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Indignation is a feeling related to one's perception of having been offended or wronged and a tendency to undo that wrongdoing by retaliation.
Indignation may also refer to:
Indignation (word), the etymology and rhetorical use of the word
IndigNation, a gay pride event
Indignation (novel), a 2008 novel by Philip Roth
Indignation (film), a 2016 film based on the Roth novel | wiki |
qubit (kvantumbit, qbit) a kvantum-információelméletben az információ alapegysége, a kvantumszámítógépekben a bit megfelelője
Qubit.hu, magyar online lap | wiki |
The Lexile Framework for Reading is an educational tool that uses a measure called a Lexile to match readers with books, articles and other leveled reading resources. Readers and books are assigned a score on the Lexile scale, in which lower scores reflect easier readability for books and lower reading ability for readers. The Lexile framework uses quantitative methods, based on individual words and sentence lengths, rather than qualitative analysis of content to produce scores. Accordingly, the scores for texts do not reflect factors such as multiple levels of meaning or maturity of themes. Hence, the United States Common Core State Standards recommend the use of alternative, qualitative methods for selecting books for students at grade 6 and over. In the US, Lexile measures are reported from reading programs and assessments annually. Thus, about half of U.S. students in grades 3rd through 12th receive a Lexile measure each year. In addition to being used in schools in all 50 states, Lexile measures are also used outside of the United States.
Components of the Lexile framework
The Lexile framework for reading is made up of Lexile reader measures and Lexile text measures, both of which are put on the Lexile scale.
Lexile scale
The Lexile scale runs from BR300 (Lexile) to above 2000L, though there is not an explicit bottom or top to the scale. Scores 0L and below are reported as BR (Beginning Reader). These books or students may be coded as Lexile: BR. In some cases, a student will receive a BR code followed by a number (e.g. Lexile: BR150L). A measure of BR150L indicates that the lexile measure is 150 units below 0L.
Lexile measure
A Lexile measure is defined as "the numeric representation of an individual's reading ability or a text's readability (or difficulty), followed by an "L" (Lexile)". There are two types of Lexile measures: Lexile reader measures and Lexile text measures. A Lexile reader measure typically is obtained when an individual completes a reading comprehension test. Once a field study has been performed to link Lexile Framework with the test, the individual's reading score can be reported as a Lexile measure.
For an individual, a Lexile measure is typically obtained from a reading comprehension assessment or program. These range from the adolescent level (DIBELS: Dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills) to the adult level (TABE: Test of adult basic education). A Lexile text measure is obtained by evaluating the readability of a piece of text, such as a book or an article. The Lexile Analyzer, a software program specially designed to evaluate reading demand, analyzes the text's semantic (word frequency) and syntactic (sentence length) characteristics and assigns it a Lexile measure. Over 60,000 Web sites, 115,000 fiction and nonfiction books, and 80 million articles have Lexile measures, and these numbers continue to grow. Over 150 publishers including Capstone Publishers, Discovery Ed, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, McGraw-Hill, Pearson PLC, Riverside Publishing, Scholastic Corporation, Simon & Schuster, Workman Publishing Company, and World Book offer certified Lexile text measures for their materials.
The maker claims that noting the Lexile measure of a text can assist in selecting "targeted" materials that present an appropriate level of challenge for a reader – not too difficult to be frustrating, yet difficult enough to challenge a reader and encourage reading growth.
There is no direct correspondence between a specific Lexile measure and a specific grade level.
Lexile codes
Some books get Lexile codes—two-letter designations that appear before the Lexile measure—to give more information about the book relating to its developmental appropriateness, reading difficulty, and common or intended use. BR is the only code that can apply to both readers and text.
History
Lexile framework was founded in 1989 by MetaMetrics Stenner and Malbert Smith Funding for developing a better measurement system for reading and writing was provided by the National Institutes of Health through the Small Business Innovation Research grant program. Over the 12-year period from 1984 through 1996, Stenner and Smith received a total of five grants on measurement of literacy. Development of the Lexile framework was fueled by conversations and comments from John B. Carroll (UNC-Chapel Hill) and Benjamin Wright (University of Chicago), and with mathematical and psychometrical assistance from Donald S. Burdick, associate professor emeritus of Statistical Science, Duke University and Stenner founded Metrametrics in 1997.
The measurement ideas embedded in the Lexile framework can be found in two 1982–83 articles by Stenner and Smith. when they participated in the evaluation of Head Start, comparing different programs from across the country that used different outcome measures.
Independent evaluations
In Mesmer's Tools for Matching Readers to Texts: Research Based Practices, she stated that the Lexile Framework for Reading was valid, reliable, and had "excellent psychometric properties."
Mesmer mentioned Walpole, and details a study which used Lexile to match 47 second-grade readers to text books. The study found that Lexile was successful at matching students to texts with respect to reading accuracy (93%), but not at matching readers to texts that they could read at an acceptable rate: "Without support, either in the form of fluency modeling or repeated reading, these texts would be too difficult for these students to read productively on their own."
In 2002, the Lexile framework was evaluated by Dale Carlson. The independent consultant found that the Lexile framework had a "well-delineated theoretical foundation." Both Carlson and Mesmer have remarked on the positive and unique characteristic of having both the student and text on the same scale.
In 2001, the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) formally reviewed Lexile measures. The report acknowledged the science behind Lexile measures: “The panel affirmed the value of both sentence length and word frequency as overall measures of semantic and syntactic complexity....” Additionally, according to one panel member, the Lexile Framework appears “…exceptional in the psychometric care with which it has been developed; the extent of its formal validation with different populations of texts, tests, and children; in its automation; and in its developers’ continual quest to improve it.” However, the report also identified a number of issues and the different authors identified a range of concerns, such as the exclusion of factors such as reader knowledge, motivation and interest: "The notion of purpose in reading is excluded in the Lexile Framework. This is a serious oversight because of the dramatic effects that purpose can have on reading."
Criticism
Stephen Krashen, educational researcher in language acquisition and professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, raised serious concerns with the Lexile rating system in his article, "The Lexile Framework: Unnecessary and Potentially Harmful." Krashen argues that a reading difficulty rating system limits children's choices and steers them away from reading books in which they may be interested.
Furthermore, like most reading formulas, the formula used to determine a book's Lexile level can often lead to a flawed rating. For example, The Library Mouse, by Daniel Kirk, is a 32-page children's picture book rated by Amazon.com as "for ages 4-8" and has a Lexile score of 830. However, Stephenie Meyer's 498-page, young adult novel Twilight only garners a Lexile score of 720. Similarly, Beverly Cleary's Ramona Quimby, Age 8, has a Lexile score of 860, while Michael Crichton's Jurassic Park only has a score of 710.
Elfrieda H. Hiebert, Professor of Educational Psychology at University of California, Berkeley, noted in her study, "Interpreting Lexiles in Online Contexts and with Informational Texts", "The variability across individual parts of texts can be extensive. Within a single chapter of Pride and Prejudice, for example, 125-word excerpts of text (the unit of assessments used to obtain students' Lexile levels) that were pulled from every 1,000 words had Lexiles that ranged from 670 to 1310, with an average of 952. The range of 640 on the LS [Lexile Scale] represents the span from third grade to college."
Hiebert also demonstrated that slight changes in punctuation, such as changing commas to periods, resulted in "significant reclassification on the LS [Lexile scale].
Many extremely difficult reads, such as "Native Son" by Richard Wright, are ranked with an unexpectedly low Lexile score. "The Grapes of Wrath", written by John Steinbeck, still bewilders readers today and has a Lexile score of only 680L.
Besides limiting children's reading choices and misrepresenting books' reading difficulty, the Lexile Scale has had negative effects at a systemic level. When school districts and states began to mandate specific readability programs, textbook publishers responded by manipulating texts to tailor them to the requirements of the readability formulas.
Furthermore, the Lexile framework costs states and school districts valuable resources. Even though other readability formulas, such as the Flesch–Kincaid used in Microsoft Word's software, are widely used to establish reading levels and difficulty, the Lexile scale is the major method of establishing text difficulty in American schools. However, unlike readability formulas of the past, MetaMetrics, the creator of the Lexile framework, "retained the processing of readability as intellectual property, requiring educators and other clients to pay for their services to obtain readability levels." Mesmer lists the cost of using the Lexile inventory tools as one of the disadvantages of using the system.
Common core standards
Lexile measures are cited in the US Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts to provide text complexity grade and corresponding Lexile ranges. These grade and Lexile ranges are used to help determine at what text complexity level students should be reading to help ensure students are prepared for the reading demands of college and careers. However, this also notes that quantitative methods, including Lexile scores, often underestimate the challenges posed by complex narrative fiction which might use relatively simple prose. The Core standards note that until quantitative methods are able to take into account the factors that might make such texts challenging, preference should be given to qualitative measures of text complexity when evaluating narrative fiction intended for students in grade 6 and over.
Examples of books with Lexile measures
More examples are available here.
Use
As of 2010, over 40 reading assessments and programs report Lexile measures, including many popular instruments from Scholastic, Pearson, CTB/McGraw-Hill and Riverside Publishing, as well as a growing number of year-end state assessments.
Reading assessments that report Lexile measures
Source:
State assessments
Arizona's Instrument to Measure Standards (AIMS)
California English-Language Arts Standards Test
Delaware Comprehensive Assessment System
Florida Assessments for Instruction in Reading (FAIR)
Georgia Georgia Milestones and the Georgia High School Graduation Test (GM and GHSGT)
Hawaii State Assessment
Illinois Standards Achievement Test (ISAT)
Kansas State Assessments of Reading
Kentucky Core Curriculum Test (KCCT)
Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments (MCA)
New Mexico Standards-Based Assessment (SBA)
North Carolina End-of-Grade and English I End-of-Course (NCEOG and NCEOC)
Oklahoma Core Curriculum Test (OCCT)
Oregon Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (OAKS)
South Carolina Palmetto Assessment of State Standards (PASS)
South Dakota State Test of Educational Progress (DSTEP)
Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP) Achievement Test
Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS)
Virginia Standards of Learning Tests (SOL)
West Virginia WESTEST 2
Proficiency Assessments for Wyoming Students (PAWS)
Norm-referenced assessments
CTB/McGraw-Hill|CTB/McGraw-Hill: TerraNova (CAT/6 and CTBS/5) and Tests of Adult Basic Education (TABE)
ERB: Comprehensive Testing Program, 4th Edition (CTP 4)
Pearson: Stanford 9, Stanford 10, MAT 8, and Aprenda 3
Riverside Publishing: The Iowa Tests (ITBS) and (ITED) and Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, Fourth Edition]
Interim/benchmark assessments
American Education Corporation: A+ LearningLink assessment
Dynamic Measurement Group: Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS)
Florida Center for Reading Research: Florida Assessments for Instruction in Reading
Measured Progress: Progress Toward Standards (PTS3)
NWEA: Measures of Academic Progress (MAP)
Pearson: Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, Fourth Edition (SDRT 4) and Stanford Learning First
Scantron: Performance Series
Scholastic: Scholastic Reading Inventory (SRI)
Spanish assessments
Achieve3000: KidBiz3000; Grades 2-8, TeenBiz3000; Grades 9-12
New Mexico Standards-Based Assessment Grades 3-9, 11
Pearson: Aprenda 3
Scholastic Reading Inventory
Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS)-Spanish; Grades 3-6
International assessments
E-LQ Assessment
GL Assessment, Progress in English (PIE) assessment; ages 7–11
ETS: TOEFL
ETS: TOEIC
Scholastic International
Assessments for homeschoolers
BJU Press Testing and Evaluation: Stanford and Iowa achievement tests
EdGate: Total Reader (TR)
Riverside Publishing: Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests
Riverside Publishing: Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS)
References
Readability tests | wiki |
Sulfation is the chemical reaction that entails the addition of SO3 group. In principle, many sulfations would involve reactions of sulfur trioxide (SO3). In practice, most sulfations are effected less directly. Regardless of the mechanism, the installation of a sulfate-like group on a substrate leads to substantial changes.
Sulfation in industry
Sulfation of calcium oxides
Sulfation is a process used to remove "sulfur" from the combustion of fossil fuels. The goal is to minimize the pollution by the combusted gases. Combustion of sulfur-containing fuels releases sulfur dioxide, which, in the atmosphere, oxidizes to the equivalent of sulfuric acid, which is corrosive. To minimize the problem, the combustion is often conducted in the presence of calcium oxide or calcium carbonate, which, directly or indirectly, bind sulfur dioxide and some oxygen to give calcium sulfate. The net reaction is:
CaO + SO2 → CaSO3
CaSO3 + 1/2 O2 → CaSO4
or the net reaction is sulfation, the addition of SO3:
CaO + SO3 → CaSO3
In the idealized scenario, the calcium sulfate (gypsum) is used as a construction material or, less desirably, deposited in a landfill.
Other inorganic sulfations
Detergents, cosmetics, etc.
Sulfation is widely used in the production of consumer products such as detergents, shampoos, and cosmetics. Since the sulfate group is highly polar, its conjugation to a lipophilic "tail" gives surfacant-like properties. Well known sulfates are sodium lauryl sulfate and sodium laureth sulfate.
Alkylsulfate are produced from alcohols by reaction with chlorosulfuric acid:
ClSO3H + ROH → ROSO3H + HCl
Alternatively, alcohols can be sulfated to the half sulfate esters using sulfur trioxide:
SO3 + ROH → ROSO3H
Sulfation in biology
In biology, sulfation is typically effected by sulfotransferases, which catalyze the transfer of the equivalent of sulfur trioxide to substrate alcohols and phenols, converting the latter to sulfate esters.
The source of the SO3 group is usually 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS). When the substrate is an amine, the result is a sulfamate. Sulfation is one of the principal routes for post-translational modification of proteins.
Sulfation is involved in a variety of biological processes, including detoxification, hormone regulation, molecular recognition, cell signaling, and viral entry into cells. It is among the reactions in phase II drug metabolism, frequently effective in rendering a xenobiotic less active from a pharmacological and toxicological standpoint, but sometimes playing a role in the activation of xenobiotics (e.g. aromatic amines, methyl-substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons). Another example of biological sulfation is in the synthesis of sulfonated glycosaminoglycans, such as heparin, heparan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate, and dermatan sulfate. Sulfation is also a possible posttranslational modification of proteins.
Tyrosine sulfation
Tyrosine sulfation is a posttranslational modification in which a tyrosine residue of a protein is sulfated by a tyrosylprotein sulfotransferase (TPST) typically in the Golgi apparatus. Secreted proteins and extracellular parts of membrane proteins that pass through the Golgi apparatus may be sulfated. Sulfation occurs in animals and plants but not in prokaryotes or in yeasts. Sulfation sites are tyrosine residues exposed on the surface of the protein typically surrounded by acidic residues. The function of sulfation remains uncertain.
Regulation of tyrosine sulfation
Very limited evidence suggests that the TPST genes are subject to transcriptional regulation and tyrosine O-sulfate is very stable and cannot be easily degraded by mammalian sulfatases. Tyrosine O-sulfation is an irreversible process in vivo. An antibody called PSG2 shows high sensitivity and specificity for epitopes containing sulfotyrosine independent of the sequence context. New tools are being developed to study TPST's, using synthetic peptides and small molecule screens.
Seagrasses
Many edible seaweeds are composed on highly sulfated polysaccharides.
The evolution of several sulfotransferases appears to have facilitated the adaptation of the terrestrial ancestors of seagrasses to a new marine habitat.
See also
Glucuronidation
Methylation
Hydrogenation
Rosemary Waring
Acetylation
References
Post-translational modification | wiki |
Bachelor of Arts (BA or AB; from the Latin , , or ) is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate program in the arts, or, in some cases, other disciplines. A Bachelor of Arts degree course is generally completed in three or four years, depending on the country and institution.
Degree attainment typically takes four years in Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Brazil, Brunei, China, Egypt, Ghana, Greece, Georgia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Mexico, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Netherlands, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Scotland, Serbia, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, the United States and Zambia.
Degree attainment typically takes three years in Albania, Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Caribbean, Iceland, India, Israel, Italy, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa (certain degrees), Switzerland, the Canadian province of Quebec, the United Kingdom (except Scotland) and most of the European Union. In Bangladesh, three-year BA (associates) courses are also available.
Definition
The Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree is an undergraduate postsecondary degree that puts a focus on liberal arts and studies. In comparison, a Bachelor of Science (BS) has a greater focus on science, math, and engineering. The Bachelor of Arts degree is a type of baccalaureate degree. A Bachelor of Arts degree is usually completed in four years because it requires four years of full-time coursework to earn. However, just as with other degrees, some may require a longer time period. This is due to factors such as the student's ability, motivation, and access to financial assistance to earn the degree. Just like other baccalaureate degrees, a Bachelor of Arts is traditionally offered only at public and private four-year universities and colleges. A Bachelor of Arts, just like other bachelor's degrees is an admission requirement for graduate and professional school. Beginning in the 1990s, community colleges started to confer their own baccalaureate degrees. In addition to the standard BA degrees, there are career-specific Bachelor of Arts degrees, including Bachelor of Arts in Administration, Bachelor of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies, and Regents Bachelor of Arts.
History
The Bachelor of Arts degree has been prominent in academics for centuries. It influenced universities to begin focusing on broad topics such as algebra, psychology, biology, art, history, and philosophy.
This aspect of the BA degree has been consistent in its history. The creation of the Bachelor of Arts degree was formed out of the study of liberal arts. Liberal art is a term that was applied to the study of many branches of learning such as grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. The study of liberal arts started during the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance, the term liberal art was meant to describe general studies more broadly. This definition of liberal studies remains to this day.
In the United States, Bachelor of Arts degrees were historically given only by four-year public or private institutions and colleges. In the 1990s, other colleges like community colleges began awarding their own Bachelor of Arts degrees. Many online colleges now offer Bachelor of Arts degrees.
Degrees in Europe
Germany
In Germany, university-level education usually happens in either a Universität (plural: Universitäten) or a Fachhochschule (plural: Fachhochschulen); both can be referred to as a Hochschule, which is the generic term in Germany for all institutions awarding academic degrees. Fachhochschule is often translated as "University of Applied Sciences". Universitäten place greater emphasis on fundamental science and background in theory, while Fachhochschulen are generally designed with a focus on teaching professional skills. Degrees earned at Universitäten and Fachhochschulen are legally equivalent.
In Germany, the BA course normally lasts between three and three and a half years—six or seven semesters—and the degree is awarded after the student earns between 180 and 210 ECTS.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the BA and Master of Arts (MA) degrees were introduced in 2002. Until then, a single program led to the doctorandus degree (abbreviated drs.), which comprised the same course load as the bachelor's and master's programs combined. The title doctorandus was used in almost all fields of study; other titles were used for legal studies (meester, Dutch for master, abbreviated Mr.) and engineering (ingenieur, abbreviated ir. for academic masters level or ing. for higher vocational bachelors level). Those who had already started the doctorandus program could, on completing it, opt for the doctorandus degree (entitling them to use "drs." in front of their name) or could use the master's degree (postnominal letters) in accordance with the new standard. When attaining a master level/graduate degree, it is still customary to use either drs. pre-nominally or MA/MSc post-nominally at the discretion of the holder.
United Kingdom and Ireland
In the United Kingdom (excluding Scotland) and Ireland, the first degree course normally lasts three years, but nomenclature varies: 19th-century and later universities usually distinguish between arts and sciences subjects by awarding either a BA or BSc degree. However, some older or ancient universities, such as Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin traditionally award BAs to undergraduates having completed the final examinations, e.g., Part II Tripos (Cambridge), Final Honour Schools (Oxford), Moderatorship (Dublin), in most subjects including the sciences. Some new plate glass universities established in the 1960s, such as York and Lancaster originally followed the practice of Oxford and Cambridge by awarding BAs in all subjects, but have since changed to awarding BSc degrees in science subjects. At Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin the degree of MA can be claimed, usually twenty-one terms after matriculation. For many centuries, the bachelor's degree was an intermediate step and was awarded for much of the work carried out in later times at secondary schools. The names of the final secondary school exams in France and Spain (and increasingly in the UK—the International Baccalaureate) come from this: le Baccalauréat and el Bachillerato, respectively.
The ancient universities of Scotland award a Master of Arts degree to humanities or arts graduates, but a BSc to science graduates. This course takes four years for an honours degree and three for an ordinary. In Scotland, it is possible to opt to take an ordinary degree rather than this simply ranking below a third class honours (for example, BA with distinction, merit or pass).
A Bachelor of Arts is entitled to the designation BA for an ordinary/pass degree and BA (Hons) for an honours degree. Students who completed an honours BA sometimes style themselves by '(Hon)' or '(Hons)' after the degree abbreviation in parentheses. An honours degree is always awarded in one of four classes depending upon the marks gained in the final assessments and examinations. The top students are awarded a first-class degree, followed by an upper second-class degree (usually referred to as a 2:1), a lower second-class degree (usually referred to as a 2:2), and those with the lowest marks gain a third-class degree. An ordinary or unclassified degree (which does not give the graduate the right to add '(Hons)') may be awarded if a student has completed the full honours degree course but has not obtained the total required passes sufficient to merit a third-class honours degree. Typically these degrees lack the final year requirement of a dissertation.
Degrees in North America
Canada
Education in Canada is controlled by the provinces and can be very different depending on the province. While all Canadian universities offer four-year degrees, it is not uncommon, depending on the province and the university for a three-year general degree to also be offered as an option. In many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as BA or as honours BA degrees. Honours programs require more education than non-honours programs, typically a specialization beyond the requirements of a BA, and can often be used as a gateway to a Ph.D. program, bypassing a master's degree.
United States
Along with the BS or Bachelor of Science, the Bachelor of Arts is the most commonly granted degree in the US. A BA degree is earned after the completion of four years of undergraduate college level study. Most US colleges and universities offer undergraduate programs.
Degrees in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa
In colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal, and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Students must pursue at least one major area of study and units from that subject are usually studied in each year, though sometimes students may choose to complete upper-level classes in the same year and as a result, can leave space for elective subjects from a different field. At some universities, students may choose to pursue a second major; alternatively, the remainder of the degree is taken up with a minor area of study (in the first two years) and other individual or stream-based subjects. Honours is an additional year of study after the BA degree, that combines aspects of undergraduate study with those of postgraduate research. Entry to the honours program is usually highly selective.
See also
Associate of Arts
Bachelor of Business Administration
Bachelor of Applied Arts
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Bachelor of Independent Studies
Bachelor of Science
Lady Literate in Arts
Master of Arts
Educational attainment in the United States
References
Arts, Bachelor of
Liberal arts education | wiki |
Randolph "Randy" Young (June 12, 1898 – October 26, 1975) was an American football end who played for one season for the Decatur Staleys of the American Professional Football Association. He played college football at Millikin University.
External links
Ranny Young Bio (Staley Museum)
References
1898 births
1975 deaths
Millikin Big Blue football players
Decatur Staleys players
Players of American football from Kansas
Sportspeople from Salina, Kansas | wiki |
Middle East Business Report is a monthly half-hour programme broadcast globally on BBC World News; covering business stories across the Middle East.
Presented by Nima Abu-Wardeh the programme was billed as
"Getting behind the issues of trade, business and economics, providing a window on finance and commerce in the Middle East, revealing how this important economic region works and interacts with the rest of the world."
Middle East Business Report was shown on Fridays, Saturdays and Sundays. The final broadcast of the programme was 28 March 2015.
Presenters
See also
Marketplace Middle East; similar programme produced by CNN International
References
BBC World News shows | wiki |
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32 | wiki |
An intersection or an at-grade junction is a junction where two or more roads converge, diverge, meet or cross at the same height, as opposed to an interchange, which uses bridges or tunnels to separate different roads. Major intersections are often delineated by gores and may be classified by road segments, traffic controls and lane design.
Types
Road segments
One way to classify intersections is by the number of road segments (arms) that are involved.
A three-way intersection is a junction between three road segments (arms): a T junction when two arms form one road, or a Y junction, the latter also known as a fork if approached from the stem of the Y.
A four-way intersection, or crossroads, usually involves a crossing over of two streets or roads. In areas where there are blocks and in some other cases, the crossing streets or roads are perpendicular to each other. However, two roads may cross at a different angle. In a few cases, the junction of two road segments may be offset from each when reaching an intersection, even though both ends may be considered the same street.
Six-way intersections usually involve a crossing of three streets at one junction; for example, a crossing of two perpendicular streets and a diagonal street is a rather common type of 6-way intersection.
Five, seven or more approaches to a single intersection, such as at Seven Dials, London, are not common.
Traffic controls
Another way of classifying intersections is by traffic control technology:
Uncontrolled intersections, without signs or signals (or sometimes with a warning sign). Priority (right-of-way) rules may vary by country: on a 4-way intersection traffic from the right often has priority; on a 3-way intersection either traffic from the right has priority again, or traffic on the continuing road. For traffic coming from the same or opposite direction, that which goes straight has priority over that which turns off.
Yield-controlled intersections may or may not have specific "YIELD" signs (known as "GIVE WAY" signs in some countries).
Stop-controlled intersections have one or more "STOP" signs. Two-way stops are common, while some countries also employ four-way stops.
Signal-controlled intersections depend on traffic signals, usually electric, which indicate which traffic is allowed to proceed at any particular time.
Lane design
A traffic circle is a type of intersection at which traffic streams are directed around a circle. Types of traffic circles include roundabouts, "mini-roundabouts", "rotaries", "STOP"-controlled circles, and signal-controlled circles. Some people consider roundabouts to be a distinct type of intersection from traffic circles (with the distinction based on certain differences in size and engineering).
A box junction can be added to an intersection, generally prohibiting entry to the intersection unless the exit is clear.
Some (unconventional or alternative) intersections employ indirect left turns to increase capacity and reduce delays. The Michigan left combines a right turn and a U-turn. Jughandle lefts diverge to the right, then curve to the left, converting a left turn to a crossing maneuver, similar to throughabouts. These techniques are generally used in conjunction with signal-controlled intersections, although they may also be used at stop-controlled intersections.
Other designs include advanced stop lines, parallel-flow and continuous-flow intersections, hook turns, quadrants, seagull intersections, slip lanes, staggered junctions (junctions consisting of two opposing T-junctions where one road intersects two sideroads located diagonally opposite each other; in American English referred to as doglegs), superstreets, Texas Ts, Texas U-turns and turnarounds.
A roundabout and its variants like turbo roundabouts, bowties and distributing circles like traffic circles and right-in/right-out (RIRO) intersections.
Turns
At intersections, turns are usually allowed, but are often regulated to avoid interference with other traffic. Certain turns may be not allowed or may be limited by regulatory signs or signals, particularly those that cross oncoming traffic. Alternative designs often attempt to reduce or eliminate such potential conflicts.
Turn lanes
At intersections with large proportions of turning traffic, turn lanes (also known as turn bays) may be provided. For example, in the intersection shown in the diagram, left turn lanes are present in the right-left street.
Turn lanes allow vehicles, to cross oncoming traffic (i.e., a left turn in right-side driving countries, or a right turn in left-side driving countries), or to exit a road without crossing traffic (i.e., a right turn in right-side driving countries, or a left turn in left-side driving countries). Absence of a turn lane does not normally indicate a prohibition of turns in that direction. Instead, traffic control signs are used to prohibit specific turns.
Turn lanes can increase the capacity of an intersection or improve safety. Turn lanes can have a dramatic effect on the safety of a junction. In rural areas, crash frequency can be reduced by up to 48% if left turn lanes are provided on both main-road approaches at stop-controlled intersections. At signalized intersections, crashes can be reduced by 33%. Results are slightly lower in urban areas.
Turn lanes are marked with an arrow bending into the direction of the turn which is to be made from that lane. Multi-headed arrows indicate that vehicle drivers may travel in any one of the directions pointed to by an arrow.
Turn signals
Traffic signals facing vehicles in turn lanes often have arrow-shaped indications. North America uses various indication patterns. Green arrows indicate protected turn phases, when vehicles may turn unhindered by oncoming traffic. Red arrows may be displayed to prohibit turns in that direction. Red arrows may be displayed along with a circular green indication to show that turns in the direction of the arrow are prohibited, but other movements are allowed. In some jurisdictions, a red arrow prohibits a turn on red. In Europe, if different lanes have differing phases, red, yellow and green traffic lights corresponding to each lane have blacked-out areas in the middle in the shape of arrows indicating the direction(s) drivers in that lane may travel in. This makes it easier for drivers to be aware which traffic light they need to pay attention to. A green arrow may also be provided; when it is on, drivers heading in the direction of the arrow may proceed, but must yield to all other vehicles. This is similar to the right turn on red in the US.
Disadvantages to turn lanes include increased pavement area, with associated increases in construction and maintenance costs, as well as increased amounts of stormwater runoff. They also increase the distance over which pedestrians crossing the street are exposed to vehicle traffic. If a turn lane has a separate signal phase, it often increases the delay experienced by oncoming through traffic. Without a separate phase, left crossing traffic does not get the full safety benefit of the turn lane.
Lane management
Alternative intersection configurations, formerly called unconventional intersections, can manage turning traffic to increase safety and intersection throughput. These include the Michigan left/Superstreet (RCUT/MUT) and continuous flow intersection (CFI/DLT), to improve traffic flow, and also interchange types like Diverging diamond interchange (DDI/DCD) design as part of the Federal Highway Administration's Every Day Counts initiative which started in 2012.
Vulnerable road users
Vulnerable road users include pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, and individuals using motorized scooters and similar devices. Compared to people who are in motor vehicles (like cars and trucks), they are much more likely to suffer catastrophic or fatal injuries at an intersection.
Pedestrians
Intersections generally must manage pedestrian as well as vehicle traffic. Pedestrian aids include crosswalks, pedestrian-directed traffic signals ("walk light") and over/underpasses. Traffic signals can be time consuming to navigate, especially if programmed to prioritise vehicle flow over pedestrians, while over and underpasses which rely on stairs are inaccessible to those who can't climb them. Walk lights may be accompanied by audio signals to aid the visually impaired. Medians can offer pedestrian islands, allowing pedestrians to divide their crossings into a separate segment for each traffic direction, possibly with a separate signal for each.
Some intersections display red lights in all directions for a period of time. Known as a pedestrian scramble, this type of vehicle all-way stop allows pedestrians to cross safely in any direction, including diagonally. All green for non motorists is known from the crossing at Shibuya Station, Tokyo.
In 2020, NHTSA reported that more than 50% of pedestrian deaths in the United States (3,262 total) were attributed to failure to yield the right of way-- which typically occurs at intersections.
Cyclists and motorcyclists
Poor visibility at junctions can lead to drivers colliding with cyclists and motorcyclists. Some junctions use advanced stop lines which allow cyclists to filter to the front of a traffic queue which makes them more visible to drivers.
Safety
A European study found that in Germany and Denmark, the most important crash scenario involving vulnerable road users was:
motor vehicle turning right/left while cyclist going straight;
motor vehicle turning right/left while pedestrian crossing the intersection approach.
These findings are supported by data elsewhere. According to the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, roughly half of all U.S. car crashes occurred at intersections or were intersection related in 2019.
At grade railways
In the case of railways or rail tracks the term at grade applies to a rail line that is not on an embankment nor in an open cut. As such, it crosses streets and roads without going under or over them. This requires level crossings. At-grade railways may run along the median of a highway. The opposite is grade-separated. There may be overpasses or underpasses.
See also
Roundabout
Street
References
External links
Traffic flow measured on 30 different 4-way junctions, by euverus, December 4, 2017 in the video game Cities: Skylines
Road infrastructure
Road junction types | wiki |
The Legend of Zelda is a video game series created by Shigeru Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka, and developed and published by Nintendo. The series debuted in Japan with on February 21, 1986, which was later released in North America (August 22, 1987) and Europe (November 27). The Legend of Zelda video games have been developed exclusively for Nintendo video game consoles and handhelds, dating from the Family Computer Disk System to the current generation of video game consoles. Spin-off titles, however, have been released on non-Nintendo systems. The franchise currently consists of 29 video games, including original titles, ports, remakes and collections. Over 52 million copies have been sold since the release of the first game. The franchise also includes an American cartoon adaptation, multiple comic book adaptations, as well as soundtracks.
Gameplay consists of a mixture of action, adventure, puzzle-solving, and role-playing video games. The series centers on Link, the main protagonist and player character. Link is often given the task of rescuing Princess Zelda and the most common setting of the series, Hyrule, from Ganon, the series' primary antagonist. Other minor settings and antagonists have appeared throughout the series; Vaati has become one of the series' recurring antagonists. Games in The Legend of Zelda series with two-dimensional (2D) graphics feature side-scrolling or overhead view gameplay, while games with three-dimensional (3D) graphics give the player a third-person perspective. The franchise holds several Guinness World Records, including the first game with a battery-powered save feature and the longest-running action-adventure series.
Video games
Main series
Remakes
Collections
Spin-offs
Other media
Soundtracks
Notes
References
Legend of Zelda media
Legend of Zelda
Legend of Zelda, The | wiki |
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In cinematography, night-for-night filming is the practice of actually filming night scenes at night.
In the early days of cinema, before the invention of the proper lighting systems, night scenes were filmed "day-for-night"—that is, they were filmed during the day, and the film was "corrected", either with a polarized lens on the movie camera, or via a variety of post-production techniques. Day-for-night shooting is still used in low-budget films.
The American television producer Quinn Martin was known for heavily utilizing night-for-night filming.
References
Film and video terminology | wiki |
In probability theory, the law of large numbers (LLN) is a theorem that describes the result of performing the same experiment a large number of times. According to the law, the average of the results obtained from a large number of trials should be close to the expected value and tends to become closer to the expected value as more trials are performed.
The LLN is important because it guarantees stable long-term results for the averages of some random events. For example, while a casino may lose money in a single spin of the roulette wheel, its earnings will tend towards a predictable percentage over a large number of spins. Any winning streak by a player will eventually be overcome by the parameters of the game. Importantly, the law applies (as the name indicates) only when a large number of observations are considered. There is no principle that a small number of observations will coincide with the expected value or that a streak of one value will immediately be "balanced" by the others (see the gambler's fallacy).
The LLN only applies to the average. Therefore, while
other formulas that look similar are not verified, such as the raw deviation from "theoretical results":
not only does it not converge toward zero as n increases, but it tends to increase in absolute value as n increases.
Examples
For example, a single roll of a fair, six-sided die produces one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, each with equal probability. Therefore, the expected value of the average of the rolls is:
According to the law of large numbers, if a large number of six-sided dice are rolled, the average of their values (sometimes called the sample mean) will approach 3.5, with the precision increasing as more dice are rolled.
It follows from the law of large numbers that the empirical probability of success in a series of Bernoulli trials will converge to the theoretical probability. For a Bernoulli random variable, the expected value is the theoretical probability of success, and the average of n such variables (assuming they are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.)) is precisely the relative frequency.
For example, a fair coin toss is a Bernoulli trial. When a fair coin is flipped once, the theoretical probability that the outcome will be heads is equal to . Therefore, according to the law of large numbers, the proportion of heads in a "large" number of coin flips "should be" roughly . In particular, the proportion of heads after n flips will almost surely converge to as n approaches infinity.
Although the proportion of heads (and tails) approaches , almost surely the absolute difference in the number of heads and tails will become large as the number of flips becomes large. That is, the probability that the absolute difference is a small number approaches zero as the number of flips becomes large. Also, almost surely the ratio of the absolute difference to the number of flips will approach zero. Intuitively, the expected difference grows, but at a slower rate than the number of flips.
Another good example of the LLN is the Monte Carlo method. These methods are a broad class of computational algorithms that rely on repeated random sampling to obtain numerical results. The larger the number of repetitions, the better the approximation tends to be. The reason that this method is important is mainly that, sometimes, it is difficult or impossible to use other approaches.
Limitation
The average of the results obtained from a large number of trials may fail to converge in some cases. For instance, the average of n results taken from the Cauchy distribution or some Pareto distributions (α<1) will not converge as n becomes larger; the reason is heavy tails. The Cauchy distribution and the Pareto distribution represent two cases: the Cauchy distribution does not have an expectation, whereas the expectation of the Pareto distribution (α<1) is infinite. One way to generate the Cauchy-distributed example is where the random numbers equal the tangent of an angle uniformly distributed between −90° and +90°. The median is zero, but the expected value does not exist, and indeed the average of n such variables have the same distribution as one such variable. It does not converge in probability toward zero (or any other value) as n goes to infinity.
And if the trials embed a selection bias, typical in human economic/rational behaviour, the law of large numbers does not help in solving the bias. Even if the number of trials is increased the selection bias remains.
History
The Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576) stated without proof that the accuracies of empirical statistics tend to improve with the number of trials. This was then formalized as a law of large numbers. A special form of the LLN (for a binary random variable) was first proved by Jacob Bernoulli. It took him over 20 years to develop a sufficiently rigorous mathematical proof which was published in his (The Art of Conjecturing) in 1713. He named this his "Golden Theorem" but it became generally known as "Bernoulli's theorem". This should not be confused with Bernoulli's principle, named after Jacob Bernoulli's nephew Daniel Bernoulli. In 1837, S. D. Poisson further described it under the name ("the law of large numbers"). Thereafter, it was known under both names, but the "law of large numbers" is most frequently used.
After Bernoulli and Poisson published their efforts, other mathematicians also contributed to refinement of the law, including Chebyshev, Markov, Borel, Cantelli, Kolmogorov and Khinchin. Markov showed that the law can apply to a random variable that does not have a finite variance under some other weaker assumption, and Khinchin showed in 1929 that if the series consists of independent identically distributed random variables, it suffices that the expected value exists for the weak law of large numbers to be true. These further studies have given rise to two prominent forms of the LLN. One is called the "weak" law and the other the "strong" law, in reference to two different modes of convergence of the cumulative sample means to the expected value; in particular, as explained below, the strong form implies the weak.
Forms
There are two different versions of the law of large numbers that are described below. They are called the strong law of large numbers and the weak law of large numbers. Stated for the case where X1, X2, ... is an infinite sequence of independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) Lebesgue integrable random variables with expected value E(X1) = E(X2) = ... = µ, both versions of the law state that the sample average
converges to the expected value:
(Lebesgue integrability of Xj means that the expected value E(Xj) exists according to Lebesgue integration and is finite. It does not mean that the associated probability measure is absolutely continuous with respect to Lebesgue measure.)
Introductory probability texts often additionally assume identical finite variance (for all ) and no correlation between random variables. In that case, the variance of the average of n random variables is
which can be used to shorten and simplify the proofs. This assumption of finite variance is not necessary. Large or infinite variance will make the convergence slower, but the LLN holds anyway.
Mutual independence of the random variables can be replaced by pairwise independence or exchangeability in both versions of the law.
The difference between the strong and the weak version is concerned with the mode of convergence being asserted. For interpretation of these modes, see Convergence of random variables.
Weak law
The weak law of large numbers (also called Khinchin's law) states that the sample average converges in probability towards the expected value
That is, for any positive number ε,
Interpreting this result, the weak law states that for any nonzero margin specified (ε), no matter how small, with a sufficiently large sample there will be a very high probability that the average of the observations will be close to the expected value; that is, within the margin.
As mentioned earlier, the weak law applies in the case of i.i.d. random variables, but it also applies in some other cases. For example, the variance may be different for each random variable in the series, keeping the expected value constant. If the variances are bounded, then the law applies, as shown by Chebyshev as early as 1867. (If the expected values change during the series, then we can simply apply the law to the average deviation from the respective expected values. The law then states that this converges in probability to zero.) In fact, Chebyshev's proof works so long as the variance of the average of the first n values goes to zero as n goes to infinity. As an example, assume that each random variable in the series follows a Gaussian distribution with mean zero, but with variance equal to , which is not bounded. At each stage, the average will be normally distributed (as the average of a set of normally distributed variables). The variance of the sum is equal to the sum of the variances, which is asymptotic to . The variance of the average is therefore asymptotic to and goes to zero.
There are also examples of the weak law applying even though the expected value does not exist.
Strong law
The strong law of large numbers (also called Kolmogorov's law) states that the sample average converges almost surely to the expected value
That is,
What this means is that the probability that, as the number of trials n goes to infinity, the average of the observations converges to the expected value, is equal to one. The modern proof of the strong law is more complex than that of the weak law, and relies on passing to an appropriate subsequence.
The strong law of large numbers can itself be seen as a special case of the pointwise ergodic theorem. This view justifies the intuitive interpretation of the expected value (for Lebesgue integration only) of a random variable when sampled repeatedly as the "long-term average".
Law 3 is called the strong law because random variables which converge strongly (almost surely) are guaranteed to converge weakly (in probability). However the weak law is known to hold in certain conditions where the strong law does not hold and then the convergence is only weak (in probability). See differences between the weak law and the strong law.
The strong law applies to independent identically distributed random variables having an expected value (like the weak law). This was proved by Kolmogorov in 1930. It can also apply in other cases. Kolmogorov also showed, in 1933, that if the variables are independent and identically distributed, then for the average to converge almost surely on something (this can be considered another statement of the strong law), it is necessary that they have an expected value (and then of course the average will converge almost surely on that).
If the summands are independent but not identically distributed, then
provided that each Xk has a finite second moment and
This statement is known as Kolmogorov's strong law, see e.g. .
Differences between the weak law and the strong law
The weak law states that for a specified large n, the average is likely to be near μ. Thus, it leaves open the possibility that happens an infinite number of times, although at infrequent intervals. (Not necessarily for all n).
The strong law shows that this almost surely will not occur. It does not imply that with probability 1, we have that for any the inequality holds for all large enough n, since the convergence is not necessarily uniform on the set where it holds.
The strong law does not hold in the following cases, but the weak law does.
Uniform law of large numbers
Suppose f(x,θ) is some function defined for θ ∈ Θ, and continuous in θ. Then for any fixed θ, the sequence {f(X1,θ), f(X2,θ), ...} will be a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables, such that the sample mean of this sequence converges in probability to E[f(X,θ)]. This is the pointwise (in θ) convergence.
The uniform law of large numbers states the conditions under which the convergence happens uniformly in θ. If
Θ is compact,
f(x,θ) is continuous at each θ ∈ Θ for almost all xs, and measurable function of x at each θ.
there exists a dominating function d(x) such that E[d(X)] < ∞, and
Then E[f(X,θ)] is continuous in θ, and
This result is useful to derive consistency of a large class of estimators (see Extremum estimator).
Borel's law of large numbers
Borel's law of large numbers, named after Émile Borel, states that if an experiment is repeated a large number of times, independently under identical conditions, then the proportion of times that any specified event occurs approximately equals the probability of the event's occurrence on any particular trial; the larger the number of repetitions, the better the approximation tends to be. More precisely, if E denotes the event in question, p its probability of occurrence, and Nn(E) the number of times E occurs in the first n trials, then with probability one,
This theorem makes rigorous the intuitive notion of probability as the long-run relative frequency of an event's occurrence. It is a special case of any of several more general laws of large numbers in probability theory.
Chebyshev's inequality. Let X be a random variable with finite expected value μ and finite non-zero variance σ2. Then for any real number ,
Proof of the weak law
Given X1, X2, ... an infinite sequence of i.i.d. random variables with finite expected value , we are interested in the convergence of the sample average
The weak law of large numbers states:
Proof using Chebyshev's inequality assuming finite variance
This proof uses the assumption of finite variance (for all ). The independence of the random variables implies no correlation between them, and we have that
The common mean μ of the sequence is the mean of the sample average:
Using Chebyshev's inequality on results in
This may be used to obtain the following:
As n approaches infinity, the expression approaches 1. And by definition of convergence in probability, we have obtained
Proof using convergence of characteristic functions
By Taylor's theorem for complex functions, the characteristic function of any random variable, X, with finite mean μ, can be written as
All X1, X2, ... have the same characteristic function, so we will simply denote this φX.
Among the basic properties of characteristic functions there are
if X and Y are independent.
These rules can be used to calculate the characteristic function of in terms of φX:
The limit eitμ is the characteristic function of the constant random variable μ, and hence by the Lévy continuity theorem, converges in distribution to μ:
μ is a constant, which implies that convergence in distribution to μ and convergence in probability to μ are equivalent (see Convergence of random variables.) Therefore,
This shows that the sample mean converges in probability to the derivative of the characteristic function at the origin, as long as the latter exists.
Consequences
The law of large numbers provides an expectation of an unknown distribution from a realization of the sequence, but also any feature of the probability distribution. By applying Borel's law of large numbers, one could easily obtain the probability mass function. For each event in the objective probability mass function, one could approximate the probability of the event's occurrence with the proportion of times that any specified event occurs. The larger the number of repetitions, the better the approximation. As for the continuous case: , for small positive h. Thus, for large n:
With this method, one can cover the whole x-axis with a grid (with grid size 2h) and obtain a bar graph which is called a histogram.
See also
Asymptotic equipartition property
Central limit theorem
Infinite monkey theorem
Law of averages
Law of the iterated logarithm
Law of truly large numbers
Lindy effect
Regression toward the mean
Sortition
Strong law of small numbers
Notes
References
External links
Animations for the Law of Large Numbers by Yihui Xie using the R package animation
Apple CEO Tim Cook said something that would make statisticians cringe. "We don't believe in such laws as laws of large numbers. This is sort of, uh, old dogma, I think, that was cooked up by somebody [..]" said Tim Cook and while: "However, the law of large numbers has nothing to do with large companies, large revenues, or large growth rates. The law of large numbers is a fundamental concept in probability theory and statistics, tying together theoretical probabilities that we can calculate to the actual outcomes of experiments that we empirically perform. explained Business Insider
Probability theorems
Mathematical proofs
Asymptotic theory (statistics)
Theorems in statistics | wiki |
Paste is a term for any very thick viscous fluid. It may refer to:
Science and technology
Adhesive or paste
Wallpaper paste
Wheatpaste, A liquid adhesive made from vegetable starch and water
Paste (rheology), a substance that behaves as a solid and a liquid depending on applied load
Paste gem, a diamond simulant made from rock crystal, glass, or acrylic
Computing
Paste (Unix), a Unix command line utility which is used to join files horizontally
Paste, a presentation program designed by FiftyThree
Cut, copy, and paste, related commands that offer a UI interaction technique for digital transfer from a source to a destination
Python Paste, a set of utilities for web development in Python
Arts, entertainment and media
Paste (magazine), a monthly music and entertainment digital magazine
"Paste" (story), a 5,800-word short story by Henry James
Paste (album), an album by punk rock band Alien Father
Food
Paste (food), a Semi-liquid colloidal suspension, emulsion, or aggregation used in food preparation
Purée, a Food paste made with cooked ingredients
Spread (food), a ready-to-eat food paste
Paste (pasty), a small pastry produced in Mexico
See also
Cut and paste (disambiguation)
Paaste, a village in Estonia | wiki |
Holidaze may refer to:
Holidaze (Grey's Anatomy), an episode of Grey's Anatomy
Holidaze (comic book), an American comic book series | wiki |
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In the United States, a notary public is a person appointed by a state government, e.g., the governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, or in some cases the state legislature, and whose primary role is to serve the public as an impartial witness when important documents are signed. Since the notary is a state officer, a notary's duties may vary widely from state to state and in most cases, a notary is barred from acting outside his or her home state unless they have a commission there as well.
Overview
In 32 states, the main requirements are to fill out a form and pay a fee; many states have restrictions concerning notaries with criminal histories, but the requirements vary from state to state. Notaries in 18 states and the District of Columbia are required to take a course, pass an exam, or both; the education or exam requirements in Delaware and Kansas apply only to notaries who will perform electronic notarizations.
A notary is almost always permitted to notarize a document anywhere in the state where their commission is issued. Some states simply issue a commission "at large," meaning no indication is made as to what county the person's commission was issued from, but some states do require the notary to include the county of issue of their commission as part of the jurat, or, where seals are required, to indicate the county of issue of their commission on the seal. If a state requires indicating the county where the commission was issued, it does not necessarily mean that the notary is restricted to notarizing documents in that county, although some states may impose this as a requirement.
Some states (Montana, Wyoming, and North Dakota, among others) allow a notary who is commissioned in a state bordering that state to also act as a notary in the state if the other state allows the same. Thus, someone who was commissioned in Montana could notarize documents in Wyoming and North Dakota, and a notary commissioned in Wyoming could notarize documents in Montana. However, a notary from Wyoming could not notarize documents from North Dakota (or the inverse) unless they had a commission from North Dakota or a state bordering North Dakota that also allowed North Dakota notaries to practice in that state.
Notaries in the United States are much less closely regulated than notaries in most other common-law countries, typically because U.S. notaries have little legal authority. In the United States, a lay notary may not offer legal advice or prepare documents – except in Louisiana and Puerto Rico – and in most cases cannot recommend how a person should sign a document or what type of notarization is necessary. There are some exceptions; for example, Florida notaries may take affidavits, draft inventories of safe deposit boxes, draft protests for payment of dishonored checks and promissory notes, and solemnize marriages. In most states, a notary can also certify or attest a copy or facsimile.
The most common notarial acts in the United States are the taking of acknowledgements and oaths. Many professions may require a person to double as a notary public, which is why US court reporters are often notaries, as this enables them to swear in witnesses (deponents) when they are taking depositions; secretaries, bankers, and some lawyers are commonly notaries public. Despite their limited role, some American notaries may also perform a number of far-ranging acts not generally found anywhere else. Depending on the jurisdiction, they may: take depositions, certify any and all petitions (ME), witness third-party absentee ballots (ME), provide no-impediment marriage licenses, solemnize civil marriages (ME, FL, SC, & AL (as of August 2019)), witness the opening of a safe deposit box or safe and take an official inventory of its contents, take a renunciation of dower or inheritance (SC), and so on.
Acknowledgment
"An acknowledgment is a formal [oral] declaration before an authorized public officer. It is made by a person executing [signing] an instrument who states that it was his [or her] free act and deed." That is, the person signed it without undue influence and for the purposes detailed in it. A certificate of acknowledgment is a written statement signed (and in some jurisdictions, sealed) by the notary or other authorized official that serves to prove that the acknowledgment occurred. The form of the certificate varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but will be similar to the following:
Before me, the undersigned authority, on this __ day of ___, 20__ personally appeared _, to me well known to be the person who executed the foregoing instrument, and he/she acknowledged before me that he/she executed the same as his/her voluntary act and deed.
Oath, affirmation, and jurat
A jurat is the official written statement by a notary public that he or she has administered and witnessed an oath or affirmation for an oath of office, or on an affidavit; that is, that a person has sworn to or affirmed the truth of information contained in a document under penalty of perjury, whether that document is a lengthy deposition or a simple statement on an application form. The simplest form of jurat and the oath or affirmation administered by a notary are:
Jurat: "Sworn (or affirmed) to before me this ___ day of , 20__."
Oath: "Do you solemnly swear that the contents of this affidavit subscribed by you are correct and true?"
Affirmation (for those opposed to swearing oaths): "Do you solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm that the statements made by you are true and correct?"
Venue
In the U.S., notarial acts normally include what is called a venue or caption; that is, an official listing of the place where a notarization occurred, usually in the form of the state and county and with the abbreviation "ss" (for Latin scilicet, "to wit") normally referred to as a "subscript", often in these forms:
The venue is usually set forth at the beginning of the instrument or at the top of the notary's certificate. If it is at the head of the document, it is usually referred to as a caption. In times gone by, the notary would indicate the street address at which the ceremony was performed, and this practice, though unusual today, is occasionally encountered.
Jurisdictions
Federal
Apart from military officers (see below) there are no federal notaries. Federal law, however, provides for authentication in lieu of notarization in 28 U.S.C. 1746. That section provides that to meet any notarization requirement under federal law or practice, an unsworn declaration under penalties of perjury is sufficient. The declaration may be executed inside or outside the United States. The existence of the statute is not well known with the result that state notarizations are sought (or required) by federal officers who are unfamiliar with 28 U.S.C. 1746.
Military
Certain members of the United States Armed Forces are given the powers of a notary under federal law (10 U.S.C. section 1044a). Some military members have authority to certify documents or administer oaths, without being given all notarial powers. In addition to the powers granted by the federal government, some states have enacted laws granting notarial powers to commissioned officers.
By state
Alabama
Notary public must witness a couple's signatures, and affix a seal, to a wedding license to make it legal. A minister may still perform a religious ceremony if the couple chooses to, but it is not necessary.
California
The California Secretary of State, Notary Public & Special Filings Section, is responsible for appointing and commissioning qualified persons as notaries public for four-year terms.
Prior to sitting for the notary exam, one must complete a mandatory six-hour course of study. This required course of study is conducted either in an online, home study, or in-person format via an approved notary education vendor. Both prospective notaries as well as current notaries seeking reappointment must undergo an expanded FBI and California Department of Justice background check.
Various statutes, rules, and regulations govern notaries public. California law sets maximum, but not minimum, fees for services related to notarial acts (e.g., per signature: acknowledgment $15, jurat $15, certified power of attorney $15, et cetera). A finger print (typically the right thumb) may be required in the notary journal based on the transaction in question (e.g., deed, quitclaim deed, deed of trust affecting real property, power of attorney document, et cetera). Documents with blank spaces cannot be notarized (a further anti-fraud measure). California law explicitly prohibits notaries public, who are not attorneys, from using literal foreign language translation of their title, unless accompanied by a disclaimer, in both the foreign language and in English, that the notary public is not an attorney and therefore cannot give legal advice.
The use of a notary seal is required.
Colorado
Notarial acts performed in Colorado are governed under the Notaries Public Act, 12-55-101, et seq. Pursuant to that law, notaries are appointed by the secretary of state for a term not to exceed four years. Notaries may apply for appointment or reappointment online at the secretary of state's website. A notary may apply for reappointment to the notary office 90 days before the commission expires. Notaries are required to take a training course and pass an examination to ensure minimal competence under the Notaries Public Act. A course of instruction approved by the secretary of state may be administered by approved vendors and shall bear an emblem with a certification number assigned by the secretary of state's office. An approved course of instruction covers relevant provisions of the Colorado Notaries Public Act, the Model Notary Act, and widely accepted best practices. In addition to courses offered by approved vendors, the secretary of state offers free certification courses. A third party seeking to verify the status of a Colorado notary may do so by visiting the Secretary of State's website.
Connecticut
The Connecticut secretary of state appoints notaries for five-year commissions. The application process includes an examination, a review of the applicant's character, a jurat, and a sample of the applicant's handwriting. Attorneys licensed to practice in Connecticut have all of the powers of notaries and are authorized to do all acts that may be done by notaries.
Florida
Florida notaries public are appointed by the governor to serve a four-year term. New applicants and commissioned notary public must be bona fide residents of the state of Florida and first time applicants must complete a mandatory three-hour education course administered by an approved educator. Florida state law also requires that a notary public post bond in the amount of $7,500.00. A bond is required in order to compensate an individual harmed as a result of a breach of duty by the notary. Applications are submitted and processed through an authorized bonding agency. Florida is one of three states (Maine and South Carolina are the others) where a notary public can solemnize the rites of matrimony (perform a marriage ceremony).
The Department of State appoints civil law notaries, also called "Florida International Notaries", who must be Florida attorneys who have practiced law for five or more years. Applicants must attend a seminar and pass an exam administered by the Department of State or any private vendor approved by the department. Such civil law notaries are appointed for life and may perform all of the acts of a notary public in addition to preparing authentic acts.
Illinois
Notaries public in Illinois are appointed by the secretary of state to four-year terms if they live in the state; residents of a state bordering Illinois (Iowa, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Wisconsin) who work or have a place of business in Illinois can be appointed for a one-year term. Notaries must be United States citizens (though the requirement that a notary public must be a United States citizen is unconstitutional; see Bernal v. Fainter), or aliens lawfully admitted for permanent residence; be able to read and write the English language; be residents of (or employed within) the state of Illinois for at least 30 days; be at least 18 years old; not be convicted of a felony; and not had a notary commission revoked or suspended during the past 10 years.
An applicant for the notary public commission must also post a $5,000 bond and pay an application fee of $10. The application is usually accompanied with an oath of office. If the application is approved, the secretary of state sends the commission to the clerk of the county where the applicant resides. If the applicant records the commission with the county clerk, he or she then receives the commission. Illinois law prohibits notaries from using the literal Spanish translation in their title and requires them to use a rubber stamp seal for their notarizations. The notary public can then perform his or her duties anywhere in the state, as long as the notary resides (or works or does business) in the county where he or she was appointed.
Kentucky
A notary public in Kentucky is a public servant appointed by the secretary of state under section 432.390 of the Kentucky Revised Statutes (KRS) to administer oaths and take proof of execution and acknowledgements of instruments. Notaries public fulfill their duties to deter fraud and ensure proper execution. A state-at-large notary is commissioned to perform notarial acts anywhere within the physical borders of the Commonwealth of Kentucky that may be recorded in any state, regardless of the county of application.
To be commissioned as a state-at-large notary public, an applicant must be at least eighteen years of age, a citizen or permanent legal resident of the United States, be a resident of or have a place of employment or practice in the Kentucky county where the application is made, be able to read and write English and not disqualified under KRS 423.395. A completed application is sent to the secretary of state's office with the required ten dollar ($10) fee. Once the application is approved, the notary's commission is sent to the county clerk in the county of application and a notice of appointment is sent to the applicant. The applicant will have thirty days to go to the county clerk's office where they will be required to 1.) post a $1,000 surety bond, 2.) take the oath/affirmation of office, and 3.) file and record the commission with the county clerk.
In addition to notaries public, the elected county clerk of each county shall have the powers of a notarial officer in the exercise of the official functions of the office of clerk within their county. Also, actions of a county clerk in their official capacity shall not require the witness or signature of a notary public.
A Kentucky notary public is not required to use a stamp as the signature and title of the notary, along with the notary's commission number and commission expiration date, is considered to be a valid notarial act. If an official stamp is used, it is required to have the name of the notary as listed on their commission, their full title of office and jurisdiction, their commission number and commission expiration date. The stamp must also be able to be copied together with the record to which it is affixed or
attached or with which it is logically associated. Stamps must be rendered unusable upon the expiration of the notary's commission or upon the notary's death, resignation or removal from office.
A notary public, if authorized by the secretary of state to conduct electronic notarization, must maintain a journal of all electronic notarization. This journal must be in an electronic format and must be maintained by the notary or custodian designated by the notary for ten (10) years after the performance of the last electronic notarization in the journal. A well-bound and indexed journal is also required when recording protest. For other notarial acts, a journal is not required but is recommended.
Louisiana
Louisiana notaries public are commissioned by the governor with the advice and consent of the state senate. They are the only U.S. notaries to be appointed for life. A commissioned notary in Louisiana is a civil law notary that can perform/prepare many civil law notarial acts usually associated with attorneys and other legally authorized practitioners in other states, except represent another person or entity before a court of law for a fee (unless they are also admitted to the state bar). Notaries are not allowed to give "legal" advice, but they are allowed to give "notarial" advice, i.e., explain or recommend what documents are needed or required to perform a certain act, and do all things necessary or incidental to the performance of their civil law notarial duties. They can prepare inventories, appraisements, partitions, wills, protests, matrimonial contracts, conveyances, and, generally, all contracts and instruments of writing, hold family meetings and meetings of creditors, receive acknowledgments, make affidavits of correction, affix and raise the seals on the effects of a deceased person, and administer oaths. If ordered or requested by a judge, they may prepare certain notarial legal documents, in accordance with law, to be returned and filed with that court of law.
Maine
Maine notaries public are appointed by the secretary of state to serve a seven-year term. Between 1981 and 1988, the offices of justice of the peace and notary public were merged, and all duties formerly performed by justices of the peace were transferred to notaries public. Because of this, Maine is one of three states (Florida and South Carolina are the others) where a notary public is authorized to perform marriages. (Maine still has an office called justice of the peace, created in 1989, to receive complaints and perform certain other acts defined by statute.)
Attorneys licensed to practice in Maine have all of the powers of notaries and are authorized to do all acts that may be done by notaries.
Maryland
Maryland notaries public are appointed by the governor, on the recommendation of a state senator, to serve a four-year term. New applicants and commissioned notaries public must be bona fide residents of the State of Maryland or work in the state. The official document of appointment is imprinted with the signatures of the governor and the secretary of state as well as the Great Seal of Maryland. Before exercising the duties of a notary public, an appointee must appear before the clerk of one of Maryland's 24 circuit courts to take an oath of office.
A bond is not required. A notary is required to keep a log of all notarial acts, indicating the name of the person, their address, what type of document is being notarized, the type of ID used to authenticate them (or that they are known personally) by the notary, and the person's signature. The notary's log is the only document for which a notary may write their own certificate.
Michigan
Michigan notaries public are commissioned by the secretary of state. A notary public's term of office expires on their date of birth no less than six years nor more than seven years after their date of appointment. In order to be appointed, an applicant must file a surety bond of $10,000 and take an oath before the county clerk of the county in which they reside, or if not a resident of Michigan, where they maintain their principal place of work.
Michigan notaries public are authorized to take acknowledgments, administer oaths or affirmations, and witness or attest to signatures anywhere in the state.
Michigan notaries public are not required to maintain records, but if records are kept, they must be maintained for 5 years and be provided to the Department of State upon request. However, the law does not describe the type of record that must be kept or what must be included in a record. In 2018 and 2019, the state passed laws that allow for electronic and remote notarization in Michigan, once electronic notarization platforms are approved. As of November 2019 no such platforms have been given final approval, and as such, no Michigan notary public can perform electronic notarization as an e-notary public or remote notary public.
Minnesota
Minnesota notaries public are commissioned by the governor with the advice and consent of the senate for a five-year term. All commissions expire on 31 January of the fifth year following the year of issue. Citizens and resident aliens over the age of 18 years apply to the secretary of state for appointment and reappointment. Residents of adjoining counties in adjoining states may also apply for a notary commission in Minnesota. Notaries public have the power to administer all oaths required or authorized to be administered in the state; take and certify all depositions to be used in any of the courts of the state; take and certify all acknowledgments of deeds, mortgages, liens, powers of attorney and other instruments in writing or electronic records; and receive, make out and record notarial protests.
Montana
Montana notaries public are appointed by the secretary of state and serve a four-year term. A Montana notary public has jurisdiction throughout the states of Montana, North Dakota, and Wyoming through reciprocity.
Nevada
The secretary of state is charged with the responsibility of appointing notaries by the provisions of Chapter 240 of the Nevada Revised Statutes. Nevada notaries public who are not also practicing attorneys are prohibited by law from using "notario", "notario publico" or any non-English term to describe their services. (2005 Changes to NRS 240)
Nevada notary duties: administer oaths or affirmations; take acknowledgments; use of subscribing witness; certify copies; and execute jurats or take a verification upon oath or affirmation.
New Jersey
Notaries are commissioned by the state treasurer for a period of five years. Notaries must also be sworn in by the clerk of the county in which he or she resides. One can become a notary in the state of New Jersey if he or she: (1) is over the age of 18; (2) is a resident of New Jersey or is regularly employed in New Jersey and lives in an adjoining state; (3) has never been convicted of a crime under the laws of any state or the United States, for an offense involving dishonesty, or a crime of the first or second degree, unless the person has met the requirements of the Rehabilitated Convicted Offenders Act (NJSA 2A:168-1). Notary applications must be endorsed by a state legislator.
Notaries in the state of New Jersey serve as impartial witnesses to the signing of documents, attests to the signature on the document, and may also administer oaths and affirmations. Seals are not required; many people prefer them and as a result, most notaries have seals in addition to stamps. Notaries may administer oaths and affirmations to public officials and officers of various organizations. They may also administer oaths and affirmations in order to execute jurats for affidavits/verifications, and to swear in witnesses.
Notaries are prohibited from pre-dating actions; lending notary equipment to someone else (such as stamps, seals, and journals); preparing legal documents or giving legal advice; appearing as a representative of another person in a legal proceeding. Notaries should also refrain from notarizing documents in which they have a personal interest.
Pursuant to state law, attorneys licensed in New Jersey may administer oaths and affirmations.
New York
New York notaries are empowered to administer oaths and affirmations (including oaths of office), to take affidavits and depositions, to receive and certify acknowledgments or proof of deeds, mortgages and powers of attorney and other instruments in writing; to demand acceptance or payment of foreign and inland bills of exchange, promissory notes and obligations in writing, and to protest these (that is, certify them) for non-acceptance or non-payment. They are not empowered to marry couples, their notarization of a will is insufficient to give the will legal force, and they are strictly forbidden to certify "true copies" of documents. Every county clerk's office in New York must have a notary public available to serve the public free of charge.
Admitted attorneys are automatically eligible to be notaries in the State of New York, but must make an application through the proper channels and pay a fee.
New York notaries initially must pass a test and then renew their status every 4 years.
Oregon
Oregon notaries public are appointed by the governor and commissioned by the Oregon Secretary of State to serve a four-year term. Oregon notaries are empowered to administer oaths, jurats and affirmations (including oaths of office), to take affidavits and depositions, to receive and certify acknowledgments or proof of deeds, mortgages and powers of attorney and other instruments in writing; to demand acceptance or payment of foreign and inland bills of exchange, promissory notes and obligations in writing, and to protest these (that is, certify them) for non-acceptance or non-payment. They are also empowered to certify "true copies" of most documents. Every court clerk in Oregon is also empowered to act as a notary public, although they are not required to keep a journal. Oregon formerly required that impression seals be used, but now it is optional. Beginning in 2001, all Oregon notaries were required to pass an open-book examination to receive their commission. Beginning in 2006, new notary applicants were also required to complete a free three-hour online or live in-person instructional seminar, however this requirement is waived for notaries who are renewing their commissions, as long as the commission is renewed before its expiration date. Oregon law specifically prohibits the use of the term "notario publico" by a notary in advertising his or her services, but translation of the title into other languages is not restricted.
Pennsylvania
A notary in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is empowered to perform seven distinct official acts: take affidavits, verifications, acknowledgments and depositions, certify copies of documents, administer oaths and affirmations, and protest dishonored negotiable instruments. A notary is strictly prohibited from giving legal advice or drafting legal documents such as contracts, mortgages, leases, wills, powers of attorney, liens or bonds.
South Carolina
South Carolina notaries public are appointed by the governor to serve a ten-year term. All applicants must first have that application endorsed by a state legislator before submitting their application to the secretary of state. South Carolina is one of three states (Florida and Maine are the others) where a notary public can perform a marriage ceremony. Residents of the state who work in North Carolina, Georgia or Washington, DC are eligible to become notaries in those jurisdictions, but that provision is not available to out-of-state residents that work in South Carolina.
Texas
Texas Government Code Section 406 governs notaries public.
The Texas Secretary of State handles appointments of notaries public. Any person appointed serves for four years and has statewide jurisdiction. A person must be at least 18 and not convicted of a felony or a crime involving "moral turpitude", must complete all forms and pay all fees required, and must post a $10,000 bond. The notary public must, in any advertisement, list language substantially stating (in both English and, if applicable, the language in which the advertisement is transmitted): "I AM NOT AN ATTORNEY LICENSED TO PRACTICE LAW IN TEXAS AND MAY NOT GIVE LEGAL ADVICE OR ACCEPT FEES FOR LEGAL ADVICE." However, if the notary public is an attorney this is not required.
Utah
Utah notaries public are appointed by the lieutenant governor to serve a four-year term. Utah used to require that impression seals be used, but now it is optional. The seal must be in purple ink.
Virginia
A Virginia notary must either be a resident of Virginia or work in Virginia, and is authorized to acknowledge signatures, take oaths, and certify copies of non-government documents which are not otherwise available, e.g. a notary cannot certify a copy of a birth or death certificate since a certified copy of the document can be obtained from the issuing agency. Seals are not required, but if they are used they must be photographically reproducible. The notary's registration number must appear on any document notarized.
On July 1, 2012, Virginia became the first state to authorize a signer to be in a remote location and have a document notarized electronically by an approved Virginia electronic notary using audio-visual conference technology by passing the bills SB 827 and HB 2318.
Washington
In Washington, any resident or resident of an adjacent state employed in Washington may apply to become a notary public. Applicants must obtain a $10,000 surety bond and present proof at a Department of Licensing office. A notary public is appointed for a term of 4 years.
Wyoming
Wyoming notaries public are appointed by the Secretary of State and serve a four-year term. A Wyoming notary public has jurisdiction throughout the states of Wyoming and Montana. These states permit notaries from neighboring states to act in the state in the same manner as one from that state under reciprocity, e.g. as long as that state grants notaries from neighboring states to act in their state.
Controversies
A Maryland requirement that to obtain a commission, a notary declare a belief in God, as required by the Maryland Constitution, was found by the United States Supreme Court in Torcaso v. Watkins, to be unconstitutional. Historically, some states required that a notary be a citizen of the United States. However, the U.S. Supreme Court, in the case of Bernal v. Fainter , declared that to be impermissible.
In the U.S., there are reports of notaries (or people claiming to be notaries) having taken advantage of the differing roles of notaries in common law and civil law jurisdictions to engage in the unauthorized practice of law. The victims of such scams are typically illegal immigrants from civil law countries who need assistance with, for example, their immigration papers and want to avoid hiring an attorney. Confusion often results from the mistaken premise that a notary public in the United States serves the same function as a notario publico in Spanish-speaking countries (which are civil law countries). Prosecutions in such cases are difficult, as the victims are often deported and thus unavailable to testify.
References
Region-specific legal occupations
Notary
Law of the United States | wiki |
The sixth and final season of the American television musical drama series Nashville, created by Callie Khouri, premiered on January 4, 2018, on CMT. The season consisted of 16 episodes.
As with seasons three through five, the episodes are named after songs from a variety of country artists, including Taylor Swift ("Jump Then Fall"), Miranda Lambert ("New Strings"), George Jones ("Sometimes You Just Can't Win"), Tanya Tucker ("Two Sparrows in a Hurricane"), and Hank Williams ("Beyond the Sunset").
Production
In April 2017, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a sixth season, with a 16-episode order. In an interview following the fifth season finale, Marshall Herskovitz confirmed that actor Jeffrey Nordling would return as Jessie Caine's ex-husband Brad and that the new season would see the introduction of two new characters. Filming began on September 27, 2017. Five new major recurring cast members were announced in November 2017. On November 17, 2017, it was confirmed that it would be the series's final season.
The sixth season premiere was available on Hulu in the evening hours of December 19, 2017, and removed 24 hours later. Episodes aired an hour and two hours later on the Paramount Network and TV Land, following the initial airing on CMT. TVLand discontinued reruns of the series after episode five, but returned for the second half of the season.
The season, like season five, was aired in two parts with the final eight episodes airing in the summer. The final eight episodes returned on June 7 and the season wrapped on July 26, 2018.
The season wrap party was held on April 7, 2018. Filming wrapped on the finale three days later.
The series received $5.7million in tax incentives from the state of Tennessee, the lowest of all seasons.
Cast
Main
Hayden Panettiere as Juliette Barnes
Clare Bowen as Scarlett O'Connor
Chris Carmack as Will Lexington
Charles Esten as Deacon Claybourne
Jonathan Jackson as Avery Barkley
Sam Palladio as Gunnar Scott
Lennon Stella as Maddie Conrad
Maisy Stella as Daphne Conrad
Kaitlin Doubleday as Jessie Caine
Jeffrey Nordling as Brad Maitland
Recurring
Ed Amatrudo as Glenn Goodman
Kourtney Hansen as Emily
Andi Rayne and Nora Gill as Cadence Barkley
Melvin Kearney as Bo
David Alford as Bucky Dawes
Josh Stamberg as Darius Enright
Jake Etheridge as Sean McPherson
Rainee Blake as Alannah Curtis
Nic Luken as Jonah Ford
Dylan Arnold as Twig Wysecki
Ilse DeLange as Ilse de Witt
Mia Maestro as Rosa
Ronny Cox as Gideon Claybourne
Cameron Scoggins as Zach Welles
Guest
Rhiannon Giddens as Hallie Jordan
Connie Britton as Rayna Jaymes
Sylvia Jeffries as Jolene Barnes
Eric Close as Teddy Conrad
Will Chase as Luke Wheeler
Judith Hoag as Tandy Hampton
Kyle Dean Massey as Kevin Bicks
Dana Wheeler-Nicholson as Beverly O'Connor
Mark Collie as Frankie Gray
Alicia Witt as Autumn Chase
Joseph David-Jones as himself
Callie Khouri as herself
Marshall Herskovitz as himself
Edward Zwick as himself
Nick Jandl as himself
Keean Johnson as himself
Derek Krantz as himself
Elaina Smith as herself
Pam Tillis as herself
Nancy O'Dell as herself
Steve Earle as himself
Notes
Episodes
Ratings
Nielsen
TVLand
References
External links
Season 6
2018 American television seasons
Split television seasons | wiki |
In mathematics, the cross product or vector product (occasionally directed area product, to emphasize its geometric significance) is a binary operation on two vectors in a three-dimensional oriented Euclidean vector space (named here ), and is denoted by the symbol . Given two linearly independent vectors and , the cross product, (read "a cross b"), is a vector that is perpendicular to both and , and thus normal to the plane containing them. It has many applications in mathematics, physics, engineering, and computer programming. It should not be confused with the dot product (projection product).
If two vectors have the same direction or have the exact opposite direction from each other (that is, they are not linearly independent), or if either one has zero length, then their cross product is zero. More generally, the magnitude of the product equals the area of a parallelogram with the vectors for sides; in particular, the magnitude of the product of two perpendicular vectors is the product of their lengths.
The cross product is anticommutative (that is, ) and is distributive over addition (that is, ). The space together with the cross product is an algebra over the real numbers, which is neither commutative nor associative, but is a Lie algebra with the cross product being the Lie bracket.
Like the dot product, it depends on the metric of Euclidean space, but unlike the dot product, it also depends on a choice of orientation (or "handedness") of the space (it's why an oriented space is needed). In connection with the cross product, the exterior product of vectors can be used in arbitrary dimensions (with a bivector or 2-form result) and is independent of the orientation of the space.
The product can be generalized in various ways, using the orientation and metric structure just as for the traditional 3-dimensional cross product, one can, in dimensions, take the product of vectors to produce a vector perpendicular to all of them. But if the product is limited to non-trivial binary products with vector results, it exists only in three and seven dimensions. The cross-product in seven dimensions has undesirable properties, however (e.g. it fails to satisfy the Jacobi identity), so it is not used in mathematical physics to represent quantities such as multi-dimensional space-time. (See § Generalizations, below, for other dimensions.)
Definition
The cross product of two vectors a and b is defined only in three-dimensional space and is denoted by . In physics and applied mathematics, the wedge notation is often used (in conjunction with the name vector product), although in pure mathematics such notation is usually reserved for just the exterior product, an abstraction of the vector product to dimensions.
The cross product is defined as a vector c that is perpendicular (orthogonal) to both a and b, with a direction given by the right-hand rule and a magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram that the vectors span.
The cross product is defined by the formula
where:
θ is the angle between a and b in the plane containing them (hence, it is between 0° and 180°)
‖a‖ and ‖b‖ are the magnitudes of vectors a and b
and n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b, with direction such that the ordered set (a, b, n) is positively-oriented.
If the vectors a and b are parallel (that is, the angle θ between them is either 0° or 180°), by the above formula, the cross product of a and b is the zero vector 0.
Direction
The direction of the vector n depends on the chosen orientation of the space. Conventionally, it is given by the right-hand rule, where one simply points the forefinger of the right hand in the direction of a and the middle finger in the direction of b. Then, the vector n is coming out of the thumb (see the adjacent picture). Using this rule implies that the cross product is anti-commutative; that is, . By pointing the forefinger toward b first, and then pointing the middle finger toward a, the thumb will be forced in the opposite direction, reversing the sign of the product vector.
As the cross product operator depends on the orientation of the space, in general the cross product of two vectors is not a "true" vector, but a pseudovector. See for more detail.
Names and origin
In 1842, William Rowan Hamilton discovered the algebra of quaternions and the non-commutative Hamilton product. In particular, when the Hamilton product of two vectors (that is, pure quaternions with zero scalar part) is performed, it results in a quaternion with a scalar and vector part. The scalar and vector part of this Hamilton product corresponds to the negative of dot product and cross product of the two vectors.
In 1881, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and independently Oliver Heaviside, introduced the notation for both the dot product and the cross product using a period () and an "×" (), respectively, to denote them.
In 1877, to emphasize the fact that the result of a dot product is a scalar while the result of a cross product is a vector, William Kingdon Clifford coined the alternative names scalar product and vector product for the two operations. These alternative names are still widely used in the literature.
Both the cross notation () and the name cross product were possibly inspired by the fact that each scalar component of is computed by multiplying non-corresponding components of a and b. Conversely, a dot product involves multiplications between corresponding components of a and b. As explained below, the cross product can be expressed in the form of a determinant of a special matrix. According to Sarrus's rule, this involves multiplications between matrix elements identified by crossed diagonals.
Computing
Coordinate notation
If (i, j, k) is a positively oriented orthonormal basis, the basis vectors satisfy the following equalities
which imply, by the anticommutativity of the cross product, that
The anticommutativity of the cross product (and the obvious lack of linear independence) also implies that
(the zero vector).
These equalities, together with the distributivity and linearity of the cross product (though neither follows easily from the definition given above), are sufficient to determine the cross product of any two vectors a and b. Each vector can be defined as the sum of three orthogonal components parallel to the standard basis vectors:
Their cross product can be expanded using distributivity:
This can be interpreted as the decomposition of into the sum of nine simpler cross products involving vectors aligned with i, j, or k. Each one of these nine cross products operates on two vectors that are easy to handle as they are either parallel or orthogonal to each other. From this decomposition, by using the above-mentioned equalities and collecting similar terms, we obtain:
meaning that the three scalar components of the resulting vector s = s1i + s2j + s3k = are
Using column vectors, we can represent the same result as follows:
Matrix notation
The cross product can also be expressed as the formal determinant:
This determinant can be computed using Sarrus's rule or cofactor expansion. Using Sarrus's rule, it expands to
Using cofactor expansion along the first row instead, it expands to
which gives the components of the resulting vector directly.
Using Levi-Civita tensors
In any basis, the cross-product is given by the tensorial formula where is the covariant Levi-Civita tensor (we note the position of the indices). That corresponds to the intrinsic formula given here.
In an orthonormal basis having the same orientation as the space, is given by the pseudo-tensorial formula where is the Levi-Civita symbol (which is a pseudo-tensor). That’s the formula used for everyday physics but it works only for this special choice of basis.
In any orthonormal basis, is given by the pseudo-tensorial formula where indicates whether the basis has the same orientation as the space or not.
The latter formula avoids having to change the orientation of the space when we inverse an orthonormal basis.
Properties
Geometric meaning
The magnitude of the cross product can be interpreted as the positive area of the parallelogram having a and b as sides (see Figure 1):
Indeed, one can also compute the volume V of a parallelepiped having a, b and c as edges by using a combination of a cross product and a dot product, called scalar triple product (see Figure 2):
Since the result of the scalar triple product may be negative, the volume of the parallelepiped is given by its absolute value:
Because the magnitude of the cross product goes by the sine of the angle between its arguments, the cross product can be thought of as a measure of perpendicularity in the same way that the dot product is a measure of parallelism. Given two unit vectors, their cross product has a magnitude of 1 if the two are perpendicular and a magnitude of zero if the two are parallel. The dot product of two unit vectors behaves just oppositely: it is zero when the unit vectors are perpendicular and 1 if the unit vectors are parallel.
Unit vectors enable two convenient identities: the dot product of two unit vectors yields the cosine (which may be positive or negative) of the angle between the two unit vectors. The magnitude of the cross product of the two unit vectors yields the sine (which will always be positive).
Algebraic properties
If the cross product of two vectors is the zero vector (that is, ), then either one or both of the inputs is the zero vector, ( or ) or else they are parallel or antiparallel () so that the sine of the angle between them is zero ( or and ).
The self cross product of a vector is the zero vector:
The cross product is anticommutative,
distributive over addition,
and compatible with scalar multiplication so that
It is not associative, but satisfies the Jacobi identity:
Distributivity, linearity and Jacobi identity show that the R3 vector space together with vector addition and the cross product forms a Lie algebra, the Lie algebra of the real orthogonal group in 3 dimensions, SO(3).
The cross product does not obey the cancellation law; that is, with does not imply , but only that:
This can be the case where b and c cancel, but additionally where a and are parallel; that is, they are related by a scale factor t, leading to:
for some scalar t.
If, in addition to and as above, it is the case that then
As cannot be simultaneously parallel (for the cross product to be 0) and perpendicular (for the dot product to be 0) to a, it must be the case that b and c cancel: .
From the geometrical definition, the cross product is invariant under proper rotations about the axis defined by . In formulae:
, where is a rotation matrix with .
More generally, the cross product obeys the following identity under matrix transformations:
where is a 3-by-3 matrix and is the transpose of the inverse and is the cofactor matrix. It can be readily seen how this formula reduces to the former one if is a rotation matrix. If is a 3-by-3 symmetric matrix applied to a generic cross product , the following relation holds true:
The cross product of two vectors lies in the null space of the matrix with the vectors as rows:
For the sum of two cross products, the following identity holds:
Differentiation
The product rule of differential calculus applies to any bilinear operation, and therefore also to the cross product:
where a and b are vectors that depend on the real variable t.
Triple product expansion
The cross product is used in both forms of the triple product. The scalar triple product of three vectors is defined as
It is the signed volume of the parallelepiped with edges a, b and c and as such the vectors can be used in any order that's an even permutation of the above ordering. The following therefore are equal:
The vector triple product is the cross product of a vector with the result of another cross product, and is related to the dot product by the following formula
The mnemonic "BAC minus CAB" is used to remember the order of the vectors in the right hand member. This formula is used in physics to simplify vector calculations. A special case, regarding gradients and useful in vector calculus, is
where ∇2 is the vector Laplacian operator.
Other identities relate the cross product to the scalar triple product:
where I is the identity matrix.
Alternative formulation
The cross product and the dot product are related by:
The right-hand side is the Gram determinant of a and b, the square of the area of the parallelogram defined by the vectors. This condition determines the magnitude of the cross product. Namely, since the dot product is defined, in terms of the angle θ between the two vectors, as:
the above given relationship can be rewritten as follows:
Invoking the Pythagorean trigonometric identity one obtains:
which is the magnitude of the cross product expressed in terms of θ, equal to the area of the parallelogram defined by a and b (see definition above).
The combination of this requirement and the property that the cross product be orthogonal to its constituents a and b provides an alternative definition of the cross product.
Lagrange's identity
The relation:
can be compared with another relation involving the right-hand side, namely Lagrange's identity expressed as:
where a and b may be n-dimensional vectors. This also shows that the Riemannian volume form for surfaces is exactly the surface element from vector calculus. In the case where , combining these two equations results in the expression for the magnitude of the cross product in terms of its components:
The same result is found directly using the components of the cross product found from:
In R3, Lagrange's equation is a special case of the multiplicativity of the norm in the quaternion algebra.
It is a special case of another formula, also sometimes called Lagrange's identity, which is the three dimensional case of the Binet–Cauchy identity:
If and this simplifies to the formula above.
Infinitesimal generators of rotations
The cross product conveniently describes the infinitesimal generators of rotations in R3. Specifically, if n is a unit vector in R3 and R(φ, n) denotes a rotation about the axis through the origin specified by n, with angle φ (measured in radians, counterclockwise when viewed from the tip of n), then
for every vector x in R3. The cross product with n therefore describes the infinitesimal generator of the rotations about n. These infinitesimal generators form the Lie algebra so(3) of the rotation group SO(3), and we obtain the result that the Lie algebra R3 with cross product is isomorphic to the Lie algebra so(3).
Alternative ways to compute
Conversion to matrix multiplication
The vector cross product also can be expressed as the product of a skew-symmetric matrix and a vector:
where superscript refers to the transpose operation, and [a]× is defined by:
The columns [a]×,i of the skew-symmetric matrix for a vector a can be also obtained by calculating the cross product with unit vectors. That is,
or
where is the outer product operator.
Also, if a is itself expressed as a cross product:
then
This result can be generalized to higher dimensions using geometric algebra. In particular in any dimension bivectors can be identified with skew-symmetric matrices, so the product between a skew-symmetric matrix and vector is equivalent to the grade-1 part of the product of a bivector and vector. In three dimensions bivectors are dual to vectors so the product is equivalent to the cross product, with the bivector instead of its vector dual. In higher dimensions the product can still be calculated but bivectors have more degrees of freedom and are not equivalent to vectors.
This notation is also often much easier to work with, for example, in epipolar geometry.
From the general properties of the cross product follows immediately that
and
and from fact that [a]× is skew-symmetric it follows that
The above-mentioned triple product expansion (bac–cab rule) can be easily proven using this notation.
As mentioned above, the Lie algebra R3 with cross product is isomorphic to the Lie algebra so(3), whose elements can be identified with the 3×3 skew-symmetric matrices. The map a → [a]× provides an isomorphism between R3 and so(3). Under this map, the cross product of 3-vectors corresponds to the commutator of 3x3 skew-symmetric matrices.
{| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="70%" style="text-align:left"
!Matrix conversion for cross product with canonical base vectors
|-
|Denoting with the -th canonical base vector, the cross product of a generic vector with is given by: , where
These matrices share the following properties:
(skew-symmetric);
Both trace and determinant are zero;
;
(see below);
The orthogonal projection matrix of a vector is given by . The projection matrix onto the orthogonal complement is given by , where is the identity matrix. For the special case of , it can be verified that
For other properties of orthogonal projection matrices, see projection (linear algebra).
|}
Index notation for tensors
The cross product can alternatively be defined in terms of the Levi-Civita tensor Eijk and a dot product ηmi, which are useful in converting vector notation for tensor applications:
where the indices correspond to vector components. This characterization of the cross product is often expressed more compactly using the Einstein summation convention as
in which repeated indices are summed over the values 1 to 3.
In a positively-oriented orthonormal basis ηmi = δmi (the Kronecker delta) and (the Levi-Civita symbol). In that case, this representation is another form of the skew-symmetric representation of the cross product:
In classical mechanics: representing the cross product by using the Levi-Civita symbol can cause mechanical symmetries to be obvious when physical systems are isotropic. (An example: consider a particle in a Hooke's Law potential in three-space, free to oscillate in three dimensions; none of these dimensions are "special" in any sense, so symmetries lie in the cross-product-represented angular momentum, which are made clear by the abovementioned Levi-Civita representation).
Mnemonic
The word "xyzzy" can be used to remember the definition of the cross product.
If
where:
then:
The second and third equations can be obtained from the first by simply vertically rotating the subscripts, . The problem, of course, is how to remember the first equation, and two options are available for this purpose: either to remember the relevant two diagonals of Sarrus's scheme (those containing i), or to remember the xyzzy sequence.
Since the first diagonal in Sarrus's scheme is just the main diagonal of the above-mentioned 3×3 matrix, the first three letters of the word xyzzy can be very easily remembered.
Cross visualization
Similarly to the mnemonic device above, a "cross" or X can be visualized between the two vectors in the equation. This may be helpful for remembering the correct cross product formula.
If
then:
If we want to obtain the formula for we simply drop the and from the formula, and take the next two components down:
When doing this for the next two elements down should "wrap around" the matrix so that after the z component comes the x component. For clarity, when performing this operation for , the next two components should be z and x (in that order). While for the next two components should be taken as x and y.
For then, if we visualize the cross operator as pointing from an element on the left to an element on the right, we can take the first element on the left and simply multiply by the element that the cross points to in the right hand matrix. We then subtract the next element down on the left, multiplied by the element that the cross points to here as well. This results in our formula –
We can do this in the same way for and to construct their associated formulas.
Applications
The cross product has applications in various contexts. For example, it is used in computational geometry, physics and engineering.
A non-exhaustive list of examples follows.
Computational geometry
The cross product appears in the calculation of the distance of two skew lines (lines not in the same plane) from each other in three-dimensional space.
The cross product can be used to calculate the normal for a triangle or polygon, an operation frequently performed in computer graphics. For example, the winding of a polygon (clockwise or anticlockwise) about a point within the polygon can be calculated by triangulating the polygon (like spoking a wheel) and summing the angles (between the spokes) using the cross product to keep track of the sign of each angle.
In computational geometry of the plane, the cross product is used to determine the sign of the acute angle defined by three points and . It corresponds to the direction (upward or downward) of the cross product of the two coplanar vectors defined by the two pairs of points and . The sign of the acute angle is the sign of the expression
which is the signed length of the cross product of the two vectors.
In the "right-handed" coordinate system, if the result is 0, the points are collinear; if it is positive, the three points constitute a positive angle of rotation around from to , otherwise a negative angle. From another point of view, the sign of tells whether lies to the left or to the right of line
The cross product is used in calculating the volume of a polyhedron such as a tetrahedron or parallelepiped.
Angular momentum and torque
The angular momentum of a particle about a given origin is defined as:
where is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, is the linear momentum of the particle.
In the same way, the moment of a force applied at point B around point A is given as:
In mechanics the moment of a force is also called torque and written as
Since position linear momentum and force are all true vectors, both the angular momentum and the moment of a force are pseudovectors or axial vectors.
Rigid body
The cross product frequently appears in the description of rigid motions. Two points P and Q on a rigid body can be related by:
where is the point's position, is its velocity and is the body's angular velocity.
Since position and velocity are true vectors, the angular velocity is a pseudovector or axial vector.
Lorentz force
The cross product is used to describe the Lorentz force experienced by a moving electric charge
Since velocity force and electric field are all true vectors, the magnetic field is a pseudovector.
Other
In vector calculus, the cross product is used to define the formula for the vector operator curl.
The trick of rewriting a cross product in terms of a matrix multiplication appears frequently in epipolar and multi-view geometry, in particular when deriving matching constraints.
As an external product
The cross product can be defined in terms of the exterior product. It can be generalized to an external product in other than three dimensions. This view allows a natural geometric interpretation of the cross product. In exterior algebra the exterior product of two vectors is a bivector. A bivector is an oriented plane element, in much the same way that a vector is an oriented line element. Given two vectors a and b, one can view the bivector as the oriented parallelogram spanned by a and b. The cross product is then obtained by taking the Hodge star of the bivector , mapping 2-vectors to vectors:
This can be thought of as the oriented multi-dimensional element "perpendicular" to the bivector. Only in three dimensions is the result an oriented one-dimensional element – a vector – whereas, for example, in four dimensions the Hodge dual of a bivector is two-dimensional – a bivector. So, only in three dimensions can a vector cross product of a and b be defined as the vector dual to the bivector : it is perpendicular to the bivector, with orientation dependent on the coordinate system's handedness, and has the same magnitude relative to the unit normal vector as has relative to the unit bivector; precisely the properties described above.
Handedness
Consistency
When physics laws are written as equations, it is possible to make an arbitrary choice of the coordinate system, including handedness. One should be careful to never write down an equation where the two sides do not behave equally under all transformations that need to be considered. For example, if one side of the equation is a cross product of two polar vectors, one must take into account that the result is an axial vector. Therefore, for consistency, the other side must also be an axial vector. More generally, the result of a cross product may be either a polar vector or an axial vector, depending on the type of its operands (polar vectors or axial vectors). Namely, polar vectors and axial vectors are interrelated in the following ways under application of the cross product:
polar vector × polar vector = axial vector
axial vector × axial vector = axial vector
polar vector × axial vector = polar vector
axial vector × polar vector = polar vector
or symbolically
polar × polar = axial
axial × axial = axial
polar × axial = polar
axial × polar = polar
Because the cross product may also be a polar vector, it may not change direction with a mirror image transformation. This happens, according to the above relationships, if one of the operands is a polar vector and the other one is an axial vector (e.g., the cross product of two polar vectors). For instance, a vector triple product involving three polar vectors is a polar vector.
A handedness-free approach is possible using exterior algebra.
The paradox of the orthonormal basis
Let (i, j,k) be an orthonormal basis. The vectors i, j and k don't depend on the orientation of the space. They can even be defined in the absence of any orientation. They can not therefore be axial vectors. But if i and j are polar vectors then k is an axial vector for i × j = k or j × i = k. This is a paradox.
"Axial" and "polar" are physical qualifiers for physical vectors; that is, vectors which represent physical quantities such as the velocity or the magnetic field. The vectors i, j and k are mathematical vectors, neither axial nor polar. In mathematics, the cross-product of two vectors is a vector. There is no contradiction.
Generalizations
There are several ways to generalize the cross product to higher dimensions.
Lie algebra
The cross product can be seen as one of the simplest Lie products, and is thus generalized by Lie algebras, which are axiomatized as binary products satisfying the axioms of multilinearity, skew-symmetry, and the Jacobi identity. Many Lie algebras exist, and their study is a major field of mathematics, called Lie theory.
For example, the Heisenberg algebra gives another Lie algebra structure on In the basis the product is
Quaternions
The cross product can also be described in terms of quaternions.
In general, if a vector is represented as the quaternion , the cross product of two vectors can be obtained by taking their product as quaternions and deleting the real part of the result. The real part will be the negative of the dot product of the two vectors.
Octonions
A cross product for 7-dimensional vectors can be obtained in the same way by using the octonions instead of the quaternions. The nonexistence of nontrivial vector-valued cross products of two vectors in other dimensions is related to the result from Hurwitz's theorem that the only normed division algebras are the ones with dimension 1, 2, 4, and 8.
Exterior product
In general dimension, there is no direct analogue of the binary cross product that yields specifically a vector. There is however the exterior product, which has similar properties, except that the exterior product of two vectors is now a 2-vector instead of an ordinary vector. As mentioned above, the cross product can be interpreted as the exterior product in three dimensions by using the Hodge star operator to map 2-vectors to vectors. The Hodge dual of the exterior product yields an -vector, which is a natural generalization of the cross product in any number of dimensions.
The exterior product and dot product can be combined (through summation) to form the geometric product in geometric algebra.
External product
As mentioned above, the cross product can be interpreted in three dimensions as the Hodge dual of the exterior product. In any finite n dimensions, the Hodge dual of the exterior product of vectors is a vector. So, instead of a binary operation, in arbitrary finite dimensions, the cross product is generalized as the Hodge dual of the exterior product of some given vectors. This generalization is called external product.
Commutator product
Interpreting the three-dimensional vector space of the algebra as the 2-vector (not the 1-vector) subalgebra of the three-dimensional geometric algebra, where , , and , the cross product corresponds exactly to the commutator product in geometric algebra and both use the same symbol . The commutator product is defined for 2-vectors and in geometric algebra as:
where is the geometric product.
The commutator product could be generalised to arbitrary multivectors in three dimensions, which results in a multivector consisting of only elements of grades 1 (1-vectors/true vectors) and 2 (2-vectors/pseudovectors). While the commutator product of two 1-vectors is indeed the same as the exterior product and yields a 2-vector, the commutator of a 1-vector and a 2-vector yields a true vector, corresponding instead to the left and right contractions in geometric algebra. The commutator product of two 2-vectors has no corresponding equivalent product, which is why the commutator product is defined in the first place for 2-vectors. Furthermore, the commutator triple product of three 2-vectors is the same as the vector triple product of the same three pseudovectors in vector algebra. However, the commutator triple product of three 1-vectors in geometric algebra is instead the negative of the vector triple product of the same three true vectors in vector algebra.
Generalizations to higher dimensions is provided by the same commutator product of 2-vectors in higher-dimensional geometric algebras, but the 2-vectors are no longer pseudovectors. Just as the commutator product/cross product of 2-vectors in three dimensions correspond to the simplest Lie algebra, the 2-vector subalgebras of higher dimensional geometric algebra equipped with the commutator product also correspond to the Lie algebras. Also as in three dimensions, the commutator product could be further generalised to arbitrary multivectors.
Multilinear algebra
In the context of multilinear algebra, the cross product can be seen as the (1,2)-tensor (a mixed tensor, specifically a bilinear map) obtained from the 3-dimensional volume form, a (0,3)-tensor, by raising an index.
In detail, the 3-dimensional volume form defines a product by taking the determinant of the matrix given by these 3 vectors. By duality, this is equivalent to a function (fixing any two inputs gives a function by evaluating on the third input) and in the presence of an inner product (such as the dot product; more generally, a non-degenerate bilinear form), we have an isomorphism and thus this yields a map which is the cross product: a (0,3)-tensor (3 vector inputs, scalar output) has been transformed into a (1,2)-tensor (2 vector inputs, 1 vector output) by "raising an index".
Translating the above algebra into geometry, the function "volume of the parallelepiped defined by " (where the first two vectors are fixed and the last is an input), which defines a function , can be represented uniquely as the dot product with a vector: this vector is the cross product From this perspective, the cross product is defined by the scalar triple product,
In the same way, in higher dimensions one may define generalized cross products by raising indices of the n-dimensional volume form, which is a -tensor.
The most direct generalizations of the cross product are to define either:
a -tensor, which takes as input vectors, and gives as output 1 vector – an -ary vector-valued product, or
a -tensor, which takes as input 2 vectors and gives as output skew-symmetric tensor of rank – a binary product with rank tensor values. One can also define -tensors for other k.
These products are all multilinear and skew-symmetric, and can be defined in terms of the determinant and parity.
The -ary product can be described as follows: given vectors in define their generalized cross product as:
perpendicular to the hyperplane defined by the
magnitude is the volume of the parallelotope defined by the which can be computed as the Gram determinant of the
oriented so that is positively oriented.
This is the unique multilinear, alternating product which evaluates to , and so forth for cyclic permutations of indices.
In coordinates, one can give a formula for this -ary analogue of the cross product in Rn by:
This formula is identical in structure to the determinant formula for the normal cross product in R3 except that the row of basis vectors is the last row in the determinant rather than the first. The reason for this is to ensure that the ordered vectors (v1, ..., vn−1, Λvi) have a positive orientation with respect to (e1, ..., en). If n is odd, this modification leaves the value unchanged, so this convention agrees with the normal definition of the binary product. In the case that n is even, however, the distinction must be kept. This -ary form enjoys many of the same properties as the vector cross product: it is alternating and linear in its arguments, it is perpendicular to each argument, and its magnitude gives the hypervolume of the region bounded by the arguments. And just like the vector cross product, it can be defined in a coordinate independent way as the Hodge dual of the wedge product of the arguments. Moreover, the product satisfies the Filippov identity,
and so it endows Rn+1 with a structure of n-Lie algebra (see Proposition 1 of ).
History
In 1773, Joseph-Louis Lagrange used the component form of both the dot and cross products in order to study the tetrahedron in three dimensions.
In 1843, William Rowan Hamilton introduced the quaternion product, and with it the terms vector and scalar. Given two quaternions and , where u and v are vectors in R3, their quaternion product can be summarized as . James Clerk Maxwell used Hamilton's quaternion tools to develop his famous electromagnetism equations, and for this and other reasons quaternions for a time were an essential part of physics education.
In 1844, Hermann Grassmann published a geometric algebra not tied to dimension two or three. Grassmann develops several products, including a cross product represented then by . (See also: exterior algebra.)
In 1853, Augustin-Louis Cauchy, a contemporary of Grassmann, published a paper on algebraic keys which were used to solve equations and had the same multiplication properties as the cross product.
In 1878, William Kingdon Clifford published Elements of Dynamic, in which the term vector product is attested. In the book, this product of two vectors is defined to have magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram of which they are two sides, and direction perpendicular to their plane. (See also: Clifford algebra.)
In 1881 lecture notes, Gibbs represents the cross product by and calls it the skew product. In 1901, Gibb's student Edwin Bidwell Wilson edits and extends these lecture notes into the textbook Vector Analysis. Wilson keeps the term skew product, but observes that the alternative terms cross product and vector product were more frequent.
In 1908, Cesare Burali-Forti and Roberto Marcolongo introduce the vector product notation . This is used in France and other areas until this day, as the symbol is already used to denote multiplication and the cartesian product.
See also
Cartesian product – a product of two sets
Geometric algebra: Rotating systems
Multiple cross products – products involving more than three vectors
Multiplication of vectors
Quadruple product
× (the symbol)
Notes
References
Bibliography
E. A. Milne (1948) Vectorial Mechanics, Chapter 2: Vector Product, pp 11 –31, London: Methuen Publishing.
External links
A quick geometrical derivation and interpretation of cross products
An interactive tutorial created at Syracuse University – (requires java)
W. Kahan (2007). Cross-Products and Rotations in Euclidean 2- and 3-Space. University of California, Berkeley (PDF).
The vector product, Mathcentre (UK), 2009
Bilinear maps
Operations on vectors
Analytic geometry | wiki |
Name blending, meshing, or melding is the practice of combining two existing names to form a new name. An example is the combination of the surnames Dresser and McLoughlin to form the new surname of game designer Clay Dreslough. It is most commonly performed upon marriage. According to Western tradition, the wife normally adopts the husband's surname upon marriage. Name blending is an alternative practice that attempts to assign equal cultural value to each partner's surname. In November 2012, it was reported that 800 couples in the United Kingdom had opted to blend their surnames thus far that year, primarily among "younger couples in their twenties or early thirties", with this being a leading reason for the issuance of Deed Polls to change names.
Since the early 2000s, it has also become common for celebrity couples to be given blended names in the media, usually made by combining elements of the given name of the people involved. This practice has been adopted by shippers within fandoms to describe relationships between fictional characters.
Surname blending
Couples give many reasons for choosing to blend their surnames.
Couples may choose to adopt a blended name to enter into marriage "with a completely new start without any history being tied to their surname". Name blending confers the same surname upon both spouses. This allows the family to conform to the expectation that the family (and any children) will all share the same name, and avoid confusion that can arise when spouses retain differing surnames.
Name blending avoids the patriarchal practice of having the wife take the husband's name. In doing so, it is considered by many to be an extension of the feminist movement.
Name blending avoids hyphenation and the complications associated with having a double-barreled surname or other form of combined name that may be too long for use in some circumstances (for example, many computer databases limit last names to 16 characters).
Name blending avoids exponential growth in the length of surnames caused by successive double-barrelling.
Name blending often creates a unique surname. With over 1 billion internet users, having a unique last name can make it easier for people to find an individual using search engines. It also increases the chance that the name will be available as a username in e-mail systems and online communities.
Name blending allows a single surname to acknowledge the diverse background of the family.
Name blending also provides an alternative for same-sex marriages, where there are not longstanding traditions regarding the taking of one participant's surname by the other.
Surname blending can also occur in multiple steps, as when a double-barrelled is combined and condensed in later generations.
Names used to refer to celebrity couples
In the case of celebrity couples, where the names are chosen by the media (or arise from the public) rather than reflecting a choice by the couple, it has been suggested that the assignment of a nickname makes fans feel closer to the couple. The popularity of celebrity supercouple Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez from 2002 to 2004 and from 2021 to present (they broke up then rekindled their relationship over a decade later) resulted in their being known by the portmanteau "Bennifer" (for Ben and Jennifer) to the media, as well as to fans using the name combination. The term Bennifer itself became popular, and started the trend of other celebrity couples being referred to by the combination of each other's first names, as with Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie ("Brangelina"), and Kanye West and Kim Kardashian ("Kimye"). Robert Thompson, director of the Centre for the Study of Popular Television, said "as silly as it sounds, this new tendency to make up single names for two people, like 'Bennifer' (Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez) and 'TomKat' (Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes), is an insightful idea'. 'Brangelina' has more cultural equity than their two star parts".
Notable people with blended surnames
Clay Dreslough, Game Designer (from Dresser and McLoughlin)
Antonio Villaraigosa, former Mayor of Los Angeles (from Villar and Raigosa)
Alexa PenaVega, actress (from birth surname Vega and spouse's surname Pena)
Dawn O'Porter, writer and presenter (from Porter and O'Dowd)
See also
Bilingual tautological names
References
Naming conventions | wiki |
In mathematics, the dot product or scalar product is an algebraic operation that takes two equal-length sequences of numbers (usually coordinate vectors), and returns a single number. In Euclidean geometry, the dot product of the Cartesian coordinates of two vectors is widely used. It is often called the inner product (or rarely projection product) of Euclidean space, even though it is not the only inner product that can be defined on Euclidean space (see Inner product space for more).
Algebraically, the dot product is the sum of the products of the corresponding entries of the two sequences of numbers. Geometrically, it is the product of the Euclidean magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. These definitions are equivalent when using Cartesian coordinates. In modern geometry, Euclidean spaces are often defined by using vector spaces. In this case, the dot product is used for defining lengths (the length of a vector is the square root of the dot product of the vector by itself) and angles (the cosine of the angle between two vectors is the quotient of their dot product by the product of their lengths).
The name "dot product" is derived from the centered dot " · " that is often used to designate this operation; the alternative name "scalar product" emphasizes that the result is a scalar, rather than a vector, as is the case for the vector product in three-dimensional space.
Definition
The dot product may be defined algebraically or geometrically. The geometric definition is based on the notions of angle and distance (magnitude) of vectors. The equivalence of these two definitions relies on having a Cartesian coordinate system for Euclidean space.
In modern presentations of Euclidean geometry, the points of space are defined in terms of their Cartesian coordinates, and Euclidean space itself is commonly identified with the real coordinate space Rn. In such a presentation, the notions of length and angles are defined by means of the dot product. The length of a vector is defined as the square root of the dot product of the vector by itself, and the cosine of the (non oriented) angle between two vectors of length one is defined as their dot product. So the equivalence of the two definitions of the dot product is a part of the equivalence of the classical and the modern formulations of Euclidean geometry.
Coordinate definition
The dot product of two vectors and specified with respect to an orthonormal basis, is defined as:
where Σ denotes summation and n is the dimension of the vector space. For instance, in three-dimensional space, the dot product of vectors and is:
Likewise, the dot product of the vector with itself is:
If vectors are identified with column vectors, the dot product can also be written as a matrix product
where denotes the transpose of .
Expressing the above example in this way, a 1 × 3 matrix (row vector) is multiplied by a 3 × 1 matrix (column vector) to get a 1 × 1 matrix that is identified with its unique entry:
.
Geometric definition
In Euclidean space, a Euclidean vector is a geometric object that possesses both a magnitude and a direction. A vector can be pictured as an arrow. Its magnitude is its length, and its direction is the direction to which the arrow points. The magnitude of a vector a is denoted by . The dot product of two Euclidean vectors a and b is defined by
where is the angle between and .
In particular, if the vectors and are orthogonal (i.e., their angle is or 90°), then , which implies that
At the other extreme, if they are codirectional, then the angle between them is zero with and
This implies that the dot product of a vector a with itself is
which gives
the formula for the Euclidean length of the vector.
Scalar projection and first properties
The scalar projection (or scalar component) of a Euclidean vector a in the direction of a Euclidean vector b is given by
where is the angle between a and b.
In terms of the geometric definition of the dot product, this can be rewritten
where is the unit vector in the direction of b.
The dot product is thus characterized geometrically by
The dot product, defined in this manner, is homogeneous under scaling in each variable, meaning that for any scalar α,
It also satisfies a distributive law, meaning that
These properties may be summarized by saying that the dot product is a bilinear form. Moreover, this bilinear form is positive definite, which means that
is never negative, and is zero if and only if —the zero vector.
The dot product is thus equivalent to multiplying the norm (length) of b by the norm of the projection of a over b.
Equivalence of the definitions
If e1, ..., en are the standard basis vectors in Rn, then we may write
The vectors ei are an orthonormal basis, which means that they have unit length and are at right angles to each other. Hence since these vectors have unit length
and since they form right angles with each other, if ,
Thus in general, we can say that:
Where δ ij is the Kronecker delta.
Also, by the geometric definition, for any vector ei and a vector a, we note
where ai is the component of vector a in the direction of ei. The last step in the equality can be seen from the figure.
Now applying the distributivity of the geometric version of the dot product gives
which is precisely the algebraic definition of the dot product. So the geometric dot product equals the algebraic dot product.
Properties
The dot product fulfills the following properties if a, b, and c are real vectors and r is a scalar.
Commutative:
which follows from the definition (θ is the angle between a and b):
Distributive over vector addition:
Bilinear:
Scalar multiplication:
Not associative because the dot product between a scalar (a ⋅ b) and a vector (c) is not defined, which means that the expressions involved in the associative property, (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c or a ⋅ (b ⋅ c) are both ill-defined. Note however that the previously mentioned scalar multiplication property is sometimes called the "associative law for scalar and dot product" or one can say that "the dot product is associative with respect to scalar multiplication" because c (a ⋅ b) = (c a) ⋅ b = a ⋅ (c b).
Orthogonal:
Two non-zero vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if .
No cancellation:
Unlike multiplication of ordinary numbers, where if , then b always equals c unless a is zero, the dot product does not obey the cancellation law:
If and , then we can write: by the distributive law; the result above says this just means that a is perpendicular to , which still allows , and therefore allows .
Product rule:
If a and b are (vector-valued) differentiable functions, then the derivative (denoted by a prime ) of is given by the rule .
Application to the law of cosines
Given two vectors a and b separated by angle θ (see image right), they form a triangle with a third side . Let , and denote the lengths of a, b, and c, respectively. The dot product of this with itself is:
which is the law of cosines.
Triple product
There are two ternary operations involving dot product and cross product.
The scalar triple product of three vectors is defined as
Its value is the determinant of the matrix whose columns are the Cartesian coordinates of the three vectors. It is the signed volume of the parallelepiped defined by the three vectors, and is isomorphic to the three-dimensional special case of the exterior product of three vectors.
The vector triple product is defined by
This identity, also known as Lagrange's formula, may be remembered as "ACB minus ABC", keeping in mind which vectors are dotted together. This formula has applications in simplifying vector calculations in physics.
Physics
In physics, vector magnitude is a scalar in the physical sense (i.e., a physical quantity independent of the coordinate system), expressed as the product of a numerical value and a physical unit, not just a number. The dot product is also a scalar in this sense, given by the formula, independent of the coordinate system. For example:
Mechanical work is the dot product of force and displacement vectors,
Power is the dot product of force and velocity.
Generalizations
Complex vectors
For vectors with complex entries, using the given definition of the dot product would lead to quite different properties. For instance, the dot product of a vector with itself could be zero without the vector being the zero vector (e.g. this would happen with the vector a = [1 i]). This in turn would have consequences for notions like length and angle. Properties such as the positive-definite norm can be salvaged at the cost of giving up the symmetric and bilinear properties of the dot product, through the alternative definition
where is the complex conjugate of . When vectors are represented by column vectors, the dot product can be expressed as a matrix product involving a conjugate transpose, denoted with the superscript H:
In the case of vectors with real components, this definition is the same as in the real case. The dot product of any vector with itself is a non-negative real number, and it is nonzero except for the zero vector. However, the complex dot product is sesquilinear rather than bilinear, as it is conjugate linear and not linear in a. The dot product is not symmetric, since
The angle between two complex vectors is then given by
The complex dot product leads to the notions of Hermitian forms and general inner product spaces, which are widely used in mathematics and physics.
The self dot product of a complex vector , involving the conjugate transpose of a row vector, is also known as the norm squared, , after the Euclidean norm; it is a vector generalization of the absolute square of a complex scalar (see also: squared Euclidean distance).
Inner product
The inner product generalizes the dot product to abstract vector spaces over a field of scalars, being either the field of real numbers or the field of complex numbers . It is usually denoted using angular brackets by .
The inner product of two vectors over the field of complex numbers is, in general, a complex number, and is sesquilinear instead of bilinear. An inner product space is a normed vector space, and the inner product of a vector with itself is real and positive-definite.
Functions
The dot product is defined for vectors that have a finite number of entries. Thus these vectors can be regarded as discrete functions: a length- vector is, then, a function with domain , and is a notation for the image of by the function/vector .
This notion can be generalized to continuous functions: just as the inner product on vectors uses a sum over corresponding components, the inner product on functions is defined as an integral over some interval (also denoted ):
Generalized further to complex functions and , by analogy with the complex inner product above, gives
Weight function
Inner products can have a weight function (i.e., a function which weights each term of the inner product with a value). Explicitly, the inner product of functions and with respect to the weight function is
Dyadics and matrices
A double-dot product for matrices is the Frobenius inner product, which is analogous to the dot product on vectors. It is defined as the sum of the products of the corresponding components of two matrices A and B of the same size:
(For real matrices)
Writing a matrix as a dyadic, we can define a different double-dot product (see ,) however it is not an inner product.
Tensors
The inner product between a tensor of order n and a tensor of order m is a tensor of order , see Tensor contraction for details.
Computation
Algorithms
The straightforward algorithm for calculating a floating-point dot product of vectors can suffer from catastrophic cancellation. To avoid this, approaches such as the Kahan summation algorithm are used.
Libraries
A dot product function is included in:
BLAS level 1 real SDOT, DDOT; complex CDOTU, ZDOTU = X^T * Y, CDOTC ZDOTC = X^H * Y
Julia as
Matlab as or or
Python (package NumPy) as or
GNU Octave as
Intel oneAPI Math Kernel Library real p?dot dot = sub(x)'*sub(y); complex p?dotc dotc = conjg(sub(x)')*sub(y)
See also
Cauchy–Schwarz inequality
Cross product
Dot product representation of a graph
Euclidean norm, the square-root of the self dot product
Matrix multiplication
Metric tensor
Multiplication of vectors
Outer product
Notes
References
External links
Explanation of dot product including with complex vectors
"Dot Product" by Bruce Torrence, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.
Articles containing proofs
Bilinear forms
Operations on vectors
Analytic geometry
Tensors
Scalars | wiki |
The Shire Hall, Reading may refer to one of two different buildings in Reading that served as a Shire Hall for Berkshire County Council in the UK:
Shire Hall, The Forbury, used from 1911 to 1981, now the Roseate Reading Hotel
Shire Hall, Shinfield Park, used from 1981 to 1998, now offices for Wood Group | wiki |
Molly McButter is an American-made flavored butter substitute manufactured by B&G Foods. Originally developed by food chemists at Alberto-Culver it is a lower-calorie replacement for butter.
The ingredients listed for the Molly McButter Natural Butter Flavor Sprinkles include natural butter flavor, butter, buttermilk, and partially hydrogenated soybean oil. As a result of its partially hydrogenated oil ingredient, Molly McButter contains trans fat.
In a 1989 evaluation by Consumer Reports, food scientists and taste-testers found that Molly McButter had a butter-like flavor with slight dairy notes, but also had a chemical taste and was notably saltier than butter. The study also revealed that Molly McButter was significantly more expensive than butter, and had the highest sodium content among the butter substitutes tested, with nearly three times more than one of its competitors.
As of 1990, Molly McButter was available in butter, cheese, and sour cream flavors. For each flavor, a half-teaspoon serving—described by the manufacturer as equivalent to three tablespoons of butter—contains four calories compared to the almost 20 calories in a half-teaspoon of butter, but also contains 90 milligrams of sodium. The products can be sprinkled over cooked foods such as rice or vegetables, or used in recipes to replace butter, cheese or sour cream.
In 1993, The Ladies' Home Journal ran a contest in which readers submitted recipes they had created using Molly McButter, with the winner to receive a new kitchen appliance and a cash award.
By 2009, Molly McButter and Mrs. Dash Seasoning Blends (also owned by B&G) worked with the Idaho Potato Commission, an agency of the state of Idaho, to promote retail sales of potatoes to consumers. The partnership sponsored an Idaho Potato Retail Display Contest, scheduled to coincide with Potato Lovers Month, in which retailers competed for prizes including a cash award.
See also
Butter salt
Popcorn seasoning
References
Butter
Foods featuring butter | wiki |
The tabletop game industry is the economic sector involved in the development, marketing, and monetization of games that fall within the scope of tabletop games, which includes dice and card games. According to Statista, the tabletop game industry had an estimated market of approximately 7.2 billion U.S. dollars in 2017 and is expected to increase by 4.8 billion U.S. dollars within the next 6 years.
Since most of the game play requires offline meetings players may choose to participate via meetups or through a variety of tabletop exhibitions held around the world, which are supported by both game designers and players. Some individuals involved in the tabletop industry focus on collecting valuable game cards, games, or pieces, as they see the value of cards as far higher that its original production and sales cost. This mixture of individuals makes up a market structure that can give the board game market a variety of opportunities.
Classification of games
Tabletop games are occasionally referred to as board games, but are not limited to games that require a game board to play. These games are typically based on strategy, randomness, or a combination of both. Games that are traditionally described as tabletop games includes board games, card games, dice games, paper and pencil games, tabletop role-playing games, strategy games, and tile-based games.
These types of games typically include chessboards, game pieces, figurines, cards, dice, and a variety of other accessories that vary according to the complexity of the game involved. Chess is frequently cited as a classic example of a two-player board game. Desktop games can be oriented to one or more people at the same time and the number of players varies depending on the size and rules of the game.
Process
According to author and game inventor Brian Tinsman, the average tabletop game company does not create their own games but instead purchase or license them from independent inventors. These inventors will pitch their games to potential buyers after coming up with a game idea and running the prototype through several test groups and revisions. If the pitch is successful the game will be run through a publisher's art department, which will work on the game's art and graphic design while the game is refined and made ready for the production team, who will select the physical game materials and prep artwork to be run through the machines used to print the game. After this the game is typically sent to distributors, who will sell the game to mass market retailers and specialty/hobby shops. If a publisher is very large they may choose to distribute the games without using a distributor. Many North American companies use factories in China to produce their games, which can make tariffs or laws on Chinese imports of great importance to companies.
Tinsman states that for game inventors there are four major markets for tabletop games: mass market, hobby games, American specialty games, and European games. Mass market games are ones marketed to the general public, whereas hobby games are aimed at a more specific market and mostly fall into three categories: role-playing games, miniatures games, and trading card games. American specialty games are made up of games that would not fall into the prior two categories while the European game market is primarily made up of games put out by German companies, most of which are not translated into English or brought over to the United States.
Select vendors
There are thousands of board game publishers around the world, here is a selection of a few of the largest.
Asmodee Editions (Group)
Asmodee is a French publisher of board games, card games and role-playing games that was founded in 1995. As of 2019 the company has 11 development studios, 11 distribution business units, and over 750 employees worldwide. Tabletop games released by Asmodee include Catan, Star Wars: X-Wing, Ticket to Ride, Arkham Horror and Pandemic.
Hasbro
Hasbro is a global play and entertainment company that has its corporate headquarters in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. The majority of its products are manufactured in East Asia. Products released by Hasbro include MONOPOLY, MAGIC: THE GATHERING ,and the D&D series.
Mattel
Mattel is an American multinational toy manufacturing company founded in 1945 with headquarters in El Segundo, California.
Ravensburger
Ravensburger AG is a German game and toy company and publishing house. The company is known for games such as their puzzles games series.
Board games
A board game is a tabletop game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked surface or "board", according to a set of rules. Some games are based on pure strategy, but many contain an element of chance; and some are purely chance, with no element of skill
While the board gaming market is estimated to be smaller than that for video games, it has also experienced significant growth from the late 1990s. A 2012 article in The Guardian described board games as "making a comeback". Another from 2014 gave an estimate that put the growth of the board game market at "between 25% and 40% annually" since 2010, and described the current time as the "golden era for board games". The rise in board game popularity has been attributed to quality improvement (more elegant mechanics, , artwork, and graphics) as well as increased availability thanks to sales through the Internet.
A 1991 estimate for the global board game market was over $1.2 billion. A 2001 estimate for the United States "board games and puzzle" market gave a value of under $400 million, and for United Kingdom, of about £50 million. A 2009 estimate for the Korean market was put at 800 million won, and another estimate for the American board game market for the same year was at about $800 million. A 2011 estimate for the Chinese board game market was at over 10 billion yuan. (Some estimates may split board games from collectible card, miniature and role-playing games; for example another 2014 estimate distinguishing board games from other types of hobby games gave the estimate for the U.S. and Canada market at only $75 million, with the total size of what it defined as the hobby game market at over $700 million, with a 2015 estimate suggesting a value of almost $900 million) A 2013 estimate put the size of the German toy market at 2.7 billion euros (out of which, the board games and puzzle market is worth about 375 million euros), and Polish markets, at 2 billion and 280 million zlotys, respectively. Per capita, in 2009 Germany was considered to be the best market, with the highest number of games sold per individual.
Gaming conventions
Gaming conventions are large gatherings centered on various types of games, which can include tabletop games. These conventions can range in size from small single day exhibitions to large multi-day events. Tabletop gaming conventions typically provide venues for players to conduct exhibitor activities or test board games that have not yet been released. Game conventions can often be divided into two categories: small conventions or large conventions. Small conventions are most frequently attended by local people and have between 200 and 5,000 attendees. They are often focused on bringing people together to play games and can lack showrooms. Large conventions can draw attendees from all over the country or globe and can accommodate between 15,000 and 200,000 people. There are several hundred gaming conventions around the world each year.
Conventions typically have a dealer's room or hall where attendees can purchase games from sellers. Attendees can also purchase directly from the publisher, a feature that is most common at larger conventions. Some conventions also feature a large event hall where participants can sign up to play specific games or participate in competitions.
Select tabletop gaming conventions
BGG CON (& BGG SPRING) in Dallas, TX
UK Games Expo in Birmingham, UK
Origins Game Fair in Columbus, OH
Gen Con in Indianapolis, Indiana
Essen Spiel in Essen, Germany
PAX Unplugged in Philadelphia, PA
References
Tabletop games | wiki |
America's Most Musical Family is an American reality music competition television program that aired on Nickelodeon from November 1, 2019 to January 17, 2020. The program features 30 talented families competing for a record contract with Republic Records and a $250,000 cash prize. The Melisizwe Brothers were announced as the winning band of the series.
Production
On February 14, 2019, it was announced that Nickelodeon was developing a reality competition television series under the working title of America's Most Musical Family. On July 25, 2019, Nick Lachey was announced as the host of the program, while Ciara, David Dobrik, and Debbie Gibson were announced as judges on the program. The program consisted of 12 episodes, as well as a special episode. Production on the program began in Los Angeles in July 2019. On October 2, 2019, it was announced that the program would premiere on November 1, 2019.
Episodes
Ratings
}}
References
External links
(archived)
2010s American children's television series
2020s American children's television series
2010s American music television series
2020s American music television series
2010s American reality television series
2020s American reality television series
2010s Nickelodeon original programming
2020s Nickelodeon original programming
2019 American television series debuts
2020 American television series endings
American children's musical television series
American children's reality television series
English-language television shows | wiki |
The following is a list of serial killers i.e. a person who murders more than one person, in two or more separate events over a period of time, for primarily psychological reasons who began committing their crimes before 1900. This list does not include mass murderers, spree killers, war criminals, members of democidal governments, or major political figures, such as Adolf Hitler, Francisco Franco, Hideki Tojo, Suharto, Mao Zedong, Joseph Stalin, or Pol Pot. This list is chronological by default, but can be re-ordered using the button at the top of each column.
Table of serial killers before 1900
Unconfirmed serial killers
The existence of the following serial killers is dubious or contradicts the accepted historical record:
See also
List of serial killers by country
List of serial killers by number of victims
References
serial killers
Serial killers before 1900
Serial killers before 1900 | wiki |
Geneviève Domken defeated B Wallen in the final, 6–1, 6–4 to win the inaugural Girls' Singles tennis title at the 1947 Wimbledon Championships.
Draw
Final
Group A
Group B
References
External links
Girls' Singles
Wimbledon Championship by year – Girls' singles
Wimbledon Championships
Wimbledon Championships | wiki |
Fred Hodgson may refer to:
J. F. Hodgson (1867–1947), English socialist activist
Fred W. Hodgson (1886–1930), American architect
See also
Frederick Hodgson (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Queen of Angels Hospital was a private hospital complex located at 2301 Bellevue Avenue in the Echo Park neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. The 404-bed hospital was founded in 1926 by the Franciscan Sisters of the Sacred Heart and built by architect Albert C. Martin, Sr. The hospital served the local community and ran a nursing school. After its closure, the hospital served as a film set for the local film and television industry. The property was eventually sold to the Assembly of God church and is now known as the Dream Center.
Location
The hospital consisted of a number of buildings, but the iconic main building is known because it looms over the Hollywood Freeway. The hilltop site was chosen for the hospital because it was close to both Sunset Boulevard and Temple Street, and because it was outside Downtown Los Angeles.
History
Seeing a need for quality care in the city, the Franciscan Sisters went as far as begging door to door to accrue money for the hospital. Once built, the hospital kept growing in size by adding wings and new buildings, topping out at 14 stories in height. Due to excess capacity, the operations of the Queen of Angels Hospital were merged with the Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center in 1989, becoming known as the Queen of Angels – Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center.
Due to its proximity to Hollywood, several notable people were born (Michael Reagan, Bob Beemer, Harry Crosby, Marcia Reed, Madeleine Stowe, Mike Thaler, Victoria Vetri) or died (Esther Dale, John Harvey Gahan, Linda Loredo, Robert Asa Todd) there.
Kathryn Crosby is among the alumnae of the nursing school. Sakaye Shigekawa was a past president of the hospital. Tirso del Junco was once the medical chief of staff. During its heyday, the hospital was a "centerpiece" of the city's hospital community.
Filming site
In 1951, the exterior was used as the setting for the fictitious Mercy General Hospital in the Adventures of Superman television series. After its closure, the main building, a Spanish-style hospital complex, was used primarily as a film set. It appeared in a number of productions, including Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers, Men Don't Tell, Snapdragon, The Invaders, and The Innocent.
References
External links
Hospital buildings completed in 1924
Hospitals in Los Angeles
Buildings and structures in Hollywood, Los Angeles
East Hollywood, Los Angeles | wiki |
A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar (or flea) immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created either by a rotating magnet or a set of stationary electromagnets, placed beneath the vessel with the liquid. It is used in chemistry and biology as a convenient way to stir small volumes and where other forms of stirring, such as overhead stirrers and stirring rods, may not be viable.
Design
A magnetic stirrer consists of a magnetic bar placed within the liquid which provides the stirring action. The stir bar's motion is driven by another rotating magnet or assembly of electromagnets in the stirrer device, beneath the vessel containing the liquid. Stir bars are typically coated in PTFE, or, less often, in glass; the coatings are intended to be chemically inert, not contaminating or reacting with the reaction mixture they are in. Glass may be viable as an alternative if PTFE is unsuitable due to high temperature or chemical attack. In dissolving metal reductions that use an alkali metal dissolved in a primary amine, PTFE may be attacked to some extent. Birch reductions (a common dissolving metal reduction) are often conducted in a glass vessel, thus indicating that a glass stir bar would likewise be compatible. Glass can be attacked by strong alkali (such as lye) depending on heat, exposure time, and concentration.
Magnetic stirrers are bar-shaped and usually octagonal or circular in cross-section, a pointed oval shape is also common for use in round-bottom flasks. A variety of special shapes exist for more stable or efficient stirring in different conditions or to conform to the shape of small vessels. Many stir bars have a pivot ring around the center on which they rotate. The smallest are only a few millimeters long and the largest several centimeters. The smaller sizes (less than about 10mm) are often referred to as "fleas".
Laboratory hot plates often serve a dual purpose by incorporating both the stirring assembly and a heating element. Such heating elements may range in power from a few hundred to a few thousand watts, and allow the reaction flask to be heated and stirred at the same time. The maximum reachable fluid temperature depends on the size of the flask, the quantity of solution to be heated, the power of the heating element, and amount of insulation provided to the system.
The magnetic material within bars are most commonly alnico or samarium cobalt, which can withstand high temperatures without loss of magnetic strength, although for low temperature applications neodymium can be used, and ferrite stir bars exist.
Because of its small size, a stirring bar is more easily cleaned and sterilized than other stirring devices. They do not require lubricants which could contaminate the reaction vessel and the product.
A stir bar retriever is a separate magnet on the end of a long stick (also coated with chemically inert PTFE) which can be used to remove stir bars from a vessel.
History
The first patent for a magnetic mixer is US 1,242,493, issued 9 October 1917 to Richard H. Stringham of Bountiful, Utah, U.S. Mr. Stringham's mixer used stationary electromagnets in the base, rather than a rotating permanent magnet, to rotate the stirrer.
Arthur Rosinger of Newark, New Jersey, U.S. obtained US Patent 2,350,534, titled Magnetic Stirrer on 6 June 1944, having filed an application on 5 October 1942. Mr. Rosinger's patent includes a description of a coated bar magnet placed in a vessel, which is driven by a rotating magnet in a base below the vessel. Mr. Rosinger also explains in his patent that coating the magnet in plastic or covering it with glass or porcelain makes it chemically inert.
The plastic-coated bar magnet was independently invented in the late 1940s by Edward McLaughlin, of the Torpedo Experimental Establishment (TEE), Greenock, Scotland, who named it the 'flea' because of the way it jumps about if the rotating magnet is driven too rapidly.
The first multi-point magnetic stirrer was developed and patented by Salvador Bonet of SBS Company in 1977. He also introduced the practice of noting the denomination of stirring power in "litres of water", which is a market standard today.
Uses and limitations
Magnetic stirrers are often used in chemistry and biology, where they can be used to stir hermetically closed vessels or systems without the need for complicated rotary seals. They are preferred over gear-driven motorized stirrers because they are quieter, more efficient, and have no moving external parts to break or wear out (other than the simple bar magnet itself). Magnetic stir bars work well in glass vessels commonly used for chemical reactions, as glass does not appreciably affect a magnetic field. The limited size of the bar means that magnetic stirrers can only be used for relatively small experiments, of 4 litres or less. Stir bars also have difficulty in dealing with viscous liquids or thick suspensions. For larger volumes or more viscous liquids, some sort of mechanical stirring (e.g., an overhead stirrer) is typically needed. In synthetic chemistry, a combined magnetic stirrer/heater, equipped with a built-in temperature control mechanism and temperature probe, is commonly used with a heating bath (commonly oil, sand, or low-melting metal) or cooling bath (commonly water, ice, or an organic liquid mixed with liquid nitrogen or dry ice as coolant), allowing reactions vessels placed in the bath to be maintained at temperatures between approximately .
See also
Shaker (laboratory)
Stirring rod
Static mixer
References
External links
Short video of a homemade stir plate. Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed).
Laboratory equipment | wiki |
A deaf-community or urban sign language is a sign language that emerges when deaf people who do not have a common language come together and form a community. This may be a formal situation, such as the establishment of a school for deaf students, or informal, such as migration to cities for employment and the subsequent gathering of deaf people for social purposes.
An example of the first is Nicaraguan Sign Language, which emerged when deaf children in Nicaragua were brought together for the first time, and received only oral education; of the latter, Bamako Sign Language, which emerged among the tea circles of the uneducated deaf in the capital of Mali. Nicaraguan SL is now a language of instruction and is recognized as the national sign language; Bamako SL is not, and is threatened by the use of American Sign Language in schools for the deaf.
Deaf-community sign languages contrast with village sign language in that they tend to be used only by the deaf, at least at first, and most communication is between deaf people. Village sign languages, on the other hand, develop in relatively isolated areas with high incidences of congenital deafness, where most hearing people have deaf family, so that most signers are hearing. These differences have linguistic consequences. Urban deaf communities lack the common knowledge and social context that enables village signers to communicate without being verbally explicit. Deaf-community signers need to communicate with strangers, and therefore must be more explicit; it is thought this may have the effect of developing or at least speeding up the development of grammatical and other linguistic structures in the emerging language. For example, only deaf-community sign languages are known to make abstract and grammatical use of sign space. Both types of deaf sign language differ from speech-taboo languages such as the various Aboriginal Australian sign languages, which are developed by the hearing community and only used secondarily by the deaf, and are not independent languages.
Deaf-community languages may develop directly from home sign, or perhaps from idioglossic sign (in families with more than one deaf child), as was the case with Nicaraguan SL, or they may develop from village sign languages, as appears to have been at least partially the case with American SL, which arose in a school for the deaf where French Sign Language was the language of instruction, but seems to have derived largely from two or three village sign languages of the students.
Languages
Once a sign language is established, especially if it is a language of education, it may spread and spawn additional languages, such as in the French Sign Language family. The following are languages thought to have been established in new deaf communities, without the direct transmission of an existing sign language. There are presumably others; with many sign languages, we have no records of how they formed.
British Sign Language (urban→school)
German Sign Language (urban)
Old French Sign Language (urban)
Lyons Sign Language (urban)
Japanese Sign Language (school?)
Chinese Sign Language (school)
Tibetan Sign Language (standardization of several community languages)
Thai Sign Language (urban sign with significant input from ASL)
Qahveh Khaneh Sign Language (urban)
Indo-Pakistani Sign Language
Sri Lankan sign languages (school sign, fourteen languages)
Israeli Sign Language
Bamako Sign Language (urban)
Mbour Sign Language (urban)
Hausa Sign Language (urban)
Tanzanian sign languages (school sign, seven languages)
American Sign Language (school sign; village sign with significant input from FSL)
Nicaraguan Sign Language (school sign)
Venezuelan Sign Language
Far North Queensland Indigenous Sign Language (Cairns and points north)
Other locally developed sign languages which may have formed this way are:
(in Africa) Burkina Sign Language, the various Ethiopian sign languages, Guinea-Bissau Sign Language, Kenyan Sign Language, Libyan Sign Language, Maroua Sign Language, the various Sudanese sign languages, Ugandan Sign Language, Zambian Sign Language, Zimbabwean Sign Language
(in America) Brazilian Sign Language, Colombian Sign Language, Ecuadorian Sign Language, Jamaican Country Sign Language, Peruvian Sign Language, Chiriqui Sign Language
(in Asia) Old Bangkok Sign Language, Old Chiangmai Sign Language, Penang Sign Language, Hanoi Sign Language, Saigon Sign Language, Haiphong Sign Language, Yogyakarta Sign Language, Nepalese Sign Language, Kurdish Sign Language
(in Europe) Catalan Sign Language, Spanish Sign Language, Swiss German Sign Language, Swedish Sign Language
See also
List of sign languages
Village sign language
References | wiki |
Dracula chestertonii, commonly known as the frog's skin, is a species of orchid endemic to Colombia.
It was named in honour of the collector Henry Chesterton who discovered this species.
References
chestertonii
Orchids of Colombia
Plants described in 1883 | wiki |
This article includes a list of U.S. states sorted by birth and death rate, expressed per 1,000 inhabitants, for 2021, using the most recent data available from the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics.
2021 list
See also
List of U.S. states and territories by fertility rate
References
Birth and death rates
States and territories by birth and death rates
United States demography-related lists
Ranked lists of country subdivisions | wiki |
Ashley Williams – attrice statunitense
Ashley Williams – calciatore gallese
Ashley Williams – calciatore liberiano di ruolo portiere nato nel 2000
Ashley Williams – pugile gallese
Ashley C. Williams – attrice e cantante statunitense
Ash Williams – protagonista di La casa
Ashley Williams – personaggio di Mass Effect | wiki |
Take You There may refer to:
"Take You There" (Donnie Klang song), 2008
"Take You There" (Mànran & Michelle McManus song)
"Take You There" (Pete Rock & CL Smooth song), 1994
"Take You There" (Sean Kingston song), 2007
"Take You There" (Jodie Connor song), 2012
See also
"I'll Take You There", a 1972 song by The Staple Singers
"Take Ü There", a 2014 song by Jack Ü featuring Kiesza | wiki |
A ketch is a sailing craft with two masts.
Ketch may also refer to:
Ketch Harbour, Nova Scotia, Canada
People with the surname
Daniel Ketch, a Marvel Comics character
Jack Ketch (died 1686), English executioner
Megan Ketch, American actress
See also
Catch (disambiguation) | wiki |
A Gathering of Spirit: A Collection of Writing and Art by North American Indian Women was the first published collection of Indigenous women's writing in North America, as well as the first anthology edited by an aboriginal woman.
The book was edited by Mohawk author and anthologist Beth Brant. It was first published in 1983 as a special issue of the lesbian literary magazine Sinister Wisdom. The collection was subsequently published in 1988 by New York's Firebrand Books, and republished in 1989 by Women's Press in Toronto, Ontario. The anthology featured literary contributions from women aged 21–65, both lesbian and heterosexual, and representing 40 native nations.
Contributing authors included
Paula Gunn Allen (Sioux)
Barbara May Cameron (Hunkpapa)
Chrystos (Menominee)
Janice Gould (Koyangk'auwi Maidu)
Joy Harjo (Muscogee)
Bea Medicine (Sihasapa and Minneconjou)
Terri Meyette (Yaqui)
Midnight Sun (Anishnawbe)
Mary Moran (Métis)
Kateri Sardella (Micmac)
Vickie Sears (Cherokee)
Anita Valerio (Blood/Chicana)
References
Indigenous Canadian feminism
Canadian anthologies
Chicana feminism
Métis feminism
Native American feminism
1988 books
Literature by Native American women | wiki |
Creative Control may refer to:
Artistic control, the authority to decide how a final media product will appear
Creative Control (business), a New York-based online TV network
Creative control (business), a Los Angeles-based music supervision company
Creative Control TV, an online TV network
Creative Control (film), a 2015 film directed by Benjamin Dickinson
The Harris Brothers, a professional wrestling tag team who used the stage name Creative Control | wiki |
New Kingdom may refer to:
New Kingdom of Egypt
New Kingdom (band)
New Kingdom (album)
See also
New (disambiguation)
Kingdom (disambiguation)
New Empire (disambiguation) | wiki |
The H-2B visa nonimmigrant program permits employers to hire foreign workers to come temporarily to the United States and perform temporary nonagricultural services or labor on a one-time, seasonal, peakload or intermittent basis.
The H-2B visa classification requires the United States Secretary of Homeland Security to consult with appropriate agencies before admitting H-2B non-immigrants. Homeland Security regulations require that, except for Guam, the petitioning employer first apply for a temporary labor certification from the United States Secretary of Labor indicating that: (1) there are not sufficient U.S. workers who are capable of performing the temporary services or labor at the time of filing the petition for H-2B classification and at the place where the foreign worker is to perform the work; and (2) the employment of the foreign worker will not adversely affect the wages and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers. The Department of Labor will review and process all H-2B applications on a first in, first out basis.
Employers seeking to employ temporary H-2B workers must apply for Temporary Employment Certification to the Chicago National Processing Center (NPC). An employer may submit a request for multiple unnamed foreign workers as long as each worker is to perform the same services or labor, on the same terms and conditions, in the same occupation, in the same area of intended employment during the same period of employment. Certification is issued to the employer, not the worker, and is not transferable from one employer to another or from one worker to another.
Temporary Increases
Although capped at 66,000 per year, the H-2B numerical cap was increased in 2017 by then United States Secretary of Homeland Security John Kelly. These visas were made available only to American businesses which attested that they would likely suffer irreparable harm without the ability to employ all the H-2B workers requested in their original petition.
Statistics
Below are H-2B visas issued each year as released by the U.S. Department of State - Bureau of Consular Affairs.
See also
Guest worker program
H-2A Visa
Notes
External links and further reading
"H-2B Temporary Non-Agricultural Workers" U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, accessed April 5, 2018
"Maps: Impact of H-2B Guest Workers in 2017" report by Preston Huennekens, Center for Immigration Studies, April 2018
Application process and documentation required for H-2B Visa petitioners
"Cap Count for H-2B Nonimmigrants" on the website of ILW.com, Immigration Daily, February 1, 2012
United States visas by type
Employment of foreign-born | wiki |
A primary group may refer to:
In mathematics, a special kind of group:
a p-primary group, also called simply p-group; or
a primary cyclic group, which is a p-primary cyclic group.
In sociology, a primary group as opposed to secondary group. | wiki |
Baron Morrison, of Tottenham in the County of Middlesex, was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 16 November 1945 for the Labour politician Robert Morrison. The title became extinct the death of his son, the second Baron, on 29 October 1997.
Baron Morrison (1945)
Robert Craigmyle Morrison, 1st Baron Morrison (1881–1953)
Dennis Glossop Morrison, 2nd Baron Morrison (1914–1997)
References
Extinct baronies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1945
Noble titles created for UK MPs | wiki |
Strobilacea may refer to:
Acanthostachys strobilacea
Aechmea strobilacea
Amanoa strobilacea
Boschniakia strobilacea
Ephedra strobilacea
Platycarya strobilacea | wiki |
A trapdoor is a door set into a floor or ceiling.
Trapdoor or Trap Door may also refer to:
Trap Door (magazine), a science fiction fanzine
The Trap Door, a British animated TV series
The Trap Door (video game), a computer game based on the animated series
Trapdoor (software), a piece of computer software used for network administration
Trapdoor (company), a video game developer
Trapdoor function, a type of mathematical function used in cryptography
"Trapdoor", in computing, an outdated synonym for "backdoor", a method used to circumvent normal authorization
Trap Door (EP), an EP by T-Bone Burnett, or the title song
"Trap Door", a song by Ozzy Osbourne from Black Rain
"Trap Door" Springfield, a single-shot breechloading rifle designed and produced at Springfield Armory during the late 19th century.
Trapdoor spider, a spider
Trap Door Spiders, a literary society
Trapdoor mechanism for breech loading rifles
"Trapdoor", a song by Twenty One Pilots from their self-titled album
"Trapdoor", a song by King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard from their album Paper Mâché Dream Balloon. | wiki |
This list consists of many notable people who are transgender. The individual listings note the subject's nationality and main occupation.
In some non-Western, ancient or medieval societies, transgender people may be seen as a different gender entirely, and there may be a separate category for them that is different from the binary of 'man' or 'woman'. These people might be described collectively as occupying a third gender role. These cultures may have traditional social and ceremonial roles for third gender people, which are different from men's or women's roles and social spaces.
While cross-dressing is not synonymous with being transgender, some of the persons listed here crossdressed during wartime for various purposes.
List
See also
List of people with non-binary gender identities
List of intersex people
List of people killed for being transgender
List of transgender-related topics
List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people
List of transgender and transsexual fictional characters
List of transgender characters in film and television
List of transgender politicians
Notes
References | wiki |
Greek Council for Refugees is a human rights organization founded in 1989. In November 2021 it released a report with Oxfam criticizing Greece's policies of immigration detention.
References
1989 establishments in Greece
Human rights organisations based in Greece
Refugee aid organizations in Europe | wiki |
References
Automotive industry in the United States | wiki |
The Price is Right is an Australian television game show that was based on the original 1956–1965 US format.
Format
Two regional versions based on the original 1950s US format aired nearly concurrently – one aired on ATN-7 in Sydney, hosted by Bruce Beeby and later Keith Walshe from 1957 to 1959; the other was on GTV-9 in Melbourne and hosted by Geoff Manion in 1958. The latter version debuted 10 August 1958, airing for 16 episodes on Sundays at 5:30PM. After it ended, the timeslot was taken up by panel discussion series Face the Nation (based on the US series of the same name), which had previously aired at 5:00PM.
In 1963, the Seven Network aired a nationwide version hosted by Horrie Dargie.
See also
List of Australian television series
References
External links
Seven Network original programming
Nine Network original programming
Black-and-white Australian television shows
1957 Australian television series debuts
1959 Australian television series endings
1963 Australian television series debuts
1963 Australian television series endings
1950s Australian game shows
1960s Australian game shows
The Price Is Right
Television series by Reg Grundy Productions
English-language television shows
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Australian television series based on American television series | wiki |
Chronic may refer to:
Chronic (cannabis), a slang name for high quality marijuana
Chronic condition, a condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in its effects
Chronic toxicity, a substance with toxic effects after continuous or repeated exposure
Chronic (film), a 2015 American film
The Chronic, a 1992 album by Dr. Dre
The Chronic 2001, a.k.a. 2001, a 1999 album by Dr. Dre
See also
Cronic, surname
Kronic (disambiguation)
Chronos, a personification of time in Greek mythology
Habit (psychology), routines of behavior that are repeated regularly | wiki |
Ringback may refer to:
Ringback, the ringing signal in telephony used to recall an operator or customer
Ringing tone, also ringback tone, the audible ringing that is heard by the calling party after dialing
Ringback number, a number used by phone companies to test whether a telephone line and phone number is working
Automatic ring back, a telephone feature to notify the caller when the called party ceases to be engaged | wiki |
Scarborough Beach may refer to a beach in any of the following communities:
Scarborough Beach (Rhode Island), United States
Scarborough, Maine, United States
Scarborough, North Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Scarborough, Queensland, Australia
Scarborough, Western Australia
Scarborough Beach Road, an arterial road
Scarborough, Western Cape, South Africa | wiki |
There are at least 25 named lakes and reservoirs in Sebastian County, Arkansas.
Lakes
Courthouse Slough, , el.
Greenwood Lake, , el.
Lake Spur, , el.
Sugar Loaf Lake, , el.
Reservoirs
Bailey Hill Reservoir, , el.
Booneville Lake, , el.
Crain Lake, , el.
Crouch Lake, , el.
Crowe Hill Reservoir, , el.
Echols Lake, , el.
Engineer Lake, , el.
Gurisco Lake, , el.
Lake Number One, , el.
Lake Number Two, , el.
Mansfield Lake, , el.
McMahan Lake, , el.
Number Name Lake, , el.
Park Lake, , el.
Pool 13, , el.
Sebastian Lake, , el.
Shadow Lake, , el.
Wildcat Mountain Lake, , el.
Williamson Lake, , el.
Willies Lake, , el.
Wofford Lake, , el.
See also
List of lakes in Arkansas
Notes
Bodies of water of Sebastian County, Arkansas
Sebastian | wiki |
Western Wind may refer to:
Music
Westron Wynde, an early 16th-century song
"Western Wind" (song), by Carly Rae Jepsen, 2022
Western Wind, a 1995 album by Warren H Williams
Literature
Western Wind, a 1949 play by Charlotte Francis
Western Wind, a historical romance novel series by Janelle Taylor
Western Wind, a 1993 children's novel by Paula Fox
The Western Wind, a 2018 novel by Samantha Harvey
Other uses
Western Wind, a Thoroughbred racehorse that ran in the 1977 Kentucky Derby
See also
West wind, a wind that originates in the west, and its representations in mythology and literature | wiki |
The Moneytree is an independent film that had a limited theatrical release in 1992 in the United States. It received reviews in several publications such as the Los Angeles Times, New York Times and the San Francisco Chronicle.
Primarily released on video, The Money Tree offers viewers with a rare look into the life of a Northern California marijuana grower during the Reagan years; while taking a pro-pot stance. David can't find work as an actor so he uses his mountain property located outside San Francisco to grow the illegal weed. His wealthy girl friend Erica disdains David's agrarian avocation and offers him a great opportunity to work for her father, but only if he stops growing weed. David loves growing pot and so turns her down. As his latest crop slowly matures, David has close scrapes with the law and brutal drug dealers. He also frequently argues for the legalization of marijuana with his friends and colleagues. ~ Sandra Brennan, Rovi
There is no writer credited because, although the actors were given a storyline, all the dialogue is improvised.
Black Sheep Films worked on a re-release of The Moneytree on April 20, 2012 with a new soundtrack and edit.
It is believed that the film-maker really was a grower and the film is essentially a true story. Producer/actor Christopher Dienstag also appeared in the 2021 TV documentary Sasquatch talking about his time as a marijuana grower.
References in popular culture
Arctic Monkeys reference the film in their song One Point Perspective in their 2018 album Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino, noting the film for its opening scene and impressive score.
References
External links
The Moneytree (film) Overview at NYTimes
1992 films
American films about cannabis
1990s English-language films | wiki |
Wallaby Peak is a mountain summit located on the boundary line of the Lake Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness, in Okanogan County, Washington. The mountain is part of the Methow Mountains, which are a subset of the Cascade Range. Wallaby Peak is situated on Kangaroo Ridge which is approximately two miles east and within view of Washington Pass. Its nearest higher peak is Big Kangaroo, to the north. Precipitation runoff from the peak drains into Early Winters Creek, Cedar Creek, and North Fork Twisp River, all of which are tributaries of the Methow River.
Climate
Most weather fronts originate in the Pacific Ocean, and travel northeast toward the Cascade Mountains. As fronts approach the North Cascades, they are forced upward (Orographic lift) by the peaks of the Cascade Range, causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall onto the Cascades. As a result, the west side of the North Cascades experiences high precipitation, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in avalanche danger.
Geology
The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions in this area. The history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates back millions of years ago to the late Eocene Epoch. With the North American Plate overriding the Pacific Plate, episodes of volcanic igneous activity persisted. In addition, small fragments of the oceanic and continental lithosphere called terranes created the North Cascades about 50 million years ago. Wallaby Peak is located in the Golden Horn batholith and composed of granite like many of the peaks in the Washington Pass area.
During the Pleistocene period dating back over two million years ago, glaciation advancing and retreating repeatedly scoured the landscape leaving deposits of rock debris. The "U"-shaped cross section of the river valleys are a result of recent glaciation. Uplift and faulting in combination with glaciation have been the dominant processes which have created the tall peaks and deep valleys of the North Cascades area.
See also
List of Highest Mountain Peaks in Washington
Geography of the North Cascades
Geology of the Pacific Northwest
References
Gallery
External links
Wallaby Peak summit view: YouTube
National Weather Service: Wallaby Peak weather forecast
Mountains of Washington (state)
Mountains of Okanogan County, Washington
North Cascades
Cascade Range
North American 2000 m summits | wiki |
Haverhill Riverside Airport & Seaplane Base was an airfield operational in the mid-20th century in Haverhill, Massachusetts. The airport was owned and operated by William "Red" Slavit, who died in 2008. The airport code for Haverhill river side airport was MA04.
References
Defunct airports in Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Haverhill, Massachusetts
Airports in Essex County, Massachusetts | wiki |
There are at least 21 named lakes and reservoirs in Sharp County, Arkansas.
Lakes
Duck Pond, , el.
Persimmon Pond, , el.
Reservoirs
Catfish Lake, , el.
Cedar Lake, , el.
June Lake, , el.
Lake Cave City, , el.
Lake Cherokee, , el.
Lake Galilee, , el.
Lake Mirandy, , el.
Lake Navajo, , el.
Lake Sequoyah, , el.
Lake Sherwood, , el.
Lake Thunderbird, , el.
Lower Lake - Green Acres Estates, , el.
Rainbow Lake, , el.
Runyans Lake, , el.
Spring Lake, , el.
Street Lake, , el.
Upper Lake - Green Acres Estates, , el.
Vagabond Lake, , el.
Wild Plum Lake, , el.
See also
List of lakes in Arkansas
Notes
Bodies of water of Sharp County, Arkansas
Sharp | wiki |
Dracula pusilla is a species of orchid.
pusilla | wiki |
The Ulster Bank £100 note is a banknote issued by Ulster Bank. It is valued at one hundred pounds sterling and the current design was first issued in 1990. As with most banknotes of Northern Ireland, they can be used for transactions in the Isle of Man and Great Britain, but in practice most retailers will not accept them and they are not legal tender.
Design
The £100 note very similar to the Ulster Bank £50 note, except that it is navy blue in colour and is slightly larger. The obverse side features the Ulster landscape, with Belfast Harbour, the Giant's Causeway, flax plants and Celtic knot patterns. The reverse shows the Ulster Bank coat of arms, and the arms of the provinces of Ireland.
References
Banknotes of Northern Ireland
One-hundred-base-unit banknotes | wiki |
Equitable Building was a , eight-story building at 30 Edgewood Avenue SE, in Atlanta, Georgia, United States.
History
The Equitable Building was built for Joel Hurt, a prominent Atlanta developer and streetcar magnate. It was designed by Chicago's Burnham and Root, the firm established by Georgia-born architect John Wellborn Root (1850-1891) and his partner Daniel Hudson Burnham. When completed in 1892 it was the tallest building with the most floors in Atlanta outside the State Capitol until 1897.
The building was demolished in 1971.
See also
List of tallest buildings in Atlanta
Equitable Building (Atlanta)
References
Office buildings completed in 1892
Buildings and structures demolished in 1971
Demolished buildings and structures in Atlanta
Office buildings in Atlanta
Burnham and Root buildings
Chicago school architecture in Georgia (U.S. state) | wiki |
Lowell Airport was an airfield operational in the mid-20th century in Lowell, Massachusetts. The airport hosted the Moth Aircraft Corp. of Lowell, where 179 de Havilland Moth planes were manufactured under license between 1929 and 1931.
References
Transportation in Lowell, Massachusetts
Defunct airports in Massachusetts
Airports in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Lowell, Massachusetts | wiki |
Buffalo Commercial Bank (BCB) is a commercial bank in South Sudan. It is one of the commercial banks licensed by the Bank of South Sudan, the national banking regulator.
Overview
The bank is an indigenous South Sudanese financial institution, serving the banking needs of the people and businesses of this part of the world. It is a small but growing private commercial bank headquartered in Juba, the capital and largest city in South Sudan.
History
Buffalo Commercial Bank was established in 2008, following the cessation of hostilities between Sudan and South Sudan and the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in Naivasha, Kenya, in 2005.
Ownership
The bank's stock is privately owned. , the detailed shareholding is not publicly known.
Branch network
The branch network of the bank include the following locations:
Malakia Branch - Juba
Juba Market Branch - Juba Main Branch
Wazarat Branch - Ministerial Premises, Juba
Wau Branch - Wau
Governance
The Bank is governed by a nine-member Board of Directors. The current chairman of the Board is Lual Acuek Lual Deng.
External links
Website of Buffalo Commercial Bank
Website of Bank of Southern Sudan
List of Financial Institutions Operating In Southern Sudan
See also
List of banks in South Sudan
Central Bank of South Sudan
Economy of South Sudan
References
Banks of South Sudan
Banks established in 2008
Companies based in Juba | wiki |
In the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), a monthly meeting or area meeting is the basic governing body, a congregation which holds regular meetings for business for Quakers in a given area. The monthly meeting is responsible for the administration of its congregants, including membership and marriages, and for the meeting's property. A monthly meeting can be a grouping of multiple smaller meetings, usually called preparative meetings, coming together for administrative purposes, while for others it is a single institution. In most countries, multiple monthly meetings form a quarterly meeting, which in turn form yearly meetings. Programmed Quakers may refer to their congregation as a church.
Management
Among Quakers, affairs are managed at a particular kind of meeting for worship, called a meeting for business, where all members are invited to attend. Decisions are made as a form of worship, where each individual sits in contemplative silence until moved to speak on a subject. At these meetings, Quakers attempt to reach unity on a subject, in a form of religious consensus decision-making, to find "the sense of the meeting". A monthly meeting is so called because it traditionally holds these meetings once a month, separate from the normal weekly meeting for worship.
Each meeting usually nominates members to serve in certain volunteer positions to facilitate administration, including:
a clerk and assistant clerk or clerks
a treasurer
a registering officer
a nominations committee
a body of trustees
a custodian of records or a committee for the purpose
A monthly meeting is usually associated with a particular place of worship; in many cases, the associated meeting house has a distinctive style of architecture and interior design, to represent the Quaker testimony of Simplicity. Some meeting houses in the United States are among the earliest remaining religious structures in the country, and the oldest meeting house is likely the Third Haven Meeting House in Talbot County, Maryland, built between 1682 and 1684.
Notes
See also
Friends World Committee for Consultation
External links
QuakerMaps: a resource for finding monthly meetings from across the spectrum of Quakerism, powered by Google Maps.
Quakerfinder: a resource for finding FGC monthly meetings in the United States.
Find a Quaker Meeting in England, Wales or Scotland.
Quaker organizations | wiki |
Into the Badlands may refer to:
Into the Badlands (film), a 1991 television film;
Into the Badlands (TV series), a 2015–2019 television series | wiki |
Augustine Commission may refer to either of two committees chaired by Norman Ralph Augustine:
1990 - Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program
2009 - Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee | wiki |
The term immersion marketing or immersive marketing includes traditional advertising, public relations, word-of-mouth advertising, digital marketing, samples, coupons, retail partnerships and other ways of surrounding the consumer with a consistent message about a brand. In essence, immersion marketing envelopes a brand or product or company issue so that the marketing, advertising, and public relations departments or representatives work holistically towards delivering the same brand message across multiple distribution channels. Unlike "Shotgun marketing"(communicate the message to anyone who listens), immersive marketing is cheaper and more effective, focusing directly on the customer's needs.
Immersion marketing or immersive marketing succeeds engagement marketing, the difference being a huge emphasis on enveloping consumers in the brand. Therefore, Shar Van Boskirk of Forrester Research characterizes it as "a cohesive and all-encompassing experience across any channel where the customer is." .
Event Magazine listed immersion marketing as one of its top trends advertisers must use in 2015.
Approach to customers
In comparison to traditional forms of marketing, the immersive marketing methods are distinctly passive. The customer is invited in a friendly environment (e.g. retail store) instead of being aggressively forced to do so. The idea is to encourage customers to engage in a two-way interaction with the brand. Therefore, instead of being passive aggressive, the marketers must be aggressively passive in their approach in order to succeed attracting consumers.
According to TBA's managing director, Guy Horner, the consumers tend to prefer this type of approach "It comes down to creating engaging brand experiences that connect with consumers. The growth area is engagement and immersion, bringing the brand world to life," he says.
Focus on the message
Immersion marketing is about delivering a message on various media channels, but in order to be taken in consideration, the message have to be consistent and the same among all the channels. The message must be as simple as possible and it should fill the needs of the market which is addressed to. Even if the message is delivered through radio, television, social media, flyers, coupons, samples, posters or phone calls, the consumers should get, subconsciously, the same idea from it. In other words, all of the exposures should be retrieved as one total experience.
When creating a message that will be delivered on a wide range of marketing channels, the brand should think of two aspects:
What are we good at?
What does the market need?
Immersive market research
Immersive market research techniques help the companies understand the behaviors and perceptions at the time the consumers face them. The companies use them in the following circumstances:
When they need to understand how, when and why the customers use their products
When they want to address to other segments than the targeted one
When they need new ideas from their customers
When they need to know whether their services are satisfying or not
When they cannot rely on past experiences
Types of market research
Ethnography
Employees conducting this type of research should spend time with customers, being immersed in their daily life.
Netnography
Netnography is the same thing as ethnography, but it is conducted online. It analyses the consumer's life through blogs, forums, social media and other online contents.
Participant reporting
The alternative to both ethnography and netnography is to ask customers to conduct researches on the company's behalf. This can be done traditionally, by completing a diary, or it may be used the TROI(Touchpoint Return On Investment) method, in which the customers notify the company whenever they encounter the brand. The point is to study the customer's experience without the work of a researcher.
Example of immersion marketing
An immersion marketing campaign should have a strong message exposed on various marketing channels across a certain place or target. Therefore, let's choose the motto of the brand as message, a residential complex for location and the residents as targeted customers. In this case, the marketing actions will be the following:
Place a billboard at the entrance in the residential complex
Buy ad space on the TVs located in the receptions of each building
Buy ad space on the TVs located in the gym
Buy ad space on the elevator in each building
Give coupons branded with the company's name
Send promotional e-mails to all the residents
Send catalogues to residents
Send brochures to residents
This type of brand awareness will be much more effective than the traditional methods. Therefore, the company will benefit from major exposure to the residents.
Further reading
P&G Adapts in Emerging Markets, WARC News, 2011
Ray Pettit, Digital Anthropology, Journal of Advertising Research, 2010
Neil Hair and Moira Clark, The Ethical Dilemmas and Challenges of Ethnographic Research in Online Communities, International Journal of Market Research, 2007
Ana Medeiros and Fiona Blades, Capturing How a Catchphrase Caught On, MRS Annual Conference 2008
A F Lafley and R Charan, The Game-Changer, Crown Business, 2008
Author Joan Schneider, New Product Launch: 10 Proven Strategies
References
Promotion and marketing communications | wiki |
A bearing sword is a type of oversized, unwieldy ceremonial sword usually carried by a squire or servant during parades to demonstrate the wealth and status of its owner. Often held upright and lavishly decorated, these swords were not intended for combat or practical use. Carried by royal bodyguards as a display of power, bearing swords were used throughout Europe from at least as early as the medieval period and as late as the 18th century.
References
Swords | wiki |
Carmine bee-eater may refer to:
Northern carmine bee-eater (Merops nubicus or Merops nubicus nubicus)
Southern carmine bee-eater (Merops nubicoides or Merops nubicus nubicoides)
Birds by common name | wiki |
Hero of Byzantium (or Heron of Byzantium or sometimes Hero the Younger) () is a name used to refer to the anonymous Byzantine author of two treatises, commonly known as Parangelmata Poliorcetica and Geodesia, composed in the mid-10th century and found in an 11th-century manuscript in the Vatican Library (Vaticanus graecus 1605). The first is a poliorketikon, an illustrated manual of siegecraft; the second is a work in practical geometry and ballistics, which makes use of locations around Constantinople to illustrate its points. The manuscript consists of 58 folios and 38 colored illustrations.
Following a seventh-century defeat by the Arabs in the east and the barbarian powers in the west, the Byzantine Empire found itself gutted of much of its territory and needed to re-establish its military excellence. "Recent research has suggested that the empire first survived, and later expanded, by retaining and adapting military theories and practices from late antiquity." Hero's treatises were part of this process of recovery and adaptation.
Name
There is no mention of the author's name in the treatises, and the numerous Byzantine references throughout the work indicate that the author cannot be Hero of Alexandria (). Perhaps the name "Hero" came to be applied to him because of his use of Hero of Alexandria's work, which like his own deals principally with technology.
Parangelmata Poliorcetica
The Parangelmata Poliorcetica was an adaptation of an earlier () poliorcetic manual of Apollodorus of Damascus, but in place of the static, two-dimensional diagrams of that work, the Byzantine author used a three-dimensional perspective and scaled human figures to clarify the passages. As artillery had not yet become a factor in siegecraft, the machines themselves tend to be those useful for advancing a force up to fortifications and mining them once situated. Hero includes tortoises (—mobile sheds used to protect troops from attack while approaching fortifications); a new Slavic style of tortoise called the laisa (), created from interwoven branches and vines; palisades; rams; ladders; nets; towers; bridges; and tools such as augers and bores. In addition to the work of Apollodorus, the author also draws on the work of Athenaeus Mechanicus, Philo of Byzantium, and Biton.
Geodesia
Geodesia or geodesy comes from the Greek word γεωδαισία (from γή, "earth", and δαΐζω, "divide"), literally meaning "division of the earth". When Hero of Byzantium wrote his Geodesia, he drew on an earlier manual by Hero of Alexandria—specifically on the Alexandrian's knowledge of applied geometry and use of the surveying instrument called the dioptra. Hero of Alexandria's manuscripts suggest that the dioptra could be used as a level and for measuring elevations, distances, and angles. Heron of Byzantium spoke about its use in siege warfare, showing that it could estimate distances and the required sizes of siege engines.
Edition
Sullivan, Dennis F., ed. (2000). Siegecraft: Two Tenth-Century Instructional Manuals by "Heron of Byzantium". Dumbarton Oaks Studies XXXVI. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. .
Sources
10th-century Byzantine writers
Medieval Greek military writers
10th-century Byzantine people
Unidentified people | wiki |
GRAI can refer to
Global Returnable Asset Identifier
GRAI method | wiki |
In database security, a negative database is a database that saves attributes that cannot be associated with a certain entry.
A negative database is a kind of database that contains huge amount of data consisting of simulating data.
When anyone tries to get access to such databases both the actual and the negative data sets will be retrieved even if they steal the entire database.
For example, instead of storing just the personal details you store personal details that members don't have.
Negative databases can avoid inappropriate queries and inferences. They also support allowable operations.
Under this scenario, it is desirable that the database support only the allowable queries while protecting the privacy of individual records, say from inspection by an insider.
Collection of negative data has been referred to as "negative sousveillance":
References
Database security | wiki |
An incontinence pad is a small, impermeable multi-layered sheet with high absorbency that is used in the incontinence and health-care industries as a precaution against fecal or urinary incontinence. It is generally made of cotton if washable, or paper if disposable. Incontinence diapers (or incontinence nappies) are a common incontinence pad. Incontinence pads are usually placed in an undergarment or on a bed or chair under a person. Incontinence pads are manufactured in light and heavy grades which offer a range of absorbencies, often referred to as a 'working capacity', which refers to the true absorbency an incontinence pad offers when in use. These sorts of pads can come as panty-liners, inserts, pads or even available as replacement underwear.
In the UK, chair or bed-based protective pads, known as chair pads or bed pads, are commonly used in healthcare settings where incontinence may be an issue. They are usually constructed in layers of quilted absorbent fabric and alternating liquid impermeable plastic or polyurethane. Products containing polyurethane are generally considered better as they provide a waterproof backing, whilst still allowing air to circulate reducing the risk of rashes and sores.
Healthcare
Incontinence pads are often overused in people with dementia. Guidelines suggest that treatment should always be preferred to containment as pads can be uncomfortable and negatively affect the person's dignity. A balanced diet, exercise, hand hygiene, and prompts to go to the toilet should be preferred over using pads. An ethnographic study in the UK pointed out the existence of "pad culture" which means that the main care strategy was the use of continence pads even in cases where people were continent. The main reasons for this strategy were fears about safety and falls which kept people in their beds and did not support independence. This mode of caring often leads to undignified situations and the use of demeaning language.
See also
Adult diaper
Rothwell scale
References
External links
incontinence pads: A Complete Guide
Independent continence product advisor
Urinary incontinence
Incontinence | wiki |
Dryadella simula is a species of orchid.
simula | wiki |
Laying is the act of making equipment level. It usually involves moving equipment in small motions so that spirit levels are centralised in all planes. Movement is usually done by small worm gears or other fine setting devices for accurate small movements, together with coarser gears to allow large swings in motion for quick movement between different settings.
Equipment that requires laying before it can be used accurately includes:
theodolites
guns and howitzers in indirect fire (gun laying)
Artillery operation
Machines | wiki |
Java moss is a common name for several plants and may refer to:
Taxiphyllum barbieri
Vesicularia dubyana
Hypnaceae | wiki |
Polygamy (called plural marriage by Latter-day Saints in the 19th century or the Principle by modern fundamentalist practitioners of polygamy) was practiced by leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) for more than half of the 19th century, and practiced publicly from 1852 to 1890 by between 20 and 30 percent of Latter-day Saint families. Today, various denominations of fundamentalist Mormonism continue to practice polygamy.
The Latter-day Saints' practice of polygamy has been controversial, both within Western society and the LDS Church itself. The U.S. was both fascinated and horrified by the practice of polygamy, with the Republican platform at one time referencing "the twin relics of barbarism—polygamy and slavery." The private practice of polygamy was instituted in the 1830s by founder Joseph Smith. The public practice of plural marriage by the church was announced and defended in 1852 by a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, Orson Pratt, at the request of church president Brigham Young.
For over 60 years, the LDS Church and the United States were at odds over the issue: the church defended the practice as a matter of religious freedom, while the federal government aggressively sought to eradicate it, consistent with prevailing public opinion. Polygamy was probably a significant factor in the Utah War of 1857 and 1858, given Republican attempts to paint Democratic President James Buchanan as weak in his opposition to both polygamy and slavery. In 1862, the United States Congress passed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, which prohibited plural marriage in the territories. In spite of the law, Latter-day Saints continued to practice polygamy, believing that it was protected by the First Amendment. In 1879, in Reynolds v. United States, the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the Morrill Act, stating: "Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they cannot interfere with mere religious belief and opinion, they may with practices."
In 1890, when it became clear that Utah would not be admitted to the Union while polygamy was still practiced, church president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto that officially terminated the practice of polygamy. Although this Manifesto did not dissolve existing plural marriages, relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state in 1896. After the Manifesto, some church members continued to enter into polygamous marriages, but these eventually stopped in 1904 when church president Joseph F. Smith disavowed polygamy before Congress and issued a "Second Manifesto", calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease, and established excommunication as the consequence for those who disobeyed. Several small "fundamentalist" groups, seeking to continue the practice, split from the LDS Church, including the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB) and the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church). Meanwhile, the LDS Church continues its policy of excommunicating members found practicing polygamy, and today actively seeks to distance itself from fundamentalist groups that continue the practice. On its website, the church states that "the standard doctrine of the church is monogamy" and that polygamy was a temporary exception to the rule.
Origin
Many early converts to the religion including Brigham Young, Orson Pratt, and Lyman Johnson, recorded that Joseph Smith was teaching plural marriage privately as early as 1831 or 1832. Pratt reported that Smith told some early members in 1831 and 1832 that plural marriage was a true principle, but that the time to practice it had not yet come. Johnson also claimed to have heard the doctrine from Smith in 1831. Mosiah Hancock reported that his father was taught about plural marriage in the spring of 1832.
The 1835 and 1844 versions of the church's Doctrine and Covenants (D&C) prohibited polygamy and declared that monogamy was the only acceptable form of marriage:
William Clayton, Smith's scribe, recorded early polygamous marriages in 1843: "On the 1st day of May, 1843, I officiated in the office of an Elder by marrying Lucy Walker to the Prophet Joseph Smith, at his own residence. During this period the Prophet Joseph took several other wives. Amongst the number I well remember Eliza Partridge, Emily Partridge, Sarah Ann Whitney, Helen Kimball and Flora Woodworth. These all, he acknowledged to me, were his lawful, wedded wives, according to the celestial order. His wife Emma was cognizant of the fact of some, if not all, of these being his wives, and she generally treated them very kindly."
As early as 1832, Mormon missionaries worked successfully to convert followers in Maine of polygamist religious leader Jacob Cochran, who went into hiding in 1830 to escape imprisonment due to his practice of polygamy. Among Cochran's marital innovations was "spiritual wifery," and "tradition assumes that he received frequent consignments of spiritual consorts, and that such were invariably the most robust and attractive women in the community." The majority of what became the Quorum of the Twelve in 1835 attended Mormon conferences held in the center of the Cochranite territory in 1834 and 1835. Brigham Young, an apostle of the church, became acquainted with Cochran's followers as he made several missionary journeys through the Cochranite territory from Boston to Saco, and later married Augusta Adams Cobb, a former Cochranite.
Joseph Smith publicly condemned polygamy, denied his involvement in it, and participants were excommunicated, as church records and publications reflect. But church leaders nevertheless began practicing polygamy in the 1840s, particularly members of the Quorum of the Twelve. Sidney Rigdon, while he was estranged from the church, wrote a letter in backlash to the Messenger and Advocate in 1844 condemning the church's Quorum of the Twelve and their alleged connection to polygamy:
At the time, the practice was kept secret from non-members and most church members. Throughout his life, Smith publicly denied having multiple wives.
However, John C. Bennett, a recent convert to the church and the first mayor of Nauvoo, used ideas of eternal and plural marriage to justify acts of seduction, adultery and, in some cases, the practice of abortion in the guise of "spiritual wifery." Bennett was called to account by Joseph and Hyrum Smith, and was excommunicated from the church. In April 1844, Joseph Smith referred to polygamy as "John C. Bennett's spiritual wife system" and warned "if any man writes to you, or preaches to you, doctrines contrary to the Bible, the Book of Mormon, or the book of Doctrine and Covenants, set him down as an imposter." Smith mused
The practice was publicly announced in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, in 1852, some five years after the Mormons arrived in Utah, and eight years after Smith's death. The doctrine authorizing plural marriage was canonized and published in the 1876 version of the LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants.
Teachings on the multiple wives of God and Jesus
Top leaders used the examples of the polygamy of God the Father and Jesus Christ in defense of it and these teachings on God and Jesus' polygamy were widely accepted among Mormons by the late 1850s. In 1853, Jedediah M. Grant—who later become a First Presidency member—stated that the top reason behind the persecution of Christ and his disciples was due to their practice of polygamy. Two months later, apostle Orson Pratt taught in a church periodical that "We have now clearly shown that God the Father had a plurality of wives," and that after her death, Mary (the mother of Jesus) may have become another eternal polygamous wife of God. He also stated that Christ had multiple wives—Mary of Bethany, Martha, and Mary Magdalene—as further evidence in defense of polygamy. In the next two years the apostle Orson Hyde also stated during two general conference addresses that Jesus practiced polygamy and repeated this in an 1857 address. This teaching was alluded to by church president Brigham Young in 1870 and First Presidency member Joseph F. Smith in 1883.
Plural marriages of early church leaders
Joseph Smith
The 1843 polygamy revelation, published posthumously, counseled Smith's wife Emma to accept all of Smith's plural wives, and warns of destruction if the new covenant is not observed. Emma Smith was publicly and privately opposed to the practice and Joseph may have married some women without Emma knowing beforehand. Emma publicly denied that her husband had ever preached or practiced polygamy, which later became a defining difference between the LDS Church under Brigham Young and the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church; now known as the Community of Christ), led by Joseph Smith III. Emma Smith remained affiliated with the RLDS Church until her death at the age of 74. Emma Smith claimed that the very first time she ever became aware of the 1843 polygamy revelation was when she read about it in Orson Pratt's publication The Seer in 1853.
There is a subtle difference between "sealing" (which is a Mormon priesthood ordinance that binds individuals together in the eternities), and "marriage" (a social tradition in which the man and woman agree to be husband and wife in this life). In the early days of Mormonism, common practices and doctrines were not yet well-defined. Even among those who accept the views of conventional historians, there is disagreement as to the precise number of wives Smith had: Fawn M. Brodie lists 48, D. Michael Quinn 46, and George D. Smith 38. The discrepancy is created by the lack of documents to support the alleged marriages to some of the named wives.
A number of Smith's "marriages" occurred after his death, with the wife being sealed to Smith via a proxy who stood in for him. One historian, Todd M. Compton, documented at least 33 plural marriages or sealings during Smith's lifetime. Richard Lloyd Anderson and Scott H. Faulring came up with a list of 29 wives of Joseph Smith.
It is unclear how many of the wives Smith had sexual relations with. Many contemporary accounts from Smith's time indicate that he engaged in sexual relations with several of his wives. , there were at least twelve early Latter Day Saints who, based on historical documents and circumstantial evidence, had been identified as potential Smith offspring stemming from plural marriages. In 2005 and 2007 studies, a geneticist with the Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation stated that they had shown "with 99.9 percent accuracy" that five of these individuals were in fact not Smith descendants: Mosiah Hancock (son of Clarissa Reed Hancock), Oliver Buell (son of Prescindia Huntington Buell), Moroni Llewellyn Pratt (son of Mary Ann Frost Pratt), Zebulon Jacobs (son of Zina Diantha Huntington Jacobs Smith), and Orrison Smith (son of Fanny Alger). The remaining seven have yet to be conclusively tested, including Josephine Lyon, for whom current DNA testing using mitochondrial DNA cannot provide conclusive evidence either way. Lyon's mother, Sylvia Sessions Lyon, left her daughter a deathbed affidavit telling her she was Smith's daughter.
Other early church leaders
LDS Church president Brigham Young had 51 wives, and 56 children by 16 of those wives.
LDS Church apostle Heber C. Kimball had 43 wives, and had 65 children by 17 of those wives.
U.S. government actions against polygamy
Mormon polygamy was one of the leading moral issues of the 19th Century in the United States, perhaps second only to slavery in importance. Spurred by popular indignation, the U.S. government took a number of steps against polygamy; these were of varying effectiveness.
1857–1858 Utah War
As the LDS Church settled in what became the Utah Territory, it eventually was subjected to the power and opinion of the United States. Friction first began to show in the James Buchanan administration and federal troops arrived (see Utah War). Buchanan, anticipating Mormon opposition to a newly appointed territorial governor to replace Brigham Young, dispatched 2,500 federal troops to Utah to seat the new governor, thus setting in motion a series of misunderstandings in which the Mormons felt threatened.
1862 Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act
For the most part, the rest of the United States considered plural marriage offensive. On July 8, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act into law, which forbade the practice in U.S. territories. Lincoln made a statement that he had no intentions of enforcing it if the LDS Church would not interfere with him, and so the matter was laid to rest for a time. But rhetoric continued, and polygamy became an impediment to Utah being admitted as a state. Brigham Young preached in 1866 that if Utah will not be admitted to the Union until it abandons polygamy, "we shall never be admitted."
After the Civil War, immigrants to Utah who were not members of the church continued the contest for political power. They were frustrated by the consolidation of the members. Forming the Liberal Party, non-Mormons began pushing for political changes and sought to weaken the church's dominance in the territory. In September 1871, Young was indicted for adultery due to his plural marriages. On January 6, 1879, the Supreme Court upheld the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act in Reynolds v. United States.
1882 Edmunds Act
In February 1882, George Q. Cannon, a prominent leader in the church, was denied a non-voting seat in the U.S. House of Representatives due to his polygamous relations. This revived the issue of polygamy in national politics. One month later, the Edmunds Act was passed by Congress, amending the Morrill Act and made polygamy a felony punishable by a $500 fine and five years in prison. "Unlawful cohabitation," in which the prosecution did not need to prove that a marriage ceremony had taken place (only that a couple had lived together), was a misdemeanor punishable by a $300 fine and six months imprisonment. It also revoked the right of polygamists to vote or hold office and allowed them to be punished without due process. Even if people did not practice polygamy, they would have their rights revoked if they confessed a belief in it. In August, Rudger Clawson was imprisoned for continuing to cohabit with wives that he married before the 1862 Morrill Act.
1887 Edmunds–Tucker Act
In 1887, the Edmunds–Tucker Act allowed the disincorporation of the LDS Church and the seizure of church property; it also further extended the punishments of the Edmunds Act. In July of the same year, the U.S. Attorney General filed suit to seize all church assets.
The church was losing control of the territorial government, and many members and leaders were being actively pursued as fugitives. Without being able to appear publicly, the leadership was left to navigate "underground."
Following the passage of the Edmunds–Tucker Act, the church found it difficult to operate as a viable institution. After visiting priesthood leaders in many settlements, church president Wilford Woodruff left for San Francisco on September 3, 1890, to meet with prominent businessmen and politicians. He returned to Salt Lake City on September 21, determined to obtain divine confirmation to pursue a course that seemed to be agonizingly more and more clear. As he explained to church members a year later, the choice was between, on the one hand, continuing to practice plural marriage and thereby losing the temples, "stopping all the ordinances therein," and, on the other, ceasing plural marriage in order to continue performing the essential ordinances for the living and the dead. Woodruff hastened to add that he had acted only as the Lord directed:
1890 Manifesto banning plural marriage
The final element in Woodruff's revelatory experience came on the evening of September 23, 1890. The following morning, he reported to some of the general authorities that he had struggled throughout the night with the Lord regarding the path that should be pursued. The result was a 510-word handwritten manuscript which stated his intentions to comply with the law and denied that the church continued to solemnize or condone plural marriages. The document was later edited by George Q. Cannon of the First Presidency and others to its present 356 words. On October 6, 1890, it was presented to the Latter-day Saints at the General Conference and unanimously approved.
While many church leaders in 1890 regarded the Manifesto as inspired, there were differences among them about its scope and permanence. Contemporary opinions include the contention that the manifesto was more related to an effort to achieve statehood for the Utah territory. Some leaders were reluctant to terminate a long-standing practice that was regarded as divinely mandated. As a result, over 200 plural marriages were performed between 1890 and 1904.
1904 Second Manifesto
It was not until 1904, under the leadership of church president Joseph F. Smith, that the church completely banned new plural marriages worldwide. Not surprisingly, rumors persisted of marriages performed after the 1890 Manifesto, and beginning in January 1904, testimony given in the Smoot hearings made it clear that plural marriage had not been completely extinguished.
The ambiguity was ended in the General Conference of April 1904, when Smith issued the "Second Manifesto," an emphatic declaration that prohibited plural marriage and proclaimed that offenders would be subject to church discipline. It declared that any who participated in additional plural marriages, and those officiating, would be excommunicated from the church. Those disagreeing with the Second Manifesto included apostles Matthias F. Cowley and John W. Taylor, who both resigned from the Quorum of the Twelve. Cowley retained his membership in the church, but Taylor was later excommunicated.
Although the Second Manifesto ended the official practice of new plural marriages, existing plural marriages were not automatically dissolved. Many Mormons, including prominent church leaders, maintained existing plural marriages into the 1940s and 1950s.
In 1943, the First Presidency learned that apostle Richard R. Lyman was cohabitating with a woman other than his legal wife. As it turned out, in 1925 Lyman had begun a relationship which he defined as a polygamous marriage. Unable to trust anyone else to officiate, Lyman and the woman exchanged vows secretly. By 1943, both were in their seventies. Lyman was excommunicated on November 12, 1943. The Quorum of the Twelve provided the newspapers with a one-sentence announcement, stating that the ground for excommunication was violation of the law of chastity.
Remnants within sects
Over time, many of those who rejected the LDS Church's relinquishment of plural marriage formed small, close-knit communities in areas of the Rocky Mountains. These groups continue to practice "the Principle." In the 1940s, LDS Church apostle Mark E. Petersen coined the term "Mormon fundamentalist" to describe such people. Fundamentalists either practice as individuals, as families, or as part of organized denominations. Today, the LDS Church objects to the use of the term "Mormon fundamentalists" and suggests using the term "polygamist sects" to avoid confusion about whether the main body of Mormon believers teach or practice polygamy.
Mormon fundamentalists believe that plural marriage is a requirement for exaltation and entry into the highest level of the celestial kingdom. These beliefs stem from statements by 19th-century Mormon authorities including Brigham Young (although some of these leaders gave possibly conflicting statements that a monogamist may obtain at least a lower degree of "exaltation" through mere belief in polygamy).
For public relations reasons, the LDS Church has sought vigorously to disassociate itself from Mormon fundamentalists and the practice of plural marriage. Although the LDS Church has requested that journalists not refer to Mormon fundamentalists using the term "Mormon," journalists generally have not complied, and "Mormon fundamentalist" has become standard terminology. Mormon fundamentalists themselves embrace the term "Mormon" and share a religious heritage and beliefs with the LDS Church, including canonization of the Book of Mormon and a claim that Joseph Smith is the founder of their religion.
Modern plural marriage theory within the LDS Church
Although the LDS Church has abandoned the practice of plural marriage, it has not abandoned the underlying doctrines of polygamy. According to the church's sacred texts and pronouncements by its leaders and theologians, the church leaves open the possibility that it may one day re-institute the practice. It is still the practice of monogamous Mormon couples to be sealed to one another. However, in some circumstances, men and women may be sealed to multiple spouses. Most commonly, a man may be sealed to multiple wives: if his first wife dies, he may be sealed to a second wife. A deceased woman may also be sealed to multiple men, but only through vicarious sealing if they are also deceased.
Reasons for polygamy
As early as the publication of the Book of Mormon in 1830, Latter Day Saint doctrine maintained that polygamy was allowable only if it was commanded by God. The Book of Jacob condemned polygamy as adultery, but left open the proviso that "For if I will, saith the Lord of Hosts, raise up seed unto me, I will command my people; otherwise, they shall hearken unto these things." Thus, the LDS Church today teaches that plural marriage can only be practiced when specifically authorized by God. According to this view, the 1890 Manifesto and Second Manifesto rescinded God's prior authorization given to Joseph Smith.
However, Bruce R. McConkie controversially stated in his 1958 book, Mormon Doctrine, that God will "obviously" re-institute the practice of polygamy after the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. This echoes earlier teachings by Brigham Young that the primary purpose of polygamy was to bring about the Millennium. Current official church materials do not make any mention of the future re-institution of plural marriage.
Multiple sealings when a prior spouse has died
In the case where a man's first wife dies, and the man remarries, and both of the marriages involve a sealing, LDS authorities teach that in the afterlife, the man will enter a polygamous relationship with both wives. Current apostles Russell M. Nelson and Dallin H. Oaks are examples of such a case.
Under LDS Church policy, a man whose sealed wife has died does not have to request any permission beyond having a current temple recommend and an interview with his bishop to get final permission for a living ordinance, to be married in the temple and sealed to another woman, unless the new wife's circumstance requires a cancellation of sealing. However, a woman whose sealed husband has died is still bound by the original sealing and must request a cancellation of sealing to be sealed to another man (see next paragraph for exception to this after she dies). In some cases, women in this situation who wish to remarry choose to be married to a subsequent husband and are not sealed to them, leaving them sealed to their first husband for eternity.
As of 1998, however, women who have died may be sealed to more than one man. In 1998, the LDS Church created a new policy that a woman may also be sealed to more than one man. A woman, however, may not be sealed to more than one man while she is alive. She may only be sealed to subsequent partners after both she and her husband(s) have died. Thus, if a widow who was sealed to her first husband remarries, she may be sealed by proxy to all of her subsequent husband(s), but only after both she and the subsequent husbands have died. Proxy sealings, like proxy baptisms, are merely offered to the person in the afterlife, indicating that the purpose is to allow the woman to choose the right man to be sealed to.
In the twenty-first century, church leadership has taught that doctrinal knowledge about the nature of family relations in the afterlife is limited and there is no official church teaching on how multiple marriages in life play out in the afterlife beyond trust in God that such matters will work out happily.
Multiple sealings when marriages end in divorce
A man who is sealed to a woman but later divorced must apply for a "sealing clearance" from the First Presidency in order to be sealed to another woman. Receiving clearance does not void or invalidate the first sealing. A woman in the same circumstances would apply to the First Presidency for a "cancellation of sealing" (sometimes called a "temple divorce"), allowing her to be sealed to another man. This approval voids the original sealing as far as the woman is concerned. Divorced women who have not applied for a sealing cancellation are considered sealed to the original husband. However, according to Drs. Joseph Stuart and Janiece Johnson of the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, even in the afterlife the marriage relationship is voluntary, so no person could be forced into an eternal relationship through a temple sealing they do not wish to be in. Divorced women may also be granted a cancellation of sealing, even though they do not intend to marry someone else. In this case, they are no longer regarded as being sealed to anyone and are presumed to have the same eternal status as unwed women.
Proxy sealings where both spouses have died
According to church policy, after a man has died, he may be sealed by proxy to all of the women to whom he was legally married while he was alive. The same is true for women; however, if a woman was sealed to a man while she was alive, all of her husbands must be deceased before she can be sealed by proxy to them.
Church doctrine is not entirely specific on the status of men or women who are sealed by proxy to multiple spouses. There are at least two possibilities:
Regardless of how many people a man or woman is sealed to by proxy, they will only remain with one of them in the afterlife, and that the remaining spouses, who might still merit the full benefits of exaltation that come from being sealed, would then marry another person in order to ensure each has an eternal marriage.
These sealings create effective plural marriages that will continue after death. There are no church teachings clarifying whether polyandrous relationships can exist in the afterlife, so some church members doubt whether this possibility would apply to women who are sealed by proxy to multiple spouses. The possibility for women to be sealed to multiple men is a recent policy change enacted in 1998. Church leaders have neither explained this change, nor its doctrinal implications.
Criticism of plural marriage
Instances of unhappy plural marriage
Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that plural marriages produced unhappiness in some wives. LDS historian Todd Compton, in his book In Sacred Loneliness, described various instances where some wives in polygamous marriages were unhappy with polygamy.
A means for male sexual gratification
Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that church leaders established the practice of polygamy in order to further their immoral desires for sexual gratification with multiple sexual partners. Critics point to the fact that church leaders practiced polygamy in secret from 1833 to 1852, despite a written church doctrine (Doctrine and Covenants 101, 1835 edition) renouncing polygamy and stating that only monogamous marriages were permitted. Critics also cite several first-person accounts of early church leaders attempting to use the polygamy doctrine to enter into illicit relationships with women. Critics also assert that Joseph Smith instituted polygamy in order to cover up an 1835 adulterous affair with a neighbor's daughter, Fanny Alger, by taking Alger as his second wife. Compton dates this marriage to March or April 1833, well before Joseph was accused of an affair. However, historian Lawrence Foster dismisses the marriage of Alger to Joseph Smith as "debatable supposition" rather than "established fact."
Others conclude that many Latter-day Saints entered into plural marriage based on the belief that it was a religious commandment, rather than as an excuse for sexual license. For instance, many of the figures who came to be best associated with plural marriage, including church president Brigham Young and his counselor Heber C. Kimball, expressed revulsion at the system when it was first introduced to them. Young famously stated that after receiving the commandment to practice plural marriage in Nauvoo, he saw a funeral procession walking down the street and he wished he could exchange places with the corpse. He recalled that "I was not desirous of shrinking from any duty, nor of failing in the least to do as I was commanded, but it was the first time in my life that I had desired the grave, and I could hardly get over it for a long time." When Kimball first heard of the principle, he believed that he would marry elderly women whom he would care for and who would not be a threat to his first wife Vilate. He was later shocked to learn that he was to marry a younger woman. His biographer writes that he "became sick in body, but his mental wretchedness was too great to allow of his retiring, and he would walk the floor till nearly morning, and sometimes the agony of his mind was so terrible that he would wring his hands and weep like a child." While his wife Vilate had trials "grievous to bear" as a result of her acceptance of plural marriage, she supported her husband in his religious duties, and taught her children that "she could not doubt the plural order of marriage was of God, for the Lord had revealed it to her in answer to prayer."
Underage plural marriages
Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that church leaders sometimes used polygamy to take advantage of young girls for immoral purposes. Historian George D. Smith studied 153 men who took plural wives in the early years of the Latter Day Saint movement, and found that two of the girls were thirteen years old, 13 girls were fourteen years old, 21 were fifteen years old, and 53 were sixteen years old. Historian Todd Compton documented that Joseph Smith married one girl who was fourteen-years old (possibly two); according to Compton, "it is unlikely that the marriage was consummated". Historian Stanly Hirshon documented cases of girls aged 10 and 11 being married to old men.
The mean age of marriage for women was lower in Mormon polygamy than in New England and the Northeastern states (the societies in which Smith and many early converts to the movement had lived). This was partly caused by the practice of polygamy, and Compton concludes that "Early marriage and very early marriage were… accepted" in early Mormonism. These marriages were frequently "dynastic" in purpose, meant to join people to the families of leaders, motivated by the significance of marriage for the nineteenth-century Latter-day Saint understanding of the afterlife. According to Compton, the "valid parallel" for Mormon early marriages is the "American and European history of elite early marriages that were not consummated until the marriage participants were much older". Compton "find[s] dynastic marriages of teenage girls problematic, even if sexual consummation is delayed".
However, it seems that Brigham Young attempted to stamp out the practice of men being sealed to excessively young girls. In 1857, he stated, "I shall not seal the people as I have done. Old Father Alread brought three young girls 12 & 13 years old. I would not seal them to him. They would not be equally yoked together. . . . Many get their endowments who are not worthy and this is the way that devils are made."
Instances of coercion
Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church have documented several cases where deception and coercion were used to induce marriage, for example citing the case of Joseph Smith who warned some potential spouses of eternal damnation if they did not consent to be his wife. In 1893, married LDS Church member John D. Miles traveled to England and proposed to Caroline Owens, assuring her that he was not polygamous. She returned to Utah and participated in a wedding, only to find out after the ceremony that Miles was already married. She ran away, but Miles hunted her down and raped her. She eventually escaped, and filed a lawsuit against Miles that reached the Supreme Court and became a significant case in polygamy case law. Ann Eliza Young, nineteenth wife of Brigham Young, claimed that Young coerced her to marry him by threatening financial ruin of her brother.
Incestuous plural marriages
Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that polygamy was used to justify marriage of close relatives that would otherwise be considered immoral. In 1843, Joseph Smith's diary records the sealing of John Milton Bernhisel to his sister, Maria, in a ceremony that included the sealing of Bernhisel to multiple relatives, some of whom were deceased. However, this is understood by most scholars as the collective sealing or binding of the family and not a marriage between Bernhisel and his sister. Similar family sealings are practiced in Latter-Day Saint temples today, where children of parents who were not sealed at the time of their marriage are sealed to their parents and to one another in a group ceremony.
See also
Criticism of the Latter Day Saint movement
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and politics in the United States
Marriage in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Short Creek raid
Sister Wives
Notes
References
Further reading
Books
Talbot, Christine. A Foreign Kingdom: Mormons and Polygamy in American Political Culture, 1852-1890. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2013.
Smith, William Victor. "Textual Studies of the Doctrine and Covenants: The Plural Marriage Revelation." Salt Lake City, UT: Greg Kofford Books, 2018.
Journal articles
philosophy, sociology, psychology, and secularity
Other
– provides a historical overview
– about the beginnings of plural marriage in the church
– about plural marriage in Utah
– about the gradual ending of plural marriage
External links
Discrimination in the United States
Mormon studies
Polygyny
Polygamy in the United States
Harold B. Lee Library-related 19th century articles | wiki |
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Dynamic braking, Braking using magnetic currents either to charge a battery or waste as heat
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Incarceration in Florida is one of the main forms of punishment, rehabilitation, or both for the commission of felony and other offenses in the state.
History
Mandatory guidelines such as the 1999 10-20-Life and the 1995 Three-strikes law established minimum sentencing for those convicted of crimes. The 1995 law requiring convicts to serve 85% of their sentence and Zero tolerance have all contributed to lengthening prisoners sentences in Florida.
Cost
In 2013, the average cost to house a prisoner was $18,000 per inmate annually.
Population
In 2013, there were 100,844 inmates, aged 14 to 93. 93% of the population were males, 7% females. Figures do not include those in local jails or juvenile justice systems.
53% have been incarcerated for violent crimes. Drugs offenses constitute 17% of the population.
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See also
Crime in Florida
Florida Department of Corrections
Law of Florida
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References
External links
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2018/14/contents/enacted
2018 in British law
Acts of the Scottish Parliament 2018
LGBT law in the United Kingdom
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The Nokia 6103 is a mobile phone based on the Nokia Series 40 platform and the Nokia 6103 builds upon the popularity of the 6101. It features a TFT display supports up to 65,536 colors (128 x 160 pixels).The phone also has a secondary external mini display that supports up to 4,096 colors (96 x 65 pixels). More key features include Bluetooth wireless technology, FM radio and camera.
The 6103 has tri-band GSM coverage and operates on GSM 850/1800/1900 MHz or GSM 900/1800/1900 MHz depending on the region.
The 6103's camera is a VGA camera (resolution 640 x 480 pixels) good enough for taking snapshots with, but in no way is it an alternative to even the cheapest digital cameras.
The phone can be controlled via PC to send SMS messages, perform synchronization with Outlook, install Java apps, and more using the Nokia PC Suite. Though Nokia 6103 had been released in 2006, People are still using this phone.
See also
List of Nokia products
References
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Adalah () means justice and denotes the Justice of God. It is among the five Shia Principles of the Religion.
Shia Muslims believe that there is intrinsic good or evil in things, and that God commands them to do the good things and shun the evil. They believe that God acts according to a purpose or design, and human reason cannot comprehend this design or purpose in its entirety (though man must always strive to understand as much as he can).
The Sunni School of thought conversely subscribes to the view that nothing is good or evil per se, and that what God commanded people to do became good by virtue of his command, and what he forbade became evil.
Concept
Morteza Motahhari conceived the following meaning for justice:
Proportionality: consider a system with some components. For the protection of system's survival, resources should be divided proportionally between the members based on need.
Equality: Justice means equality and denying all forms of discrimination.
Justifying the rights of owner: In this view, justice is the division of resources in proportion to their potential.
Quran
In Quran Adl and Qist are two words used to describe justice. Adl means a balanced approach to all things, including life. So if a person is Adil, he is balanced morally, behaviorally, and spiritually. Also, Qist is defined as the approach regulating the human-human or human-God relations.
Principle of Shia Theology
Adalah is one of the principles of the Theology of Twelvers. Allah is described by many attributes, but just Adalah is chosen as the overarching principle of Shia Twelvers' theology for the following reasons:
1. Adalah is important because other attributes of God get their meaning from it. In other word Adalah has a wide meaning as putting everything in their right places, so being The Most Merciful or The Sustainer get their meaning from Adalah.
2. Eschatology and Prophecy and Imamah as principles of the Shia Theology are closely related to Adalah.
3. At the beginning of Islam there was a conflict regarding the meaning of justice. Therefore, the Shi'a put it in the principles of religion to emphasize justice.
4. Adalah in human society is an important element of Social justice. Shia Muslim by selecting it as the principal try to achieve justice in their society.
See also
Ancillaries of the Faith
Justice in the Quran
References
Shia theology | wiki |
Old GreekTown station is light rail station in Downtown Salt Lake City, Utah, United States serviced by the Blue Line of the Utah Transit Authority's (UTA) TRAX system. The Blue Line has service from the Salt Lake Intermodal Hub in Downtown Salt Lake City to Draper. For several years prior the opening of the Airport Extension, it was also on the route of the Green Line.
Description
The station is located at 550 West 200 South with the island platform in the median of the street. The buildings facing onto this segment of 200 South are mostly old buildings now occupied by retail businesses, though many of them, such as the historic Central Warehouse, were built in a time when the area was nearly surrounded by rail yards and freight spurs. There is also newly built transit-oriented development on the street. The historic Rio Grande Station (now housing a museum) is a half-block south. The station opened on April 27, 2008 and is operated by the Utah Transit Authority. It is one of three additional stations that extended TRAX from Arena Station to the Intermodal Hub in 2008. The station is included in the Free Fare Zone in Downtown Salt Lake City. Transportation patrons that both enter and exit bus or TRAX service within the Zone can ride at no charge. Unlike many TRAX stations, Old GreekTown does not have a Park and Ride lot.
References
Railway stations in the United States opened in 2008
TRAX (light rail) stations
Railway stations in Salt Lake City
2008 establishments in Utah | wiki |
Warrington is a large town in Cheshire, England, formerly in Lancashire.
Warrington may also refer to:
Places
Other places in England
Warrington, Buckinghamshire, a village in South East England
Warrington (UK Parliament constituency), a former parliamentary constituency
Borough of Warrington, a district of Cheshire
The Warrington, Maida Vale, a public house in London
In New Zealand
Warrington, New Zealand, a seaside village in the City of Dunedin in the South Island
In the United States
Warrington, Florida
Warrington, Indiana
Warrington, New Jersey
Warrington Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania
Warrington Township, York County, Pennsylvania
People
Surname
Charles Warrington (born 1971), American professional wrestler
Don Warrington (born 1951), British actor
Eirlys Warrington (born 1942), British nurse
Freda Warrington (born 1956), British writer
George Warrington (1952–2007), American transportation executive
Josh Warrington (born 1990), British professional boxer
Lewis Warrington (United States Navy officer) (1782–1851), American naval officer
Marisa Warrington (born 1973), Australian actress
Otilio Warrington (born 1944), Puerto Rican comedian
Percy Warrington (1889–1961), British vicar and educationist
Marnie Hughes-Warrington (born 1970), Australian historian
Given name
Warrington Colescott (1921–2018), American artist
Warrington Hudlin (born 1952), American film director
George Warrington Steevens (1869–1900), British journalist
Title
Baron Warrington of Clyffe
Baron Hoyle of Warrington
Earl of Warrington
Fictional characters
Andrew Warrington
Luke Warrington
Nikki Warrington
Sara Warrington
Other
USS Warrington, the name of several American naval ships
USLHT Warrington, was an American lighthouse tender ship
Warrington Wizards (formerly Warrington Woolston Rovers), a rugby league team
Warrington Wolves, a rugby league team
Warrington College of Business at the University of Florida
Warrington hammer, a type of hammer used by woodworkers
See also
Warington Baden-Powell, founder of Sea Scouting
Warington Wilkinson Smyth, a British geologist | wiki |
William Huggins was an English astronomer.
William Huggins may also refer to:
William Huggins (animal artist) (1820–1884), English painter
William John Huggins (1781–1845), English marine painter | wiki |
est un annuel produit par la Ring of Honor (ROH), disponible uniquement en paiement à la séance, via Ustream et Destination America depuis 2015. Il s'est déroulé pour la première fois en août 2014 et chacune des deux éditions se sont déroulées au MCU Park à Brooklyn dans l'Etat de New York.
Historique
Références
ROH Field of Honor | wiki |
Patentkali (K2SO4.MgSO4) is een kunstmeststof die bestaat uit kaliumsulfaat en magnesiumsulfaat en bevat:
30% K2O + 10% MgO + 42% SO3(17% S)
Sulfaat
Verbinding van kalium
Verbinding van magnesium
Meststof
Mengsel | wiki |
The River of Romance – cortometraggio del 1915 prodotto dalla Essanay
The River of Romance – film del 1916 diretto da Henry Otto
The River of Romance – film del 1929 diretto da Richard Wallace | wiki |
A picnic table (or picnic bench) is a table with benches (often attached), designed for working with and for outdoor dining. The term is often specifically associated with rectangular tables having an A-frame structure. Such tables may be referred to as "picnic tables" even when used exclusively indoors.
Various types of tables have been used for outdoor dining throughout history, but the classic A-frame rectangular picnic table emerged in the United States in the early 20th century. The earliest similar table was described in 1903 and was based on the 18th-century sawbuck table; the most common modern design, known in initially as a "Lassen table", was first used in 1926.
While the original and most common material for picnic tables is wooden boards, they may be made anything from split logs to concrete to recycled HDPE plastic. The frame, benches and platform may also be made of different materials.
Picnic tables are made in various shapes, from circles to hexagons, and in a wide range of sizes. Traditional picnic tables often pose challenges for accessibility, especially for wheelchair users, but various designs for accessible picnic tables also exist.
The typically simple and informal design of picnic tables makes them popular amenities in parks and other public places. They are used for a wide range of dining, educational, recreational and community-building purposes. Their popularity has various impacts on the flora, fauna and soil around picnic table sites, where they often attract various species interested in feeding on human food. Picnic tables are also common targets of vandalism.
History
Picnic tables emerged from the Victorian tradition of picnics, which often involved either simply spreading a blanket on the ground, or bringing the whole apparatus of indoor dining to the outdoors. This early approach to picnicking suffered the drawback that indoor dining furniture could not be carried far from the home and was often unsuited to outdoor use.
The first known modern picnic table was documented in a 1903 patent application by Charles H. Nielsen of Kreischerville, New York. Nielsen's table was designed to be portable and collapsible, so that picnickers could carry it wherever they wished. While the Nielsen table design derived its leg structure from the 18th-century sawbuck table, its built-in seating was innovative.
With the rise of US national parks and forests in the early 20th century, the use of fixed picnic tables as a park amenity became increasingly common. In many cases picnic tables were used specifically to restrict human impacts on the surrounding natural area, and were accordingly designed to be as heavy and immovable as possible.
Initially, a variety of picnic table designs were attempted. A sawbuck table with detached benches was popular in the early 1920s, but proved unsatisfactory in public parks because the benches tended to disappear. Other designs failed because they were either structurally unsound or difficult to construct.
The classic A-frame picnic table design, which overcame these early difficulties, originated at Lassen National Forest in California in 1926, and was accordingly known within the US Forest Service as a "Lassen table". The now-iconic Lassen tables became common across the United States through the work of the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s.
The first known roadside picnic table was erected in 1929 in Boston Township, Michigan, using planks reclaimed from highway guardrails.
Uses
Picnic tables are used for dining, resting, crafts, and other activities. Picnic tables can be found outdoors in many public parks, residential back yards, rest areas, campgrounds, amusement parks, and many other places. Picnic tables are also used indoors when it is desired to have attached seating to tables.
Urban
In urbanized environments, picnic tables are often used as street furniture, and provide a convivial setting that can make it easier for neighborhood residents to interact with one another. In areas without adequate spaces, picnic tables placed on people's front yards have been used to similar effect. Picnic tables are also used to provide informal outdoor dining for food trucks and other small restaurants that lack indoor seating.
Outdoor
Picnic tables are widely used in outdoor learning because they provide convenient combination of seating and a flat work surface. They have also shaped the outdoor educational profession in other ways: in 1983, at a meeting of the Association of Experiential Education, women educators met around a picnic table at midnight to discuss the problems facing women in the field of outdoor education. The picnic table dialogue subsequently spurred a broader conversation and greater visibility to these issues in outdoor education.
The informal, outdoor character of picnic-table interactions has lent them to non-recreational uses as well. Israel and Jordan, while formally at war, held a series of secret talks between engineers regarding riparian issues at a picnic table at the confluence of the Yarmuk and Jordan rivers.
In 2009, a playset including a wooden A-frame picnic table engraved with the names of 44 US presidents was erected on the White House lawn for the president's daughters. Later in the same year, it was reported that the Beer Summit between President Obama, Henry Louis Gates, and a Cambridge police officer would be held at the picnic table; however, the meeting was actually held at a round white table in the Rose Garden. In 2017, after the incoming Trump administration declined the offer of the playset, it was donated to a local nonprofit.
A common use for picnic tables are outdoor activities, at camp sites, scenic places or common areas, but are not available everywhere.
Some aftermarket picnic tables can be attached to a pickup truck tailgate, for camping, fishing, hunting, sports, barbeque, tailgate party or as outdoor computer desk.
Design
Shape
The most traditional and common picnic table shape is rectangular, with a straight bench on each of the rectangle's two long edges. In the United States, this sort of rectangular picnic table is so closely associated with picnicking that it is the symbol used for picnic sites and picnic shelters under the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. However, many different shapes, including circular, hexagonal and octagonal designs, have also been used for picnic tables. Circular and octagonal picnic tables first became popular in California in the early 20th century because of their superior properties for playing card games.
Location
Most picnic tables a fixed or foldable structures, free standing or mounted to the floor and found at landmarks, scenic views or public places, for people to rest and gather.
In contrast, a mobile picnic table does not have a particular spot or location, but follows around together with its platform and can be used for multiple purposes.
Size
A typical picnic table seats from six to eight people, though smaller and larger capacity tables exist. In particular, smaller picnic tables are often made for use by children. For rectangular picnic tables used in parks, the most common length is from .
Materials
The materials used for picnic tables have varied over time. A 1969 survey found that at that time, 95% of picnic tables contained wood to some extent, and 81% of picnic tables were made entirely of wood. Modern tables are increasingly often made from plastic, concrete, or metal. In addition, a combination of fiberglass and metal has sometimes been used.
Wood
Wooden tables are most commonly constructed using lumber boards. Protection for the wood (stain, paint, or wood protectant that repels water) is necessary to protect it from cracking, warping, or rotting due to moisture. The table-top and bench-top boards are attached to the trusses or beams using wood screws or nails. The legs can be secured with carriage bolts fastened by nuts and washers.
In the context of public parks, there have traditionally been different schools of thought as to whether local or commercial timber should be used for picnic tables. In some cases, rough-hewn local timber was used for the structural supports and commercial boards were used for the benches and platform.
In California in the 1930s, cross-sections of redwood and fir trees were sometimes used for picnic tables, but these proved insufficiently durable.
Stone or concrete
Stone or concrete picnic tables are durable but expensive. They are difficult or impossible to move, which may be a drawback in some contexts and an advantage in others. Such tables first came into widespread use in the United States in the 1930s, as part of Civilian Conservation Corps projects. However, stone tables proved unsatisfactory because they could not be moved even when the entire picnic site needed to be shifted from one location to another.
Plastic
Plastic picnic tables have grown in popularity because they are lighter, more durable, and less expensive than wooden tables, and require less maintenance. A common source for plastic "lumber" in picnic tables is recycled HDPE, which may be mixed with other materials such as wood flour for improved strength.
Metal
Metal picnic tables are becoming more popular in public parks because they are heavy and durable, and require little maintenance. Metal tables are sometimes attached onto concrete pads when theft is a concern. Thermoplastic-coated steel is often used for improved durability in outdoor applications. In addition, heavy-duty metal picnic tables are often used for indoor applications in prisons.
Accessibility
Picnic tables pose a number of challenges for accessibility, particularly for users in wheelchairs.
In the United States, federal recreational facilities are required to provide picnic tables that are accessible for disabled users. At least 20% of picnic tables must be accessible, and if only one or two picnic tables are present, they must all be accessible. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), at least 5% and no less than one of the tables that a business such as a restaurant provides must be disabled-accessible; this applies to picnic tables as well as other types of seating.
Nominally accessible picnic tables can still raise significant hurdles for disabled users. A common difficulty is soft or unstable ground around the picnic table that makes wheelchairs difficult to use. To address this problem, some US states mandate that picnic tables be placed on a concrete picnic pad.
Integration with other fixtures
Picnic tables are often integrated with other park fixtures, such as shelters and barbecue grills, which may all be attached to a single picnic pad. A bottle opener has sometimes been provided on the edge of the picnic table to dissuade picnickers from damaging the table top by opening bottles on it. Early US Forest Service picnic tables often integrated shelving and cupboards for user convenience, but these proved to be impossible to maintain and were not built after 1941.
Integrations with more modern technologies have also been developed: Sonoma State University has developed a solar charging station integrated with a picnic table, sun shade, and weather station, known as a "Smart Table".
Problems
Placing graffiti on picnic tables, either by carving or tagging, is a common form of recreational area vandalism. Studies in both the United States and Taiwan have found that picnic table vandalism is most likely to occur when the picnic table has already been vandalized. This phenomenon has been explained, using the framework of ecological psychology, as the pre-existing vandalism acting as a releasor cue for new vandals. Consequently, the operators of picnic facilities can best prevent vandalism by ensuring that any vandalism that occurs is addressed promptly. While graffiti is the most common type of vandalism, wooden picnic tables are also sometimes broken up by campers to be used as firewood.
Because flat wooden surfaces are vulnerable to decomposition in wet environments, picnic tables have historically often used wood treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA). In one instance, a worker suffered extreme arsenic poisoning from sawing CCA-treated boards to construct a picnic table. In the United States, CCA-treated wood was in widespread use for outdoor applications from the 1940s until 2003, when an agreement between the Environmental Protection Agency and manufacturers of treated wood ended the chemical's use. Arsenic leaches continuously from CCA-treated wood for the entire service life of the picnic table, which may be up to 20 years.
Environmental impacts
Picnic tables are a principal amenity affecting the quality of park users' recreational experience and their interest in using a particular park. This can have both positive and negative effects. There are often severe trampling effects on the ground immediately around a picnic table, but often these impacts are highly localized. However, in rainy areas the damage caused by trampling may in turn give rise to sheet erosion of the picnic site.
During picnic season, picnic tables are often a center of attention from non-human animals seeking access to either humans or their food. Nymphs of the Western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus, have been found on picnic tables at roughly the same frequency as in leaf litter. Hornets and other wasps may similarly nest under picnic table platforms or benches, which provide a sheltered location convenient to a food source.
As a source of food subsidy from humans, picnic tables have been found to affect corvid activity as these birds seek out areas near picnic tables and may refrain from scavenging deeper in the forest. Males of the Steller's Jay in particular seek out territory near picnic tables because of the superior feeding opportunities.
Other approaches
Picnic tables are not the only specialized tables used for outdoor dining. For example, in Korea, where it is traditional to sit on the floor to dine, outdoor meals are often held on low wooden platforms known as pyeongsang, and diners sit directly on the platform rather than next to it. Sometimes referred to as "portable wooden decks", pyeongsang have a picnic-table-like ability to foster communal interaction when used as street furniture. In addition, in both Korea and Japan, picnic mats or sheets are sometimes used to create a comfortable, portable dining space.
See also
Patagonia picnic table effect
Works cited
References
Tables (furniture)
Parks
Outdoor recreation
Table | wiki |
"Turn Off the Light" is a 2001 song by Nelly Furtado.
Turn Off the Light may also refer to:
Music
Albums and EPs
Turn Off the Light (album), a 2019 album by Kim Petras
Turn Off the Light, Vol. 1, a 2018 EP by Kim Petras
Turn Off the Lights, a 2019 EP by Dog Blood
Songs
"Turn Off the Light", a 2018 song by Kim Petras from Turn Off the Light, Vol. 1
"Turn Off the Lights", a 1979 song by Teddy Pendergrass
"Turn Off the Lights", a 1987 song by World Class Wreckin' Cru
"Turn Off the Lights", a 2011 song by Panic! at the Disco from the Album Vices & Virtues
Other
Turn off the Light!, a Russian satirical television program
Turn Off the Lights (extension), a browser extension
See also
"Turn the Lights Off", a song by Kato featuring Jon
Turn Out the Lights (disambiguation) | wiki |
Don Winslow is an American author.
Don Winslow may also refer to a fictional character who is the hero of
Don Winslow of the Coast Guard, a film serial
Don Winslow of the Navy, a film serial
Don Winslow of the Navy (comic strip)
Don Winslow of the Navy (radio program) | wiki |
Markeyite, a uranyl carbonate mineral discovered in the Markey Mine in Utah, USA. A group led by Anthony R. Kampf, a mineralogist at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, USA discovered its structure.
Cotype material for this mineral resides in the collections of the Natural History Museum, Los Angeles County, USA, and the Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia.
Localities
USA: Markey mine, Red Canyon, White Canyon District, San Juan Co., Utah
References
Carbonate minerals
Orthorhombic minerals | wiki |
The Sara Foster Colburn House is an historic house at 7 Dana Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Built in 1846, the -story wood-frame house is the best example of Gothic Revival architecture in the city. The building has bargeboard decoration on its front gable, which frames a deeply recessed porch with Gothic-style openings and a distinctive wrought iron railing of a type typically found only in the Connecticut River valley.
The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Cambridge, Massachusetts
References
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Cambridge, Massachusetts | wiki |
Family Secrets () is a Turkish television series produced by Gold Film and aired by Kanal D from Monday at 20:00, between September 19 and December 12, 2016, in 13 episodes. Written by Onur Ugraš and Murat Jurkulak, directed by Nihat Durak with artistic direction by Özüdogru Cici.
Its cast includes Bülten Inal, Ayça Bingöl, Ceyda Düvenci, Caner Şahin, Sera Kutlubey, Sercan Badur and Doğa Zeynep Doğuşlu.
Plot
Kemal is a renowned businessman who lives an enviable life in Istanbul, along with his wife Suzan and sons Mert and Cicek, whom he loves very much. Suzan, for her part, believes she lives in a 20-year marriage that cannot be more perfect, along with two children and a devoted husband whom she is hopelessly in love with. However, following a tragedy that shows even the most perfect of hidden marriages that they prefer not to discover. An accident takes Mert to a hospital bed and a kidney transplant is all that can save his life. Without compatible parents, the time comes when Kemal admits that another family and two more children, which may be Mert's only salvation.
Cast
Ayça Bingöl as Nilgün Kayalar
Bülent İnal as Kemal İpekçi
Ceyda Düvenci as Suzan İpekçi
Erdem Akakçe as Fadıl Kayalar
Sercan Badur as Mert İpekçi
Caner Şahin as Kadir Kayalar
Sera Kutlubey as Hasret Kayalar
Emel Göksu as Macide İpekçi
Eva Dedova as Ece
Doğa Zeynep Doğuşlu as Çiçek İpekçi
Kubilay Karslıoğlu as Ahmet
Fulya Ülvan as Filiz
Sezin Bozacı as Emine
Hakan Altuntaş as Rıza
Ecem Simge Yurdatapan as Yelda
Can Albayrak as İbo
İlker Özer as Kerim
Emre Başer as Orhan
Kosta Kortidis as Arif
References
External links
Turkish drama television series
2016 Turkish television series debuts
2016 Turkish television series endings
Kanal D original programming
Television series produced in Istanbul
Television shows set in Istanbul
Television series set in the 2010s | wiki |
The Wadi Mukattab (Arabic for "Valley of Writing"), also known as the Valley of Inscriptions, is a wadi on Egypt's Sinai Peninsula near St Catherine's Monastery. It links the main road in the Wadi Feiran with the Wadi Maghareh's ancient turquoise mining area. The wadi is named after its valley's many petroglyphs. Nabataean and Greek inscriptions are abundant.
See also
Georgian graffiti of Nazareth and Sinai
Rivers of Egypt
Biblical Sinai
References
Citations
Bibliography
.
.
Mukattab
Mukattab | wiki |
Leanna may refer to:
People
Leanna Brodie, Canadian actress and playwright
Leanna Carriere-Wellwood, Canadian pole vaulter and heptathlete
Leanna Crawford, American singer-songwriter
Leanna Creel, American actress
Fictional characters
Leanna Cavanagh, ITV soap opera Emmerdale
Leanna Love, CBS soap opera, The Young and the Restless
Places
Leanna, Kansas
San Leanna, Texas | wiki |
Le district de Kurunegala est un des vingt-cinq districts du Sri Lanka. Avec Puttalam, c'est l'un des districts de la province du Nord-Ouest. Il mesure .
District au Sri Lanka | wiki |
Mansa se puede referir a:
Mansa de Malí, título de los emperadores de Malí.
Mansa, ciudad de Zambia.
Mansa, ciudad en el estado de Punjab, India.
Mansa, ciudad en el estado de Gujarat, India.
Bahía Mansa, página de desambiguación de lugares con este nombre. | wiki |
L'NBA Development League Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) è il premio conferito dalla NBA D-League al miglior giocatore della regular season.
Vincitori
Collegamenti esterni
MVP | wiki |
L'NBA Development League Rookie of the Year Award è il premio conferito dalla NBA D-League al miglior rookie (matricola, un giocatore al suo primo anno nella lega) della stagione.
La G League è la lega di sviluppo della NBA.
Vincitori
Collegamenti esterni
Matricola | wiki |
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