the DVD release went on to become one of the best-selling live-action DVD titles of all time with over 19.5 million copies being sold. This two-disc DVD release comes in widescreen (1.85:1 aspect ratio) and fullscreen (specifically reframed 1.33:1 aspect ratio digitally mastered from the original source and specially reframed by the filmmakers themselves without gutting out portions of the frame using pan and scan) versions. Bonus features on the first disc include commentaries, character files, marketing champaign with music videos, TV spots and trailers, Weaving the Web Pop-Up Factoids, the Spider-Sense option that pops up an icon of Spider-Man while disabling subtitles and more. As for the second disc, the special features are an HBO special called The Making of Spider-Man, The Evolution of Spider-Man, outtakes, screen tests, an E! Network special called Spider-Mania and more. Both discs feature DVD-ROM features, such as a countdown to Spider-Man 2, record your own commentary and an Activision game.
The film's American television rights (Fox, TBS/TNT) were sold for $60 million. Related gross toy sales were $109 million. Its American DVD revenue by July 2004 was $338.8 million. Its American VHS revenue by July 2004 was $89.2 million. As of 2006, the film has grossed a total revenue of from box office and home video (sales and rentals), in addition a further from television (pay-per-view, broadcast TV and cable TV).
In the United Kingdom, the film was watched by 700,000 viewers on subscription television channel Sky Movies 1 in 2004, making it the year's ninth most-watched film on subscription television.
The film made its Blu-ray debut in 2007 as part of the Spider-Man Trilogy. Just three years later, it was released as a separate Blu-ray on November 16, 2010. This was followed by another release on July 5, 2011. Spider-Man was also included in the Spider-Man Legacy Collection, which includes 5 Spider-Man films in a 4K UHD Blu-ray collection, which was released on October 17, 2017.
Reception
Box office
Spider-Man became the first film to pass the $100 million mark in a single weekend, even when adjusting for inflation, with its $114,844,116 gross establishing a new opening weekend record. The gross surpassed the previous record holder's Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone $90.3 million opening; on this, Rick Lyman of The New York Times wrote "while industry executives had expected a strong opening for the film because there was little competition in the marketplace and prerelease polling indicated intense interest from all age groups, no one predicted that Spider-Man would surpass the Harry Potter record." Starting with Twister in 1996, the benefits of bowing in May had been first fully exploited with its $41 million opening weekend. Following comparable debuts of Deep Impact in 1998 and The Mummy in 1999, the frame was taken to the next level in 2001 with the release of The Mummy Returns. Spider-Man had not only made history for a summer starter film, but for weekends as well. It surpassed The Lost World: Jurassic Park for having the largest May opening weekend. When the film was released, it was ranked number one at the box office, beating The Scorpion King. The film also broke X-Mens record for having the highest opening weekend for a superhero film.
The film also set a record for crossing the $100 million milestone in three days, at the time being the fastest any film had reached the mark. This opening weekend haul had an average of $31,769 per theater, which at the time, Box Office Mojo reported as being "the highest per theater average ever for an ultra-wide release." The film's three-day record was surpassed by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest four years later. The $114.8 million opening weekend was the highest at the North America box office film for a non-sequel, until it was surpassed eight years later by Alice in Wonderland. Spider-Man would hold the record for having the highest-three day gross until it was surpassed by Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith in 2005. Within four days, it had the biggest non-holiday Monday of all time with $11 million, increasing the total gross to $125.1 million and staying ahead of recent blockbusters, including Charlie's Angels and Erin Brockovich.
With the release in the United States and Canada on May 3, 2002, on 7,500 screens at 3,615 theaters, the film earned $39,406,872 on its opening day, averaging $10,901 per theater. This was the highest opening day at the time until it was surpassed by its sequel Spider-Man 2s $40.4 million haul in 2004. For three years, the film would hold the record for having the highest Friday gross until 2005 when it was overtaken by Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. Upon its opening, it had the third-highest number of screenings of any film, behind Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone and Mission: Impossible 2. Spider-Man also set an all-time record for the highest earnings in a single day with $43,622,264 on its second day of release, a record later surpassed by Shrek 2 in 2004. On the Sunday during its opening weekend, the film earned an additional $31,814,980, the highest gross a film took in on a Sunday, at the time.
The film stayed at the top position in its second weekend ahead of Unfaithful, dropping only 38% and grossing another $71,417,527, while averaging $19,755.89 per theater. At the time, this was the highest-grossing second weekend of any film. During its second weekend, the film reached the $200 million mark on its ninth day of release, also a record at the time. This made it the fastest film to cross the $200 million mark, surpassing Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. At the end of its second weekend, the film brought in a 10-day total of $223,040,031. It quickly surpassed Ice Age to become the highest-grossing film of the year. Spider-Man had crossed over 149 spots on the top-grossing film chart, landing in 29th place between Rush Hour 2 and Mrs. Doubtfire while excelling past the final tallies of other films, including Batman Forever, Mission: Impossible 2 and The Mummy Returns.
The film dropped to the second position in its third weekend, behind Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, but still made $45,036,912, dropping only 37%, averaging $12,458 per theater, and bringing the 17-day tally to $285,573,668. Its third weekend haul set the record for highest-grossing third weekend, which was first surpassed by Avatar (2009). Spider-Man would beat another record that was previously held by The Phantom Menace, becoming the quickest film to hit $300 million in just 22 days. It stayed at the second position in its fourth weekend, grossing $35,814,844 over the four-day Memorial Day frame, dropping only 21% while expanding to 3,876 theaters, averaging $9,240 over four days, and bringing the 25-day gross to $333,641,492. Within 66 days, it was the fastest film to approach $400 million, tying its record with Titanic. Both films held this record for two years before being surpassed by Shrek 2.
At the box office, Spider-Man became 2002's highest-grossing film with $407,022,860 in the U.S. and Canada, defeating The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers and Attack of the Clones. As of 2021, Spider-Man ranks as the 37th-highest-grossing film of all time in the U.S. and Canada, not adjusted for inflation. The film also grossed $418,002,176 from its international markets, bringing its worldwide total to $825,025,036 making it 2002's third-highest-grossing film behind The Two Towers and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets and the 58th-highest-grossing film of all time, worldwide. Additionally, it was the highest-grossing Sony film of all time, beating out Men in Black. Spider-Man also dethroned Batmans record for becoming the highest-grossing superhero film of all time. The film sold an estimated 69,484,700 tickets in the US. It held the record for most tickets sold by a comic book movie until The Dark Knight topped it in 2008. As of 2020, it is still the sixth highest grossing comic book movie of all time adjusted for inflation. Only Avengers: Infinity War, The Dark Knight, Black Panther, The Avengers and Avengers: Endgame have sold more tickets than Spider-Man. Spider-Man was the highest-grossing superhero origin film, a record it held for 15 years until it was surpassed by Wonder Woman (2017). As of 2020, it is the 12th-highest-grossing superhero film, as well as the 12th-highest-grossing comic book adaptation in general.
Internationally, Spider-Man opened in 17 territories in its first week, earning a total of $13.3 million. It scored the second-highest opening in Iceland, Singapore and South Korea. Plus, Russia and Yugoslavia had the third best all time film opening. Spider-Man would score the biggest opening in Switzerland with $1.4 million and 160,000 admissions from 106 screens, surpassing The World Is Not Enough. As for Germany, it had the strongest June opening and the third best debut of any movie, behind Attack of the Clones and Ice Age. Its opening screenings in France were a massive 10,645 admissions from 27 screens, beating out the French film Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra. Additionally, it set the highest opening gross in Spain. Meanwhile, Spider-Man would go on to unleash new opening records in the UK during the 2002 FIFA World Cup soccer game. The film made $13.9 million from 509 screens, making it the country's fifth biggest movie opening, trailing only behind Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, The Phantom Menace, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring and Attack of the Clones. In addition, Spider-Man had the largest opening of any film in the UK with a BBFC certificate higher than a "PG" rating, staying ahead of Independence Day and Hannibal. Despite lunch matches, it still led the weekend box office to a bigger 110% week-to-week increase and a 130% year-on-year increase when Pearl Harbor led the chart during its third week. It was the country's number one film for three weeks until it was displaced by Minority Report. In India, the film was simultaneously released in English and three different languages across 250 screens, becoming the widest reach and return for a Hollywood title since The Mummy Returns in 2001. It was even Sony's first major release in the country since Godzilla in 1998. The total number of international markets that generated grosses in excess of $10 million include Australia ($16.9 million), Brazil ($17.4 million), France, Algeria, Monaco, Morocco and Tunisia ($32.9 million), Germany ($30.7 million), Italy ($20.8 million), Japan ($56.2 million), Mexico ($31.2 million), South Korea ($16.98 million), Spain ($23.7 million), and the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta ($45.8 million).
Spider-Man became the highest-grossing superhero film of all time at the time of its release, both domestically and worldwide while surpassing Batman. Its domestic gross was eventually topped by The Dark Knight (2008). Its worldwide gross was first surpassed by Spider-Man 3 (2007).
The film also held the record as Sony's highest-grossing film domestically until 2018, when it was finally surpassed by Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle ($404.5 million).
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Spider-Man holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "Not only does Spider-Man provide a good dose of web-swinging fun, it also has a heart, thanks to the combined charms of director Sam Raimi and star Tobey Maguire." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, has assigned the film a score of 73 out of 100 based on 38 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.
The casting, mainly Tobey Maguire, Willem Dafoe and J. K. Simmons, is often cited as one of the film's high points. Eric Harrison, of the Houston Chronicle, was initially skeptical of the casting of Maguire, but after seeing the film he stated, "it becomes difficult to imagine anyone else in the role." USA Today critic Mike Clark believed the casting rivaled that of Christopher Reeve as 1978's Superman. Owen Gleiberman, of Entertainment Weekly, had mixed feelings about the casting, particularly Tobey Maguire. "Maguire, winning as he is, never quite gets the chance to bring the two sides of Spidey—the boy and the man, the romantic and the avenger—together." The Hollywood Reporters Kirk Honeycutt thought: "the filmmakers' imaginations work in overdrive from the clever design of the cobwebby opening credits and Spider-Man and M.J.'s upside down kiss—after one of his many rescues of her—to a finale that leaves character relationships open ended for future adventures."
LA Weekly Manohla Dargis wrote, "It isn't that Spider-Man is inherently unsuited for live-action translation; it's just that he's not particularly interesting or, well, animated." Giving it two and a half stars out of four, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times felt that the film lacked a decent action element: "Consider the scene where Spider-Man is given a cruel choice between saving Mary Jane or a cable car full of school kids. He tries to save both, so that everyone dangles from webbing that seems about to pull loose. The visuals here could have given an impression of the enormous weights and tensions involved, but instead the scene seems more like a bloodless storyboard of the idea."
Stylistically, there was heavy criticism of the Green Goblin's costume, which led IGN's Richard George to comment years later: "We're not saying the comic book costume is exactly thrilling, but the Goblin armor (the helmet in particular) from Spider-Man is almost comically bad... Not only is it not frightening, it prohibits expression."
Entertainment Weekly put "the kiss in Spider-Man" on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, saying: "There's a fine line between romantic and corny. And the rain-soaked smooch between Spider-Man and Mary Jane from 2002 tap-dances right on that line. The reason it works? Even if she suspects he's Peter Parker, she doesn't try to find out. And that's sexy."
Empire magazine ranked Spider-Man 437 in its 500 Greatest Movies of All Time list in 2008.
Accolades
The film won several awards ranging from Teen Choice Awards to the Saturn Awards, and was also nominated for two Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects and Best Sound (Kevin O'Connell, Greg P. Russell and Ed Novick), but lost to The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers and Chicago, respectively. While only Danny Elfman brought home a Saturn Award, Raimi, Maguire, and Dunst were all nominated for their respective positions. It also took home the People's Choice Award for "Favorite Motion Picture." The film was nominated for Favorite Movie at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards, but lost to Austin Powers in Goldmember.
Future
Sequels
Two sequels to Spider-Man were produced and directed by Sam Raimi: Spider-Man 2 was released on June 30, 2004, while Spider-Man 3 was released on May 4, 2007.
Animated television series
A CGI/spin-off animated series, Spider-Man: The New Animated Series, ran on July to September 2003; it was intended to be the continuation of the first film, and was an alternate sequel to the film unrelated to the events of the later sequels.
Video game
A video game based on the film of the same name was released. The game was developed by Treyarch (only for the home consoles) and published by Activision, and released in 2002 for Game Boy Advance, GameCube, Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, and Xbox. The game has many scenes and villains that did not appear in the film. It was followed by Spider-Man 2 two years later to promote the release of the second film. In 2007, to promote the release of the third film, Spider-Man 3 was released. Tobey Maguire and Willem Dafoe were the only actors who reprised their roles from the film. Spider-Man: Friend or Foe was released in 2007, the games borrow the film characters, and it serves as non-canon plot of the film series.
The critical reviews for the game were positive. By July 2006, the PlayStation 2 version of Spider-Man had sold 2.1 million copies and earned $74 million in the United States. Next Generation ranked it as the 15th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined sales of Spider-Man console games released in the 2000s reached 6 million units in the United States by July 2006.
References
External links
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Carriera
Venne selezionato dai Philadelphia Warriors al quarto giro del Draft NBA 1954 (30ª scelta assoluta).
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Swan boat(s) may refer to:
Swan boat (racing), a type of boat originating in Thailand
Swan Boats (Boston, Massachusetts), a cultural icon of that city
Swan Boats (Magic Kingdom), a former ride at Magic Kingdom | wiki |
Re'eh, Reeh, R'eih, or Ree (—Hebrew for "see", the first word in the parashah) is the 47th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the fourth in the Book of Deuteronomy. It comprises . In the parashah, Moses set before the Israelites the choice between blessing and curse. Moses instructed the Israelites in the laws that they were to observe, including the law of a single centralized place of worship. Moses warned against following other gods and their prophets and set forth the laws of kashrut, tithes, the Sabbatical year, the Hebrew slave, firstborn animals, and the three pilgrim festivals.
The parashah is the longest weekly Torah portion in the Book of Deuteronomy (although not in the Torah), and is made up of 7,442 Hebrew letters, 1,932 Hebrew words, 126 verses, and 258 lines in a Torah Scroll (Sefer Torah). Jews generally read it in August or early September. Jews read part of the parashah, , which addresses the Three Pilgrim Festivals (Shalosh Regalim), as the initial Torah reading on the eighth day of Passover when it falls on a weekday and on the second day of Shavuot when it falls on a weekday. And Jews read a larger selection from the same part of the parashah, , as the initial Torah reading on the eighth day of Passover when it falls on a Sabbath, on the second day of Shavuot when it falls on a Sabbath, and on Shemini Atzeret.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot. In the masoretic text of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), Parashat Re'eh has six "open portion" (, petuchah) divisions (roughly equivalent to paragraphs, often abbreviated with the Hebrew letter (peh)). Parashat Re'eh has several further subdivisions, called "closed portions" (, setumah) (abbreviated with the Hebrew letter (samekh)) within the open portion divisions. The first open portion spans the first, second and part of the third readings. The second open portion goes from the middle of the third reading to the end of the fourth reading. The third open portion spans the fifth and sixth readings. The fourth, fifth, and sixth open portion divisions divide the seventh reading. Closed portion divisions further divide each of the seven readings.
First reading—Deuteronomy 11:26–12:10
In the first reading, Moses told the Israelites that he set before them blessing and curse: blessing if they obeyed God's commandments and curse if they did not obey but turned away to follow other gods. A closed portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, Moses directed that when God brought them into the land, they were to pronounce the blessings at Mount Gerizim and the curses at Mount Ebal. Moses instructed the Israelites in the laws that they were to observe in the land: They were to destroy all the sites at which the residents worshiped their gods. They were not to worship God as the land's residents had worshiped their gods, but to look only to the site that God would choose. There they were to bring their offerings and feast before God, happy in all God's blessings. The first reading ends with .
Second reading—Deuteronomy 12:11–28
In the second reading, Moses warned the Israelites not to sacrifice burnt offerings in any place, but only in the place that God would choose. But whenever they desired, they could slaughter and eat meat in any of their settlements, so long as they did not consume the blood, which they were to pour on the ground. They were not, however, to consume in their settlements their tithes, firstlings, vow offerings, freewill offerings, or contributions; these they were to consume along with their children, slaves, and local Levites in the place that God would choose. A closed portion ends with .
In the continuation of the reading, Moses made clear that even as God gave the Israelites more land, they could eat meat in their settlements, so long as they did not consume the blood, and so long as they brought their offerings to the place that God would show them. The second reading and a closed portion end with .
Third reading—Deuteronomy 12:29–13:19
In the third reading, Moses warned them against being lured into the ways of the residents of the land, and against inquiring about their gods, for the residents performed for their gods every abhorrent act that God detested, even offering up their sons and daughters in fire to their gods. Moses warned the Israelites carefully to observe only that which he enjoined upon them, neither adding to it nor taking away from it. The first open portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, Moses instructed that if a prophet (nabhi, נבָיִא) appeared before the Israelites and gave them a sign or a portent and urged them to worship another god, even if the sign or portent came true, they were not to heed the words of that prophet, but put the offender to death. A closed portion ends here.
In a further continuation of the reading, Moses instructed that if a brother, son, daughter, wife, or close friend enticed one in secret to worship other gods, the Israelites were to show no pity, but stone the offender to death. Another closed portion ends here.
And as the reading continues, Moses instructed that if the Israelites heard that some scoundrels had subverted the inhabitants of a town to worship other gods, the Israelites were to investigate thoroughly, and if they found it true, they were to destroy the inhabitants and the cattle of that town - termed an "Ir nidachat" - burning the town and everything in it. They were not to rebuild on the site. The third reading and a closed portion end here with the end of the chapter.
Fourth reading—Deuteronomy 14:1–21
In the fourth reading, Moses prohibited the Israelites from gashing themselves or shaving the front of their heads because of the dead. A closed portion ends with .
In the continuation of the reading, Moses prohibited the Israelites from eating anything abhorrent. Among land animals, they could eat ox, sheep, goat, deer, gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, ibex, antelope, mountain sheep, and any other animal that has true hoofs that are cleft in two and chews cud. But the Israelites were not to eat or touch the carcasses of camel, hare, daman, or swine. A closed portion ends here.
In the next part of the reading, Moses instructed that of animals that live in water, the Israelites could eat anything that has fins and scales, but nothing else. Another closed portion ends here.
As the reading continues, Moses instructed that the Israelites could eat any clean bird, but could not eat eagle, vulture, black vulture, kite, falcon, buzzard, raven, ostrich, nighthawk, sea gull, hawk, owl, pelican, bustard, cormorant, stork, heron, hoopoe, or bat. They could not eat any winged swarming things. They could not eat anything that had died a natural death, but they could give it to a stranger or sell it to a foreigner. They could not boil a kid in its mother's milk. The fourth reading and the second open portion end here.
Fifth reading—Deuteronomy 14:22–29
In the fifth reading, Moses instructed that the Israelites were to set aside every year a tenth part of their harvest. They were to consume the tithes of their new grain, wine, and oil, and the firstlings of their herds and flocks, in the presence of God in the place where God would choose. If the distance to that place was too great, they could convert the tithes or firstlings into money, take the proceeds to the place that God had chosen, and spend the money and feast there. They were not to neglect the Levite in their community, for the Levites had no hereditary portion of land. A closed portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, Moses instructed that every third year, the Israelites were to take the full tithe, but leave it within their settlements, and the Levite, the proselyte, the orphan, and the widow in their settlements could come and eat. The fifth reading and a closed portion end here with the end of the chapter.
Sixth reading—Deuteronomy 15:1–18
In the sixth reading, Moses described "the Lord's Release", stating that every seventh year, the Israelites were to remit debts from fellow Israelites, although they could continue to dun foreigners. There would be no needy among them if only they kept all God's laws, for God would bless them. A closed portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, Moses instructed that if one of their kinsmen fell into need, the Israelites were not to harden their hearts, but were to open their hands and lend what the kinsman needed. The Israelites were not to harbor the base thought that the year of remission was approaching and not lend, but they were to lend readily to their kinsman, for in return God would bless them in all their efforts. A closed portion ends with .
In the continuation of the reading, Moses instructed that if a fellow Hebrew was sold into servitude, the Hebrew slave would serve six years, and in the seventh year go free. When the master set the slave free, the master was to give the former slave parting gifts. Should the slave tell the master that the slave did not want to leave, the master was to take an awl and put it through the slave's ear into the door, and the slave was to become the master's slave in perpetuity. The sixth reading and the third open portion end with .
Seventh reading—Deuteronomy 15:19–16:17
In the seventh reading, Moses instructed that the Israelites were to consecrate to God all male firstlings born in their herds and flocks and eat them with their household in the place that God would choose. If such an animal had a defect, the Israelites were not to sacrifice it, but eat it in their settlements, as long as they poured out its blood on the ground. The fourth open portion ends here with the chapter.
In the continuation of the reading, Moses instructed the Israelites to observe Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot. Three times a year, on those three Festivals, all Israelite men were to appear in the place that God would choose, each with his own gift, according to the blessing that God had bestowed upon him. A closed portion ends with the conclusion of the discussion of Passover at , and the fifth open portion ends with the conclusion of the discussion of Shavuot at . The maftir () reading of concludes the parashah with the discussion of Sukkot, and concludes the final closed portion.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Deuteronomy chapter 12
Benjamin Sommer argued that borrowed whole sections from the earlier text of .
, like , addresses the centralization of sacrifices and the permissibility of eating meat. prohibited killing an ox, lamb, or goat (each a sacrificial animal) without bringing it to the door of the Tabernacle as an offering to God. , however, allows killing and eating meat in any place.
2 Kings and 2 Chronicles recount how King Josiah implemented the centralization called for in .
commanded the Israelite people to "look only to the site that the Lord your God will choose amidst all your tribes as His habitation, to establish His name there. There you are to go, and there you are to bring your burnt offerings and other sacrifices, . . . your votive and freewill offerings (, nidvoteichem)." But in , the 8th century BCE prophet Amos condemned the sins of the people of Israel, saying that they, "come to Bethel and transgress; to Gilgal, and transgress even more: . . . burn a thank offering of leavened bread; and proclaim freewill offerings (, nedavot) loudly. For you love that sort of thing, O Israelites —declares my Lord God."
Deuteronomy chapter 14
The Torah sets out the dietary laws of kashrut in both and and the Hebrew Bible makes reference to clean and unclean animals in , , and .
The Torah prohibits boiling a kid in its mother's milk in three separate places ( and and ).
According to Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers, "the Talmud and Jewish interpreters in general are agreed in the view that the tithe mentioned in this passage, both here () and in , and also the tithe described in , are all one thing—'the second tithe', and entirely distinct from the ordinary tithe assigned to the Levites for their subsistence in , and by them tithed again for the priests ()".
Deuteronomy chapter 15
affirms that there will always be poor among the people of Israel. While has been interpreted in some biblical versions as stating to the contrary: "Of course there won’t be any poor persons among you because the Lord will bless you" (e.g. Common English Bible translation), other versions suggest that provision is made for not applying the law of the Lord's Release is made in the event that there be no poverty in the land (King James Version: "Save when there shall be no poor among you") and in other cases a purposive interpretation is adopted: "To the end that there be no poor among you". "Houbigant follows this marginal reading, to which he joins the end of the third verse, considering it as explanatory of the law; as if [Moses] had said, 'Thou shalt not exact the debt that is due from thy brother, but [thy hand shall release] him, for this reason, [that there may be no poor among you] through your severity.' He justly contends that the phrase efes ke, can here only mean "to the end that", being equivalent to the French afin que.
Passover
refers to the Festival of Passover. In the Hebrew Bible, Passover is called:
"Passover" (Pesach, ),
"The Feast of Unleavened Bread" (Chag haMatzot, ), and
"A holy convocation" or "a solemn assembly" (mikrah kodesh, ).
Some explain the double nomenclature of "Passover" and "Feast of Unleavened Bread" as referring to two separate feasts that the Israelites combined sometime between the Exodus and when the Biblical text became settled. and indicate that the dedication of the firstborn also became associated with the festival.
Some believe that the "Feast of Unleavened Bread" was an agricultural festival at which the Israelites celebrated the beginning of the grain harvest. Moses may have had this festival in mind when in and he petitioned Pharaoh to let the Israelites go to celebrate a feast in the wilderness.
"Passover," on the other hand, was associated with a thanksgiving sacrifice of a lamb, also called "the Passover," "the Passover lamb," or "the Passover offering."
, , and and 5, and direct "Passover" to take place on the evening of the fourteenth of Aviv (Nisan in the Hebrew calendar after the Babylonian captivity). , , , and confirm that practice. , , and , , and direct the "Feast of Unleavened Bread" to take place over seven days and and direct that it begin on the fifteenth of the month. Some believe that the propinquity of the dates of the two Festivals led to their confusion and merger.
Sommer saw in and a case in which one Biblical author explicitly interpreted another Biblical text. Both texts provide regulations concerning the Passover sacrifice, but the regulations differ. instructed the Israelites to boil the Passover sacrifice. Sommer argued that takes issue with on this point, however, warning (in Sommer's translation), "Don’t eat it raw or boiled in water; rather, [eat it] roasted in fire." Sommer did not find such a disagreement in this ancient Jewish literature surprising, arguing that two groups in the Biblical period agreed that the Passover sacrifice was important but disagreed on its precise details.
and 27 link the word "Passover" (Pesach, ) to God's act to "pass over" (pasach, ) the Israelites' houses in the plague of the firstborn. In the Torah, the consolidated Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread thus commemorate the Israelites' liberation from Egypt.
The Hebrew Bible frequently notes the Israelites' observance of Passover at turning points in their history. reports God's direction to the Israelites to observe Passover in the wilderness of Sinai on the anniversary of their liberation from Egypt. reports that upon entering the Promised Land, the Israelites kept the Passover on the plains of Jericho and ate unleavened cakes and parched corn, produce of the land, the next day. reports that King Josiah commanded the Israelites to keep the Passover in Jerusalem as part of Josiah's reforms, but also notes that the Israelites had not kept such a Passover from the days of the Biblical judges nor in all the days of the kings of Israel or the kings of Judah, calling into question the observance of even Kings David and Solomon. The more reverent , however, reports that Solomon offered sacrifices on the Festivals, including the Feast of Unleavened Bread. And reports King Hezekiah's observance of a second Passover anew, as sufficient numbers of neither the priests nor the people were prepared to do so before then. And reports that the Israelites returned from the Babylonian captivity observed Passover, ate the Passover lamb, and kept the Feast of Unleavened Bread seven days with joy.
Shavuot
refers to the Festival of Shavuot. In the Hebrew Bible, Shavuot is called:
The Feast of Weeks (, Chag Shavuot),
The Day of the First-fruits (, Yom haBikurim),
The Feast of Harvest (, Chag haKatzir), and
A holy convocation (, mikrah kodesh).
associates Shavuot with the first-fruits of the wheat harvest. In turn, set out the ceremony for the bringing of the first fruits.
To arrive at the correct date, instructs counting seven weeks from the day after the day of rest of Passover, the day that they brought the sheaf of barley for waving. Similarly, directs counting seven weeks from when they first put the sickle to the standing barley.
sets out a course of offerings for the fiftieth day, including a meal-offering of two loaves made from fine flour from the first-fruits of the harvest; burnt-offerings of seven lambs, one bullock, and two rams; a sin-offering of a goat; and a peace-offering of two lambs. Similarly, sets out a course of offerings including a meal-offering; burnt-offerings of two bullocks, one ram, and seven lambs; and one goat to make atonement. directs a freewill-offering in relation to God's blessing.
and ordain a holy convocation in which the Israelites were not to work.
reports that Solomon offered burnt-offerings on the Feast of Weeks.
Sukkot
And refers to the Festival of Sukkot. In the Hebrew Bible, Sukkot is called:
"The Feast of Tabernacles (or Booths),"
"The Feast of Ingathering,"
"The Feast" or "the festival,"
"The Feast of the Lord,"
"The festival of the seventh month," and
"A holy convocation" or "a sacred occasion."
Sukkot's agricultural origin is evident from the name "The Feast of Ingathering," from the ceremonies accompanying it, and from the season and occasion of its celebration: "At the end of the year when you gather in your labors out of the field"; "after you have gathered in from your threshing-floor and from your winepress." It was a thanksgiving for the fruit harvest. And in what may explain the festival's name, Isaiah reports that grape harvesters kept booths in their vineyards. Coming as it did at the completion of the harvest, Sukkot was regarded as a general thanksgiving for the bounty of nature in the year that had passed.
Sukkot became one of the most important feasts in Judaism, as indicated by its designation as "the Feast of the Lord" or simply "the Feast." Perhaps because of its wide attendance, Sukkot became the appropriate time for important state ceremonies. Moses instructed the children of Israel to gather for a reading of the Law during Sukkot every seventh year. King Solomon dedicated the Temple in Jerusalem on Sukkot. And Sukkot was the first sacred occasion observed after the resumption of sacrifices in Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity.
In the time of Nehemiah, after the Babylonian captivity, the Israelites celebrated Sukkot by making and dwelling in booths, a practice of which Nehemiah reports: "the Israelites had not done so from the days of Joshua." In a practice related to that of the Four Species, Nehemiah also reports that the Israelites found in the Law the commandment that they "go out to the mountains and bring leafy branches of olive trees, pine trees, myrtles, palms and [other] leafy trees to make booths." In , God told Moses to command the people: "On the first day you shall take the product of hadar trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook," and "You shall live in booths seven days; all citizens in Israel shall live in booths, in order that future generations may know that I made the Israelite people live in booths when I brought them out of the land of Egypt." The book of Numbers, however, indicates that while in the wilderness, the Israelites dwelt in tents. Some secular scholars consider (the commandments regarding booths and the four species) to be an insertion by a late redactor.
Jeroboam son of Nebat, King of the northern Kingdom of Israel, whom describes as practicing "his evil way," celebrated a festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth month, one month after Sukkot, "in imitation of the festival in Judah." "While Jeroboam was standing on the altar to present the offering, the man of God, at the command of the Lord, cried out against the altar" in disapproval.
According to the prophet Zechariah, in the messianic era, Sukkot will become a universal festival, and all nations will make pilgrimages annually to Jerusalem to celebrate the feast there.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Deuteronomy chapter 12
Josephus interpreted the centralization of worship in to teach that just as there is only one God, there would be only one Temple; and the Temple was to be common to all people, just as God is the God for all people.
Deuteronomy chapter 14
Isaiah Gafni noted that in the Book of Tobit, the protagonist Tobit observed the dietary laws.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Deuteronomy chapter 11
The Rabbis taught that the words of , "Behold, I set before you this day a blessing and a curse," demonstrate that God did not set before the Israelites the Blessings and the Curses of and to hurt them, but only to show them the good way that they should choose in order to receive reward. Rabbi Levi compared the proposition of to a master who offered his servant a golden necklace if the servant would do the master's will, or iron chains if the servant did not. Rabbi Haggai taught that not only had God in set two paths before the Israelites, but God did not administer justice to them according to the strict letter of the law, but allowed them mercy so that they might (in the words of ) "choose life." And Rabbi Joshua ben Levi taught that when a person makes the choice that urges and observes the words of the Torah, a procession of angels passes before the person to guard the person from evil, bringing into effect the promised blessing.
The Sifre explained that explicitly says, "I set before you this day a blessing and a curse: the blessing, if you obey the commandments . . . and the curse, if you shall not obey the commandments," because otherwise the Israelites might read , "I have set before you life and death, the blessing and the curse," and think that since God set before them both paths, they could go whichever way they chose. Thus, directs explicitly: "choose life."
The Sifre compared to a person sitting at a crossroads with two paths ahead. One of the paths began with clear ground but ended in thorns. The other began with thorns but ended in clear ground. The person would tell passersby that the path that appeared clear would be fine for two or three steps, but end in thorns, and the path that began with thorns would be difficult for two or three steps, but end in clear ground. So, said the Sifre, Moses told Israel that one might see the wicked flourish in this world for a short time, but in the end they will have occasion to regret. And the righteous who are distressed in this world will in the end have occasion for rejoicing, as says, "that He might prove you, to do you good at the end."
Our Rabbis asked in a Baraita why says, "You shall set the blessing upon Mount Gerizim and the curse upon mount Ebal." cannot say so merely to teach where the Israelites were to say the blessings and curses, as already says, "These shall stand upon Mount Gerizim to bless the people . . . and these shall stand upon Mount Ebal for the curse." Rather, the Rabbis taught that the purpose of was to indicate that the blessings must precede the curses. It is possible to think that all the blessings must precede all the curses; therefore the text states "blessing" and "curse" in the singular, and thus teaches that one blessing precedes one curse, alternating blessings and curses, and all the blessings do not precede all the curses. A further purpose of is to draw a comparison between blessings and curses: As the curse was pronounced by the Levites, so the blessing had to be pronounced by the Levites. As the curse was uttered in a loud voice, so the blessing had to be uttered in a loud voice. As the curse was said in Hebrew, so the blessing had to be said in Hebrew. As the curses were in general and particular terms, so the blessings had to be in general and particular terms. And as with the curse both parties responded "Amen," so with the blessing both parties responded "Amen."
The Mishnah noted the common mention of the terebinths of Moreh in both and and deduced that Gerizim and Ebal were near Shechem. But Rabbi Judah deduced from the words "beyond the Jordan" in that Gerizim and Ebal were some distance beyond the Jordan. Rabbi Judah deduced from the words "behind the way of the going down of the sun" in that Gerizim and Ebal were far from the east, where the sun rises. And Rabbi Judah also deduced from the words "over against Gilgal" in that Gerizim and Ebal were close to Gilgal. Rabbi Eleazar ben Jose said, however, that the words "Are they not beyond the Jordan" in indicated that Gerizim and Ebal were near the Jordan.
The Tosefta read to report that the Israelites miraculously traveled more than 60 mils, crossing the Jordan River and going all the way to Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, all in a single day.
Rabbi Hananiah ben Iddi read to report Moses bewailing for himself—"you are to pass over the Jordan," but I am not.
Deuteronomy chapter 12
The Rabbis interpreted the words of , "These are the statutes and the ordinances, which you shall observe to do in the land . . . all the days that you live upon the earth," in a Baraita. They read "the statutes" to refer to the Rabbinic interpretations of the text. They read "the ordinances" to refer to monetary, civil laws. They read "which you shall observe" to refer study. They read "to do" to refer to actual practice. Reading "in the land," one might think that all precepts are binding only in the Land of Israel; therefore states, "all the days that you live upon the earth" to teach that the laws bind one wherever one lives. Reading "all the days," one might think that all precepts are binding both inside and outside the Land of Israel; therefore states, "in the land." The Rabbis taught that one could thus learn from the next verse, "You shall utterly destroy all the places, wherein the nations served their God," that just as the destruction of idolatry is a personal duty, and is binding both inside and outside the Land of Israel, so everything that is a personal duty is binding both inside and outside the Land of Israel. And conversely, laws that are connected to the land are binding only in the Land of Israel.
Rabbi Jose son of Rabbi Judah derived from the use of the two instances of the verb "destroy" in the Hebrew for "you shall surely destroy" in that the Israelites were to destroy the Canaanite's idols twice, and the Rabbis explained that this meant by cutting them and then by uprooting them from the ground. The Gemara explained that Rabbi Jose derived from the words "and you shall destroy their name out of that place" in that the place of the idol must be renamed. And Rabbi Eliezer deduced from the same words in that the Israelites were to eradicate every trace of the idol.
The Mishnah recounted the history of decentralized sacrifice. Before the Tabernacle, high places were permitted, and Israelite firstborn performed the sacrifices. After the Israelites set up the Tabernacle, high places were forbidden, and priests performed the services. When the Israelites entered the Promised Land and came to Gilgal, high places were again permitted. When the Israelites came to Shiloh, high places were again forbidden. The Tabernacle there had no roof, but consisted of a stone structure covered with cloth. The Mishnah interpreted the Tabernacle at Shiloh to be the "rest" to which Moses referred in . When the Israelites came to Nob and Gibeon, high places were again permitted. And when the Israelites came to Jerusalem, high places were forbidden and never again permitted. The Mishnah interpreted the sanctuary in Jerusalem to be "the inheritance" to which Moses referred in . The Mishnah explained the different practices at the various high places when high places were permitted. The Mishnah taught that there was no difference between a Great Altar (at the Tabernacle or the Temple) and a small altar (a local high place), except that the Israelites had to bring obligatory sacrifices that had a fixed time, like the Passover sacrifice, to the Great Altar. Further, the Mishnah explained that there was no difference between Shiloh and Jerusalem except that in Shiloh they ate minor sacrifices and second tithes (ma'aser sheni) anywhere within sight of Shiloh, whereas at Jerusalem they were eaten within the wall. And the sanctity of Shiloh was followed by a period when high places were permitted, while after the sanctity of Jerusalem high places were no longer permitted.
Rabbi Judah (or some say Rabbi Jose) said that three commandments were given to the Israelites when they entered the land: (1) the commandment of to appoint a king, (2) the commandment of to blot out Amalek, and (3) the commandment of to build the Temple in Jerusalem. Rabbi Nehorai, on the other hand, said that did not command the Israelites to choose a king, but was spoken only in anticipation of the Israelites' future complaints, as says, "And (you) shall say, ‘I will set a king over me.'" A Baraita taught that because says, "And when He gives you rest from all your enemies round about," and then proceeds, "then it shall come to pass that the place that the Lord your God shall choose," it implies that the commandment to exterminate Amalek was to come before building of the Temple.
Tractate Bikkurim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the first fruits in , , and and .
Deuteronomy chapter 13
The Sifre derived from the command of , "All this word that I command you, that shall you observe to do; you shall not add thereto, nor diminish from it," that a minor religious duty should be as precious as a principal duty.
The Jerusalem Talmud interpreted —"a prophet . . . gives you a sign or a wonder"—to demonstrate that a prophet's authority depends on the prophet's producing a sign or wonder.
How could a prophet of other gods perform a sign or wonder that actually came to pass? Rabbi Akiva explained that refers only to those who began as true prophets, but then turned into false prophets.
addresses a "dream-diviner" who seeks to lead the Israelites astray. The Gemara taught that a dream is a sixtieth part of prophecy. Rabbi Hanan taught that even if the Master of Dreams (an angel, in a dream that truly foretells the future) tells a person that on the next day the person will die, the person should not desist from prayer, for as Ecclesiastes says, "For in the multitude of dreams are vanities and also many words, but fear God." (Although a dream may seem reliably to predict the future, it will not necessarily come true; one must place one's trust in God.) Rabbi Samuel bar Nahmani said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan that a person is shown in a dream only what is suggested by the person's own thoughts (while awake), as says, "As for you, Oh King, your thoughts came into your mind upon your bed," and says, "That you may know the thoughts of the heart." When Samuel had a bad dream, he used to quote , "The dreams speak falsely." When he had a good dream, he used to question whether dreams speak falsely, seeing as in , God says, "I speak with him in a dream?" Rava pointed out the potential contradiction between and . The Gemara resolved the contradiction, teaching that , "I speak with him in a dream?" refers to dreams that come through an angel, whereas , "The dreams speak falsely," refers to dreams that come through a demon.
Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina asked what means in the text, "You shall walk after the Lord your God." How can a human being walk after God, when says, "[T]he Lord your God is a devouring fire"? Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina explained that the command to walk after God means to walk after the attributes of God. As God clothes the naked—for says, "And the Lord God made for Adam and for his wife coats of skin, and clothed them"—so should we also clothe the naked. God visited the sick—for says, "And the Lord appeared to him by the oaks of Mamre" (after Abraham was circumcised in )—so should we also visit the sick. God comforted mourners—for says, "And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac his son"—so should we also comfort mourners. God buried the dead—for says, "And He buried him in the valley"—so should we also bury the dead. Similarly, the Sifre on taught that to walk in God's ways means to be (in the words of ) "merciful and gracious."
Rabbi Elazar noted that both and use the expression "child of Belial" ("sons of Belial," , benei beliya'al in ; "daughter of Belial," , bat beliya'al in ). Rabbi Elazar reasoned from the common use of the term "child of Belial" that the context was the same in both verses. As addresses a city engaged in idol worship, and in , Hannah denied praying while drunk, Rabbi Elazar argued that the verbal analogy supports the proposition that when a drunk person prays, it is as if that person engaged in idol worship.
The Mishnah taught that a court would examine witnesses in capital cases with seven questions: (1) In which cycle of seven years within a jubilee did the event occur? (2) In which year of the Sabbatical cycle did the event occur? (3) In which month did the event occur? (4) On which day of the month did the event occur? (5) On which day of the week did the event occur? (6) At which hour did the event occur? And (7) in what place did the event occur? Rabbi Yosei said that the court would examine the witnesses with only three questions: On which day did the event occur, at which hour, and in what place? In the Gemara, Rav Judah taught that the sources for these seven interrogations were the three verses , “And you shall inquire, and investigate, and ask diligently”; , “If it be told to you and you have heard it and inquired diligently”; and , “And the judges shall inquire diligently.”
The Gemara taught that sets forth one of the three most distinguishing virtues of the Jewish People. The Gemara taught that David told the Gibeonites that the Israelites are distinguished by three characteristics: They are merciful, bashful, and benevolent. They are merciful, for says that God would "show you [the Israelites] mercy, and have compassion upon you, and multiply you." They are bashful, for (20:17 in NJPS) says "that God's fear may be before you [the Israelites]." And they are benevolent, for says of Abraham "that he may command his children and his household after him, that they may keep the way of the Lord, to do righteousness and justice." The Gemara taught that David told the Gibeonites that only one who cultivates these three characteristics is fit to join the Jewish People.
Mishnah Sanhedrin 10:4–6, Tosefta Sanhedrin 14:1–6, and Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 111b–13b interpreted to address the law of the apostate town. The Mishnah held that only a court of 71 judges could declare such a city, and the court could not declare cities on the frontier or three cities within one locale to be apostate cities. A Baraita taught that there never was an apostate town and never will be. Rabbi Eliezer said that no city containing even a single mezuzah could be condemned as an apostate town, as instructs with regard to such a town, "you shall gather all the spoil of it in the midst of the street thereof and shall burn . . . all the spoil," but if the spoil contains even a single mezuzah, this burning would be forbidden by the injunction of , which states, "you shall destroy the names of [the idols] . . . . You shall not do so to the Lord your God," and thus forbids destroying the Name of God. Rabbi Jonathan, however, said that he saw an apostate town and sat upon its ruins. See under Ir nidachat.
Deuteronomy chapter 14
Tractate Chullin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of kashrut in and .
Providing an exception to the laws of kashrut in and , Rabin said in Rabbi Johanan's name that one may cure oneself with all forbidden things, except idolatry, incest, and murder.
A Midrash taught that Adam offered an ox as a sacrifice, anticipating the laws of clean animals in and .
Rav Chisda asked how Noah knew (before the giving of or ) which animals were clean and which were unclean. Rav Chisda explained that Noah led them past the Ark, and those that the Ark accepted (in multiples of seven) were certainly clean, and those that the Ark rejected were certainly unclean. Rabbi Abbahu cited , "And they that went in, went in male and female," to show that they went in of their own accord (in their respective pairs, seven of the clean and two of the unclean).
Rabbi Tanhum ben Hanilai compared the laws of kashrut to the case of a physician who went to visit two patients, one whom the physician judged would live, and the other whom the physician judged would die. To the one who would live, the physician gave orders about what to eat and what not to eat. On the other hand, the physician told the one who would die to eat whatever the patient wanted. Thus to the nations who were not destined for life in the World to Come, God said in , "Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you." But to Israel, whom God intended for life in the World to Come, God said in , "These are the living things which you may eat."
Rav reasoned that since teaches that "Every word of God is pure," then the precepts of kashrut were given for the express purpose of purifying humanity.
Reading , "My ordinances (, mishpatai) shall you do, and My statutes (, chukotai) shall you keep," the Sifra distinguished "ordinances" (, mishpatim) from "statutes" (, chukim). The term "ordinances" (, mishpatim), taught the Sifra, refers to rules that even had they not been written in the Torah, it would have been entirely logical to write them, like laws pertaining to theft, sexual immorality, idolatry, blasphemy and murder. The term "statutes" (, chukim), taught the Sifra, refers to those rules that the impulse to do evil (, yetzer hara) and the nations of the world try to undermine, like eating pork (prohibited by and ), wearing wool-linen mixtures (, shatnez, prohibited by and ), release from levirate marriage (, chalitzah, mandated by ), purification of a person affected by skin disease (, metzora, regulated in ), and the goat sent off into the wilderness (the "scapegoat," regulated in ). In regard to these, taught the Sifra, the Torah says simply that God legislated them and we have no right to raise doubts about them.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool-linen mixture (, shatnez, prohibited by and ), eat pork (prohibited by and ), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by and ), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in , God says, "I have separated you from the nations to be mine." So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.
Rabbi Berekiah said in the name of Rabbi Isaac that in the Time to Come, God will make a banquet for God's righteous servants, and whoever had not eaten meat from an animal that died other than through ritual slaughtering (, nebeilah, prohibited by ) in this world will have the privilege of enjoying it in the World to Come. This is indicated by , which says, "And the fat of that which dies of itself (, nebeilah) and the fat of that which is torn by beasts (, tereifah), may be used for any other service, but you shall not eat it," so that one might eat it in the Time to Come. (By one's present self-restraint one might merit to partake of the banquet in the Hereafter.) For this reason Moses admonished the Israelites in , "This is the animal that you shall eat."
A Midrash interpreted Psalm , "The Lord lets loose the prisoners," to read, "The Lord permits the forbidden," and thus to teach that what God forbade in one case, God permitted in another. God forbade the abdominal fat of cattle (in ), but permitted it in the case of beasts. God forbade consuming the sciatic nerve in animals (in ) but permitted it in fowl. God forbade eating meat without ritual slaughter (in ) but permitted it for fish. Similarly, Rabbi Abba and Rabbi Jonathan in the name of Rabbi Levi taught that God permitted more things than God forbade. For example, God counterbalanced the prohibition of pork (in and ) by permitting mullet (which some say tastes like pork).
The Mishnah noted that the Torah states (in and ) the characteristics of domestic and wild animals (by which one can tell whether they are clean). The Mishnah noted that the Torah does not similarly state the characteristics of birds, but the sages taught that every bird that seizes its prey is unclean. Every bird that has an extra toe (a hallux), a crop, and a gizzard that can be peeled off is clean. Rabbi Eliezer the son of Rabbi Zadok taught that every bird that parts its toes (evenly) is unclean. The Mishnah taught that among locusts, all that have four legs, four wings, jointed legs (as in ), and wings covering the greater part of the body are clean. Rabbi Jose taught that it must also bear the name "locust." The Mishnah taught that among fish, all that have fins and scales are clean. Rabbi Judah said that it must have (at least) two scales and one fin (to be clean). The scales are those (thin discs) that are attached to the fish, and the fins are those (wings) by which it swims.
The Mishnah taught that hunters of wild animals, birds, and fish, who chanced upon animals that defined as unclean were allowed to sell them. Rabbi Judah taught that a person who chanced upon such animals by accident was allowed to buy or sell them, provided that the person did not make a regular trade of it. But the sages did not allow it.
Rav Shaman bar Abba said in the name of Rav Idi bar Idi bar Gershom who said it in the name of Levi bar Perata who said it in the name of Rabbi Nahum who said it in the name of Rabbi Biraim who said it in the name of a certain old man named Rabbi Jacob that those of the Nasi's house taught that (cooking) a forbidden egg among 60 (permitted) eggs renders them all forbidden, (but cooking) a forbidden egg among 61 (permitted) eggs renders them all permitted. Rabbi Zera questioned the ruling, but the Gemara cited the definitive ruling: It was stated that Rabbi Helbo said in the name of Rav Huna that with regard to a (forbidden) egg (cooked with permitted ones), if there are 60 besides the (forbidden) one, they are (all) forbidden, but if there are 61 besides the (forbidden) one, they are permitted.
The Mishnah taught the general rule that wherever the flavor from a prohibited food yields benefit, it is prohibited, but wherever the flavor from a prohibited food does not yield benefit, it is permitted. For example, if (prohibited) vinegar fell into split beans (it is permitted).
Reading the injunction against eating pork in , a Midrash found signs of the duplicity of the Romans and their spiritual progenitor, Esau. Rabbi Phinehas (and other say Rabbi Helkiah) taught in Rabbi Simon's name that Moses and Asaph (author of ) exposed the Romans' deception. Asaph said in "The boar of the wood ravages it." While Moses said in "you shall not eat of . . . the swine, because he parts the hoof but does not chew the cud." The Midrash explained that Scripture compares the Roman Empire to a swine, because when the swine lies down, it puts out its parted hoofs, as if to advertise that it is clean. And so the Midrash taught that the wicked Roman Empire robbed and oppressed, yet pretended to execute justice. So the Midrash taught that for 40 years, Esau would ensnare married women and violate them, yet when he reached the age of 40, he compared himself to his righteous father Isaac, telling himself that as his father Isaac was 40 years old when he married (as reported in ), so he too would marry at the age of 40.
The Gemara interpreted the expression "two living birds" in . The Gemara interpreted the word "living" to mean those whose principal limbs are living (excluding birds that are missing a limb) and to exclude treifah birds (birds with an injury or defect that would prevent them from living out a year). The Gemara interpreted the word "birds" (, zipparim) to mean kosher birds. The Gemara deduced from the words of , "Every bird (, zippor) that is clean you may eat," that some zipparim are forbidden as unclean—namely, birds slaughtered pursuant to . The Gemara interpreted the words of , "And these are they of which you shall not eat," to refer to birds slaughtered pursuant to . And the Gemara taught that repeats the commandment so as to teach that one who consumes a bird slaughtered pursuant to infringes both a positive and a negative commandment.
The Mishnah taught that they buried meat that had mixed with milk in violation of and and .
The Gemara noted the paradox that mother's milk is kosher even though it is a product of the mother's blood, which is not kosher. In explanation, the Gemara quoted “Who can bring a pure thing out of an impure? Is it not the One?” For God can bring a pure thing, such as milk, out of an impure thing, such as blood.
Tractates Maasrot and Maaser Sheni in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of tithes in , , and .
The precept of to rejoice on the Festivals (or some say the precept of to rejoice on the festival of Sukkot) is incumbent upon women notwithstanding the general rule that the law does not bind women to observe precepts that depend on a certain time.
Reading the injunction of , "And you shall rejoice, you and your household," a Midrash taught that a man without a wife dwells without good, without help, without joy, without blessing, and without atonement. Without good, as says that "it is not good that the man should be alone." Without help, as in , God says, "I will make him a help meet for him." Without joy, as says, "And you shall rejoice, you and your household" (implying that one can rejoice only when there is a "household" with whom to rejoice). Without a blessing, as can be read, "To cause a blessing to rest on you for the sake of your house" (that is, for the sake of your wife). Without atonement, as says, "And he shall make atonement for himself, and for his house" (implying that one can make complete atonement only with a household). Rabbi Simeon said in the name of Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, without peace too, as 1 Samuel says, "And peace be to your house." Rabbi Joshua of Siknin said in the name of Rabbi Levi, without life too, as says, "Enjoy life with the wife whom you love." Rabbi Hiyya ben Gomdi said, also incomplete, as says, "male and female created He them, and blessed them, and called their name Adam," that is, "man" (and thus only together are they "man"). Some say a man without a wife even impairs the Divine likeness, as says, "For in the image of God made He man," and immediately thereafter says, "And you, be fruitful, and multiply (implying that the former is impaired if one does not fulfill the latter).
Mishnah Peah 8:5–9, Tosefta Peah 4:2–10, and Jerusalem Talmud Peah 69b–73b interpreted and regarding the tithe given to the poor and the Levite. Noting the words "shall eat and be satisfied" in , the Sifre taught that one had to give the poor and the Levite enough to be satisfying to them. The Mishnah thus taught that they did not give the poor person at the threshing floor less than a half a kav (the equivalent in volume of 12 eggs, or roughly a liter) of wheat or a kav (roughly two liters) of barley. The Mishnah taught that they did not give the poor person wandering from place to place less than a loaf of bread. If the poor person stayed overnight, they gave the poor person enough to pay for a night's lodging. If the poor person stayed for the Sabbath, they gave the poor person three meals. The Mishnah taught that if one wanted to save some for poor relatives, one could take only half for poor relatives and needed to give at least half to other poor people.
A Baraita deduced from the parallel use of the words "at the end" in (regarding tithes) and (regarding the great assembly) that just as the Torah required the great assembly to be done at a festival, the Torah also required tithes to be removed at the time of a festival.
Noting that the discussion of gifts to the poor in appears between discussions of the festivals—Passover and Shavuot on one side, and Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur on the other—Rabbi Avardimos ben Rabbi Yossi said that this teaches that people who give immature clusters of grapes (as in and ), the forgotten sheaf (as in ), the corner of the field (as in and ), and the poor tithe (as in and ) is accounted as if the Temple existed and they offered up their sacrifices in it. And for those who do not give to the poor, it is accounted to them as if the Temple existed and they did not offer up their sacrifices in it.
Deuteronomy chapter 15
Tractate Sheviit in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbatical year in , , and and . The Mishnah asked until when a field with trees could be plowed in the sixth year. The House of Shammai said as long as such work would benefit fruit that would ripen in the sixth year. But the House of Hillel said until Shavuot. The Mishnah observed that in reality, the views of two schools approximate each other. The Mishnah taught that one could plow a grain-field in the sixth year until the moisture had dried up in the soil (that it, after Passover, when rains in the Land of Israel cease) or as long as people still plowed in order to plant cucumbers and gourds (which need a great deal of moisture). Rabbi Simeon objected that if that were the rule, then we would place the law in the hands of each person to decide. But the Mishnah concluded that the prescribed period in the case of a grain-field was until Passover, and in the case of a field with trees, until Shavuot. But Rabban Gamaliel and his court ordained that working the land was permitted until the New Year that began the seventh year. Rabbi Johanan said that Rabban Gamaliel and his court reached their conclusion on Biblical authority, noting the common use of the term "Sabbath" (, Shabbat) in both the description of the weekly Sabbath in and the Sabbath-year in . Thus, just as in the case of the Sabbath Day, work is forbidden on the day itself, but allowed on the day before and the day after, so likewise in the Sabbath Year, tillage is forbidden during the year itself, but allowed in the year before and the year after.
Chapter 10 of Tractate Sheviit in the Mishnah and Jerusalem Talmud and Tosefta Sheviit 8:3–11 interpreted to address debts and the Sabbatical year. The Mishnah held that the Sabbatical year cancelled loans, whether they were secured by a bond or not, but did not cancel debts to a shopkeeper or unpaid wages of a laborer, unless these debts were made into loans. When Hillel saw people refraining from lending, in transgression of , he ordained the prosbul (), which ensured the repayment of loans notwithstanding the Sabbatical year. Citing the literal meaning of —"this is the word of the release"—the Mishnah held that a creditor could accept payment of a debt notwithstanding an intervening Sabbatical year, if the creditor had first by word told the debtor that the creditor relinquished the debt. A prosbul prevents the remission of debts in the Sabbatical year. Hillel saw that people were unwilling to lend money to one another and disregarded the precept laid down in , "Beware that there be not a base thought in your heart saying, ‘The seventh year, the year of release, is at hand'; and your eye be evil against your needy brother, and you give him nothing," and Hillel therefore decided to institute the prosbul. The text of the prosbul says: "I hand over to you, So-and-so, the judges in such-and-such a place, my bonds, so that I may be able to recover any money owing to me from So-and-so at any time I shall desire." And the judges or witnesses signed.
Rabbi Isaac taught that the words of , "mighty in strength that fulfill His word," speak of those who observe the Sabbatical year. Rabbi Isaac said that we often find that a person fulfills a precept for a day, a week, or a month, but it is remarkable to find one who does so for an entire year. Rabbi Isaac asked whether one could find a mightier person than one who sees his field untilled, see his vineyard untilled, and yet pays his taxes and does not complain. And Rabbi Isaac noted that uses the words "that fulfill His word (dabar)," and says regarding observance of the Sabbatical year, "And this is the manner (dabar) of the release," and argued that "dabar" means the observance of the Sabbatical year in both places.
Rabbi Shila of Nawha (a place east of Gadara in the Galilee) interpreted the word "needy" (, evyon) in to teach that one should give to the poor person from one's wealth, for that wealth is the poor person's, given to you in trust. Rabbi Abin observed that when a poor person stands at one's door, God stands at the person's right, as says: "Because He stands at the right hand of the needy." If one gives something to a poor person, one should reflect that the One who stands at the poor person's right will reward the giver. And if one does not give anything to a poor person, one should reflect that the One who stands at the poor person's right will punish the one who did not give, as says: "He stands at the right hand of the needy, to save him from them that judge his soul."
The Rabbis interpreted the words "sufficient for his need, whatever is lacking for him" in to teach the level to which the community must help an impoverished person. Based on these words, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that if an orphan applied to the community for assistance to marry, the community must rent a house, supply a bed and necessary household furnishings, and put on the wedding, as says, "sufficient for his need, whatever is lacking for him." The Rabbis interpreted the words "sufficient for his need" to refer to the house, "whatever is lacking" to refer to a bed and a table, and "for him (, lo)" to refer to a wife, as uses the same term, "for him (, lo)," to refer to Adam's wife, whom calls "a helpmate for him." The Rabbis taught that the words "sufficient for his need" command us to maintain the poor person, but not to make the poor person rich. But the Gemara interpreted the words "whatever is lacking for him" to include even a horse to ride upon and a servant to run before the impoverished person, if that was what the particular person lacked. The Gemara told that once Hillel bought for a certain impoverished man from an affluent family a horse to ride upon and a servant to run before him, and once when Hillel could not find a servant to run before the impoverished man, Hillel himself ran before him for three miles. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that once the people of Upper Galilee bought a pound of meat every day for an impoverished member of an affluent family of Sepphoris. Rav Huna taught that they bought for him a pound of premium poultry, or if you prefer, the amount of ordinary meat that they could buy with a pound of money. Rav Ashi taught that the place was such a small village with so few buyers for meat that every day they had to waste a whole animal just to provide for the pauper's needs. Once when a pauper applied to Rabbi Nehemiah for support, Rabbi Nehemiah asked him of what his meals consisted. The pauper told Rabbi Nehemiah that he had been used to eating well-marbled meat and aged wine. Rabbi Nehemiah asked him whether he could get by with Rabbi Nehemiah on a diet of lentils. The pauper consented, joined Rabbi Nehemiah on a diet of lentils, and then died. Rabbi Nehemiah lamented that he had caused the pauper's death by not feeding him the diet to which he had been accustomed, but the Gemara answered that the pauper himself was responsible for his own death, for he should not have allowed himself to become dependent on such a luxurious diet. Once when a pauper applied to Rava for support, Rava asked him of what his meals consisted. The pauper told Rava that he had been used to eating fattened chicken and aged wine. Rava asked the pauper whether he considered the burden on the community of maintaining such a lifestyle. The pauper replied that he was not eating what the community provided, but what God provided, as says: "The eyes of all wait for You, and You give them their food in due season." As the verse does not say "in their season" (in the plural), but "in His season" (in the singular), it teaches that God provides every person the food that the person needs. Just then, Rava's sister, who had not seen him for 13 years, arrived with a fattened chicken and aged wine. Thereupon, Rava exclaimed at the coincidence, apologized to the pauper, and invited him to come and eat.
The Gemara turned to how the community should convey assistance to the pauper. Rabbi Meir taught that if a person has no means but does not wish to receive support from the community's charity fund, then the community should give the person what the person requires as a loan and then convert the loan into a gift by not collecting repayment. The Sages, however, said (as Rava explained their position) that the community should offer the pauper assistance as a gift, and then if the pauper declines the gift, the community should extend funds to the pauper as a loan. The Gemara taught that if a person has the means for self-support but chooses rather to rely on the community, then the community may give the person what the person needs as a gift, and then make the person repay it. As requiring repayment would surely cause the person to decline assistance on a second occasion, Rav Papa explained that the community exacts repayment from the person's estate upon the person's death. Rabbi Simeon taught that the community need not become involved if a person who has the means for self-support chooses not to do so. Rabbi Simeon taught that if a person has no means but does not wish to receive support from the community's charity fund, then the community should ask for a pledge in exchange for a loan, so as thereby to raise the person's self-esteem. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the instruction to "lend" in refers to the person who has no means and is unwilling to receive assistance from the community's charity fund, and to whom the community must thus offer assistance as a loan and then give it as a gift. Rabbi Judah taught that the words "you . . . shall surely lend him" in refer to the person who has the means for self-support but chooses rather to rely on the community, to whom the community should give what the person needs as a gift, and then exact repayment from the person's estate upon the person's death. The Sages, however, said that the community has no obligation to help the person who has the means of self-support. According to the Sages, the use of the emphatic words "you . . . shall surely lend him" in (in which the Hebrew verb for "lend" is doubled, וְהַעֲבֵט, תַּעֲבִיטֶנּוּ) is merely stylistic and without legal significance.
The Gemara related a story about how to give to the poor. A poor man lived in Mar Ukba's neighborhood, and every day Mar Ukba would put four zuz into the poor man's door socket. One day, the poor man thought that he would try to find out who did him this kindness. That day Mar Ukba came home from the house of study with his wife. When the poor man saw them moving the door to make their donation, the poor man went to greet them, but they fled and ran into a furnace from which the fire had just been swept. They did so because, as Mar Zutra bar Tobiah said in the name of Rav (or others say Rav Huna bar Bizna said in the name of Rabbi Simeon the Pious, and still others say Rabbi Johanan said in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai), it is better for a person to go into a fiery furnace than to shame a neighbor publicly. One can derive this from , where Tamar, who was subject to being burned for the adultery with which Judah had charged her, rather than publicly shame Judah with the facts of his complicity, sent Judah's possessions to him with the message, "By the man whose these are am I with child."
The Gemara related another story of Mar Ukba's charity. A poor man lived in Mar Ukba's neighborhood to whom he regularly sent 400 zuz on the eve of every Yom Kippur. Once Mar Ukba sent his son to deliver the 400 zuz. His son came back and reported that the poor man did not need Mar Ukba's help. When Mar Ukba asked his son what he had seen, his son replied that they were sprinkling aged wine before the poor man to improve the aroma in the room. Mar Ukba said that if the poor man was that delicate, then Mar Ukba would double the amount of his gift and send it back to the poor man.
When Mar Ukba was about to die, he asked to see his charity accounts. Finding gifts worth 7,000 Sijan gold denarii recorded therein, he exclaimed that the provisions were scanty and the road was long, and he forthwith distributed half of his wealth to charity. The Gemara asked how Mar Ukba could have given away so much, when Rabbi Elai taught that when the Sanhedrin sat at Usha, it ordained that if a person wishes to give liberally the person should not give more than a fifth of the person's wealth. The Gemara explained that this limitation applies only during a person's lifetime, as the person might thereby be impoverished, but the limitation does not apply to gifts at death.
The Gemara related another story about a Sage's charity. Rabbi Abba used to bind money in his scarf, sling it on his back, and go among the poor so that they could take the funds they needed from his scarf. He would, however, look sideways as a precaution against swindlers.
Rabbi Hiyya bar Rav of Difti taught that Rabbi Joshua ben Korha deduced from the parallel use of the term "base" with regard to withholding charity and practicing idolatry that people who shut their eyes against charity are like those who worship idols. says regarding aid to the poor, "Beware that there be not a base thought in your heart . . . and your eye will be evil against your poor brother," while uses the same term "base" when it says regarding idolatry, "Certain base fellows are gone out from the midst of you . . . saying: ‘Let us go and serve other gods there.'" That Deuteronomy employs the same adjective for both failings implies that withholding charity and practicing idolatry are similar.
A Baraita taught that when envious men and plunderers of the poor multiplied, there increased those who hardened their hearts and closed their hands from lending to the needy, and they transgressed what is written in , "Beware that there be not a base thought in your heart . . . and your eye be evil against your needy brother, and you give him nothing; and he cry unto the Lord against you, and it be sin in you."
In , the heart is troubled. A Midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible. The heart speaks, sees, hears, walks, falls, stands, rejoices, cries, is comforted, becomes hardened, grows faint, grieves, fears, can be broken, becomes proud, rebels, invents, cavils, overflows, devises, desires, goes astray, lusts, is refreshed, can be stolen, is humbled, is enticed, errs, trembles, is awakened, loves, hates, envies, is searched, is rent, meditates, is like a fire, is like a stone, turns in repentance, becomes hot, dies, melts, takes in words, is susceptible to fear, gives thanks, covets, becomes hard, makes merry, acts deceitfully, speaks from out of itself, loves bribes, writes words, plans, receives commandments, acts with pride, makes arrangements, and aggrandizes itself.
Samuel read to teach that even the basic norms of society will remain the same in the Messianic Age. Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that all the prophets prophesied only about the Messianic Age, but as for the World to Come, no eye has seen, beside God's. On this, Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba and Rabbi Johanan differed with Samuel, for Samuel taught that there is no difference between this world and the Messianic Age except that in the Messianic Age Jews will be independent of foreign powers, as says: "For the poor shall never cease out of the land" (implying that social stratification will remain in the Messianic Age).
Part of chapter 1 of Tractate Kiddushin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Hebrew servant in and ; ; and .
The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the words of regarding the Hebrew servant, "he fares well with you," indicate that the Hebrew servant had to be "with"—that is, equal to—the master in food and drink. Thus the master could not eat white bread and have the servant eat black bread. The master could not drink old wine and have the servant drink new wine. The master could not sleep on a feather bed and have the servant sleep on straw. Hence, they said that buying a Hebrew servant was like buying a master. Similarly, Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of , "Then he shall go out from you, he and his children with him," that the master was liable to provide for the servant's children until the servant went out. And Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of , "If he is married, then his wife shall go out with him," that the master was responsible to provide for the servant's wife, as well.
Deuteronomy chapter 16
The Gemara noted that in listing the several Festivals in , , , and , the Torah always begins with Passover.
Tractate Pesachim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Passover in , 43–49; ; ; ; ; ; 28:16–25; and .
The Mishnah noted differences between the first Passover in , 43–49; ; ; ; ; ; 28:16–25; and . and the second Passover in . The Mishnah taught that the prohibitions of that "seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses" and of that "no leaven shall be seen in all your territory" applied to the first Passover; while at the second Passover, one could have both leavened and unleavened bread in one's house. And the Mishnah taught that for the first Passover, one was required to recite the Hallel () when the Passover lamb was eaten; while the second Passover did not require the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lamb was eaten. But both the first and second Passovers required the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lambs were offered, and both Passover lambs were eaten roasted with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. And both the first and second Passovers took precedence over the Sabbath.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that there are four types of children (as evinced by the four times—in ; ; ; and —that Scripture reports telling a child)—the wise, the simple, the wicked, and the type who does not know how to ask. The wise child asks, in the words of "What mean the testimonies, and the statutes, and the ordinances, that the Lord our God has commanded you?" The Mekhilta taught that we explain to this child all the laws of Passover. The simple child asks, in the words of "What is this?" The Mekhilta taught that we respond simply with the words of "By strength of hand the Lord brought us out from Egypt, from the house of bondage." The wicked child asks, in the words of "What do you mean by this service?" The Mekhilta taught that because wicked children exclude themselves, we should also exclude this child in answering and say, in the words of "It is because of what the Lord did for me when I came forth out of Egypt"—for me but not for you; had you been there, you would not have been saved. As for the child who does not know how to ask, the Mekhilta taught that we take the initiative, as says (without having reported that the child asked), "You shall tell your child on that day."
Tractate Beitzah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws common to all of the Festivals in , 43–49; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; and ; .
Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah argued that Jews must mention the Exodus every night, but did not prevail in his argument until Ben Zoma argued that , which commands a Jew to remember the Exodus "all the days of your life," used the word "all" to mean both day and night.
Rabbi Huna taught in Hezekiah's name that can help reveal when Isaac was born. Reading , “And Sarah conceived, and bore Abraham a son (Isaac) in his old age, at the set time (, mo'ed) of which God had spoken to him,” Rabbi Huna taught in Hezekiah's name that Isaac was born at midday. For uses the term “set time” (, mo'ed), and uses the same term when it reports, “At the season (, mo'ed) that you came forth out of Egypt.” As can be read, “And it came to pass in the middle of that day that the Lord brought the children of Israel out of the land of Egypt,” we know that Israel left Egypt at midday, and thus refers to midday when it says “season” (, mo'ed), and one can read “season” (, mo'ed) to mean the same thing in both and .
Rabbi Joshua maintained that rejoicing on a Festival is a religious duty. For it was taught in a Baraita: Rabbi Eliezer said: A person has nothing else to do on a Festival aside from either eating and drinking or sitting and studying. Rabbi Joshua said: Divide it: Devote half of the Festival to eating and drinking, and half to the House of Study. Rabbi Johanan said: Both deduce this from the same verse. One verse says, “a solemn assembly to the Lord your God,” while says, “there shall be a solemn assembly to you.” Rabbi Eliezer held that this means either entirely to God or entirely to you. But Rabbi Joshua held: Divide it: Devote half the Festival to God and half to yourself.
The Mishnah reported that Jews read on Shavuot. So as to maintain a logical unit including at least 15 verses, Jews now read on Shavuot.
Tractate Sukkah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of Sukkot in ; ; ; ; and ; .
The Mishnah taught that a sukkah can be no more than 20 cubits high. Rabbi Judah, however, declared taller sukkot valid. The Mishnah taught that a sukkah must be at least 10 handbreadths high, have three walls, and have more shade than sun. The House of Shammai declared invalid a sukkah made 30 days or more before the festival, but the House of Hillel pronounced it valid. The Mishnah taught that if one made the sukkah for the purpose of the festival, even at the beginning of the year, it is valid.
The Mishnah taught that a sukkah under a tree is as invalid as a sukkah within a house. If one sukkah is erected above another, the upper one is valid, but the lower is invalid. Rabbi Judah said that if there are no occupants in the upper one, then the lower one is valid.
It invalidates a sukkah to spread a sheet over the sukkah because of the sun, or beneath it because of falling leaves, or over the frame of a four-post bed. One may spread a sheet, however, over the frame of a two-post bed.
It is not valid to train a vine, gourd, or ivy to cover a sukkah and then cover it with sukkah covering (s'chach). If, however, the sukkah-covering exceeds the vine, gourd, or ivy in quantity, or if the vine, gourd, or ivy is detached, it is valid. The general rule is that one may not use for sukkah-covering anything that is susceptible to ritual impurity (tumah) or that does not grow from the soil. But one may use for sukkah-covering anything not susceptible to ritual impurity that grows from the soil.
Bundles of straw, wood, or brushwood may not serve as sukkah-covering. But any of them, if they are untied, are valid. All materials are valid for the walls.
Rabbi Judah taught that one may use planks for the sukkah-covering, but Rabbi Meir taught that one may not. The Mishnah taught that it is valid to place a plank four handbreadths wide over the sukkah, provided that one does not sleep under it.
The Rabbis taught that Jews are duty bound to make their children and their household rejoice on a Festival, for says, "And you shall rejoice it, your feast, you and your son and your daughter." The Gemara taught that one makes them rejoice with wine. Rabbi Judah taught that men gladden with what is suitable for them, and women with what is suitable for them. The Gemara explained that what is suitable for men is wine. And Rav Joseph taught that in Babylonia, they gladdened women with colored garments, while in the Land of Israel, they gladdened women with pressed linen garments.
The Gemara deduced from the parallel use of the word "appear" in and (regarding appearance offerings) on the one hand, and in (regarding the great assembly) on the other hand, that the criteria for who participated in the great assembly also applied to limit who needed to bring appearance offerings. A Baraita deduced from the words "that they may hear" in that a deaf person was not required to appear at the assembly. And the Baraita deduced from the words "that they may learn" in that a mute person was not required to appear at the assembly. But the Gemara questioned the conclusion that one who cannot talk cannot learn, recounting the story of two mute grandsons (or others say nephews) of Rabbi Johanan ben Gudgada who lived in Rabbi's neighborhood. Rabbi prayed for them, and they were healed. And it turned out that notwithstanding their speech impediment, they had learned halachah, Sifra, Sifre, and the whole Talmud. Mar Zutra and Rav Ashi read the words "that they may learn" in to mean "that they may teach," and thus to exclude people who could not speak from the obligation to appear at the assembly. Rabbi Tanhum deduced from the words "in their ears" (using the plural for "ears") at the end of that one who was deaf in one ear was exempt from appearing at the assembly.
The first chapter of Tractate Chagigah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted regarding the obligation to bring an offering on the three pilgrim festivals.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Deuteronomy chapter 11
In his Mishneh Torah, Maimonides hinged his discussion of free will on , "Behold, I set before you this day a blessing and a curse." Maimonides taught that God grants free will to all people. One can choose to turn to good or evil.
Maimonides taught that people should not entertain the foolish thesis that at the time of their creation, God decrees whether they will be righteous or wicked (what some call "predestination"). Rather, each person is fit to be righteous or wicked. Jeremiah implied this in "From the mouth of the Most High, neither evil nor good come forth." Accordingly, sinners, themselves, cause their own loss. It is thus proper for people to mourn for their sins and for the evil consequences that they have brought upon their own souls. Jeremiah continues that since free choice is in our hands and our own decision prompts us to commit wrongs, it is proper for us to repent and abandon our wickedness, for the choice is in our hands. This is implied by , "Let us search and examine our ways and return [to God]."
Maimonides taught that this principle is a pillar on which rests the Torah and the commandments, as says, "Behold, I have set before you today life and good, death and evil," and says, "Behold, I have set before you today the blessing and the curse," implying that the choice is in our hands.
Maimonides argued that the idea that God decrees that an individual is righteous or wicked (as imagined by astrology) is inconsistent with God's command through the prophets to "do this" or "not do this." For according to this mistaken conception, from the beginning of humanity's creation, their nature would draw them to a particular quality and they could not depart from it. Maimonides saw such a view as inconsistent with the entire Torah, with the justice of retribution for the wicked or reward for the righteous, and with the idea that the world's Judge acts justly.
Maimonides taught that even so, nothing happens in the world without God's permission and desire, as says, "Whatever God wishes, He has done in the heavens and in the earth." Maimonides said that everything happens in accord with God's will, and, nevertheless, we are responsible for our deeds. Explaining how this apparent contradiction is resolved, Maimonides said that just as God desired that fire rises upward and water descends downward, so too, God desired that people have free choice and be responsible for their deeds, without being pulled or forced. Rather, people, on their own initiative, with the knowledge that God granted them, do anything that people are able to do. Therefore, people are judged according to their deeds. If they do good, they are treated with beneficence. If they do bad, they are treated harshly. This is implied by the prophets.
Maimonides acknowledged that one might ask: Since God knows everything that will occur before it comes to pass, does God not know whether a person will be righteous or wicked? And if God knows that a person will be righteous, it would appear impossible for that person not to be righteous. However, if one would say that despite God's knowledge that the person would be righteous it is possible for the person to be wicked, then God's knowledge would be incomplete. Maimonides taught that just as it is beyond human potential to comprehend God's essential nature, as says, "No man will perceive Me and live," so, too, it is beyond human potential to comprehend God's knowledge. This was what Isaiah intended when says, "For My thoughts are not your thoughts, nor your ways, My ways." Accordingly, we do not have the potential to conceive how God knows all the creations and their deeds. But Maimonides said that it is without doubt that people's actions are in their own hands and God does not decree them. Consequently, the prophets taught that people are judged according to their deeds.
Deuteronomy chapter 12
Maimonides taught that God instituted the practice of sacrifices and confined it to one Sanctuary in as transitional steps to wean the Israelites off of the worship of the times and move them toward prayer as the primary means of worship. Maimonides noted that in nature, God created animals that develop gradually. For example, when a mammal is born, it is extremely tender, and cannot eat dry food, so God provided breasts that yield milk to feed the young animal, until it can eat dry food. Similarly, Maimonides taught, God instituted many laws as temporary measures, as it would have been impossible for the Israelites suddenly to discontinue everything to which they had become accustomed. So God sent Moses to make the Israelites (in the words of ) "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." But the general custom of worship in those days was sacrificing animals in temples that contained idols. So God did not command the Israelites to give up those manners of service, but allowed them to continue. God transferred to God's service what had formerly served as a worship of idols, and commanded the Israelites to serve God in the same manner—namely, to build to a Sanctuary (), to erect the altar to God's name (), to offer sacrifices to God (), to bow down to God, and to burn incense before God. God forbad doing any of these things to any other being and selected priests for the service in the temple in . By this Divine plan, God blotted out the traces of idolatry, and established the great principle of the Existence and Unity of God. But the sacrificial service, Maimonides taught, was not the primary object of God's commandments about sacrifice; rather, supplications, prayers, and similar kinds of worship are nearer to the primary object. Thus God limited sacrifice to only one temple (see ) and the priesthood to only the members of a particular family. These restrictions, Maimonides taught, served to limit sacrificial worship, and kept it within such bounds that God did not feel it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether. But in the Divine plan, prayer and supplication can be offered everywhere and by every person, as can be the wearing of tzitzit () and tefillin (, 16) and similar kinds of service.
Deuteronomy chapter 13
Citing , Baḥya ibn Paquda taught that love and reverence for God is a leading example of an affirmative duty of the heart. And citing , Baḥya taught that not to harden one’s heart against the poor is a leading example of an negative duty of the heart.
Baḥya ibn Paquda read , "neither shall you pity him, have mercy upon him, nor shield him," to teach that ruthlessness is appropriate in paying back the wicked and exacting vengeance on the corrupt.
Deuteronomy chapter 14
Baḥya ibn Paquda taught that whenever God shows special goodness to people, they are obligated to serve God. When God increases God's favor to a person, that person is obligated to render additional service for it. Baḥya taught that this is illustrated by the duty to tithe produce, as says, "You shall tithe all the yield of your seed that comes from the field year by year." One to whom God has given one hundred measures of produce is obliged to give ten measures; one to whom God has given only ten measures has to give one measure. If the former were to separate nine and a half measures and the latter were to separate one measure, the former would be punished, while the latter would be rewarded. Analogously, if God singles out a person for special favor, that person is under an obligation of increased service as an expression of gratitude for that favor.
Deuteronomy chapter 15
Maimonides taught that the Law correctly says in , "You shall open your hand wide to your brother, to your poor." Maimonides continued that the Law taught how far we have to extend this principle of treating kindly every one with whom we have some relationship—even if the other person offended or wronged us, even if the other person is very bad, we still must have some consideration for the other person. Thus says: "You shall not abhor an Edomite, for he is your brother." And if we find a person in trouble, whose assistance we once enjoyed, or of whom we have received some benefit, even if that person has subsequently wronged us, we must bear in mind that person's previous good conduct. Thus says: "You shall not abhor an Egyptian, because you were a stranger in his land," although the Egyptians subsequently oppressed the Israelites very much.
Deuteronomy chapter 16
The Daas Zekeinim (a collection of comments by Tosafists of 12th and 13th century France and Germany) noted that the Torah uses variations of the word “joy” (, simchah) three times in connection with Sukkot (in and and ), only once in connection with Shavuot (in ), and not at all in connection with Passover. The Daas Zekeinim explained that it was only at the completion of the harvest and Sukkot that one was able to be completely joyful.
Rashi read the words of , “and you will only be happy,” according to its plain meaning, not as a command, but rather as an expression of an assurance that one will be happy. But Rashi noted that the Rabbis deduced from this language an obligation to include the night before the last day of the Festival (Shemini Atzeret) in the obligation to rejoice.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Deuteronomy chapters 11–29
Peter Craigie saw in the following chiastic structure centered on the specific legislation, stressing the importance of the blessing and curse contingent upon obedience to the legislation both in the present and in the future.
A: The blessing and curse in the present renewal of the covenant ()
B: The blessing and curse in the future renewal of the covenant ()
C: The specific legislation ()
B1:The blessing and curse in the future renewal of the covenant ()
A1:The blessing and curse in the present renewal of the covenant ()
Deuteronomy chapter 12
In referring to "the place God chooses, to put his name for His dwelling place," and 11 never mention the name of the place. According to the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary, the place was "successively Mizpeh, Shiloh, and especially Jerusalem." This commentary suggests that this studied silence was maintained partly to prevent the Canaanites within whose territories it lay to concentrate their forces to frustrate all hopes of obtaining it, and partly to prevent the desire of possessing a place of such importance from becoming a cause of strife or rivalry amongst the Hebrew tribes.
Gerhard von Rad argued that the ordinances for standardizing the cult and establishing only one sanctuary are the most distinctive feature in Deuteronomy's new arrangements for ordering Israel's life before God. Von Rad cited ; ; ; ; ; ; and among a small number of “centralizing laws” that he argued belong closely together and were a special, later stratum in Deuteronomy. Von Rad wrote that the centralizing law appears in a triple form in —verses 2–7, 8–12, and 13–19—each built on the statement, which Von Rad called the real centralizing formula, that Israel be allowed to offer sacrifices solely in that place that God would choose in one of the tribes “to make His name dwell there.” Von Rad argued that these texts indicate that Israel's cult had become completely lacking in unity, celebrating at former Canaanite shrines intended for Baal. The instructions to centralize the cult sprang from the conviction that the cult in the different country shrines could no longer be reincorporated into the ordinances of a pure faith in God. Jewish educators Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden wrote that Von Rad saw the Book of Deuteronomy and this section in particular as a way of getting the Israelites back on track, as the Israelites had been influenced by other nations whose worship habits did not coincide with the Israelite belief system.
Comparing the three versions—, 8–12, and 13–19—Von Rad argued that addressed the non-Israelite cultic practice of the Canaanites, taking an aggressive attitude because the Canaanite cults had been brought back to life within the Israelite cultic domain. explains the new position historically, demanding that the Israelites not act as before. Von Rad noted that alone of the three is composed in the second person singular and was thus the earliest. It begins at once with the demand for centralization, and explicitly draws the conclusion that the other two versions appear to assume tacitly, that slaughtering for secular use is permitted. Von Rad understood in connection with King Josiah's planned expansion reflected in and 19, arguing that adapted an earlier Northern text to Judean conditions, possibly envisaging David's increase of territory (as reflected in ) and especially the former Canaanite plain in the west, which had no Israelite sanctuaries.
Jeffrey Tigay called the requirement that sacrifices be offered only in a single sanctuary "the most singular" of all the laws in Deuteronomy. Tigay reported eight major approaches to why Deuteronomy called for this reformation: (1) To minimize the role of sacrifice in worship, in preference to prayer. (See Maimonides in "In medieval Jewish interpretation" above.) (2) To preserve the Temple's ability to inspire people by keeping it unique. (3) Hezekiah's political goals to concentrate national enthusiasm on the preservation of the capital from the invading Assyrians. (4) Josiah's economic goal to wrest control of the peasantry's agricultural surplus from the rural Levites to use for royal purposes such as defense. (5) Monotheism, connecting the requirement for a single sanctuary to the belief that there is only one God. (See Josephus in "In early nonrabbinic interpretation" above.) (6) Monolatry, forcing the people to bring to God the sacrifices that they had been making out in the field to goat-demons (satyrs) or other gods. (7) Monoyahwism, to avoid the suggestion that there were several deities named YHVH. (8) Multiple worship sites were inherently pagan. Tigay concluded that the view that sacrificing at multiple sites was considered inherently pagan is the only explanation with explicit textual support from the passage that forbids the practice.
Deuteronomy chapter 14
James Kugel reported that Israel Finkelstein found no pig bones in hilltop sites starting in the Iron I period (roughly 1200–1000 BCE) and continuing through Iron II, while before that, in Bronze Age sites, pig bones abounded. Kugel deduced from Finkelstein's data that the new hilltop residents were fundamentally different from both their predecessors in the highlands and the city Canaanites—either because they were a different ethnic group, or because they had adopted a different way of life, for ideological or other reasons. Kugel inferred from Finkelstein's findings that these highlanders shared some ideology (if only a food taboo), like modern-day Jews and Muslims. And Kugel concluded that the discontinuities between their way of life and that of the Canaanite city dwellers and earlier highland settlers supported the idea that the settlers were not exurbanites.
Interpreting the laws of kashrut in and , in 1997, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism held that it is possible for a genetic sequence to be adapted from a non-kosher species and implanted in a new strain of a kosher foodstuff—for example, for a gene for swine growth hormone to be introduced into a potato to induce larger growth, or for a gene from an insect to be introduced into a tomato plant to give it unusual qualities of pest resistance—and that new strain to be kosher. Similarly, in the late 1990s, the Central Conference of American Rabbis of Reform Judaism ruled that it is a good thing for a Jew who observes kashrut to participate in a medical experiment involving a pork byproduct.
Deuteronomy chapter 16
Julius Wellhausen conceived of early Israelite religion as linked to nature's annual cycle and believed that Scripture only later connected the festivals to historical events like the Exodus from Egypt. Kugel reported that modern scholars generally agreed that Passover reflects two originally separate holidays arising out of the annual harvest cycle. One festival involved the sacrificing and eating of an animal from the flock, the pesa sacrifice, which arose among shepherds who sacrificed in the light of the full moon of the month that marked the vernal equinox and the end of winter (as directed in ) to bring divine favor for a safe and prosperous summer for the rest of the flock. The shepherds slaughtered the animal at home, as the rite also stipulated that some of the animal's blood be daubed on the doorposts and lintel of the house (as directed in ) to ward off evil. The rite prescribed that no bone be broken (as directed in ) so as not to bring evil on the flock from which the sacrifice came. Scholars suggest that the name pesa derived from the verb that means "hop" (as in and 26), and theorize that the holiday may originally have involved some sort of ritual "hopping." A second festival—the Festival of Unleavened Bread—involved farmers eating unleavened barley bread for seven days when the winter's barley crop had reached maturity and was ready for harvest. Farmers observed this festival with a trip to a local sanctuary (as in and ). Modern scholars believe that the absence of yeast in the bread indicated purity (as in ). The listing of festivals in and appear to provide evidence for the independent existence of the Festival of Unleavened Bread. Modern scholars suggest that the farmers’ Festival of Unleavened Bread and the shepherds’ Passover later merged into a single festival, Passover moved from the home to the Temple, and the combined festival was explicitly connected to the Exodus (as in ).
In critical analysis
Some scholars who follow the Documentary Hypothesis attribute the parashah to two separate sources. These scholars often attribute the material beginning at through the balance of the parashah to the original Deuteronomic Code (sometimes abbreviated Dtn). These scholars then posit that the first Deuteronomistic historian (sometimes abbreviated Dtr 1) added the material at the beginning of the parashah, , in the edition of Deuteronomy that existed during Josiah's time.
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 17 positive and 38 negative commandments in the parashah.
To destroy idols and their accessories
Not to destroy objects associated with God's Name
To bring all avowed and freewill offerings to the Temple on the first subsequent festival
Not to offer any sacrifices outside the Temple courtyard
To offer all sacrifices in the Temple
To redeem dedicated animals which have become disqualified
Not to eat the second tithe of grains outside Jerusalem
Not to eat the second tithe of wine products outside Jerusalem
Not to eat the second tithe of oil outside Jerusalem
The Kohanim must not eat unblemished firstborn animals outside Jerusalem
The Kohanim must not eat sacrificial meat outside the Temple courtyard
Not to eat the meat of the burnt offering
Not to eat the meat of minor sacrifices before sprinkling the blood on the altar
The Kohanim must not eat first fruits before they are set down in the Sanctuary grounds
Not to refrain from rejoicing with, and giving gifts to, the Levites
To ritually slaughter an animal before eating it
Not to eat a limb or part taken from a living animal
To bring all sacrifices from outside Israel to the Temple
Not to add to the Torah commandments or their oral explanations
Not to diminish from the Torah any commandments, in whole or in part
Not to listen to a false prophet
Not to love an enticer to idolatry
Not to cease hating the enticer to idolatry
Not to save the enticer to idolatry
Not to say anything in defense of the enticer to idolatry
Not to refrain from incriminating the enticer to idolatry
Not to entice an individual to idol worship
Carefully interrogate the witness
To burn a city that has turned to idol worship
Not to rebuild it as a city
Not to derive benefit from it
Not to tear the skin in mourning
Not to make a bald spot in mourning
Not to eat sacrifices which have become unfit or blemished
To examine the signs of fowl to distinguish between kosher and non-kosher
Not to eat non-kosher flying insects
Not to eat the meat of an animal that died without ritual slaughter
To set aside the second tithe (Ma'aser Sheni)
To separate the tithe for the poor
Not to pressure or claim from the borrower after the seventh year
To press the idolater for payment
To release all loans during the seventh year
Not to withhold charity from the poor
To give charity
Not to refrain from lending immediately before the release of the loans for fear of monetary loss
Not to send the Hebrew slave away empty-handed
Give the Hebrew slave gifts when he goes free
Not to work consecrated animals
Not to shear the fleece of consecrated animals
Not to eat chametz on the afternoon of the 14th day of Nisan
Not to leave the meat of the holiday offering of the 14th until the 16th
Not to offer a Passover offering on one's provisional altar
To rejoice on these three Festivals
To be seen at the Temple on Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot
Not to appear at the Temple without offerings
In the liturgy
The parashah is reflected in these parts of the Jewish liturgy:
Reuven Hammer noted that Mishnah Tamid 5:1 recorded what was in effect the first siddur, as a part of which priests daily recited .
In the Passover Haggadah (which takes the story from Mishnah Berakhot 1:5), Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah discusses Ben Zoma's exposition on in the discussion among the Rabbis at Bnei Brak in the answer to the Four Questions (Ma Nishtana) in the magid section of the Seder.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is . The haftarah is the third in the cycle of seven haftarot of consolation after Tisha B'Av, leading up to Rosh Hashanah.
In some congregations, when Re'eh falls on 29 Av, and thus coincides with Shabbat Machar Chodesh (as it does in 2021 and 2025), the haftarah is . In other congregations, when Re'eh coincides with Shabbat Machar Chodesh, the haftarah is not changed to (the usual haftarah for Shabbat Machar Chodesh), but is kept as it would be in a regular year at .
When Re'eh falls on 30 Av and thus coincides with Shabbat Rosh Chodesh (as it does in 2018, 2019, 2022, and 2029), the haftarah is changed to . In those years, the regular haftarah for Re'eh () is pushed off two weeks later, to Parshat Ki Teitzei (which in those years falls on 14 Elul), as the haftarot for Re'eh and Ki Teitzei are positioned next to each other in Isaiah.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Biblical
(tithe); (tithe).
, 43–49 (Passover); (Passover); , 20–21, 26–27; ; (three pilgrim festivals); (three pilgrim festivals).
(centralization of sacrifices); (three pilgrim festivals); , ; (tithes).
(Passover); (tithes); (Passover, Shavuot); (Sukkot).
; ; ; ; (I set before you blessing and curse); (Sukkot).
(Sukkot).
(tithes).
(Sukkot); (northern feast like Sukkot); (ceremonial cutting).
(debt servitude); (centralization of sacrifices).
(liberty to captives).
; ; (ceremonial cutting); (ceremonial cutting).
(idols on hill, on mountains, under every leafy tree); (Sukkot).
(idols on mountains, on hill, under tree).
; (tithes).
(Sukkot).
(tithes).
(Sukkot).
; (Sukkot); (tithes); , 47 (tithes); , 12–13 (tithes).
(Sukkot); (Sukkot); (three Pilgrim festivals); (tithes); (centralization of sacrifices).
Early nonrabbinic
1 Maccabees 3:49; 10:31; 11:35. Land of Israel, circa 100 BCE (tithes).
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 4:8:2–5, 7–8, 13, 28, 44–45 . Circa 93–94. Against Apion 2:24(193). Circa 97. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 114–17, 121, 123–24, 806. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Hebrews (tithes).
Matthew (tithes).
Luke (tithes).
John (Sukkot).
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Berakhot 1:5; Peah 8:5–9; Sheviit 1:1–10:9; Terumot 3:7; Maasrot 1:1–5:8; Maaser Sheni 1:1–5:15; Challah 1:3; Bikkurim 1:1–3:12; Shabbat 9:6; Pesachim 1:1–10:9; Sukkah 1:1–5:8; Beitzah 1:1–5:7; Megillah 1:3, 3:5; Chagigah 1:1–8; Ketubot 5:6; Sotah 7:5, 8; Kiddushin 1:2–3; Sanhedrin 1:3, 5, 10:4–6; Makkot 3:5, 15; Avodah Zarah 3:3–4; Avot 3:14; Zevachim 9:5, 14:2, 6; Menachot 7:6–8:1; Chullin 1:1–12:5; Bekhorot 4:1; Arakhin 8:7. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Berakhot 1:10; Peah 1:1, 4:2–10, 17, 20; Kilayim 1:9; Sheviit 1:1–8:11; Maasrot 1:1–3:16; Maaser Sheni 1:1–5:30; Bikkurim 1:1–2:16; Pisha 1:1–10:13; Sukkah 1:1–4:28; Yom Tov (Beitzah) 1:1–4:11; Megillah 3:5; Chagigah 1:1, 4–8; Ketubot 6:8; Sotah 7:17, 8:7, 10:2, 14:7; Bava Kamma 9:30; Sanhedrin 3:5–6, 7:2, 14:1–6; Makkot 5:8–9; Shevuot 3:8; Avodah Zarah 3:19, 6:10; Horayot 2:9; Zevachim 4:2, 13:16, 20; Shechitat Chullin 1:1–10:16; Menachot 9:2; Bekhorot 1:9, 7:1; Arakhin 4:26. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifre to Deuteronomy 53:1–143:5. Land of Israel, circa 250–350 CE. In, e.g., Sifre to Deuteronomy: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 175–342. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.
Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 12a, 16b, 27a, 32b; Peah 15b, 42b, 72a; Demai 7a, 9a, 28a, 65b; Kilayim 30a; Sheviit 1a–87b; Terumot 11b, 73a, 83b; Maasrot 1a–46a; Maaser Sheni 1a–59b; Challah 9b, 10b, 11a; Orlah 8a, 35a; Bikkurim 1a–26b; Shabbat 13a, 54a, 57a–b, 69b, 74b; Eruvin 20a; Pesachim 1a–86a; Yoma 50b, 52b–53a; Sukkah 1a–33b; Beitzah 1a–49b; Rosh Hashanah 3b–4a, 7a–b, 10a; Taanit 22b; Megillah 19a–20b, 31b; Chagigah 2b, 4a, 5a–6a; Yevamot 42b; Nedarim 16b, 25b; Nazir 2b, 7b, 26b, 27b; Sotah 2a, 9b, 32b, 37a, 46b; Kiddushin 5b, 10a–b, 11b, 22a–b; Bava Kamma 32b; Sanhedrin 1a, 25b, 29b, 31b, 36a, 37b, 41b, 46a, 48a, 60b, 69a–70b, 72a, 74a; Makkot 2b, 11a; Shevuot 6b, 16b; Avodah Zarah 14b, 19a–b, 20b–21a, 25b–26a, 29b, 33b; Horayot 4a, 17b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 1–14, 16, 18–19, 21–27, 30, 33–37, 40–41, 44–49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005–2020. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Genesis Rabbah 14:9; 17:2; 53:6; 56:10; 65:1. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 116, 132, 466, 500–01; volume 2, pages 581, 640, 983. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 9a, 12b, 21a, 31b, 34b, 39b, 45a, 47b; Shabbat 22b, 31a, 54a, 63a, 90a, 94b, 108a, 119a, 120b, 128a, 130a, 148b, 151b; Eruvin 27a–28a, 31b, 37a, 80b, 96a, 100a; Pesachim 2a–121b; Yoma 2b, 34b, 36b, 56a, 70b, 75b–76a; Sukkah 2a–56b; Beitzah 2a–40b; Rosh Hashanah 4b–7a, 8a, 12b–13a, 14a, 21a, 28a; Taanit 9a, 21a; Megillah 5a, 9b–10a, 16b, 30b–31a; Moed Katan 2b–3a, 7b–8b, 12a, 13a, 14b, 15b, 18b–19a, 20a, 24b; Chagigah 2a–b, 3b, 4b, 5b–6b, 7b–9a, 10b, 16b–18a; Yevamot 9a, 13b, 62b, 73a–b, 74b, 79a, 83b, 86a, 93a, 104a; Ketubot 43a, 55a, 58b, 60a, 67b–68a, 89a; Nedarim 13a, 19a, 31a, 36b, 59b; Nazir 4b, 25a, 35b, 49b–50a; Sotah 14a, 23b, 32a–b, 33b, 38a, 39b, 41a, 47b–48a; Gittin 18a, 25a, 30a, 31a, 36a, 37a–b, 38b, 47a, 65a; Kiddushin 11b, 14b–15a, 16b–17b, 20a, 21b–22b, 26a, 29b, 34a–b, 35b–36a, 37a, 38b, 56b–57b, 80b; Bava Kamma 7a, 10a, 41a, 54a–b, 63a, 69b, 78a, 82b, 87b, 91b, 98a, 106b, 110b, 115b; Bava Metzia 6b, 27b, 30b, 31b, 33a, 42a, 44b–45a, 47b, 48b, 53b–54a, 56a, 88b, 90a; Bava Batra 8a, 10a, 63a, 80b, 91a, 145b; Sanhedrin 2a, 4a–b, 11b, 13b, 15b, 20b, 21b, 29a, 30b, 32a, 33b, 34b, 36b, 40a–41a, 43a, 45b, 47a–b, 50a, 52b, 54b, 55a, 56a, 59a, 60b, 61a–b, 63a–b, 64b, 70a, 71a, 78a, 84a, 85b, 87a, 89b–90a, 109a, 111b–13b; Makkot 3a–b, 5a, 8b, 11a, 12a, 13a, 14b, 16b–20a, 21a–22a, 23b; Shevuot 4b, 16a, 22b–23a, 25a, 34a, 44b, 49a; Avodah Zarah 9b, 12a–b, 13b, 20a, 34b, 36b, 42a, 43b, 44b, 45b, 51a–52a, 53b, 66a, 67b; Horayot 4b, 8a, 13a; Zevachim 7b, 9a, 12a, 29b, 34a, 36b, 45a, 49a, 50a, 52b, 55a, 60b, 62b, 76a, 85b, 97a, 104a, 106a, 107a–b, 112b, 114a–b, 117b–18a, 119a; Menachot 23a, 33b, 37b, 40b, 44b–45a, 65b–66a, 67a, 70b–71a, 77b, 78b, 81b–82a, 83a–b, 90b, 93a, 99b, 101b; Chullin 2a–142a; Bekhorot 4b, 6b–7a, 9b–10a, 11b–12a, 14b–15b, 19a, 21b, 23b, 25a, 26b, 27b–28a, 30a, 32a, 33a, 37a–b, 39a, 41a–b, 43a, 50b–51a, 53a–b, 54b, 56b; Arachin 7b, 28b–29a, 30b, 31b, 33a; Temurah 8a, 11b–12a, 17b, 18b, 21a–b, 28b, 31a; Keritot 3b, 4b, 21a, 24a, 27a; Meilah 13b, 15b–16a; Niddah 9a, 13a, 24a, 25a, 40a. Babylonia, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Medieval
Deuteronomy Rabbah 4:1–11. Land of Israel, 9th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Exodus Rabbah 30:5, 16. 10th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus. Translated by S. M. Lehrman. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Rashi. Commentary. Deuteronomy 11–16. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 5, pages 119–79. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Letter from Nathan ha-Kohen ben Mevorakh to Eli ha-Kohen ben Yahya. Ascalon, Land of Israel, circa 1099. In Mark R. Cohen. The Voice of the Poor in the Middle Ages: An Anthology of Documents from the Cairo Geniza, pages 38–42. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005. ().
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Deuteronomy: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 85–105. Providence, Rhode Island: Brown Judaic Studies, 2004.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 3:40–41; 4:29. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 173, 241. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Deuteronomy (Devarim). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 5, pages 78–116. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2001.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Introduction: Preface; Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah (The Laws that Are the Foundations of the Torah), chapter 6, halachot 1, 7; chapter 8, halachah 3; chapter 9, halachot 1, 3, 5. Cairo, Egypt, 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah: The Laws [which Are] the Foundations of the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 1, pages 12–15, 230–33, 238–41, 268–83. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot (The Laws of Personal Development), chapter 1, halachot 4–6; chapter 5, halachah 10. Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 18–29, 106–09. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989. (1991).
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem (The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes), chapter 1, halachah 2; chapter 2, halachah 2; chapter 3, halachah 2; chapter 4; chapter 5; chapter 7, halachot 1–2, 4, 18; chapter 8, halachot 1, 3; chapter 10, halachah 4; chapter 11, halachah 1; chapter 12, halachah 3, 13, 15. Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem: The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes.Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 3, pages 16–21, 32–35, 52–55, 72–103, 112–17, 142–53, 190–93. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990. .
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah (The Laws of Repentance), chapter 5; chapter 6, halachah 5. Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah: The Laws of Repentance. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 4, pages 114–35, 150–55. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, 1:24, 36, 38, 41, 54; 2:32; 3:17, 24, 29, 32, 39, 41–42, 45–48. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 34, 51, 54, 56, 77–78, 221, 288, 304–05, 317, 320, 323, 325, 339–40, 347, 351, 355, 357–358, 362, 366–67, 371. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 1095–124. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Nachmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah: Deuteronomy. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 5, pages 139–91. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1976.
Zohar, part 1, pages 3a, 82b, 157a, 163b, 167b, 184a, 242a, 245b; part 2, pages 5b, 20a, 22a, 38a, 40a, 89b, 94b, 98a, 121a, 124a, 125a–b, 128a, 148a, 168a, 174b; part 3, pages 7b, 20b, 104a, 206a, 296b. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 7, pages 2499–550. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Letter from Joshua Maimonides to the Rabbanite congregations of Fustat. Cairo, early 14th century. In Mark R. Cohen. The Voice of the Poor in the Middle Ages: An Anthology of Documents from the Cairo Geniza, pages 193–95. ().
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 835–49. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 5: Devarim/Deuteronomy. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 64–79. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 892–915. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1017–43. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:32, 36, 37; 4:44; Review & Conclusion. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 412, 461, 466–67, 476, 638, 724. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 304–05. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1843–82. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Word of Wisdom 1833. Codified as Doctrine and Covenants section 89. In, e.g., Stephen E. Robinson and H. Dean Garrett. A Commentary on the Doctrine and Covenants, Volume Three, section 89. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2004. (Mormon dietary laws).
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 1183–98. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Union of American Hebrew Congregations. The Pittsburgh Platform. Pittsburgh, 1885. ("We hold that all such Mosaic and rabbinical laws as regulate diet . . . originated in ages and under the influence of ideas entirely foreign to our present mental and spiritual state. They fail to impress the modern Jew with a spirit of priestly holiness; their observance in our days is apt rather to obstruct than to further modern spiritual elevation.")
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 301–07. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 127–28, 151, 153, 348, 457. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
H. G. Wells. “Serfs, Slaves, Social Classes and Free Individuals.” In The Outline of History: Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind, pages 254–59. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1920. Revised edition Doubleday and Company, 1971.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 148–51. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Joseph Reider. The Holy Scriptures: Deuteronomy with Commentary, pages 115–65. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1937.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, page 109. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
Isaac Mendelsohn. "Slavery in the Ancient Near East." Biblical Archaeologist, volume 9 (1946): pages 74–88.
Isaac Mendelsohn. Slavery in the Ancient Near East. New York: Oxford University Press, 1949.
Ernest Wiesenberg. "Related Prohibitions: Swine Breeding and the Study of Greek." Hebrew Union College Annual. Volume 27 (1956): pages 213–33.
Morris Adler. The World of the Talmud, page 30. B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundations, 1958. Reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2007.
Herbert C. Brichto. The Problem of "Curse" in the Hebrew Bible. Philadelphia: Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1963.
Ernest Nicholson. "The Centralisation of the Cult in Deuteronomy." Vetus Testamentum, volume 13 (number 4) (October 1963), pages 380–89.
Moshe Weinfeld. "Cult Centralization in Israel in the Light of a Neo-Babylonian Analogy." Journal of Near Eastern Studies, volume 23 (number 3) (July 1964): pages 202–12.
Gerhard von Rad. Deuteronomy: A Commentary. Translated by Dorothea M. Barton, pages 81–115. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1966. ASIN B01FIWK66C. Originally published as Das fünfte Buch Mose: Deuteronomium. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1964.
Martin Buber. On the Bible: Eighteen studies, pages 80–92. New York: Schocken Books, 1968.
Joe Green. The Jewish Vegetarian Tradition. South Africa: 1969.
Otto Eissfeldt. "Gilgal or Shechem." In Proclamation and Presence: Old Testament Essays in Honour of Gwynne Henton Davies. Edited by John I. Durham and J. Roy Porter, pages 90–101. London: SCM Press, 1970.
Seymour E. Freedman. The Book of Kashruth: A Treasury of Kosher Facts and Frauds. Bloch Publishing Company, 1970. LCCN 74-113870.
W. Eugene Claburn. "The Fiscal Basis of Josiah's Reforms." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 92 (number 1) (March 1973): pages 11–22.
Noah J. Cohen. Tsa'ar Ba'ale Hayim—The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Its Bases, Development, and Legislation in Hebrew Literature. New York: Feldheim, 1976.
Jacob Milgrom. "Profane Slaughter and a Formulaic Key to the Composition of Deuteronomy." Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 47 (1976): pages 1–17.
Samuel H. Dresner, Seymour Siegel, and David M. Pollock. The Jewish Dietary Laws. United Synagogue, New York, 1980.
Nehama Leibowitz. Studies in Devarim: Deuteronomy, pages 120–59. Jerusalem: The World Zionist Organization, 1980.
Alfred Cohen. "Vegetarianism from a Jewish Perspective." Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society, volume 1 (number 2) (fall 1981).
Louis A. Berman. Vegetarianism and the Jewish Tradition. New York: Ktav, 1982.
Elijah J. Schochet. Animal Life in Jewish Tradition: Attitudes and Relationships. New York: Ktav, 1984.
Jacob Milgrom. "‘You Shall Not Boil a Kid in Its Mother's Milk': An archaeological myth destroyed." Bible Review, volume 1 (number 3) (Fall 1985): pages 48–55.
J. David Bleich. "Vegetarianism and Judaism." Tradition, volume 23 (number 1) (Summer, 1987).
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 213–16. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Philip Goodman. "The Sukkot/Simhat Torah Anthology." Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1988.
Jacob Milgrom. "Ethics and Ritual: The Foundations of the Biblical Dietary Laws." In Religion and Law: Biblical, Jewish, and Islamic Perspectives, pages 159–91. Edited by E.B. Firmage. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1989.
Patrick D. Miller. Deuteronomy, pages 128–40. Louisville: John Knox Press, 1990.
Mark S. Smith. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, pages 2, 80, 100, 125, 129, 133, 151–52. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990.
Philip Goodman. "Passover Anthology." Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1992.
Philip Goodman. "Shavuot Anthology." Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1992.
Roberta Kalechofsky. Judaism and Animal Rights: Classical and Contemporary Responses. Marblehead, Massachusetts: Micah Publications, 1992.
Jacob Milgrom. "Food and Faith: The Ethical Foundations of the Biblical Diet Laws: The Bible has worked out a system of restrictions whereby humans may satiate their lust for animal flesh and not be dehumanized. These laws teach reverence for life." Bible Review, volume 8 (number 6) (December 1992).
Kassel Abelson. "Official Use of ‘God.'" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1993. YD 278:12.1993. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 151–52. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
A Song of Power and the Power of Song: Essays on the Book of Deuteronomy. Edited by Duane L. Christensen. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1993.
Aaron Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel, pages 3–4. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1993.
Judith S. Antonelli. "The Snare of Idolatry." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 428–38. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Walter Houston. “‘You Shall Open Your Hand to Your Needy Brother’: Ideology and Moral Formation in Deut. 15.1–18.” In John W. Rogerson, Margaret Davies, and M. Daniel Carroll, editors, The Bible in Ethics: The Second Sheffield Colloquium, pages 296–314. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995.
Roberta Kalechofsky. A Boy, A Chicken, and The Lion of Judea—How Ari Became a Vegetarian. Marblehead, Massachusetts: Micah Publications, 1995.
Rabbis and Vegetarianism: An Evolving Tradition. Edited by Roberta Kalechofsky. Marblehead, Massachusetts: Micah Publications, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 261–66. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
Jack R. Lundbom. "The Inclusio and Other Framing Devices in Deuteronomy I–XXVIII." Vetus Testamentum, volume 46 (number 3) (July 1996): pages 296–315.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 463–70. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Jeffrey H. Tigay. The JPS Torah Commentary: Deuteronomy: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 116–59, 446–83. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1996.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 310–15. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Robert Goodman. Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Jacob Milgrom. "Jubilee: A Rallying Cry for Today's Oppressed: The laws of the Jubilee year offer a blueprint for bridging the gap between the have and have-not nations." Bible Review, volume 13 (number 2) (April 1997).
Elliot N. Dorff and Aaron L. Mackler. "Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998. YD 336:1.1998. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 319, 321, 324. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (the implications for our duty to provide medical care of following God and of our duty to aid the poor).
Roberta Kalechofsky. Vegetarian Judaism: A Guide for Everyone. Marblehead, Massachusetts: Micah Publications, 1998.
Adin Steinsaltz. Simple Words: Thinking About What Really Matters in Life, page 166. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999.
Richard D. Nelson. "Deuteronomy." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 200–03. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Laura M. Rappaport. "A Time to Tear Down, a Time to Build Up." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 351–57. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Walter Brueggemann. Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries: Deuteronomy, pages 141–78. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2001.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 327–29. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Richard H. Schwartz. Judaism and Vegetarianism. New York: Lantern, 2001.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 291–94. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Pinchus Presworsky. Birds of the Torah. Brooklyn: Silver Graphics, 2002.
John J. Collins. "The Zeal of Phinehas: The Bible and the Legitimation of Violence." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 122 (number 1) (Spring 2003): pages 3–21. (condemnation of unsanctioned worship in ).
Alan Lew. This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared: The Days of Awe as a Journey of Transformation, pages 65–76. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2003.
Jack M. Sasson. "Should Cheeseburgers Be Kosher? A Different Interpretation of Five Hebrew Words." Bible Review, volume 19 (number 6) (December 2003): pages 40–43, 50–51.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 938–61. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Aaron Gross, Richard H. Schwartz, Roberta Kalechofsky, and Jay Levine. A Case For Jewish Vegetarianism. Norfolk, Virginia: People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, 2004.
Joanne Yocheved Heiligman. "Haftarat Re’eh: Isaiah 54:11–55:5." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 227–29. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Bernard M. Levinson. "Deuteronomy." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 390–403. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 314–22. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman. “Temple and Dynasty: Hezekiah, the Remaking of Judah and the Rise of the Pan-Israelite Ideology.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 3) (March 2006): pages 259–85.
Nathaniel Philbrick. Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War, page 309. New York: Viking Penguin, 2006. (Jubilee).
W. Gunther Plaut. The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 1255–91. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Blessing or Curse." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 105. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
Shai Cherry. "The Hebrew Slave." In Torah Through Time: Understanding Bible Commentary, from the Rabbinic Period to Modern Times, pages 101–31. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 2007.
David C. Kraemer. Jewish Eating and Identity Through the Ages. New York: Routledge, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 30, 131, 247, 299, 306–13, 325, 345, 348, 354, 404, 423, 579, 610, 669. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Naphtali S. Meshel. "Food for Thought: Systems of Categorization in Leviticus 11." Harvard Theological Review, volume 101 (number 2) (April 2008): pages 203, 207, 209–13.
Gloria London. "Why Milk and Meat Don't Mix: A New Explanation for a Puzzling Kosher Law." Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 34 (number 6) (November/December 2008): pages 66–69.
Nathan MacDonald. What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times. Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008.
Yosef Zvi Rimon. Shemita: From the Sources to Practical Halacha. The Toby Press, 2008.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 1115–40. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Eugene E. Carpenter. "Deuteronomy." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 469–80. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Gregg Drinkwater. "Neither Adding nor Taking Away: Parashat Re'eh (Deuteronomy 11:26–16:17)." In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 246–49. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 269–74. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Union for Reform Judaism. “Eating Jewishly.” New York, 2009. (resolution adopted by the URJ).
Eric Nelson. "‘For the Land Is Mine’: The Hebrew Commonwealth and the Rise of Redistribution." In The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought, pages 57–87. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010.
Stefan Schorch. “‘A Young Goat in Its Mother's Milk’? Understanding an Ancient Prohibition.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 1) (2010): pages 116–30.
Joseph Telushkin. Hillel: If Not Now, When? pages 47–52. New York: Nextbook, Schocken, 2010. (prozbol).
Joshua Berman. "CTH 133 and the Hittite Provenance of Deuteronomy 13." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 130 (number 1) (spring 2011): pages 25–44.
David Graeber. Debt: The First 5000 Years. Brooklyn: Melville House, 2011. (remission of debts).
Pinchus Presworsky. Animals of the Torah. Sys Marketing Inc., 2011.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, pages 192, 290. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Jonathan Haidt. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion, pages 13, 103, 325 note 22, 337 note 16. New York: Pantheon, 2012. (kashrut).
Shmuel Herzfeld. "I Am for My Beloved." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 268–72. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Nicholas Kristof. "When Emily Was Sold for Sex." The New York Times. (February 13, 2014): page A27. (human trafficking in our time).
Walk Free Foundation. The Global Slavery Index 2014. Australia, 2014.
Pablo Diego-Rosell and Jacqueline Joudo Larsen. "35.8 Million Adults and Children in Slavery Worldwide." Gallup. (November 17, 2014).
Shlomo Riskin. Torah Lights: Devarim: Moses Bequeaths Legacy, History, and Covenant, pages 107–58. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2014.
The Commentators' Bible: The Rubin JPS Miqra'ot Gedolot: Deuteronomy. Edited, translated, and annotated by Michael Carasik, pages 82–112. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 257–61. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 293–98. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 230–39. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 160–62. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Sandra Lynn Richter. “The Question of Provenance and the Economics of Deuteronomy.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 42 (number 1) (September 2017): pages 23–50.
Laura Reiley. “Doctrine and Diet: Shalt Thou Eat an Impossible Burger?” Washington Post. September 12, 2019, pages A1, A18.
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Deuteronomy: Renewal of the Sinai Covenant, pages 117–48. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2019.
U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report: June 2019. (slavery in the present day).
Ralph Allan Smith. “The Third Commandment in Deuteronomy 14:1–21.”
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Weekly Torah readings in Av
Weekly Torah readings from Deuteronomy | wiki |
60 metres hurdles is a distance in hurdling which is generally run in indoor competitions. It is equivalent with the first 5 hurdles of a standard outdoor hurdle race. The current women's and men's world records are 7.68 seconds (Susanna Kallur) and 7.29 seconds (Grant Holloway), respectively.
Area records
Updated February 2021.
All-time top 25
Indoor results only
Men
Updated March 2023.
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Updated March 2023.
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Men
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Known as the World Indoor Games
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Men
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External links
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IAAF list of 60-metres-hurdles records in XML
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Events in track and field
Hurdling
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Sprint hurdles | wiki |
Swiftair Bahrain was a cargo airline based in Manama, Bahrain.
Fleet
The Swiftair Bahrain fleet included the following aircraft ():
References
External links
Defunct airlines of Bahrain
Airlines established in 2008
Airlines disestablished in 2012
Defunct cargo airlines
2012 disestablishments in Bahrain
Companies based in Manama
Bahraini companies established in 2008 | wiki |
Scaloppine (plural and diminutive of scaloppa—a small scallop, i.e., a thinly sliced cut of meat; in English usage scaloppini; sometimes scallopini) is a type of Italian dish that comes in many forms. It consists of thinly sliced meat, most often beef, veal, or chicken, that is dredged in wheat flour and sautéed in one of a variety of reduction sauces.
The sauce accompanying scaloppine can come in many varieties according to regional gastronomic traditions. Popular variations include tomato-wine reduction; scaloppine al limone or piccata, which denotes a caper-and-lemon sauce; scaloppine ai funghi, a mushroom-wine reduction; and pizzaiola, a pizza-style tomato sauce.
Etymology
The term 'escalope' derives from the French escalope. The untranslated term was used until the beginning of the twentieth century in the publications of various Italian gastronomes such as Giovanni Vialardi and Ada Boni.
See also
Carne pizzaiola
Chicken marsala
List of veal dishes
Piccata
Saltimbocca
References
External links
Scallopini chicken Video Recipe
Beef dishes
Italian chicken dishes
Italian cuisine
Veal dishes | wiki |
Cake decorating is the art of decorating a cake for special occasions such as birthdays, weddings, baby showers, national or religious holidays, or as a promotional item.
It is a form of sugar art that uses materials such as icing, fondant, and other edible decorations. An artisan may use simple or elaborate three-dimensional shapes as a part of the decoration, or on the entire cake. Chocolate is commonly used to decorate cakes as it can be melted and mixed with cream to make a ganache, or cocoa powder can be lightly dusted on top of a cake.
Cake decoration has been featured on TV channels such as TLC, Food Network, and Discovery Family as a form of entertainment.
History
The decoration of cakes arose in 17th-century Europe, typically for special occasions as a luxury good. When wedding cakes became part of the wedding ceremony, early cake decorators looked for ways to give wedding cakes a more outstanding look. The long tradition and history of the wedding cake paved the way for modern cake decoration. According to the author of Veil of History: Wedding Cakes, Past and Present, the first figure to begin the decoration of a wedding cake was the 18th-century cookbook author Elizabeth Raffald. She was also apparently the first to drape a cake with almond icing. Christmas cakes began to be decorated in the 18th and 19th-centuries, having evolved from Twelfth Night cakes, an earlier tradition that was baked and eaten on Twelfth Night, or the Feast of the Epiphany. These cakes were considerably rich and would be decorated elaborately only by the artist bakers to their own expense.
During the 1840's, the advent of temperature-controlled ovens and the production of baking powder made baking cakes an easier process. As temperature control technology improved, an increased emphasis on presentation and ornamentation developed. Cakes began to take on decorative shapes and were adorned with additional icing formed into patterns, including floral patterns, and food colouring was used to accent frosting or layers of the cake.
Although baking from scratch decreased during the latter part of the 20th-century in the United States, due to the increase in availability of ready-made cakes and cake mixes, decorated cakes have remained an important part of celebrations, such as weddings, anniversaries, birthdays, showers and other special occasions.
Types
A cake may be decorated using small adornments or embellishments made separately, and placed on top of or around the cake, or may be decorated by being covered with a form of icing or paste, either alone or in accompaniment to other decorations. Cake decorations can be made of edible material and food-safe plastics.
Fondant icing
Fondant, also known as sugar paste or ready-roll icing, is a soft, thick paste made of sugar, water, Gelatin, vegetable fat or shortening and glycerol. Fondant is typically sold in a variety of colours when bought ready-made; is easy to handle; and provides a smooth, matte and non-stick cake cover.
Fondant must be rolled out with corn starch to avoid it sticking to any surfaces. Once smoothed out and thin enough, fondant can be moulded into many different shapes, such as flowers or leaves, and may be cut into shapes and applied to a cake to build up decoration. Though primarily used to cover cakes, it is also used to create individual decorations to accompany cakes, consisting only of fondant with no cake inside.
As a relatively heavy form of decoration in comparison to traditional knife-spread frosting, extensive fondant application may weigh a cake down considerably, requiring a suitably sturdy cake base for support. Fondant remains soft once sculpted, unlike other forms of icing, which may harden when exposed to air.
Royal icing
Royal icing is a sweet white icing made by whipping fresh egg whites (or powdered egg whites, meringue powder) with icing sugar. Royal icing produces well-defined icing edges especially when decorating cookies and is ideal for piping intricate writing, borders, scroll work and lacework on cakes. It dries very hard and preserves indefinitely if stored in a cool or dry place, but is susceptible to soften and wilt in high humidity.
Marzipan
Marzipan is often used for modelling cake decorations and sometimes as a cover over cakes, although fondant is typically preferred as an outer layer.
Gum paste
Gum paste, also known as florist paste, is an edible, brittle material that dries quickly and can be sculpted to make cake decorations such as flowers or moulded designs.
Modelling chocolate
Modelling chocolate is a chocolate paste made by melting chocolate and combining it with corn syrup, glucose syrup or golden syrup. The chocolate is formed into a variety of shapes and structures that cannot be easily accomplished with other softer edible materials such as buttercream frosting, marzipan or fondant. Modelling chocolate can be made from white, dark, semi-sweet or milk chocolate.
Edible ink printing
Edible ink printing is also used in decorating cakes. After breakthroughs in nontoxic inks and printing materials in the early 1990s, it became possible to print images and photographs onto edible sheets for use on cakes. The process uses pre-printed images printed with edible food colours, which are then applied to various confectionery products such as cookies, cakes or pastries. Designs made with edible ink can be created with a specialty printer, which transfers an image onto a thin, edible paper, made of starches and sugars. Originally introduced as a specialty service provided by bakeries, this technology can now be used by home consumers using the specialized paper, ink and printers.
Techniques
Decorating a cake usually involves covering it with some form of icing and then using decorative sugar, candy, chocolate or icing decorations to embellish the cake. However, it can be as simple as sprinkling a fine coat of icing sugar or drizzling a glossy blanket of glaze over the top of a cake like a mirror cake style that uses a glaze of gelatin, sugar, water and sometimes chocolate. A cake turntable (or rotating tray) can be used to facilitate the process.
Icing decorations can be made by either piping icing flowers and decorative borders or by moulding sugar paste, fondant or marzipan flowers and figures. An embossing mat is a tool for cake decoration that creates embossed effects on the top of cakes, cupcakes or similar items. The user presses the mat down into cake dough or icing and the pattern embossed in the mat is transferred to the item. Embossing mats are often made of silicone rubber or similar flexible polymers.
Many icing designs can be made by piping tips; these come in many shapes and sizes. Tutorials are often made to model the different designs created by different piping tips.
“Naked Cakes” became a popular trend, most notably during 2020. In this decorating style, fillings are used between the cake layers but the outside is left unfrosted or sparsely frosted, with much of the cake itself still visible between and through the frosted areas. Naked cakes are often decorated with icing sugar or fresh flowers on top. They were especially popular as new types of wedding and engagement cakes.
It may be necessary to secure cake layers in place to prevent sliding or falling, especially for large cakes with several layers. Various forms of wooden skewers or dowels and plastic straws are commonly used for this purpose.
Large and complex structures can be made by cutting shapes out of cake and piecing them together (often secured together with many non-edible reinforcements). Pre-formed baking pans make it easy to create cakes in non-traditional shapes. Though while useful for producing multiple cakes of the same general shape, they do not have the endless customizability of hand-cut building blocks. Fondant and marzipan structures can also be used to modify the overall shape of a cake.
As an art
Cake decorating has become a unique art form, with examples ranging from simply decorated single-layer cakes, to complex, multi-layered three-dimensional creation with extensive edible decorations.
In popular culture
Food Network's Ace of Cakes features baker and former street-artist, Duff Goldman and his shop, Charm City Cakes.
WE's Amazing Wedding Cakes is a television series featuring several cake decorating companies across America and focuses on the crafting and design of the cakes.
Cake Wrecks is an entertainment photoblog featuring user-submitted images of "unintentionally silly, sad, creepy or inappropriate" cakes.
TLC's Cake Boss features baker Buddy Valastro and his shop called Carlo's Bake Shop in Hoboken, New Jersey.
Netflix's Nailed It! is a competition show in which amateur bakers attempt cake decorating.
Gallery
See also
References
External links | wiki |
Transcash may refer to:
UK, the Alliance & Leicester Transcash system, see Post Office Ltd#Bill payments
USA, a brand of prepaid debit card, see Debit card#Prepaid debit cards | wiki |
Coffman is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Amber Coffman (born 1984), singer and musician
Carson Coffman (born 1988), quarterback for the Utah Blaze
Chase Coffman (born 1986), American footballer for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Cynthia Coffman (murderer) (born 1962), American murderer
Cynthia Coffman (politician) (born 1961), former Attorney General of Colorado
Denny Coffman, former Hawaii state Representative
Edward G. Coffman Jr. (born 1934), American computer scientist
Edward M. Coffman (1929–2020), American historian and writer
Elaine Coffman (born 1942), American fiction writer
James Burton Coffman (1905–2006), American minister, teacher and writer
Jennifer B. Coffman (born 1948), United States federal judge
Mike Coffman (born 1955), Mayor of Aurora and former U.S. Representative for Colorado's 6th congressional district
Paul Coffman (born 1956), American football player for the Green Bay Packers and the Kansas City Chiefs
Vance D. Coffman (born 1944), Chief Executive Officer and Chairman of Lockheed Martin Corporation
Other uses
Coffman, Kentucky, unincorporated community, United States
Coffman, Missouri, unincorporated community, United States
Dublin Coffman High School, high school in Dublin, Ohio
USS Coffman (DE-191), Cannon-class destroyer escort | wiki |
A hoggan or hogen is a type of flatbread containing pieces of pork, and sometimes potato, historically eaten by Cornish miners in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Any food eaten by miners had to be tough to withstand the harsh conditions of the mines, and hoggans were said by one mining captain to be 'hard as street tiles'.
A true hoggan is slightly different from a pasty. The dough which was left over from pasty making is made into a lump of unleavened dough, in which is embedded a morsel of green pork and sometimes a piece of potato. Historically, hoggans were often made from cheaper barley bread and have been a good indicator of poverty, reappearing when wheat prices are high.
A sweet version made of flour and raisins is known as a fuggan or figgy hobbin. Fig is a Cornish dialect word pertaining to raisins.
The name is sometimes given to a pork pasty which is where the term oggie or tiddy oggie derives. A Hobban, or Hoggan-bag, was the name given to miners' dinner-bag.
See also
Oggy Oggy Oggy
References
External links
Figgy 'obbin recipe from the Wiki cookbook
British pies
Cornish cuisine
Flatbreads
Potato dishes
Savoury pies
Unleavened breads
British pork dishes | wiki |
Optimality may refer to:
Mathematical optimization
Optimality Theory in linguistics
optimality model, approach in biology
See also
Optimality theory (disambiguation)
Optimism (disambiguation)
Optimist (disambiguation)
Optimistic (disambiguation)
Optimization (disambiguation)
Optimum (disambiguation) | wiki |
Cond may refer to:
Condition number, in numerical analysis
cond, a conditional expression in LISP
Cond, a variant spelling of conn, to control a ship's movements at sea. | wiki |
Recess may refer to:
Recess (break), a break period
Alcove (architecture), part of a room
A setback (architecture) especially across all storeys (a recessed bay or series of such bays)
Recess, County Galway, Ireland; a village
Music
Recess (album), the 2014 debut album by Skrillex
Recess (bbno$ album), 2019
Recess Records, a record label
"Recess" (song), by Skrillex and Kill the Noise
"Recess", a song by Melanie Martinez on the album K-12
"Recess", a song by Muse on the album Hullabaloo Soundtrack
Other uses
Recess (Holy Roman Empire), the official record of decisions of an Imperial Diet
Epitympanic recess, part of the middle ear
Recess (TV series), an animated series by Disney
Recess: School's Out, a 2001 film based on the series
See also
Recessed light
Recession
Recessive
Recces
Reeses
Rhesus (disambiguation) | wiki |
The following is a list of all the Fremantle Football Club life members, this includes players, coaches and administration. Each individual inducted has served the Fremantle Football Club for a long duration of time. With people inducted each year, players need to reach 150 senior AFL games to be legible for the Life Member induction.
Life members
References
Life members
Fremantle-related lists
Lists of people by organization | wiki |
The Giant Runt is a breed of pigeon developed by selective breeding primarily as a utility and exhibition breed. American Giant Runts, along with other varieties of the domestic pigeon, are all descendants from the rock pigeon (Columbia livia).
The breed is known for its large size and suitability for squab production.
Origin
The Giant Runt was developed by crossing the original Runt with several other varieties. The American Giant Runt was the result of US breeders seeking a wider, more compact bird denoting power and body mass. A related breed is the American Giant Rumbler which is a further development. Both varieties are recognized in the United States and India.
See also
List of pigeon breeds
References
External links
Giant Runt Pigeon: Breed Guide Pigeonpedia.com
Pigeon breeds originating in the United States
Pigeon breeds | wiki |
Since 1976, when the Supreme Court of the United States lifted the moratorium on capital punishment in Gregg v. Georgia, 18 women have been executed in the United States. Women represent less than 1.15 percent of the 1,561 executions performed in the United States since 1976.
See also
List of juveniles executed in the United States since 1976
List of United States Supreme Court decisions on capital punishment
List of women on death row in the United States
Notes
References
American female murderers
American female criminals
American people convicted of murder
Executed in the United States since 1976
Women in the United States since 1976
People executed for murder | wiki |
Salsa criolla (Creole salsa) is a type of sauce or relish found in Latin American cuisine, composed of finely chopped sliced onions, vinegar, tomatoes, garlic, chili peppers, bell peppers, olive oil, salt, pepper and fresh herbs like parsley or cilantro. Salsa criolla is often associated with Peruvian cuisine, but also found in Cuban, Puerto Rican, Nicaraguan, Uruguayan, and Argentinian cuisine.
In Peru, salsa criolla is a cold sauce typically used to accompany meat. The base composition is onion, red bell pepper and tomato, lime juice or vinegar and oil. Other ingredients can be cilantro, green bell pepper, parsley, garlic, etc.
References
Peruvian cuisine
Nicaraguan cuisine
Puerto Rican cuisine
Argentine cuisine
Uruguayan cuisine
Cuban cuisine
Salads
Sauces
Onion-based foods | wiki |
Kephart may refer to:
People
Beth Kephart, American author of non-fiction, poetry and young adult fiction
Calvin Ira Kephart (1883–1969), American law professor
Elza Kephart (born 1976), Canadian director, producer, and writer
Horace Kephart (1862–1931), American travel writer and librarian
Jeffrey Owen Kephart, American engineer
William P. Kephart (1915–1942), American naval officer
Places
Mount Kephart, in the central Great Smoky Mountains, Southeastern United States
Other uses
USS Kephart (DE-207), a Buckley-class destroyer escort
See also
Gephardt, surname | wiki |
Martin's BBQ is a Puerto Rican cuisine fast food restaurant chain that has 26 locations in Puerto Rico, where it is a "household name" and is one of the larger chains, along with two locations in Florida, in Orlando and in Tampa. The store's logo features a tough-looking bird and the motto "El Original!" (The Original!).
See also
List of fast-food chicken restaurants
References
External links
Martin's BBQ Site, Spanish
Martin's BBQ Site, English
Fast-food chains of the United States
Restaurants in Puerto Rico
Regional restaurant chains in the United States
Fast-food poultry restaurants
Puerto Rican brands
Chicken chains of the United States
Puerto Rican cuisine | wiki |
Kate Small is an American writer. Her work has appeared in The Boston Review, Nimrod, The Madison Review and elsewhere.
Stories by Small have been reprinted in Best New American Voices and New Stories From the South.
She earned her MFA in creative writing from San Francisco State University and lives in Friday Harbor, Washington, where she teaches humanities at the Spring Street International School.
Books
The Gap in the Letter C: Stories (Fourteen Hills Press, 1999)
Notes
External links
More about Kate Small
American women short story writers
American short story writers
Living people
San Francisco State University alumni
Writers from Portland, Oregon
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American women | wiki |
Apus is a constellation.
Apus or APUS may also refer to:
Apus (bird), a genus of birds
Lepidurus apus, a species of crustacean in the genus Lepidurus
APUS (computer), an Amiga computer brand
AP United States History (AP US), an American college-level course and examination
APUS Group, an Android developer
American Public University System, an online learning institution
See also
APU (disambiguation) | wiki |
Man Underground is a 2016 science fiction film written and directed by Michael Borowiec and Sam Marine.
Cast
George Basil as Willem Koda
Andy Rocco as Todd Muckle
Pamela Fila as Flossie Ferguson
Felix Hagen as Francis
Stephen Girasuolo as Stan Bowman
Eleanor Hutchins as Lorraine
Plot
A conspiracy theorist enlists people from his small town to help him make a film about his experiences encountering aliens while working as a US government geologist.
References
External links
American independent films
2016 films
American science fiction films
2010s English-language films
2010s American films | wiki |
A hostess is a female host or presenter of an event.
Hostess may also refer to:
Hospitality trades
Air hostess, a flight attendant
A female maître d' at a restaurant
An employee at a hostess club
Bargirl, a paid, female companion offering conversation and, in some cases, sex
Taxi dancer, a paid, female dancing partner
Product brands
Hostess Brands, a U.S.-based bakery company formed in 2013
Hostess Potato Chips, a former Canadian brand owned by Frito-Lay
Hostess Entertainment, Japanese music company
Hostess (snack cakes), a brand of snack cakes owned by Hostess Brands
Other
"Hostess" (short story), by American writer Isaac Asimov
Hostess House, a 1918 house in Palo Alto, California, U.S.
The Hostess, a 1995 episode 43 of British television series Keeping Up Appearances
"Hostess", song by Rudimental from Ground Control, 2021
See also
Host (disambiguation) | wiki |
A butt plug is a sex toy that is designed to be inserted into the rectum for sexual pleasure. They are similar to a dildo in some ways but tend to be shorter and have a flanged end to prevent the device from being lost inside the rectum.
History
Rectal dilators were originally designed for therapeutic uses and later marketed with terms such as Dr. Young's Ideal Rectal Dilators, which were marketed as a cure for insanity and constipation. In the late 20th century, similar devices started to be marketed as sex toys.
Basics
Unlike the vagina, which is closed off by the cervix, the rectum leads to the sigmoid colon. Objects that are inserted into the rectum can therefore potentially travel up into the bowel; the flared end on a butt plug exists to prevent this. Some dildos lack a flared end, and thus it is ill-advised to use such dildos anally since they may get stuck; rectal foreign bodies may require medical extraction.
In addition, the lower bowel above the rectum is easily perforated. For this reason, butt plugs tend to be shorter than dildos, and their marked size generally indicates the circumference of the device rather than the length. They must also be very smooth to avoid damaging the rectum or bowel. In order to get them into the rectum, they most commonly have a general profile of a round-ended cone which then narrows to a "waist" which locates itself at the anal sphincter, with the flared part outside the body, preventing the butt plug from slipping further into the body. The sphincter muscle will hold the plug in place by the waist, preventing the plug from slipping out unintentionally.
Butt plugs can be moved in or out for pleasure, so as to simulate the rhythmic thrusting of penetrative sex, although some butt plugs are specifically designed for stimulation of the prostate.
As with other activities involving anal penetration, such as anal sex, large amounts of sexual lubricant and a slow gentle approach are needed to insert or remove a butt plug.
Butt plugs are sometimes covered by condoms for hygiene and to allow for the easy disposal of any feces with which they may come into contact. Nevertheless, they should not be shared with other people, due to the risk of transmitting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, from the transfer of body fluids from one person to another.
Designs
Butt plugs come in a variety of colors, shapes, sizes, and textures. Some are designed to look like penises, while some are ribbed or wavy. Many have a thin tip which is wider in the middle, a notch to hold it in place once it is inserted, and a flared base to prevent complete insertion into the rectum. Some plugs have an egg-shaped penetrative part. Some plugs are designed (long, flexible and curved) to penetrate the sigmoid colon.
Butt plugs are made of a variety of materials, the most common being latex. Other materials used include silicone, neoprene, wood, metal, glass, stone, and many other materials. Silicone is a particularly good material, as it can be disinfected in boiling water.
Fetish plugs
Fetish plugs are any kind of butt plugs that are designed in a way to be unusual, exciting, or unique in some way. A fetish plug is called such because it caters to sexual fetishes. One common type of fetish plug has a tail of long hair or synthetic fur attached to the non-insertable end so that, when inserted, the impression is given that the wearer has an animal's tail. Some plugs popular in animal roleplay have their tails molded from medical grade silicone as opposed to faux fur. The firmness of the silicone, when combined with bodily movements or rhythmic pelvic-floor muscle contractions, allow for a simulated tail "wag". There are also vibrating plugs and plugs which utilize erotic electro-stimulation.. Additional variations include plugs that can "ejaculate" by squirting water or other fluids such as lubricant, oil, etc., into the rectum, and inflatable plugs (intended to expand the rectum).
Risks
Sex toys that are used in the anus can easily get lost as rectal muscles contract and can suck an object up and up, potentially obstructing the colon; to prevent this from occurring, it is recommended that individuals use sex toys with a flared base or a string. However, the flared flange is not a foolproof method of preventing the plug from entering the rectum completely with the inability to retrieve it. This is uncomfortable and may require medical intervention. Butt plugs of excess diameter can, especially when inserted too rapidly and/or too forcefully, lead to sphincter tear, detachment or other rectal failure. Kegel exercises can help maintain normal, healthy sphincter function. When inserting a butt plug, one should be gentle, use plenty of lubrication, start with smaller sizes, and exercise patience. While medical data is sparse, some recommend not leaving a butt plug inserted for longer than two to three hours, though anecdotal evidence dictates some users wear their plugs for even longer; some committed practitioners only remove them so as to be able to pass stool.
In culture
The sculpture named Santa Claus or the Buttplug Gnome was erected in Rotterdam, Netherlands, by Paul McCarthy.
See also
Anal beads
Anal masturbation
Rectal foreign body
References
Further reading
External links
Anal sex toys | wiki |
Bryja – thin kasza or mash, a Germanic, Celtic and Slavic dish, based on overcooked oat or kasza, that formulated the basis of their respectable cuisine. It is also the name of a traditional Silesian dish served during Wigilia. The dish's names: bryja, breja, brejka, breha, the German Brei have their roots in Celtic languages.
Variations
While a primarily savoury dish, the bryja base can also produce different types of sweets, including the poppy seed-based kutia, as well as the traditional Silesian dish with the same name, made from plums, apples, pears, with the addition of śmietana, wheat flour, cinnamon, sugar and salt.
See also
Polish cuisine
Silesian cuisine
References
Polish cuisine
Silesian cuisine | wiki |
A promoter works with event production and entertainment industries to promote their productions, including in music and sports. Promoters are individuals or organizations engaged in the business of marketing and promoting live, or pay-per-view and similar, events, such as music concerts, gigs, nightclub performances and raves; sports events; and festivals.
Description
Business model
Promoters are typically engaged as independent contractors or representative companies by entertainment venues, earning a pre-arranged fee, or a share of revenues (colloquially known as a "cut" and "share of the house"), or both. A share of revenues is often a simple percentage of admission fees (called "the door") and/or food and drink sales, with many variations possible, such as minimums or maximums, allowances for various expenses, or limitations (such as only alcohol sales after midnight). Other promoters operate independently, renting venues for a fixed fee, or under a revenue sharing arrangement with the venue holder, thus keeping larger profits from successful events. One common arrangement for small venues is for the promoter to earn all of the admissions fees, while the venue retains all food and drink revenue.
Some venues have exclusive arrangements with a single promotion company, others work with multiple promoters on a rotating schedule (one night per week, for example), or on an event-by-event basis. Promoters often work together — either as equal partners, or as subcontractors to each other's events. Several promoters may work together for a special event, such as a large New Year's Eve party in a hotel ballroom. They may also engage freelance hosts for their social influence; these amateur promoters market the events to their circle of friends and/or social media followers, in exchange for special treatment and/or free admission to the event and at times, and may form or be included in street teams that promote events at other live venues.
Minimally, an event promoter manages publicity and advertising. Depending on the arrangement, they may also handle security, ticket sales, event admission (door policies), decorations, and booking of other entertainers. Many promoters are DJs or musicians themselves, and may perform at their own events. Some bloggers and individuals with a large following on social media may consider themselves as promoters and charge fees promotional service via their social media platform(s), or through their efforts.
Many musicians and artists act as de facto promoters for their own concerts, either directly or through their manager or booking company. Historically, promotion has been a cottage industry, with companies operated by one or several well-connected charismatic individuals, often working part-time. However, with the rise of corporate ownership of live entertainment assets, several large companies have emerged in the field.
Contracts and disputes
There are often disputes over money in the promotions industry because it is largely cash business with a history of corruption and uneven recordkeeping. In addition there are many accounting complexities to manage, particularly for large events: revenue, expenses, and oversight of parking, coat checks, concession vendor sales (e.g., CDs and t-shirts), box office so-called "convenience fees", in kind trades, promotional give-away items used to lure guests (e.g., free drinks), costs for insurance, cleaning staff, and so on. One area of frequent contention are quid pro quo cross-promotions, where the promoter or some other party connected with the venue will obtain a favor (for example, a price discount) in exchange for giving a future favor to the vendor. If the existence of the scheme, or the relationship between the parties, is undisclosed this may become a form of bribery. Another opportunity for misunderstanding are the various "lists" of guests who will be admitted for free or with VIP treatment, and the "door policy" used by bouncers to decide who will be admitted and at what price. To deal with these complexities event contracts can become quite long and detailed. Whether written or not, these arrangements tend to favor the party with the greater sophistication or the more control over the production of the event. Even the most detailed, professionally written and negotiated contracts can become the subject of lawsuits over interpretation.
Because nightclubs are often associated with drug and alcohol consumption, rowdiness, and other late-night behavior, promoters may become entangled in various criminal disputes as well.
Methods
Promoters bring crowds through a variety of methods. The most direct are guerrilla marketing techniques such as plastering posters on outdoor walls, flyposting, and distributing handbills on windows of cars parked in entertainment districts. Promoters also keep mailing lists, usually email lists, of their preferred guests and their wider list of potential customers. Many promoters have taken advantage of online technology such as social networking services and event listing sites to handle publicity, invitations, mailing lists, and so on. Clubs and promoters are among leaders in SMS text message advertising to their own lists as well as sponsored snippets on third-party lists for daily content to subscribers. Many fans promote events, products through their Facebook/Twitter/Myspace on their own free will.
Promoters often build a brand out of their own personalities and the parties they host, marketing the events under a consistent name, style, type of program, and social experience that downplays the branding of the venue or artist. They may develop a loyal clientele that will follow them from one location to another.
Image promotion and VIP hosting
In cosmopolitan cities with large affluent populations, there are upscale venues that employ the services of a special kind of promoter called an image promoter. The role of the image promoter is to bring celebrities or fashion models to high end venues and host them at a VIP table. In order to entice models and celebrities to come to the venue, the image promoter is provided with a VIP table and complementary alcohol. High end venues use the presence of models and celebrities to market their venue to an affluent clientele which may often only obtain admittance to the venue through agreeing to spend a certain amount of money on alcohol at the establishment.
Notable promoters
Music and other events
Michael Alig, co-founder of Club Kids
Johnny Edgecombe, London Jazz promoter
Shelly Finkel, concert promoter (LiveStyle)
Bill Graham, concert promoter (Bill Graham Presents)
Al Haymon, A. H. Enterprises (now a subsidiary of Live Nation)
Chet Helms, concert promoter, (Big Brother and the Holding Company, Family Dog Productions)
Dick Klotzman, concert promoter
Paul Tangi Mhova Mkondo International African Music Promoter.
Kirk Norcross, nightclub promoter (Sugar Hut)
Philip Sallon, known for the Mud Club, Blitz Club.
James St. James, co-founder of Club Kids
Brandon Ward, event promoter (AYA Entertainment)
Kieran Rushton, event promoter (DOTWAVNOTWAVE)
Sports
Basketball
Gary Davidson, ABA co-founder
Ned Irish, president, New York Knicks, 1946 to 1974
Dennis Murphy, ABA co-founder
Abe Saperstein, founder, Harlem Globetrotters
Boxing and mixed martial arts (MMA)
Muhammad Ali, boxing promoter (Main Bout, Inc. – New York)
Bob Arum, boxing promoter (Top Rank; Main Bout, Inc.)
Jarvis Astaire, boxing promoter (First Artist Corp, Sport Division — London, UK)
Frankie Carbo, Mafia member and boxing promoter ("The Combination" — New York City)
Bill Cayton, boxing promoter and film producer (Big Fights, Inc. – New York)
Jack Curley, 19th century boxing promoter turned wrestling promoter
Oscar De La Hoya, boxing and MMA promoter (Golden Boy Promotions)
Dan Duva, boxing promoter (Main Events – New Jersey)
Dino Duva, boxing promoter (Main Events – New Jersey)
Lou Duva, boxing promoter (Main Events – New Jersey)
Kathy Duva, boxing promoter (Main Events – New Jersey)
Shelly Finkel, boxing promoter (Empire Sports and Entertainment, Inc., Shelly Finkel Management, Inc. – New York)
Al Haymon, boxing promoter and adviser (Premier Boxing Champions)
Scott Coker, MMA promoter (Bellator MMA; Strikeforce)
Barry Hearn, boxing promoter (Matchroom Sport)
Eddie Hearn, boxing promoter (Matchroom Sport)
Dave Higgins, boxing promoter (Duco Events)
Jack "Doc" Kearns, boxing manager and promoter
Don King, boxing promoter (Don King Productions)
Kellie Maloney, boxing promoter (Frank Maloney Promotions & Management Limited)
Victor Cui, MMA and Kickboxing promoter (ONE Championship)
Chatri Sityodtong, MMA and Kickboxing promoter (ONE Championship)
Sammie Marshall, boxing promoter, embezzler (MAPS)
Floyd Mayweather Jr., boxing promoter (Mayweather Promotions)
Manny Pacquiao, boxing promoter (MP Promotions)
Harold J. Smith, boxing promoter, embezzler (MAPS)
Mike Tyson, boxing promoter (Acquinity Sports)
Frank Warren, boxing promoter (Queensberry Promotions Limited – London, UK)
Dana White, MMA and boxing promoter (Ultimate Fighting Championship)
Khabib Nurmagomedov, MMA promoter (Eagle Fighting Championship)
Shamil Zavurov, MMA promoter (Eagle Fighting Championship)
Mario Yagobi, boxing promoter (Boxing360 - New York City)
Felix "Tuto" Zabala, boxing promoter (Miami)
Chael Sonnen, grappling promoter (Submission Underground (sug))
Chael Sonnen, wrestling promoter (Chael Sonnen's Wrestling Underground)
Football
Gary Davidson, World Football League founder
Hockey
Gary Davidson, WHA co-founder
Dennis Murphy, WHA co-founder
Conn Smythe, namesake of the Conn Smythe Trophy
Tennis
Leonard Bloom, World Team Tennis co-founder
Nancy Jeffett, women's tennis promoter
Billie Jean King, Women's Tennis Association founder, World Team Tennis co-founder
Larry King, World Team Tennis co-founder
Dennis Murphy, World Team Tennis co-founder
Wrestling
Antonio Inoki, New Japan Pro-Wrestling
Antonio Peña, Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide
Atsushi Onita, Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling
Billy Sandow, Gold Dust Trio
Billy Wolfe, women's wrestling promoter and manager
Dixie Carter, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
Ed "Strangler" Lewis, Gold Dust Trio
Eric Bischoff, World Championship Wrestling
Fred Kohler, Fred Kohler Enterprises; Wrestling From Marigold, 1949 to 1955; president, National Wrestling Alliance, 1961 to 1962.
Jack Curley, sports promoter who helped popularize professional wrestling
Jack Pfefer, entertainment wrestling pioneer
Jim Cornette, Smoky Mountain Wrestling
Leroy McGuirk, National Wrestling Alliance
Max Crabtree, Joint Promotions
Mike Quackenbush, CHIKARA
Mildred Burke, World Wide Women's Wrestling Association founder; wrestler
Paul Bowser, early wrestling promoter; world middleweight champion
Paul Heyman, Extreme Championship Wrestling
Stu Hart, Stampede Wrestling
Tony Khan, All Elite Wrestling
Joseph "Toots" Mondt, Gold Dust Trio
Verne Gagne, American Wrestling Association
Vince McMahon, World Wrestling Entertainment
Miscellaneous
Wilt Chamberlain, volleyball and track and field
Larry King, Roller Hockey International co-founder
Dennis Murphy, Roller Hockey International co-founder
Giorgio A. Tsoukalos, former bodybuilding promoter (IFBB, Mr. Olympia)
See also
Impresario
List of professional wrestling promoters in the United States
Notes
References
Myler, Patrick (1997). A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). .
Business terms
Event management
Music industry
Entertainment occupations
Boxing terminology
Kickboxing terminology | wiki |
A record label, or record company, is a brand or trademark of music recordings and music videos, or the company that owns it. Sometimes, a record label is also a publishing company that manages such brands and trademarks, coordinates the production, manufacture, distribution, marketing, promotion, and enforcement of copyright for sound recordings and music videos, while also conducting talent scouting and development of new artists, and maintaining contracts with recording artists and their managers. The term "record label" derives from the circular label in the center of a vinyl record which prominently displays the manufacturer's name, along with other information.
Within the mainstream music industry, recording artists have traditionally been reliant upon record labels to broaden their consumer base, market their albums, and promote their singles on streaming services, radio, and television. Record labels also provide publicists, who assist performers in gaining positive media coverage, and arrange for their merchandise to be available via stores and other media outlets.
Major versus independent record labels
Record labels may be small, localized and "independent" ("indie"), or they may be part of a large international media group, or somewhere in between. The Association of Independent Music (AIM) defines a 'major' as "a multinational company which (together with the companies in its group) has more than 5% of the world market(s) for the sale of records or music videos." , there are only three labels that can be referred to as "major labels": Universal Music Group, Sony Music Entertainment, and Warner Music Group. In 2014, AIM estimated that the majors had a collective global market share of some 65–70%.
Major labels
Present
Past
Record labels are often under the control of a corporate umbrella organization called a "music group". A music group is usually affiliated to an international conglomerate "holding company", which often has non-music divisions as well. A music group controls and consists of music-publishing companies, record (sound recording) manufacturers, record distributors, and record labels. Record companies (manufacturers, distributors, and labels) may also constitute a "record group" which is, in turn, controlled by a music group. The constituent companies in a music group or record group are sometimes marketed as being "divisions" of the group.
From 1929 to 1998, there were six major record labels, known as the Big Six:
Warner Music Group
EMI
Sony Music (Known as CBS Records until January 1991)
BMG (Formed in 1984 as RCA/Ariola International)
Universal Music Group (Known as MCA Music until 1996)
PolyGram
PolyGram was merged into Universal Music Group (UMG) in 1999, leaving the rest to be known as the Big Five.
In 2004, Sony and BMG agreed to a joint venture and merged their recorded music division to create the Sony BMG label (which would be renamed Sony Music Entertainment after a 2008 merger); BMG kept its music publishing division separate from Sony BMG and later sold BMG Music Publishing to UMG. In 2007, the four remaining companies—known as the Big Four—controlled about 70% of the world music market, and about 80% of the United States music market.
In 2012, the major divisions of EMI were sold off separately by owner Citigroup: most of EMI's recorded music division was absorbed into UMG; EMI Music Publishing was absorbed into Sony/ATV Music Publishing; finally, EMI's Parlophone and Virgin Classics labels were absorbed into Warner Music Group (WMG) in July 2013. This left the so-called Big Three labels.
In 2020 and 2021, both WMG and UMG had their IPO with WMG started trading at Nasdaq and UMG started trading at Euronext Amsterdam and leaving only Sony Music as wholly-owned subsidiary of an international conglomerate (Sony Entertainment which in turn owned by Sony Group Corporation).
Independent
Record labels and music publishers that are not under the control of the big three are generally considered to be independent (indie), even if they are large corporations with complex structures. The term indie label is sometimes used to refer to only those independent labels that adhere to independent criteria of corporate structure and size, and some consider an indie label to be almost any label that releases non-mainstream music, regardless of its corporate structure.
Independent labels are often considered more artist-friendly. Though they may have less financial clout, indie labels typically offer larger artist royalty with a 50% profit-share agreement, aka 50–50 deal, not uncommon. In addition, independent labels are often artist-owned (although not always), with a stated intent often being to control the quality of the artist's output. Independent labels usually do not enjoy the resources available to the "big three" and as such will often lag behind them in market shares. However, frequently independent artists manage a return by recording for a much smaller production cost of a typical big label release. Sometimes they are able to recoup their initial advance even with much lower sales numbers.
On occasion, established artists, once their record contract has finished, move to an independent label. This often gives the combined advantage of name recognition and more control over one's music along with a larger portion of royalty profits. Artists such as Dolly Parton, Aimee Mann, Prince, Public Enemy, among others, have done this. Historically, companies started in this manner have been re-absorbed into the major labels (two examples are American singer Frank Sinatra's Reprise Records, which has been owned by Warner Music Group for some time now, and musician Herb Alpert's A&M Records, now owned by Universal Music Group). Similarly, Madonna's Maverick Records (started by Madonna with her manager and another partner) was to come under control of Warner Music when Madonna divested herself of controlling shares in the company.
Some independent labels become successful enough that major record companies negotiate contracts to either distribute music for the label or in some cases, purchase the label completely, to the point where it functions as an imprint or sublabel.
Imprint
A label used as a trademark or brand and not a company is called an imprint, a term used for the same concept in publishing. An imprint is sometimes marketed as being a "project", "unit", or "division" of a record label, even though there is no legal business structure associated with the imprint. A record company may use an imprint to market a particular genre of music, such as jazz, blues, country music, or indie rock.
Sublabel
Music collectors often use the term sublabel to refer to either an imprint or a subordinate label company (such as those within a group). For example, in the 1980s and 1990s, 4th & B'way Records (pronounced as "Broadway") was a trademarked brand owned by Island Records Ltd. in the UK and by a subordinate branch, Island Records, Inc., in the United States. The center label on a 4th & Broadway record marketed in the United States would typically bear a 4th & B'way logo and would state in the fine print, "4th & B'way™, an Island Records, Inc. company". Collectors discussing labels as brands would say that 4th & B'way is a sublabel or imprint of just "Island" or "Island Records". Similarly, collectors who choose to treat corporations and trademarks as equivalent might say 4th & B'way is an imprint and/or sublabel of both Island Records, Ltd. and that company's sublabel, Island Records, Inc. However, such definitions are complicated by the corporate mergers that occurred in 1989 (when Island was sold to PolyGram) and 1998 (when PolyGram merged with Universal). PolyGram held sublabels including Mercury, Island and Motown. Island remained registered as corporations in both the United States and UK, but control of its brands changed hands multiple times as new companies were formed, diminishing the corporation's distinction as the "parent" of any sublabels.
Vanity labels
Vanity labels are labels that bear an imprint that gives the impression of an artist's ownership or control, but in fact represent a standard artist/label relationship. In such an arrangement, the artist will control nothing more than the usage of the name on the label, but may enjoy a greater say in the packaging of their work. An example of such a label is the Neutron label owned by ABC while at Phonogram Inc. in the UK. At one point artist Lizzie Tear (under contract with ABC themselves) appeared on the imprint, but it was devoted almost entirely to ABC's offerings and is still used for their re-releases (though Phonogram owns the masters of all the work issued on the label).
However, not all labels dedicated to particular artists are completely superficial in origin. Many artists, early in their careers, create their own labels which are later bought out by a bigger company. If this is the case it can sometimes give the artist greater freedom than if they were signed directly to the big label. There are many examples of this kind of label, such as Nothing Records, owned by Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails; and Morning Records, owned by the Cooper Temple Clause, who were releasing EPs for years before the company was bought by RCA.
Relationship with artists
A label typically enters into an exclusive recording contract with an artist to market the artist's recordings in return for royalties on the selling price of the recordings. Contracts may extend over short or long durations, and may or may not refer to specific recordings. Established, successful artists tend to be able to renegotiate their contracts to get terms more favorable to them, but Prince's much-publicized 1994–1996 feud with Warner Bros. Records provides a strong counterexample, as does Roger McGuinn's claim, made in July 2000 before a US Senate committee, that the Byrds never received any of the royalties they had been promised for their biggest hits, "Mr. Tambourine Man" and "Turn! Turn!, Turn!".
A contract either provides for the artist to deliver completed recordings to the label, or for the label to undertake the recording with the artist. For artists without a recording history, the label is often involved in selecting producers, recording studios, additional musicians, and songs to be recorded, and may supervise the output of recording sessions. For established artists, a label is usually less involved in the recording process.
The relationship between record labels and artists can be a difficult one. Many artists have had conflicts with their labels over the type of sound or songs they want to make, which can result in the artist's artwork or titles being changed before release. Other artists have had their music prevented from release, or shelved. Record labels generally do this because they believe that the album will sell better if the artist complies with the label's desired requests or changes. At times, the record label's decisions are prudent ones from a commercial perspective, but these decisions may frustrate artists who feel that their art is being diminished or misrepresented by such actions.
In other instances, record labels have shelved artists' albums with no intention of any promotion for the artist in question. Reasons for shelving can include the label deciding to focus its resources on other artists on its roster, or the label undergoing a restructure where the person that signed the artist and supports the artist's vision is no longer present to advocate for the artist. In extreme cases, record labels can prevent the release of an artist's music for years, while also declining to release the artist from their contract, leaving the artist in a state of limbo. Artists who have had disputes with their labels over ownership and control of their music have included Taylor Swift, Tinashe, Megan Thee Stallion, Kelly Clarkson, Thirty Seconds to Mars, Clipse, Ciara, JoJo, Michelle Branch, Kesha, Kanye West, Lupe Fiasco, Paul McCartney, and Johnny Cash.
In the early days of the recording industry, recording labels were absolutely necessary for the success of any artist. The first goal of any new artist or band was to get signed to a contract as soon as possible. In the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, many artists were so desperate to sign a contract with a record company that they sometimes ended up signing agreements in which they sold the rights to their recordings to the record label in perpetuity. Entertainment lawyers are usually employed by artists to discuss contract terms.
Due to advancing technology such as the Internet, the role of labels is rapidly changing, as artists are able to freely distribute their own material through online radio, peer-to-peer file sharing such as BitTorrent, and other services, at little to no cost, but with correspondingly low financial returns. Established artists, such as Nine Inch Nails, whose career was developed with major label backing, announced an end to their major label contracts, citing that the uncooperative nature of the recording industry with these new trends is hurting musicians, fans and the industry as a whole. However, Nine Inch Nails later returned to working with a major label, admitting that they needed the international marketing and promotional reach that a major label can provide. Radiohead also cited similar motives with the end of their contract with EMI when their album In Rainbows was released as a "pay what you want" sales model as an online download, but they also returned to a label for a conventional release. Research shows that record labels still control most access to distribution.
New label strategies
Computers and internet technology led to an increase in file sharing and direct-to-fan digital distribution, causing music sales to plummet in recent years. Labels and organizations have had to change their strategies and the way they work with artists. New types of deals called "multiple rights" or "360" deals are being made with artists, where labels are given rights and percentages to artist's touring, merchandising, and endorsements. In exchange for these rights, labels usually give higher advance payments to artists, have more patience with artist development, and pay higher percentages of CD sales. These 360 deals are most effective when the artist is established and has a loyal fan base. For that reason, labels now have to be more relaxed with the development of artists because longevity is the key to these types of pact. Several artists such as Paramore, Maino, and even Madonna have signed such types of deals.
A look at an actual 360 deal offered by Atlantic Records to an artist shows a variation of the structure. Atlantic's document offers a conventional cash advance to sign the artist, who would receive a royalty for sales after expenses were recouped. With the release of the artist's first album, however, the label has an option to pay an additional $200,000 in exchange for 30 percent of the net income from all touring, merchandise, endorsements, and fan-club fees. Atlantic would also have the right to approve the act's tour schedule, and the salaries of certain tour and merchandise sales employees hired by the artist. In addition, the label also offers the artist a 30 percent cut of the label's album profits—if any—which represents an improvement from the typical industry royalty of 15 percent.
Internet and digital labels
With the Internet now being a viable source for obtaining music, netlabels have emerged. Depending on the ideals of the net label, music files from the artists may be downloaded free of charge or for a fee that is paid via PayPal or other online payment system. Some of these labels also offer hard copy CDs in addition to direct download. Digital Labels are the latest version of a 'net' label. Whereas 'net' labels were started as a free site, digital labels represent more competition for the major record labels.
Open-source labels
The new century brought the phenomenon of open-source or open-content record labels. These are inspired by the free software and open source movements and the success of Linux.
Publishers as labels
In the mid-2000s, some music publishing companies began undertaking the work traditionally done by labels. The publisher Sony/ATV Music, for example, leveraged its connections within the Sony family to produce, record, distribute, and promote Elliott Yamin's debut album under a dormant Sony-owned imprint, rather than waiting for a deal with a proper label.
Crowdfunded labels
In 2002, ArtistShare was founded as the Internet's first record label where the releases were directly funded by the artist's fans.
See also
List of record labels
Streaming media
White label
References
External links | wiki |
A surgeon is a person who performs surgery.
Surgeon or Surgeons may also refer to:
Surgeon General (disambiguation), various high-ranking medical officials
Surgeon (musician), the moniker of British electronic music producer and DJ, Anthony Child
In military usage, a unit's assigned physician (who may not be an "operating" surgeon per se)
Flight surgeon, Ship's surgeon, etc.
Surgeons (TV series), 2017 Chinese TV series
See also
The Surgeon (disambiguation)
Surgeonfish
Sturgeon, 26 species of fish | wiki |
Stewart Levin is an American musician and composer who has composed music for television shows, including The Wonder Years, Picket Fences, The Practice and thirtysomething. He won an ASCAP Film and Television Music Award for his work on The Wonder Years and Emmy Award nominations for his work on Picket Fences and thirtysomething.
References
Living people
American television composers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
WHSR may refer to:
White House Situation Room
WTPA (AM), a radio station in Pompano Beach, Florida, United States, which used the call sign WHSR from 1997 to 2021 | wiki |
Earthquakes in Algeria occur in the north part of the country, usually north of 35° N. latitude, and occasionally as submarine earthquakes in the Mediterranean Sea. On at least one occasion, this type of event has generated a destructive tsunami.
Earthquakes
See also
Geology of Algeria
References
Sources
Further reading
Algeria
Lists of events in Algeria
Tsunamis in Algeria | wiki |
A virtual private network (VPN) is a mechanism for creating a secure connection between a computing device and a computer network, or between two networks, using an insecure communication medium such as the public Internet. A VPN can extend a private network (one that disallows or restricts public access), enabling users to send and receive data across public networks as if their devices were directly connected to the private network. The benefits of a VPN include security, reduced costs for dedicated communication lines, and greater flexibility for remote workers. VPNs are also used to bypass internet censorship. Encryption is common, although not an inherent part of a VPN connection.
A VPN is created by establishing a virtual point-to-point connection through the use of tunneling protocols over existing networks. A VPN available from the public Internet can provide some of the benefits of a wide area network (WAN). From a user perspective, the resources available within the private network can be accessed remotely.
Types
Virtual private networks may be classified into several categories:
Remote access A host-to-network configuration is analogous to connecting a computer to a local area network. This type provides access to an enterprise network, such as an intranet. This may be employed for remote workers who need access to private resources, or to enable a mobile worker to access important tools without exposing them to the public Internet.
Site-to-site A site-to-site configuration connects two networks. This configuration expands a network across geographically disparate offices, or a group of offices to a data center installation. The interconnecting link may run over a dissimilar intermediate network, such as two IPv6 networks connected over an IPv4 network.
Extranet-based site-to-site In the context of site-to-site configurations, the terms intranet and extranet are used to describe two different use cases. An intranet site-to-site VPN describes a configuration where the sites connected by the VPN belong to the same organization, whereas an extranet site-to-site VPN joins sites belonging to multiple organizations.
Typically, individuals interact with remote access VPNs, whereas businesses tend to make use of site-to-site connections for business-to-business, cloud computing, and branch office scenarios. Despite this, these technologies are not mutually exclusive and, in a significantly complex business network, may be combined to enable remote access to resources located at any given site, such as an ordering system that resides in a data center.
VPN systems also may be classified by:
The tunneling protocol used to tunnel the traffic
The tunnel's termination point location, e.g., on the customer edge or network-provider edge
The type of topology of connections, such as site-to-site or network-to-network
The levels of security provided
The OSI layer they present to the connecting network, such as Layer 2 circuits or Layer 3 network connectivity
The number of simultaneous connections
Security mechanisms
VPNs cannot make online connections completely anonymous, but they can increase privacy and security. To prevent disclosure of private information or data sniffing, VPNs typically allow only authenticated remote access using tunneling protocols and secure encryption techniques.
The VPN security model provides:
Confidentiality such that even if the network traffic is sniffed at the packet level (see network sniffer or deep packet inspection), an attacker would see only encrypted data, not the raw data.
Sender authentication to prevent unauthorized users from accessing the VPN.
Message integrity to detect and reject any instances of tampering with transmitted messages.
Secure VPN protocols include the following:
Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) was initially developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) for IPv6, which was required in all standards-compliant implementations of IPv6 before made it only a recommendation. This standards-based security protocol is also widely used with IPv4 and the Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol. Its design meets most security goals: availability, integrity, and confidentiality. IPsec uses encryption, encapsulating an IP packet inside an IPsec packet. De-encapsulation happens at the end of the tunnel, where the original IP packet is decrypted and forwarded to its intended destination.
Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS) can tunnel an entire network's traffic (as it does in the OpenVPN project and SoftEther VPN project) or secure an individual connection. A number of vendors provide remote-access VPN capabilities through SSL. An SSL VPN can connect from locations where IPsec runs into trouble with Network Address Translation and firewall rules.
Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) – used in Cisco AnyConnect VPN and in OpenConnect VPN to solve the issues TLS has with tunneling over TCP (SSL/TLS are TCP-based, and tunneling TCP over TCP can lead to big delays and connection aborts).
Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE) works with the Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol and in several compatible implementations on other platforms.
Microsoft Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP) tunnels Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol traffic through an SSL/TLS channel (SSTP was introduced in Windows Server 2008 and in Windows Vista Service Pack 1).
Multi Path Virtual Private Network (MPVPN). Ragula Systems Development Company owns the registered trademark "MPVPN".
Secure Shell (SSH) VPN – OpenSSH offers VPN tunneling (distinct from port forwarding) to secure remote connections to a network, inter-network links, and remote systems. OpenSSH server provides a limited number of concurrent tunnels. The VPN feature itself does not support personal authentication. SSH is more often used to remotely connect to machines or networks instead of a site to site VPN connection.
WireGuard is a protocol. In 2020, WireGuard support was added to both the Linux and Android kernels, opening it up to adoption by VPN providers. By default, WireGuard utilizes the Curve25519 protocol for key exchange and ChaCha20-Poly1305 for encryption and message authentication, but also includes the ability to pre-share a symmetric key between the client and server.
IKEv2 is an acronym that stands for Internet Key Exchange version 2. It was created by Microsoft and Cisco and is used in conjunction with IPSec for encryption and authentication. Its primary use is in mobile devices, whether on 3G or 4G LTE networks, since it automatically reconnects when a connection is lost.
OpenVPN is a free and open-source VPN protocol that is based upon the TLS protocol. It supports perfect forward-secrecy, and most modern secure cipher suites, like AES, Serpent, TwoFish, etc. It is currently being developed and updated by OpenVPN Inc., a non-profit providing secure VPN technologies.
Crypto IP Encapsulation (CIPE) is a free and open-source VPN implementation for tunneling IPv4 packets over UDP via encapsulation. CIPE was developed for Linux operating systems by Olaf Titz, with a Windows port implemented by Damion K. Wilson. Development for CIPE ended in 2002.
Authentication
Tunnel endpoints must be authenticated before secure VPN tunnels can be established. User-created remote-access VPNs may use passwords, biometrics, two-factor authentication or other cryptographic methods. Network-to-network tunnels often use passwords or digital certificates. Depending on the VPN protocol, they may store the key to allow the VPN tunnel to establish automatically, without intervention from the administrator. Data packets are secured by tamper proofing via a message authentication code (MAC), which prevents the message from being altered or tampered without being rejected due to the MAC not matching with the altered data packet.
Routing
Tunneling protocols can operate in a point-to-point network topology that would theoretically not be considered a VPN because a VPN by definition is expected to support arbitrary and changing sets of network nodes. But since most router implementations support a virtual, software-defined tunnel interface, customer-provisioned VPNs often are simply defined tunnels running conventional routing protocols.
Provider-provisioned VPN building-blocks
Depending on whether a provider-provisioned VPN (PPVPN) operates in Layer 2 (L2) or Layer 3 (L3), the building blocks described below may be L2 only, L3 only, or a combination of both. Multi-protocol label switching (MPLS) functionality blurs the L2-L3 identity.
generalized the following terms to cover L2 MPLS VPNs and L3 (BGP) VPNs, but they were introduced in .
Customer (C) devices
A device that is within a customer's network and not directly connected to the service provider's network. C devices are not aware of the VPN.
Customer Edge device (CE)
A device at the edge of the customer's network which provides access to the PPVPN. Sometimes it is just a demarcation point between provider and customer responsibility. Other providers allow customers to configure it.
Provider edge device (PE)
A device, or set of devices, at the edge of the provider network which connects to customer networks through CE devices and presents the provider's view of the customer site. PEs are aware of the VPNs that connect through them, and maintain VPN state.
Provider device (P)
A device that operates inside the provider's core network and does not directly interface to any customer endpoint. It might, for example, provide routing for many provider-operated tunnels that belong to different customers' PPVPNs. While the P device is a key part of implementing PPVPNs, it is not itself VPN-aware and does not maintain VPN state. Its principal role is allowing the service provider to scale its PPVPN offerings, for example, by acting as an aggregation point for multiple PEs. P-to-P connections, in such a role, often are high-capacity optical links between major locations of providers.
User-visible PPVPN services
OSI Layer 2 services
VLAN
VLAN is a Layer 2 technique that allows for the coexistence of multiple local area network (LAN) broadcast domains interconnected via trunks using the IEEE 802.1Q trunking protocol. Other trunking protocols have been used but have become obsolete, including Inter-Switch Link (ISL), IEEE 802.10 (originally a security protocol but a subset was introduced for trunking), and ATM LAN Emulation (LANE).
Virtual private LAN service (VPLS)
Developed by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, VLANs allow multiple tagged LANs to share common trunking. VLANs frequently comprise only customer-owned facilities. Whereas VPLS as described in the above section (OSI Layer 1 services) supports emulation of both point-to-point and point-to-multipoint topologies, the method discussed here extends Layer 2 technologies such as 802.1d and 802.1q LAN trunking to run over transports such as Metro Ethernet.
As used in this context, a VPLS is a Layer 2 PPVPN, emulating the full functionality of a traditional LAN. From a user standpoint, a VPLS makes it possible to interconnect several LAN segments over a packet-switched, or optical, provider core, a core transparent to the user, making the remote LAN segments behave as one single LAN.
In a VPLS, the provider network emulates a learning bridge, which optionally may include VLAN service.
Pseudo wire (PW)
PW is similar to VPLS, but it can provide different L2 protocols at both ends. Typically, its interface is a WAN protocol such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode or Frame Relay. In contrast, when aiming to provide the appearance of a LAN contiguous between two or more locations, the Virtual Private LAN service or IPLS would be appropriate.
Ethernet over IP tunneling
EtherIP () is an Ethernet over IP tunneling protocol specification. EtherIP has only packet encapsulation mechanism. It has no confidentiality nor message integrity protection. EtherIP was introduced in the FreeBSD network stack and the SoftEther VPN server program.
IP-only LAN-like service (IPLS)
A subset of VPLS, the CE devices must have Layer 3 capabilities; the IPLS presents packets rather than frames. It may support IPv4 or IPv6.
Ethernet Virtual Private Network (EVPN)
Ethernet VPN (EVPN) is an advanced solution for providing Ethernet services over IP-MPLS networks. In contrast to the VPLS architectures, EVPN enables control-plane based MAC (and MAC,IP) learning in the network. PEs participating in the EVPN instances learn customer's MAC (MAC,IP) routes in control-plane using MP-BGP protocol. Control-plane MAC learning brings a number of benefits that allow EVPN to address the VPLS shortcomings, including support for multi-homing with per-flow load balancing and avoidance of unnecessary flooding over the MPLS core network to multiple PEs participating in the P2MP/MP2MP L2VPN (in the occurrence, for instance, of ARP query). It is defined .
OSI Layer 3 PPVPN architectures
This section discusses the main architectures for PPVPNs, one where the PE disambiguates duplicate addresses in a single routing instance, and the other, virtual router, in which the PE contains a virtual router instance per VPN. The former approach, and its variants, have gained the most attention.
One of the challenges of PPVPNs involves different customers using the same address space, especially the IPv4 private address space. The provider must be able to disambiguate overlapping addresses in the multiple customers' PPVPNs.
BGP/MPLS PPVPN
In the method defined by , BGP extensions advertise routes in the IPv4 VPN address family, which are of the form of 12-byte strings, beginning with an 8-byte route distinguisher (RD) and ending with a 4-byte IPv4 address. RDs disambiguate otherwise duplicate addresses in the same PE.
PEs understand the topology of each VPN, which are interconnected with MPLS tunnels either directly or via P routers. In MPLS terminology, the P routers are label switch routers without awareness of VPNs.
Virtual router PPVPN
The virtual router architecture, as opposed to BGP/MPLS techniques, requires no modification to existing routing protocols such as BGP. By the provisioning of logically independent routing domains, the customer operating a VPN is completely responsible for the address space. In the various MPLS tunnels, the different PPVPNs are disambiguated by their label but do not need routing distinguishers.
Unencrypted tunnels
Some virtual networks use tunneling protocols without encryption for protecting the privacy of data. While VPNs often do provide security, an unencrypted overlay network does not fit within the secure or trusted categorization. For example, a tunnel set up between two hosts with Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is a virtual private network but is neither secure nor trusted.
Native plaintext tunneling protocols include Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) when it is set up without IPsec and Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) or Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE).
Trusted delivery networks
Trusted VPNs do not use cryptographic tunneling; instead they rely on the security of a single provider's network to protect the traffic.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) often overlays VPNs, often with quality-of-service control over a trusted delivery network.
L2TP which is a standards-based replacement, and a compromise taking the good features from each, for two proprietary VPN protocols: Cisco's Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) (obsolete ) and Microsoft's Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP).
From the security standpoint, VPNs either trust the underlying delivery network or must enforce security with mechanisms in the VPN itself. Unless the trusted delivery network runs among physically secure sites only, both trusted and secure models need an authentication mechanism for users to gain access to the VPN.
VPNs in mobile environments
Mobile virtual private networks are used in settings where an endpoint of the VPN is not fixed to a single IP address, but instead roams across various networks such as data networks from cellular carriers or between multiple Wi-Fi access points without dropping the secure VPN session or losing application sessions. Mobile VPNs are widely used in public safety where they give law-enforcement officers access to applications such as computer-assisted dispatch and criminal databases, and in other organizations with similar requirements such as field service management and healthcare..
Networking limitations
A limitation of traditional VPNs is that they are point-to-point connections and do not tend to support broadcast domains; therefore, communication, software, and networking, which are based on layer 2 and broadcast packets, such as NetBIOS used in Windows networking, may not be fully supported as on a local area network. Variants on VPN such as Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS) and layer 2 tunneling protocols are designed to overcome this limitation.
Common misconceptions
A VPN does not make your Internet "private". You can still be tracked through tracking cookies and device fingerprinting, even if your IP address is hidden.
A VPN does not make you immune to hackers.
A VPN is not in itself a means for good Internet privacy. The burden of trust is simply transferred from the ISP to the VPN service provider.
See also
Anonymizer
Dynamic Multipoint Virtual Private Network
Ethernet VPN
Internet privacy
Mediated VPN
Opportunistic encryption
Split tunneling
Virtual private server
VPN service
References
Further reading
Network architecture
Internet privacy | wiki |
Video on demand (VOD) is a media distribution system that allows users to access videos without a traditional video playback device and the constraints of a typical static broadcasting schedule. In the 20th century, broadcasting in the form of over-the-air programming was the most common form of media distribution. As Internet and IPTV technologies continued to develop in the 1990s, consumers began to gravitate towards non-traditional modes of content consumption, which culminated in the arrival of VOD on televisions and personal computers.
Unlike broadcast television, VOD systems initially required each user to have an Internet connection with considerable bandwidth to access each system's content. In 2000, the Fraunhofer Institute IIS developed the JPEG2000 codec, which enabled the distribution of movies via Digital Cinema Packages. This technology has since expanded its services from feature-film productions to include broadcast television programmes and has led to lower bandwidth requirements for VOD applications. Disney, Paramount, Sony, Universal and Warner Bros. subsequently launched the Digital Cinema Initiative, in 2002.
Television VOD systems can stream content, either through a traditional set-top box or through remote devices such as computers, tablets, and smartphones. VOD users can permanently download content to a device such as a computer, digital video recorder (DVR) or a portable media player for continued viewing. The majority of cable and telephone company–based television providers offer VOD streaming, whereby a user selects a video programme that begins to play immediately, or downloading to a DVR rented or purchased from the provider, or to a PC or to a portable device for deferred viewing.
Streaming media has emerged as an increasingly popular medium of VOD provision. Desktop client applications such as the Apple iTunes online content store and Smart TV apps such as Amazon Prime Video allow temporary rentals and purchases of video entertainment content. Other Internet-based VOD systems provide users with access to bundles of video entertainment content rather than individual movies and shows. The most common of these systems, Netflix, Hulu, Disney+, Peacock, HBO Max and Paramount+, use a subscription model that requires users to pay a monthly fee for access to a selection of movies, television shows, and original series. In contrast, YouTube, another Internet-based VOD system, uses an advertising-funded model in which users can access most of its video content free of cost but must pay a subscription fee for premium content. Some airlines offer VOD services as in-flight entertainment to passengers through video screens embedded in seats or externally provided portable media players.
Functionality
Downloading and streaming VOD systems provide the user with features of portable media players and DVD players. Some VOD systems store and stream programmes from hard disk drives and use a memory buffer to allow the user to fast forward and rewind videos. It is possible to put video servers on local area networks; these can provide rapid responses to users. Cable companies have rolled out their own versions of VOD services through apps, allowing television access wherever there is a device that is Internet capable. Cable media companies have combined VOD with live streaming services. The early-2020s launches of apps from cable companies (e.g. NBC's Peacock, CBS's Paramount+) are attempts to compete with Subscription Video on Demand (SVOD) services because they lack live news and sports content. Streaming video servers can serve a wide community via a WAN but responsiveness may be reduced. Download VOD services are practical in homes equipped with cable modems or DSL connections. Servers for traditional cable and telco VOD services are usually placed at the cable head-end, serving a particular market and cable hubs in larger markets. In the telco world, they are placed in either the central office or a newly created location called a Video Head-End Office (VHO).
History
VOD services first appeared in the early 1990s. Until then, it was not thought possible that a television programme could be squeezed into the limited telecommunication bandwidth of a copper telephone cable to provide a VOD service of acceptable quality as the required bandwidth of a digital television signal is around 200Mbps, which is 2,000 times greater than the bandwidth of a speech signal over a copper telephone wire.
VOD services were only made possible as a result of two major technological developments: MPEG (motion-compensated DCT) video compression and asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) data transmission.
A VOD service was proposed as early as 1986 in Japan, where there were plans to develop an "Integrated Network System" service. It was not possible, however, to practically implement such a VOD service until the adoption of DCT and ADSL technologies in the early 1990s. The first VOD systems used tapes as the real-time source of video streams. GTE started as a trial in 1990 with AT&T providing all components. By 1992, VOD servers were supplying previously encoded digital video from disks and DRAM.
In the US, the 1982 anti-trust break-up of AT&T resulted in several smaller telephone companies nicknamed Baby Bells. Following this, the Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984 prohibited telephone companies from providing video services within their operating regions. In 1993 the National Communication and Information Infrastructure (NII) was proposed and passed by the US House and Senate, opening the way for the seven Baby Bells—Ameritech, Bell Atlantic, BellSouth, NYNEX, Pacific Telesis, Southwestern Bell, and US West—to implement VOD systems. These companies and others began holding trials to set up systems for supplying video on demand over telephone and cable lines.
In November 1992, Bell Atlantic announced a VOD trial. IBM was developing a video server code-named Tiger Shark. Concurrently, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) was developing a scalable video server configured from small-to-large for a range of video streams. Bell Atlantic selected IBM and in April 1993 the system became the first VOD over ADSL to be deployed outside the lab, serving 50 video streams. In June 1993, US West filed for a patent to register a proprietary system consisting of the Digital Equipment Corporation Interactive Information Server, Scientific Atlanta providing the network, and 3DO as the set-top box with video streams and other information to be deployed to 2,500 homes. In 1994–95, US West filed for a patent concerning the provision of VOD in several cities: 330,000 subscribers in Denver, 290,000 in Minneapolis, and 140,000 in Portland. In early 1994, British Telecommunications (BT) introduced a trial VOD service in the United Kingdom. It used the DCT-based MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 video compression standards, along with ADSL technology.
Many VOD trials were held with various combinations of server, network, and set-top box. Of these the primary players in the US were the telephone companies using DEC, Microsoft, Oracle, IBM, Hewlett-Packard, USA Video, nCube, SGI, and other servers. The DEC server system was the most-used in these trials.
The DEC VOD server architecture used interactive gateways to set up video streams and other information for delivery from any of a large number of VAX servers, enabling it in 1993 to support more than 100,000 streams with full videocassette recorder (VCR)-like functionality. In 1994, it upgraded to a DEC Alpha–based computer for its VOD servers, allowing it to support more than a million users. By 1994 the Oracle scalable VOD system used massively parallel processors to support from 500 to 30,000 users. The SGI system supported 4,000 users. The servers connected to networks of increasing size to eventually support video stream delivery to entire cities.
In the UK, from September 1994, a VOD service formed a major part of the Cambridge Digital Interactive Television Trial This provided video and data to 250 homes and several schools connected to the Cambridge Cable network, later part of NTL, now Virgin Media. The MPEG-1 encoded video was streamed over an ATM network from an ICL media server to set-top boxes designed by Acorn Online Media. The trial commenced at a speed of 2 Mbit/s to the home, subsequently increased to 25 Mbit/s. The content was provided by the BBC and Anglia Television. Although a technical success, difficulty in sourcing content was a major issue and the project closed in 1996.
In 1997, Enron Corporation had entered the broadband market, constructing and purchasing thousands of miles of fiber-optic cables throughout the United States. In 2001, Enron and Blockbuster Inc. attempted to create a 20-year deal to stream movies on demand over Enron's fiber-optic network. The heavily promoted deal fell through, with Enron's share prices dropping following the announcement.
In 1998, Kingston Communications became the first UK company to launch a fully commercial VOD service and the first to integrate broadcast television and Internet access through a single set-top box using IP delivery over ADSL. By 2001, Kingston Interactive TV had attracted 15,000 subscribers. After several trials, Home Choice followed in 1999 but was restricted to London. After attracting 40,000 customers, they were bought by Tiscali in 2006 which was, in turn, bought by Talk Talk in 2009. Cable TV providers Telewest and NTL (now Virgin Media) launched their VOD services in the United Kingdom in 2005, competing with the leading traditional pay-TV distributor BSkyB, which responded by launching Sky by broadband, later renamed Sky Anytime on PC. The service went live on 2 January 2006. Sky Anytime on PC uses a legal peer-to-peer approach based on Kontiki technology to provide very-high-capacity multi-point downloads of the video content. Instead of the video content all being downloaded from Sky's servers, the content comes from multiple users of the system who have already downloaded the content. Other UK television broadcasters implemented their own versions of the same technology, such as Channel 4's 4oD (4 on Demand, now known as All 4) which was launched on 16 November 2006 and the BBC's iPlayer, which was launched on 25 December 2007. Another example of online video publishers using legal peer-to-peer technology is based on Giraffic technology, which was launched in early 2011, with large online VOD publishers such as US-based VEOH and UK-based Craze's Online Movies Box movie rental service.
The BBC, ITV and Channel 4 planned to launch a joint platform provisionally called Kangaroo in 2008. This was abandoned in 2009 following complaints, which were investigated by the Competition Commission. In that same year, the assets of the now-defunct Kangaroo project were acquired by Arqiva, who used the technology to launch the SeeSaw service in February 2010. A year later, however, SeeSaw was shut down due to a lack of funding.
VOD services are now available in all parts of the United States, which has the highest global take-up rate of VOD. In 2010, 80% of American Internet users had watched video online, and 42% of mobile users who downloaded video preferred apps to a normal browser. Streaming VOD systems are available on desktop and mobile platforms from cable providers (in tandem with cable modem technology). They use the large downstream bandwidth present on their cable systems to deliver movies and television shows to end-users. These viewers can typically pause, fast-forward, and rewind VOD movies due to the low latency and random-access nature of cable technology. The large distribution of a single signal makes streaming VOD impractical for most satellite television systems. Both EchoStar/Dish Network and DirecTV offer VOD programming to PVR-owning subscribers of their satellite TV service. In Demand is a cable VOD service that also offers pay-per-view. Once the programs have been downloaded onto a user's PVR, he or she can watch, play, pause, and seek at their convenience. VOD is also common in expensive hotels.
According to the European Audiovisual Observatory, 142 paying VOD services were operational in Europe at the end of 2006. The number increased to 650 by 2009. At the 2010 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada, Sezmi CEO Buno Pati and president Phil Wiser showed a set-top box with a one-terabyte hard drive that could be used for video-on-demand services previously offered through cable television and broadband. A movie, for example, could be sent out once using a broadcast signal rather than numerous times over cable or fiber-optic lines, and this would not involve the expense of adding many miles of lines. Sezmi planned to lease part of the broadcast spectrum to offer a subscription service that National Association of Broadcasters President Gordon H. Smith said would provide a superior picture to that of cable or satellite at a lower cost.
Developing VOD requires extensive negotiations to identify a financial model that would serve both content creators and cable providers while providing desirable content for viewers at an acceptable price point. Key factors identified for determining the economic viability of the VOD model include VOD movie buy-rates and setting Hollywood and cable operator revenue splits. Cable providers offered VOD as part of digital subscription packages, which by 2005 primarily allowed cable subscribers to only access an on-demand version of the content that was already provided in the linear traditional broadcasting distribution. These on-demand packages sometimes include extras and bonus footage in addition to the regular content.
Role of peer-to-peer file sharing
Peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing software allows the distribution of content without the linear costs associated with centralised streaming media. This innovation proved it is technically possible to offer the consumer potentially every film ever made, and the popularity and ease of use of such services may have motivated the rise of centralised video-on-demand services. Some services such as Spotify use peer-to-peer distribution to better scale their platforms. Netflix was reported to be considering switching to a P2P model to cope with net neutrality problems from downstream providers.
Types
Transactional
Transactional video on demand (TVOD) is a distribution method by which customers pay for each piece of video-on-demand content. For example, a customer would pay a fee for each movie or TV show that they watch. TVOD has two sub-categories: electronic sell-through (EST), by which customers can permanently access a piece of content once purchased via the Internet; and download to rent (DTR), by which customers can access the content for a limited time upon renting. Examples of TVOD services include the Apple iTunes Store and the Google Play Store, as well as VOD rental services offered through multichannel television (i.e., cable or satellite) providers.
Premium
Premium video on demand (PVOD) is a version of TVOD which allows customers to access video-on-demand content several weeks or months earlier than their customary TVOD or home video availability – often feature films made available alongside, or in place of, a traditional release in movie theaters – but at a much higher price point. A version of the model was tested in 2011 by American satellite TV provider DirecTV under the brand name "Home Premiere", which allowed viewers to rent select films from major studios for US$30 per rental as soon as 60 days after they debuted in cinemas, compared to 120 days for the regular TVOD window; this version only lasted a few months.
PVOD made a return during the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting global closures of cinemas. Certain films that had already been released including The Invisible Man were quickly also released on VOD platforms for a higher rental price than usual, while other films including Trolls World Tour were released simultaneously on PVOD and in drive-in theaters, or in some cases directly to PVOD only.
In most cases, these PVOD releases are offered through most of the same platforms as traditional TVOD, but at a higher price point, typically about US$20 for a 48-hour rental; this offering has again been branded as "Home Premiere" by some studios and platforms. Disney used the September 2020 release of the live-action remake of Mulan to launch a related model called Premier Access; this requires customers to pay a premium fee (approximately US$26-30 depending on country) on top of a subscription to the Disney+ streaming service, but they then retain access as long as they maintain their subscription (for Mulan, this was effectively a 90-day rental, as the film became available to all Disney+ subscribers at no extra charge in December).
It has been reported that the pandemic has contributed to a transformation in movie distribution in favor of PVOD over traditional movie houses, as studios are able to realize 80% of revenue through PVOD versus 50% of traditional theater box office receipts. Theater owners including AMC and Cinemark, as well as suppliers including IMAX and National CineMedia, all experienced significant drops in revenues during shutdowns related to COVID-19.
Catch-up TV
Many television stations offer "catch-up TV" as a way for viewers to watch programmes though their VOD services after the original television broadcast is over.
Subscription models
Subscription VOD (SVOD) services use a subscription business model in which subscribers are charged a regular fee to access unlimited programs. One of the reasons why subscription video on demand (SVOD) is popular among users as a monetization strategy is because it offers high-quality content without commercial interruptions. Examples of these services include Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, Disney+, Hulu, Hotstar, Star+, Peacock, Hayu, Paramount+, Noggin, BET+, Voot, Discovery+, HBO Max, Crunchyroll, SonyLIV, ZEE5 and GulliMax.
Near video on demand
Near video on demand (NVOD) is a pay-per-view consumer video technique used by multi-channel broadcasters using high-bandwidth distribution mechanisms such as satellite and cable television. Multiple copies of a programme are broadcast at short time intervals (typically staggered on a schedule of every 10–20 minutes) on linear channels providing convenience for viewers, who can watch the programme without needing to tune in at the only scheduled point in time.
A viewer may only have to wait a few minutes before the next time a movie will be programmed. This form is bandwidth-intensive, reduces the number of channels a provider can offer, and is generally provided by large operators with a great deal of redundant capacity. This concept has been reduced in popularity as video on demand is implemented, along with providers often wanting to provide the maximum throughput for their broadband services possible.
Only the satellite services DirecTV and Dish Network continue to provide NVOD services, as they do not offer broadband and much of their rural customer base only has access to slower dial-up and non-5G wireless and satellite internet options which cannot stream films or have onerous data caps (and where possible, AT&T is now prioritizing their streaming service AT&T TV, which utilizes a fully immediate VOD experience, over DirecTV).
Before the rise of VOD, the cable pay-per-view provider In Demand provided up to 40 channels in 2002, with several films receiving four channels on a staggered schedule to provide the NVOD experience for viewers. As of 2018, most cable pay-per-view channels now number mainly 3–5, and are used mainly for live ring sports events (boxing and professional wrestling), comedy specials, and concerts, though the latter two sources are declining due to streaming services offering much more lucrative performance contracts to performers, and several ring sports organisations (mainly UFC and WWE) now prefer direct marketing of their product via streaming services such as ESPN+, the WWE Network, and the apps of Fox Sports over pay-TV providers which require a portion of the profits they otherwise retain directly. In Australia, pay-TV broadcaster Foxtel offers NVOD for new-release movies over their satellite service.
Edge Spectrum, an American holder of low-power broadcasting licenses, has an eventual business plan to use its network and a system of digital video recorders to simulate the video-on-demand experience. Most of Edge Spectrum's channels, where they are on air, carry televangelism.
Push video on demand
Push video on demand is so-named because the provider "pushes" the content out to the viewer's set-top box without the viewer having requested the content. This technique is used by several broadcasters on systems that lack the connectivity and bandwidth to provide true "streaming" video on demand. Push VOD is also used by broadcasters that want to optimize their video streaming infrastructures by pre-loading the most popular contents to the consumers' set-top device. If the consumer requests one of these films, it is already loaded on her or his DVR.
A push VOD system uses a personal video recorder (PVR) to store a selection of content, often transmitted in spare capacity overnight or all day long at low bandwidth. Users can watch the downloaded content at the time they desire, immediately and without any buffering issues. Push VOD depends on the viewer recording content so choices can be limited.
Advertising video on demand
Advertising video on demand (AVOD) uses an advertising-based revenue model. This allows companies that advertise on broadcast and cable channels to reach people who watch shows using VOD. This model also allows people to watch content without paying subscription fees. Hulu was a major AVOD company before ending its free service in August 2016, transferring it to Yahoo! View using the existing Hulu infrastructure. Crackle has introduced a series of advertisements for the same company that ties into the content that is being watched.
Ad-Supported Video on Demand (ASVOD) refers to video services that provide free content supported by advertisements. Popular services include Pluto TV, Xumo, the Roku Channel, Popcornflix, Crackle, Tubi, Movies Anywhere, Vudu, Dailymotion, and YouTube. Walmart is adding ASVOD original programming to Vudu, and YouTube Originals will be ASVOD by 2020.
Data analysis
When technology companies, include SVOD apps on their devices, like phones, tablets, televisions, game systems, computers, this can remove an attitude obstruction for a user to view content. This technology also provides an advantage for technology companies for data analysis of viewed content from consumers. By analyzing data of what is viewed most by consumers, companies can purchase more content that is aimed for an audience, and then in-turn market products that are based on what viewer profiles are of a group of consumers who viewer a specific amount of content. This data analysis will often provide researchers valuable data that includes: what was watched, when it was watched, what they watched after watching, and even how many people watched the same video at the same time in a day, month, and even year.
Economics of SVOD
Attendance in movie theaters had declined during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. Worldwide in 2019, theatrical entertainment reach 11.4 billion dollars, but in 2020, it was only 2.2 billion. Due recovery efforts to increase those attendance numbers, along with the growing amount of marketing that is need to gain the attention of an audience, pinning down an exact budget for a film production can be difficult. Video on demand can have three release strategies that include: day-and-date (instantaneous release in theaters and on VOD), day-before-date (VOD before theatrical viewing), and VOD only. Production studios can make revenue on these types of releases until sales start to slow. After that, film companies can then license the content to other streaming services and, temporarily, make extra income like that too.
In a reflection made by 2013 Netflix Chief Content Officer, Ted Sarandos, he was quoted saying, “When we launch in a territory the BitTorrent traffic drops as the Netflix traffic grows.” This can be valuably interpreted as in that online piracy numbers drop the more that SVOD companies grow, which in turn means more revenue going back to the production companies.
Behavior detrimental to SVOD revenue
Online piracy is detrimental to production companies that produce digital content. In a study that offered BitTorrent users a free SVOD subscription, the results of the research provided readers with information that show download and upload speeds in those homes decreased with a free subscription, but it could not prove decreased use in BitTorrent software.
See also
BitTorrent
Comparison of video hosting services
Direct-to-video
Electronic sell-through
Music on demand
National Streaming Day
Over-the-top media service
Streaming media
Trick mode
References
Further reading
What is Broadcaster VOD. Broadcaster Video On Demand is an exciting and evolving landscape which offers advertisers a host of premium advertising opportunities around trusted, quality content. It’s an important part of the new TV ecosystem that is helping people to watch more of the TV they love.
Broadcaster VOD services. There are a host of different VOD services from the UK broadcasters all brimming with opportunities for advertisers. Here you’ll find an overview of the key players and their on-demand services by platform
Broadcaster VOD advertising formats. From clickable pre-rolls to full interactivity, broadcaster VOD advertising is always innovating. Here you can get the low down on the various VOD formats currently available from the UK TV companies
Lotz, Amanda D. (2007) "The Television Will Be Revolutionized". New York: New York City University Press. p. 59.
McGregor, Michael A., Driscoll, Paul D., McDowell, Walter (2010) "Head’s Broadcasting in America: A Survey of Electronic Media". Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon p. 47–48. | wiki |
Human–animal communication is the communication observed between humans and other animals, ranging from non-verbal cues and vocalizations to the use of language.
Some human–animal communication may be observed in casual circumstances, such as the interactions between pets and their owners, which can reflect a form of spoken, while not necessarily verbal dialogue. A dog being scolded is able to grasp the message by interpreting cues such as the owner's stance, tone of voice, and body language. This communication is two-way, as owners can learn to discern the subtle differences between barks or meows, and there is a clear difference between the bark of an angry dog defending its home and the happy bark of the same animal while playing. Communication (often nonverbal) is also significant in equestrian activities such as dressage.
One scientific study has found that 30 bird species and 29 mammal species share the same pattern of pitch and speed in basic messages. Therefore, humans and those 59 species can understand each other when they express "aggression, hostility, appeasement, approachability, submission and fear."
Birds
Parrots are able to use words meaningfully in linguistic tasks. In particular, the grey parrot Alex learned one hundred words, and after training used English words to answer questions about color, shapes, size and numbers correctly about 80% of the time.
He also wanted to try to go without training, said where he wanted to be taken, such as his cage or the back of a chair, and protested when taken elsewhere, or when hidden objects were not where he thought they were.
He asked a question, what color he himself was, which has been called the only question so far asked by a non-human animal.
Scientific American editor Madhusree Mukerjee described these abilities as creativity and reasoning comparable to nonhuman primates or cetaceans, while expressing concern that extensive language use resulted in feather-plucking behavior, a possible sign of stress.
Most bird species have at least six calls which humans can learn to understand, for situations including danger, distress, hunger, and the presence of food.
Pigeons can identify different artists. Pigeons can learn to recognize up to 58 four-letter English words, with an average of 43, though they were not taught any meanings to associate with the words.
Java sparrows chose music by sitting on a particular perch, which determined which music was played. Two birds preferred Bach and Vivaldi over Schoenberg or silence. The other two birds had varying preferences among Bach, Schoenberg, white noise and silence.
The greater honeyguide has a specific call to alert humans that it can lead them to honey, and also responds to a specific human call requesting such a lead. By leading humans to honeybee hives so it can eat the discarded honeycomb wax after humans collect the honey. The human call varies regionally, so the honeyguide's response is learned in each area, not instinctive.
Crows identify and respond differently to different human faces and can be trained to understand and reply to verbal commands.
Fictional portrayals of sentient talking parrots and similar birds are common in children's fiction, such as the talking, loud-mouth parrot Iago of Disney's Aladdin.
Primates
Chimpanzees can make at least 32 sounds with distinct meanings for humans.
Chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans have used sign language, physical tokens, keyboards and touch screens to communicate with humans in numerous research studies. The research showed that they understood multiple signals and produced them to communicate with humans. There is some disagreement whether they can re-order them to create distinct meanings.
Baboons can learn to recognize an average of 139 four-letter English words (maximum of 308), though they were not taught any meanings to associate with the words.
Primates have also been trained to use touch screens to tell a researcher their musical preferences. In Toronto, for hundreds of songs in random order, orangutans were given one 30-second segment of a song, and then chose between repeating that segment or 30 seconds of silence. Different orangutans chose to replay from 8% to 48% of the segments, and all exhibited stress throughout the trials. There was no pattern of selections by genre, and the researchers did not look for other attributes that were shared by the orangutans' chosen segments. No comparison was available as to how many 30-second segments humans would repeat in the same situation. In another experiment, the orangutans did not distinguish between music played in its original order and music sliced into half-second intervals, which were played in random order. Chimpanzees can hear higher frequencies than humans. If orangutans can too, and if these overtones are present in the recordings, the overtones would affect their choices.
Cetaceans
Lilly
In the 1960s, John C. Lilly sponsored English lessons for one bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). The teacher, Margaret Howe Lovatt, lived with the dolphin for months in a house on the shore of the Virgin Islands. The house was partially flooded and allowed them to be together for meals, play, language lessons, and sleep. Lilly thought of this as a mother-child dyad, though the dolphin was five to six years old. Lilly said that he had heard other dolphins repeating his own English words, and believed that an intelligent animal would want to mimic the language of its captors, to communicate. The experiment ended in the third month and did not restart, because Howe found the two-room lab and constant bumping from the dolphin too constricting.
After several weeks, a concerted effort by the dolphin to imitate the instructor's speech was evident, and human-like sounds were apparent, and recorded. It was able to perform tasks such as retrieval of aurally indicated objects without fail. Later in the project the dolphin's ability to process linguistic syntax was made apparent, in that it could distinguish between commands such as "Bring the ball to the doll," and "Bring the doll to the ball." This ability not only demonstrates the bottlenose dolphin's grasp of basic grammar, but also implies the dolphins' own language might include syntactical rules. The correlation between length and 'syllables' (bursts of the dolphin's sound) with the instructor's speech also went from essentially zero at the beginning of the session to almost a perfect correlation by its completion. So that when the human spoke five or ten syllables, the dolphin also spoke five or ten 'syllables' or bursts of sound.
Two experiments of this sort are explained in detail in Lilly's book, Mind of the Dolphin. The first experiment was more of a test run to check psychological and other strains on the human and cetacean participants. Its goal was to determine the extent of the need for other human contact, dry clothing, time alone, and so on. Despite tensions after several weeks, Howe Lovatt agreed to the months isolated with the dolphin.
Experiments by the research team of Louis Herman, a former collaborator and student of Lilly's, demonstrated that dolphins could understand human communication in whistles and respond with the same whistles.
A female bottlenose dolphin, Phoenix, understood at least 34 whistles.
Whistles created a system of two-way communication. By having separate whistles for object and action, Herman could reorder commands without fresh teaching (take hoop to ball). Successful communication was shown when Herman used new combinations, and the dolphin understood and did what he asked without further training 80-90% of the time.
In 1980, Herman had taught six whistles to a female bottle-nose dolphin, Kea, to refer to three objects and three actions, and the dolphin followed his instructions. He wrote, "In addition to mouthing the three familiar training objects in the presence of the mouth name, Kea correctly mouthed on their first appearance a plastic water pipe, a wooden disc, and the experimenter's open hand. The same type of immediate response generalization occurred for touch and fetch."
Richards, Wolz and Herman (1984) trained a dolphin to make distinct whistles for objects, "so that, in effect, the dolphin gave unique vocal labels to those objects."
Herman's later publications do not discuss the whistle communication. Herman started getting US Navy funding in 1985, so further expansion of the two-way whistle language would have been in the classified United States Navy Marine Mammal Program, a black project.
Herman also studied the crossmodal perceptual ability of dolphins. Dolphins typically perceive their environment through sound waves generated in the melon of their skulls, through a process known as echolocation (similar to that seen in bats, though the mechanism of production is different). The dolphin's eyesight however is also fairly good, even by human standards. Herman's research found that any object, even of complex and arbitrary shape, identified either by sight or sound by the dolphin, could later be correctly identified by the dolphin with the alternate sense modality with almost 100 per cent accuracy, in what is classically known in psychology and behaviorism as a match-to-sample test. The only errors noted were presumed to have been a misunderstanding of the task during the first few trials, and not an inability of the dolphin's perceptual apparatus. This capacity is strong evidence for abstract and conceptual thought in the dolphin's brain, wherein an idea of the object is stored and understood not merely by its sensory properties; such abstraction may be argued to be of the same kind as complex language, mathematics, and art, and implies a potentially very great intelligence and conceptual understanding within the brains of tursiops and possibly many other cetaceans. Accordingly, Lilly's interest later shifted to whale song and the possibility of high intelligence in the brains of large whales, and Louis Herman's research at the now misnomered Dolphin Institute in Honolulu, Hawaii, focuses exclusively on the Humpback whale.
Other researchers
Batteau (1964, video) developed machines for the US Navy, which translated human voices to higher frequencies for dolphins to hear and translated dolphin voices to lower frequencies for humans to hear. The work continued at least until 1967 when the Navy classified its dolphin research. Batteau died, also in 1967, before he published results.
Reiss and McCowan (1993) taught dolphins three whistles (ball, ring, rub), which the two dolphins produced, and even combined, when playing with the ball and/or ring, or getting a rub.
Delfour and Marten (2005) gave dolphins a touchscreen to show they recognized a musical note
Kuczaj (2006) used an underwater keyboard, which humans and dolphins can touch to signal an action.
Amundin et al. (2008) had dolphins point narrow echolocation beams onto an array of hydrophones which acted like a touchscreen to communicate with the researchers ( video)
Reiss (2011) used an underwater keyboard which dolphins could press. A dolphin defined a key as "I want a small fish" and Reiss (2011, p. 100) understood, but ignored it.
Herzing (2013) used an underwater keyboard in the open ocean which dolphins and humans could press to choose a plaything.
Herzing (2014) created 3 whistles for "play objects (Sargassum... scarf, and rope)", and found that wild dolphins understand them, but has not found if dolphins produce the whistles.
Historical
From Roman times to modern Brazil, dolphins have been known to drive fish toward fishermen waiting on shore, and signal to the fishermen when to throw their nets, even when water is too murky for the fishermen to see the arrival of the fish. The dolphins catch unnetted fish disoriented by the net.
From about 1840 to 1920, orcas smacked the water off Twofold Bay in New South Wales to signal to human whalers that the orcas were herding large baleen whales nearby, so the humans would send boats to harpoon the whales, killing them faster and more assuredly than the orcas could. The orcas ate the tongues and lips, leaving the blubber and bones for the humans.
Dogs
Origins of Communication with Canines
It has been widely theorized that human-animal communication began with the domestication of dogs. Humans began communicating with wolves before the end of the late pleistocene, and the two species eventually created a wide scale symbiotic relationship with one another. Modern biologists and anthropologists theorize that humans and wolves met near hunting grounds, and as the Homo sapien diet began relying more and more on meat for development, they would often encounter and compete with wolves.
Humans' relationship with wolves garnered a mutual benefit, obtaining food and protection. Humans likely began attempting to cooperate with wolves through commands, which eventually led to a more familiar species of dogs that we know today. These commands were likely the first instances of obedience training upon canines, as dogs maintained a pack mentality that humans fit into as the alpha.
Neolithic humans developed, seemingly unintentionally, a system of artificial selection with both livestock and animal companions, ushering in a widespread sustenance based foundation of humans communicating with animals. New theories within academic discussion of scientific data refer to this as both prezygotic and postzygotic “strong” artificial selection. Humans began controlling the offspring of livestock during the agricultural revolution through the mating of high yielding animals.
Theories from anthropologists suggest that humans began differing relationships with canines during the neolithic age. This is possibly when humans began keeping dogs as pets, creating a new form of communication with domesticated animals, pet talk.
Dogs communicating to humans
In a Scientific American article from May 1884, John Lubbock described experiments teaching a dog to read text commands on cardboard cards.
Bonnie Bergin trained dogs to go to specific text on the wall to ask clearly for "water, treat or pet me." Dogs were able to learn English or Japanese text. She says service dogs can learn to find EXIT signs, bathroom gender signs, and report what disease they smell in a urine sample by going to a sign on the wall naming that disease.
Police and private dogs can be trained to "alert" when they find certain scents, including drugs, explosives, mines, scent of a suspect, fire accelerants, and bed bugs. The alert can be a specific bark or position, and can be accepted as evidence in court.
Stanley Coren identifies 56 signals which untrained dogs make and people can understand, including ten barks, five growls, eight other vocalizations, 11 tail signals, five ear and eye positions, five mouth signals and 12 body positions. Faragó et al. describe research that humans can accurately categorize barks from unseen dogs as aggressive, playful, or stressed, even if they do not own a dog. This recognizability has led to machine learning algorithms to categorize barks, and commercial products and apps such as BowLingual.
Humans communicating to dogs
Dogs can be trained to understand hundreds of spoken words, including Chaser (1,022 words), Betsy (340 words), Rico (200 words),
and others.
They can react appropriately when a human uses verbs and nouns in new combinations, such as "fetch ball" or "paw frisbee."
Canine researcher Bonnie Bergin trained dogs to obey 20 written commands on flashcards, in Roman or Japanese characters, including 🚫 to keep them away from an area.
Shepherds and others have developed detailed commands to tell herding dogs when to move, stop, collect or separate herd animals.
Mutual communication
Claims of interspecies communication between dogs and humans, with the use of sound buttons, have prompted researchers at the University of California, at San Diego to begin an ongoing research effort (as of June 2021) into potential canine linguistic capabilities.
Felines
Human-Feline communication is dated to at least 9,500-10,000 B.C. according to archeological evidence from the Neolithic village of Shillourokambos on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus. Human and cat remains were found buried together along with ceremonial seashells, polished stones, and other decorative artifacts. This burial between a human and feline companion suggests that the two species had begun building a relationship with one another. Feline companions began with the establishment of organized wide-scale agriculture, as humans needed a way to exterminate vermin which inhabited food stores.
Evidence of the regular domestication of felines started around 5,000 B.C. in Ancient Egypt with cats becoming a tool which humans kept near food surpluses as agriculture became more widespread and regulated. Cats are known to possess a commensal relationship with humans, and are treated as regular housepets. Modern felines often perform no real duties and are housetrained. Human owners communicate with these felines through pet talk, yet there is little to no evidence that felines can understand humans or are capable of consistent training, most cases are individual and replication can be very difficult.
Other animal training
Humans teach animals specific responses for specific conditions or stimuli. Training may be for purposes such as companionship, detection, protection, research and entertainment. During training humans communicate their wishes with positive or negative reinforcement. After training is finished the human communicates by giving signals with words, whistles, gestures, body language, etc.
APOPO has trained Southern giant pouched rats to communicate to humans the presence of land mines, by scratching the ground, and tuberculosis in medical samples. They identify 40% more cases of tuberculosis than clinics do, an extra 12,000 cases from 2007 to 2017. They have identified 100,000 mines from 2003 to 2017, certifying as mine-free. They are accurate enough that the human trainers run on the land after removing the mines which rats have identified.
Rats (Wistar, Rattus norvegicus) have been taught to distinguish and respond differently to different human faces.
Patricia McConnell found that handlers around the world, speaking 16 languages, working with camels, dogs, donkeys, horses and water buffalo, all use long sounds with a steady pitch to tell animals to go more slowly (whoa, euuuuuu), and they use short repeated sounds, often rising in pitch, to speed them up or bring them to the handler (Go, Go, Go, claps, clicks). Chimpanzees, dogs, gulls, horses, rats, roosters, sheep and sparrows all use similar short repeated sounds to tell others of the same species to come closer.
Even fish, which lack a neocortex, have been taught to distinguish and respond differently to different human faces (archerfish) or styles of music (goldfish and koi).
Molluscs, with totally different brain designs, have been taught to distinguish and respond to symbols (cuttlefish and octopus), and have been taught that food behind a clear barrier cannot be eaten (squid).
A harbor seal, Hoover learned to speak several phrases in understandable English as a pup from his human foster parent and used these in appropriate circumstances during his later life at the New England Aquarium until he died in 1985. Other talking animals have been studied, though they did not always use their phrases in meaningful contexts.
Animal communication as entertainment
Though animal communication has always been a topic of public comment and attention, for a period in history it surpassed this and became sensational popular entertainment. From the late 18th century through the mid 19th century, a succession of "learned pigs" and various other animals were displayed to the public in for-profit performances, boasting the ability to communicate with their owners (often in more than one language), write, solve math problems, and the like. One poster, dated 1817, shows a group of "Java sparrows" who are advertised as knowing seven languages, including Chinese and Russian.
Other Information
There are many evolving and unique ways that humans interact with animals. Human evolution from using animals for sport has evolved into many of them seen as common house pets.
Human language differs greatly from animal communication in the sense that everything in context-dependent. There have been multiple claims and eventual studies conducted to help highlight the difference in animal communication and human communication being heavily reliant on context. The communication systems of other animals help to showcase many of the differences that exist. The term `indexicality' has been utilized to indicate the characteristic way of using the context in human language. Opposed to the more general term of context-dependence and the relating situation in animal communication systems.
Human communication with animals has been around for centuries and exists all across the world. Indigenous people have relied on their communication skills to speak and coexist with birds, grazers, and hunters. They have been able to share the land with these animals and eventually adopt animals such as dogs and cats. However, there has always been a stigma surrounding the intelligence of animal communication compared to that of human. That belief however has begun to shift. Humans have begun to understand animal communication on a far deeper level as technology has allowed for the conversion of experiences throughout time to coexist with the findings of today. Communicating with animals will continue to grow and evolve. It has been around since the test of time and has the potential to grow exponentially more.
See also
Alex (parrot)
Animal cognition
Animal communication
Animal consciousness
Animal intelligence
Anna Breytenbach
Clever Hans
Great ape language
Interspecies communication
Talking animal
Bibliography
Sebeok, Thomas – Essays in Zoosemiotics (1990)
Myers, Arthur – Communicating With Animals: The Spiritual Connection Between People and Animals (1997)
Boehner, Bruce Thomas – Parrot Culture: Our 2,500-Year-Long Fascination with the World's Most Talkative Bird (2004)
Summers, Patty – Talking With the Animals (1998)
Jay, Ricky – Learned Pigs and Fireproof Women (1987)
Gurney, Carol – The Language of Animals: 7 Steps to Communicating with Animals (2001)
Grandin, Temple – Animals in Translation: Using the Mysteries of Autism to Decode Animal Behavior (2004)
Ruesch, Jurgen, and Weldon Kees. Nonverbal Communication : Notes on the Visual Perception of Human Relations. University of California Press, 1956.
Hurn, Samantha. Humans and Other Animals : Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Human-Animal Interactions. Pluto Press, 2012. Accessed 24 Feb. 2022.
Bradshaw, G. A. “You See Me, but Do You Hear Me? The Science and Sensibility of Trans-Species Dialogue.” Feminism & Psychology, vol. 20, no. 3, Aug. 2010, pp. 407–19. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353510368285.
Brown, Peter. “Talking Points.” Natural History, vol. 113, no. 9, Nov. 2004, p. 8. EBSCOhost, https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=14772118&site=ehost-live.
Perconti, Pietro. “Context-Dependence in Human and Animal Communication.” Foundations of Science, vol. 7, no. 3, Sept. 2002, pp. 341–62. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019613210814.
References
External links
Animal Communication Project | wiki |
Mahameru may refer to:
A 3D representation of the Sri Yantra
Mount Meru
Semeru, a volcano in Java, Indonesia | wiki |
Polophylax (Greek: guardian of the celestial [south] pole) was a southern constellation that lay where Tucana and Grus now are.
It was introduced by Petrus Plancius in the small celestial planispheres on his large wall map of 1592. It is also shown on his smaller world map of 1594 and on world maps copied from Plancius.
It was superseded by the twelve constellations which Petrus Plancius formed in late 1597 or early 1598 from the southern star observations of Pieter Dircksz Keyser and Frederik de Houtman.
External links
Polophylax at Ian Ridpath's Star Tales
Former constellations | wiki |
AJL peut faire référence à :
;
Association des journalistes LGBT. | wiki |
Positional voting is a ranked voting electoral system in which the options or candidates receive points based on their rank position on each ballot and the one with the most points overall wins. The lower-ranked preference in any adjacent pair is generally of less value than the higher-ranked one. Although it may sometimes be weighted the same, it is never worth more. A valid progression of points or weightings may be chosen at will (Eurovision Song Contest) or it may form a mathematical sequence such as an arithmetic progression (Borda count), a geometric one (positional number system) or a harmonic one (Nauru/Dowdall method). The set of weightings employed in an election heavily influences the rank ordering of the candidates. The steeper the initial decline in preference values with descending rank, the more polarised and less consensual the positional voting system becomes.
Positional voting should be distinguished from score voting: in the former, the score that each voter gives to each candidate is uniquely determined by the candidate's rank; in the latter, the each voter is free to give any score to any candidate.
Voting and counting
In positional voting, voters complete a ranked ballot by expressing their preferences in rank order. The rank position of each voter preference is allotted a specific fixed weighting. Typically, the higher the rank of the preference, the more points it is worth. Occasionally, it may share the same weighting as a lower-ranked preference but it is never worth fewer points.
Usually, every voter is required to express a unique ordinal preference for each option on the ballot in strict descending rank order. However, a particular positional voting system may permit voters to truncate their preferences after expressing one or more of them and to leave the remaining options unranked and consequently worthless. Similarly, some other systems may limit the number of preferences that can be expressed. For example, in the Eurovision Song Contest only their top ten preferences are ranked by each country although many more than ten songs compete in the contest. Again, unranked preferences have no value. In positional voting, ranked ballots with tied options are normally considered as invalid.
The counting process is straightforward. All the preferences cast by voters are awarded the points associated with their rank position. Then, all the points for each option are tallied and the one with the most points is the winner. Where a few winners (W) are instead required following the count, the W highest-ranked options are selected. Positional voting is not only a means of identifying a single winner but also a method for converting sets of individual preferences (ranked ballots) into one collective and fully rank-ordered set. It is possible and legitimate for options to be tied in this resultant set; even in first place.
Example
Consider a positional voting election for choosing a single winner from three options A, B and C. No truncation or ties are permitted and a first, second and third preference is here worth 4, 2 and 1 point respectively. There are then six different ways in which each voter may rank order these options. The 100 voters cast their ranked ballots as follows:
After voting closes, the points awarded by the voters are then tallied and the options ranked according to the points total.
Therefore, having the highest tally, option A is the winner here. Note that the election result also generates a full ranking of all the options.
Point distributions
For positional voting, any distribution of points to the rank positions is valid provided that they are common to each ranked ballot and that two essential conditions are met. Firstly, the value of the first preference (highest rank position) must be worth more than the value of the last preference (lowest rank position). Secondly, for any two adjacent rank positions, the lower one must not be worth more than the higher one. Indeed, for most positional voting electoral systems, the higher of any two adjacent preferences has a value that is greater than the lower one so satisfying both criteria.
However, some non-ranking systems can be mathematically analysed as positional ones provided that implicit ties are awarded the same preference value and rank position; see below.
The classic example of a positional voting electoral system is the Borda count. Typically, for a single-winner election with N candidates, a first preference is worth N points, a second preference N - 1 points, a third preference N - 2 points and so on until the last (Nth) preference that is worth just 1 point. So, for example, the points are respectively 4, 3, 2 and 1 for a four-candidate election.
Mathematically, the point value or weighting (wn) associated with a given rank position (n) is defined below; where the weighting of the first preference is 'a' and the common difference is 'd'.
wn = a-(n-1)d where a = N (the number of candidates)
The value of the first preference need not be N. It is sometimes set to N - 1 so that the last preference is worth zero. Although it is convenient for counting, the common difference need not be fixed at one since the overall ranking of the candidates is unaffected by its specific value. Hence, despite generating differing tallies, any value of 'a' or 'd' for a Borda count election will result in identical candidate rankings.
The consecutive Borda count weightings form an arithmetic progression. An alternative mathematical sequence known as a geometric progression may also be used in positional voting. Here, there is instead a common ratio ‘r’ between adjacent weightings. In order to satisfy the two validity conditions, the value of ‘r’ must be less than one so that weightings decrease as preferences descend in rank. Where the value of the first preference is ‘a’, the weighting (wn) awarded to a given rank position (n) is defined below.
wn = arn-1 where 0 ≤ r < 1
For example, the sequence of consecutively halved weightings of 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, … as used in the binary number system constitutes a geometric progression with a common ratio of one-half (r = 1/2). Such weightings are inherently valid for use in positional voting systems provided that a legitimate common ratio is employed. Using a common ratio of zero, this form of positional voting has weightings of 1, 0, 0, 0, … and so produces ranking outcomes identical to that for first-past-the-post or plurality voting.
Alternatively, the denominators of the above fractional weightings could form an arithmetic progression instead; namely 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 and so on down to 1/N. This further mathematical sequence is an example of a harmonic progression. These particular descending rank-order weightings are in fact used in N-candidate positional voting elections to the Nauru parliament. For such electoral systems, the weighting (wn) allocated to a given rank position (n) is defined below; where the value of the first preference is ‘a’.
wn = a2/(a+(n-1)d) = a/(1+(n-1)d/a) where w1 = a2/(a+(1-1)d) = a
For the Nauru (Dowdall) system, the first preference ‘a’ is worth one and the common difference ‘d’ between adjacent denominators is also one. Numerous other harmonic sequences can also be used in positional voting. For example, setting ‘a’ to 1 and ‘d’ to 2 generates the reciprocals of all the odd numbers (1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7, …) whereas letting ‘a’ be 1/2 and ‘d’ be 1/2 produces those of all the even numbers (1/2, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8, …).
Apart from these three standard types of mathematical progression (arithmetic, geometric and harmonic), there are countless other sequences that may be employed in positional voting. The two validity criteria only require that a sequence monotonically decreases with descending rank position. Such a sequence is a ‘strict’ one when no two adjacent weightings are equal in value. There are many integer sequences that increase monotonically so by taking the reciprocal of each integer a monotonically decreasing sequence is thereby generated. For example, taking the reciprocal of every number in the Fibonacci sequence (excepting the 0 and 1 start numbers) produces a valid positional voting sequence of 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/5, 1/8 and so on.
Mathematical progression formulas are needed to define the preference weightings of a positional voting electoral system where the number of options or candidates is undefined or unlimited. In actual elections however the number of preferences is finalised in advance of voting so an arbitrary weighting may be assigned to each rank position provided that the resulting sequence is valid. A classic example of this approach is the unique positional voting system used in the Eurovision Song Contest. Here, the value ‘a’ of a first preference is worth 12 points while a second one is given 10 points. The next eight consecutive preferences are awarded 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 point. All remaining preferences receive zero points. Although this sequence of preferences is monotonic as all valid ones must be, it is not a ‘strict’ one as all the lowest weightings are equal in value (zero). Like the Nauru system, this method is sometimes referred to as a 'variant' of the Borda count.
Comparison of progression types
In positional voting, the weightings (w) of consecutive preferences from first to last decline monotonically with rank position (n). However, the rate of decline varies according to the type of progression employed. Lower preferences are more influential in election outcomes where the chosen progression employs a sequence of weightings that descend relatively slowly with rank position. The more slowly weightings decline, the more consensual and less polarising positional voting becomes.
This figure illustrates such declines over ten preferences for the following four positional voting electoral systems:
Borda count (where a = N = 10 and d = 1)
Binary number system (where a = 1 and r = 1/2)
Nauru method (where a = 1 and d = 1)
Eurovision Song Contest (non-zero preferences only)
To aid comparison, the actual weightings have been normalised; namely that the first preference is set at one and the other weightings in the particular sequence are scaled by the same factor of 1/a.
The relative decline of weightings in any arithmetic progression is constant as it is not a function of the common difference ‘d’. In other words, the relative difference between adjacent weightings is fixed at 1/N. In contrast, the value of ‘d’ in a harmonic progression does affect the rate of its decline. The higher its value, the faster the weightings descend. Whereas the lower the value of the common ratio ‘r’ for a geometric progression, the faster its weightings decline.
The weightings of the digit positions in the binary number system were chosen here to highlight an example of a geometric progression in positional voting. In fact, the consecutive weightings of any digital number system can be employed since they all constitute geometric progressions. For example, the binary, ternary, octal and decimal number systems use a radix ‘R’ of 2, 3, 8 and 10 respectively. The value ‘R’ is also the common ratio of the geometric progression going up in rank order while ‘r’ is the complementary common ratio descending in rank. Therefore, ‘r’ is the reciprocal of ‘R’ and the ‘r’ ratios are respectively 1/2, 1/3, 1/8 and 1/10 for these positional number systems when employed in positional voting.
As it has the smallest radix, the rate of decline in preference weightings is slowest when using the binary number system. Although the radix ‘R’ (the number of unique digits used in the number system) has to be an integer, the common ratio ‘r’ for positional voting does not have to be the reciprocal of such an integer. Any value between zero and just less than one is valid. For a slower descent of weightings than that generated using the binary number system, a common ratio greater than one-half must be employed. The higher the value of ‘r’, the slower the decrease in weightings with descending rank.
Analysis of non-ranking systems
Although not categorised as positional voting electoral systems, some non-ranking methods can nevertheless be analysed mathematically as if they were by allocating points appropriately. Given the absence of strict monotonic ranking here, all favoured options are weighted identically with a high value and all the remaining options with a common lower value. The two validity criteria for a sequence of weightings are hence satisfied.
For an N-candidate ranked ballot, let the permitted number of favoured candidates per ballot be F and the two weightings be one point for these favoured candidates and zero points for those not favoured. When analytically represented using positional voting, favoured candidates must be listed in the top F rank positions in any order on each ranked ballot and the other candidates in the bottom N-F rank positions. This is essential as the weighting of each rank position is fixed and common to each and every ballot in positional voting.
Unranked single-winner methods that can be analysed as positional voting electoral systems include:
Plurality voting (FPTP): The most preferred option receives 1 point; all other options receive 0 points each. [F=1]
Anti-plurality voting: The least preferred option receives 0 points; all other options receive 1 point each. [F=N-1]
And unranked methods for multiple-winner elections (with W winners) include:
Single non-transferable vote: The most preferred option receives 1 point; all other options receive 0 points each. [F=1]
Limited voting: The X most preferred options (where 1 < X < W) receive 1 point each; all other options receive 0 points each. [F=X]
Bloc voting: The W most preferred options receive 1 point each; all other options receive 0 points each. [F=W]
In approval voting, voters are free to favour as many or as few candidates as they wish so F is not fixed but varies according to the individual ranked ballots being cast. As rank positions would then have different weightings on different ballots, approval voting is not a positional voting system; nor can it be analysed as such.
Comparative examples
Where wn is the weighting of the nth preference, the following table defines the resultant tally calculation for each city:
For a first preference worth w1 = 1, the table below states the value of each of the four weightings for a range of different positional voting systems that could be employed for this election:
These five positional voting systems are listed in progression type order. The slower the decline in weighting values with descending rank order, the greater is the sum of the four weightings; see end column. Plurality declines the fastest while anti-plurality is the slowest.
For each positional voting system, the tallies for each of the four city options are determined from the above two tables and stated below:
For each potential positional voting system that could be used in this election, the consequent overall rank order of the options is shown below:
This table highlights the importance of progression type in determining the winning outcome. With all voters either strongly for or against Memphis, it is a very ‘polarized’ option so Memphis finishes first under plurality and last with anti-plurality. Given its central location, Nashville is the ‘consensus’ option here. It wins under the Borda count and the two other non-polarized systems
Evaluation against voting system criteria
As a class of voting systems, positional voting can be evaluated against objective mathematical criteria to evaluate its strengths and weaknesses in comparison with other single-winner electoral methods.
Positional voting satisfies the following criteria:
Non-dictatorship
Unrestricted domain
Summability (with order N)
Consistency
Participation
Resolvability
Monotonicity
Pareto efficiency
But it fails to satisfy the following criteria:
Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA)
Independence of Clones (IoC)
Condorcet winner
Condorcet loser (except the Borda count)
Reversal symmetry (except the Borda count)
Majority (except when equivalent to plurality)
According to Arrow’s impossibility theorem, no ranked voting system can satisfy all of the following four criteria when collectively ranking three or more alternatives:
Non-dictatorship
Unrestricted domain
Pareto efficiency
Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA)
Prior to voter preferences being cast, voting systems that treat all voters as equals and all candidates as equals pass the first two criteria above. So, like any other ranking system, positional voting cannot pass both of the other two. It is Pareto efficient but is not independent of irrelevant alternatives. This failure means that the addition or deletion of a non-winning (irrelevant) candidate may alter who wins the election despite the ranked preferences of all voters remaining the same.
IIA example
Consider a positional voting election with three candidates A, B and C where a first, second and third preference is worth 4, 2 and 1 point respectively. The 12 voters cast their ranked ballots as follows:
The election outcome is hence:
Therefore, candidate A is the single winner and candidates B and C are the two losers. As an irrelevant alternative (loser), whether B enters the contest or not should make no difference to A winning provided the voting system is IIA compliant.
Rerunning the election without candidate B while maintaining the correct ranked preferences for A and C, the 12 ballots are now cast as follows:
The rerun election outcome is now:
Given the withdrawal of candidate B, the winner is now C and no longer A. Regardless of the specific points awarded to the rank positions of the preferences, there are always some cases where the addition or deletion of an irrelevant alternative alters the outcome of an election. Hence, positional voting is not IIA compliant.
IoC example
Positional voting also fails the independence of clones (IoC) criterion. The strategic nomination of clones is quite likely to significantly affect the outcome of an election and it is often the intention behind doing so. A clone is a nominally identical candidate to one already standing where voters are unable to distinguish between them unless informed as to which of the two is the clone. As tied rankings are not permitted, these two candidates must be ranked by voters in adjacent positions instead. Cloning may well promote or demote the collective ranking of any non-cloned candidate.
Consider a positional voting election in which three candidates may compete. There are just 12 voters and a first, second and third preference is worth 4, 2 and 1 point respectively.
In this first scenario, two candidates A and B are nominated but no clone enters the contest. The voters cast their ranked ballots as follows:
The election outcome is hence:
Given equal support, there is an evitable tie for first place between A and B.
Suppose B, anticipating this tie, decided to enter a clone of itself. The nominated candidates are now A, B1 and B2. As the voters are unable to distinguish between B1 and B2, they are just a likely to rank B1 over B2 as to prefer B2 over B1. In this second scenario, the 12 ballots are now cast as follows:
The new election outcome is now:
By adding a clone of itself, B has handed victory to candidate A. This counter-productive ‘spoiler’ effect or act of self-harm is called vote-splitting.
To promote itself into first place, B should instead instruct all its supporters to always prefer one of its candidates (say B1) over the other (B2). In this third scenario, the 12 ballots are now cast as follows:
The revised election outcome is now:
By ‘team’ B signalling to its own supporters - but not to A supporters - which of its two candidates it wants to win, B has achieved its objective of gaining victory for B1. With no clone, A and B tie with equal numbers of first and second preferences. The introduction of clone B2 (an irrelevant alternative) has pushed the second preferences for A into third place while preferences for ‘team’ B (B or B1) are unchanged in the first and third scenarios. This wilful act to ‘bury’ A and promote itself is called teaming. Note that if A signals to its own supporters to always prefer B2 over B1 in a tit-for-tat retaliation then the original tie between A and ‘team’ B is re-established.
To a greater or lesser extent, all positional voting systems are vulnerable to teaming; with the sole exception of a plurality-equivalent one. As only first preferences have any value, employing clones to ‘bury’ opponents down in rank never affects election outcomes. However, precisely because only first preferences have any value, plurality is instead particularly susceptible to vote-splitting. To a lesser extent, many other positional voting systems are also affected by ‘spoiler’ candidates. While inherently vulnerable to teaming, the Borda count is however invulnerable to vote-splitting.
Notes
Donald G. Saari has published various works that mathematically analyse positional voting electoral systems. The fundamental method explored in his analysis is the Borda count.
References
External links
Economic Theory, Vol. 15, Issue 1, 2000: Mathematical Structure of Voting Paradoxes: II. Positional Voting, Donald G. SAARI
Electoral systems
Preferential electoral systems | wiki |
William Malatinsky is an American author and frequent contributor to the Virginia Quarterly Review. His fiction was short-listed for the Best American Short Stories in 2006 and 2010.
He graduated from Kalamazoo College in 2002.
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American male poets
American male short story writers
American short story writers
Kalamazoo College alumni
Writers from Seattle | wiki |
Digital technology may refer to:
Application of digital electronics
Any significant piece of knowledge from information technology | wiki |
American Constitutional Initiative (commonly known as ACI) is a non-profit advocacy group that defines its mission as promoting intellectually sound change to American legal and political landscape. ACI employs research, lobbying, and direct-appeal campaigns to advocate a progressive vision of America's Constitution and laws.
References
Think tanks based in the United States | wiki |
Sateda may refer to:
Sateda, a fictional planet in the Stargate series from where Ronon Dex originates
"Sateda" (Stargate Atlantis), an episode of the TV series Stargate Atlantis | wiki |
Allahabadi cake (Nastaleeq: , Devanagari: ) is a traditional Indian rum fruit cake originating and lending its name from the north Indian city of Allahabad. Allahabadi cake is a Christmas cake popularly prepared for consumption during Christmastide by the Christian population of India and Pakistan.
Preparation
Allahabadi cake is made with maida, eggs, clarified butter, sugar, petha, marmalade, nuts, ginger and fennel as its main ingredients. Dry fruits and nuts are soaked in rum for enhanced flavour.
See also
References
Uttar Pradeshi cuisine
Allahabad culture
Foods with alcoholic drinks
Christmas cakes
Butter cakes | wiki |
Little Falls may refer to:
Places in the United States
Little Falls, Maine
Little Falls, Minnesota
Little Falls, New Jersey
Little Falls (NJT station)
Little Falls (city), New York
Little Falls (town), New York
Little Falls (Potomac River), a set of rapids downstream of Great Falls near Washington, DC
Little Falls Branch (Potomac River)
Little Falls Park, Montgomery County, Maryland
Little Falls Parkway, Montgomery County, Maryland
Little Falls, Wisconsin, a town
Little Falls, Polk County, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Vader, Washington, formerly Little Falls
Little Falls, Virginia
Little Falls, West Virginia
Little Falls Dam, across the Mississippi River near Little Falls, Minnesota
Little Falls Meetinghouse, a Friends meetinghouse in Fallston, Maryland
Places in Canada
Little Falls (Hamilton, Ontario), a waterfall
Little Falls, a community in Ramara, Ontario
Places in South Africa
Little Falls, a community in Johannesburg
See also
Little Falls Township, Morrison County, Minnesota
Little Falls Mets, a defunct minor-league baseball team in Little Falls, New York | wiki |
Brownsville may refer to:
United States
Brownsville, Alabama, unincorporated community in Clay County
Brownsville, California (disambiguation), the name of several places
Brownsville, Delaware
Brownsville, Florida
Brownsville (Metrorail station), located at the above location
Brownsville, Escambia County, Florida
Brownsville, the original name of the South Atlanta neighborhood of Atlanta, Georgia
Brownsville, Georgia, an unincorporated community in Paulding County
Brownsville (ghost town), Illinois, ghost town in Jackson County, Illinois
Brownsville, White County, Illinois, unincorporated community in White County, Illinois
Brownsville, Indiana
Brownsville, Kentucky
Brownsville-Bawcomville, Louisiana
Brownsville, Maryland
Brownsville, Minnesota
Brownsville, Mississippi, in Hinds County, Mississippi
Brownsville, Brooklyn, New York
Brownsville, Ohio
Brownsville, Oregon
Brownsville, Pennsylvania
Brownsville, Berks County, Pennsylvania
Brownsville Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania
Brownsville, South Dakota
Brownsville, Tennessee
Brownsville, Texas, largest population among cities with this name
Brownsville, Vermont
Brownsville (Nassawadox, Virginia), a historic house
Brownsville, Washington
Brownsville, West Virginia
Brownsville, Wisconsin
Canada
Brownsville, British Columbia
Brownsville, Nova Scotia
Brownsville, Durham Region, Ontario
Brownsville, Oxford County, Ontario
Brownsville Station, Ontario
The original name of Schomberg, Ontario
An early settlement of Woodbridge, Ontario, founded between 1802 and 1837, now subsumed by Woodbridge
Australia
Brownsville, New South Wales, a suburb of Wollongong, New South Wales
See also
Brownsville affair
Brownville (disambiguation)
"Brownsville Girl" (1986 song) | wiki |
Ross Petty is a Canadian actor and theatre producer.
Ross Petty may also refer to:
Ross Petty (American football), American football guard who played for the Decatur Staleys of the National Football League
Ross Petty (pediatrician), Canadian pediatric rheumatologist | wiki |
The Brunner Pouter is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Brunner Pouters along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons are all descendants from the rock pigeon (Columba livia).
The breed is one of the most popular blower breeds.
See also
List of pigeon breeds
Brunn
References
Pigeon breeds | wiki |
Point Pleasant may refer to:
Places
In Canada
Point Pleasant Park, Halifax, Nova Scotia
In England
Point Pleasant (Wallsend), Tyne and Wear
In the United States
Point Pleasant Township, Warren County, Illinois
Point Pleasant, Indiana
Point Pleasant, New Jersey
Point Pleasant Beach, New Jersey
Point Pleasant, Maryland, a neighborhood of Glen Burnie, Maryland
Point Pleasant, Missouri, in New Madrid County, Missouri
Point Pleasant, Ohio
Point Pleasant, Pennsylvania
Point Pleasant, West Virginia
Other
Point Pleasant (TV series), a 2005 Fox television show set in a fictionalized version of the New Jersey town
Point Pleasant Battleground, near Point Pleasant, West Virginia, and site of a 1774 battle between Virginia militia and Native Americans
"Point Pleasant", a song by God Is an Astronaut from the 2002 album The End of the Beginning
See also
Point Pleasant Historic District (disambiguation)
Pleasant Point (disambiguation)
Point Pleasant High School (disambiguation) | wiki |
Made in Heaven (album Queen)
Made in Heaven (album Palucha)
Made in Heaven (singel Freddiego Mercury’ego)
Made in Heaven (singel Kylie Minogue)
Made in Heaven (film 1921)
Made in Heaven (film 1952)
Made in Heaven (film 1987) | wiki |
Jason Cavalier Leboeuf, generally credited as Jason Cavalier, is a Canadian stuntman and actor. Leboeuf is originally from Montreal, Quebec. He started in the television series Time of your life as Mickey in 1988.
Selected filmography
Film
Television
Video games
References
External links
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Canadian stunt performers
Canadian male television actors | wiki |
Golden Ocean Group is a Bermuda-registered, Norway- based dry bulk shipping company. The company was created as a demerged part of Frontline in 2004 and is listed on Nasdaq and the Oslo Stock Exchange. 42% of the company is owned by John Fredriksen.
The company owns one of the largest dry bulk fleets in the world.
Management of the fleet is carried out by the Norwegian company Golden Ocean Group Management AS led by CEO Ulrik Uhrenfeldt Andersen
References
External links
Shipping companies of Norway
Dry bulk shipping companies
Shipping companies of Bermuda
Transport companies established in 2004
2004 establishments in Bermuda
2004 establishments in Norway
Companies listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange
Companies listed on the Nasdaq | wiki |
Norma Cantu or Norma Cantú may refer to:
Norma Elia Cantú (born 1947), Chicana postmodernist writer and professor
Norma V. Cantú (born 1954), American civil rights lawyer and educator | wiki |
Pay as you go or PAYG may refer to:
Finance
Pay-as-you-go tax, or pay-as-you-earn tax
Pay-as-you-go pension plan
PAYGO, the practice in the US of financing expenditures with current funds rather than borrowing
PAUG, a structured financial product
Prepayment (disambiguation), especially incremental prepayment; in particular
Prepaid mobile phone
Music
Pay As U Go, a UK garage crew
See also
PAYE (disambiguation) | wiki |
Beach games are games played on the beach. Beach games may refer to:
ANOC World Beach Games
African Beach Games
Asian Beach Games
Mediterranean Beach Games
South American Beach Games
South Asian Beach Games
See also
Games (disambiguation)
Beach (disambiguation)
Beach volleyball at the Olympics | wiki |
The prisoner's dilemma is a standard example in game theory.
Prisoner's dilemma may also refer to:
Prisoner's Dilemma (novel), a 1988 novel by Richard Powers
The Prisoner's Dilemma (audio drama), a 2009 audiobook based on Doctor Who
The Prisoner's Dilemma (play), a 2001 play by David Edgar
"Prisoner's Dilemma" (Person of Interest), a 2013 television episode
"The Prisoner's Dilemma" (Prison Break), a 2017 television episode
"The Prisoner's Dilemma" (Voltron: Legendary Defender), a 2018 television episode
See also
Innocent prisoner's dilemma, a detrimental effect of a legal system in which admission of guilt can result in a lesser punishment | wiki |
Fedora kan henvise til flere artikler:
Fedora (beklædning) – en hat med bred skygge
Fedora (Linux-distribution) – en Linux-distribution
Fedora (opera) – en opera af Umberto Giordano | wiki |
Campionato del mondo di scacchi FIDE 2000 – torneo ad eliminazione diretta vinto da Viswanathan Anand
Campionato del mondo di scacchi classico 2000 – match tra Garry Kasparov e Vladimir Kramnik, vinto da quest'ultimo | wiki |
The 2019 Northern European Gymnastics Championships was an artistic gymnastics competition held in Kópavogur, Iceland. The event was held between 21 and 22 September.
Medalists
References
2019 in gymnastics
Northern European Gymnastics Championships | wiki |
Spindly growth, also known as leggy growth, is a term used when two plants compete for sunlight and nutrients in order to develop.
Causes
Spindly growth occurs when one plant receives a great amount of sunlight, while the other would develop as a deformed one, due to lack of sunlight and other natural resources needed for photosynthesis. Another reason includes the fact that the sprout has been left under an artificial light source for more than 12 to 16 hours (the recommended amount to keep the plant under), overwatering, and excessive addition of fertilizer.
Solutions
After germination, transport plants to an area with a temperature of .
Keep under light for at least 12 hours a day.
Plant seeds apart to prevent crowding.
Remove deceased plants to promote growth for newly planted ones.
References
Why Vegetable Plants Are Spindly
StackPath
Spindly Seedlings under Grow Lights? - Gardenerd
The flower and vegetable plants that I start indoors get tall and spindly. Why? | Horticulture and Home Pest News
Keep Calm and Prune Dead Wood
Plant development | wiki |
British Association screw threads, or BA screw threads, are a set of small screw threads, the largest being 0BA at 6 mm diameter. They were, and to some extent still are, used for miniature instruments and modelling.
They are unusual in that they were probably the most "scientific" design of screw, starting with 0BA at 6.0 mm diameter and 1.0 mm pitch and progressing in a geometric sequence where each larger number was 0.9 times the pitch of the last size. They then rounded to 2 significant figures in metric and then converting to inches and rounding to the thousandth of an inch. This anticipated worldwide metrication by about a century. The design was first proposed by the British Association in 1884 with a thread angle and depth based on the Swiss Thury thread, it was adopted by the Association in 1903.
The Thury thread was different in that it went both positive and negative all the way up to a size of −20 which was 75.2 mm diameter by 8.23 mm pitch (p). The Thury numbers were rounded to three significant figures. The Thury thread form had the crests rounded at p and the roots rounded at p so the thread angle was close to 47.5° but not exactly. This was simplified in the BA thread definition by defining the thread angle to be 47.5° exactly and the thread form to be symmetrical with a depth of p.
The British Standards Institution recommends the use of BA sizes in favour of the smaller British Standard Whitworth (BSW) and British Standard Fine (BSF) thread screws (those below inch). Generally, the 0BA size was dropped in place of inch BSF in assemblies that included larger fasteners, however, in smaller equipment that was primarily electronic/electrical the 0BA size would typically be used in place of the BSF or BSW screw where it was the largest size required.
BA threads are still used in some precision instruments, such as optics and moving-coil meters, relays etc. A 2BA thread is used to connect the metal barrel of a dart to its shaft — as such, it is one of the few common uses of this thread in North America.
In the UK, 2BA threads are commonly found in the old imperial British Engineering Standards Association (BESA) conduit boxes, and 4BA threads in light switch and socket back boxes which are still in use (but not installed) today.
BA thread sizes
The pitch of 0BA is 1 mm and the pitch of each higher numbered thread is obtained by multiplying the pitch of the lower number by 0.9 so K-BA has a pitch of p = 0.9K rounded to two significant figures in mm. The major diameter is given by 6p1.2, rounded to two significant figures in mm and the hex head size (across the flats) is 1.75 times the major diameter.
BA sizes are specified by the following British Standards:
BS 57:1951 — B.A. screws, bolts and nuts
BS 93:1951 — Specification for British Association (B.A.) screw threads with tolerances for sizes 0 B.A. to 16 B.A.
BS 93:2008 — British Association (B.A.) screw threads — Requirements
The angle of the thread is 47.5° and the depth of thread is 0.6 times the pitch with rounded tops and bottoms. Thus, the shortening at the crest and root is given by 0.26817p with a radius of 0.18083p at both crest and root. The 1884 report specifies a radius of p ≈ 0.181818p but this was an approximation to the correct value.
The pitch diameter of the thread is simply and the minor diameter is .
The thread angle is different from that used by Whitworth (55°), US Unified threads (60°) and ISO Metric (60°) so BA fasteners are not properly interchangeable with Whitworth or metric ones even when the pitch and diameter are similar enough that they can be screwed together (e.g., although 0BA appears similar to M6×1mm, the male and female surfaces do not mate properly for bearing a load). Standard BA sizes are defined between 0BA and 22BA. The even sizes are much more common and the very small sizes are not used very often and other standards tend to be used (e.g., Norm Horlogere Suisse).
Notes
External links
Bolt Science writeup.
Table of thread dimensions
Recommended ISO substitutions
First and second report of the BA Small Screws Committee
Useful comparison of obsolete British threads
Thread standards
Screws
Standards of the United Kingdom | wiki |
The Mexican peso (symbol: $; code: MXN) is the currency of Mexico. Modern peso and dollar currencies have a common origin in the 16th–19th century Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign, "$".
The current ISO 4217 code for the peso is MXN; prior to the 1993 revaluation, the code MXP was used. The peso is subdivided into 100 , represented by "¢". The Mexican peso is the 6th most traded currency in the world, the third most traded currency from the Americas (after the United States dollar and Canadian dollar), and the most traded currency from Latin America. , the peso's exchange rate was $20.52 per euro, $18.88 per U.S. dollar, and $14.10 per Canadian dollar.
History
Etymology
The name was first used in reference to ('gold weights') or ('silver weights'). The Spanish word means 'weight'. Compare the British pound sterling. Other countries that use are Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, the Philippines, and Uruguay.
Real
The currency system in use in Spanish America from the 16th to 19th centuries consisted of silver reales, weight 3.433 grams and fineness = 93.1%, as well as gold escudos, weight 3.383 g and fineness = 91.7%. By the 19th century the silver real weighed 3.383 g, 65/72 = 90.3% fine, while the gold escudo's fineness was reduced to 21 karats or 87.5% fine.
15 or 16 silver reales were worth a gold escudo, and eight-real coins of 24.44 g fine silver were widely called pesos in Spanish America and dollars in Britain and its American colonies. These pesos or dollars were minted from the rich silver mine outputs of modern-day Mexico and Bolivia and exported in large quantities to Europe and Asia. These pesos served as a global silver standard reserve currency until the start of the 20th century, and became the model for the various pesos of Spanish America as well as (among others) the United States dollar, Chinese yuan and the Japanese yen. Mexican silver pesos of original cap-and-ray design were legal tender in the United States until 1857 and in China until 1935.
First peso
While the United States divided their dollar into 100 cents early on from 1793, post-independence Mexico retained the peso of 8 reales until 1863 when the Second Mexican Empire under Emperor Maximillan commenced the minting of pesos divided into 100 centavos. The restored Mexican republic under Benito Juarez and Porfirio Diaz continued the minting of centavo coins in base metal or silver, as well as gold coins in pesos, but it had to revert the silver 1-peso coin to the old eight reales "cap-and-ray design" from 1873 to 1897 after East Asian merchants rejected or discounted the newly designed peso coins.
The post-independence silver peso contained 27.07 grams of 90.3% fine silver (24.44 g fine) while the gold peso or half escudo contained 1.6915 grams of 87.5% fine gold (1.48 g fine). After most of Europe switched to the gold standard in the 1870s the gold peso substantially rose in value against the silver peso, until it became 2 silver pesos to a gold peso or a gold peso dollar by 1900. In 1905 the peso was solely defined as 0.75 g fine gold.
From 1918 onward the weight and fineness of all the silver coins declined, until 1977, when the last silver 100-peso coins were minted. The U.S. dollar was worth 2.00 silver pesos from 1905 to 1929, rising afterwards until it stabilized at 12.50 pesos from 1954 to 1976.
New peso
Throughout most of the 20th century, the Mexican peso remained one of the more stable currencies in Latin America, since the economy did not experience periods of hyperinflation common to other countries in the region. However, after the oil crisis of the late 1970s, Mexico defaulted on its external debt in 1982, and as a result the country suffered a severe case of capital flight, followed by several years of inflation and devaluation. The U.S. dollar leapt from 12.50 to 19.40 pesos in 1976, and again from 23 to 150 pesos in 1982, stabilizing only in the early 1990s at above 3,000 MXP/USD when a government economic strategy called the "Stability and Economic Growth Pact" (Pacto de estabilidad y crecimiento económico, PECE) was adopted under President Carlos Salinas.
On January 1, 1993, the Bank of Mexico introduced a new currency, the ("new peso", or MXN), written "N$" followed by the numerical amount. One new peso, or N$1.00, was equal to 1,000 of the obsolete MXP pesos.
The transition was done with minimal confusion by issuing the Series B "nuevo peso" banknotes in N$10, $20, $50, and $100 denominations with designs nearly identical to the corresponding banknote in the preceding Series A, which were labelled in old pesos (MXP $10,000, $20,000, $50,000, and $100,000, respectively); for Series B, the equivalent nuevo peso face value was of the old peso face value for Series A. For example, the Series A old peso MXP$20,000 and the Series B nuevo peso MXN$20 banknotes share the same design, aside from the updated face value. Old and new pesos circulated simultaneously between 1993 and 1995, but old peso Series A banknotes were gradually retired at this time, and newly designed Series C "nuevo peso" banknotes commenced in 1994. From January 1, 1996, the "nuevo peso" was simply renamed to "peso", and new Series D banknotes were issued identical to Series C except for the word "nuevo" dropped. The ISO 4217 code, however, remained unchanged as MXN. Series A and AA banknotes were demonetized and no longer legal tender as of January 1, 1996. Although they remain legal tender, Series B, C, D, and D1 banknotes are in the process of being withdrawn from circulation; in addition, the MXN$1000 Series F banknote is being withdrawn. The most commonly circulated banknotes in Mexico are MXN$20 and above in Series F and G.
Similarly, Series B coins in nuevo peso denominations were circulated starting from 1993 and Series A and AA coins were demonetized starting from November 15, 1995. Unlike the notes, Series B coins differed in size and design from the Series A coins. Series C coins (which dropped the "N$" prefix on the MXN$1, N$5, N$10, N$20, and N$50 coins) were circulated starting in 1996 following the withdrawal of Series A and AA coins. Series B and C coins in uncommon denominations (10-centavo and MXN$20 and greater) are gradually being withdrawn from circulation. Although they remain legal tender, they are set aside when they arrive at commercial banks. The most commonly circulated coins in Mexico are MXN$10 and below in Series C and D.
The new Mexican peso, however, has continued to depreciate versus the U.S. dollar, with the dollar rising sharply from 3.4 to 7.2 pesos after the Mexican peso crisis of December 1994. It would then trade at 9–12 pesos per dollar between 1998 and 2008, at 12–14 between 2008 and 2014, and at 18–20 between 2016 and 2019. Though severely depreciating in the midst of the COVID pandemic in early 2020 to roughly 25 pesos per dollar, since 2020 the peso has appreciated nearly 30%, reaching an five-year high of 18 pesos per dollar in March 2023. This was mostly attributed to the growth of "nearshoring" strategies, growing foreign investment, as well as the strict monetary policy adopted by the Bank of Mexico in attempts to curb inflation following the COVID pandemic and the Russian Invasion of Ukraine. Notwithstanding these fluctuations the Mexican currency has experienced much less cumulative inflation when compared to several other currencies in Latin America, and the Mexican peso is now among the 15 most traded currency units.
Coins
Real
Coins issued from the 16th to 19th centuries under the Spanish American system of reales and escudos included
in gold: , 1, 2, 4 and 8 escudos, with 1 escudo ≈ 2 pesos or 16 reales.
in silver: , 1, 2, 4 and 8 reales, with 1 peso = 8 reales.
Additionally, Mexico issued copper coins denominated in tlacos or real ( peso). Post-independence silver coins were of the cap and ray design showing a radiant Phrygian cap marked "Libertad" (liberty), which became familiar to East Asian traders. This design ended in 1872 with the minting of "centavo" coins except for the silver 8-reales which was revived as a trade coin from 1873 to 1897.
Peso, 19th century
The Second Mexican Empire of 1863-1867 commenced the minting of coins denominated in pesos and centavos, minting the copper 1-centavo, silver 5, 10 and 50 centavos, the silver 1-peso and the gold 20-peso. The last two coins featured the portrait of Emperor Maximilian on the obverse, and the imperial arms of the short-lived empire on the reverse.
The Restored Mexican republic of 1867 continued the minting of coins in pesos and centavos. The copper 1-centavo coin was continued; silver (.9027 fine) coins of 5, 10, 20, 25 and 50 centavos and 1 peso commenced in 1867; and gold coins of 1, , 5, 10 and 20 pesos commenced in 1870. The obverses featured the Mexican 'eagle' and the legend "Republica Mexicana". The reverses of the larger coins showed a pair of scales; those of the smaller coins, the denomination.
In 1882, cupro-nickel 1, 2 and 5 centavos coins were issued but they were only minted for two years. Despite the discontinuation of the newly designed silver peso in 1873, in 1898 the denomination on the "cap-and-ray" coin was successfully revised from "8 reales" to "1 peso" without being rejected in China; this continued to be minted as trade coinage until 1909. From 1900 the market value of the gold coins have approximately doubled versus their face values.
Peso, 20th century
In 1905 a monetary reform was carried out in which the gold content of the peso was reduced by 49.36% and the silver coins were (with the exception of the 1-peso) reduced to token issues. Bronze 1 and 2 centavos, nickel 5 centavos, silver 10, 20, and 50 centavos and gold 5 and 10 pesos were issued.
In 1910, a new peso coin was issued, the famous Caballito, considered one of the most beautiful of Mexican coins. The obverse had the Mexican official coat of arms (an eagle with a snake in its beak, standing on a cactus plant) and the legends "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" and "Un Peso". The reverse showed a woman riding a horse, her hand lifted high in exhortation holding a torch, and the date. These were minted in .903 fineness silver from 1910 to 1914.
In 1947, a new issue of silver coins was struck, with the 50 centavo and 1 peso in .500 fineness and a new 5-peso coin in .900 fineness. A portrait of José María Morelos appeared on the 1 peso and this was to remain a feature of the 1 peso coin until its demise. The silver content of this series was 5.4 g to the peso. This was reduced to 4 g in 1950, when .300 fineness 25 and 50 centavo, and 1 peso coins were minted alongside .720 fineness 5 pesos. A new portrait of Morelos appeared on the 1 peso, with Cuauhtemoc on the 50 centavo and Miguel Hidalgo on the 5 peso coins. No reference was made to the silver content except on the 5 peso coin. During this period 5 peso, and to a lesser extent, 10 peso coins were also used as vehicles for occasional commemorative strikings.
Between 1960 and 1971, new coinage was introduced, consisting of brass 1 and 5 centavos, cupro-nickel 10, 25, and 50 centavos, 1, 5, and 10 pesos, and silver 25 pesos (only issued 1972). In 1977, silver 100 pesos were issued for circulation. In 1980, smaller 5 peso coins were introduced alongside 20 pesos and (from 1982) 50-pesos in cupro-nickel. Between 1978 and 1982, the sizes of the coins for 20 centavos and above were reduced. Base metal 100, 200, 500, 1,000, and 5,000 peso coins were introduced between 1984 and 1988.
Series AA coins
Series A coins
New peso coins
As noted above, the ("new peso") was the result of elevated rates of inflation in Mexico during the 1980s. In 1993, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari stripped three zeros from the peso, creating a parity of 1 new peso for 1,000 of the old ones. The prior coins, issued in the 1970s and 1980s, were designated A-type or AA-type and are no longer valid.
Coins of the new currency (dated 1992) were introduced in 1993 as the B-type or Series B in the following denominations:
5 and 10 centavos in stainless steel;
20 and 50 centavos in aluminum bronze (switched to stainless steel in 2009);
Bimetallic 1, 2 and 5 nuevos pesos, with aluminum bronze centers and stainless steel rings; and
Bimetallic 10, 20 and 50 nuevos pesos, with sterling silver (0.925 fine) centers and aluminum bronze rings.
In 1996, the word was removed from the coins, which are designated as the C-type or Series C. In 1997 regular-issue 10-peso coins were minted with base metal replacing the silver center. In 2000 commemorative 20-peso coins also began to be minted without silver. Though the 50- and 100-peso coins are the only currently circulating coinage in the world to contain any silver, they rarely circulate because their silver content of 1/2 troy ounce have exceeded 100 pesos in value since around 2010.
In 2003 the Banco de México began the gradual launch of a new series of bimetallic $100 coins. These number 32 – one for each of the nation's 31 states, plus Mexico City. While the obverse of these coins bears the traditional coat of arms of Mexico, their reverses show the individual coats of arms of the component states. The first states to be celebrated in this fashion were Zacatecas, Yucatán, Veracruz, and Tlaxcala. In circulation, they are extraordinarily rare, but their novelty value offsets the unease most users feel at having such a large amount of money in a single coin. Although the Bank has tried to encourage users to collect full sets of these coins, issuing special display folders for this purpose, the high cost involved has worked against them. Bullion versions of these coins are also available, with the outer ring made of gold instead of aluminum bronze.
The first C1-type coins were issued in 2020; in general, these are commemorative $20 coins. , the coins most commonly encountered in circulation have face values of 50¢, $1, $2, $5 and $10. Commemorative $20 coins are less commonly encountered than $20 notes. The 5¢ coin has been withdrawn from circulation in 2002, while the 10¢ and 20¢ coins have gradually dropped out of circulation due to their low value. Some commodities are priced in multiples of 10¢, but stores may choose to round the total prices to 50¢. There is also a trend for supermarkets to ask customers to round up the total to the nearest 50¢ or 1 peso to automatically donate the difference to charities.
Series B coins
Series C coins
Series D coins
Series D coins, introduced in 2009, replace the prior 10-, 20-, and 50-centavo coins from Series B and C; compared to the prior coinage, the Series D counterparts are made from the punched out cores of the rings used to make the 1-, 2- and 5-peso coins, hence their smaller size and stainless steel composition. This measure is designed to save money and resources in production. The edge of each denomination is different to aid in distinguishing them by touch.
Special and commemorative coins
Banknotes
First
The first banknotes issued by the Mexican state were produced in 1823 by Emperor Agustin de Iturbide in denominations of 1, 2 and 10 pesos. Similar issues were made by the republican government later that same year. Ten-pesos notes were also issued by Emperor Maximilian in 1866 but, until the 1920s, banknote production lay entirely in the hands of private banks and local authorities.
In 1920, the Monetary Commission (Comisión Monetaria) issued 50-centavos and 1-peso notes whilst the Bank of Mexico (Banco de México) issued 2-pesos notes. From 1925, the Bank issued notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 pesos, with 500 and 1000 pesos following in 1931. From 1935, the Bank also began issuing a new series of banknotes (Series AA) including 1-peso notes and, from 1945, 10,000 pesos. These notes were printed by the American Bank Note Company. The banknote of 10,000 pesos was kept in circulation between 1945 and 1956 and was put into circulation again in 1979, being replaced by the 10,000 banknotes that would come into circulation in 1982.
A new series of notes were printed and issued by the Bank of Mexico, starting in 1969 (again as Series AA) with 10 pesos, followed by 5 pesos in 1971, 20 and 50 pesos in 1973, 100 pesos in 1975, 1,000 pesos in 1978, 500 pesos in 1979 and 10,000 pesos in 1982. These were the first notes to be printed directly by Banco de México.
Production of 1-peso notes ceased in 1970, followed by 5 pesos in 1972, 10 and 20 pesos in 1977, 50 pesos in 1984, 100 pesos in 1985, 500 pesos in 1987 and 1,000 pesos in 1988. A new series (Series A) were issued starting from 1980: 5,000-pesos notes were introduced in 1980, followed by 2,000 pesos in 1983, 20,000 pesos in 1985, 50,000 pesos in 1986 and 100,000 pesos in 1991.
Series AA
Series A
Second peso
Series B
In 1993, notes were introduced in the new currency for 10, 20, 50, and 100 nuevos pesos. These notes are designated series B by the Bank of Mexico (Banco de México). (It is important to note that this series designation is not the 1 or 2 letter series label printed on the banknotes themselves.) All were printed with the date July 31, 1992. The designs were carried over from the corresponding notes of the old peso.
Series C
All Series C notes had brand new designs and were printed with the date December 10, 1993, but they were not issued until October 1994. The word "nuevos" remained, and banknotes in denominations of 200 and 500 nuevos pesos were added. The 500 nuevos pesos note was worth more than US$100 when it was introduced, but its value dropped to almost equal to $100 by the end of 1994.
Series D
The next series of banknotes, designated Series D, was introduced in 1996. It is a modified version of Series C with the word "nuevos" dropped, the bank title changed from "El Banco de México" to "Banco de México" and the clause "pagará a la vista al portador" (Pay at sight to the bearer) removed. While series D includes the $10 note and is still legal tender, they are no longer printed, are seldom seen, and the coin is more common. $10 notes are rarely found in circulation. There are several printed dates for each denomination.
In 2000, a commemorative series was issued which was based on Series D with the additional text "75 aniversario 1925-2000" under the bank title, which refers to the 75th anniversary of the establishment of the Bank.
Starting from 2001, each denomination in the series was updated. MXN $50, $100, $200, and $500 were the first to be upgraded starting from October 15, 2001; in an effort to combat counterfeiting, these notes were modified with the addition of an iridescent strip. On notes of 100 pesos and greater, the denomination is printed in color-shifting ink in the top right corner. On September 30, 2002, a new $20 note was introduced. The new $20 is printed on longer-lasting polymer plastic rather than paper, and lacks the iridescent strip, but includes a clear window. A new $1000 note was issued on November 15, 2004, which was worth about US$88 upon introduction. The Bank of Mexico refers to the these upgraded banknotes during this wave of change as "Series D1".
On April 5, 2004, the Chamber of Deputies approved an initiative to demand that the Bank of Mexico produce by January 1, 2006, notes and coins that are identifiable by the blind population (estimated at more than 750,000 visually impaired citizens, including 250,000 who are completely blind).
On December 19, 2005, $100, $200, and $500 MXN banknotes in Series D1 were printed, including raised, tactile patterns, meant to make them distinguishable for people with vision incapacities. This system has been questioned and many demand that it be replaced by actual Braille so it can be used by foreign visitors to Mexico not used to these symbols. The Banco de México, however, says they will continue issuing the symbol bills. The tactile patterns would be continued for Series F and a fourth pattern was added to the MXN $1,000 note.
Series F
In September 2006, the gradual introduction of a new family of banknotes (known as Series F or Type-F) was announced. The 50-peso denomination was launched in November 2006. The 20-peso note was launched in August 2007. The 1,000-peso note was launched in March 2008. The $200 was issued in 2008, and the $100 and $500 notes were released in August 2010. In Series F, the 20, 50, and 100-peso notes are printed on polymer and include clear windows; all denominations include a color-shifting element. For 100-peso notes and greater, a 3D/dynamic thread is included; this thread has holographic images of snails which shift orthogonally relative to the motion of the note, so they will move side to side if the bill is moved up and down, for instance.
Series F included the tactile patterns created by intaglio printing from Series D to distinguish denominations starting at 100 pesos; the 20 and 50-peso notes had the value embossed directly in the clear windows. In addition, Series F denominations are distinguishable by length. Each denomination is longer than the lower by , and a plastic clipboard was distributed free of charge starting in November 2012, which included raised measurement marks and Braille characters to assist the visually impaired.
A revised $50 note, with improved security features, was released on May 6, 2013, and is known as Type F1.
Commemorative banknotes
On September 29, 2009, The Bank of Mexico unveiled a set of commemorative banknotes. The 100-peso denomination note commemorates the centennial of the Beginning of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). The 200-peso denomination note commemorates the bicentennial of the start of the Mexican War for Independence which began in 1810. There was a printing error in the $100 notes, in the small letters (almost unnoticeable, as they are very small and the same color as the waving lines), near the top right corner, just above the transparent corn, from the side of the "La Revolución contra la dictadura Porfiriana", it is written: "Sufragio electivo y no reelección" (Elective suffrage and no reelection), this supposed to be a quote to Francisco I. Madero's famous phrase, but he said "Sufragio efectivo no reelección" (Valid Suffrage, No Reelection). President Felipe Calderón made a newspaper announcement in which he apologized for this, and said that the notes were going to continue in circulation, and that they would retain their value.
Likewise, a 100-peso banknote that commemorates the 100th anniversary of the enactment of the Constitution of Mexico was unveiled and issued in 2017.
In 2019, the Bank of Mexico issued a new 200-peso banknote of the Series G issues, but containing a special overprint referencing the 25th Anniversary of the Bank of Mexico's Autonomy from the Federal Government.
Series G
In August 2018 a new series of notes started circulating. New anti-counterfeiting measures were implemented. The obverse of the notes will portray important historical eras and individuals. The reverse of the notes will portray the various ecosystems of the country through one of the World Heritage sites of Mexico.
This series did not originally consider including a $20 note, since it would gradually be replaced by a coin, but a $20 note to commemorate the bicentennial of Mexican independence was issued in September 2021. The 20, 50, and 100-peso notes are produced in polymer, while the other banknotes will be printed on paper. Should there be a need, Banco de México will introduce a $2,000 note.
The previous intaglio symbols were dropped from Series G. Instead, the upper left and right edges of the 200, 500, and 1000-peso notes have tactile parallel horizontal lines for identification by touch. 200-peso notes have two lines; 500 and 1000-peso notes have three and four, respectively. The value of the 20, 50, and 100-peso notes are embossed in the clear windows of the corresponding notes, along with a distinctive pattern.
Series G notes also retain the same incremental length increase between denominations from Series F, starting with the MXN $50 note, which is long; exceptions include the commemorative MXN $20 Series G note, which is long, and the planned $2,000 note, which will be longer than the $1,000 note. A new version of the sizing clipboard, compatible with both Series F and G, was issued starting in September 2019.
Use outside Mexico
19th century
The Spanish dollar and Mexican peso served as global silver standard reserve currency, recognized all over Europe, Asia and the Americas from the 16th to 20th centuries. They were legal tender in the United States until 1857 and in China until 1935.
The 18th and 19th century Spanish dollar and Mexican peso were widely used in the early United States. On July 6, 1785, the value of the United States dollar was set by decree to approximately match the Spanish dollar. Both were based on the silver content of the coins.
The first U.S. dollar coins were not issued until April 2, 1792, and the peso continued to be officially recognized and used in the United States, along with other foreign coins, until February 21, 1857. In Canada, it remained legal tender, along with other foreign silver coins, until 1854 and continued to circulate beyond that date.
The Mexican peso also served as the model for the Straits dollar (now the Singapore dollar/Brunei dollar), the Malaysian ringgit, the Hong Kong dollar, the Japanese yen, the Korean won, and the Chinese yuan. The Chinese word ‘’yuan’’ means “round”, describing the Spanish dollars, Mexican "cap-and-ray" pesos and other silver dollars used in China from the 18th to 20th centuries. The Mexican peso was also briefly legal tender in 19th century Siam, when government mints were unable to accommodate a sudden influx of foreign traders, and was exchanged at a rate of three pesos to five Thai baht.
21st-century use
Some establishments in border areas of the United States accept Mexican pesos as currency, such as certain border Walmart stores, certain border gas stations such as Circle K, and the La Bodega supermarkets in San Ysidro on the Tijuana border. In 2007, Pizza Patrón, a chain of pizza restaurants in the southwestern part of the U.S., started to accept the currency, sparking controversy in the United States. Other than in U.S., Guatemalan, and Belizean border towns, Mexican pesos are generally not accepted as currency outside of Mexico.
See also
Cash
Economy of Mexico
Inflation hedge
Mexican peso crisis
Mexican Gold and Silver Libertad coins
Peso
References
External links
Mexican Paper Money, description of the Mexican banknotes of the Bank of Mexico issued from 1925 until now.
Current banknotes and coins at the site of Banco de México (Mexico's Central Bank)
Historia de la moneda y del billete en México, history of the currency from the Banco de México
Images of historic and modern Mexican coins
Historical banknotes of Mexico
Peso
Benito Juárez | wiki |
Blowing may refer to:
Air
Breath
Blowing by a whale, from blowhole (anatomy)
Industrial processes
Blowing (glassmaking)
Blowing (textile finishing)
Dry blowing, method to extract gold particles from dry soil without the use of water
Melt blowing, fabrication method of micro-and nanofibers through extrusion
Other
Blowing (album), Japanese-language album by Tokio | wiki |
In medicine, excavation has two meanings:
the act of hollowing out
the space hollowed out, or a natural cavity or pouch
Examples of the latter include:
Rectouterine pouch or excavation, between the uterus and the rectum
Rectovesical excavation, between the rectum and the male bladder
Vesicouterine excavation, between the bladder and the uterus in a female
Medical terminology | wiki |
Chloe is a fictional character from the British soap opera Hollyoaks, played by Susan Loughnane. The character made her first on-screen appearance on 12 August 2013. Loughnane had to audition for the role. Initially appearing in a small number of episodes, Loughnane returned to film new storylines. Chloe is introduced into the show as the mother of Matthew McQueen. The character has earned a reputation as a "serial surrogate mother" from selling her babies. Chloe sold Matthew to John Paul McQueen (James Sutton) and Craig Dean (Guy Burnett). While on-screen she agrees to sell another baby to Sienna Blake (Anna Passey) and later Carmel McQueen (Gemma Merna). Chloe has featured in a same sex kiss with Tilly Evans (Lucy Dixon).
Chloe's behaviour has been the focus of critics. The Evening Herald's Eimear Rabbitte viewed Chloe as a troublemaker. Laura Morgan from Inside Soap said that she was a "crafty" female. Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy believed she has "history of erratic behaviour".
Casting
Irish actress Loughnane had to audition for part of Chloe. Later she had a chance meeting with fellow Irish and Hollyoaks actor Emmett J. Scanlan. Upon being chosen to play the role Loughnane remembered that she forgot to mention the Hollyoaks audition to Scanlan.
Development
Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy announced details of the character on 6 August 2013. He revealed that Chloe arrives in Hollyoaks to visit her son Matthew McQueen. She acted as a surrogate mother so John Paul McQueen (James Sutton) and Craig Dean (Guy Burnett) could begin a family. She pretends to want to visit Matthew, then reveals that she needs £5000. When John Paul refuses she threatens to take Matthew away claiming that Craig is the father. Sutton told Kilkelly that he enjoyed filming with Loughnane and they had fun working on the storyline. He detailed how Chloe and John Paul had become best friends while living in Ireland. They share a lot of history and he has previously been there to bail her out of money troubles. Chloe's first scenes were broadcast on 12 August 2013.
On 10 August 2013, Loughnane announced that she had returned to filming at Hollyoaks until November 2013. She explained to Eimear Rabbitte from the Evening Herald that "I filmed for the month of June and then I had a break and now I'm back for the next few months." Loughnane described Chloe as a fun character and challenging to play. Kilkelly reported that Chloe would return pregnant and planning to sell her baby. When Sienna Blake (Anna Passey) learns of her intentions she offers Chloe double the price for her unborn baby. Chloe realises that Sienna is covering up a fake pregnancy to deceive Darren Osborne (Ashley Taylor Dawson) and blackmails her as a means to solve her financial problems.
Loughnane David Hennessy from the Irish World that Chloe's treatment of Sienna would make viewers like her. She added that "Chloe discovers that Sienna’s not really pregnant. She just starts to manipulate her and blackmail her and while that would be a horrible thing to do if it was to a nice character, because it’s Sienna, it’s great. It’s like evil meets evil and I think that’s kind of nice, Sienna’s met her match a little bit." Chloe reconsiders and offers to sell her baby to Sienna. But Chloe changes her mind for selfish reasons. Passey told Sarah Ellis from Inside Soap that "something went wrong with the family who were going to have Chloe's baby, so she offers it to Sienna instead." The actress added that Chloe's offer is a "godsend" and makes Sienna believe her deceitful plans are justified because she and Darren will now have a child.
In November 2013, Loughnane announced that she would continue to appear onscreen into January 2014. On 3 December 2013, Kilkelly reported that Chloe would become part of a new storyline causing trouble for Tilly Evans (Lucy Dixon) and Esther Bloom's (Jazmine Franks) relationship. Tilly believes that Chloe is trying to steal Esther from her. Chloe begins a protest to free illegal immigrant Vincent Elegba (John Omole) and subsequently be arrested. The stunt leaves Tilly unimpressed and sparks an argument resulting in Chloe kissing Tilly. Dixon has stated that Chloe is a "crazy girl who came out of nowhere". Tilly views her outlook on life as being different and reminds herself of how she used to be. Dixon concluded that Tilly views "Chloe as a way of getting back to the old Tilly."
December saw the culmination of the Chloe's involvement in Sienna's storyline. When Chloe is rushed into hospital after losing consciousness, Sienna begins to panic. Passey told Carena Crawford from All About Soap that Chloe's hospitalisation is "life and death" for Sienna - "she's decided now: this baby is hers, and nothing can go wrong." Passey also admitted that Sienna does not believe Chloe's plan will work. She just deludes herself because she wants Chloe's baby to solve her problems. But Sienna's lies are exposed leaving Chloe without a recipient. Kilkelly later reported that Carmel Valentine (Gemma Merna) would be the next character to offering to adopt the baby. Carmel discovers that she may not be able to have children and sees Chloe's predicament as the solution to her problem. However, her boyfriend Jim McGinn (Dan Tetsell) is unhappy. Despite his disapproval Carmel plans to purchase Chloe's unborn baby. But she soon tires of Carmel and opts to spend time with Tilly instead. Carmel is also arrested in her attempts to raise the money to pay Chloe. Laura Morgan from All About Soap reported that Chloe will plan to steal Carmel's money and leave Hollyoaks. Her final scenes will air on 3 January 2014.
Storylines
Chloe arrives in the village and quickly befriends Theresa McQueen (Jorgie Porter). However, when she meets John Paul McQueen (James Sutton), she is soon revealed to be Matthew's mother and claims to want to visit her son. He agrees, but she reveals that she is £5000 in debt and needs to raise the money. When John Paul refuses to help, she announces that she will take Matthew away if he does not pay up. He agrees and begins to attempt to find the money. John Paul discovers that he is actually Matthew's father instead of his former boyfriend Craig (Guy Burnet) and he confronts Chloe. She apologises for lying and admits she just needed the money and leaves.
Chloe soon returns to the village requesting an additional loan from John Paul, and reveals that she is acting as a surrogate mother for another couple. Sienna Blake (Anna Passey) overhears the conversation and befriends Chloe. She later asks Chloe to sell the baby to her, but Chloe realises that Sienna is lying about her pregnancy and blackmails her into giving her money in exchange for her silence. When Chloe returns she is accused of stealing the funds raised by the Osbornes to help to search for missing Tom Cunningham (Ellis Hollins). She moves into the student house with Tilly Evans (Lucy Dixon), who believes Chloe is attracted to her girlfriend Esther. She annoys her housemates by eating all their food and messing up the kitchen cupboards. Chloe stages a protest to free Vincent, and Tilly believes she is trying to impress Ether. Tilly confronts Chloe, who then confesses her attraction to Tilly, resulting in a kiss. Chloe faints and is rushed to hospital where she and Tilly kiss again, only for Sienna to walk in on them. Chloe momentarily considers keeping the baby but tells Sienna she can still have the baby. Tilly discovers the truth about the baby lie and tries to stop it, but Sienna is soon exposed and Chloe is left with the task of finding new parents for her unborn child.
When Esther discovers the kiss, Chloe pretends that she instigated it. Tilly agrees to let Chloe continue living with her. Carmel Valentine (Gemma Merna) later approaches Chloe with the idea of buying her baby. She agrees but changes her mind when she witnesses a fiery argument in the McQueen household. Tilly causes an argument with Esther on New Year's Eve so she can spend it with Chloe. They kiss but Tilly feels guilty and cannot leave Esther. Chloe decides to leave the village but Carmel attempts to convince her to be her surrogate again. Chloe demands a cash payment and plans to run away with the cash. But Esther realises that Tilly loves Chloe and convinces her to leave with her. Tilly manages to catch Chloe and they leave together.
Reception
The Evening Herald's Rabbitte described Chloe as a "fun-loving", young Irish mother who creates trouble on her arrival. Laura Morgan from All About Soap had branded Chloe a "crafty" type of character. A RTÉ.ie reporter opined that Chloe returned to Hollyoaks in October as a "vulnerable girl". Digital Spy's Kilkelly said that "mischievous Chloe" was "not one to be easily fooled" and that blackmail is part of her "true colours". He also viewed Chloe and Tilly's kiss as a surprise moment. He later said that Chloe created a "history of erratic behaviour" during her tenure. A writer from SoapSquawk branded Chloe a "fiery" female.
Viewing an unconcerned Chloe being arrested while pregnant left one writer from Virgin Media questioning "what on earth is she playing at?" Carena Crawford from Reveal magazine chose Chloe being rushed into hospital as a soap highlight of the day. Rebecca Bowden writing for Yahoo! was delighted that Chloe "effortlessly" got the upper hand over Sienna and congratulated her in her article. When Chloe offers to sell Sienna her baby questioned whether the storyline could become any crazier and drawn out. She later commented that Tilly was "clearly gobsmacked by how low Sienna and Chloe will sink in order to protect themselves". Anthony D. Langford of TheBacklot.com said that Chloe blackmailing John Paul with the threat of legal action was a "dumb" storyline. He noted that she had no money to pay for legal fees leaving John Paul free to ignore her demands. Hennessy branded Chloe a "serial surrogate mother" whose presence caused an "explosive impact".
References
Hollyoaks characters
Television characters introduced in 2013
Fictional blackmailers
Female characters in television | wiki |
Ray Charles Robinson Sr. (September 23, 1930 – June 10, 2004) was an American singer, songwriter, pianist and alto saxophonist. He is regarded as one of the most iconic and influential singers in history, and was often referred to by contemporaries as "The Genius". Among friends and fellow musicians he preferred being called "Brother Ray". Charles was blinded during childhood, possibly due to glaucoma.
Charles pioneered the soul music genre during the 1950s by combining blues, jazz, rhythm and blues, and gospel styles into the music he recorded for Atlantic Records. He contributed to the integration of country music, rhythm and blues, and pop music during the 1960s with his crossover success on ABC Records, notably with his two Modern Sounds albums. While he was with ABC, Charles became one of the first black musicians to be granted artistic control by a mainstream record company.
Charles's 1960 hit "Georgia On My Mind" was the first of his three career No. 1 hits on the Billboard Hot 100. His 1962 album Modern Sounds In Country And Western Music became his first album to top the Billboard 200. Charles had multiple singles reach the Top 40 on various Billboard charts: 44 on the US R&B singles chart, 11 on the Hot 100 singles chart, 2 on the Hot Country singles charts.
Charles cited Nat King Cole as a primary influence, but his music was also influenced by Louis Jordan and Charles Brown. He had a lifelong friendship and occasional partnership with Quincy Jones. Frank Sinatra called Ray Charles "the only true genius in show business," although Charles downplayed this notion. Billy Joel said, "This may sound like sacrilege, but I think Ray Charles was more important than Elvis Presley".
For his musical contributions, Charles received the Kennedy Center Honors, the National Medal of Arts, and the Polar Music Prize. He was one of the inaugural inductees at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1986. He has won 18 Grammy Awards (5 posthumously), the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1987, and 10 of his recordings have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Rolling Stone ranked Charles No. 10 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time, and No. 2 on their list of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time. In 2022, he was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame, as well as the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame.
Early life and education
Ray Charles Robinson was born on September 23, 1930, in Albany, Georgia. He was the son of Bailey Robinson, a laborer, and Aretha (or Reatha) Robinson (née Williams), a laundress, of Greenville, Florida.
During Aretha's childhood, her mother died. Her father could not keep her. Bailey, a man her father worked with, took her in. The Robinson family—Bailey, his wife Mary Jane, and his mother— informally adopted her and Aretha took the surname Robinson. A few years later 15-year-old Aretha became pregnant by Bailey. During the ensuing scandal, she left Greenville late in the summer of 1930 to be with family back in Albany. After the birth of the child, Ray Charles, she and the infant Charles returned to Greenville. Aretha and Bailey's wife, who had lost a son, then shared in Charles's upbringing. The father abandoned the family, left Greenville, and married another woman elsewhere. By his first birthday, Charles had a brother, George. Later, no one could remember who George's father was.
Charles was deeply devoted to his mother and later recalled, despite her poor health and adversity, her perseverance, self-sufficiency, and pride as guiding lights in his life.
In his early years, Charles showed an interest in mechanical objects and would often watch his neighbors working on their cars and farm machinery. His musical curiosity was sparked at Wylie Pitman's Red Wing Cafe, at the age of three, when Pitman played boogie woogie on an old upright piano; Pitman subsequently taught Charles how to play the piano. Charles and his mother were always welcome at the Red Wing Cafe and even lived there when they were in financial distress. Pitman would also care for Ray's younger brother George, to take some of the burden off their mother. George accidentally drowned in his mother's laundry tub when he was four years old.
Charles started to lose his sight at the age of four or five, and was blind by the age of seven, likely as a result of glaucoma. Destitute, uneducated, and mourning the loss of her younger son, Aretha Robinson used her connections in the local community to find a school that would accept a blind African-American pupil. Despite his initial protest, Charles attended school at the Florida School for the Deaf and the Blind in St. Augustine from 1937 to 1945.
Charles further developed his musical talent at school and was taught to play the classical piano music of Bach, Mozart and Beethoven. His teacher, Mrs. Lawrence, taught him how to use braille music, a difficult process that requires learning the left hand movements by reading braille with the right hand and learning the right hand movements by reading braille with the left hand, then combining the two parts.
Charles's mother died in the spring of 1945, when he was 14. Her death came as a shock to him; he later said the deaths of his brother and mother were "the two great tragedies" of his life. Charles decided not to return to school after the funeral.
Career
1945–1952: Florida, Los Angeles, and Seattle
After leaving school, Charles moved to Jacksonville to live with Charles Wayne Powell, who had been friends with his late mother. He played the piano for bands at the Ritz Theatre in LaVilla for over a year, earning $4 a night (US$, in value). He joined Local 632 of the American Federation of Musicians, in the hope that it would help him get work, and was able to use the union hall's piano to practice, since he did not have one at home; he learned piano licks from copying the other players there. He started to build a reputation as a talented musician in Jacksonville, but the jobs did not come fast enough for him to construct a strong identity, so, at age 16, he moved to Orlando, where he lived in borderline poverty and went without food for days. It was difficult for musicians to find work; since World War II had ended, there were no "G.I. Joes" left to entertain. Charles eventually started to write arrangements for a pop music band, and in the summer of 1947, he unsuccessfully auditioned to play piano for Lucky Millinder and his sixteen-piece band.
In 1947, Charles moved to Tampa, where he held two jobs, including one as a pianist for Charles Brantley's Honey Dippers.
In his early career, Charles modeled himself on Nat King Cole. His first four recordings—"Wondering and Wondering", "Walking and Talking", "Why Did You Go?" and "I Found My Baby There"—were allegedly done in Tampa, although some discographies claim he recorded them in Miami in 1951 or else Los Angeles in 1952.
Charles had always played piano for other people, but he was keen to have his own band. He decided to leave Florida for a large city, and, considering Chicago and New York City too big, followed his friend Gossie McKee to Seattle, Washington, in March 1948, knowing that the biggest radio hits came from northern cities. There he met and befriended, under the tutelage of Robert Blackwell, the 15-year-old Quincy Jones.
With Charles on piano, McKee on guitar, and Milton Garred on bass, the McSon Trio (named for McKee and Robinson) started playing the 1–5 A.M. shift at the Rocking Chair. Publicity photos of this trio are some of the earliest known photographs of Charles. In April 1949, he and his band recorded "Confession Blues", which became his first national hit, soaring to the second spot on the Billboard R&B chart. While still working at the Rocking Chair, Charles also arranged songs for other artists, including Cole Porter's "Ghost of a Chance" and Dizzy Gillespie's "Emanon". After the success of his first two singles, Charles moved to Los Angeles in 1950 and spent the next few years touring with the blues musician Lowell Fulson as Fulson's musical director.
In 1950, Charles' performance in a Miami hotel impressed Henry Stone, who went on to record a Ray Charles Rockin' record, which did not achieve popularity. During his stay in Miami, Charles was required to stay in the segregated but thriving black community of Overtown. Stone later helped Jerry Wexler find Charles in St. Petersburg.
After signing with Swing Time Records, Charles recorded two more R&B hits under the name Ray Charles: "Baby, Let Me Hold Your Hand" (1951), which reached No. 5, and "Kissa Me Baby" (1952), which reached No. 8. Swing Time folded the following year, and Ahmet Ertegun signed Charles to Atlantic.
In addition to being a musician, Charles was also a record producer, producing Guitar Slim's number 1 hit, "The Things That I Used to Do".
1952–1959: Atlantic Records
In June 1952, Atlantic bought Charles's contract for $2,500 (US$ in dollars). His first recording session for Atlantic ("The Midnight Hour"/"Roll with My Baby") took place in September 1952, although his last Swing Time release ("Misery in My Heart"/"The Snow Is Falling") would not appear until February 1953.
In 1953, "Mess Around" became his first small hit for Atlantic; during the next year, he had hits with "It Should've Been Me" and "Don't You Know". He also recorded the songs "Midnight Hour" and "Sinner's Prayer" around this time.
Late in 1954, Charles recorded "I've Got a Woman". The lyrics were written by bandleader Renald Richard. Charles claimed the composition. They later admitted that the song went back to the Southern Tones' "It Must Be Jesus" (1954). It became one of his most notable hits, reaching No. 2 on the R&B chart. "I've Got a Woman" combined gospel, jazz, and blues elements. In 1955, he had hits with "This Little Girl of Mine" and "A Fool for You". In upcoming years, hits included "Drown in My Own Tears" and "Hallelujah I Love Her So".
Charles also recorded jazz, such as The Great Ray Charles (1957). He worked with vibraphonist Milt Jackson, releasing Soul Brothers in 1958 and Soul Meeting in 1961. By 1958, he was not only headlining major black venues such as the Apollo Theater in New York, but also larger venues such as Carnegie Hall and the Newport Jazz Festival, where his first live album was recorded in 1958. He hired a female singing group, the Cookies, and renamed them the Raelettes. In 1958, Charles and the Raelettes performed for the famed Cavalcade of Jazz concert produced by Leon Hefflin Sr. held at the Shrine Auditorium on August 3. The other headliners were Little Willie John, Sam Cooke, Ernie Freeman, and Bo Rhambo. Sammy Davis Jr. was also there to crown the winner of the Miss Cavalcade of Jazz beauty contest. The event featured the top four prominent disc jockeys of Los Angeles.
Charles reached the pinnacle of his success at Atlantic with the release of "What'd I Say", which combined gospel, jazz, blues and Latin music. Charles said he wrote it spontaneously while he was performing in clubs with his band. Despite some radio stations banning the song because of its sexually suggestive lyrics, the song became Charles' first top-ten pop record.[35] It reached No. 6 on the Billboard Pop chart and No. 1 on the Billboard R&B chart in 1959. Later that year, he released his first country song (a cover of Hank Snow's "I'm Movin' On") and recorded three more albums for the label: a jazz record (The Genius After Hours, 1961); a blues record (The Genius Sings the Blues, 1961); and a big band record (The Genius of Ray Charles, 1959) which was his first Top 40 album, peaking at No. 17.[36]
1959–1971: Crossover success
Charles' contract with Atlantic expired in 1959, and several big labels offered him record deals. Choosing not to renegotiate his contract with Atlantic, he signed with ABC-Paramount in November 1959. He obtained a more liberal contract than other artists had at the time, with ABC offering him a $50,000 (US$ in dollars) annual advance, higher royalties than before, and eventual ownership of his master tapes—a very valuable and lucrative deal at the time. During his Atlantic years, Charles had been hailed for his inventive compositions, but by the time of the release of the largely instrumental jazz album Genius + Soul = Jazz (1960) for ABC's subsidiary label Impulse!, he had given up on writing in favor of becoming a cover artist, giving his own eclectic arrangements of existing songs.
With "Georgia on My Mind", his first hit single for ABC-Paramount in 1960, Charles received national acclaim and four Grammy Awards, including two for "Georgia on My Mind" (Best Vocal Performance Single Record or Track, Male, and Best Performance by a Pop Single Artist). Written by Stuart Gorrell and Hoagy Carmichael, the song was Charles' first work with Sid Feller, who produced, arranged and conducted the recording. Charles' rendition of the tune would help elevate it to the status of an American classic, and his version also became the state song of Georgia later on in 1979.
Charles earned another Grammy for the follow-up track "Hit the Road Jack", written by R&B singer Percy Mayfield.
By late 1961, Charles had expanded his small road ensemble to a big band, partly as a response to increasing royalties and touring fees, becoming one of the few black artists to cross over into mainstream pop with such a level of creative control. This success, however, came to a momentary halt during a concert tour in November 1961, when a police search of Charles's hotel room in Indianapolis, Indiana, led to the discovery of heroin in the medicine cabinet. The case was eventually dropped, as the search lacked a proper warrant by the police, and Charles soon returned to music.
In the early 1960s, on the way from Louisiana to Oklahoma City, Charles faced a near-death experience when the pilot of his plane lost visibility, as snow and his failure to use the defroster caused the windshield of the plane to become completely covered in ice. The pilot made a few circles in the air before he was finally able to see through a small part of the windshield and land the plane. Charles placed a spiritual interpretation on the experience, claiming that "something or someone which instruments cannot detect" was responsible for creating the small opening in the ice on the windshield which enabled the pilot to eventually land the plane safely.
The 1962 album Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music and its sequel, Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music, Vol. 2, helped to bring country music into the musical mainstream. Charles's version of the Don Gibson song "I Can't Stop Loving You" topped the Pop chart for five weeks, stayed at No. 1 on the R&B chart for ten weeks, and gave him his only number-one record in the UK. In 1962, he founded his record label, Tangerine, which ABC-Paramount promoted and distributed. He had major pop hits in 1963 with "Busted" (US No. 4) and "Take These Chains from My Heart" (US No. 8). In 1964, Margie Hendrix was kicked out of the Raelettes after a big argument.
In 1964, Charles's career was halted once more after he was arrested for a third time for possession of heroin. He agreed to go to a rehabilitative facility to avoid jail time and eventually kicked his habit at a clinic in Los Angeles. After spending a year on parole, Charles reappeared in the charts in 1966 with a series of hits composed with Ashford & Simpson and Jo Armstead, including the dance number "I Don't Need No Doctor" and "Let's Go Get Stoned", which became his first number-one R&B hit in several years. His cover version of "Crying Time", originally recorded by country singer Buck Owens, reached No. 6 on the pop chart and helped Charles win a Grammy Award the following March. In 1967, he had a top-twenty hit with another ballad, "Here We Go Again".
1971–1983: Commercial decline
Charles's renewed chart success, however, proved to be short lived, and by the 1970s his music was rarely played on radio stations. The rise of psychedelic rock and harder forms of rock and R&B music had reduced Charles's radio appeal, as did his choosing to record pop standards and covers of contemporary rock and soul hits, since his earnings from owning his master tapes had taken away the motivation to write new material. Charles nonetheless continued to have an active recording career. Most of his recordings between 1968 and 1973 evoked strong reactions: either adored or panned by fans and critics alike. His recordings during this period, especially 1972's A Message from the People, moved toward the progressive soul sound popular at the time. A Message from the People included his unique gospel-influenced version of "America the Beautiful" and a number of protest songs about poverty and civil rights. Charles was often criticized for his version of "America the Beautiful" because it was very drastically changed from the song's original version. On July 14, 1973, Margie Hendrix, the mother of Ray's son Charles Wayne Hendrix, died at 38 years old, which led to Ray having to care for the child. The official cause of her death is unknown.
In 1974, Charles left ABC Records and recorded several albums on his own label, Crossover Records. A 1975 recording of Stevie Wonder's hit "Living for the City" later helped Charles win another Grammy. In 1977, he reunited with Ahmet Ertegun and re-signed to Atlantic Records, for which he recorded the album True to Life, remaining with his old label until 1980. However, the label had now begun to focus on rock acts, and some of their prominent soul artists, such as Aretha Franklin, were starting to be neglected. In November 1977 he appeared as the host of the NBC television show Saturday Night Live.
In April 1979, his version of "Georgia on My Mind" was proclaimed the state song of Georgia, and an emotional Charles performed the song on the floor of the state legislature. In 1980 Charles performed in the musical film The Blues Brothers. Although he had notably supported the American Civil Rights Movement and Martin Luther King Jr. in the 1960s, Charles was criticized for performing at the Sun City resort in South Africa in 1981 during an international boycott protesting that country's apartheid policy. He later defended his choice of performing there, insisting that the audience of black and white fans would integrate while he was there.
1983–2004: Later years
In 1983, Charles signed a contract with Columbia. He recorded a string of country albums and had hit singles in duets with singers such as George Jones, Chet Atkins, B. J. Thomas, Mickey Gilley, Hank Williams Jr., Dee Dee Bridgewater ("Precious Thing") and his longtime friend Willie Nelson, with whom he recorded "Seven Spanish Angels".
In 1985, Charles participated in the musical recording and video "We Are the World", a charity single recorded by the supergroup United Support of Artists (USA) for Africa.
Before the release of his first album for Warner, Would You Believe, Charles made a return to the R&B charts with a cover of the Brothers Johnson's "I'll Be Good to You", a duet with his lifelong friend Quincy Jones and the singer Chaka Khan, which hit number one on the R&B chart in 1990 and won Charles and Khan a Grammy for their duet. Prior to this, Charles returned to the pop charts with "Baby Grand", a duet with singer-songwriter Billy Joel. In 1989, he recorded a cover of the Southern All Stars' "Itoshi no Ellie" for a Japanese TV advertisement for the Suntory brand, releasing it in Japan as "Ellie My Love", where it reached No.3 on its Oricon chart. In the same year he was a special guest at the Arena di Verona during the tour promoting Oro Incenso & Birra of the Italian singer Zucchero Fornaciari.
In 2001–02, Charles appeared in commercials for the New Jersey Lottery to promote its campaign "For every dream, there's a jackpot".
In 2003, he headlined the White House Correspondents' Association Dinner in Washington, D.C., attended by President George W. Bush, Laura Bush, Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice.
Also in 2003, Charles presented Van Morrison with Morrison's award upon being inducted in the Songwriters Hall of Fame, and the two sang Morrison's song "Crazy Love" (the performance appears on Morrison's 2007 album The Best of Van Morrison Volume 3). In 2003, Charles performed "Georgia on My Mind" and "America the Beautiful" at a televised annual banquet of electronic media journalists held in Washington, D.C. His final public appearance was on April 30, 2004, at the dedication of his music studio as a historic landmark in Los Angeles.
Legacy
Influence on music industry
Charles possessed one of the most recognizable voices in American music. In the words of musicologist Henry Pleasants:
Pleasants continues, "Ray Charles is usually described as a baritone, and his speaking voice would suggest as much, as would the difficulty he experiences in reaching and sustaining the baritone's high E and F in a popular ballad. But the voice undergoes some sort of transfiguration under stress, and in music of gospel or blues character he can and does sing for measures on end in the high tenor range of A, B flat, B, C and even C sharp and D, sometimes in full voice, sometimes in an ecstatic head voice, sometimes in falsetto. In falsetto he continues up to E and F above high C. On one extraordinary record, 'I'm Going Down to the River'...he hits an incredible B flat...giving him an overall range, including the falsetto extension, of at least three octaves."
His style and success in the genres of rhythm and blues and jazz had an influence on a number of highly successful artists, including, as Jon Pareles has noted, Elvis Presley, Aretha Franklin, Stevie Wonder, Van Morrison, and Billy Joel. Other singers who have acknowledged Charles's influence on their own styles include James Booker, Steve Winwood, Richard Manuel, and Gregg Allman. According to Joe Levy, a music editor for Rolling Stone, "The hit records he made for Atlantic in the mid-1950s mapped out everything that would happen to rock 'n' roll and soul music in the years that followed". Charles was also an inspiration to Pink Floyd member Roger Waters, who told the Turkish newspaper Hürriyet: "I was about 15. In the middle of the night with friends, we were listening to jazz. It was "Georgia on My Mind", Ray Charles's version. Then I thought 'One day, if I make some people feel only one-twentieth of what I am feeling now, it will be quite enough for me.'"
Ray, a biopic portraying his life and career between the mid-1930s and 1979, was released in October 2004, starring Jamie Foxx as Charles. Foxx won the 2005 Academy Award for Best Actor for the role.
Awards and honors
In 1975, Ray Charles was inducted into the American Academy of Achievement and presented with the Golden Plate Award and the Academy of Achievement gold medal.
In 1979, Charles was one of the first musicians born in the state to be inducted into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame. His version of "Georgia on My Mind" was also made the official state song of the state of Georgia.
In 1981, he was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was one of the first inductees to the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame at its inaugural ceremony, in 1986. He also received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1986.
Charles won 17 Grammy Awards from his 37 nominations. In 1987, he was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.
In 1991, he was inducted to the Rhythm & Blues Foundation and was presented with the George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement during the 1991 UCLA Spring Sing.
In 1990, he was given an honorary doctorate of fine arts by the University of South Florida.
In 1993, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts. In 1998 he was awarded the Polar Music Prize, together with Ravi Shankar, in Stockholm, Sweden. In 2004 he was inducted to the National Black Sports & Entertainment Hall of Fame. The Grammy Awards of 2005 were dedicated to Charles.
In 2001, Morehouse College honored Charles with the Candle Award for Lifetime Achievement in Arts and Entertainment, and later that same year granted him an honorary doctor of humane letters. Charles donated $2 million to Morehouse "to fund, educate and inspire the next generation of musical pioneers."
In 2003, Charles was awarded an honorary degree by Dillard University, and upon his death he endowed a professorship of African-American culinary history at the school, the first such chair in the nation.
On September 22, 2004, Ray Charles was honored with a Google Doodle on what would have been his 74th birthday. It was one of the first Doodles for one’s birthday.
In 2010, a $20 million, facility named the Ray Charles Performing Arts Center and Music Academic Building, opened at Morehouse.
The United States Postal Service issued a forever stamp honoring Charles, as part of its Musical Icons series, on September 23, 2013.
In 2015, Charles was inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame.
In 2016, U.S. President Barack Obama said, "Ray Charles's version of "America the Beautiful" will always be in my view the most patriotic piece of music ever performed"
In 2022, Charles was posthumously inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame, the third African-American to be inducted after Charley Pride (2000) and Deford Bailey (2005). He was also the 13th person to be inducted into both the Country and Rock Halls of Fame.
Contribution to civil rights movement
On March 15, 1961, shortly after the release of the hit song "Georgia on My Mind" (1960), the Albany, Georgia-born musician was scheduled to perform at a dance at Bell Auditorium in Augusta, but cancelled the show after learning from students of Paine College that the larger auditorium dance floor would be restricted to whites, while blacks would be obligated to sit in the Music Hall balcony. Charles left town immediately after letting the public know why he would not be performing, but the promoter went on to sue Charles for breach of contract, and Charles was fined $757 in Fulton County Superior Court in Atlanta on June 14, 1962. The following year, Charles did perform at a desegregated Bell Auditorium concert together with his backup singers, the Raelettes, on October 23, 1963, as depicted in the 2004 film, Ray. On December 7, 2007, Ray Charles Plaza was opened in Albany, Georgia, with a revolving, lighted bronze sculpture of Charles seated at a piano.
The Ray Charles Foundation
Founded in 1986, the Ray Charles Foundation maintains the mission statement of financially supporting institutions and organizations in the research of hearing disorders. Originally known as The Robinson Foundation for Hearing Disorders, it was renamed in 2006 and has provided financial donations to numerous institutions involved in hearing loss research and education. The purpose of the foundation has been "to administer funds for scientific, educational and charitable purposes; to encourage, promote and educate, through grants to institutions and organizations, as to the causes and cures for diseases and disabilities of the hearing impaired and to assist organizations and institutions in their social educational and academic advancement of programs for the youth, and carry on other charitable and educational activities associated with these goals as allowed by law".
Recipients of donations include Benedict College, Morehouse College, and other universities. The foundation has taken action against donation recipients who do not use funds in accordance with its mission statement, such as the Albany State University, which was made to return a $3 million donation after not using the funds for over a decade. The foundation houses its executive offices at the historic RPM International Building, originally the home of Ray Charles Enterprises and now also home to the Ray Charles Memorial Library on the first floor, which was founded on September 23, 2010 (what would have been his 80th birthday). The library was founded to "provide an avenue for young children to experience music and art in a way that will inspire their creativity and imagination", and is not open to the public without reservation, as the main goal is to educate mass groups of underprivileged youth and provide art and history to those without access to such documents.
Personal life
Charles stated in his 1978 autobiography, Brother Ray: Ray Charles' Own Story, that he became hooked on women after losing his virginity at 12 years old to a woman about 20. "Cigarettes and smack [heroin] are the two truly addictive habits I've known. You might add women," he said. "My obsession centers on women—did then [when young] and does now. I can't leave them alone," he added.
Relationships and children
Charles was married twice. His first marriage lasted less than a year, his second 22 years. Throughout his life Charles had many relationships with women with whom he fathered a dozen children.
His first marriage to Eileen Williams lasted from July 31, 1951, until 1952.
He met his second wife Della Beatrice Howard Robinson (called "Bea" by Charles) in Texas in 1954. They married the following year on April 5, 1955. Their first child together, Ray Charles Robinson Jr., was born in 1955. Charles was not in town for the birth because he was playing a show in Texas. The couple had two more sons, David and Robert. They raised their children in View Park, California. Charles felt that his heroin addiction took a toll on Della during their marriage. Due to his drug addiction, extramarital affairs on tours and volatile behavior, the marriage deteriorated and she filed for divorce in 1977 and it was finalized after 22 years of marriage.
Charles had a six-year-long affair with Margie Hendrix, one of the original Raelettes, and in 1959 they had a son, Charles Wayne. His affair with Mae Mosley Lyles resulted in a daughter, Renee, born in 1961. In 1963, Charles had another daughter, this one by Sandra Jean Betts, named Sheila Raye Charles. Sheila Raye, like her father, was a singer/songwriter who died of breast cancer on June 15, 2017. In 1977, Charles had a child with his Parisian lover Arlette Kotchounian whom he met in 1967. His long-term girlfriend and partner at the time of his death was Norma Pinella.
Charles fathered a total of 12 children with ten different women:
Evelyn Robinson, born in 1949 (daughter with Louise Flowers)
Ray Charles Robinson Jr., born May 25, 1955 (son with wife Della Bea Robinson)
David Robinson, born in 1958 (son with wife Della Bea Robinson)
Charles Wayne Hendricks, born on October 1, 1959 (son with Margie Hendricks, one of the Raelettes)
Robert Robinson, born in 1960 (son with wife Della Bea Robinson)
Renee Robinson, born in 1961 (daughter with Mae Mosely Lyles)
Sheila Robinson, born in 1963 (daughter with Sandra Jean Betts)
Reatha Butler, born in 1966
Alexandra Bertrand, born in 1968 (daughter with Mary-Chantal Bertrand)
Vincent Kotchounian, born in 1977 (son with Arlette Kotchounian)
Robyn Moffett, born in 1978 (daughter with Gloria Moffett)
Ryan Corey Robinson den Bok, born in 1987 (son with Mary Anne den Bok)
Charles held a family luncheon for his 12 children in 2002, ten of whom attended. He told them he was mortally ill and $500,000 had been placed in trusts for each of the children to be paid out over the next five years.
Drug abuse and legal problems
At 18, Charles first tried marijuana when he played in McSon Trio and was eager to try it as he thought it helped musicians create music and tap into their creativity. He later became addicted to heroin for seventeen years. Charles was first arrested in 1955, when he and his bandmates were caught backstage with loose marijuana and drug paraphernalia, including a burnt spoon, syringe, and needle. The arrest did not deter his drug use, which only escalated as he became more successful and made more money.
In 1958, Charles was arrested on a Harlem street corner for possession of narcotics and equipment for administering heroin.
Charles was arrested on a narcotics charge on November 14, 1961, while waiting in an Indiana hotel room before a performance. The detectives seized heroin, marijuana, and other items. Charles, then 31, said he had been a drug addict since the age of 16. The case was dismissed because of the manner in which the evidence was obtained, but Charles' situation did not improve until a few years later.
On Halloween 1964, Charles was arrested for possession of heroin at Boston's Logan Airport. He decided to quit heroin and entered St. Francis Hospital in Lynwood, California, where he endured four days of cold turkey withdrawal. Following his self-imposed stay, he pleaded guilty to four narcotic charges. Prosecutors called for two years in prison and a hefty fine, but the judge listened to Charles' psychiatrist, Dr. Hacker's account of Charles' determination to get off drugs and he was sent to McLean Hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts. The judge offered to postpone the verdict for a year if Charles agreed to undergo regular examinations by government-appointed physicians. When Charles returned to court, he received a five-year suspended sentence, four years of probation, and a fine of $10,000.
Charles responded to the saga of his drug use and reform with the songs "I Don't Need No Doctor" and "Let's Go Get Stoned" and the release of Crying Time, his first album since kicking his heroin addiction in 1966.
Chess hobby
Charles enjoyed playing chess. As part of his therapy when he quit heroin, he met with psychiatrist , who taught him how to play chess, three times a week. He used a special board with raised squares and holes for the pieces. When questioned if people try to cheat against a blind man, he joked in reply, "You can't cheat in Chess... I'm gonna see that!" In a 1991 concert, he referred to Willie Nelson as "my chess partner". In 2002, he played and lost to the American grandmaster and former U.S. champion Larry Evans.
Death
In 2003, Charles had successful hip replacement surgery and was planning to go back on tour, until he began having other ailments. He died at his home in Beverly Hills, California, of complications resulting from liver failure, on June 10, 2004, at the age of 73. His funeral took place on June 18, 2004, at the First African Methodist Episcopal Church of Los Angeles, with numerous musical figures in attendance. B.B. King, Glen Campbell, Stevie Wonder and Wynton Marsalis each played a tribute at the funeral. He was interred in the Inglewood Park Cemetery.
His final album, Genius Loves Company, released two months after his death, consists of duets with admirers and contemporaries: B.B. King, Van Morrison, Willie Nelson, James Taylor, Gladys Knight, Michael McDonald, Natalie Cole, Elton John, Bonnie Raitt, Diana Krall, Norah Jones and Johnny Mathis. The album won eight Grammy Awards, including Best Pop Vocal Album, Album of the Year, Record of the Year and Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals (for "Here We Go Again", with Norah Jones), and Best Gospel Performance (for "Heaven Help Us All", with Gladys Knight); he also received nods for his duets with Elton John and B.B. King. The album included a version of Harold Arlen and E. Y. Harburg's "Over the Rainbow", sung as a duet with Johnny Mathis, which was played at Charles' memorial service.
Discography
Charles' discography is highly complex and extensive. AllMusic has listed approximately 60 original albums and more than 200 compilation albums, while music essayist Robert Christgau noted the existence of more. At least 20 record labels have released near-identical compilations of Charles' pre-Atlantic Records tracks, while many of the masters that Charles began to own after 1960 were not digitally reissued, leading the Atlantic sister label Rhino Entertainment to focus on rereleasing his mid-to-late 1950s music. Christgau has called Charles' discography a "monumental mess" and that "any map of his oeuvre must be personal and provisional".
Filmography
Film
Television
See also
Album era
Progressive soul
Notes
References
External links
Ray Charles Wife wiki
Daily Telegraph obituary
Oral history video excerpts at the National Visionary Leadership Project
Country Music Hall of Fame
Appearance at WFOY Radio building
1930 births
2004 deaths
20th-century American keyboardists
20th-century American singers
20th-century jazz composers
20th-century organists
ABC Records artists
African-American country musicians
African-American jazz composers
African-American jazz musicians
African-American jazz pianists
African-American male singers
African-American male singer-songwriters
African-American pianists
African-American rock musicians
African-American rock singers
American baritones
American blues pianists
American blues singers
American contemporary R&B singers
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Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state) | wiki |
RLR may refer to:
Rahal Letterman Racing, an American auto racing team
Range Life Records, an American record label
Regular local ring
Richard Lloyd Racing, a defunct British auto racing team
RIG-I-like receptor, a family of intracellular receptors
Ruislip Lido Railway, a miniature railway in England
Rural Land Register, a British database of land ownership
Retron Library Recombineering, a genetic technique that uses retrons | wiki |
A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat as a deposit of dead plant materials often mosses, typically sphagnum moss. It is one of the four main types of wetlands. Other names for bogs include mire, mosses, quagmire, and muskeg; alkaline mires are called fens. A baygall is another type of bog found in the forest of the Gulf Coast states in the United States. They are often covered in heath or heather shrubs rooted in the sphagnum moss and peat. The gradual accumulation of decayed plant material in a bog functions as a carbon sink.
Bogs occur where the water at the ground surface is acidic and low in nutrients. A bog usually is found at a freshwater soft spongy ground that is made up of decayed plant matter which is known as peat. Generally found in cooler northern climates and are formed in poorly draining lake basins.In contrast to fens, they derive most of their water from precipitation rather than mineral-rich ground or surface water. Water flowing out of bogs has a characteristic brown colour, which comes from dissolved peat tannins. In general, the low fertility and cool climate result in relatively slow plant growth, but decay is even slower due to low oxygen levels in saturated bog soils. Hence, peat accumulates. Large areas of the landscape can be covered many meters deep in peat.
Bogs have distinctive assemblages of animal, fungal, and plant species, and are of high importance for biodiversity, particularly in landscapes that are otherwise settled and farmed.
Distribution and extent
Bogs are widely distributed in cold, temperate climes, mostly in boreal ecosystems in the Northern Hemisphere. The world's largest wetland is the peat bogs of the Western Siberian Lowlands in Russia, which cover more than a million square kilometres. Large peat bogs also occur in North America, particularly the Hudson Bay Lowland and the Mackenzie River Basin. They are less common in the Southern Hemisphere, with the largest being the Magellanic moorland, comprising some in southern South America. Sphagnum bogs were widespread in northern Europe but have often been cleared and drained for agriculture. A paper led by Graeme T. Swindles in 2019 showed that peatlands across Europe have undergone rapid drying in recent centuries owing to human impacts including drainage, peat cutting and burning.
A 2014 expedition leaving from Itanga village, Republic of the Congo, discovered a peat bog "as big as England" which stretches into neighboring Democratic Republic of Congo.
Definition
Like all wetlands, it is difficult to rigidly define bogs for a number of reasons, including variations between bogs, the in-between nature of wetlands as an intermediate between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and varying definitions between wetland classification systems. However, there are characteristics common to all bogs that provide a broad definition:
Peat is present, usually thicker than 30 cm.
The wetland receives most of its water and nutrients from precipitation (ombrotrophic) rather than surface or groundwater (minerotrophic).
The wetland is nutrient-poor (oligotrophic).
The wetland is strongly acidic (bogs near coastal areas may be less acidic due to sea spray).
Because all bogs have peat, they are a type of peatland. As a peat-producing ecosystem, they are also classified as mires, along with fens. Bogs differ from fens in that fens receive water and nutrients from mineral-rich surface or groundwater, while bogs receive water and nutrients from precipitation. Because fens are supplied with mineral-rich water, they tend to be slightly acidic to slightly basic, while bogs are always acidic because precipitation is mineral-poor.
Ecology and protection
There are many highly specialized animals, fungi, and plants associated with bog habitat. Most are capable of tolerating the combination of low nutrient levels and waterlogging. Sphagnum is generally abundant, along with ericaceous shrubs. The shrubs are often evergreen, which may assist in conservation of nutrients. In drier locations, evergreen trees can occur, in which case the bog blends into the surrounding expanses of boreal evergreen forest. Sedges are one of the more common herbaceous species. Carnivorous plants such as sundews (Drosera) and pitcher plants (for example Sarracenia purpurea) have adapted to the low-nutrient conditions by using invertebrates as a nutrient source. Orchids have adapted to these conditions through the use of mycorrhizal fungi to extract nutrients. Some shrubs such as Myrica gale (bog myrtle) have root nodules in which nitrogen fixation occurs, thereby providing another supplemental source of nitrogen.
Bogs are recognized as a significant/specific habitat type by a number of governmental and conservation agencies. They can provide habitat for mammals, such as caribou, moose, and beavers, as well as for species of nesting shorebirds, such as Siberian cranes and yellowlegs. Bogs contain species of vulnerable reptilians such as the bog turtle. Bogs even have distinctive insects; English bogs give a home to a yellow fly called the hairy canary fly (Phaonia jaroschewskii), and bogs in North America are habitat for a butterfly called the bog copper (Lycaena epixanthe). In Ireland, the viviparous lizard, the only known reptile in the country, dwells in bogland.
The United Kingdom in its Biodiversity Action Plan establishes bog habitats as a priority for conservation. Russia has a large reserve system in the West Siberian Lowland. The highest protected status occurs in Zapovedniks (IUCN category IV); Gydansky and Yugansky are two prominent examples.
Bogs are fragile ecosystems, and have been deteriorating quickly, as archaeologists and scientists have been recently finding. Bone material found in bogs has had accelerated deterioration from first analyses in the 1940s. This has been found to be from fluctuations in ground water and increase in acidity in lower areas of bogs that is affecting the rich organic material. Many of these areas have been permeated to the lowest levels with oxygen, which dries and cracks layers. There have been some temporary solutions to try and fix these issues, such as adding soil to the tops of threatened areas, yet they do not work in the long-term. Extreme weather like dry summers are likely the cause, as they lower precipitation and the groundwater table. It is speculated that these issues will only increase with a rise in global temperature and climate change. Since bogs take thousands of years to form and create the rich peat that is used as a resource, once they are gone they are extremely hard to recover. Arctic and sub-Arctic circles where many bogs are warming at 0.6 °C per decade, an amount twice as large as the global average. Because bogs and other peatlands are carbon sinks, they are releasing large amounts of greenhouse gases as they warm up. These changes have resulted in a severe decline of biodiversity and species populations of peatlands throughout Northern Europe.
Types
Bog habitats may develop in various situations, depending on the climate and topography (see also hydrosere succession).
By location and water source
Bogs may be classified on their topography, proximity to water, method of recharge, and nutrient accumulation .
Valley bog
These develop in gently sloping valleys or hollows. A layer of peat fills the deepest part of the valley, and a stream may run through the surface of the bog. Valley bogs may develop in relatively dry and warm climates, but because they rely on ground or surface water, they only occur on acidic substrates.
Raised bog
These develop from a lake or flat marshy area, over either non-acidic or acidic substrates. Over centuries there is a progression from open lake, to a marsh, to a fen (or, on acidic substrates, valley bog), to a carr, as silt or peat accumulates within the lake. Eventually, peat builds up to a level where the land surface is too flat for ground or surface water to reach the center of the wetland. This part, therefore, becomes wholly rain-fed (ombrotrophic), and the resulting acidic conditions allow the development of bog (even if the substrate is non-acidic). The bog continues to form peat, and over time a shallow dome of bog peat develops into a raised bog. The dome is typically a few meters high in the center and is often surrounded by strips of fen or other wetland vegetation at the edges or along streamsides where groundwater can percolate into the wetland.
The various types of raised bog may be divided into:
Coastal bog
Plateau bog
Upland bog
Kermi bog
String bog
Palsa bog
Polygonal bog
Blanket bog
In cool climates with consistently high rainfall (on more than c. 235 days a year), the ground surface may remain waterlogged for much of the time, providing conditions for the development of bog vegetation. In these circumstances, bog develops as a layer "blanketing" much of the land, including hilltops and slopes. Although a blanket bog is more common on acidic substrates, under some conditions it may also develop on neutral or even alkaline ones, if abundant acidic rainwater predominates over the groundwater. A blanket bog can occur in drier or warmer climates, because under those conditions hilltops and sloping ground dry out too often for peat to form – in intermediate climates a blanket bog may be limited to areas which are shaded from direct sunshine. In periglacial climates a patterned form of blanket bog may occur, known as a string bog. In Europe, these mostly very thin peat layers without significant surface structures are distributed over the hills and valleys of Ireland, Scotland, England, and Norway. In North America, blanket bogs occur predominantly in Canada east of Hudson Bay. These bogs are often still under the influence of mineral soil water (groundwater). Blanket bogs do not occur north of the 65th latitude in the northern hemisphere.
Quaking bog
A quaking bog, schwingmoor, or swingmoor is a form of floating bog occurring in wetter parts of valley bogs and raised bogs and sometimes around the edges of acidic lakes. The bog vegetation, mostly sphagnum moss anchored by sedges (such as Carex lasiocarpa), forms a floating mat approximately half a meter thick on the surface of water or above very wet peat. White spruce (Picea pungens) may grow in this bog regime. Walking on the surface causes it to move – larger movements may cause visible ripples on the surface, or they may even make trees sway. The bog mat may eventually spread across the water surface to cover bays or even entire small lakes. Bogs at the edges of lakes may become detached and form floating islands.
Cataract bog
A cataract bog is a rare ecological community formed where a permanent stream flows over a granite outcropping. The sheeting of water keeps the edges of the rock wet without eroding the soil, but in this precarious location, no tree or large shrub can maintain a roothold. The result is a narrow, permanently wet habitat.
Uses
Industrial uses
After drying, peat is used as a fuel, and it has been used that way for centuries. More than 20% of home heat in Ireland comes from peat, and it is also used for fuel in Finland, Scotland, Germany, and Russia. Russia is the leading exporter of peat for fuel, at more than 90 million metric tons per year. Ireland's Bord na Móna ("peat board") was one of the first companies to mechanically harvest peat, which is being phased out.
The other major use of dried peat is as a soil amendment (sold as moss peat or sphagnum peat) to increase the soil's capacity to retain moisture and enrich the soil. It is also used as a mulch. Some distilleries, notably in the Islay whisky-producing region, use the smoke from peat fires to dry the barley used in making Scotch whisky.
Once the peat has been extracted it can be difficult to restore the wetland, since peat accumulation is a slow process. More than 90% of the bogs in England have been damaged or destroyed. In 2011 plans for the elimination of peat in gardening products were announced by the UK government.
Other uses
The peat in bogs is an important place for the storage of carbon. If the peat decays, carbon dioxide would be released to the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Undisturbed, bogs function as a carbon sink. As one example, the peatlands of the former Soviet Union were calculated to be removing 52 Tg of carbon per year from the atmosphere. Therefore, the rewetting of drained peatlands may be one of the most cost-effective ways to mitigate climate change.
Peat bogs are also important in storing fresh water, particularly in the headwaters of large rivers. Even the enormous Yangtze River arises in the Ruoergai peatland near its headwaters in Tibet.
Blueberries, cranberries, cloudberries, huckleberries, and lingonberries are harvested from the wild in bogs. Bog oak, wood that has been partially preserved by bogs, has been used in the manufacture of furniture.
Sphagnum bogs are also used for outdoor recreation, with activities including ecotourism and hunting. For example, many popular canoe routes in northern Canada include areas of peatland. Some other activities, such as all-terrain vehicle use, are especially damaging to bogs.
Archaeology
The anaerobic environment and presence of tannic acids within bogs can result in the remarkable preservation of organic material. Finds of such material have been made in Slovenia, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Some bogs have preserved bog-wood such as ancient oak logs useful in dendrochronology, and they have yielded extremely well-preserved bog bodies, with hair, organs, and skin intact, buried there thousands of years ago after apparent Germanic and Celtic human sacrifice. Excellent examples of such human specimens include the Haraldskær Woman and Tollund Man in Denmark, and Lindow man found at Lindow Common in England. The Tollund Man was so well preserved that when the body was discovered in 1950, the discoverers thought it was a recent murder victim and researchers were even able to tell the last meal that the Tollund Man ate before he died: porridge and fish. This process happens because of the low oxygen levels of bogs in combination with the high acidity. These anaerobic conditions lead to some of the best preserved mummies and offer a lot of archeological insight on society as far as 8,000 years back. Céide Fields in County Mayo in Ireland, a 5,000-year-old neolithic farming landscape has been found preserved under a blanket bog, complete with field walls and hut sites. One ancient artifact found in various bogs is bog butter, large masses of fat, usually in wooden containers. These are thought to have been food stores, of both butter and tallow.
Image gallery
See also
References
Bibliography
Aiton, William (1811). General View of The Agriculture of the County of Ayr; observations on the means of its improvement; drawn up for the consideration of the Board of Agriculture, and Internal Improvements, with Beautiful Engravings. Glasgow.
External links
Ballynahone Bog
Black Spruce Bog Describes a forested bog type of North America
Bog bodies
Germany's Endangered Bogs - slideshow by Der Spiegel
'Preserve peat bogs' for climate BBC 28 March 2007
Landforms
Types of soil
Wetlands
Limnology | wiki |
Black money is income earned surreptitiously or illegally, usually in cash, and not reported to the government so as to avoid paying taxes on it.
Black money may also refer to:
Black Money (novel), a novel by Ross Macdonald
Black Money (film), a 2019 South Korean crime drama
"Black Money", an early 1980s U.K. single by Culture Club (by way of romantic/aspirational analogy, the song thematically refers to surreptitiously earned income)
Black money scam, a confidence trick
Indian black money, connected to tax avoidance in the country
Black money records, a record label owned by Digga D
See also
Dark money (disambiguation) | wiki |
The DuPont–Whitehouse House is an Italianate-style house located at 3558 South Artesian Avenue in the McKinley Park neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois, United States. The house was built between 1875 and 1876 by Oscar Cobb & Co. It was designated a Chicago Landmark on April 16, 1996.
References
Houses completed in 1876
Houses in Chicago
Chicago Landmarks
McKinley Park, Chicago | wiki |
Final Fantasy is a media franchise originating from a role-playing video game of the same name, which debuted on the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1987.
Final Fantasy may also refer to:
Final Fantasy (video game), the first video game in the series
Final Fantasy: Legend of the Crystals, a 1994 anime OVA released in Japan as Final Fantasy
In music:
Final Fantasy is the former name of Owen Pallett's Toronto-based musical project
Final Fantasy (album), a 2005 album by Leo Ku, or the title track
"Final Fantasy", a song by Alma from Have U Seen Her?
"Final Fantasy", a song by Drake from Scorpion
See also
List of Final Fantasy media | wiki |
A golf course is the grounds where the game of golf is played.
Golf Course may also refer to:
Golf Course metro station, of the Delhi Metro | wiki |
Guk (), also sometimes known as tang (), is a class of soup-like dishes in Korean cuisine. Guk and tang are commonly grouped together and regarded as the same type of dish, although tang can sometimes be less watery than guk. It is one of the most basic components in a Korean meal, along with bap (밥, rice), and banchan (반찬, side dishes). In Korean table setting, guk is served on the right side of bap (rice), and left side of sujeo (수저, a spoon and chopsticks).
Guk is a native Korean word, while tang is a Sino-Korean word that originally meant "boiling water" or "soup". Tang has been used as an honorific term in place of guk, when it denotes the same meaning as guk as in yeonpo-tang (연포탕, octopus soup), daegu-tang (대구탕, codfish soup), or jogae-tang (조개탕, clam soup). Generally, the names of lighter soups with vegetables are suffixed with -guk, while heavier, thicker soups made with more solid ingredients used in jesa (ancestral rites) are often referred to as tang. Gamja-guk (potato soup) and gamja-tang (pork back-bone stew) are different dishes; the potato soup can be called gamjeo-tang.
Types
Guk is largely categorized into four groups of soups, such as malgeun jangguk (맑은 장국), gomguk (곰국), tojangguk (토장국), and naengguk (냉국). Malgeun jangguk literally means "clear (malgeun, 맑은) soup (guk, 국) seasoned with a condiment (jang, 장)," such as doenjang (soy bean paste) or ganjang, and is served in a bansang (반상, regular meal table). The main ingredients for malgeun jangguk are meat, fish, vegetables, and seafoods. Gomguk, also called gomtang, refers to either a soup type made by boiling various beef parts such as rib, oxtail, brisket, head, and so forth for a long time, or made with ox bone by the same method. The broth of gomguk tends to have a milky color and to be rich and hearty taste. It can also be made with chicken or pork bone, to produce samgyetang or gamjatang.
Tojangguk are based on doenjang broth and ssaltteumul (쌀뜨물, leftover water after washing rice for cooking). The taste is usually savory and deep. Naengguk are cold soups usually eaten in summer. These soups are usually clean and tangy, such as with oi naengguk (오이냉국, cold cucumber) and miyeok naengguk (미역냉국, cold wakame soup). Kkaetguk (깻국, sesame soup), made with chicken and sesame seeds, is thick and serves to replenish and supplement nutrients during hot weather.
Malgeun jangguk
Tteokguk (), tteok (rice cake) soup
Miyeok guk (), wakame (edible seaweed) soup
Kongnamul guk (), made with kongnamul
Muguk (), made with radish
Gamjaguk (), made with potato
Toranguk (), made with taro
Bugeoguk (), made with dried Alaska pollock
Bogeoguk (), made with puffer fish
Jogaeguk (), made with shellfish
Jaecheopguk (), soup made with jaecheop (small clams, Corbicula fluminea) harvested in rivers of Gyeongsang-do
Gomguk
Beef
Gomguk/gomtang (/, ):
Sagol gomtang (사골곰탕), pale-bone broths garnished with oxtail or sliced brisket
Kkori gomtang (꼬리곰탕), ox tail soup
Seolleongtang (설렁탕): ox leg bone soup simmered for more than 10 hours until the soup is milky-white. Usually served in a bowl containing somyeon and pieces of beef. Sliced scallions and black pepper are used as condiments
Galbitang (), made with galbi or beef ribs
Yukgaejang (육개장), beef soup with red chili flakes, soy sauce and bean sprouts
Doganitang (), soup from knuckles and bones
Chicken and pork
Samgyetang (삼계탕), a soup made with Cornish game hens that are stuffed with ginseng, a hedysarum, glutinous rice, jujubes, garlic, and chestnuts; the soup is traditionally eaten in the summer
Gamjatang (감자탕, "potato stew"), a spicy soup made with pork spine, vegetables (especially potatoes), and hot peppers; the vertebrae are usually separated, and the dish is often served as a late night snack but may also be served for lunch or dinner
Dwaeji gukbap (돼지국밥), a representative regional hearty pork-parts soup with rice of coastal Gyeongsang-do
Tojangguk
Tojangguk are eaten all year round. The term emerged in the 1930s in Korean cookbooks.
Sigeumchi tojangguk (시금치토장국), made with spinach
Auk tojangguk (아욱토장국), made with malva
Naengi tojangguk (냉이토장국), made with horseradish
Ugeojiguk (우거지국), made with ugeoji (우거지, dried napa cabbage)
Daseulgiguk (다슬기국), made with freshwater snails (다슬기, Semisulcospira libertina)
Naengguk
Naengguk refers to all kinds of cold soups, mainly eaten in summer. They are also called changuk (literally "cold soup") in pure Korean while the term naengguk is a combination of a Hanja word and a pure Korean word with the same meaning. The first historical record on naengguk appears in a poem written by Yi Gyu-bo (1168–1241), a high officer of the Goryeo period (918–1392). Naengguk is referred to as "sungaeng" in the poem, which literally means sunchaeguk, soup made with sunchae (Brasenia schreberi). Yi praised its clear and plain taste.
Naengguk is generally divided into two categories according to taste and ingredients. One group of naengguk is made by mixing chilled water and vinegar to give a sweet and sour taste; examples include miyeok naengguk made with wakame, oi naengguk made with cucumber, pa naengguk made with spring onions, nameul naengguk made with garlic, and gim naengguk made with gim or nori. The other group is made to supplement health and has rich tastes, such as chilled soup made with chicken, sesame, or soy bean.
Miyeok naengguk (미역냉국), cold wakame soup
Oi naengguk (오이냉국), cold cucumber soup
Kkaetguk (깻국), hearty cold soup made with chicken and ground sesame seeds
Naengkongguk (냉콩국), made with ground soybeans and can be used for kongguksu
Kongnamul naengguk (콩나물냉국), made with kongnamul
Ingredients
Maeuntang (매운탕): a refreshing, hot and spicy fish soup.
Haejangguk (해장국): a favorite hangover cure consisting usually of meaty pork spine, ugeoji (우거지 dried napa cabbage) coagulated ox blood (similar to blood pudding), and vegetables in a hearty beef broth; legend has it that soon after World War II, the restaurant that invented this stew was the only place open in the Jongno district when the curfew at the time lifted at 4:00 AM
Haemultang (해물탕): made with various seafood
Haemuljaptang (해물잡탕), made with seafood and beef offal, once part of the Korean royal court cuisine
Altang (알탕): can be made with myeongran jeot (명란젓), salted and fermented Alaska pollack's roe seasoned with chili pepper or fresh roe
Chueotang (추어탕): made with Misgurnus mizolepis
Yongbongtang (용봉탕): made with chicken, carp and softshell turtle
Manduguk (만두국): mandu soup
Wanjatang (완자탕): made with wanja (meatball-like jeon)
Gyerantang (계란탕): soup made with eggs
Ssukkuk (쑥국): made with ssuk (Artemisia princeps var. orientalis)
Sundaeguk (순댓국): made with Sundae (or pork blood sausage) and sometimes it includes fatty pieces of intestine (gopchang), liver, lungs, bits of cartilage, and meat.
Gukbap
Gukbap (국밥, ) are dishes developed from guk. The term literally means "soup with rice." The dish is typically served in restaurants, and has become popular among the working class since the late Joseon Dynasty.
Kongnamul gukbap (콩나물국밥), clear soybean sprout (kongnamul) soup with rice
Gul-gukbap (굴국밥) – oyster and rice soup.
Ttaro gukbap (따로국밥), a variety of yukgaejang, local specialty of Daegu
See also
Jeongol
Jjigae
List of soups
References
Further reading
External links
Soups and stews from Food in Korea
Korean words and phrases | wiki |
In mathematics, a graph partition is the reduction of a graph to a smaller graph by partitioning its set of nodes into mutually exclusive groups. Edges of the original graph that cross between the groups will produce edges in the partitioned graph. If the number of resulting edges is small compared to the original graph, then the partitioned graph may be better suited for analysis and problem-solving than the original. Finding a partition that simplifies graph analysis is a hard problem, but one that has applications to scientific computing, VLSI circuit design, and task scheduling in multiprocessor computers, among others. Recently, the graph partition problem has gained importance due to its application for clustering and detection of cliques in social, pathological and biological networks. For a survey on recent trends in computational methods and applications see .
Two common examples of graph partitioning are minimum cut and maximum cut problems.
Problem complexity
Typically, graph partition problems fall under the category of NP-hard problems. Solutions to these problems are generally derived using heuristics and approximation algorithms. However, uniform graph partitioning or a balanced graph partition problem can be shown to be NP-complete to approximate within any finite factor. Even for special graph classes such as trees and grids, no reasonable approximation algorithms exist, unless P=NP. Grids are a particularly interesting case since they model the graphs resulting from Finite Element Model (FEM) simulations. When not only the number of edges between the components is approximated, but also the sizes of the components, it can be shown that no reasonable fully polynomial algorithms exist for these graphs.
Problem
Consider a graph G = (V, E), where V denotes the set of n vertices and E the set of edges. For a (k,v) balanced partition problem, the objective is to partition G into k components of at most size v · (n/k), while minimizing the capacity of the edges between separate components. Also, given G and an integer k > 1, partition V into k parts (subsets) V1, V2, ..., Vk such that the parts are disjoint and have equal size, and the number of edges with endpoints in different parts is minimized. Such partition problems have been discussed in literature as bicriteria-approximation or resource augmentation approaches. A common extension is to hypergraphs, where an edge can connect more than two vertices. A hyperedge is not cut if all vertices are in one partition, and cut exactly once otherwise, no matter how many vertices are on each side. This usage is common in electronic design automation.
Analysis
For a specific (k, 1 + ε) balanced partition problem, we seek to find a minimum cost partition of G into k components with each component containing a maximum of (1 + ε)·(n/k) nodes. We compare the cost of this approximation algorithm to the cost of a (k,1) cut, wherein each of the k components must have the same size of (n/k) nodes each, thus being a more restricted problem. Thus,
We already know that (2,1) cut is the minimum bisection problem and it is NP-complete. Next, we assess a 3-partition problem wherein n = 3k, which is also bounded in polynomial time. Now, if we assume that we have a finite approximation algorithm for (k, 1)-balanced partition, then, either the 3-partition instance can be solved using the balanced (k,1) partition in G or it cannot be solved. If the 3-partition instance can be solved, then (k, 1)-balanced partitioning problem in G can be solved without cutting any edge. Otherwise, if the 3-partition instance cannot be solved, the optimum (k, 1)-balanced partitioning in G will cut at least one edge. An approximation algorithm with a finite approximation factor has to differentiate between these two cases. Hence, it can solve the 3-partition problem which is a contradiction under the assumption that P = NP. Thus, it is evident that (k,1)-balanced partitioning problem has no polynomial-time approximation algorithm with a finite approximation factor unless P = NP.
The planar separator theorem states that any n-vertex planar graph can be partitioned into roughly equal parts by the removal of O() vertices. This is not a partition in the sense described above, because the partition set consists of vertices rather than edges. However, the same result also implies that every planar graph of bounded degree has a balanced cut with O() edges.
Graph partition methods
Since graph partitioning is a hard problem, practical solutions are based on heuristics. There are two broad categories of methods, local and global. Well-known local methods are the Kernighan–Lin algorithm, and Fiduccia-Mattheyses algorithms, which were the first effective 2-way cuts by local search strategies. Their major drawback is the arbitrary initial partitioning of the vertex set, which can affect the final solution quality. Global approaches rely on properties of the entire graph and do not rely on an arbitrary initial partition. The most common example is spectral partitioning, where a partition is derived from approximate eigenvectors of the adjacency matrix, or spectral clustering that groups graph vertices using the eigendecomposition of the graph Laplacian matrix.
Multi-level methods
A multi-level graph partitioning algorithm works by applying one or more stages. Each stage reduces the size of
the graph by collapsing vertices and edges, partitions the smaller graph, then maps back and refines this partition of the original graph. A wide variety of partitioning and refinement methods can be applied within the overall multi-level scheme. In many cases, this approach can give both fast execution times and very high quality results.
One widely used example of such an approach is METIS, a graph partitioner, and hMETIS, the corresponding partitioner for hypergraphs.
An alternative approach originated from
and implemented, e.g., in scikit-learn is spectral clustering with the partitioning determined from eigenvectors of the graph Laplacian matrix for the original graph computed by LOBPCG solver with multigrid preconditioning.
Spectral partitioning and spectral bisection
Given a graph with adjacency matrix , where an entry implies an edge between node and , and degree matrix , which is a diagonal matrix, where each diagonal entry of a row , , represents the node degree of node . The Laplacian matrix is defined as . Now, a ratio-cut partition for graph is defined as a partition of into disjoint , and , minimizing the ratio
of the number of edges that actually cross this cut to the number of pairs of vertices that could support such edges. Spectral graph partitioning can be motivated by analogy with partitioning of a vibrating string or a mass-spring system and similarly extended to the case of negative weights of the graph.
Fiedler eigenvalue and eigenvector
In such a scenario, the second smallest eigenvalue () of , yields a lower bound on the optimal cost () of ratio-cut partition with . The eigenvector () corresponding to , called the Fiedler vector, bisects the graph into only two communities based on the sign of the corresponding vector entry. Division into a larger number of communities can be achieved by repeated bisection or by using multiple eigenvectors corresponding to the smallest eigenvalues. The examples in Figures 1,2 illustrate the spectral bisection approach.
Modularity and ratio-cut
Minimum cut partitioning however fails when the number of communities to be partitioned, or the partition sizes are unknown. For instance, optimizing the cut size for free group sizes puts all vertices in the same community. Additionally, cut size may be the wrong thing to minimize since a good division is not just one with small number of edges between communities. This motivated the use of Modularity (Q) as a metric to optimize a balanced graph partition. The example in Figure 3 illustrates 2 instances of the same graph such that in (a) modularity (Q) is the partitioning metric and in (b), ratio-cut is the partitioning metric.
Applications
Conductance
Another objective function used for graph partitioning is Conductance which is the ratio between the number of cut edges and the volume of the smallest part. Conductance is related to electrical flows and random walks. The Cheeger bound guarantees that spectral bisection provides partitions with nearly optimal conductance. The quality of this approximation depends on the second smallest eigenvalue of the Laplacian λ2.
Immunization
Graph partition can be useful for identifying the minimal set of nodes or links that should be immunized in order to stop epidemics.
Other graph partition methods
Spin models have been used for clustering of multivariate data wherein similarities are translated into coupling strengths. The properties of ground state spin configuration can be directly interpreted as communities. Thus, a graph is partitioned to minimize the Hamiltonian of the partitioned graph. The Hamiltonian (H) is derived by assigning the following partition rewards and penalties.
Reward internal edges between nodes of same group (same spin)
Penalize missing edges in same group
Penalize existing edges between different groups
Reward non-links between different groups.
Additionally, Kernel-PCA-based Spectral clustering takes a form of least squares Support Vector Machine framework, and hence it becomes possible to project the data entries to a kernel induced feature space that has maximal variance, thus implying a high separation between the projected communities.
Some methods express graph partitioning as a multi-criteria optimization problem which can be solved using local methods expressed in a game theoretic framework where each node makes a decision on the partition it chooses.
For very large-scale distributed graphs classical partition methods might not apply (e.g., spectral partitioning, Metis) since they require full access to graph data in order to perform global operations. For such large-scale scenarios distributed graph partitioning is used to perform partitioning through asynchronous local operations only.
Software tools
scikit-learn implements spectral clustering with the partitioning determined from eigenvectors of the graph Laplacian matrix for the original graph computed by ARPACK, or by LOBPCG solver with multigrid preconditioning.
Chaco, due to Hendrickson and Leland, implements the multilevel approach outlined above and basic local search algorithms.
Moreover, they implement spectral partitioning techniques.
METIS is a graph partitioning family by Karypis and Kumar. Among this family, kMetis aims at greater partitioning speed, hMetis, applies to hypergraphs and aims at partition quality, and ParMetis is a parallel implementation of the Metis graph partitioning algorithm.
PaToH is another hypergraph partitioner.
KaHyPar is a multilevel hypergraph partitioning framework providing direct k-way and recursive bisection based partitioning algorithms. It instantiates the multilevel approach in its most extreme version, removing only a single vertex in every level of the hierarchy. By using this very fine grained n-level approach combined with strong local search heuristics, it computes solutions of very high quality.
Scotch is graph partitioning framework by Pellegrini. It uses recursive multilevel bisection and includes sequential as well as parallel partitioning techniques.
Jostle is a sequential and parallel graph partitioning solver developed by Chris Walshaw.
The commercialized version of this partitioner is known as NetWorks.
Party implements the Bubble/shape-optimized framework and the Helpful Sets algorithm.
The software packages DibaP and its MPI-parallel variant PDibaP by Meyerhenke implement the Bubble framework using diffusion; DibaP also uses AMG-based techniques for coarsening and solving linear systems arising in the diffusive approach.
Sanders and Schulz released a graph partitioning package KaHIP (Karlsruhe High Quality Partitioning) that implements for example flow-based methods, more-localized local searches and several parallel and sequential meta-heuristics.
The tools Parkway by Trifunovic and
Knottenbelt as well as Zoltan by Devine et al. focus on hypergraph
partitioning.
List of free open-source frameworks:
References
External links
Chamberlain, Bradford L. (1998). "Graph Partitioning Algorithms for Distributing Workloads of Parallel Computations"
Bibliography
An exhaustive analysis of the problem from a theoretical point of view.
One of the early fundamental works in the field. However, performance is O(n2), so it is no longer commonly used.
A later variant that is linear time, very commonly used, both by itself and as part of multilevel partitioning, see below.
Multi-level partitioning is the current state of the art. This paper also has good explanations of many other methods, and comparisons of the various methods on a wide variety of problems.
Graph partitioning (and in particular, hypergraph partitioning) has many applications to IC design.
Simulated annealing can be used as well.
. There is a whole class of spectral partitioning methods, which use the Eigenvectors of the Laplacian of the connectivity graph. You can see a demo of this, using Matlab.
NP-complete problems
Computational problems in graph theory | wiki |
Monticello Box or Monticello Box Canyon is a narrow canyon, a gap and a box canyon in the middle of the wider valley or glen of Monticello Canyon. The two wider valleys are separated by a narrower canyon, with a gap and box canyon called the Monticello Box at its head.
References
Valleys of New Mexico | wiki |
2006 heat wave may refer to:
2006 European heat wave (July)
2006 North American heat wave (July and August) | wiki |
East Asian mushrooms and fungi are often used in East Asian cuisine, either fresh or dried. According to Chinese traditional medicine, many types of mushroom affect the eater's physical and emotional wellbeing.
List of mushrooms and fungi
See also
List of mushroom dishes
Chinese
Chinese cuisine
Chinese edible mushrooms | wiki |
Penicillium verhagenii is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which was isolated from Postel in Belgium.
References
verhagenii
Fungi described in 2014 | wiki |
EZCast is a line of digital media players, built by Actions Microelectronics, that allows users to mirror media content from smart devices, including mobile devices, personal computers, and project to high-definition televisions.
History
The first generation of EZCast was developed in 2013, shipped 1 million units within a year, and accumulated more than 2 million EZCast app users worldwide. The latest device in the family, called EZCast 4K, was launched in November 2016 which supports 4K HEVC video streaming.
EZCast technology is built into a dongle that interacts with EZCast app to stream content from smart devices, and it works across Android, ChromeOS, iOS, macOS, Windows and Windows Phone.
EZCast SDK has been released to enable third party development on Android and iOS.
In 2018 became possible to voice control EZCast 2 and EZCast 4K devices using Google Assistant.
References
Electronics companies of Taiwan
Wireless display technologies | wiki |
The Bacup Shoe Company is a footwear company based in the village of Stacksteads, near Bacup, Lancashire, England. The Bacup Shoe Co. was founded in 1928 and incorporated in 1929 by Ernest Goodwin. The Bacup Shoe company was one of the last well known footwear manufacturers to stop manufacturing in the late 1990s and turn to importing footwear from the Far East. Suppliers are based in China (where the company is also based), Vietnam and Spain.
History
The Bacup Shoe Company was founded in 1928 by Ernest Goodwin, a former footballer for Manchester City F.C., along with shoemaker Walter Smith. In 2002 the company opened a new division called Alpha Logistics & Warehousing to make full use of the available warehouse storage facilities and the talented local workforce. Along with the expansion of its headquarters the company has recently launched a new girls shoe brand, named Redfoot After Party Shoe, which are a patented range of foldable shoes.
References
External links
Official Website
Shoe companies of the United Kingdom
Manufacturing companies of China
Companies based in Lancashire
Clothing companies established in 1928
1928 establishments in England | wiki |
Madison är administrativ huvudort i Madison County i Nebraska. Enligt 2010 års folkräkning hade Madison 2 438 invånare.
Källor
Orter i Nebraska
Madison County, Nebraska | wiki |
Bulbophyllum inconspicuum (inconspicuous bulbophyllum) is a species of orchid.
inconspicuum | wiki |
This is a list of seasons played by Aston Villa Football Club in English and European football, from 1879 (the year of the club's first FA Cup entry) to the most recent completed season. Aston Villa football club was founded in March, 1874, by members of the Villa Cross Wesleyan Chapel in Aston. Throughout the 1870s Aston Villa played a small number of games. At least one game, against Aston Brook St Mary's was played with one half under Rugby rules and the other under football rules. In the 1880s the game became more formalised and in 1888, William McGregor formed the Football League with eleven other clubs.
The club has won the League Championship seven times, the FA Cup seven times, the EFL Cup five times, the Charity Shield once (shared), the European Cup once, the European Super Cup once and the Intertoto Cup twice.
This list details the club's achievements in all major competitions, and the top scorers for each season. Top scorers in bold were also the top scorers in the English league that season. Records of competitions such as the Birmingham Senior Cup are not included due to them being considered of less importance than the FA Cup and the EFL Cup.
Seasons
Key
Pld – Matches played
W – Matches won
D – Matches drawn
L – Matches lost
GF – Goals for
GA – Goals against
Pts – Points
Pos – Final position
FL – Football League
Div 1 – Football League First Division
Div 2 – Football League Second Division
Div 3 – Football League Third Division
Champ – EFL Championship
Prem – Premier League
N/A – Not applicable
Divisions in bold indicate a change in division.
PO – Play-off round
R1 – Round 1
R2 – Round 2
R3 – Round 3
R4 – Round 4
R5 – Round 5
R32 – Round of 32
R16 – Round of 16
QF – Quarter-finals
SF – Semi-finals
RU – Runners-up
W – Winners
Notes
References
Specific
General
Seasons
Aston Villa F.C. | wiki |
In computing, a character set is a system of assigning numbers to characters so that text can be represented as a list of numbers (which are then stored, for example, as a file). For example, ASCII assigns 61 to "A". As part of the design process, Texas Instruments (TI) decided to modify the base Latin-1 character set for use with its calculator interface. By adding symbols to the character set, it was possible to reduce design complexity as much more complex parsing would have to have been used otherwise.
TI-83 Plus/84 Plus Series
TI-86
TI-89/92 Series
The 68k calculators use a character set similar to Latin-1 except that most of the control characters are replaced with mathematical symbols or Greek letters. All characters are printable except the null character.
See also
Calculator character sets
References
Calculator character sets | wiki |
The Way of Man is een Amerikaanse stomme en korte film uit 1909 onder regie van D.W. Griffith.
Verhaal
Een minnaar raakt betrokken in een ongeluk, waarna ze haar twijfelt over haar affaire.
Rolverdeling
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Way of Man, The
Way of Man, The
Way of Man, The
Way of Man, The
Way of Man, The
Way of Man, The
Way of Man, The
Way of Man, The
Way of Man, The | wiki |
Robert S. Mumma (born March 16, 1971) is an American college baseball coach. He served as head coach of the UMBC Retrievers baseball team from 2012 season to 2019.
Playing career
Mumma played three seasons at UMBC as a catcher, earning All-Conference honors in his final season and setting several Retrievers offensive records. He remains the all-time home run leader at UMBC, and is tied for second in RBI all time. He was drafted in the 13th round of the 1992 MLB Draft. He played three seasons in the Chicago White Sox organization, reaching Class A. Mumma completed his degree in Economics in 1993.
Coaching career
After serving as an academic advisor in the UMBC athletic department and as a volunteer assistant coach, Mumma became a full-time assistant for the 2006 season. He became the fourth UMBC head coach after John Jancuska's retirement. on May 1, 2019, Mumma resigned from his position as head coach at UMBC.
Head coaching record
This table depicts Mumma's record as a head coach.
References
External links
Living people
1971 births
Gulf Coast White Sox players
People from Havre de Grace, Maryland
Hickory Crawdads players
South Bend Silver Hawks players
South Bend White Sox players
UMBC Retrievers baseball players
UMBC Retrievers baseball coaches
Utica Blue Sox players
Baseball coaches from Maryland | wiki |
Upper Town is an unincorporated community in Mono County, California. It is located about northeast of Bridgeport, at an elevation of 8061 feet (2457 m).
Upper Town was part of a string of towns established by Freemasons, others being Middle Town and Lower Town.
References
Unincorporated communities in California
Unincorporated communities in Mono County, California | wiki |
Schutzhund (/'ʃʊtshʊnt/, German for "protection dog"), currently known competitively as IGP and previously as IPO, is a dog sport that tests a dog's tracking, obedience, and protection skills, and evaluates if a dog has the appropriate traits and characteristics of a good working dog. It was developed in Germany in the early 1900s as a suitability test for German Shepherds, but soon became the model for training and evaluating all five of the German protection breeds, which included Boxer, Dobermann, Riesenschnauzer, and Rottweiler. Though any breed of dog can participate, today the sport is dominated by German Shepherds and the Belgian Malinois breed. Dog owners and handlers participate in Schutzhund clubs as a group activity for training the dogs, and clubs sponsor trials to test the dogs and award titles. The best dogs can qualify to participate in national and international level championships.
Traits of Schutzhund dogs
Schutzhund tests dogs for the traits necessary for police-type work. Dogs trained in Schutzhund are suitable for a wide variety of working tasks: police work, specific odor detection, search and rescue, and many others. The purpose of Schutzhund is to identify dogs that have, or do not have, the character traits required for these demanding jobs such as a strong desire to work, courage, intelligence, trainability, strong bond to the handler, perseverance, protective instinct, and a good sense of smell. Schutzhund also tests for physical traits such as strength, endurance, agility, and scenting ability. The goal of Schutzhund is to illuminate the character and ability of a dog through training. Breeders can use this insight to determine how and whether to use the dog in producing the next generation of working dogs.
The German Shepherd was developed from working herding dogs around 1900 as an all-around working dog. Within a few years it was clear that the dogs were losing their working ability. Schutzhund was developed at this time as a test of working ability for German Shepherds. Only German Shepherds that had passed a Schutzhund test or a herding test were allowed to breed and thus have their progeny registered as German Shepherd Dogs. This is true in Germany to this day. It is only by testing the working ability of every generation that the strong working characteristics of the GSD have been maintained.
Today, any breed can participate in the sport, though some breed clubs run trials for just their single-breed members. The intermediate and advanced levels of the sport and the top titles are dominated by German Shepherds and Belgian Malinois, with Dobermans, Rottweilers, and Bouvier des Flandres also quite successful. At the beginning levels such as BH level (Companion Dog test) and OB (Obedience), a wide variety of breeds and sizes participate.
Trials and titles
Trials are events—competitive examinations of a dog—at which titles are awarded to dogs that pass standards. In Germany, German Shepherd Dogs are not permitted to be bred unless they have passed at least the level one trials and obtained a title.
There are three levels of titles, numbered 1 through 3, with level 1 being the first and level 3 being the most advanced. Previously they were called Schutzhund 1 through Schutzhund 3 (abbreviated SchH1–SchH3), in 2012 they became IPO1–IPO3, and in 2019 they became IGP1–IGP3.
Trials have changed over the years. Modern trials consist of three phases: tracking, obedience, and protection. A dog must pass all three phases in one trial to be awarded a title, must have passed the prior level before allowed to compete, and may only acquire one title within a event. Each phase is judged on a point scale with a minimum score required to obtain a title. At any time the judge may dismiss a dog for showing poor temperament, fear or aggression, or failing one of several tests within each phase.
As a prerequisite, before a dog can compete for IGP1, it must pass a temperament test called a BH-VT (usually called just "BH"). The BH-VT tests basic obedience and confidence around strange people, strange dogs, traffic, bicyclists, joggers, loud noises, and briefly tethered alone (such as tethering the dog to a post while its owner goes out of sight into a shop). A dog that exhibits excessive fear, distracted behaviors, or aggression will not pass the BH-VT and so cannot go on to IGP level 1. BH-VT is the exception to the rule of earning only one title at an event; a dog may be awarded a BH-VT along with one other level 1 title.
Tracking phase: This tests the dog's scenting ability, but its mental soundness, and physical endurance. A "track layer" walks across a field dropping several small articles along the way. After a period of time, the dog is directed to follow the track while being followed by its handler on a leash. When the dog finds each article, he indicates it, usually by lying down with the article between his front paws. The dog is scored on how intently and carefully it follows the track and indicates the articles. The length, complexity, number of articles, and age of the track varies for each title.
Obedience phase: This takes place in a large field, with two dogs on the field at a time. One dog is placed in a down position on the side of the field and its handler leaves it while the other dog works in the field. Then the dogs switch places. In the field, there are several heeling exercises, including heeling through a group of people. There are two or three gunshots during the heeling to test the dog's reaction to loud noises. There are one or two recalls, three retrieves (flat, jump and A-frame), and a "send out", in which the dog is directed to run away from the handler straight and fast and then lie down on command during its run. Obedience is judged on the dog's accuracy and attitude. The dog must show enthusiasm. A dog that is uninterested or cowering scores poorly.
Protection phase: The judge has an assistant, called the "helper", who helps test the dog's courage to protect itself and its handler, and its ability to be controlled while doing so. The helper wears a heavily padded sleeve on one arm. There are several "blinds" on the field, and the helper hides in a random blind. The dog is directed to search all the blinds for the helper. When it finds the helper, it indicates by barking. The dog must guard the helper to prevent them from moving until recalled by the handler. There follows a series of exercises similar to police work where the handler searches the helper and transports them to the judge. At specified points, the helper either attacks the dog or the handler, or attempts to escape. The dog must stop the attack or the escape by biting the padded sleeve. When the attack or escape stops, the dog is commanded to "out", or release the sleeve. The dog must out or it is dismissed. At all times the dog must show courage to engage the helper and the temperament to obey the handler while in this high state of drive. The dog must show enthusiasm. A dog that shows fear, lack of control, or inappropriate aggression is dismissed.
Training
Schutzhund training, like the sport itself, has evolved over the years. Schutzhund is very much a hands-on sport. Though there are theory and techniques about training dogs, most of the training is done in clubs among other people and dogs. In a club environment, handlers and their dogs gather to practice techniques with the club equipment and experienced handlers in bite suits, called "decoys". Decoys have their own training and certification processes, and a good decoy is important in training your dog.
A reliable source for training information is a good Schutzhund club. The overwhelming majority of Schutzhund training is done by owner/handlers at local clubs. There are very few clubs in the US, making books and videos a vital source of information in that country. In the US, most clubs are affiliated with the American Working Dog Federation (AWDF), United States Boxer Association (USBA), American Working Malinois Association (AWMA), United Schutzhund Clubs of America (USCA), Deutscher Verband der Gebrauchshundsportvereine (DVG), or German Shepherd Dog Club of America-Working Dog Association (GSDCA-WDA). Schutzhund clubs tend to be small, 20 or fewer members, because there is a limit to the number of dogs that can be trained in one session. Clubs often provide only limited formal assistance with tracking and obedience. To a certain extent, the clubs exist to provide the specialized resources needed to train the protection phase. However, a legitimate club will not permit a member to train only protection. Usually the more experienced members are willing to help the novice with tracking and obedience, though this is typically somewhat informal in the US.
Another function of Schutzhund clubs is to identify dogs that should not be trained in Schutzhund. Schutzhund is a challenging test of a dog's character, and not every dog, or even every GSD, is up to the challenge. The training director of the club has a responsibility to the dog, handler, club, and society to constantly evaluate every dog and to decline to train any dog with questionable character or working ability. Training a dog that does not really want to work is stressful and frustrating for all parties involved.
Schutzhund clubs regularly hold public trials, providing the opportunity for dogs to earn titles and for handlers to assess their training progress. A tiny number of dedicated handlers have trained their dogs to title readiness strictly from books and videos. This is unlikely to succeed in most cases, because it is almost impossible to train the protection phase without a helper. A good club should be considered a necessity for Schutzhund training.
Books and materials
The definitive description of Schutzhund training in the first 50 years of the sport is Col. Konrad Most's Dog Training: A Manual, 1910. By modern standards, Most's training is very harsh and possibly abusive. Despite this, it is also structured, consistent, and in many ways conforms to more recent ideas on learning theory. Over time, the more brutal techniques fell out of use and few trainers still follow Most's program. In 1981, Helmut Raiser published Der Schutzhund, which radically changed Schutzhund protection training. In the US, the next great change in Schutzhund training is marked by the 1991 publication of Schutzhund Theory & Training Methods by Susan Barwig and Stewart Hilliard. Dr. Dietmar Schellenberg presents a remarkably comprehensive guide with detailed, step-by-step instructions on Schutzhund training and theory in his 1981 book Top Working Dogs, A Schutzhund Training Manual.
A number of other English-language books have been published on Schutzhund training. Some of the more influential books include Training the Competitive Working Dog by Tom Rose and Gary Patterson in 1985, Training the Behavior: Tips, Techniques and Theory for the Working Dog Trainer by Gary Patterson in 2006, and Schutzhund Obedience: Training in Drive with Gottfried Dildei, by Sheila Booth, 1992.
A recent innovation in providing information on Schutzhund training is the development of videos and DVDs. As with books, all videos and DVDs are not created equal. Viewers must exercise discretion when considering the techniques shown in videos. Just because a technique appears in a video (or book) does not mean that it is a good idea or that many Schutzhund trainers use it. There is a diversity of opinion on how to train Schutzhund dogs. This is reflected in the many conflicting opinions presented in the various videos.
Organizations
Many of the senior organizations for the sport have German names and are usually referred to by their initials in English-speaking countries. This list shows some of the organizations involved with the sport and their relationships to each other.
In response to political forces in Germany, in 2004 the Verein für Deutsche Schäferhunde (SV) and the Deutscher Hundesportverein (DHV) made substantial changes to Schutzhund. The DHV adopted the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) rules that govern IPO titles, so that at least on paper the SV and DHV gave up control of the sport to the FCI. The DHV changed the name of the titles from "SchH" (Schutzhund) to "VPG" (Vielseitigkeitsprüfung für Gebrauchshunde which roughly translates Versatility examination for working dogs). The SV has retained the "SchH" title names, but otherwise conforms to the DHV/FCI rules.
Related protection sports
Mondioring: obedience, agility (jumps) and protection
French Ring Sport: jumps, complex obedience, and several variants of attacks on a decoy (helper wearing bite-protection gear)
KNPV: Dutch, obedience and bite-work, no tracking
See also
List of protection sports
Explanatory notes
References
External links
FCI's International Utility Dogs Regulations
United Schutzhund Clubs of America
DVG-America
United States Mondio Ring Association
Dog sports
Dog training and behavior
Sports originating in Germany | wiki |
Viburnum rhytidophyllum
Viburnum tinus | wiki |
Ireland ( ; ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel. Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest in the world.
Geopolitically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially named Ireland), an independent state covering five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. As of 2022, the population of the entire island is just over 7 million, with 5.1 million living in the Republic of Ireland and 1.9 million in Northern Ireland, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain.
The geography of Ireland comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. Its lush vegetation is a product of its mild but changeable climate which is free of extremes in temperature. Much of Ireland was woodland until the end of the Middle Ages. Today, woodland makes up about 10% of the island, compared with a European average of over 33%, with most of it being non-native conifer plantations. The Irish climate is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and thus very moderate, and winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, although summers are cooler than those in continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant.
Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century AD. The island was Christianised from the 5th century onwards. Following the 12th century Anglo-Norman invasion, England claimed sovereignty. However, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, and was extended during the 18th century. With the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. A war of independence in the early 20th century was followed by the partition of the island, leading to the creation of the Irish Free State, which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades, and Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s. This subsided following the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. In 1973, the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, and Northern Ireland as part of it, did the same. In 2020, the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland included, left what was by then the European Union (EU).
Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the field of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, a strong indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music, Irish language, and Irish dance. The island's culture shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing, golf, and boxing.
Etymology
The names Ireland and derive from Old Irish Ériu, a goddess in Irish mythology first recorded in the ninth century. The etymology of Ériu is disputed but may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *, referring to flowing water.
History
Prehistoric Ireland
During the last glacial period, and until about 16,000 BC, much of Ireland was periodically covered in ice. The relative sea level was less than 50m lower resulting in an ice bridge (but not a land bridge) forming between Ireland and Great Britain. By 14,000 BC this ice bridge existed only between Northern Ireland and Scotland and by 12,000 BC Ireland was completely separated from Great Britain. Later, around 6100 BC, Great Britain became separated from continental Europe. Until recently, the earliest evidence of human activity in Ireland was dated at 12,500 years ago, demonstrated by a butchered bear bone found in a cave in County Clare. Since 2021, the earliest evidence of human activity in Ireland is dated to 33,000 years ago.
By about 8000 BC, more sustained occupation of the island has been shown, with evidence for Mesolithic communities around the island.
Some time before 4000 BC, Neolithic settlers introduced cereal cultivars, domesticated animals such as cattle and sheep, built large timber buildings, and stone monuments. The earliest evidence for farming in Ireland or Great Britain is from Ferriter's Cove, County Kerry, where a flint knife, cattle bones and a sheep's tooth were carbon-dated to c. 4350 BC. Field systems were developed in different parts of Ireland, including at the , that has been preserved beneath a blanket of peat in present-day Tyrawley. An extensive field system, arguably the oldest in the world, consisted of small divisions separated by dry-stone walls. The fields were farmed for several centuries between 3500 BC and 3000 BC. Wheat and barley were the principal crops.
The Bronze Age began around 2500 BC, with technology changing people's everyday lives during this period through innovations such as the wheel; harnessing oxen; weaving textiles; brewing alcohol; and skillful metalworking, which produced new weapons and tools, along with fine gold decoration and jewellery, such as brooches and torcs.
Emergence of Celtic Ireland
How and when the island became Celtic has been debated for close to a century, with the migrations of the Celts being one of the more enduring themes of archaeological and linguistic studies. The most recent genetic research strongly associates the spread of Indo-European languages (including Celtic) through Western Europe with a people bringing a composite Beaker culture, with its arrival in Britain and Ireland dated to around the middle of the third millennium BC. According to John T. Koch and others, Ireland in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-network culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age that also included Britain, western France and Iberia, and that this is where Celtic languages developed. This contrasts with the traditional view that their origin lies in mainland Europe with the Hallstatt culture.
The long-standing traditional view is that the Celtic language, Ogham script and culture were brought to Ireland by waves of invading or migrating Celts from mainland Europe. This theory draws on the Lebor Gabála Érenn, a medieval Christian pseudo-history of Ireland, along with the presence of Celtic culture, language and artefacts found in Ireland such as Celtic bronze spears, shields, torcs and other finely crafted Celtic associated possessions. The theory holds that there were four separate Celtic invasions of Ireland. The Priteni were said to be the first, followed by the Belgae from northern Gaul and Britain. Later, Laighin tribes from Armorica (present-day Brittany) were said to have invaded Ireland and Britain more or less simultaneously. Lastly, the Milesians (Gaels) were said to have reached Ireland from either northern Iberia or southern Gaul. It was claimed that a second wave named the Euerni, belonging to the Belgae people of northern Gaul, began arriving about the sixth century BC. They were said to have given their name to the island.
The theory was advanced in part because of the lack of archaeological evidence for large-scale Celtic immigration, though it is accepted that such movements are notoriously difficult to identify. Historical linguists are skeptical that this method alone could account for the absorption of Celtic language, with some saying that an assumed processual view of Celtic linguistic formation is 'an especially hazardous exercise'. Genetic lineage investigation into the area of Celtic migration to Ireland has led to findings that showed no significant differences in mitochondrial DNA between Ireland and large areas of continental Europe, in contrast to parts of the Y-chromosome pattern. When taking both into account, a study concluded that modern Celtic speakers in Ireland could be thought of as European "Atlantic Celts" showing a shared ancestry throughout the Atlantic zone from northern Iberia to western Scandinavia rather than substantially central European.
In 2012, research showed that the occurrence of genetic markers for the earliest farmers was almost eliminated by Beaker-culture immigrants: they carried what was then a new Y-chromosome R1b marker, believed to have originated in Iberia about 2500 BC. The prevalence amongst modern Irish men of this mutation is a remarkable 84%, the highest in the world, and closely matched in other populations along the Atlantic fringes down to Spain. A similar genetic replacement happened with lineages in mitochondrial DNA. This conclusion is supported by recent research carried out by the geneticist David Reich, who says: "British and Irish skeletons from the Bronze Age that followed the Beaker period had at most 10 per cent ancestry from the first farmers of these islands, with other 90 per cent from people like those associated with the Bell Beaker culture in the Netherlands." He suggests that it was Beaker users who introduced an Indo-European language, represented here by Celtic (i.e. a new language and culture introduced directly by migration and genetic replacement).
Late antiquity and early medieval times
The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco-Roman geographers. Ptolemy in his Almagest refers to Ireland as Mikra Brettania ("Little Britain"), in contrast to the larger island, which he called Megale Brettania ("Great Britain"). In his later work, Geography, Ptolemy refers to Ireland as Iouernia and to Great Britain as Albion. These 'new' names were likely to have been the local names for the islands at the time. The earlier names, in contrast, were likely to have been coined before direct contact with local peoples was made.
The Romans referred to Ireland by this name too in its Latinised form, Hibernia, or Scotia. Ptolemy records sixteen nations inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD. The relationship between the Roman Empire and the kingdoms of ancient Ireland is unclear. However, a number of finds of Roman coins have been made, for example at the Iron Age settlement of Freestone Hill near Gowran and Newgrange.
Ireland continued as a patchwork of rival kingdoms; however, beginning in the 7th century, a concept of national kingship gradually became articulated through the concept of a High King of Ireland. Medieval Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken sequence of high kings stretching back thousands of years, but modern historians believe the scheme was constructed in the 8th century to justify the status of powerful political groupings by projecting the origins of their rule into the remote past.
All of the Irish kingdoms had their own kings but were nominally subject to the high king. The high king was drawn from the ranks of the provincial kings and ruled also the royal kingdom of Meath, with a ceremonial capital at the Hill of Tara. The concept did not become a political reality until the Viking Age and even then was not a consistent one. Ireland did have a culturally unifying rule of law: the early written judicial system, the Brehon Laws, administered by a professional class of jurists known as the brehons.
The Chronicle of Ireland records that in 431, Bishop Palladius arrived in Ireland on a mission from Pope Celestine I to minister to the Irish "already believing in Christ". The same chronicle records that Saint Patrick, Ireland's best known patron saint, arrived the following year. There is continued debate over the missions of Palladius and Patrick, but the consensus is that they both took place and that the older druid tradition collapsed in the face of the new religion. Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology. In the monastic culture that followed the Christianisation of Ireland, Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the Early Middle Ages in contrast to elsewhere in Western Europe, where the Dark Ages followed the Fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The arts of manuscript illumination, metalworking and sculpture flourished and produced treasures such as the Book of Kells, ornate jewellery and the many carved stone crosses that still dot the island today. A mission founded in 563 on Iona by the Irish monk Saint Columba began a tradition of Irish missionary work that spread Celtic Christianity and learning to Scotland, England and the Frankish Empire on continental Europe after the fall of Rome. These missions continued until the late Middle Ages, establishing monasteries and centres of learning, producing scholars such as Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Eriugena and exerting much influence in Europe.
From the 9th century, waves of Viking raiders plundered Irish monasteries and towns. These raids added to a pattern of raiding and endemic warfare that was already deep-seated in Ireland. The Vikings were involved in establishing most of the major coastal settlements in Ireland: Dublin, Limerick, Cork, Wexford, Waterford, as well as other smaller settlements.
Norman and English invasions
On 1 May 1169, an expedition of Cambro-Norman knights, with an army of about 600 men, landed at Bannow Strand in present-day County Wexford. It was led by Richard de Clare, known as 'Strongbow' owing to his prowess as an archer. The invasion, which coincided with a period of renewed Norman expansion, was at the invitation of Dermot Mac Murrough, King of Leinster.
In 1166, Mac Murrough had fled to Anjou, France, following a war involving Tighearnán Ua Ruairc, of Breifne, and sought the assistance of the Angevin King Henry II, in recapturing his kingdom. In 1171, Henry arrived in Ireland in order to review the general progress of the expedition. He wanted to re-exert royal authority over the invasion which was expanding beyond his control. Henry successfully re-imposed his authority over Strongbow and the Cambro-Norman warlords and persuaded many of the Irish kings to accept him as their overlord, an arrangement confirmed in the 1175 Treaty of Windsor.
The invasion was legitimised by reference to provisions of the alleged Papal Bull Laudabiliter, issued by an Englishman, Adrian IV, in 1155. The document apparently encouraged Henry to take control in Ireland in order to oversee the financial and administrative reorganisation of the Irish Church and its integration into the Roman Church system. Some restructuring had already begun at the ecclesiastical level following the Synod of Kells in 1152. There has been significant controversy regarding the authenticity of Laudabiliter, and there is no general agreement as to whether the bull was genuine or a forgery. Further, it had no standing in the Irish legal system.
In 1172, Pope Alexander III further encouraged Henry to advance the integration of the Irish Church with Rome. Henry was authorised to impose a tithe of one penny per hearth as an annual contribution. This church levy called Peter's Pence, is extant in Ireland as a voluntary donation. In turn, Henry assumed the title of Lord of Ireland which Henry conferred on his younger son, John Lackland, in 1185. This defined the Anglo-Norman administration in Ireland as the Lordship of Ireland. When Henry's successor died unexpectedly in 1199, John inherited the crown of England and retained the Lordship of Ireland. Over the century that followed, Norman feudal law gradually replaced the Gaelic Brehon Law across large areas, so that by the late 13th century the Norman-Irish had established a feudal system throughout much of Ireland. Norman settlements were characterised by the establishment of baronies, manors, towns and the seeds of the modern county system. A version of the Magna Carta (the Great Charter of Ireland), substituting Dublin for London and the Irish Church for, the English church at the time, the Catholic Church, was published in 1216 and the Parliament of Ireland was founded in 1297.
Gaelicisation
From the mid-14th century, after the Black Death, Norman settlements in Ireland went into a period of decline. The Norman rulers and the Gaelic Irish elites intermarried and the areas under Norman rule became Gaelicised. In some parts, a hybrid Hiberno-Norman culture emerged. In response, the Irish parliament passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1367. These were a set of laws designed to prevent the assimilation of the Normans into Irish society by requiring English subjects in Ireland to speak English, follow English customs and abide by English law.
By the end of the 15th century, central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared, and a renewed Irish culture and language, albeit with Norman influences, was dominant again. English Crown control remained relatively unshaken in an amorphous foothold around Dublin known as The Pale, and under the provisions of Poynings' Law of 1494, Irish Parliamentary legislation was subject to the approval of the English Privy Council.
The Kingdom of Ireland
The title of King of Ireland was re-created in 1542 by Henry VIII, the then King of England, of the Tudor dynasty. English rule was reinforced and expanded in Ireland during the latter part of the 16th century, leading to the Tudor conquest of Ireland. A near-complete conquest was achieved by the turn of the 17th century, following the Nine Years' War and the Flight of the Earls.
This control was consolidated during the wars and conflicts of the 17th century, including the English and Scottish colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland, the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Williamite War. Irish losses during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (which, in Ireland, included the Irish Confederacy and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland) are estimated to include 20,000 battlefield casualties. 200,000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of a combination of war-related famine, displacement, guerrilla activity and pestilence throughout the war. A further 50,000 were sent into indentured servitude in the West Indies. Physician-general William Petty estimated that 504,000 Catholic Irish and 112,000 Protestant settlers died, and 100,000 people were transported, as a result of the war. If a prewar population of 1.5 million is assumed, this would mean that the population was reduced by almost half.
The religious struggles of the 17th century left a deep sectarian division in Ireland. Religious allegiance now determined the perception in law of loyalty to the Irish King and Parliament. After the passing of the Test Act 1672, and the victory of the forces of the dual monarchy of William and Mary over the Jacobites, Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestant Dissenters were barred from sitting as members in the Irish Parliament. Under the emerging Penal Laws, Irish Roman Catholics and Dissenters were increasingly deprived of various civil rights, even the ownership of hereditary property. Additional regressive punitive legislation followed in 1703, 1709 and 1728. This completed a comprehensive systemic effort to materially disadvantage Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters while enriching a new ruling class of Anglican conformists. The new Anglo-Irish ruling class became known as the Protestant Ascendancy.
The "Great Frost" struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741, after a decade of relatively mild winters. The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples, and the poor summers severely damaged harvests. This resulted in the famine of 1740. An estimated 250,000 people (about one in eight of the population) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease. The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more. Local gentry and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality.
In the aftermath of the famine, an increase in industrial production and a surge in trade brought a succession of construction booms. The population soared in the latter part of this century and the architectural legacy of Georgian Ireland was built. In 1782, Poynings' Law was repealed, giving Ireland legislative independence from Great Britain for the first time since 1495. The British government, however, still retained the right to nominate the government of Ireland without the consent of the Irish parliament.
Union with Great Britain
In 1798, members of the Protestant Dissenter tradition (mainly Presbyterian) made common cause with Roman Catholics in a republican rebellion inspired and led by the Society of United Irishmen, with the aim of creating an independent Ireland. Despite assistance from France the rebellion was put down by British and Irish government and yeomanry forces. In 1800, the British and Irish parliaments both passed Acts of Union that, with effect from 1 January 1801, merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was ultimately achieved with substantial majorities, having failed on the first attempt in 1799. According to contemporary documents and historical analysis, this was achieved through a considerable degree of bribery, with funding provided by the British Secret Service Office, and the awarding of peerages, places and honours to secure votes. Thus, the parliament in Ireland was abolished and replaced by a united parliament at Westminster in London, though resistance remained, as evidenced by Robert Emmet's failed Irish Rebellion of 1803.
Aside from the development of the linen industry, Ireland was largely passed over by the industrial revolution, partly because it lacked coal and iron resources and partly because of the impact of the sudden union with the structurally superior economy of England, which saw Ireland as a source of agricultural produce and capital.
The Great Famine of 1845–1851 devastated Ireland, as in those years Ireland's population fell by one-third. More than one million people died from starvation and disease, with an additional million people emigrating during the famine, mostly to the United States and Canada. In the century that followed, an economic depression caused by the famine resulted in a further million people emigrating. By the end of the decade, half of all immigration to the United States was from Ireland. The period of civil unrest that followed until the end of the 19th century is referred to as the Land War. Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid-20th century. Immediately prior to the famine the population was recorded as 8.2 million by the 1841 census. The population has never returned to this level since. The population continued to fall until 1961; County Leitrim was the final Irish county to record a population increase post-famine, in 2006.
The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern Irish nationalism, primarily among the Roman Catholic population. The pre-eminent Irish political figure after the Union was Daniel O'Connell. He was elected as Member of Parliament for Ennis in a surprise result and despite being unable to take his seat as a Roman Catholic. O'Connell spearheaded a vigorous campaign that was taken up by the Prime Minister, the Irish-born soldier and statesman, the Duke of Wellington. Steering the Catholic Relief Bill through Parliament, aided by future prime minister Robert Peel, Wellington prevailed upon a reluctant George IV to sign the Bill and proclaim it into law. George's father had opposed the plan of the earlier Prime Minister, Pitt the Younger, to introduce such a bill following the Union of 1801, fearing Catholic Emancipation to be in conflict with the Act of Settlement 1701.
Daniel O'Connell led a subsequent campaign, for the repeal of the Act of Union, which failed. Later in the century, Charles Stewart Parnell and others campaigned for autonomy within the Union, or "Home Rule". Unionists, especially those located in Ulster, were strongly opposed to Home Rule, which they thought would be dominated by Catholic interests. After several attempts to pass a Home Rule bill through parliament, it looked certain that one would finally pass in 1914. To prevent this from happening, the Ulster Volunteers were formed in 1913 under the leadership of Edward Carson.
Their formation was followed in 1914 by the establishment of the Irish Volunteers, whose aim was to ensure that the Home Rule Bill was passed. The Act was passed but with the "temporary" exclusion of the six counties of Ulster, which later became Northern Ireland. Before it could be implemented, however, the Act was suspended for the duration of the First World War. The Irish Volunteers split into two groups. The majority, approximately 175,000 in number, under John Redmond, took the name National Volunteers and supported Irish involvement in the war. A minority, approximately 13,000, retained the Irish Volunteers' name and opposed Ireland's involvement in the war.
The Easter Rising of 1916 was carried out by the latter group together with a smaller socialist militia, the Irish Citizen Army. The British response, executing fifteen leaders of the Rising over a period of ten days and imprisoning or interning more than a thousand people, turned the mood of the country in favour of the rebels. Support for Irish republicanism increased further due to the ongoing war in Europe, as well as the Conscription Crisis of 1918.
The pro-independence republican party, Sinn Féin, received overwhelming endorsement in the general election of 1918, and in 1919 proclaimed an Irish Republic, setting up its own parliament () and government. Simultaneously the Volunteers, which became known as the Irish Republican Army (IRA), launched a three-year guerrilla war, which ended in a truce in July 1921 (although violence continued until June 1922, mostly in Northern Ireland).
Partition
In December 1921, the Anglo-Irish Treaty was concluded between the British government and representatives of the Second Dáil. It gave Ireland complete independence in its home affairs and practical independence for foreign policy, but an opt-out clause allowed Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom, which it immediately exercised. Additionally, Members of the Free State Parliament were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the Constitution of the Irish Free State and make a statement of faithfulness to the king. Disagreements over these provisions led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent Irish Civil War between the new government of the Irish Free State and those opposed to the treaty, led by Éamon de Valera. The civil war officially ended in May 1923 when de Valera issued a cease-fire order.
Independence
During its first decade, the newly formed Irish Free State was governed by the victors of the civil war. When de Valera achieved power, he took advantage of the Statute of Westminster and political circumstances to build upon inroads to greater sovereignty made by the previous government. The oath was abolished and in 1937 a new constitution was adopted. This completed a process of gradual separation from the British Empire that governments had pursued since independence. However, it was not until 1949 that the state was declared, officially, to be the Republic of Ireland.
The state was neutral during World War II, but offered clandestine assistance to the Allies, particularly in the potential defence of Northern Ireland. Despite their country's neutrality, approximately 50,000 volunteers from independent Ireland joined the British forces during the war, four being awarded Victoria Crosses.
The German intelligence was also active in Ireland. Its operations ended in September 1941 when police made arrests based on surveillance carried out on the key diplomatic legations in Dublin. To the authorities, counterintelligence was a fundamental line of defence. With a regular army of only slightly over seven thousand men at the start of the war, and with limited supplies of modern weapons, the state would have had great difficulty in defending itself from invasion from either side in the conflict.
Large-scale emigration marked most of the post-WWII period (particularly during the 1950s and 1980s), but beginning in 1987 the economy improved, and the 1990s saw the beginning of substantial economic growth. This period of growth became known as the Celtic Tiger. The Republic's real GDP grew by an average of 9.6% per annum between 1995 and 1999, in which year the Republic joined the euro. In 2000, it was the sixth-richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita. Historian R. F. Foster argues the cause was a combination of a new sense of initiative and the entry of American corporations. He concludes the chief factors were low taxation, pro-business regulatory policies, and a young, tech-savvy workforce. For many multinationals, the decision to do business in Ireland was made easier still by generous incentives from the Industrial Development Authority. In addition European Union membership was helpful, giving the country lucrative access to markets that it had previously reached only through the United Kingdom, and pumping huge subsidies and investment capital into the Irish economy.
Modernisation brought secularisation in its wake. The traditionally high levels of religiosity have sharply declined. Foster points to three factors: First, Irish feminism, largely imported from America with liberal stances on contraception, abortion and divorce, undermined the authority of bishops and priests. Second, the mishandling of the paedophile scandals humiliated the Church, whose bishops seemed less concerned with the victims and more concerned with covering up for errant priests. Third, prosperity brought hedonism and materialism that undercut the ideals of saintly poverty.
The financial crisis that began in 2008 dramatically ended this period of boom. GDP fell by 3% in 2008 and by 7.1% in 2009, the worst year since records began (although earnings by foreign-owned businesses continued to grow). The state has since experienced deep recession, with unemployment, which doubled during 2009, remaining above 14% in 2012.
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland resulted from the division of the United Kingdom by the Government of Ireland Act 1920, and until 1972 was a self-governing jurisdiction within the United Kingdom with its own parliament and prime minister. Northern Ireland, as part of the United Kingdom, was not neutral during the Second World War, and Belfast suffered four bombing raids in 1941. Conscription was not extended to Northern Ireland, and roughly an equal number volunteered from Northern Ireland as volunteered from the Republic of Ireland.
Although Northern Ireland was largely spared the strife of the civil war, in the decades that followed partition there were sporadic episodes of inter-communal violence. Nationalists, mainly Roman Catholic, wanted to unite Ireland as an independent republic, whereas unionists, mainly Protestant, wanted Northern Ireland to remain in the United Kingdom. The Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland voted largely along sectarian lines, meaning that the government of Northern Ireland (elected by "first-past-the-post" from 1929) was controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party. Over time, the minority Catholic community felt increasingly alienated with further disaffection fuelled by practices such as gerrymandering and discrimination in housing and employment.
In the late 1960s, nationalist grievances were aired publicly in mass civil rights protests, which were often confronted by loyalist counter-protests. The government's reaction to confrontations was seen to be one-sided and heavy-handed in favour of unionists. Law and order broke down as unrest and inter-communal violence increased. The Northern Ireland government requested the British Army to aid the police and protect the Irish Nationalist population. In 1969, the paramilitary Provisional IRA, which favoured the creation of a united Ireland, emerged from a split in the Irish Republican Army and began a campaign against what it called the "British occupation of the six counties".
Other groups, both the unionist and nationalist participated in violence, and a period known as "the Troubles" began. Over 3,600 deaths resulted over the subsequent three decades of conflict. Owing to the civil unrest during the Troubles, the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed direct rule. There were several unsuccessful attempts to end the Troubles politically, such as the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973. In 1998, following a ceasefire by the Provisional IRA and multi-party talks, the Good Friday Agreement was concluded as a treaty between the British and Irish governments, annexing the text agreed in the multi-party talks.
The substance of the Agreement (formally referred to as the Belfast Agreement) was later endorsed by referendums in both parts of Ireland. The Agreement restored self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power-sharing in a regional Executive drawn from the major parties in a new Northern Ireland Assembly, with entrenched protections for the two main communities. The Executive is jointly headed by a First Minister and deputy First Minister drawn from the unionist and nationalist parties. Violence had decreased greatly after the Provisional IRA and loyalist ceasefires in 1994 and in 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and an independent commission supervised its disarmament and that of other nationalist and unionist paramilitary organisations.
The Assembly and power-sharing Executive were suspended several times but were restored again in 2007. In that year the British government officially ended its military support of the police in Northern Ireland (Operation Banner) and began withdrawing troops. On 27 June 2012, Northern Ireland's deputy first minister and former IRA commander, Martin McGuinness, shook hands with Queen Elizabeth II in Belfast, symbolising reconciliation between the two sides.
Politics
The island is divided between the Republic of Ireland, an independent state, and Northern Ireland, a constituent country of the United Kingdom. They share an open border and both are part of the Common Travel Area and as a consequence, there is free movement of people, goods, services and capital across the border.
The Republic of Ireland is a member state of the European Union while the United Kingdom is a former member state, having both acceded to its precursor entity, the European Economic Community (EEC), in 1973 but the UK left the European Union in 2020 after a referendum on EU membership was held in 2016 which resulted in 51.9% of UK voters choosing to leave the bloc.
Republic of Ireland
The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a popularly elected president whose role is mostly ceremonial. The Oireachtas is a bicameral parliament, composed of (the Dáil), a house of representatives, and (the Seanad), an upper house. The government is headed by a prime minister, the , who is appointed by the president on the nomination of the . Its capital is Dublin.
The Republic of Ireland today ranks among the wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita and in 2015 was ranked the sixth most developed nation in the world by the United Nations' Human Development Index. A period of rapid economic expansion from 1995 onwards became known as the Celtic Tiger period, was brought to an end in 2008 with an unprecedented financial crisis and an economic depression in 2009.
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom with a local executive and assembly which exercise devolved powers. The executive is jointly headed by the first and deputy first minister, with the ministries being allocated in proportion to each party's representation in the assembly. Its capital is Belfast.
Ultimately political power is held by the UK government, from which Northern Ireland has gone through intermittent periods of direct rule during which devolved powers have been suspended. Northern Ireland elects 18 of the UK House of Commons' 650 MPs. The Northern Ireland Secretary is a cabinet-level post in the British government.
Along with England and Wales and with Scotland, Northern Ireland forms one of the three separate legal jurisdictions of the UK, all of which share the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom as their court of final appeal.
All-island institutions
As part of the Good Friday Agreement, the British and Irish governments agreed on the creation of all-island institutions and areas of cooperation. The North/South Ministerial Council is an institution through which ministers from the Government of Ireland and the Northern Ireland Executive agree all-island policies. At least six of these policy areas must have an associated all-island "implementation body," and at least six others must be implemented separately in each jurisdiction. The implementation bodies are: Waterways Ireland, the Food Safety Promotion Board, InterTradeIreland, the Special European Union Programmes Body, the North/South Language Body and the Foyle, Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission.
The British–Irish Intergovernmental Conference provides for co-operation between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom on all matters of mutual interest, especially Northern Ireland. In light of the Republic's particular interest in the governance of Northern Ireland, "regular and frequent" meetings co-chaired by the ROI Minister for Foreign Affairs and the UK Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, dealing with non-devolved matters to do with Northern Ireland and non-devolved all-Ireland issues, are required to take place under the establishing treaty.
The North/South Inter-Parliamentary Association is a joint parliamentary forum for the island of Ireland. It has no formal powers but operates as a forum for discussing matters of common concern between the respective legislatures.
Geography
Ireland is located in the north-west of Europe, between latitudes 51° and 56° N, and longitudes 11° and 5° W. It is separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and the North Channel, which has a width of at its narrowest point. To the west is the northern Atlantic Ocean and to the south is the Celtic Sea, which lies between Ireland and Brittany, in France. Ireland has a total area of , of which the Republic of Ireland occupies 83 percent. Ireland and Great Britain, together with many nearby smaller islands, are known collectively as the British Isles. As the term British Isles can be controversial in relation to Ireland, the alternate term Britain and Ireland is sometimes used as a neutral term for the islands.
A ring of coastal mountains surrounds low plains at the centre of the island. The highest of these is Carrauntoohil () in County Kerry, which rises to above sea level. The most arable land lies in the province of Leinster. Western areas are mainly mountainous and rocky with green panoramic vistas. River Shannon, the island's longest river at long, rises in County Cavan in the north-west and flows through Limerick in the midwest.
Geology
The island consists of varied geological provinces. In the west, around County Galway and County Donegal, is a medium to high grade metamorphic and igneous complex of Caledonide affinity, similar to the Scottish Highlands. Across southeast Ulster and extending southwest to Longford and south to Navan is a province of Ordovician and Silurian rocks, with similarities to the Southern Uplands province of Scotland. Further south, along the County Wexford coastline, is an area of granite intrusives into more Ordovician and Silurian rocks, like that found in Wales.
In the southwest, around Bantry Bay and the mountains of MacGillycuddy's Reeks, is an area of substantially deformed, lightly metamorphosed Devonian-aged rocks. This partial ring of "hard rock" geology is covered by a blanket of Carboniferous limestone over the centre of the country, giving rise to a comparatively fertile and lush landscape. The west-coast district of the Burren around Lisdoonvarna has well-developed karst features. Significant stratiform lead-zinc mineralisation is found in the limestones around Silvermines and Tynagh.
Hydrocarbon exploration is ongoing following the first major find at the Kinsale Head gas field off Cork in the mid-1970s. In 1999, economically significant finds of natural gas were made in the Corrib Gas Field off the County Mayo coast. This has increased activity off the west coast in parallel with the "West of Shetland" step-out development from the North Sea hydrocarbon province. In 2000, the Helvick oil field was discovered, which was estimated to contain over of oil.
Climate
The island's lush vegetation, a product of its mild climate and frequent rainfall, earns it the sobriquet the Emerald Isle. Overall, Ireland has a mild but changeable oceanic climate with few extremes. The climate is typically insular and temperate, avoiding the extremes in temperature of many other areas in the world at similar latitudes. This is a result of the moist winds which ordinarily prevail from the southwestern Atlantic.
Precipitation falls throughout the year but is light overall, particularly in the east. The west tends to be wetter on average and prone to Atlantic storms, especially in the late autumn and winter months. These occasionally bring destructive winds and higher total rainfall to these areas, as well as sometimes snow and hail. The regions of north County Galway and east County Mayo have the highest incidents of recorded lightning annually for the island, with lightning occurring approximately five to ten days per year in these areas. Munster, in the south, records the least snow whereas Ulster, in the north, records the most.
Inland areas are warmer in summer and colder in winter. Usually around 40 days of the year are below freezing at inland weather stations, compared to 10 days at coastal stations. Ireland is sometimes affected by heat waves, most recently in 1995, 2003, 2006, 2013 and 2018. In common with the rest of Europe, Ireland experienced unusually cold weather during the winter of 2010–11. Temperatures fell as low as −17.2 °C (1 °F) in County Mayo on 20 December and up to a metre (3 ft) of snow fell in mountainous areas.
Flora and fauna
Unlike Great Britain which had a land bridge with mainland Europe, Ireland only had an ice bridge ending around 14,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age and as a result, it has fewer land animal and plant species than Great Britain or mainland Europe. There are 55 mammal species in Ireland, and of them, only 26 land mammal species are considered native to Ireland. Some species, such as, the red fox, hedgehog and badger, are very common, whereas others, like the Irish hare, red deer and pine marten are less so. Aquatic wildlife, such as species of sea turtle, shark, seal, whale, and dolphin, are common off the coast. About 400 species of birds have been recorded in Ireland. Many of these are migratory, including the barn swallow.
Several different habitat types are found in Ireland, including farmland, open woodland, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, conifer plantations, peat bogs and a variety of coastal habitats. However, agriculture drives current land use patterns in Ireland, limiting natural habitat preserves, particularly for larger wild mammals with greater territorial needs. With no large apex predators in Ireland other than humans and dogs, such populations of animals as semi-wild deer that cannot be controlled by smaller predators, such as the fox, are controlled by annual culling.
There are no snakes in Ireland, and only one species of reptile (the common lizard) is native to the island. Extinct species include the Irish elk, the great auk, brown bear and the wolf. Some previously extinct birds, such as the golden eagle, have been reintroduced after decades of extirpation.
Ireland is now one of the least forested countries in Europe. Until the end of the Middle Ages, Ireland was heavily forested. Native species include deciduous trees such as oak, ash, hazel, birch, alder, willow, aspen, rowan and hawthorn, as well as evergreen trees such Scots pine, yew, holly and strawberry trees. Only about 10% of Ireland today is woodland; most of this is non-native conifer plantations, and only 2% is native woodland. The average woodland cover of European countries is over 33%. In the Republic, about is owned by the state, mainly by the forestry service Coillte. Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the island, in particular in the Killarney National Park.
Much of the land is now covered with pasture and there are many species of wild-flower. Gorse (Ulex europaeus), a wild furze, is commonly found growing in the uplands and ferns are plentiful in the more moist regions, especially in the western parts. It is home to hundreds of plant species, some of them unique to the island, and has been "invaded" by some grasses, such as Spartina anglica.
The algal and seaweed flora is that of the cold-temperate variety. The total number of species is 574 The island has been invaded by some algae, some of which are now well established.
Because of its mild climate, many species, including sub-tropical species such as palm trees, are grown in Ireland. Phytogeographically, Ireland belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The island can be subdivided into two ecoregions: the Celtic broadleaf forests and North Atlantic moist mixed forests.
Impact of agriculture
The long history of agricultural production, coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods such as pesticide and fertiliser use and runoff from contaminants into streams, rivers and lakes, has placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland. A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species. Hedgerows, however, traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries, act as a refuge for native wild flora. This ecosystem stretches across the countryside and acts as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island. Subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy, which supported agricultural practices that preserved hedgerow environments, are undergoing reforms. The Common Agricultural Policy had in the past subsidised potentially destructive agricultural practices, for example by emphasising production without placing limits on indiscriminate use of fertilisers and pesticides; but reforms have gradually decoupled subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements. 32% of Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions are correlated to agriculture. Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non-native species, which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting native species of invertebrates. Natural areas require fencing to prevent over-grazing by deer and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas. Grazing in this manner is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country.
Demographics
The population of Ireland is just over 7 million, of which approximately 5.1 million reside in the Republic of Ireland and 1.9 million reside in Northern Ireland.
People have lived in Ireland for over 9,000 years. Early historical and genealogical records note the existence of major groups such as the , , , , , , , , . Later major groups included the , , . Smaller groups included the (see ), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Many survived into late medieval times, others vanished as they became politically unimportant. Over the past 1,200 years, Vikings, Normans, Welsh, Flemings, Scots, English, Africans and Eastern Europeans have all added to the population and have had significant influences on Irish culture.
The population of Ireland rose rapidly from the 16th century until the mid-19th century, interrupted briefly by the Famine of 1740–41, which killed roughly two-fifths of the island's population. The population rebounded and multiplied over the next century, but the Great Famine of the 1840s caused one million deaths and forced over one million more to emigrate in its immediate wake. Over the following century, the population was reduced by over half, at a time when the general trend in European countries was for populations to rise by an average of three-fold.
Ireland's largest religious group is Christianity. The largest denomination is Roman Catholicism, representing over 73% of the island (and about 87% of the Republic of Ireland). Most of the rest of the population adhere to one of the various Protestant denominations (about 48% of Northern Ireland). The largest is the Anglican Church of Ireland. The Muslim community is growing in Ireland, mostly through increased immigration, with a 50% increase in the republic between the 2006 and 2011 census. The island has a small Jewish community. About 4% of the Republic's population and about 14% of the Northern Ireland population describe themselves as of no religion. In a 2010 survey conducted on behalf of the Irish Times, 32% of respondents said they went to a religious service more than once per week.
Divisions and settlements
Traditionally, Ireland is subdivided into four provinces: Connacht (west), Leinster (east), Munster (south), and Ulster (north). In a system that developed between the 13th and 17th centuries, Ireland has 32 traditional counties. Twenty-six of these counties are in the Republic of Ireland, and six are in Northern Ireland. The six counties that constitute Northern Ireland are all in the province of Ulster (which has nine counties in total). As such, Ulster is often used as a synonym for Northern Ireland, although the two are not coterminous. In the Republic of Ireland, counties form the basis of the system of local government. Counties Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, Waterford and Tipperary have been broken up into smaller administrative areas. However, they are still treated as counties for cultural and some official purposes, for example, postal addresses and by the Ordnance Survey Ireland. Counties in Northern Ireland are no longer used for local governmental purposes, but, as in the Republic, their traditional boundaries are still used for informal purposes such as sports leagues and in cultural or tourism contexts.
City status in Ireland is decided by legislative or royal charter. Dublin, with over one million residents in the Greater Dublin Area, is the largest city on the island. Belfast, with 579,726 residents, is the largest city in Northern Ireland. City status does not directly equate with population size. For example, Armagh, with 14,590 is the seat of the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Primate of All Ireland and was re-granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 (having lost that status in local government reforms of 1840). In the Republic of Ireland, Kilkenny, the seat of the Butler dynasty, while no longer a city for administrative purposes (since the 2001 Local Government Act), is entitled by law to continue to use the description.
Migration
The population of Ireland collapsed dramatically during the second half of the 19th century. A population of over eight million in 1841 was reduced to slightly over four million by 1921. In part, the fall in population was caused by death from the Great Famine of 1845 to 1852, which took roughly one million lives. The remaining decline of around three million was due to the entrenched culture of emigration caused by the dire economic state of the country, lasting until the 21st century.
Emigration from Ireland in the 19th century contributed to the populations of England, the United States, Canada and Australia, in all of which a large Irish diaspora lives. , 4.3 million Canadians, or 14% of the population, were of Irish descent, while around one-third of the Australian population had an element of Irish descent. , there were 40 million Irish-Americans and 33 million Americans who claimed Irish ancestry.
With growing prosperity since the last decade of the 20th century, Ireland became a destination for immigrants. Since the European Union expanded to include Poland in 2004, Polish people have comprised the largest number of immigrants (over 150,000) from Central Europe. There has also been significant immigration from Lithuania, Czech Republic and Latvia.
The Republic of Ireland in particular has seen large-scale immigration, with 420,000 foreign nationals as of 2006, about 10% of the population. Nearly a quarter of births (24 percent) in 2009 were to mothers born outside of Ireland. Up to 50,000 eastern and central European migrant workers left Ireland in response to the Irish financial crisis.
Languages
The two official languages of the Republic of Ireland are Irish and English. Each language has produced noteworthy literature. Irish, though now only the language of a minority, was the vernacular of the Irish people for thousands of years and was possibly introduced during the Iron Age. It began to be written down after Christianisation in the 5th century and spread to Scotland and the Isle of Man, where it evolved into the Scottish Gaelic and Manx languages respectively.
The Irish language has a vast treasury of written texts from many centuries and is divided by linguists into Old Irish from the 6th to 10th century, Middle Irish from the 10th to 13th century, Early Modern Irish until the 17th century, and the Modern Irish spoken today. It remained the dominant language of Ireland for most of those periods, having influences from Latin, Old Norse, French and English. It declined under British rule but remained the majority tongue until the early 19th century, and since then has been a minority language.
The Gaelic Revival of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a long-term influence. Irish is taught in mainstream Irish schools as a compulsory subject, but teaching methods have been criticised for their ineffectiveness, with most students showing little evidence of fluency even after fourteen years of instruction.
There is now a growing population of urban Irish speakers in both the Republic and Northern Ireland, especially in Dublin and Belfast, with the children of such Irish speakers sometimes attending Irish-medium schools (). It has been argued that they tend to be more highly educated than monolingual English speakers. Recent research suggests that urban Irish is developing in a direction of its own, both in pronunciation and grammar.
Traditional rural Irish-speaking areas, known collectively as the , are in linguistic decline. The main areas are in the west, south-west and north-west, in Galway, Mayo, Donegal, western Cork and Kerry with smaller areas near Dungarvan in Waterford and in Meath.
English in Ireland was first introduced during the Norman invasion. It was spoken by a few peasants and merchants brought over from England and was largely replaced by Irish before the Tudor conquest of Ireland. It was introduced as the official language during the Tudor and Cromwellian conquests. The Ulster plantations gave it a permanent foothold in Ulster, and it remained the official and upper-class language elsewhere, the Irish-speaking chieftains and nobility having been deposed. Language shift during the 19th century replaced Irish with English as the first language for a vast majority of the population.
Fewer than 2% of the population of the Republic of Ireland today speak Irish on a daily basis, and under 10% regularly, outside of the education system and 38% of those over 15 years are classified as "Irish speakers". In Northern Ireland, English is the de facto official language, but official recognition is afforded to Irish, including specific protective measures under Part III of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. A lesser status (including recognition under Part II of the Charter) is given to Ulster Scots dialects, which are spoken by roughly 2% of Northern Ireland residents, and also spoken by some in the Republic of Ireland. Since the 1960s with the increase in immigration, many more languages have been introduced, particularly deriving from Asia and Eastern Europe.
Also native to Ireland are Shelta, the language of the nomadic Irish Travellers, Irish Sign Language, and Northern Ireland Sign Language.
Culture
Ireland's culture comprises elements of the culture of ancient peoples, later immigrant and broadcast cultural influences (chiefly Gaelic culture, Anglicisation, Americanisation and aspects of broader European culture). In broad terms, Ireland is regarded as one of the Celtic nations of Europe, alongside Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Isle of Man and Brittany. This combination of cultural influences is visible in the intricate designs termed Irish interlace or Celtic knotwork. These can be seen in the ornamentation of medieval religious and secular works. The style is still popular today in jewellery and graphic art, as is the distinctive style of traditional Irish music and dance, and has become indicative of modern "Celtic" culture in general.
Religion has played a significant role in the cultural life of the island since ancient times (and since the 17th century plantations, has been the focus of political identity and divisions on the island). Ireland's pre-Christian heritage fused with the Celtic Church following the missions of Saint Patrick in the fifth century. The Hiberno-Scottish missions, begun by the Irish monk Saint Columba, spread the Irish vision of Christianity to pagan England and the Frankish Empire. These missions brought written language to an illiterate population of Europe during the Dark Ages that followed the fall of Rome, earning Ireland the sobriquet, "the island of saints and scholars".
Since the 20th century Irish pubs worldwide have become outposts of Irish culture, especially those with a full range of cultural and gastronomic offerings.
The Republic of Ireland's national theatre is the Abbey Theatre, which was founded in 1904, and the national Irish-language theatre is , which was established in 1928 in Galway. Playwrights such as Seán O'Casey, Brian Friel, Sebastian Barry, Conor McPherson and Billy Roche are internationally renowned.
Arts
Literature
Ireland has made a substantial contribution to world literature in all its branches, both in Irish and English. Poetry in Irish is among the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century.
Irish remained the dominant literary language down to the nineteenth century, despite the spread of English from the seventeenth century on. Prominent names from the medieval period and later include (fourteenth century), (seventeenth century) and Aogán Ó Rathaille (eighteenth century). (c. 1743 – c. 1800) was an outstanding poet in the oral tradition. The latter part of the nineteenth century saw a rapid replacement of Irish by English. By 1900, however, cultural nationalists had begun the Gaelic revival, which saw the beginnings of modern literature in Irish. This was to produce a number of notable writers, including , and others. Irish-language publishers such as and continue to produce scores of titles every year.
In English, Jonathan Swift, often called the foremost satirist in the English language, gained fame for works such as Gulliver's Travels and A Modest Proposal. Other notable 18th-century writers of Irish origin included Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan, though they spent most of their lives in England. The Anglo-Irish novel came to the fore in the nineteenth century, featuring such writers as Charles Kickham, William Carleton, and (in collaboration) Edith Somerville and Violet Florence Martin. The playwright and poet Oscar Wilde, noted for his epigrams, was born in Ireland.
In the 20th century, Ireland produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: George Bernard Shaw, William Butler Yeats, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney. Although not a Nobel Prize winner, James Joyce is widely considered to be one of the most significant writers of the 20th century. Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses is considered one of the most important works of Modernist literature and his life is celebrated annually on 16 June in Dublin as "Bloomsday". A comparable writer in Irish is Máirtín Ó Cadhain, whose 1949 novel is regarded as a modernist masterpiece and has been translated into several languages.
Modern Irish literature is often connected with its rural heritage through English-language writers such as John McGahern and Seamus Heaney and Irish-language writers such as and others from the .
Music
Music has been in evidence in Ireland since prehistoric times. Although in the early Middle Ages the church was "quite unlike its counterpart in continental Europe", there was a considerable interchange between monastic settlements in Ireland and the rest of Europe that contributed to what is known as Gregorian chant. Outside religious establishments, musical genres in early Gaelic Ireland are referred to as a triad of weeping music (goltraige), laughing music (geantraige) and sleeping music (suantraige). Vocal and instrumental music (e.g. for the harp, pipes, and various string instruments) was transmitted orally, but the Irish harp, in particular, was of such significance that it became Ireland's national symbol. Classical music following European models first developed in urban areas, in establishments of Anglo-Irish rule such as Dublin Castle, St Patrick's Cathedral and Christ Church as well as the country houses of the Anglo-Irish ascendancy, with the first performance of Handel's Messiah (1742) being among the highlights of the baroque era. In the 19th century, public concerts provided access to classical music to all classes of society. Yet, for political and financial reasons Ireland has been too small to provide a living to many musicians, so the names of the better-known Irish composers of this time belong to emigrants.
Irish traditional music and dance have seen a surge in popularity and global coverage since the 1960s. In the middle years of the 20th century, as Irish society was modernising, traditional music had fallen out of favour, especially in urban areas. However during the 1960s, there was a revival of interest in Irish traditional music led by groups such as The Dubliners, The Chieftains, The Wolfe Tones, the Clancy Brothers, Sweeney's Men and individuals like and Christy Moore. Groups and musicians including Horslips, Van Morrison and Thin Lizzy incorporated elements of Irish traditional music into contemporary rock music and, during the 1970s and 1980s, the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred, with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing. This trend can be seen more recently in the work of artists like Enya, The Saw Doctors, The Corrs, Sinéad O'Connor, Clannad, The Cranberries and The Pogues among others.
Art
The earliest known Irish graphic art and sculpture are Neolithic carvings found at sites such as Newgrange and is traced through Bronze Age artefacts and the religious carvings and illuminated manuscripts of the medieval period. During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, a strong tradition of painting emerged, including such figures as John Butler Yeats, William Orpen, Jack Yeats and Louis le Brocquy. Contemporary Irish visual artists of note include Sean Scully, Kevin Abosch, and Alice Maher.
Science
The Irish philosopher and theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena was considered one of the leading intellectuals of the early Middle Ages. Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, an Irish explorer, was one of the principal figures of Antarctic exploration. He, along with his expedition, made the first ascent of Mount Erebus and the discovery of the approximate location of the South Magnetic Pole. Robert Boyle was a 17th-century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor and early gentleman scientist. He is largely regarded as one of the founders of modern chemistry and is best known for the formulation of Boyle's law.
19th-century physicist, John Tyndall, discovered the Tyndall effect. Father Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth College, is best known for his invention of the induction coil, transformer and he discovered an early method of galvanisation in the 19th century.
Other notable Irish physicists include Ernest Walton, winner of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics. With Sir John Douglas Cockcroft, he was the first to split the nucleus of the atom by artificial means and made contributions to the development of a new theory of wave equation. William Thomson, or Lord Kelvin, is the person whom the absolute temperature unit, the kelvin, is named after. Sir Joseph Larmor, a physicist and mathematician, made innovations in the understanding of electricity, dynamics, thermodynamics and the electron theory of matter. His most influential work was Aether and Matter, a book on theoretical physics published in 1900.
George Johnstone Stoney introduced the term electron in 1891. John Stewart Bell was the originator of Bell's Theorem and a paper concerning the discovery of the Bell-Jackiw-Adler anomaly and was nominated for a Nobel prize. The astronomer Jocelyn Bell Burnell, from Lurgan, County Armagh, discovered pulsars in 1967. Notable mathematicians include Sir William Rowan Hamilton, famous for work in classical mechanics and the invention of quaternions. Francis Ysidro Edgeworth's contribution, the Edgeworth Box. remains influential in neo-classical microeconomic theory to this day; while Richard Cantillon inspired Adam Smith, among others. John B. Cosgrave was a specialist in number theory and discovered a 2000-digit prime number in 1999 and a record composite Fermat number in 2003. John Lighton Synge made progress in different fields of science, including mechanics and geometrical methods in general relativity. He had mathematician John Nash as one of his students. Kathleen Lonsdale, born in Ireland and most known for her work with crystallography, became the first female president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Ireland has nine universities, seven in the Republic of Ireland and two in Northern Ireland, including Trinity College Dublin and the University College Dublin, as well as numerous third-level colleges and institutes and a branch of the Open University, the Open University in Ireland. Ireland was ranked 19th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 12th in 2019.
Sports
Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance and community involvement, with about 2,600 clubs on the island. In 2003 it represented 34% of total sports attendances at events in Ireland and abroad, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%. The All-Ireland Football Final is the most watched event in the sporting calendar. Soccer is the most widely played team game on the island and the most popular in Northern Ireland.
Other sporting activities with the highest levels of playing participation include swimming, golf, aerobics, cycling, and billiards/snooker. Many other sports are also played and followed, including boxing, cricket, fishing, greyhound racing, handball, hockey, horse racing, motor sport, show jumping and tennis.
The island fields a single international team in most sports. One notable exception to this is association football, although both associations continued to field international teams under the name "Ireland" until the 1950s. The sport is also the most notable exception where the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland field separate international teams. Northern Ireland has produced two World Snooker Champions.
Field sports
Gaelic football, hurling and Gaelic handball are the best-known Irish traditional sports, collectively known as Gaelic games. Gaelic games are governed by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), with the exception of women's Gaelic football and camogie (women's variant of hurling), which are governed by separate organisations. The headquarters of the GAA (and the main stadium) is located at Croke Park in north Dublin and has a capacity of 82,500. Many major GAA games are played there, including the semi-finals and finals of the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship. During the redevelopment of the Lansdowne Road stadium in 2007–2010, international rugby and soccer were played there. All GAA players, even at the highest level, are amateurs, receiving no wages, although they are permitted to receive a limited amount of sport-related income from commercial sponsorship.
The Irish Football Association (IFA) was originally the governing body for soccer across the island. The game has been played in an organised fashion in Ireland since the 1870s, with Cliftonville F.C. in Belfast being Ireland's oldest club. It was most popular, especially in its first decades, around Belfast and in Ulster. However, some clubs based outside Belfast thought that the IFA largely favoured Ulster-based clubs in such matters as selection for the national team. In 1921, following an incident in which, despite an earlier promise, the IFA moved an Irish Cup semi-final replay from Dublin to Belfast, Dublin-based clubs broke away to form the Football Association of the Irish Free State. Today the southern association is known as the Football Association of Ireland (FAI). Despite being initially blacklisted by the Home Nations' associations, the FAI was recognised by FIFA in 1923 and organised its first international fixture in 1926 (against Italy). However, both the IFA and FAI continued to select their teams from the whole of Ireland, with some players earning international caps for matches with both teams. Both also referred to their respective teams as Ireland.
In 1950, FIFA directed the associations only to select players from within their respective territories and, in 1953, directed that the FAI's team be known only as "Republic of Ireland" and that the IFA's team be known as "Northern Ireland" (with certain exceptions). Northern Ireland qualified for the World Cup finals in 1958 (reaching the quarter-finals), 1982 and 1986 and the European Championship in 2016. The Republic qualified for the World Cup finals in 1990 (reaching the quarter-finals), 1994, 2002 and the European Championship in 1988, 2012 and 2016. Across Ireland, there is significant interest in the English and, to a lesser extent, Scottish soccer leagues.
Ireland fields a single national rugby team and a single association, the Irish Rugby Football Union, governs the sport across the island. The Irish rugby team have played in every Rugby World Cup, making the quarter-finals in six of them. Ireland also hosted games during the 1991 and the 1999 Rugby World Cups (including a quarter-final). There are four professional Irish teams; all four play in the Pro14 and at least three compete for the Heineken Cup. Irish rugby has become increasingly competitive at both the international and provincial levels since the sport went professional in 1994. During that time, Ulster (1999), Munster (2006 and 2008) and Leinster (2009, 2011 and 2012) have won the Heineken Cup. In addition to this, the Irish International side has had increased success in the Six Nations Championship against the other European elite sides. This success, including Triple Crowns in 2004, 2006 and 2007, culminated with a clean sweep of victories, known as a Grand Slam, in 2009 and 2018.
Boxing
Amateur boxing on the island of Ireland is governed by the Irish Athletic Boxing Association. Ireland has won more medals in boxing than in any other Olympic sport. Michael Carruth won a gold medal and Wayne McCullough won a silver medal in the Barcelona Olympic Games. In 2008 Kenneth Egan won a silver medal in the Beijing Games. Paddy Barnes secured bronze in those games and gold in the 2010 European Amateur Boxing Championships (where Ireland came 2nd in the overall medal table) and 2010 Commonwealth Games. Katie Taylor has won gold in every European and World championship since 2005. In August 2012 at the Olympic Games in London, Taylor created history by becoming the first Irish woman to win a gold medal in boxing in the 60 kg lightweight. More recently, Kellie Harrington won a gold medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.
Other sports
Horse racing and greyhound racing are both popular in Ireland. There are frequent horse race meetings and greyhound stadiums are well-attended. The island is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs. The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the County Kildare.
Irish athletics is an all-Ireland sport governed by Athletics Ireland. Sonia O'Sullivan won two medals at 5,000 metres on the track; gold at the 1995 World Championships and silver at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Gillian O'Sullivan won silver in the 20k walk at the 2003 World Championships, while sprint hurdler Derval O'Rourke won gold at the 2006 World Indoor Championship in Moscow. Olive Loughnane won a silver medal in the 20k walk at the World Athletics Championships in Berlin in 2009.
Golf is very popular, and golf tourism is a major industry attracting more than 240,000 golfing visitors annually. The 2006 Ryder Cup was held at The K Club in County Kildare. Pádraig Harrington became the first Irishman since Fred Daly in 1947 to win the British Open at Carnoustie in July 2007. He successfully defended his title in July 2008 before going on to win the PGA Championship in August. Harrington became the first European to win the PGA Championship in 78 years and was the first winner from Ireland. Three golfers from Northern Ireland have been particularly successful. In 2010, Graeme McDowell became the first Irish golfer to win the U.S. Open, and the first European to win that tournament since 1970. Rory McIlroy, at the age of 22, won the 2011 U.S. Open, while Darren Clarke's latest victory was the 2011 Open Championship at Royal St. George's. In August 2012, McIlroy won his 2nd major championship by winning the USPGA Championship by a record margin of 8 shots.
Recreation
The west coast of Ireland, Lahinch and Donegal Bay in particular, have popular surfing beaches, being fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean. Donegal Bay is shaped like a funnel and catches west/south-west Atlantic winds, creating good surf, especially in winter. Since just before the year 2010, Bundoran has hosted European championship surfing. Scuba diving is increasingly popular in Ireland with clear waters and large populations of sea life, particularly along the western seaboard. There are also many shipwrecks along the coast of Ireland, with some of the best wreck dives being in Malin Head and off the County Cork coast.
With thousands of lakes, over of fish-bearing rivers and over of coastline, Ireland is a popular angling destination. The temperate Irish climate is suited to sport angling. While salmon and trout fishing remain popular with anglers, salmon fishing, in particular, received a boost in 2006 with the closing of the salmon driftnet fishery. Coarse fishing continues to increase its profile. Sea angling is developed with many beaches mapped and signposted, and the range of sea angling species is around 80.
Food and drink
Food and cuisine in Ireland take their influence from the crops grown and animals farmed in the island's temperate climate and from the social and political circumstances of Irish history. For example, whilst from the Middle Ages until the arrival of the potato in the 16th century the dominant feature of the Irish economy was the herding of cattle, the number of cattle a person owned was equated to their social standing. Thus herders would avoid slaughtering a milk-producing cow.
For this reason, pork and white meat were more common than beef, and thick fatty strips of salted bacon (known as rashers) and the eating of salted butter (i.e. a dairy product rather than beef itself) have been a central feature of the diet in Ireland since the Middle Ages. The practice of bleeding cattle and mixing the blood with milk and butter (not unlike the practice of the Maasai) was common and black pudding, made from blood, grain (usually barley) and seasoning, remains a breakfast staple in Ireland. All of these influences can be seen today in the phenomenon of the "breakfast roll".
The introduction of the potato in the second half of the 16th century heavily influenced cuisine thereafter. Great poverty encouraged a subsistence approach to food, and by the mid-19th century, the vast majority of the population sufficed with a diet of potatoes and milk. A typical family, consisting of a man, a woman and four children, would eat of potatoes per week. Consequently, dishes that are considered as national dishes represent a fundamental simplicity to cooking, such as the Irish stew, bacon and cabbage, boxty, a type of potato pancake, or colcannon, a dish of mashed potatoes and kale or cabbage.
Since the last quarter of the 20th century, with a re-emergence of wealth in Ireland, a "New Irish Cuisine" based on traditional ingredients incorporating international influences has emerged. This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables, fish (especially salmon, trout, oysters, mussels and other shellfish), as well as traditional soda breads and the wide range of hand-made cheeses that are now being produced across the country. An example of this new cuisine is "Dublin Lawyer": lobster cooked in whiskey and cream. The potato remains however a fundamental feature of this cuisine and the Irish remain the highest per capita consumers of potatoes in Europe. Traditional regional foods can be found throughout the country, for example coddle in Dublin or drisheen in Cork, both a type of sausage, or blaa, a doughy white bread particular to Waterford.
Ireland once dominated the world's market for whiskey, producing 90% of the world's whiskey at the start of the 20th century. However, as a consequence of bootleggers during the prohibition in the United States (who sold poor-quality whiskey bearing Irish-sounding names thus eroding the pre-prohibition popularity for Irish brands) and tariffs on Irish whiskey across the British Empire during the Anglo-Irish Trade War of the 1930s, sales of Irish whiskey worldwide fell to a mere 2% by the mid-20th century. In 1953, an Irish government survey, found that 50% of whiskey drinkers in the United States had never heard of Irish whiskey.
Irish whiskey, as researched in 2009 by the CNBC American broadcaster, remains popular domestically and has grown in international sales steadily over a few decades. Typically CNBC states Irish whiskey is not as smoky as a Scotch whisky, but not as sweet as American or Canadian whiskies. Whiskey forms the basis of cream liqueurs, such as Baileys, and the "Irish coffee" (a cocktail of coffee and whiskey reputedly invented at Foynes flying-boat station) is probably the best-known Irish cocktail.
Stout, a kind of porter beer, particularly Guinness, is typically associated with Ireland, although historically it was more closely associated with London. Porter remains very popular, although it has lost sales since the mid-20th century to lager. Cider, particularly Magners (marketed in the Republic of Ireland as Bulmers), is also a popular drink. Red lemonade, a soft-drink, is consumed on its own and as a mixer, particularly with whiskey.
Economy
Overview and GDP
The GDP of the Republic of Ireland was €423.5 billion (nominal), and in Northern Ireland it was €43 billion (nominal).
The GDP per capita in the Republic of Ireland was €84,049.9 (nominal) , and in Northern Ireland () was €23,700.
Despite the two jurisdictions using two distinct currencies (the euro and pound sterling), a growing amount of commercial activity is carried out on an all-Ireland basis. This has been facilitated by the two jurisdictions' former shared membership of the European Union, and there have been calls from members of the business community and policymakers for the creation of an "all-Ireland economy" to take advantage of economies of scale and boost competitiveness.
Regional economics
Below is a comparison of the regional GDP on the island of Ireland.
Economic history
Prior to partition in 1921, Ireland had a long history as an economic colony – first, partially, of the Norse, via their cities (9th to 10th centuries CE), and later of England. Though the climate and soil favoured certain forms of agriculture, trade barriers frequently hobbled its development. Repeated invasions and plantations disrupted land-ownership, and multiple failed uprisings also contributed to repeated phases of deportation and of emigration.
Salient events in the economic history of Ireland include:
16th and 17th centuries: confiscation and redistribution of land in the Plantations of Ireland
1845–1849: The Great Famine occasioned depopulation and mass emigration
1846: Westminster's repeal of the Corn Laws disrupted Irish agriculture
Major industries
Tourism
There are three World Heritage Sites on the island: the complex, Skellig Michael and the Giant's Causeway. Several other places are on the tentative list, for example the Burren, the Ceide Fields and Mount Stewart.
Some of the most visited sites in Ireland include Bunratty Castle, the Rock of Cashel, the Cliffs of Moher, Holy Cross Abbey and Blarney Castle. Historically important monastic sites include Glendalough and Clonmacnoise, which are maintained as national monuments in the Republic of Ireland.
The Dublin region receives the most tourists and is home to several of the most popular attractions such as the Guinness Storehouse and Book of Kells. The west and south west, which includes the Lakes of Killarney and the Dingle peninsula in County Kerry and Connemara and the Aran Islands in County Galway, are also popular tourist destinations.
Achill Island lies off the coast of County Mayo and is Ireland's largest island. It is a popular tourist destination for surfing and contains 5 Blue Flag beaches and Croaghaun one of the world's highest sea cliffs. Stately homes, built during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries in Palladian, Neoclassical and neo-Gothic styles, such as Castle Ward, Castletown House, Bantry House, Strokestown Park and Glenveagh Castle are also of interest to tourists. Some have been converted into hotels, such as Ashford Castle, Castle Leslie and Dromoland Castle.
Energy
Although for most of their existence electricity networks in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland were entirely separate, the island has operated for some time as a single market for electricity. Both networks were designed and constructed independently post-partition but they are now connected with three interlinks and are also connected through Great Britain to mainland Europe. The situation in Northern Ireland is complicated by the issue of private companies not supplying Northern Ireland Electricity with enough power. In the Republic of Ireland, the ESB has failed to modernise its power stations, and the availability of power plants has recently averaged only 66%, one of the worst such rates in Western Europe. EirGrid has started building a HVDC transmission line between Ireland and Great Britain with a capacity of 500 MW, about 10% of Ireland's peak demand.
As with electricity, the natural gas distribution network is also now all-island, with a pipeline linking Gormanston, County Meath, and Ballyclare, County Antrim. Most of Ireland's gas comes through interconnectors between Twynholm in Scotland and Ballylumford, County Antrim and Loughshinny, County Dublin. Supplies come from the Corrib Gas Field, off the coast of County Mayo, with a supply previously also coming from the Kinsale gas field off the County Cork coast. The County Mayo field faces some localised opposition over a controversial decision to refine the gas onshore.
Ireland has an ancient industry based on peat (known locally as "turf") as a source of energy for home fires. A form of biomass energy, this source of heat is still widely used in rural areas. However, because of the ecological importance of peatlands in storing carbon and their rarity, the EU is attempting to protect this habitat by fining Ireland for digging up peat. In cities, heat is generally supplied by natural gas or heating oil, although some urban suppliers distribute sods of turf as "smokeless fuel" for domestic use.
The Republic has a strong commitment to renewable energy and ranks as one of the top 10 markets for clean-technology investment in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index. Research and development in renewable energy (such as wind power) has increased since 2004. Large wind farms have been constructed in Cork, Donegal, Mayo and Antrim. The construction of wind farms has in some cases been delayed by opposition from local communities, some of whom regard the wind turbines as unsightly. The Republic is hindered by an ageing network that was not designed to handle the varying availability of power that comes from wind farms. The ESB's Turlough Hill facility is the only power-storage facility in the state.
Explanatory notes
References
Bibliography
Beckett, J.C. The making of Modern Ireland 1603-1923 (1971).
Bew, Paul. Ireland: The Politics of Enmity 1789-2006 (2007).
Daly, Mary E. Sixties Ireland: reshaping the economy, state and society, 1957–1973 (Cambridge University Press, 2016).
Ferriter, Diarmaid. "Women and political change in Ireland since 1960." Éire-Ireland 43.1 (2008): 179–204.
Foster, R. F. Luck and the Irish: A Brief History of Change 1970-2000 (2007) excerpt
External links
Government of Ireland
Northern Ireland Executive
British Isles
Celtic nations
Divided regions
International islands | wiki |
Prosperity is the state of having wealth or good fortune.
Prosperity may also refer to:
Places in the United States:
Prosperity, Florida, an unincorporated community
Prosperity, Indiana, an unincorporated town
Prosperity, Missouri, an unincorporated community
Prosperity, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community
Prosperity, South Carolina, a town
Prosperity, West Virginia, a census-designated place
Prosperity, U.S. Virgin Islands, a settlement
In film and television:
Prosperity (film), starring Marie Dressler
Prosperity (Irish TV series), an Irish television drama series
Prosperity (Singaporean TV series), a Singaporean Chinese family drama
See also
As-Salam Palace, one of Saddam Hussein's palaces taken over by coalition forces and called "Camp Prosperity" or "Forward Operating Base Prosperity"
Prosper (disambiguation) | wiki |
Starfinder may refer to:
Starfinder (game show), a British television show
Starfinder Roleplaying Game, a science-fiction role-playing game by Paizo Publishing | wiki |
The sixth season of American Dad! aired on Fox from September 27, 2009, to May 16, 2010. The season consists of nine episodes from production line four (4AJNxx) and nine from production line five (5AJNxx). The entire season was released in the Volume Five DVD box set on April 19, 2011 in Region 1; on June 27, 2008 in Region 2; and July 13, 2008 in Region 4. The season also marked the series move to airing in 16:9 high definition on January 3, 2010 with the episode "Don't Look a Smith Horse in the Mouth".
The season initially ended its 13-episode run on February 21 with the episode "The Return of the Bling" to make room for the new Fox sitcom Sons of Tucson and was set to return to the schedule in September. However, on April 5, it was announced that Sons of Tucson was canceled after a four-episode run. The sixth season of American Dad continued with five more episodes.
The season premiered in the United Kingdom, on BBC Three on Sunday, November 6, 2011 at 10 pm, with a double bill (despite the fact it already was on FX).
Episode list
Reception
The season premiere, "In Country…Club", was given generally positive reviews.
References
General
Specific
External links
2009 American television seasons
2010 American television seasons | wiki |
Grumpy (1923), een film van William C. deMille
Grumpy (1930), een film van George Cukor en Cyril Gardner | wiki |
Sakura Samurai may refer to:
Sakura Samurai: Art of the Sword, a 2011 video game
Sakura Samurai (group), a group of white hat hackers | wiki |
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