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Prosocial behavior, or intent to benefit others, is a social behavior that "benefit[s] other people or society as a whole", "such as helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering". Obeying the rules and conforming to socially accepted behaviors (such as stopping at a "Stop" sign or paying for groceries) are also regarded as prosocial behaviors. These actions may be motivated by empathy and by concern about the welfare and rights of others, as well as for egoistic or practical concerns, such as one's social status or reputation, hope for direct or indirect reciprocity, or adherence to one's perceived system of fairness. It may also be motivated by altruism, though the existence of pure altruism is somewhat disputed, and some have argued that this falls into philosophical rather than psychological realm of debate. Evidence suggests that pro sociality is central to the well-being of social groups across a range of scales, including schools. Prosocial behavior in the classroom can have a significant impact on a student's motivation for learning and contributions to the classroom and larger community. In the workplace, prosocial behaviour can have a significant impact on team psychological safety, as well as positive indirect effects on employee's helping behaviors and task performance. Empathy is a strong motive in eliciting prosocial behavior, and has deep evolutionary roots. Prosocial behavior fosters positive traits that are beneficial for children and society. It helps many beneficial functions by bettering production of any league and its organizational scale. Evolutionary psychologists use theories such as kin-selection theory and inclusive fitness as an explanation for why prosocial behavioral tendencies are passed down generationally, according to the evolutionary fitness displayed by those who engaged in prosocial acts. Encouraging prosocial behavior may also require decreasing or eliminating undesirable social behaviors. Although the term "prosocial behavior" is often associated with developing desirable traits in children, the literature on the topic has grown since the late 1980s to include adult behaviors as well. The term "prosocial" has grown into a world-wide movement, using evolutionary science to create real-world pro-social changes from working groups to our whole culture. Origin of the term According to the psychology researcher Daniel Batson, the term "was created by social scientists as an antonym for antisocial." Reciprocity vs. altruism in motivation The purest forms of prosocial behavior are motivated by altruism, an unselfish interest in helping another person. According to Santrock, the circumstances most likely to evoke altruism are empathy for an individual in need, or a close relationship between the benefactor and the recipient. However, many prosocial behaviors that appear altruistic are in fact motivated by the norm of reciprocity, which is the obligation to return a favor with a favor. People feel guilty when they do not reciprocate and they may feel angry when someone else does not reciprocate. Reciprocal altruism suggests that "such helping is driven by a genetic tendency". Thus some professionals argue that altruism may not exist, and is completely motivated by reciprocity. Either reciprocity or altruism may motivate many important prosocial behaviors, including sharing. Situational and individual factors Prosocial behavior is mediated by both situational and individual factors. Situational factors One of the most common situation factors is the occurrence of the bystander effect. The bystander effect is the phenomenon that an individual's likelihood of helping decreases when passive bystanders are present in a critical situation. For example, when someone drops a stack of papers on a crowded sidewalk, most people are likely to continue passing him/her by. This example can be extended to even more urgent situations, such as a car crash or natural disaster. The decision model of bystander intervention noted that whether or not an individual gives aid in a situation depends upon their analysis of the situation. An individual will consider whether or not the situation requires their assistance, if the assistance is the responsibility of the individual, and how to help. This model, proposed by Latane and Darley, describes five things that must occur in order for a person to intervene: Notice the situation Construe it as an emergency. Develop feelings of responsibility. Believe they have skills to succeed. Reach a conscious decision to help. The number of individuals present in the situation requiring help is also a mediating factor in one's decision to give aid, where the more individuals are present, the less likely it is for one particular individual to give aid due to a reduction in perceived personal responsibility. This is known as diffusion of responsibility, where the responsibility one feels for the person(s) in need is divided by the number of bystanders. Another factor that comes into play is evaluation apprehension, which simply refers to the fear of being judged by other bystanders. Finally, pluralistic ignorance may also lead to someone not intervening. This refers to relying on the reaction of others, before reacting yourself. Additionally, Piliavin et al. (1981) noted that individuals are likely to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs when determining whether or not to give aid in a situation – that is, that people are rationally self-motivated. Prosocial behavior is more likely to occur if the cost of helping is low (i.e. minimal time, or minimal effort), if helping would actually benefit the individual providing the help in some way, and if the rewards of providing the help are large. If it is in an individual's interest to help, they will most likely do so, especially if the cost of not providing the help is great. People are also more likely to help those in their social group, or their "in group". With a sense of shared identity with the individual requiring assistance, the altruist is more likely to provide help, on the basis that one allocates more time and energy towards helping behavior within individuals of their own group. The labeling of another individual as a member of one's "in-group" leads to greater feelings of closeness, emotional arousal, and a heightened sense of personal responsibility for the other's welfare, all of which increase the motivation to act prosocially. Researchers have also found that social exclusion decreases the likelihood of prosocial behavior occurring. In a series of seven experiments conducted by Twenge et al., (2007) researchers manipulated social inclusion or exclusion by telling research participants that other participants had purposefully excluded them, or that they would probably end up alone later in life. They found that this preliminary social exclusion caused prosocial behavior to drop significantly, noting that "Socially excluded people donated less money to a student fund, were unwilling to volunteer for further lab experiments, were less helpful after a mishap, and cooperated less in a mixed-motive game with another student." This effect is thought to be due to the fact that prosocial behavior, again, is motivated by a sense of responsibility in caring for and sharing resources with members of one's own group. Individual factors Individuals can be compelled to act prosocially based on learning and socialization during childhood. Operant conditioning and social learning positively reinforces discrete instances of prosocial behaviors. Cognitive capacities like intelligence for example, are almost always related to prosocial likings. Helping skills and a habitual motivation to help others is therefore socialized, and reinforced as children understand why helping skills should be used to help others around them. Social and individual standards and ideals also motivate individuals to engage in prosocial behavior. Social responsibility norms, and social reciprocity norms reinforce those who act prosocially. As an example, consider the child who is positively reinforced for "sharing" during their early childhood years. When acting prosocially, individuals reinforce and maintain their positive self-images or personal ideals, as well as help to fulfill their own personal needs. The correlation between a helper's state and helping tendencies are greatly restricted to the relationship between whoever takes part in the situation. Emotional arousal is an additional important motivator for prosocial behavior in general. Batson's (1987) empathy-altruism model examines the emotional and motivational component of prosocial behavior. Feeling empathy towards the individual needing aid increases the likelihood that the aid will be given. This empathy is called "empathetic concern" for the other individual, and is characterized by feelings of tenderness, compassion, and sympathy. Agreeableness is thought to be the personality trait most associated with inherent prosocial motivation. Prosocial thoughts and feelings may be defined as a sense of responsibility for other individuals, and a higher likelihood of experiencing empathy ("other-oriented empathy") both affectively (emotionally) and cognitively. These prosocial thoughts and feelings correlate with dispositional empathy and dispositional agreeableness. Other factors In addition to situational and individualistic factors, there are some categorical characteristics that can impact prosocial behavior. Several studies have indicated a positive relationship between prosocial behavior and religion. In addition, there may be sex differences in prosocial behavior, particularly as youths move into adolescence. Research suggests that while women and men both engage in prosocial behaviors, women tend to engage in more communal and relational prosocial behaviors whereas men tend to engage in more agentic prosocial behaviors. A recent study examining workplace charitable giving looked at the role of both sex and ethnicity. Results showed that women gave significantly more than men, and Caucasians gave significantly more than minority groups. However, the percent of minority individuals in the workplace was positively associated with workplace charitable giving by minorities. Culture, sex, and religion are important factors to consider in understanding prosocial behavior on an individual and group level. In childhood through early adolescence Prosocial behavior in childhood often begins with questions of sharing and fairness. From age 12–18 months, children begin to display prosocial behavior in presenting and giving their toys to their parents, without promoting or being reinforced by praise. The development of prosocial behavior continues throughout the second year of life, as children begin to gain a moral understanding of the world. As obedience to societal standards becomes important, children's ability to exhibit prosocial behavior strengthens, with occurrence and diversity of these behaviors increasing with age and cognitive maturity. What is important developmentally is that the child has developed a belief that sharing is an obligatory part of a social relationship and involves a question of right and wrong. So, as children move through childhood, their reasoning changes from being hedonistic and needs-oriented to becoming more concerned with approval and more involved in complex cognitive forms of perspective taking and reciprocity reasoning. Additionally, children's prosocial behavior is typically more centered around interest in friends and concern for approval, whereas adolescents begin to develop reasoning that is more concerned with abstract principles such as guilt and positive affect. Parents can set examples that children carry into their interactions and communication with peers, but parents are not present during all of their children's peer exchanges. The day-to-day constructions of fairness standards is done by children in collaboration and negotiation with each other. Recent research demonstrates that invoking the self using subtle linguistic cues (e.g. identifying someone as a "helper" versus labeling the action, "helping") fosters the perception that a behavior reflects identity, and increases helping, or prosocial, behaviors in children significantly across tasks. Another study by Nantel-Vivier et al. used a multi-informant model to investigate the development of prosocial behaviour in both Canadian and Italian adolescents aged 10–15. Their findings have indicated that, in early adolescence, although empathy and moral reasoning continue to advance, the development of prosocial behaviors reaches a plateau. Theories for this change in development suggest that it is the result of more individualized and selective prosocial behaviors. During adolescence, youth begin to focus these behaviors toward their peer groups and/or affiliations. Consistent with previous analyses, this study also found a tendency toward higher prosocial behaviors in young adolescent girls compared to their male classmates. The earlier maturation in females may be a possible explanation for this disparity. A more recent study that focused on the effects of pubertal timing found that early maturation in adolescents has a positive impact on prosocial behaviors. While their findings apply to both genders, this study found a much more pronounced effect in males. This suggests that earlier onset of puberty has a positive correlation with the development of prosocial behaviors. In many Indigenous American communities, prosocial behavior is a valued means of learning and child rearing. Such behaviors are seen as contributing in an eagerly collaborative and flexible environment, aimed at teaching consideration, responsibility, and skills with the guidance and support of adults. Culturally valued developmental goals are integrally tied to children's participation in these contexts. It is also helpful for children to learn cultural mores in addition to individual personality development. Children learn functional life skills through real-time observation of adults and interactive participation of these learned skills within their community. Prosocial development in school Prosocial behavior can act as a strong motivator in education, for it provides students with a purpose beyond themselves and the classroom. This purpose beyond the self, or self-transcendence, is an innate human need to be a part of something bigger than themselves. When learning in isolation, the way Western academics are traditionally designed, students struggle to make connections to the material and its greater overarching purpose. This disconnection harms student learning, motivation, and attitudes about education. If teachers make space for prosocial behavior in education and social learning, then they can illustrate that what students are learning will have a direct impact on the world that they live in. This would be considered a mutually constituting relationship, or a relationship in which both individuals and culture develop interdependently. In other words, what students are learning in a classroom could be intimately connected with a purpose towards a greater cause, deepening the learning itself. Studies by Yeager et al. test the effects of having a self-transcendent purpose for learning, with the results showing that such a purpose for learning led to fewer future college dropouts, increased high school math and science GPAs, and persistence on boring tasks. This self transcendent purpose may not only encourage persistence on boring tasks, but may help to make boring tasks more meaningful and engaging. A person's ideas and opinions are largely shaped by the world that they grow up in, which in turn determines what sort of change they want to instill in the world. For example: a girl who grew up in poverty becoming a social worker. The environment she grew up in gave her an awareness of the workings of poverty, motivating her to instill change in either the institutions that cause it, or help those affected by poverty. There aren't many opportunities to make prosocial contributions in school; which makes school feel isolated and irrelevant. By encouraging students to find a self-transcendent purpose in their learning, others enable them to enjoy their learning and make connections to community contributions. Influence of media programming and video games on children Studies have shown that different types of media programming may evoke prosocial behaviors in children. The channels aimed at younger viewers like Nickelodeon and Disney Channel had significantly more acts of altruism than the general-audience demographic channels like A&E and or TNT, according to one large-scale study. This study examined the programming of 18 different channels, including more than 2,000 entertainment shows, during a randomly selected week on television. The study revealed that nearly three quarters (73 percent) of programs contained at least one act of altruism and on average viewers saw around three acts of altruism an hour. Around one-third of those behaviors were explicitly rewarded in the plot, potentially sending the message that these acts of prosocial behavior can come with positive consequences. Another study on the topic was conducted by University at Buffalo, Iowa State University and University of Minnesota professors. They studied children for two years for the purpose of investigating the role of media exposure on prosocial behavior for young boys and girls. The study concluded that media exposure could possibly predict outcomes related to prosocial behavior. Other experimental research has suggested that prosocial video games may increase prosocial behavior in players although some of this work has proven difficult to replicate. However other scholars have been critical of this work for tending to falsely dichotomize video games into prosocial/violent categories despite significant overlap as well as methodological flaws in the experimental studies . For instance a study by Ferguson and Garza found that exposure to violent video games was associated with increased prosocial behavior, both on-line as well as volunteering in the real world. The authors speculated this may be due to the prosocial themes common in many violent games, as well as team oriented play in many games. Legislation In the United States, in an effort to get stations to air education and prosocial programming for children, the Children's Television Act was adopted in 1990. It states that channels must produce and air programming developed specifically for children as a condition to renew broadcast licenses. After discussions as to what the definition of "specifically designed for children" really means, in 1996 guidelines were passed to correct this ambiguity. Influence of arts Arts are increasingly recognized as influential for health behaviors in strengthening social bonds and cohesion and promoting prosocial behavior. Evidence of the impact of different arts is emerging and research is growing on literature, movies and theatre. A recent paper resuming the current evidence argues that performative arts are more prone to elicit empathic concern which is linked with more durable prosocial behavior during stressful situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak: in particular theatre and virtual reality are seen as promising. An active role of the arts in sustaining prosocial behavior should however integrate an ethical approach to avoid the risk of mass manipulation and intergroup bias. Influence of observation People are generally much more likely to act pro-socially in a public setting rather than in a private setting. One explanation for this finding has to do with perceived status, being publicly recognized as a pro-social individual often enhance one's self-image and desirability to be considered for inclusion in social groups. Other research has shown that merely given people the "illusion" that they are being observed (e.g., by hanging up posters of "staring" human eyes) can generate significant changes in pro-social acts such as charitable giving and less littering. Pictures of human eyes trigger an involuntary neural gaze detection mechanism, which primes people to act pro-socially. There are two different forms of prosocial behaviors. Ordinary prosocial behavior requires "situational and sociocultural demands". Extraordinary prosocial behavior doesn't include as much. This indicates that one form is used for a more selfish result while the other is not. Influence of perception of responsibility and guilt Guilt has long been regarded as a motivator for prosocial behavior. Extensive data from a 2012 study conducted by de Hooge, demonstrates that when a secondary individual repairs a transgressors' damage caused to victims, the transgressors' guilt feelings, reparative intentions, and prosocial behavior drastically diminish. Thus, reduction of guilt may have more to do with reparative actions broadly, rather than necessarily prosocial behaviors taken on by oneself. Social media in natural disasters Social media can also be a catalyst for prosocial behavior. One example occurred during the relief efforts in the wake of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami off the coast of Japan, when users turned to Facebook and Twitter to provide financial and emotional support via their social networks. Direct donations to Japanese relief were possible on The Red Cross fan page on Facebook, and via online discount sites like Groupon and LivingSocial. Relation to mood and emotion Mood and prosocial behavior are closely linked. People often experience the "feel good-do good" phenomena, where being in a good mood increases helping behaviors. Being in a good mood helps us to see the "good" in other people, and prolongs our own good mood. For example, mood and work behaviors have frequently been examined in research; studies show that positive mood at work is associated with more positive work-related behaviors (e.g., helping co-workers). Similarly, prosocial behaviors increase positive mood. Several studies have shown the benefits of volunteering and other prosocial behaviors on self-esteem, life satisfaction, and overall mental health. Additionally, negative mood can also impact prosocial behavior. Research has shown that guilt often leads to prosocial behaviors, whereas other negative mood states, such as fear, do not lead to the same prosocial behaviors. A recent pilot study examined whether an intervention increasing prosocial behavior (kind acts) in young adults with social anxiety would both increase positive affect and decrease social anxiety in participants. Participants randomly assigned to a four-week Kind Acts intervention, where individuals were instructed to engage in three kind acts each day twice a week over the four-week period, showed both higher self-reported positive mood and increased satisfaction with relationships at the end of the intervention. This intervention demonstrates ways in which prosocial behavior may be beneficial in improving mood and mental health. A meta-analysis from 2020 by Hui et al., which looked at 126 prior studies involving almost 200,000 participants, found that spontaneous instances of prosocial behavior, such as helping an older neighbor carry groceries, had a stronger positive effect on well-being than did more formal instances of prosocial behavior, such as volunteering for a charity at a pre-scheduled time. Other research suggests that cultivating positive emotions, such as gratitude, may also facilitate prosocial behavior. A study by Bartlett & DeSteno examined the ability of gratitude to shape costly prosocial behavior, demonstrating that gratitude increases efforts to assist a benefactor even when such efforts are costly (i.e., hedonically negative), and that this increase is qualitatively different from efforts given from just general positive affective state. They also show that gratitude can increase assistance provided to strangers, not just close social ties. Awe is another positive emotional state that has been closely linked to inspiring generosity and prosocial behavior. Piff et al. studied this phenomenon through experiments using economic and ethical-decision making games and explain, "When people experience awe they really want to share that experience with other people, suggesting that it has this particularly viral component to it... awe binds people together—by causing people to want to share their positive experiences collectively with one another." Psychopathy and lack of prosocial behavior In 1941, Hervey Cleckley described psychopathy as a disorder in which individuals often initially appear intelligent, charming, and even kind but are in fact egocentric, grandiose and impulsive. He described individuals who would, on a whim, leave their families to cross the country gambling, drinking and fighting, only to return and act as if nothing was out of the ordinary. Today, psychopathy is described as a personality disorder that is characterized by decreased anxiety, fear, and social closeness as well as increased impulsivity, manipulativeness, interpersonal dominance and aggression. These traits lead to numerous types of antisocial behavior including high rates of substance abuse, serial short term relationships, and various forms of criminal behavior. One common misconception about psychopathy though is that all psychopaths are serial killers or other vicious criminals. In reality, many researchers do not consider criminal behavior to be a criterion for the disorder although the role of criminality in the disorder is strongly debated. Additionally, psychopathy is being researched as a dimensional construct that is one extreme of normal range personality traits instead of a categorical disorder. In regards to the lack of prosocial behavior in psychopathy, there are several theories that have been proposed in the literature. One theory suggests that psychopaths engage in less prosocial behavior (and conversely more antisocial behavior) because of a deficit in their ability to recognize fear in others, particularly fearful facial expressions. Because they are unable to recognize that their actions are causing another distress, they continue that behavior in order to obtain some goal that benefits them. A second theory proposes that psychopaths have a sense of "altruistic punishment" where they are willing to punish other individuals even if it means they will be harmed in some way. There has also been an evolutionary theory proposed stating that psychopaths lack of prosocial behavior is an adaptive mating strategy in that it allows them to spread more of their genes while taking less responsibility for their offspring. Finally, there is some evidence that in some situations psychopaths behavior may not be antisocial but instead it may be more utilitarian than other individuals. In a recent study, Bartels & Pizarro (2011) found that when making decisions about traditional moral dilemmas such as the trolley problem, individuals high in psychopathic traits actually make more utilitarian (and therefore more moral in some views) choices. This finding is particularly interesting because it suggests that psychopaths, who are often considered immoral or even evil, may actually make better moral decisions than non-psychopaths. The authors of this study conclude that individuals high in psychopathic traits are less influenced by their emotions and therefore make more "mathematical" decisions and choose the option that leads to the lowest number of deaths. The theories discussed above are not intended to be a comprehensive list but instead to provide a sense of how psychopaths differ in their approach to social interactions. As with most psychological/social phenomena, it is likely a combination of these factors that leads to psychopaths' lack of prosocial behavior. Further research is needed to determine the causal nature of any one of these individual deficits as well as if there is any way to help these individuals develop more prosocial patterns of behavior. Helper's high Psychologists have shown that helping others can produce "feel-good" neurotransmitters such as oxytocin and that, similar to any other pleasurable activity, the act of volunteering, giving and behaving pro-socially can become addictive. Some work has been done on utilizing this principle through the concept of helper therapy, in which therapeutic benefits are gleaned from assisting others. Community health workers have been found to gain helper benefits that include positive feelings about self, a sense of belonging, valuable work experience, and access to health information and skills through their prosocial vocation, which may buffer against the various stressors inherent in this line of work. In addition, Helper therapy may also be highly beneficial for distressed adolescents experiencing suicidal thoughts. Studies indicate that when help-seeking youth use online community forums, the help-seekers often begin to provide support for other help seekers, and develop a reciprocal prosocial community battling depression together. Prosocial dissidence Stefano Passini and Davide Morselli argue that groups will obey authority so long as its system, basis, and demands are viewed as legitimate. Passini and Morselli distinguish between anti-social disobedience, which they see as destructive, and prosocial disobedience, which they see as constructive. "Disobedience becomes prosocial when it is enacted for the sake of the whole society, including all its different levels and groups. In contrast, anti-social disobedience is enacted mainly in favour of one's own group, in order to attain individual rights." A main difference between anti-social and pro-social dissidence is the way that they relate to authority; anti-social dissidents reject authority and disobey its norms and laws, while pro-social dissidents understand the important roles that societal laws play in maintaining order, but also recognize and address the flaws in authoritative reasoning. Pro-social protests, if viewed in a positive manner, can increase freedoms and equality for the general public, and improve democratic institutions. Labor market outcomes Recent scientific research shows that individuals who volunteer have better labor market outcomes in terms of hiring opportunities and wages. See also Cooperation Eusociality Social animal Social psychology Social value orientations Tootling References Further reading Prosocial Behavior. Excerpt from "More about Generosity: An Addendum to the Generosity, Social Psychology and Philanthropy Literature Reviews", University of Notre Dame, July 7, 2009 Biglan, Anthony (2015) The Nurture Effect: How the Science of Human Behavior Can Improve Our Lives and Our World. New Harbinger, Oakland, California External links Prosocial Behavior Page, US Dept. of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families Prosocial Behavior, PsychWiki.com Informational Report describing prosocial behaviour NPR interview with commentary on prosocial behavior from David Sloan Wilson, Aug. 28, 2011, 7 min. The Greater Good Institute: Research on Altruism, Empathy and Prosocial Behavior changingminds.org http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/prosocial_behavior.htm The Evolution Institute, https://evolution-institute.org Moral psychology Social psychology	wiki
Guernsey lily may refer to two species of flowering plants of the genus Nerine: Nerine bowdenii Nerine sarniensis The color of the flowers of both species is variable, but Nerine bowdenii often has pink flowers, while Nerine sarniensis often has red flowers. It originated in South Africa. lily	wiki
A course reader is a publication type used for teaching in universities and academia. A course reader is made up of a collection of existing texts, course slides, and notes. Common forms of course readers include photocopy packs or PDF documents. Course readers require copyright clearance. References Academic publishing	wiki
The chariot that evolved from the ancient vehicle of this name (see Chariot) took on two main forms: A light, four-wheeled, horse-drawn carriage having a coach box and back seats only, popular in the early 19th century. A vehicle for conveying persons especially in state, such as a triumphal car or a coach of state. This stately but manoeuvrable horse carriage was used for ceremonial occasions or for pleasure. A chariotee was a light, covered, four-wheeled pleasure carriage with two seats. A post chariot was a carriage for traveling post. The term was used specifically for a kind of light four-wheeled carriage with a driver's seat in front. A vehicle such as a cart or wagon for transporting goods was also sometimes called a chariot. See also Carriage Coach (carriage) Wagon References Carriages	wiki
This is a list of the highest-ranked rulers based on the island of Taiwan. Dutch and Spanish Formosa (1624–1662) Dutch Formosa (1624–1662) The Dutch Empire, during the period of the Dutch United Provinces and under the auspices of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), attempted to conquer Macau in 1622. Later they colonized the Pescadores Islands, where they built a fort in Makung. In 1624, the Chinese attacked, and the Dutch were driven to Taiwan (then called Formosa, meaning "beautiful island"). That year they established Fort Zeelandia on Taiwan's southwest coast. In 1637, the Dutch conquered Favorolang (also Favorlang; present day Huwei, Yunlin). The names listed here are the Dutch governors: Spanish Formosa (1626–1642) In response to the Dutch settlements, the Spanish settled at Keelung on the northeast coast of the island in 1626 and built Fort San Salvador. Later they built another outpost, Fort San Domingo, at Tamsui in the northwest. In 1629 these forts had a combined total of about 200 Spaniards and 400 Filipinos. By 1635, the Tamsui settlement was abandoned; however, the Keelung settlement remained in Spanish hands until 1642, when a Dutch force of 11 ships and 1,000 men attacked the fort of 446 people. The Spanish surrendered. Kingdom of Tungning (1662–1683) The Southern Ming (Ming dynasty loyalists) came to Taiwan under Koxinga, expelling the Dutch and capturing Fort Zeelandia. They established the Kingdom of Tungning. * Regency of Feng Xifan from 1682 to 1683. Taiwan Under the Rule of the Qing Dynasty (1683–1895) Taiwan-Amoy Circuit (1683–1721) The Qing dynasty invaded Taiwan; the Ming rulers surrendered and were expelled. Taiwan-Xiamen Circuit Commissioner (福建分巡台灣廈門道, 1687—1727) Taiwan Circuit (1721–1885) Qing rule was reestablished after a month-long revolt. The Taiwan Circuit was established in 1727 with its seat in Taiwan-fu, unlike its predecessor, the Taiwan-Amoy Circuit, which was based in Xiamen. The Taiwan Circuit Commissioner had its powers checked by the Taiwan Circuit Investigating censors. Taiwan Circuit Commissioner (福建分巡台灣道) Taiwan Circuit Investigating Censor (巡視台灣監察御史) Taiwan Military Circuit Commissioner (福建分巡臺灣兵備道, 1767-1791) Provincial Censor-ranked Taiwan Military Circuit Commissioner (按察使銜分巡台灣兵備道, 1791-1895) Governor of Fukien-Taiwan Province (1885–1895) Republic of Formosa (1895) The Republic of Formosa was a short-lived republic that existed on the island of Taiwan in 1895 between the formal cession of Taiwan by the Qing dynasty of China to the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki and its being taken over by Japanese troops. The Republic was proclaimed on 23 May 1895 and extinguished on 21 October, when the Republican capital Tainan was taken over by the Japanese. Taiwan under Japanese rule (1895–1945) After establishing control over the island, the Japanese used the French Empire model of an occupying force and were instrumental in the industrialization of the island; they built railroads, a sanitation system and a public school system, among other things. Around 1935, the Japanese began an island-wide assimilation project to bind the island more firmly to the empire. In 1941, war broke out when the Japanese attacked the U.S. naval port of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. By 1945, desperate plans were in place to incorporate popular representation of Taiwan into the Imperial Diet to end colonial rule of the island and transfer occupying troops to the front lines to fight the Allies. The names listed here are the Japanese governor-generals: Taiwan under the rule of the Republic of China (from 1945) Following the end of World War II in 1945, under the terms of the Instrument of Surrender of Japan, the control of Taiwan was to be transferred to the Republic of China (ROC). ROC troops were authorized to come to Taiwan to accept the surrender of Japanese military forces and occupy Taiwan on behalf of the Allied Powers in General Order No. 1, issued by Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, on 2 September 1945. ROC troops were later transported to Keelung by the U.S. Navy, and Japanese handed the control of Taiwan to the ROC on 25 October 1945, which began a period of military occupation. Following its defeat in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, Premier Yan Xishan proclaimed the ROC Government's relocation to Taiwan (where it exists until today), thus replacing the Provincial Chairperson as the highest-ranked executive official on Taiwan. This lasted until March 1950, when Chiang Kai-shek resumed his duties as President in Taipei. However, Japan relinquished sovereignty of Taiwan and Penghu in the Treaty of San Francisco on 28 April 1952, without specifying whom the sovereignty was ceded to. Because the ROC only held Taiwan, Penghu and other nearby islands, the regime remained the internationally recognized government of China with sovereignty throughout mainland China, Tibet Area, Sinkiang and Outer Mongolia until recognition shifted to the People's Republic of China by the United Nations in 1971 and the United States in 1979. After the constitutional amendments in 1991, the president is elected by popular vote among citizens of the Republic of China in the "Free Area of the Republic of China" (area under de facto Republic of China administration), instead of by the National Assembly. Governor of Taiwan Province (1945–1949) Presidents of the Executive Yuan of the Republic of China (1949–1950) Presidents of the Republic of China (from 1 March 1950) See also History of the Republic of China History of Taiwan Taiwan References History of Taiwan Taiwan Lists of Taiwanese politicians	wiki
Cheap Cheap Cheap was a British television game show produced by Hat Trick Productions for Channel 4, presented and created by Noel Edmonds. Billed as "a game show that thinks it's a sitcom", the show takes place in a fictional general store and centres on a game show, hosted by the store owner (Edmonds). He is joined by the shop's eccentric staff, played by actors who appear throughout the game. Edmonds conceived the idea and showed it to the Hat Trick Productions managing director Jimmy Mulville. The pair agreed to develop the premise and filmed the show's pilot episode after the production company constructed a studio inside a recreation area in Somerset. The television channel Channel 4 viewed the pilot and ordered a series of thirty episodes to be filmed. Pairs of contestants are invited up to win an increasing amount of money by correctly picking the cheapest of three similar items, taken from the shop's stock. If they fail to guess the cheapest item they are eliminated from the game and lose all their money. The maximum amount of winnable money was £25,000. References External links Cheap Cheap Cheap at hattrick.co.uk 2017 British television series debuts 2017 British television series endings Channel 4 game shows English-language television shows Television series by Hat Trick Productions Television shows set in Somerset	wiki
The following list of Carnegie libraries in Arizona provides detailed information on United States Carnegie libraries in Arizona, where 4 libraries were built from 4 grants (totaling $64,000) awarded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York from 1899 to 1917. Key Carnegie libraries Notes References Note: The above references, while all authoritative, are not entirely mutually consistent. Some details of this list may have been drawn from one of the references (usually Jones) without support from the others. Reader discretion is advised. Arizona Libraries Libraries	wiki
Amandine may refer to: Edibles: Amandine (cake), a Romanian chocolate sponge cake filled with chocolate or almond cream Amandine (garnish), a French culinary term for a garnish of almonds Amandine potato, a type of potato Amandine (band), a Swedish musical band Amandine (given name) See also Almandine, a type of garnet Amandin (disambiguation)	wiki
Washington contains 11 state forests. These sites are managed by the Department of Natural Resources. Washington state forests See also List of U.S. National Forests Washington State forests	wiki
The 2016 Milwaukee Brewers season was the 47th season for the Brewers in Milwaukee, the 19th in the National League, and 48th overall. They finished the season in fourth place in the National League Central Division and did not make the playoffs. Regular season Season standings National League Central National League Wild Card Record vs. opponents Game log ! width="5%" \| Streak \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 1 \|\| April 4 \|\| Giants \|\| 3–12 \|\| Bumgarner (1–0) \|\| Peralta (0–1) \|\| — \|\| 44,318 \|\| 0–1 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 2 \|\| April 5 \|\| Giants \|\| 1–2 \|\| Cueto (1–0) \|\| Nelson (0–1) \|\| Casilla (1) \|\| 24,123 \|\| 0–2 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 3 \|\| April 6 \|\| Giants \|\| 4–3 \|\| Thornburg (1–0) \|\| López (0–1) \|\| Jeffress (1) \|\| 20,098 \|\| 1–2 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 4 \|\| April 8 \|\| Astros \|\| 6–4 \|\| Anderson (1–0) \|\| Feldman (0–1) \|\| Jeffress (2) \|\| 30,100 \|\| 2–2 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 5 \|\| April 9 \|\| Astros \|\| 4–6 \|\| Fister (1–0) \|\| Peralta (0–2) \|\| Gregerson (2) \|\| 28,127 \|\| 2–3 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 6 \|\| April 10 \|\| Astros \|\| 3–2 \|\| Nelson (1–1) \|\| Keuchel (1–1) \|\| Jeffress (3) \|\| 28,441 \|\| 3–3 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 7 \|\| April 11 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 1–10 \|\| Wacha (1–0) \|\| Jungmann (0–1) \|\| — \|\| 47,608 \|\| 3–4 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 8 \|\| April 13 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 6–4 \|\| Blazek (1–0) \|\| Rosenthal (0–1) \|\| Jeffress (4) \|\| 40,994 \|\| 4–4 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 9 \|\| April 14 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 0–7 \|\| García (1–0) \|\| Peralta (0–3) \|\| — \|\| 40,168 \|\| 4–5 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 10 \|\| April 15 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 8–4 \|\| Nelson (2–1) \|\| Locke (0–1) \|\| — \|\| 24,280 \|\| 5–5 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 11 \|\| April 16 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 0–5 \|\| Niese (2–0) \|\| Jungmann (0–2) \|\| — \|\| 34,957 \|\| 5–6 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 12 \|\| April 17 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 3–9 \|\| Nicasio (2–1) \|\| Davies (0–1) \|\| — \|\| 31,124 \|\| 5–7 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 13 \|\| April 18 \|\| @ Twins \|\| 4–7 (6) \|\| Hughes (1–2) \|\| Anderson (1–1) \|\| — \|\| 21,078 \|\| 5–8 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 14 \|\| April 19 \|\| @ Twins \|\| 6–5 \|\| Thornburg (2–0) \|\| Jepsen (0–3) \|\| Jeffress (5) \|\| 17,597 \|\| 6–8 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 15 \|\| April 20 \|\| Twins \|\| 10–5 \|\| Nelson (3–1) \|\| Pressly (1–1) \|\| — \|\| 21,087 \|\| 7–8 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 16 \|\| April 21 \|\| Twins \|\| 1–8 \|\| Nolasco (1–0) \|\| Jungmann (0–3) \|\| — \|\| 30,107 \|\| 7–9 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 17 \|\| April 22 \|\| Phillies \|\| 2–5 \|\| Nola (1–2) \|\| Davies (0–2) \|\| — \|\| 23,439 \|\| 7–10 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 18 \|\| April 23 \|\| Phillies \|\| 6–10 \|\| Oberholtzer (1–0) \|\| Anderson (1–2) \|\| — \|\| 34,813 \|\| 7–11 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 19 \|\| April 24 \|\| Phillies \|\| 8–5 \|\| Peralta (1–3) \|\| Eickhoff (1–3) \|\| Jeffress (6) \|\| 28,131 \|\| 8–11 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 20 \|\| April 26 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 3–4 \|\| Warren (2–0) \|\| Nelson (3–2) \|\| Rondón (4) \|\| 35,861 \|\| 8–12 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbbbbb" \| — \|\| April 27 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| \|colspan="7" \| Postponed (inclement weather) (Makeup date: August 16) \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 21 \|\| April 28 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 2–7 \|\| Arrieta (5–0) \|\| Jungmann (0–4) \|\| — \|\| 32,734 \|\| 8–13 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 22 \|\| April 29 \|\| Marlins \|\| 3–6 \|\| Conley (1–1) \|\| Davies (0–3) \|\| Ramos (7) \|\| 23,215 \|\| 8–14 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 23 \|\| April 30 \|\| Marlins \|\| 5–7 \|\| Chen (2–1) \|\| Anderson (1–3) \|\| Phelps (1) \|\| 28,193 \|\| 8–15 \|\| L4 ! width="5%" \| Streak \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 24 \|\| May 1 \|\| Marlins \|\| 14–5 \|\| Peralta (2–3) \|\| Koehler (2–3) \|\| — \|\| 28,181 \|\| 9–15 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 25 \|\| May 2 \|\| Angels \|\| 8–5 \|\| Nelson (4–2) \|\| Weaver (3–1) \|\| — \|\| 21,352 \|\| 10–15 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 26 \|\| May 3 \|\| Angels \|\| 5–4 \|\| Guerra (1–0) \|\| Tropeano (1–1) \|\| Jeffress (7) \|\| 28,180 \|\| 11–15 \|\| W3 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 27 \|\| May 4 \|\| Angels \|\| 3–7 \|\| Salas (2–1) \|\| Thornburg (2–1) \|\| Smith (2) \|\| 21,907 \|\| 11–16 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 28 \|\| May 5 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 5–9 \|\| Simón (1–3) \|\| Anderson (1–4) \|\| — \|\| 13,088 \|\| 11–17 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 29 \|\| May 6 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 1–5 \|\| Adleman (1–0) \|\| Cravy (0–1) \|\| Cingrani (1) \|\| 28,249 \|\| 11–18 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 30 \|\| May 7 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 13–7 (10) \|\| Jeffress (1–0) \|\| Cotham (0–2) \|\| — \|\| 27,567 \|\| 12–18 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 31 \|\| May 8 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 5–4 \|\| Capuano (1–0) \|\| Ohlendorf (3–3) \|\| Jeffress (8) \|\| 22,376 \|\| 13–18 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 32 \|\| May 9 \|\| @ Marlins \|\| 1–4 \|\| Fernández (4–2) \|\| Peralta (2–4) \|\| Morris (1) \|\| 16,769 \|\| 13–19 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 33 \|\| May 10 \|\| @ Marlins \|\| 10–2 \|\| Davies (1–3) \|\| Conley (2–2) \|\| — \|\| 17,225 \|\| 14–19 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 34 \|\| May 11 \|\| @ Marlins \|\| 2–3 \|\| Chen (3–1) \|\| Anderson (1–5) \|\| Ramos (10) \|\| 19,893 \|\| 14–20 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 35 \|\| May 12 \|\| Padres \|\| 0–3 \|\| Shields (2–5) \|\| Nelson (4–3) \|\| Buchter (1) \|\| 17,374 \|\| 14–21 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 36 \|\| May 13 \|\| Padres \|\| 1–0 \|\| Guerra (2–0) \|\| Friedrich (0–1) \|\| Jeffress (9) \|\| 35,291 \|\| 15–21 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 37 \|\| May 14 \|\| Padres \|\| 7–8 (12) \|\| Campos (1–0) \|\| Capuano (1–1) \|\| Villanueva (1) \|\| 28,896 \|\| 15–22 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 38 \|\| May 15 \|\| Padres \|\| 3–2 \|\| Boyer (1–0) \|\| Quackenbush (1–2) \|\| Jeffress (10) \|\| 26,306 \|\| 16–22 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 39 \|\| May 17 \|\| Cubs \|\| 4–2 \|\| Anderson (2–5) \|\| Hendricks (2–3) \|\| Jeffress (11) \|\| 24,361 \|\| 17–22 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 40 \|\| May 18 \|\| Cubs \|\| 1–2 (13) \|\| Wood (2–0) \|\| Torres (0–1) \|\| Richard (1) \|\| 31,212 \|\| 17–23 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 41 \|\| May 19 \|\| Cubs \|\| 5–3 \|\| Guerra (3–0) \|\| Hammel (5–1) \|\| Thornburg (1) \|\| 38,781 \|\| 18–23 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 42 \|\| May 20 \|\| @ Mets \|\| 2–3 \|\| Matz (6–1) \|\| Peralta (2–5) \|\| Familia (14) \|\| 36,239 \|\| 18–24 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 43 \|\| May 21 \|\| @ Mets \|\| 4–5 \|\| Familia (1–0) \|\| Blazek (1–1) \|\| — \|\| 39,688 \|\| 18–25 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 44 \|\| May 22 \|\| @ Mets \|\| 1–3 \|\| Syndergaard (5–2) \|\| Anderson (2–6) \|\| Familia (15) \|\| 40,173 \|\| 18–26 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 45 \|\| May 24 \|\| @ Braves \|\| 2–1 \|\| Blazek (2–1) \|\| Norris (1–6) \|\| Jeffress (12) \|\| 15,185 \|\| 19–26 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 46 \|\| May 25 \|\| @ Braves \|\| 3–2 (13) \|\| Blazek (3–1) \|\| Kelly (0–2) \|\| Torres (1) \|\| 12,869 \|\| 20–26 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 47 \|\| May 26 \|\| @ Braves \|\| 6–2 \|\| Peralta (3–5) \|\| Wisler (2–4) \|\| Torres (2) \|\| 14,885 \|\| 21–26 \|\| W3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 48 \|\| May 27 \|\| Reds \|\| 9–5 \|\| Davies (2–3) \|\| Lamb (0–3) \|\| — \|\| 20,441 \|\| 22–26 \|\| W4 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 49 \|\| May 28 \|\| Reds \|\| 6–7 \|\| Wood (4–1) \|\| Jeffress (1–1) \|\| Cingrani (4) \|\| 30,293 \|\| 22–27 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 50 \|\| May 29 \|\| Reds \|\| 5–4 \|\| Nelson (5–3) \|\| Finnegan (1–4) \|\| Boyer (1) \|\| 34,901 \|\| 23–27 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 51 \|\| May 30 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 0–6 \|\| Martínez (5–5) \|\| Guerra (3–1) \|\| — \|\| 34,569 \|\| 23–28 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 52 \|\| May 31 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 3–10 \|\| Leake (4–4) \|\| Peralta (3–6) \|\| — \|\| 24,487 \|\| 23–29 \|\| L2 ! width="5%" \| Streak \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 53 \|\| June 1 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 3–1 \|\| Davies (3–3) \|\| García (4–5) \|\| Jeffress (13) \|\| 24,050 \|\| 24–29 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 54 \|\| June 2 \|\| @ Phillies \|\| 4–1 \|\| Anderson (3–6) \|\| Eickhoff (2–8) \|\| Jeffress (14) \|\| 22,890 \|\| 25–29 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 55 \|\| June 3 \|\| @ Phillies \|\| 3–6 \|\| Bailey (3–0) \|\| Nelson (5–4) \|\| Gómez (18) \|\| 20,138 \|\| 25–30 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 56 \|\| June 4 \|\| @ Phillies \|\| 6–3 \|\| Smith (1–0) \|\| Neris (1–3) \|\| Jeffress (15) \|\| 25,177 \|\| 26–30 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 57 \|\| June 5 \|\| @ Phillies \|\| 1–8 \|\| Nola (5–4) \|\| Peralta (3–7) \|\| — \|\| 24,259 \|\| 26–31 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 58 \|\| June 7 \|\| Athletics \|\| 5–4 \|\| Davies (4–3) \|\| Manaea (2–4) \|\| Jeffress (16) \|\| 19,283 \|\| 27–31 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 59 \|\| June 8 \|\| Athletics \|\| 4–0 \|\| Anderson (4–6) \|\| Hahn (2–4) \|\| — \|\| 18,188 \|\| 28–31 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 60 \|\| June 9 \|\| Mets \|\| 2–5 \|\| Colón (5–3) \|\| Nelson (5–5) \|\| Familia (20) \|\| 22,980 \|\| 28–32 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 61 \|\| June 10 \|\| Mets \|\| 1–2 (11) \|\| Blevins (2–0) \|\| Boyer (1–1) \|\| Familia (21) \|\| 27,358 \|\| 28–33 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 62 \|\| June 11 \|\| Mets \|\| 7–4 \|\| Peralta (4–7) \|\| Verrett (3–4) \|\| Jeffress (17) \|\| 38,423 \|\| 29–33 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 63 \|\| June 12 \|\| Mets \|\| 5–3 \|\| Davies (5–3) \|\| Matz (7–3) \|\| Jeffress (18) \|\| 32,491 \|\| 30–33 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 64 \|\| June 13 \|\| @ Giants \|\| 5–11 \|\| Suárez (2–1) \|\| Knebel (0–1) \|\| Law (1) \|\| 41,543 \|\| 30–34 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 65 \|\| June 14 \|\| @ Giants \|\| 2–3 \|\| Bumgarner (8–2) \|\| Smith (1–1) \|\| Casilla (14) \|\| 41,750 \|\| 30–35 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 66 \|\| June 15 \|\| @ Giants \|\| 1–10 \|\| Cueto (10–1) \|\| Nelson (5–6) \|\| — \|\| 41,811 \|\| 30–36 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 67 \|\| June 16 \|\| @ Dodgers \|\| 8–6 \|\| Thornburg (3–1) \|\| Báez (0–2) \|\| Jeffress (19) \|\| 44,183 \|\| 31–36 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 68 \|\| June 17 \|\| @ Dodgers \|\| 2–3 (10) \|\| Báez (1–2) \|\| Jeffress (1–2) \|\| — \|\| 44,998 \|\| 31–37 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 69 \|\| June 18 \|\| @ Dodgers \|\| 6–10 \|\| Hatcher (4–3) \|\| Anderson (4–7) \|\| — \|\| 44,112 \|\| 31–38 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 70 \|\| June 19 \|\| @ Dodgers \|\| 1–2 \|\| Jansen (3–2) \|\| Thornburg (3–2) \|\| — \|\| 45,931 \|\| 31–39 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 71 \|\| June 21 \|\| @ Athletics \|\| 3–5 \|\| Doolittle (2–2) \|\| Smith (1–2) \|\| Madson (13) \|\| 14,810 \|\| 31–40 \|\| L4 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 72 \|\| June 22 \|\| @ Athletics \|\| 4–2 \|\| Guerra (4–1) \|\| Mengden (0–3) \|\| Thornburg (2) \|\| 13,586 \|\| 32–40 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 73 \|\| June 24 \|\| Nationals \|\| 5–3 \|\| Torres (1–1) \|\| Scherzer (8–5) \|\| Jeffress (20) \|\| 32,668 \|\| 33–40 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 74 \|\| June 25 \|\| Nationals \|\| 6–5 \|\| Garza (1–0) \|\| González (3–7) \|\| Jeffress (21) \|\| 30,085 \|\| 34–40 \|\| W3 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 75 \|\| June 26 \|\| Nationals \|\| 2–3 \|\| Roark (7–5) \|\| Barnes (0–1) \|\| Kelley (3) \|\| 30,215 \|\| 34–41 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 76 \|\| June 28 \|\| Dodgers \|\| 5–6 \|\| Urías (1–2) \|\| Anderson (4–8) \|\| Jansen (23) \|\| 33,819 \|\| 34–42 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 77 \|\| June 29 \|\| Dodgers \|\| 7–0 \|\| Guerra (5–1) \|\| Stewart (0–1) \|\| — \|\| 26,566 \|\| 35–42 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 78 \|\| June 30 \|\| Dodgers \|\| 1–8 \|\| Maeda (7–5) \|\| Davies (5–4) \|\| — \|\| 33,029 \|\| 35–43 \|\| L1 ! width="5%" \| Streak \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 79 \|\| July 1 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 1–7 \|\| García (6–6) \|\| Garza (1–1) \|\| — \|\| 42,987 \|\| 35–44 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 80 \|\| July 2 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 0–3 \|\| Wainwright (7–5) \|\| Nelson (5–7) \|\| Oh (1) \|\| 40,573 \|\| 35–45 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 81 \|\| July 3 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 8–9 \|\| Wacha (5–7) \|\| Anderson (4–9) \|\| Oh (2) \|\| 41,148 \|\| 35–46 \|\| L4 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 82 \|\| July 4 \|\| @ Nationals \|\| 1–0 \|\| Guerra (6–1) \|\| Scherzer (9–6) \|\| Jeffress (22) \|\| 29,174 \|\| 36–46 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 83 \|\| July 5 \|\| @ Nationals \|\| 5–2 \|\| Davies (6–4) \|\| González (4–8) \|\| Jeffress (23) \|\| 25,138 \|\| 37–46 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 84 \|\| July 6 \|\| @ Nationals \|\| 4–7 \|\| Roark (8–5) \|\| Garza (1–2) \|\| Papelbon (17) \|\| 26,330 \|\| 37–47 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 85 \|\| July 8 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 4–3 \|\| Jeffress (2–2) \|\| Rosenthal (2–4) \|\| — \|\| 28,343 \|\| 38–47 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 86 \|\| July 9 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 1–8 \|\| Martínez (8–6) \|\| Anderson (4–10) \|\| — \|\| 37,101 \|\| 38–48 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 87 \|\| July 10 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 1–5 \|\| Leake (6–7) \|\| Guerra (6–2) \|\| — \|\| 42,066 \|\| 38–49 \|\| L2 \|- style="text-align:center; background:#bbcaff;" \| colspan="10" \| 87th All-Star Game in San Diego, California \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 88 \|\| July 15 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 4–5 \|\| DeSclafani (4–0) \|\| Garza (1–3) \|\| Ohlendorf (2) \|\| 30,680 \|\| 38–50 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 89 \|\| July 16 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 9–1 \|\| Nelson (6–7) \|\| Lamb (1–7) \|\| — \|\| 31,328 \|\| 39–50 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 90 \|\| July 17 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 0–1 \|\| Cingrani (2–2) \|\| Thornburg (3–3) \|\| — \|\| 23,085 \|\| 39–51 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 91 \|\| July 19 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 2–3 \|\| Melancon (1–1) \|\| Thornburg (3–4) \|\| — \|\| 27,106 \|\| 39–52 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 92 \|\| July 20 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 9–5 \|\| Torres (2–1) \|\| Locke (8–6) \|\| — \|\| 36,717 \|\| 40–52 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 93 \|\| July 21 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 3–5 \|\| Liriano (6–9) \|\| Garza (1–4) \|\| Melancon (28) \|\| 35,978 \|\| 40–53 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 94 \|\| July 22 \|\| Cubs \|\| 2–5 \|\| Hammel (9–5) \|\| Nelson (6–8) \|\| Rondón (17) \|\| 42,243 \|\| 40–54 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 95 \|\| July 23 \|\| Cubs \|\| 6–1 \|\| Davies (7–4) \|\| Lackey (7–7) \|\| — \|\| 44,643 \|\| 41–54 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 96 \|\| July 24 \|\| Cubs \|\| 5–6 \|\| Nathan (1–0) \|\| Smith (1–3) \|\| Rondón (18) \|\| 43,310 \|\| 41–55 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 97 \|\| July 25 \|\| D-backs \|\| 7–2 \|\| Anderson (5–10) \|\| Shipley (0–1) \|\| — \|\| 25,347 \|\| 42–55 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 98 \|\| July 26 \|\| D-backs \|\| 9–4 \|\| Thornburg (4–4) \|\| Hudson (1–2) \|\| — \|\| 24,074 \|\| 43–55 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 99 \|\| July 27 \|\| D-backs \|\| 1–8 \|\| Bradley (4–6) \|\| Nelson (6–9) \|\| — \|\| 22,581 \|\| 43–56 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 100 \|\| July 28 \|\| D-backs \|\| 6–4 \|\| Davies (8–4) \|\| Ray (5–10) \|\| Jeffress (24) \|\| 33,971 \|\| 44–56 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 101 \|\| July 29 \|\| Pirates \|\| 3–1 \|\| Guerra (7–2) \|\| Brault (0–1) \|\| Jeffress (25) \|\| 29,442 \|\| 45–56 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 102 \|\| July 30 \|\| Pirates \|\| 5–3 \|\| Anderson (6–10) \|\| Taillon (2–2) \|\| Jeffress (26) \|\| 36,663 \|\| 46–56 \|\| W3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 103 \|\| July 31 \|\| Pirates \|\| 4–2 \|\| Garza (2–4) \|\| Liriano (6–11) \|\| Jeffress (27) \|\| 32,405 \|\| 47–56 \|\| W4 ! width="5%" \| Streak \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 104 \|\| August 1 \|\| @ Padres \|\| 3–7 \|\| Villanueva (2–2) \|\| Nelson (6–10) \|\| — \|\| 24,009 \|\| 47–57 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 105 \|\| August 2 \|\| @ Padres \|\| 3–2 \|\| Davies (9–4) \|\| Perdomo (5–5) \|\| Thornburg (3) \|\| 26,152 \|\| 48–57 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 106 \|\| August 3 \|\| @ Padres \|\| 3–12 \|\| Jackson (2–2) \|\| Guerra (7–3) \|\| — \|\| 24,124 \|\| 48–58 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 107 \|\| August 5 \|\| @ D-backs \|\| 2–3 (11) \|\| Loewen (1–0) \|\| Boyer (1–2) \|\| — \|\| 20,008 \|\| 48–59 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 108 \|\| August 6 \|\| @ D-backs \|\| 15–6 \|\| Garza (3–4) \|\| Corbin (4–11) \|\| — \|\| 29,370 \|\| 49–59 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 109 \|\| August 7 \|\| @ D-backs \|\| 3–9 \|\| Hudson (2–2) \|\| Nelson (6–11) \|\| — \|\| 24,021 \|\| 49–60 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 110 \|\| August 8 \|\| Braves \|\| 3–4 (12) \|\| Cunniff (1–0) \|\| Torres (2–2) \|\| Johnson (9) \|\| 20,976 \|\| 49–61 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 111 \|\| August 9 \|\| Braves \|\| 1–2 \|\| Jenkins (2–2) \|\| Peralta (4–8) \|\| Cabrera (3) \|\| 20,048 \|\| 49–62 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 112 \|\| August 10 \|\| Braves \|\| 4–3 \|\| Anderson (7–10) \|\| De La Cruz (0–5) \|\| Thornburg (4) \|\| 20,035 \|\| 50–62 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 113 \|\| August 11 \|\| Braves \|\| 11–3 \|\| Garza (4–4) \|\| Hernández (1–1) \|\| — \|\| 30,167 \|\| 51–62 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 114 \|\| August 12 \|\| Reds \|\| 4–7 \|\| Bailey (2–1) \|\| Nelson (6–12) \|\| — \|\| 24,553 \|\| 51–63 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 115 \|\| August 13 \|\| Reds \|\| 5–11 \|\| Straily (8–6) \|\| Davies (9–5) \|\| — \|\| 30,357 \|\| 51–64 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 116 \|\| August 14 \|\| Reds \|\| 7–3 \|\| Peralta (5–8) \|\| Reed (0–7) \|\| — \|\| 30,103 \|\| 52–64 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 117 \|\| August 16 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 0–4 \|\| Cahill (2–3) \|\| Garza (4–5) \|\| Chapman (25) \|\| 41,148 \|\| 52–65 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 118 \|\| August 16 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 1–4 \|\| Hammel (13–5) \|\| Mariñez (0–1) \|\| Chapman (26) \|\| 39,420 \|\| 52–66 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 119 \|\| August 17 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 1–6 \|\| Lester (13–4) \|\| Nelson (6–13) \|\| — \|\| 40,310 \|\| 52–67 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 120 \|\| August 18 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 6–9 \|\| Arrieta (15–5) \|\| Davies (9–6) \|\| Chapman (27) \|\| 41,407 \|\| 52–68 \|\| L4 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 121 \|\| August 19 \|\| @ Mariners \|\| 6–7 \|\| LeBlanc (3–0) \|\| Suter (0–1) \|\| Díaz (9) \|\| 37,758 \|\| 52–69 \|\| L5 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 122 \|\| August 20 \|\| @ Mariners \|\| 2–8 \|\| Hernández (8–4) \|\| Peralta (5–9) \|\| — \|\| 29,170 \|\| 52–70 \|\| L6 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 123 \|\| August 21 \|\| @ Mariners \|\| 7–6 \|\| Thornburg (5–4) \|\| Wilhelmsen (2–4) \|\| — \|\| 35,833 \|\| 53–70 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 124 \|\| August 22 \|\| Rockies \|\| 4–2 \|\| Nelson (7–13) \|\| Bettis (10–7) \|\| Thornburg (5) \|\| 20,458 \|\| 54–70 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 125 \|\| August 23 \|\| Rockies \|\| 6–4 \|\| Suter (1–1) \|\| Logan (2–3) \|\| Knebel (1) \|\| 21,460 \|\| 55–70 \|\| W3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 126 \|\| August 24 \|\| Rockies \|\| 7–1 \|\| Davies (10–6) \|\| Anderson (4–5) \|\| — \|\| 26,702 \|\| 56–70 \|\| W4 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 127 \|\| August 25 \|\| Pirates \|\| 2–3 (10) \|\| Bastardo (2–0) \|\| Torres (2–3) \|\| Watson (8) \|\| 20,296 \|\| 56–71 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 128 \|\| August 26 \|\| Pirates \|\| 3–5 \|\| Vogelsong (3–3) \|\| Garza (4–6) \|\| Watson (9) \|\| 25,474 \|\| 56–72 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 129 \|\| August 27 \|\| Pirates \|\| 6–9 \|\| Locke (9–7) \|\| Boyer (1–3) \|\| Feliz (2) \|\| 35,295 \|\| 56–73 \|\| L3 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 130 \|\| August 28 \|\| Pirates \|\| 1–3 \|\| Nova (11–6) \|\| Anderson (7–11) \|\| Watson (10) \|\| 37,583 \|\| 56–74 \|\| L4 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 131 \|\| August 29 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 5–6 \|\| Socolovich (1–0) \|\| Thornburg (5–5) \|\| Oh (14) \|\| 18,663 \|\| 56–75 \|\| L5 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 132 \|\| August 30 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 1–2 (10) \|\| Oh (4–2) \|\| Knebel (0–2) \|\| Duke (2) \|\| 22,918 \|\| 56–76 \|\| L6 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 133 \|\| August 31 \|\| Cardinals \|\| 3–1 \|\| Garza (5–6) \|\| Weaver (1–2) \|\| Thornburg (6) \|\| 17,645 \|\| 57–76 \|\| W1 ! width="5%" \| Streak \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 134 \|\| September 2 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 1–0 \|\| Boyer (2–3) \|\| Taillon (3–4) \|\| Thornburg (7) \|\| 21,772 \|\| 58–76 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 135 \|\| September 3 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 7–4 \|\| Torres (3–3) \|\| Feliz (4–2) \|\| Thornburg (8) \|\| 26,637 \|\| 59–76 \|\| W3 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 136 \|\| September 4 \|\| @ Pirates \|\| 10–0 \|\| Anderson (8–11) \|\| Brault (0–2) \|\| — \|\| 25,318 \|\| 60–76 \|\| W4 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 137 \|\| September 5 \|\| Cubs \|\| 2–7 \|\| Hendricks (14–7) \|\| Davies (10–7) \|\| — \|\| 43,662 \|\| 60–77 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 138 \|\| September 6 \|\| Cubs \|\| 12–5 \|\| Peralta (6–9) \|\| Hammel (14–8) \|\| — \|\| 32,888 \|\| 61–77 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 139 \|\| September 7 \|\| Cubs \|\| 2–1 \|\| Knebel (1–2) \|\| Smith (2–5) \|\| Thornburg (9) \|\| 23,832 \|\| 62–77 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 140 \|\| September 8 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 12–5 \|\| Guerra (8–3) \|\| García (10–12) \|\| — \|\| 40,416 \|\| 63–77 \|\| W3 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 141 \|\| September 9 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 3–4 \|\| Martínez (14–7) \|\| Nelson (7–14) \|\| Oh (17) \|\| 42,647 \|\| 63–78 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 142 \|\| September 10 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 1–5 \|\| Wainwright (11–8) \|\| Knebel (1–3) \|\| — \|\| 45,440 \|\| 63–79 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 143 \|\| September 11 \|\| @ Cardinals \|\| 2–1 \|\| Thornburg (6–5) \|\| Siegrist (5–3) \|\| — \|\| 44,703 \|\| 64–79 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 144 \|\| September 12 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 0–3 \|\| Wood (6–3) \|\| Peralta (6–10) \|\| Iglesias (3) \|\| 14,671 \|\| 64–80 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 145 \|\| September 13 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 4–6 \|\| Straily (12–8) \|\| Garza (5–7) \|\| — \|\| 12,926 \|\| 64–81 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 146 \|\| September 14 \|\| @ Reds \|\| 7–0 \|\| Guerra (9–3) \|\| Adleman (2–4) \|\| — \|\| 14,368 \|\| 65–81 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 147 \|\| September 15 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 5–4 \|\| Nelson (8–14) \|\| Grimm (1–1) \|\| Thornburg (10) \|\| 41,362 \|\| 66–81 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 148 \|\| September 16 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 4–5 (10) \|\| Chapman (4–1) \|\| Boyer (2–4) \|\| — \|\| 40,823 \|\| 66–82 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 149 \|\| September 17 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 11–3 \|\| Davies (11–7) \|\| Arrieta (17–7) \|\| — \|\| 40,956 \|\| 67–82 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 150 \|\| September 18 \|\| @ Cubs \|\| 3–1 \|\| Peralta (7–10) \|\| Hendricks (15–8) \|\| Thornburg (11) \|\| 41,286 \|\| 68–82 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 151 \|\| September 20 \|\| Pirates \|\| 3–6 \|\| Hughes (1–1) \|\| Garza (5–8) \|\| Watson (14) \|\| 20,829 \|\| 68–83 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 152 \|\| September 21 \|\| Pirates \|\| 1–4 \|\| Kuhl (5–3) \|\| Nelson (8–15) \|\| Watson (15) \|\| 25,482 \|\| 68–84 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 153 \|\| September 22 \|\| Pirates \|\| 3–1 \|\| Anderson (9–11) \|\| Vogelsong (3–6) \|\| Thornburg (12) \|\| 24,582 \|\| 69–84 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 154 \|\| September 23 \|\| Reds \|\| 5–4 \|\| Suter (2–1) \|\| DeSclafani (8–5) \|\| Thornburg (13) \|\| 35,364 \|\| 70–84 \|\| W2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 155 \|\| September 24 \|\| Reds \|\| 1–6 \|\| Straily (14–8) \|\| Jungmann (0–5) \|\| — \|\| 31,398 \|\| 70–85 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 156 \|\| September 25 \|\| Reds \|\| 2–4 \|\| Finnegan (10–11) \|\| Peralta (7–11) \|\| Iglesias (4) \|\| 31,776 \|\| 70–86 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 157 \|\| September 26 \|\| @ Rangers \|\| 8–3 \|\| Garza (6–8) \|\| Pérez (10–11) \|\| — \|\| 27,263 \|\| 71–86 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 158 \|\| September 27 \|\| @ Rangers \|\| 4–6 \|\| Barnette (7–3) \|\| Nelson (8–16) \|\| Dyson (37) \|\| 29,668 \|\| 71–87 \|\| L1 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 159 \|\| September 28 \|\| @ Rangers \|\| 5–8 \|\| Jeffress (3–2) \|\| Knebel (1–4) \|\| — \|\| 36,619 \|\| 71–88 \|\| L2 \|- bgcolor="#ffbbbb" \| 160 \|\| September 30 \|\| @ Rockies \|\| 1–4 \|\| Bettis (14–8) \|\| Suter (2–2) \|\| Ottavino (7) \|\| 41,068 \|\| 71–89 \|\| L3 ! width="5%" \| Streak \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 161 \|\| October 1 \|\| @ Rockies \|\| 4–3 (10) \|\| Thornburg (7–5) \|\| Ottavino (1–3) \|\| Barnes (1) \|\| 32,835 \|\| 72–89 \|\| W1 \|- bgcolor="#bbffbb" \| 162 \|\| October 2 \|\| @ Rockies \|\| 6–4 (10) \|\| Thornburg (8–5) \|\| Rusin (3–5) \|\| Knebel' (2) \|\| 27,762 \|\| 73–89 \|\| W2 \| Detailed Records Roster Farm system The Brewers' farm system consisted of seven minor league affiliates in 2016. References External links 2016 Milwaukee Brewers season at Baseball Reference'' Milwaukee Brewers season Official Site Milwaukee Brewers seasons Milwaukee Brewers Milwaukee Brewers	wiki
Cygnus X may refer to: Cygnus-X (star complex), a giant star formation region Cygnus X (music group) See also Cygnus X-1 (disambiguation) Cygnus X-3	wiki
"Where Were You Last Night" is a single by Swedish singer Ankie Bagger from the 1989 album Where Were You Last Night. Written by Norell Oson Bard, the single was released in October 1989 by Sonet Records. The song entered Swedish Trackslistan on 11 November 1989 and stayed on the chart for 6 weeks peaking at #4. Track listing Chart performance Wink version "Where Were You Last Night" was covered in Japanese by the idol duo Wink as . Released on 4 July 1990 by Polystar Records, it was their eighth single, with Japanese lyrics written by Neko Oikawa. The B-side is a Japanese-language cover of Billie Hughes' "Welcome to the Edge". Prior to the release of the single, Wink member Sachiko Suzuki was sidelined with acute hepatitis. Shoko Aida performed the song alone during TV appearances while Suzuki spent two weeks to recover. The single peaked at No. 2 on Oricon's singles chart. It sold over 291,000 copies and was certified Gold by the RIAJ. Track listing All lyrics are written by Neko Oikawa; all music is arranged by Satoshi Kadokura. Chart positions Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications Other versions Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish covered the song on their Wish I Had an Angel single. References External links Ankie Bagger version Wink version 1989 songs 1989 singles 1990 singles Ankie Bagger songs Songs written by Alexander Bard Songs written by Tim Norell Songs written by Ola Håkansson Wink (duo) songs Japanese-language songs Songs with lyrics by Neko Oikawa	wiki
Short ribs are a cut of beef taken from the brisket, chuck, plate, or rib areas of beef cattle. They consist of a short portion of the rib bone and the surrounding meat, which varies in thickness. There are two major types of cuts: the "flanken", which is cut across the bone and leaves the bone just or less in length, and the "English", which is cut parallel to the bone and leaves the bone up to in length. English cut short ribs may be served individually, or three or four may be served connected to one another (a style known as the "plate"). Short ribs are popular in many international cuisines. Types of short ribs Meatpacking executive Richard C. Banfield notes that the term "short ribs" comes from the fact that the cut of meat contains only a portion of each long beef rib. Using American butcher's nomenclature, short ribs may be taken from the brisket, chuck, plate, or rib areas of beef cattle. The serratus ventralis muscle defines the area in the beef carcass from where short ribs come, and is the preferred muscle tissue for short ribs. This muscle originates near the second rib, and covers most of the rib cage. In the chuck area (second through fifth ribs), the muscle is much thicker. Moving toward the rump, the serratus ventralis becomes less dense, and may not cover the entire rib. Outside of the chuck, the serratus ventralis covers the entire rib with a degree of thickness only in the plate area. Over ribs nine through 12, the serratus ventralis is too thin to properly create a true short rib, and meat here is usually turned into a "Royal short rib" or else stripped from the bone and used for ground beef. The latissimus dorsi muscle lies atop the serratus ventralis muscle, and is separated from it by a layer of fat. This muscle is generally found in the chuck area and the upper portion (toward the spine) of the plate. It adds thickness to chuck and rib short ribs, but is less prized by chefs than the serratus ventralis muscle. Chuck short ribs tend to be meatier than the other two types of ribs, but they are also tougher due to the more extensive connective tissues (collagen and reticulin) in them. Plate short ribs tend to be fattier than the other two types. Short ribs cut from the rib area near the spine (the dorsal area) are better known as "back ribs" or "dinosaur ribs". They consist of what remains of the rib in this area after the rib chop is removed. Due to the thinness of the serratus ventralis here, the meat on these ribs is generally intercostal muscle (e.g., the muscle between each rib). Cuts of short ribs Short ribs, by definition, are not the entire length of rib. When the rib bone is cut into a length, left as a section of meat (a "plate") containing three or four ribs or cut into individual ribs with meat attached, the short rib is known as an "English cut". They may also be known as barbecue ribs, braising ribs, or fancy cut ribs. A section of short ribs from the plate (ribs six through eight, with their intercostal muscle) is known as a "short plate". Rib short ribs are almost always sold as a plate. When the carcass is cut across the bone to create strips of meat with multiple rib bones, the short rib is known as a "flanken cut." These may also be known as crosscut ribs, Eastern European-style ribs, Hawaiian-style ribs, Jewish ribs, Korean-style ribs, or "kosher ribs". Flanken-cut short ribs incorporate at least two rib bones, and are often no more than thick. Retail meat shops often do not differentiate between short ribs which come from the brisket, chuck, plate, and rib. In the United States, short ribs from the plate are generally the least expensive cut, followed by medium-priced short ribs from the brisket and chuck, and premium-priced short ribs from the rib area. Beef short ribs are the equivalent of spare ribs in pork, with beef short ribs usually larger and meatier than pork spare ribs. "Boneless" short ribs are cut from either the chuck or plate, and consist of rib meat separated from the bone. "Boneless country-style short ribs", however, are not true short ribs. They are found primarily in the United States, and are cut from the chuck eye roll (serving as a less expensive alternative to rib steak). Short ribs in world cuisines Short ribs are particularly popular in Chinese, Japanese, Jewish and Korean cuisine. Short ribs generally require long periods of cooking in order to break down the connective tissues in the meat and make the meat tender. Methods of preparation include braising, stewing, and sous-vide. Short ribs may also be barbecued, a popular method that subjects the beef to high heat in a relatively short period of time. Pot-au-feu is a classic French method of cooking short ribs. Flanken is a traditional Eastern European Jewish short rib dish, and serves as the origin of flanken cut of short ribs. Flanken-cut short ribs are boiled in broth with onions and other seasonings until the meat is very tender and the broth is rich. The stew is then served with grated horseradish. In Korea, short lengths of rib are often further butchered by butterflying (or using an accordion cut) to unfurl the meat into a long ribbon trailing from the bone, or the meat can be removed from the bone entirely and cut into thin slices. Short ribs marinated in ganjang (a Korean soy sauce) and then rapidly grilled are known as galbi. Short ribs prepared in the galbi style, but slow-cooked or steamed along with spices and vegetables is known as galbijjim. A specific type of short rib dish which originated in Hawaii is known as Maui-style ribs. In this dish, flanken-cut ribs are marinated in soy sauce, brown sugar, and ginger, and then swiftly grilled. The "Royal short rib" is a short rib dish prepared in Europe and the United States which uses ribs nine through 12. The membrane is removed from the inner side of an English-cut plate, and the plate sliced into its component ribs. The bone is then pulled up from the meat, leaving meat attached at only one end of the rib. The meat is then rolled backward and tucked under itself. Tabiltas are Mexican-style flanken-cut short ribs that are marinated and then grilled. Short ribs in popular culture Over the years, short ribs have been mentioned in numerous movies and television shows. Examples include: In a 1948 Three Stooges short titled "Shivering Sherlocks", Larry Fine has an argument with a customer about ordering either chicken soup or short ribs. See also List of beef dishes Ribs (food) References Notes Citations Bibliography Cuts of beef	wiki
Capital is a central concept in Marxian critique of political economy, and in Marxian thought more generally. Marxists view capital as a social relation reproduced by the continuous expenditure of wage labour. Labour and capital are viewed as historically specific forms of social relations. Marx stated that "Capital is dead labour, that, vampire-like, only lives by sucking living labour, and lives the more, the more labour it sucks." See also Property is theft! Private property#Criticism Forms of capital in Marxism: Monopoly Capital Key figures: Robert Kurz Moishe Postone Roman Rozdolsky References Bibliography Further reading Marxian critique of political economy Marxism Capital (economics)	wiki
A leptoid is a type of elongated food-conducting cell like phloem in the stems of some mosses, such as the family Polytrichaceae. They surround strands of water-conducting hydroids. They have some structural and developmental similarities to the sieve elements of seedless vascular plants. At maturity they have inclined end cell walls with small pores and degenerate nuclei. The conduction cells of mosses, leptoids and hydroids, appear similar to those of fossil protracheophytes. However they're not thought to represent an intermediate stage in the evolution of plant vascular tissues but to have had an independent evolutionary origin. See also Hydroid, a related water-transporting cell analogous the xylem of vascular plants References Mosses Plant physiology	wiki
George Edwards (1694-1773) – ornitologo britannico George Edwards (1752-1823) – economista britannico George William Edwards (1891-1954) – economista statunitense	wiki
Center console or centre console may refer to: Center console (automobile) Center console (boat)	wiki
Hoko is the tribal war dance of Easter Island, a dance of welcome and a sign of hospitality. It is also used before sports matches in the same way that the Haka is performed by the New Zealand national rugby union team, similar to those in Samoa, Tonga and Fiji. Hoko in sport Presently, the Hoko is used before football and rugby union games by CF Rapa Nui of Easter Island. References Easter Island Wikipedia requested photographs of dance War dances Sports culture Dances of Polynesia	wiki
Breather may refer to: Breather - In physics, a breather is a nonlinear wave in which energy concentrates in a localized and oscillatory fashion Breather (company) - An Airbnb office space company Other uses: I, the Breather, American metalcore band Breather switch, international gap in railway to allow for track expansion Breather Resist, American hardcore punk band Breather Life, album by American rapper Krazy Disambiguation pages	wiki
The center console (American English) or centre console in an automobile refers to the control-bearing surfaces in the center of the front of the vehicle interior. The term is applied to the area beginning in the dashboard and continuing beneath it, and often merging with the transmission tunnel which runs between the front driver's and passenger's seats of many vehicles. Traditionally, vehicles with a gear stick have placed this control where the two areas of console and tunnel merge, or at the rear-most end of the console in front-wheel-drive vehicles without transmission tunnels. In some modern vehicles – particularly vans – the gear stick is mounted in the front, more vertical part of the center console to be within better reach of the driver without requiring a long stalk mounted on the steering column. Increasingly, center consoles include a wide variety of storage compartments and cupholders, some of them with a refrigerator, in addition to the more traditional use as purely a surface for instrumentation (e.g., outside temperature display) and controls (car audio). Armrest console The term "center console" (often Median console) often extends, as well, to the armrest between the driver's and passenger's seats, which in some vehicles (such as a Toyota RAV4) features one or more storage compartments under the armrest. Rear center console Some cars include additional rear center console, which commonly includes entertainment and climate system controls (and possibly display screens and air vents), auxiliary power outlets, and sometimes window controls when these are not in the doors (for example, in the Ford Sierra). Another element is an ashtray, though this is now less common. On some cars and SUVs, the center console has heater vents for the comfort of rear passengers. See also Automotive navigation system Drop Stop Head unit In car entertainment Trip computer References Automotive body parts	wiki
A list of urban parks by size includes parks at least or and contained entirely within a locality's municipal or metropolitan boundary. List This is a list of the largest parks located entirely within a metropolitan area. Park systems are included, but not ranked because park systems are networks that contain multiple parks. Not all parks listed below are classified as urban parks by their managing authority. See also Urban parks in Canada References Footnotes Citations Urban Parks Urban	wiki
Poling or rapping is the practice of hitting a horse on the legs as it goes over a jump, to make it think it hit the fence hard (due to the pain), so the animal will pick his legs up higher the next time. It is usually performed using a long bamboo stick, which is smacked on the cannon bones of the horse. Poling is illegal under FEI rules, as well as under many national rules including the USEA and mnay other organizations. Show jumpers and hunt seat competitors were the most common users of this technique, as a rail down is often a deciding factor in winning a class. However, the practice is seen today as too painful for the horse. In popular culture Poling can be seen in a scene of the movie National Velvet, when Mi Taylor hits the Pie on the legs as Velvet rides him over an obstacle in a training session. It can also be seen being used by Harry DeLeyer while working with his son's horse in the documentary Harry and Snowman. References Footnotes Horse training Show jumping Hunt seat Animal welfare	wiki
Speculum (geneeskunde): een geneeskundig instrument voor inwendig onderzoek; Speculum (plant): een opvallende vlek op de lip van spiegelorchissen;	wiki
Petrogenesis, also known as petrogeny, is a branch of petrology dealing with the origin and formation of rocks. While the word petrogenesis is most commonly used to refer to the processes that form igneous rocks, it can also include metamorphic and sedimentary processes, including diagenesis and metamorphic reactions. Petrogenesis of an igneous rock comprises three successive stages: magma generation, magma differentiation and assimilation of crust. References Petrology he:פטרולוגיה#פטרוגנזיה	wiki
Corporate may refer to either A corporation, a type of legal entity, often formed to conduct business Corporate (2006 film), a 2006 Bollywood film starring Bipasha Basu Corporate (2017 film), a 2017 French film Corporate (TV series), a 2018 American comedy series See also Corporation (disambiguation)	wiki
Tomorrow's Yesterday is a short film written and directed by Elan Gale. It was produced by Page One Pictures in association with Sascha Rasmussen, Paul McCarthy-Boyington, Patrick O'Sullivan, and Angelo Perez, who were also the actors in the film. Premiered on March 2, 2006, in Florence, Alabama, it has since played in 14 other film festivals worldwide. Other actors in the film include Efren Ramirez, Sam Sarpong, Michael A. Williams and Bridget Marquardt. External links 2006 films 2006 comedy-drama films 2006 short films American comedy-drama films 2000s English-language films 2000s American films English-language comedy-drama films Comedy-drama short films	wiki
A Barbed broach is a hand-operated endodontic instrument used to extirpate the pulp tissue during endodontic (root canal) treatment. It is manufactured from the tapered, round, soft iron wires, and the smooth surface is notched to form barbs. There are smooth broaches too available, which act as pathfinders into the root canal. Dentistry	wiki
In journalism, the nut graph or nut graf (short for "nutshell paragraph") is a paragraph that explains the context of the story "in a nutshell". The term can be spelled many different ways. In many news stories, the essential facts of a story are included in the lead, the first sentence or two of a story. Good leads try to answer who, what, when, where, why, and how as quickly as possible. The nut graph, which often will start in the third, fourth, or fifth paragraphs, will explain any additional context for why the story is important. For example, if the news story concerns a candidate for an upcoming election, the nut graph will state when the election is and may expand upon issues of the election. If the news story is part of an ongoing story, the nut graph will likely summarize other recent events related to the newest revelations. See also Sound bite References Journalism terminology Newswriting	wiki
John Ruthven may refer to: John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie (c.1577-1600), Scottish politician John A. Ruthven (1924–2020), American painter John Ruthven (general) (17th century), military officer in Denmark and Sweden	wiki
The administration of laws and regulations relating to begging in the state of New York is largely performed by each of the 62 cities of the state. Many of the state of New York's largest cities have introduced laws in the last decade prohibiting 'aggressive begging' in some form. New York City Administrative Code §10-136, City of Buffalo Code §317, City of Rochester Code §44-4, and Albany Code §255-59 prohibit forms of 'aggressive begging' which can include, but is not limited to, conduct that is likely to cause a fear of bodily harm, physical contact, approaching or blocking motor vehicles, and being within a certain distance of banks and ATMs. Syracuse City General Ordinances §16-9 and §16-11 prohibit lewd solicitation and loitering. The city of Yonkers does not currently have any similar law. New York City also has bans on all begging within the subway system and in airports. This situation of banning specific aggressive elements of panhandling arose because of several challenges to previous begging laws on the grounds of constitutionality. In 1990, the ban on begging in New York City's subway was challenged in Young v. New York City Transit Authority, and the Second Circuit Court of Appeals found that the ban in this case did not infringe on First Amendment rights to free speech. However, this precedent did not last long as it was seemingly overturned in 1993, in Loper v. New York City Police Department. The Loper case was a challenge to the statewide law in the New York Penal Code §240.35(1) which made it an offence to loiter in a public place for the purpose of begging. New York City Police Department rarely issued fines under this law, but used it to 'move on' beggars. In Loper, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals found begging in this case to be a First Amendment right. And clarified that the ban on the subway system in the Young case was a reasonable limit as, even though it was publicly owned, panhandling in the confined space of the subway system can disrupt and startle passengers and potentially cause harm. Whereas, the blanket ban in all public spaces in the Loper case would leave beggars nowhere else for begging, which was considered an 'expressive activity' and thus protected by the First Amendment. A similar judgement was made in International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. v. Lee in regard to New York City's airports, which found it reasonable to ban such activities in airports. This has led to the distinction between public places and public places that are not public forums. The airports and subways of New York, while being public places, are not public forums as the free exchange of ideas has never been considered its principal purpose, unlike the streets of New York. The Loper judgement is narrow in that it only forbade a blanket ban of begging, in fact it suggested city councils introduce more targeted begging laws, such as those for aggressive begging, and spoke favourably of the laws in Seattle Washington. After the Loper case which found §240.35(1) of the state's Penal Code to be unconstitutional, the New York City Police Department stopped enforcing that section of the code. However, the law still technically remained in force in the rest of New York state until it was repealed in 2010. This caused some people in New York state to be charged under that section of the law after Loper, but before it was repealed. Civil liberties groups have campaigned against the more targeted aggressive begging laws, however, they have been found to comply with the First Amendment. In 2006, the City of Rochester's current aggressive begging laws withstood a legal challenge in People v. Barton. And in 2010, New York City's current aggressive begging laws also withstood challenge in People v. Stroman. References Begging Homelessness in the United States	wiki
Bosta may refer to: Bosta (film), a 2005 Lebanese film British Orthodontic Society Technicians Award Bosta, Hungary Bosta, Bangladesh Bostadh, Great Bernera, Outer Hebrides, Scotland	wiki
The ladder-backed woodpecker (Dryobates scalaris) is a North American woodpecker. Description The ladder-backed woodpecker is a small woodpecker about 16.5 to 19 cm (6½ to 7½ inches) in length. It is primarily colored black and white, with a barred pattern on its back and wings resembling the rungs of a ladder. Its rump is speckled with black, as are its cream-colored underparts on the breast and flanks. Southern populations have duskier buff breasts and distinctly smaller bills. Adult males have a red crown patch that is smaller in immatures and lacking in adult females. The ladder-backed woodpecker is very similar in appearance to Nuttall's woodpecker, but has much less black on its head and upper back, and the range of the two species only intersects a minimal amount in southern California and northern Baja California. Hybrids are known. Ladder-backed woodpeckers nest in cavities excavated from tree trunks, or in more arid environments a large cactus will do. The female lays between 2 and 7 eggs, which are plain white. The eggs are incubated by both sexes, but the nesting period and other details are unknown. Like most other woodpeckers the ladder-backed woodpecker bores into tree-trunks with its chisel-like bill to hunt for insects and their larva, but it also feeds on fruit produced by cacti. Range and habitat The ladder-backed woodpecker is fairly common in dry brushy areas and thickets and has a rather large range. The species can be found year-round over the southwestern United States (north to extreme southern Nevada and extreme southeastern Colorado), most of Mexico, and locally in Central America as far south as Nicaragua. References External links Ladder-backed woodpecker, a bibliographic resource Dryobates Native birds of the Southwestern United States Birds of Mexico Birds of the Sierra Madre Occidental Birds of the Sierra Madre Oriental Birds of the Sierra Madre del Sur Birds of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt Birds of the Yucatán Peninsula Birds of Central America Birds described in 1829 Taxa named by Johann Georg Wagler	wiki
On horses, the mane is the hair that grows from the top of the neck of a horse or other equine, reaching from the poll to the withers, and includes the forelock or foretop. It is thicker and coarser than the rest of the horse's coat, and naturally grows to roughly cover the neck. Heredity plays a role, giving some horses a longer, thicker mane, and others a shorter, thinner one. Some horses, such as those used in circuses or in mounted displays such as Cavalia, have manes allowed to grow down to their knees. Others have their manes deliberately shaved completely off for style or practical purposes. When ungroomed, however, the mane usually grows no longer than the width of the horse's neck, as natural wear and tear limit its potential length. The mane is thought to keep the neck warm, and possibly to help water run off the neck if the animal cannot obtain shelter from the rain. It also provides some fly protection to the front of the horse, although the tail is usually the first defense against flies. Ponies usually have the thickest manes, with horse breeds having tremendous variation in thickness and length. Other equids such as the donkey often have very sparse, thin manes. Members of the Giraffidae, especially the giraffe, also have manes. Grooming All domesticated horses benefit from having their manes and tails untangled regularly to remove dirt, tangles and debris. Horses with short manes usually have their manes combed, while horses with longer manes are usually groomed with a human hair brush or a stiff dandy brush. Horses with extraordinarily long manes may have their manes hand picked to remove tangles. For a horse show, the horse is generally bathed, and this includes the mane. However, in addition to a shampoo bath, many grooms of long-maned horses also use a conditioner or cream rinse on the mane to improve shine and manageability, though for horses with braided manes, the mane may be left alone or have gels that increase stiffness and body added instead. To make a short mane grow long and lie flat, or to make a naturally full mane grow beyond the length it might normally reach in nature, the mane can be placed into six or seven thick, moderately loose braids to prevent breaking. Many horse show exhibitors of long-maned horses also like the wavy look of a mane that has been kept braided until just before a show and may loosely braid a naturally long mane the night before a show just to obtain a fuller, wavy appearance. Beyond basic care, the mane is styled in various ways, depending on the breed of horse, part of the world, and the equestrian discipline of the rider. The basic ways to style the mane include: Natural, which includes manes conditioned to grow extremely long Pulled or thinned, where small clumps of hairs are pulled out along the underside of the neck until the mane is long and thin enough to lie flat against the neck. Braided (USA) or plaited (UK), seen primarily in English riding. Banded, divided into many small sections with a small rubber band placed around each, seen on some breeds used for Western riding. "Roached" or "hogged": shaven off down to the neck. Regardless of style, many manes that are not roached have a bit of mane at the poll, the area immediately behind the ears, shaved in order to help the crownpiece of the bridle lie more neatly on the head. This area is called a 'bridle path'. It may vary in length from one inch to over a foot. The length of the bridle path is dependent on the discipline or breed of the horse, and is important to consider when grooming a horse for competition. Discipline Pleasure riding: usually the mane is kept natural or pulled, as preferred by the rider. Hunt seat: the mane is pulled to about , and braided with "hunter braids" for all important competition (usually on the right side). When the mane is braided, the forelock should also be braided. Show jumping: the mane may be braided (usually with "button braids", although a nicely pulled mane is acceptable. The forelock may or may not be braided. Dressage: the mane is usually pulled and braided for all recognized competition, braiding is seen on either side of the neck. The forelock is sometimes left unbraided, especially in the case of stallions. Baroque breeds or other horses with long manes may compete in dressage with the mane "French Braided" in a long, continuous braid which follows the curve of the neck. Eventing: pulled. Braided for dressage with "knob" or "button braids" (although not always at the lower levels). Usually left unbraided for cross-country, as the rider may need to grab it. May be braided for stadium (usually at the higher levels). Western pleasure: usually pulled, usually a bit shorter than for English disciplines, and "banded" (rubber bands placed around small sections of mane) for stock breeds such as the American Quarter Horse, left unpulled and natural for other breeds Reining and cutting: usually natural, forelock may be braided. Stock seat equitation: Same as western pleasure. Saddle seat: Natural, although a few long braids (usually forelock and 1 or 2 in the mane) are permitted on gaited breeds and on American Saddlebreds, usually with a colorful ribbon attached that complements the rider's clothing. Three-gaited Saddlebreds have roached manes; in five-gaited Saddlebreds the mane is left long, with a long bridle path. Fox hunting: pulled and braided, usually on the right side. Combined driving: Usually styled according to breed. Pulled and braided for sport horses. Polo: roached, to keep it out of the way of the mallet. Flat racing or steeplechase: pulled, sometimes braided. Harness racing: pulled or natural, Standardbreds often with a long bridle path. Endurance riding: usually left natural, although it varies according to breed. Breed Certain breeds are often expected to have a specific styling to their manes. Common styles for the United States are as follows: Baroque breeds, like the Andalusian, Lusitano, and Friesian, usually have their manes left natural, and as long as possible, though in some horse show competition, the manes may be put in French braids down the crest of the neck. Saddlebred: Usually left long and natural, with "5-gaited" and pleasure horses having braiding in the forelock and first lock of mane. Roached for "3-Gaited" park horses. National Show Horse: long and natural, with long bridle path, usually Arabian and part-Arabian: long, unbraided, and natural in all events, with a long bridle path, except for horses shown in hunt seat classes. If the horse shows in multiple disciplines where a long mane is generally mandatory, the mane is French braided for dressage, show hack, or hunt seat competition, but if the animal is shown only as a hunter, jumper or in dressage, the mane may be pulled and braided. Connemara: pulled and may be braided Morgan: long and natural, braiding only in dressage and hunt seat classes. Usually has a long bridle path Stock horse type (includes Quarter Horse, Paint horse, Appaloosa): bridle path usually cut to the length of the horse's ear laid back against the neck (), pulled mane, usually banded for Western pleasure and halter, braided for hunter competition. Usually kept long and natural for reining and cutting. Length varies for rodeo competition, often left long in some speed events, sometimes roached for roping events so that rope does not tangle in the mane. Warmbloods: pulled mane, usually braided (either side). Short bridle path in length. Thoroughbred: pulled with short bridle path. May be braided depending on discipline. Shetland Pony: long mane with bridle path, may have a lock of mane braided. Icelandic horse: nowadays manes are left untrimmed, bridle path clipping is inappropriate. Thick and long manes are preferred. Fjord horse: breed standard for show dictates the mane to be roached to flatter the topline. Usually not cut extremely close to the neck. Finnhorse: mane and tail are left natural for conformational showing. They may be, but rarely are, braided for other disciplines. Pulling The mane is often pulled to shorten and thin it. It gives a much neater appearance than simply trimming it with scissors, which does not thin the mane enough to braid and creates an unnatural line. Pulling also makes the mane more manageable, as a pulled mane is less likely to get tangled than a natural one. Most horses do not object to mane pulling, and willingly stand for the process. To make it more comfortable for the horse, a groom should pull the mane out of the crest in an upwards direction, rather than sideways or down. An application of Orajel or clove oil on the roots of the mane can help desensitize the area during the pulling process. It is also recommended that pulling is performed right after exercise, when it is thought that the mane comes out more easily because the pores are open. Using a mane pulling device such as the ManePuller may also be considered because it tends to be quicker and therefore less stressful for the horse (and groom). In some cases, a horse is very sensitive and may constantly toss its head or try to bite if the groom attempts to pull the mane. In this case, only a few hairs should be taken out at a time, with the pulling process spanning over several days, and the groom should try to keep up with the process so that the horse will not have to endure a long session right before competition. Competitors in a hurry sometime use thinning shears to trim the mane and give the appearance of having been pulled. However, the effect only lasts a couple of weeks at most before the cut hairs begin to grow out and stick up straight into the air. Thus, this method is not advised. Pulled manes also grow out, but take longer, and when the hair begins to grow, it is less stiff and tends to blend more easily with the existing mane. Roaching (USA) or hogging (UK) Roaching or hogging is when the mane, and sometimes forelock, is completely shaven. This is usually done if a horse's mane is quite ragged, or for certain disciplines such as polo, polocrosse, and calf roping, to keep the mane out of the way. Cobs can be shown with a roached mane and it is also common to roach the mane for certain breeds. In Spain, breeders commonly roach the mane of mares and foals. The same applies to the Swiss Freiberger horses. The American Saddlebred "3-Gaited" horse is often shown with a roached mane, while the "5-Gaited" Saddlebred is shown with a full mane. If a mane is roached, it can take for it to stop sticking straight up in the air and lie over onto the neck, and a year or more to return to a natural length. For this reason, manes that are roached usually need to be kept that way, though occasionally roaching a damaged mane and allowing it to grow out evenly is effective as a last resort for a mane that has been partly torn out, badly tangled or otherwise cannot be restored to a smooth condition. Braiding (USA) or plaiting (UK) Today, braiding is performed to show off the neck, accentuating the top line when the horse is moving or jumping. Braiding may be used to hide conformation faults of the neck (for example, a relatively short neck can be braided with a greater number of smaller braids, making it look longer). Braiding can be used to train the mane to lie on one side of the neck, if half falls on one side and half falls on the other. Traditionally, the mane is braided on the right side of the neck. This is still the standard for show hunters in the United States and eventers, although dressage horses are commonly braided on either side. It was also traditional in the USA that male horses would have an odd number of braids, and even number for mares. However, this rule is rarely, if ever, followed by modern braiders. Types of braids The most common braids in both the United States and the United Kingdom are button braids, which are round and usually larger (thus fewer in number) than hunter, or "flat" braids. In the UK, show horses of all types are plaited with between 9 and , similar to the American "button braid". An odd number of plaits is traditional, although judges have become more relaxed about this in recent years. The number of plaits can be increased or decreased, depending on whether the rider wants the horse's neck to look longer or shorter. Hunter braids or flat braids are smaller, with as many as 20–30 on a neck, and they are the only braid considered traditional in US hunt seat competition. They are usually not seen in other disciplines, although they are permissible for dressage. Knob braids are a variation on hunter braids, involving pushing part of the braid up to create a "knob" at the top. They are usually seen in dressage competition, though are also popular in other flat classes—particularly at breed shows—as well as jumpers. The French braid, also called an "Andalusian" braid, is braided along the crest of the neck. It is used on long-maned horses, and is usually seen either when a baroque horse breed competes in dressage, or in hunter and dressage classes for horses that are otherwise required to show with a long, full mane. The Continental braid, also called a "macrame braid", is also useful for long-maned horses, and creates a "net" in the mane. It isn't a "braid" per se, as it is usually made up of simple knots or even simply created with rubber bands or yarn, but is periodically viewed as stylish in some dressage and flat classes, particularly those in breed shows for horses that have naturally long manes. The scalloped mane is a less common form of braiding, where each braid is pulled up under the one which is two down from it (toward the withers), forming a series of loops. This is seen most often in hunt seat, dressage, or in the jumpers, although it is not as popular as the other forms of braid. It is useful for manes that may look bulky in traditional braiding styles because they are a bit too thick or a bit too long. See also Horsehair References Horse anatomy Horse management	wiki
Special cities of Korea may refer to: Special cities of North Korea Special cities of South Korea	wiki
Ben Lester (born 16 April 1998) is a British recording artist and multi-instrumentalist, based in North London. His style has been described as "a distinctive brand of chamber-pop" informed by the likes of The Beach Boys and The Flaming Lips. Lester was chosen as a BBC Introducing featured artist at age 19, and was championed by presenter Gary Crowley as a "hugely talented singer-songwriter" who "creates his own unique moods". Following regular airplay of his debut single "Dreaming", Lester signed to Mayfield Records, and subsequently embarked on a UK tour in support of his upcoming debut album. The album, One, was released in January 2020 to critical acclaim. Personal life He was born in Barnet and raised in Watford, where he attended Watford Grammar School for Boys. He studied at The University of Southampton, graduating in 2019 with a BA Music. He is the son of music journalist Paul Lester. Discography LPs One (2020) EPs Soar (2023) References 1998 births Living people British male singer-songwriters British multi-instrumentalists 21st-century British singers 21st-century British male singers	wiki
A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through surrounding soil, earth or rock, and enclosed except for the entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods. A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central portions of a rapid transit network are usually in the tunnel. Some tunnels are used as sewers or aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations. Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment. Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons, contraband, or people. Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely. Tunnels can be connected together in tunnel networks. Terminology A tunnel is relatively long and narrow; the length is often much greater than twice the diameter, although similar shorter excavations can be constructed, such as cross passages between tunnels. The definition of what constitutes a tunnel can vary widely from source to source. For example, the definition of a road tunnel in the United Kingdom is defined as "a subsurface highway structure enclosed for a length of or more." In the United States, the NFPA definition of a tunnel is "An underground structure with a design length greater than and a diameter greater than ." In the UK, a pedestrian, cycle or animal tunnel beneath a road or railway is called a subway, while an underground railway system is differently named in different cities, the "Underground" or the "Tube" in London, the "Subway" in Glasgow, and the "Metro" in Newcastle. The place where a road, railway, canal or watercourse passes under a footpath, cycleway, or another road or railway is most commonly called a bridge or, if passing under a canal, an aqueduct. Where it is important to stress that it is passing underneath, it may be called an underpass, though the official term when passing under a railway is an underbridge. A longer underpass containing a road, canal or railway is normally called a "tunnel", whether or not it passes under another item of infrastructure. An underpass of any length under a river is also usually called a "tunnel", whatever mode of transport it is for. In the US, the term "subway" means an underground rapid transit system, and the term pedestrian underpass is used for a passage beneath a barrier. Rail station platforms may be connected by pedestrian tunnels or footbridges. History Much of the early technology of tunneling evolved from mining and military engineering. The etymology of the terms "mining" (for mineral extraction or for siege attacks), "military engineering", and "civil engineering" reveals these deep historic connections. Antiquity and early middle ages Predecessors of modern tunnels were adits to transport water for irrigation or drinking, and sewerage. The first Qanats are known from before 2000 B.C. The Tunnel of Eupalinos is a tunnel aqueduct long running through Mount Kastro in Samos, Greece, built in the 6th century BC to serve as an aqueduct. It is the second known tunnel to have been excavated from both ends, after the Siloam tunnel in the neighbourhood of Silwan in eastern Jerusalem. In Ethiopia, the Siqurto foot tunnel, hand-hewn in the Middle Ages, crosses a mountain ridge. Geotechnical investigation and design A major tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. An informed choice can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, which will reduce the risk of encountering unforeseen ground conditions. In planning the route, the horizontal and vertical alignments can be selected to make use of the best ground and water conditions. It is common practice to locate a tunnel deeper than otherwise would be required, in order to excavate through solid rock or other material that is easier to support during construction. Conventional desk and preliminary site studies may yield insufficient information to assess such factors as the blocky nature of rocks, the exact location of fault zones, or the stand-up times of softer ground. This may be a particular concern in large-diameter tunnels. To give more information, a pilot tunnel (or "drift tunnel") may be driven ahead of the main excavation. This smaller tunnel is less likely to collapse catastrophically should unexpected conditions be met, and it can be incorporated into the final tunnel or used as a backup or emergency escape passage. Alternatively, horizontal boreholes may sometimes be drilled ahead of the advancing tunnel face. Other key geotechnical factors: Stand-up time is the amount of time a newly excavated cavity can support itself without any added structures. Knowing this parameter allows the engineers to determine how far an excavation can proceed before support is needed, which in turn affects the speed, efficiency, and cost of construction. Generally, certain configurations of rock and clay will have the greatest stand-up time, while sand and fine soils will have a much lower stand-up time. Groundwater control is very important in tunnel construction. Water leaking into a tunnel or vertical shaft will greatly decrease stand-up time, causing the excavation to become unstable and risking collapse. The most common way to control groundwater is to install dewatering pipes into the ground and to simply pump the water out. A very effective but expensive technology is ground freezing, using pipes which are inserted into the ground surrounding the excavation, which are then cooled with special refrigerant fluids. This freezes the ground around each pipe until the whole space is surrounded with frozen soil, keeping water out until a permanent structure can be built. Tunnel cross-sectional shape is also very important in determining stand-up time. If a tunnel excavation is wider than it is high, it will have a harder time supporting itself, decreasing its stand-up time. A square or rectangular excavation is more difficult to make self-supporting, because of a concentration of stress at the corners. Choice of tunnels versus bridges For water crossings, a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge. However, navigational considerations may limit the use of high bridges or drawbridge spans intersecting with shipping channels, necessitating a tunnel. Bridges usually require a larger footprint on each shore than tunnels. In areas with expensive real estate, such as Manhattan and urban Hong Kong, this is a strong factor in favor of a tunnel. Boston's Big Dig project replaced elevated roadways with a tunnel system to increase traffic capacity, hide traffic, reclaim land, redecorate, and reunite the city with the waterfront. The 1934 Queensway Tunnel under the River Mersey at Liverpool was chosen over a massively high bridge for defense reasons; it was feared that aircraft could destroy a bridge in times of war. Maintenance costs of a massive bridge to allow the world's largest ships to navigate under were considered higher than for a tunnel. Similar conclusions were reached for the 1971 Kingsway Tunnel under the Mersey. In Hampton Roads, Virginia, tunnels were chosen over bridges for strategic considerations; in the event of damage, bridges might prevent US Navy vessels from leaving Naval Station Norfolk. Water-crossing tunnels built instead of bridges include the Holland Tunnel and Lincoln Tunnel between New Jersey and Manhattan in New York City; the Queens-Midtown Tunnel between Manhattan and the borough of Queens on Long Island; the Detroit-Windsor Tunnel between Michigan and Ontario; and the Elizabeth River tunnels between Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia; the 1934 River Mersey road Queensway Tunnel; the Western Scheldt Tunnel, Zeeland, Netherlands; and the North Shore Connector tunnel in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties with tides, weather, and shipping during construction (as in the Channel Tunnel), aesthetic reasons (preserving the above-ground view, landscape, and scenery), and also for weight capacity reasons (it may be more feasible to build a tunnel than a sufficiently strong bridge). Some water crossings are a mixture of bridges and tunnels, such as the Denmark to Sweden link and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel in Virginia. There are particular hazards with tunnels, especially from vehicle fires when combustion gases can asphyxiate users, as happened at the Gotthard Road Tunnel in Switzerland in 2001. One of the worst railway disasters ever, the Balvano train disaster, was caused by a train stalling in the Armi tunnel in Italy in 1944, killing 426 passengers. Designers try to reduce these risks by installing emergency ventilation systems or isolated emergency escape tunnels parallel to the main passage. Project planning and cost estimates Government funds are often required for the creation of tunnels. When a tunnel is being planned or constructed, economics and politics play a large factor in the decision making process. Civil engineers usually use project management techniques for developing a major structure. Understanding the amount of time the project requires, and the amount of labor and materials needed is a crucial part of project planning. The project duration must be identified using a work breakdown structure (WBS) and critical path method (CPM). Also, the land needed for excavation and construction staging, and the proper machinery must be selected. Large infrastructure projects require millions or even billions of dollars, involving long-term financing, usually through issuance of bonds. The costs and benefits for an infrastructure such as a tunnel must be identified. Political disputes can occur, as in 2005 when the US House of Representatives approved a $100 million federal grant to build a tunnel under New York Harbor. However, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was not aware of this bill and had not asked for a grant for such a project. Increased taxes to finance a large project may cause opposition. Construction Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The method of tunnel construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the groundwater conditions, the length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of supporting the tunnel excavation, the final use and the shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk management. There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use. Cut-and-cover tunnels are constructed in a shallow trench and then covered over. Bored tunnels are constructed in situ, without removing the ground above. Finally, a tube can be sunk into a body of water, which is called an immersed tunnel. Cut-and-cover Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels where a trench is excavated and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load of what is to be built above the tunnel. There are two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunnelling: Bottom-up method: A trench is excavated, with ground support as necessary, and the tunnel is constructed in it. The tunnel may be of in situ concrete, precast concrete, precast arches, or corrugated steel arches; in early days brickwork was used. The trench is then carefully back-filled and the surface is reinstated. Top-down method: Side support walls and capping beams are constructed from ground level by such methods as slurry walling or contiguous bored piling. Only a shallow excavation is needed to construct the tunnel roof using precast beams or in situ concrete sitting on the walls. The surface is then reinstated except for access openings. This allows early reinstatement of roadways, services, and other surface features. Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base slab is constructed. Shallow tunnels are often of the cut-and-cover type (if under water, of the immersed-tube type), while deep tunnels are excavated, often using a tunnelling shield. For intermediate levels, both methods are possible. Large cut-and-cover boxes are often used for underground metro stations, such as Canary Wharf tube station in London. This construction form generally has two levels, which allows economical arrangements for ticket hall, station platforms, passenger access and emergency egress, ventilation and smoke control, staff rooms, and equipment rooms. The interior of Canary Wharf station has been likened to an underground cathedral, owing to the sheer size of the excavation. This contrasts with many traditional stations on London Underground, where bored tunnels were used for stations and passenger access. Nevertheless, the original parts of the London Underground network, the Metropolitan and District Railways, were constructed using cut-and-cover. These lines pre-dated electric traction and the proximity to the surface was useful to ventilate the inevitable smoke and steam. A major disadvantage of cut-and-cover is the widespread disruption generated at the surface level during construction. This, and the availability of electric traction, brought about London Underground's switch to bored tunnels at a deeper level towards the end of the 19th century. Boring machines Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) and associated back-up systems are used to highly automate the entire tunnelling process, reducing tunnelling costs. In certain predominantly urban applications, tunnel boring is viewed as a quick and cost-effective alternative to laying surface rails and roads. Expensive compulsory purchase of buildings and land, with potentially lengthy planning inquiries, is eliminated. Disadvantages of TBMs arise from their usually large size – the difficulty of transporting the large TBM to the site of tunnel construction, or (alternatively) the high cost of assembling the TBM on-site, often within the confines of the tunnel being constructed. There are a variety of TBM designs that can operate in a variety of conditions, from hard rock to soft water-bearing ground. Some types of TBMs, the bentonite slurry, and earth-pressure balance machines have pressurized compartments at the front end, allowing them to be used in difficult conditions below the water table. This pressurizes the ground ahead of the TBM cutter head to balance the water pressure. The operators work in normal air pressure behind the pressurized compartment, but may occasionally have to enter that compartment to renew or repair the cutters. This requires special precautions, such as local ground treatment or halting the TBM at a position free from water. Despite these difficulties, TBMs are now preferred over the older method of tunnelling in compressed air, with an airlock/decompression chamber some way back from the TBM, which required operators to work in high pressure and go through decompression procedures at the end of their shifts, much like deep-sea divers. In February 2010, Aker Wirth delivered a TBM to Switzerland, for the expansion of the Linth–Limmern Power Stations located south of Linthal in the canton of Glarus. The borehole has a diameter of . The four TBMs used for excavating the Gotthard Base Tunnel, in Switzerland, had a diameter of about . A larger TBM was built to bore the Green Heart Tunnel (Dutch: Tunnel Groene Hart) as part of the HSL-Zuid in the Netherlands, with a diameter of . This in turn was superseded by the Madrid M30 ringroad, Spain, and the Chong Ming tunnels in Shanghai, China. All of these machines were built at least partly by Herrenknecht. , the world's largest TBM was "Big Bertha", a diameter machine built by Hitachi Zosen Corporation, which dug the Alaskan Way Viaduct replacement tunnel in Seattle, Washington (US). Clay-kicking Clay-kicking is a specialized method developed in the United Kingdom of digging tunnels in strong clay-based soil structures. Unlike previous manual methods of using mattocks which relied on the soil structure to be hard, clay-kicking was relatively silent and hence did not harm soft clay-based structures. The clay-kicker lies on a plank at a 45-degree angle away from the working face and inserts a tool with a cup-like rounded end with the feet. Turning the tool manually, the kicker extracts a section of soil, which is then placed on the waste extract. Used in Victorian civil engineering, the method found favor in the renewal of Britain's ancient sewerage systems, by not having to remove all property or infrastructure to create a small tunnel system. During the First World War, the system was used by Royal Engineer tunnelling companies to put mines beneath the German Empire lines. The method was virtually silent and so not susceptible to listening methods of detection. Shafts A temporary access shaft is sometimes necessary during the excavation of a tunnel. They are usually circular and go straight down until they reach the level at which the tunnel is going to be built. A shaft normally has concrete walls and is usually built to be permanent. Once the access shafts are complete, TBMs are lowered to the bottom and excavation can start. Shafts are the main entrance in and out of the tunnel until the project is completed. If a tunnel is going to be long, multiple shafts at various locations may be bored so that entrance to the tunnel is closer to the unexcavated area. Once construction is complete, construction access shafts are often used as ventilation shafts, and may also be used as emergency exits. Sprayed concrete techniques The New Austrian Tunnelling method (NATM)—also referred to as the Sequential Excavation Method (SEM)—was developed in the 1960s. The main idea of this method is to use the geological stress of the surrounding rock mass to stabilize the tunnel, by allowing a measured relaxation and stress reassignment into the surrounding rock to prevent full loads becoming imposed on the supports. Based on geotechnical measurements, an optimal cross section is computed. The excavation is protected by a layer of sprayed concrete, commonly referred to as shotcrete. Other support measures can include steel arches, rock bolts, and mesh. Technological developments in sprayed concrete technology have resulted in steel and polypropylene fibers being added to the concrete mix to improve lining strength. This creates a natural load-bearing ring, which minimizes the rock's deformation. By special monitoring the NATM method is flexible, even at surprising changes of the geomechanical rock consistency during the tunneling work. The measured rock properties lead to appropriate tools for tunnel strengthening. Pipe jacking In pipe jacking, hydraulic jacks are used to push specially made pipes through the ground behind a TBM or shield. This method is commonly used to create tunnels under existing structures, such as roads or railways. Tunnels constructed by pipe jacking are normally small diameter bores with a maximum size of around . Box jacking Box jacking is similar to pipe jacking, but instead of jacking tubes, a box-shaped tunnel is used. Jacked boxes can be a much larger span than a pipe jack, with the span of some box jacks in excess of . A cutting head is normally used at the front of the box being jacked, and spoil removal is normally by excavator from within the box. Recent developments of the Jacked Arch and Jacked deck have enabled longer and larger structures to be installed to close accuracy. The 126m long 20m clear span underpass below the high-speed rail lines at Cliffsend in Kent, UK is an example of this technique. Underwater tunnels There are also several approaches to underwater tunnels, the two most common being bored tunnels or immersed tubes, examples are Bjørvika Tunnel and Marmaray. Submerged floating tunnels are a novel approach under consideration; however, no such tunnels have been constructed to date. Temporary way During construction of a tunnel it is often convenient to install a temporary railway, particularly to remove excavated spoil, often narrow gauge so that it can be double track to allow the operation of empty and loaded trains at the same time. The temporary way is replaced by the permanent way at completion, thus explaining the term "Perway". Enlargement The vehicles or traffic using a tunnel can outgrow it, requiring replacement or enlargement: The original single line Gib Tunnel near Mittagong was replaced with a double-track tunnel, with the original tunnel used for growing mushrooms. The 1832 double-track -long tunnel from Edge Hill to Lime Street in Liverpool was near totally removed, apart from a section at Edge Hill and a section nearer to Lime Street, as four tracks were required. The tunnel was dug out into a very deep four-track cutting, with short tunnels in places along the cutting. Train services were not interrupted as the work progressed. There are other occurrences of tunnels being replaced by open cuts, for example, the Auburn Tunnel. The Farnworth Tunnel in England was enlarged using a tunnel boring machine (TBM) in 2015. The Rhyndaston Tunnel was enlarged using a borrowed TBM so as to be able to take ISO containers. Tunnels can also be enlarged by lowering the floor. Open building pit An open building pit consists of a horizontal and a vertical boundary that keeps groundwater and soil out of the pit. There are several potential alternatives and combinations for (horizontal and vertical) building pit boundaries. The most important difference with cut-and-cover is that the open building pit is muted after tunnel construction; no roof is placed. Other construction methods Drilling and blasting Hydraulic splitter Slurry-shield machine Wall-cover construction method. Variant tunnel types Double-deck and multipurpose tunnels Some tunnels are double-deck, for example, the two major segments of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge (completed in 1936) are linked by a double-deck tunnel section through Yerba Buena Island, the largest-diameter bored tunnel in the world. At construction this was a combination bidirectional rail and truck pathway on the lower deck with automobiles above, now converted to one-way road vehicle traffic on each deck. In Turkey, the Eurasia Tunnel under the Bosphorus, opened in 2016, has at its core a two-deck road tunnel with two lanes on each deck. Additionally, in 2015 the Turkish government announced that it will build the world's first three-level tunnel, also under the Bosporus. The tunnel is intended to carry both the Istanbul metro and a two-level highway, over a length of . The French A86 Duplex Tunnel in west Paris consists of two bored tunnel tubes, the eastern one of which has two levels for light motorized vehicles, over a length of . Although each level offers a physical height of , only traffic up to tall is allowed in this tunnel tube, and motorcyclists are directed to the other tube. Each level was built with a three-lane roadway, but only two lanes per level are used – the third serves as a hard shoulder within the tunnel. The A86 Duplex is Europe's longest double-deck tunnel. In Shanghai, China, a two-tube double-deck tunnel was built starting in 2002. In each tube of the Fuxing Road Tunnel both decks are for motor vehicles. In each direction, only cars and taxis travel on the high two-lane upper deck, and heavier vehicles, like trucks and buses, as well as cars, may use the high single-lane lower level. In the Netherlands, a two-storey, eight-lane, cut-and-cover road tunnel under the city of Maastricht was opened in 2016. Each level accommodates a full height, two by two-lane highway. The two lower tubes of the tunnel carry the A2 motorway, which originates in Amsterdam, through the city; and the two upper tubes take the N2 regional highway for local traffic. The Alaskan Way Viaduct replacement tunnel, is a $3.3 billion , double-decker bored highway tunnel under Downtown Seattle. Construction began in July 2013 using "Bertha", at the time the world's largest earth pressure balance tunnel boring machine, with a cutterhead diameter. After several delays, tunnel boring was completed in April 2017, and the tunnel opened to traffic on February 4, 2019. New York City's 63rd Street Tunnel under the East River, between the boroughs of Manhattan and Queens, was intended to carry subway trains on the upper level and Long Island Rail Road commuter trains on the lower level. Construction started in 1969, and the two sides of the tunnel were bored through in 1972. The upper level, used by the IND 63rd Street Line () of the New York City Subway, was not opened for passenger service until 1989. The lower level, intended for commuter rail, will not see passenger service until completion of the East Side Access project, expected in late 2022. In the UK, the 1934 Queensway Tunnel under the River Mersey between Liverpool and Birkenhead was originally to have road vehicles running on the upper deck and trams on the lower. During construction the tram usage was cancelled. The lower section is only used for cables, pipes and emergency accident refuge enclosures. Hong Kong's Lion Rock Tunnel, built in the mid 1960s, connecting New Kowloon and Sha Tin, carries a motorway but also serves as an aqueduct, featuring a gallery containing five water mains lines with diameters between 1.2m and 1.5m below the road section of the tunnel. Wuhan's Yangtze River Highway and Railway Tunnel is a 2.59 km two-tube double-deck tunnel under the Yangtze River completed in 2018. Each tube carries 3 lanes of local traffic on the top deck with one track Wuhan Metro Line 7 on the lower deck. Some tunnels have more than one purpose. The SMART Tunnel in Malaysia is the first multipurpose "Stormwater Management And Road Tunnel" in the world, created to convey both traffic and occasional flood waters in Kuala Lumpur. When necessary, floodwater is first diverted into a separate bypass tunnel located underneath the double-deck roadway tunnel. In this scenario, traffic continues normally. Only during heavy, prolonged rains when the threat of extreme flooding is high, the upper tunnel tube is closed off to vehicles and automated flood control gates are opened so that water can be diverted through both tunnels. Common utility ducts or utility tunnels carry two or more utility lines. Through co-location of different utilities in one tunnel, organizations are able to reduce the costs of building and maintaining utilities. Covered passageways Over-bridges can sometimes be built by covering a road or river or railway with brick or steel arches, and then leveling the surface with earth. In railway parlance, a surface-level track which has been built or covered over is normally called a "covered way". Snow sheds are a kind of artificial tunnel built to protect a railway from avalanches of snow. Similarly the Stanwell Park, New South Wales "steel tunnel", on the Illawarra railway line, protects the line from rockfalls. Underpass An underpass is a road or railway or other passageway passing under another road or railway, under an overpass. This is not strictly a tunnel. Safety and security Owing to the enclosed space of a tunnel, fires can have very serious effects on users. The main dangers are gas and smoke production, with even low concentrations of carbon monoxide being highly toxic. Fires killed 11 people in the Gotthard tunnel fire of 2001 for example, all of the victims succumbing to smoke and gas inhalation. Over 400 passengers died in the Balvano train disaster in Italy in 1944, when the locomotive halted in a long tunnel. Carbon monoxide poisoning was the main cause of death. In the Caldecott Tunnel fire of 1982, the majority of fatalities were caused by toxic smoke, rather than by the initial crash. Likewise 84 people were killed in the Paris Métro train fire of 1904. Motor vehicle tunnels usually require ventilation shafts and powered fans to remove toxic exhaust gases during routine operation. Rail tunnels usually require fewer air changes per hour, but still may require forced-air ventilation. Both types of tunnels often have provisions to increase ventilation under emergency conditions, such as a fire. Although there is a risk of increasing the rate of combustion through increased airflow, the primary focus is on providing breathable air to persons trapped in the tunnel, as well as firefighters. Aerodynamic pressure wave produced by high speed trains entering a tunnel reflects at its open ends and changes sign (compression wave-front changes to rarefaction wave-front and vice versa); When two wave-front of the same sign meets the train, significant and rapid air pressure may cause aural discomfort to passengers and crew. When high-speed trains exit tunnels, a loud "Tunnel boom" may occur, which can disturb residents near the mouth of the tunnel, and it is exacerbated in mountain valleys where the sound can echo. When there is a parallel, separate tunnel available, airtight but unlocked emergency doors are usually provided which allow trapped personnel to escape from a smoke-filled tunnel to the parallel tube. Larger, heavily used tunnels, such as the Big Dig tunnel in Boston, Massachusetts, may have a dedicated 24-hour staffed operations center which monitors and reports on traffic conditions, and responds to emergencies. Video surveillance equipment is often used, and real-time pictures of traffic conditions for some highways may be viewable by the general public via the Internet. A database of seismic damage to underground structures using 217 case histories shows the following general observations can be made regarding the seismic performance of underground structures: Underground structures suffer appreciably less damage than surface structures. Reported damage decreases with increasing over burden depth. Deep tunnels seem to be safer and less vulnerable to earthquake shaking than are shallow tunnels. Underground facilities constructed in soils can be expected to suffer more damage compared to openings constructed in competent rock. Lined and grouted tunnels are safer than unlined tunnels in rock. Shaking damage can be reduced by stabilizing the ground around the tunnel and by improving the contact between the lining and the surrounding ground through grouting. Tunnels are more stable under a symmetric load, which improves ground-lining interaction. Improving the tunnel lining by placing thicker and stiffer sections without stabilizing surrounding poor ground may result in excess seismic forces in the lining. Backfilling with non-cyclically mobile material and rock-stabilizing measures may improve the safety and stability of shallow tunnels. Damage may be related to peak ground acceleration and velocity based on the magnitude and epicentral distance of the affected earthquake. Duration of strong-motion shaking during earthquakes is of utmost importance because it may cause fatigue failure and therefore, large deformations. High frequency motions may explain the local spalling of rock or concrete along planes of weakness. These frequencies, which rapidly attenuate with distance, may be expected mainly at small distances from the causative fault. Ground motion may be amplified upon incidence with a tunnel if wavelengths are between one and four times the tunnel diameter. Damage at and near tunnel portals may be significant due to slope instability. Earthquakes are one of nature's most formidable threats. A magnitude 6.7 earthquake shook the San Fernando valley in Los Angeles in 1994. The earthquake caused extensive damage to various structures, including buildings, freeway overpasses and road systems throughout the area. The National Center for Environmental Information estimates total damages to be 40 billion dollars. According to an article issued by Steve Hymon of TheSource – Transportation News and Views, there was no serious damage sustained by the LA subway system. Metro, the owner of the LA subway system, issued a statement through their engineering staff about the design and consideration that goes into a tunnel system. Engineers and architects perform extensive analysis as to how hard they expect earthquakes to hit that area. All of this goes into the overall design and flexibility of the tunnel. This same trend of limited subway damage following an earthquake can be seen in many other places. In 1985 a magnitude 8.1 earthquake shook Mexico City; there was no damage to the subway system, and in fact the subway systems served as a lifeline for emergency personnel and evacuations. A magnitude 7.2 ripped through Kobe Japan in 1995, leaving no damage to the tunnels themselves. Entry portals sustained minor damages, however these damages were attributed to inadequate earthquake design that originated from the original construction date of 1965. In 2010 a magnitude 8.8, massive by any scale, afflicted Chile. Entrance stations to subway systems suffered minor damages, and the subway system was down for the rest of the day. By the next afternoon, the subway system was operational again. Examples In history The history of ancient tunnels and tunneling in the world is reviewed in various sources which include many examples of these structures that were built for different purposes. Some well known ancient and modern tunnels are briefly introduced below: The qanat or kareez of Persia are water management systems used to provide a reliable supply of water to human settlements or for irrigation in hot, arid and semi-arid climates. The deepest known qanat is in the Iranian city of Gonabad, which after 2700 years, still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people. Its main well depth is more than , and its length is . The Siloam Tunnel was built before 701 BCE for a reliable supply of water, to withstand siege attacks. The Eupalinian aqueduct on the island of Samos (North Aegean, Greece) was built in 520 BCE by the ancient Greek engineer Eupalinos of Megara under a contract with the local community. Eupalinos organised the work so that the tunnel was begun from both sides of Mount Kastro. The two teams advanced simultaneously and met in the middle with excellent accuracy, something that was extremely difficult in that time. The aqueduct was of utmost defensive importance, since it ran underground, and it was not easily found by an enemy who could otherwise cut off the water supply to Pythagoreion, the ancient capital of Samos. The tunnel's existence was recorded by Herodotus (as was the mole and harbour, and the third wonder of the island, the great temple to Hera, thought by many to be the largest in the Greek world). The precise location of the tunnel was only re-established in the 19th century by German archaeologists. The tunnel proper is and visitors can still enter it. One of the first known drainage and sewage networks in form of tunnels was constructed at Persepolis in Iran at the same time as the construction of its foundation in 518 BCE. In most places the network was dug in the sound rock of the mountain and then covered by large pieces of rock and stone followed by earth and piles of rubble to level the ground. During investigations and surveys, long sections of similar rock tunnels extending beneath the palace area were traced by Herzfeld and later by Schmidt and their archeological teams. The Via Flaminia, an important Roman road, penetrated the Furlo pass in the Apennines through a tunnel which emperor Vespasian had ordered built in 76–77 CE. A modern road, the SS 3 Flaminia, still uses this tunnel, which had a precursor dating back to the 3rd century BCE; remnants of this earlier tunnel (one of the first road tunnels) are also still visible. The world's oldest tunnel traversing under a water body is claimed to be the Terelek kaya tüneli under Kızıl River, a little south of the towns of Boyabat and Durağan in Turkey, just downstream from where Kizil River joins its tributary Gökırmak. The tunnel is presently under a narrow part of a lake formed by a dam some kilometers further downstream. Estimated to have been built more than 2000 years ago, possibly by the same civilization that also built the royal tombs in a rock face nearby, it is assumed to have had a defensive purpose. Sapperton Canal Tunnel on the Thames and Severn Canal in England, dug through hills, which opened in 1789, was long and allowed boat transport of coal and other goods. Above it the Sapperton Long Tunnel was constructed which carries the "Golden Valley" railway line between Swindon and Gloucester. The 1791 Dudley canal tunnel is on the Dudley Canal, in Dudley, England. The tunnel is long. Closed in 1962 the tunnel was reopened in 1973. The series of tunnels was extended in 1984 and 1989. Fritchley Tunnel, constructed in 1793 in Derbyshire by the Butterley Company to transport limestone to its ironworks factory. The Butterley company engineered and built its own railway. A victim of the depression the company closed after 219 years in 2009. The tunnel is the world's oldest railway tunnel traversed by rail wagons. Gravity and horse haulage was utilised. The railway was converted to steam locomotion in 1813 using a Steam Horse locomotive engineered and built by the Butterley company, however reverted to horses. Steam trains used the tunnel continuously from the 1840s when the railway was converted to a narrow gauge. The line closed in 1933. In the Second World War, the tunnel was used as an air raid shelter. Sealed up in 1977 it was rediscovered in 2013 and inspected. The tunnel was resealed to preserved the construction as it was designated an ancient monument. The 1794 Butterley canal tunnel canal tunnel is 3,083 yards (2,819m) in length on the Cromford Canal in Ripley, Derbyshire, England. The tunnel was built simultaneously with the 1773 Fritchley railway tunnel. The tunnel partially collapsed in 1900 splitting the Cromford Canal, and has not been used since. The Friends of Cromford Canal, a group of volunteers, are working at fully restoring the Cromford Canal and the Butterley Tunnel. The 1796 Stoddart Tunnel in Chapel-en-le-Frith in Derbyshire is reputed to be the oldest rail tunnel in the world. The rail wagons were originally horse-drawn. Derby Tunnels in Salem, Massachusetts, were built in 1801 to smuggle imports affected by President Thomas Jefferson's new customs duties. Jefferson had ordered local militias to help the Custom House in each port collect these dues, but the smugglers, led by Elias Derby, hired the Salem militia to dig the tunnels and hide the spoil. The tunnels ran 3 miles connecting the wharfs in town to an underground train station. Along the way they connected prominent businessmen and politicians homes to their stores, bank, and museums. Members of the Salem Commons Fund hid the tunnels behind a project to fill in the ponds and grade the local common. Tunnel dirt was hidden in those ponds and was used to fill in rivers to create new wharfs to connect the tunnels to. Many politicians were involved including a Superior Court justice, a Secretary of the Navy, and many senators in the Federalist Party. A tunnel was created for the first true steam locomotive, from Penydarren to Abercynon. The Penydarren locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick. The locomotive made the historic journey from Penydarren to Abercynon in 1804. Part of this tunnel can still be seen at Pentrebach, Merthyr Tydfil, Wales. This is arguably the oldest railway tunnel in the world, dedicated only to self-propelled steam engines on rails. The Montgomery Bell Tunnel in Tennessee, an water diversion tunnel, , to power a water wheel, was built by slave labour in 1819, being the first full-scale tunnel in North America. Bourne's Tunnel, Rainhill, near Liverpool, England. long. Built in the late 1820s, the exact date is unknown, however probably built in 1828 or 1829. This is the first tunnel in the world constructed under a railway line. The construction of the Liverpool to Manchester Railway ran over a horse-drawn tramway that ran from the Sutton collieries to the Liverpool-Warrington turnpike road. A tunnel was bored under the railway for the tramway. As the railway was being constructed the tunnel was made operational, opening prior to the Liverpool tunnels on the Liverpool to Manchester line. The tunnel was made redundant in 1844 when the tramway was dismantled. Crown Street station, Liverpool, England, 1829. Built by George Stephenson, a single track railway tunnel , was bored from Edge Hill to Crown Street to serve the world's first intercity passenger railway terminus station. The station was abandoned in 1836 being too far from Liverpool city centre, with the area converted for freight use. Closed down in 1972, the tunnel is disused. However it is the oldest passenger rail tunnel running under streets in the world. The 1829 Wapping Tunnel in Liverpool, England, at long on a twin track railway, was the first rail tunnel bored under a metropolis. The tunnel's path is from Edge Hill in the east of the city to Wapping Dock in the south end Liverpool docks. The tunnel was used only for freight terminating at the Park Lane goods terminal. Currently disused since 1972, the tunnel was to be a part of the Merseyrail metro network, with work started and abandoned because of costs. The tunnel is in excellent condition and is still being considered for reuse by Merseyrail, maybe with an underground station cut into the tunnel for Liverpool university. The river portal is opposite the new King's Dock Liverpool Arena being an ideal location for a serving station. If reused the tunnel will be the oldest used underground rail tunnel in the world and oldest section of any underground metro system. 1832, Lime Street railway station tunnel, Liverpool. A two track rail tunnel, long was bored under the metropolis from Edge Hill in the east of the city to Lime Street in Liverpool's city centre. The tunnel was in use from 1832 being used to transport building materials to the new Lime St station while under construction. The station and tunnel was opened to passengers in 1836. In the 1880s the tunnel was converted to a deep cutting, open to the atmosphere, being four tracks wide. This is the only occurrence of a major tunnel being removed. Two short sections of the original tunnel still exist at Edge Hill station and further towards Lime Street, giving the two tunnels the distinction of being the oldest rail tunnels in the world still in use, and the oldest in use under streets. Over time a section of the deep cutting has been converted back into tunnel due to sections having buildings built over. Box Tunnel in England, which opened in 1841, was the longest railway tunnel in the world at the time of construction. It was dug by hand, and has a length of . The 1842 Prince of Wales Tunnel, in Shildon near Darlington, England, is the oldest sizeable tunnel in the world still in use under a settlement. The Victoria Tunnel Newcastle opened in 1842, is a 2.4 mile subterranean wagonway with a maximum depth of that drops from entrance to exit. The tunnel runs under Newcastle upon Tyne, England, and originally exited at the River Tyne. It remains largely intact. Originally designed to carry coal from Spital Tongues to the river, in WW2 part of the tunnel was used as a shelter. Under the management of a charitable foundation called the Ouseburn Trust it is currently used for heritage tours. The Thames Tunnel, built by Marc Isambard Brunel and his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel opened in 1843, was the first tunnel (after Terelek) traversing under a water body, and the first to be built using a tunnelling shield. Originally used as a foot-tunnel, the tunnel was converted to a railway tunnel in 1869 and was a part of the East London Line of the London Underground until 2007. It was the oldest section of the network, although not the oldest purpose built rail section. From 2010 the tunnel became a part of the London Overground network. The Victoria Tunnel/Waterloo Tunnel in Liverpool, England, was bored under a metropolis opening in 1848. The tunnel was initially used only for rail freight serving the Waterloo Freight terminal, and later freight and passengers serving the Liverpool ship liner terminal. The tunnel's path is from Edge Hill in the east of the city to the north end Liverpool docks at Waterloo Dock. The tunnel is split into two tunnels with a short open air cutting linking the two. The cutting is where the cable hauled trains from Edge Hill were hitched and unhitched. The two tunnels are effectively one on the same centre line and are regarded as one. However, as initially the long Victoria section was originally cable hauled and the shorter Waterloo section was locomotive hauled, two separate names were given, the short section was named the Waterloo Tunnel. In 1895 the two tunnels were converted to locomotive haulage. Used until 1972, the tunnel is still in excellent condition. A short section of the Victoria tunnel at Edge Hill is still used for shunting trains. The tunnel is being considered for reuse by the Merseyrail network. Stations cut into the tunnel are being considered and also reuse by a monorail system from the proposed Liverpool Waters redevelopment of Liverpool's Central Docks has been proposed. The vertex tunnel of the Semmering railway, the first Alpine tunnel, was opened in 1848 and was long. It connected rail traffic between Vienna, the capital of Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Trieste, its port. The Giovi Rail Tunnel through the Appennini Mounts opened in 1854, linking the capital city of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Turin, to its port, Genoa. The tunnel was long. The oldest underground sections of the London Underground were built using the cut-and-cover method in the 1860s, and opened in January 1863. What are now the Metropolitan, Hammersmith & City and Circle lines were the first to prove the success of a metro or subway system. On 18 June 1868, the Central Pacific Railroad's 1,659-foot (506 m) Summit Tunnel (Tunnel #6) at Donner Pass in the California Sierra Nevada mountains was opened, permitting the establishment of the commercial mass transportation of passengers and freight over the Sierras for the first time. It remained in daily use until 1993, when the Southern Pacific Railroad closed it and transferred all rail traffic through the 10,322-foot (3,146 m) long Tunnel #41 (a.k.a. "The Big Hole") built a mile to the south in 1925. In 1870, after fourteen years of works, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel was completed between France and Italy, being the second-oldest Alpine tunnel, long. At that time it was the longest in the world. The third Alpine tunnel, the Gotthard Rail Tunnel, between northern and southern Switzerland, opened in 1882 and was the longest rail tunnel in the world, measuring . The 1882 Col de Tende Road Tunnel, at long, was one of the first long road tunnels under a pass, running between France and Italy. As the last bit is drilled, on 26 October 2017, Ryfast becomes the longest undersea road tunnel with its 14.3 km length surpassing that of the tunnel under Tokyo Bay, Japan (9,583 m.), and previously the Shanghai Yangtze River Tunnel (8,950 m.). The tunnel is projected to open for use in 2019. The Mersey Railway tunnel opened in 1886, running from Liverpool to Birkenhead under the River Mersey. The Mersey Railway was the world's first deep-level underground railway. By 1892 the extensions on land from Birkenhead Park station to Liverpool Central Low level station gave a tunnel in length. The under river section is in length, and was the longest underwater tunnel in world in January 1886. The rail Severn Tunnel was opened in late 1886, at long, although only of the tunnel is actually under the River Severn. The tunnel replaced the Mersey Railway tunnel's longest under water record, which was held for less than a year. James Greathead, in constructing the City & South London Railway tunnel beneath the Thames, opened in 1890, brought together three key elements of tunnel construction under water: 1) shield method of excavation; 2) permanent cast iron tunnel lining; 3) construction in a compressed air environment to inhibit water flowing through soft ground material into the tunnel heading. Built in sections between 1890 and 1939, the section of London Underground's Northern line from Morden to East Finchley via Bank was the longest railway tunnel in the world at in length. St. Clair Tunnel, also opened later in 1890, linked the elements of the Greathead tunnels on a larger scale. In 1906 the fourth Alpine tunnel opened, the Simplon Tunnel, between Switzerland and Italy. It is long, and was the longest tunnel in the world until 1982. It was also the deepest tunnel in the world, with a maximum rock overlay of approximately . The 1927 Holland Tunnel was the first underwater tunnel designed for automobiles. The construction required a novel ventilation system. In 1945 the Delaware Aqueduct tunnel was completed, supplying water to New York City in the US. At it is the longest tunnel in the world. In 1988 the long Seikan Tunnel in Japan was completed under the Tsugaru Strait, linking the islands of Honshu and Hokkaido. It was the longest railway tunnel in the world at that time. Longest The Thirlmere Aqueduct in North West England, United Kingdom is sometimes considered the longest tunnel, of any type, in the world at , though the aqueduct's tunnel section is not continuous. The Dahuofang Water Tunnel in China, opened in 2009, is the third longest water tunnel in the world at length. The Gotthard Base Tunnel in Switzerland, opened in 2016, is the longest and deepest railway tunnel in the world at length and maximum depth below the Gotthard Massif. It provides a flat transit route between the North and South of Europe under the Swiss Alps, at a maximum elevation of . The Seikan Tunnel in Japan connects the main island of Honshu with the northern island of Hokkaido by rail. It is long, of which are crossing the Tsugaru Strait undersea. The Channel Tunnel crosses the English Channel between France and the United Kingdom. It has a total length of , of which are the world's longest undersea tunnel section. The Lötschberg Base Tunnel in Switzerland was the longest land rail tunnel, with a length of , from its inauguration in 2007 until the completion of the Gotthard Base Tunnel in 2016. The Lærdal Tunnel in Norway from Lærdal to Aurland is the world's longest road tunnel, intended for cars and similar vehicles, at . The Zhongnanshan Tunnel in People's Republic of China opened in January 2007 is the world's second longest highway tunnel and the longest mountain road tunnel in Asia, at . The longest canal tunnel is the Rove Tunnel in France, over long. Notable The Moffat Tunnel, opened in 1928, passes under the Continental Divide of the Americas in Colorado. The tunnel is long and at an elevation of is the highest active railroad tunnel in the U.S. (The inactive Tennessee Pass Line and the historic Alpine Tunnel are higher.) Williamson's tunnels in Liverpool, from 1804 and completed around 1840 by a wealthy eccentric, are probably the largest underground folly in the world. The tunnels were built with no functional purpose. The Chicago freight tunnel network is the largest urban street tunnel network, comprising of tunnels beneath the majority of downtown Chicago streets. It operated between 1906 and 1956 as a freight network, connecting building basements and railway stations. Following a 1992 flood the network was sealed, although some parts still carry utility and communications infrastructure. The Pennsylvania Turnpike opened in 1940 with seven tunnels, most of which were bored as part of the stillborn South Pennsylvania Railroad and giving the highway the nickname "Tunnel Highway". Four of the tunnels (Allegheny Mountain, Tuscarora Mountain, Kittatinny Mountain, and Blue Mountain) remain in active use, while the other three (Laurel Hill, Rays Hill, and Sideling Hill) were bypassed in the 1960s; the latter two tunnels are on a bypassed section of the Turnpike now commonly known as the Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike. The Fredhälls road tunnel was opened in 1966, in Stockholm, Sweden, and the New Elbe road tunnel opened in 1975 in Hamburg, Germany. Both tunnels handle around 150,000 vehicles a day, making them two of the most trafficked tunnels in the world. The Honningsvåg Tunnel ( long) opened in 1999 on European route E69 in Norway as the world's northernmost road tunnel, except for mines (which exist on Svalbard). The Central Artery road tunnel in Boston, Massachusetts, is a part of the larger Big Dig completed around 2007, and carries approximately 200,000 vehicles/day under the city along Interstate 93, US Route 1, and Massachusetts Route 3, which share a concurrency through the tunnels. The Big Dig replaced Boston's old badly deteriorated I-93 elevated highway. The Stormwater Management And Road Tunnel or SMART Tunnel, is a combined storm drainage and road structure opened in 2007 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The tunnel is the longest stormwater drainage tunnel in South East Asia and second longest in Asia. The facility can be operated as a simultaneous traffic and stormwater passage, or dedicated exclusively to stormwater when necessary. The Eiksund Tunnel on national road Rv 653 in Norway is the world's deepest subsea road tunnel, measuring long, with deepest point at below the sea level, opened in February 2008. Gerrards Cross railway tunnel, in England, opened in 2010, is notable in that it converted an existing railway cutting into a tunnel to create ground to build a supermarket over the tunnel. The railway in the cutting was first opened around 1906, stretching over 104 years to complete a railway tunnel. The tunnel was built using the cover method with craned in prefabricated forms in order to keep the busy railway operating. A branch of the Tesco supermarket chain occupies the newly created ground above the railway tunnel, with an adjacent existing railway station at the end of the tunnel. During construction, a portion of the tunnel collapsed when soil cover was added. The prefabricated forms were covered with a layer of reinforced concrete after the collapse. The Fenghuoshan tunnel, completed in 2005 on the Qinghai-Tibet railway is the world's highest railway tunnel, about above sea level and long. The La Linea Tunnel in Colombia, 2016, is the longest, , mountain tunnel in South America. It crosses beneath a mountain at above sea level with six traffic lanes, and it has a parallel emergency tunnel. The tunnel is subject to serious groundwater pressure. The tunnel will link Bogotá and its urban area with the coffee-growing region, and with the main port on the Colombian Pacific coast. The Chicago Deep Tunnel Project is a network of of drainage tunnels designed to reduce flooding in the Chicago area. Started in the mid-1970s, the project is due to be completed in 2029. New York City Water Tunnel No. 3, started in 1970, has an expected completion beyond 2026, and will measure more than . Mining The use of tunnels for mining is called drift mining. Military use Some tunnels are not for transport at all but rather, are fortifications, for example Mittelwerk and Cheyenne Mountain Complex. Excavation techniques, as well as the construction of underground bunkers and other habitable areas, are often associated with military use during armed conflict, or civilian responses to threat of attack. Another use for tunnels was for the storage of chemical weapons . Secret tunnels Secret tunnels have given entrance to or escape from an area, such as the Cu Chi Tunnels or the smuggling tunnels in the Gaza Strip which connect it to Egypt. Although the Underground Railroad network used to transport escaped slaves was "underground" mostly in the sense of secrecy, hidden tunnels were occasionally used. Secret tunnels were also used during the Cold War, under the Berlin Wall and elsewhere, to smuggle refugees, and for espionage. Smugglers use secret tunnels to transport or store contraband, such as illegal drugs and weapons. Elaborately engineered tunnels built to smuggle drugs across the Mexico-US border were estimated to require up to 9 months to complete, and an expenditure of up to $1 million. Some of these tunnels were equipped with lighting, ventilation, telephones, drainage pumps, hydraulic elevators, and in at least one instance, an electrified rail transport system. Secret tunnels have also been used by thieves to break into bank vaults and retail stores after hours. Several tunnels have been discovered by the Border Security Forces across the Line of Control along the India-Pakistan border, mainly to allow terrorists access to the Indian territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The actual usage of erdstall tunnels is unknown but theories connect it to a rebirth ritual. Natural tunnels Lava tubes are emptied lava conduits, formed during volcanic eruptions by flowing and cooling lava. Natural Tunnel State Park (Virginia, US) features an natural tunnel, really a limestone cave, that has been used as a railroad tunnel since 1890. Punarjani Guha in Kerala, India. Hindus believe that crawling through the tunnel (which they believe was created by a Hindu god) from one end to the other will wash away all of one's sins and thus allow one to attain rebirth. Only men are permitted to crawl through the tunnel. Torghatten, a Norwegian island with a hat-shaped silhouette, has a natural tunnel in the middle of the hat, letting light come through. The long, high, and wide tunnel is said to be the hole made by an arrow of the angry troll Hestmannen, the hill being the hat of the troll-king of Sømna trying to save the beautiful Lekamøya. The tunnel is thought actually to be the work of ice. The sun shines through the tunnel during two few minutes long periods every year. Small "snow tunnels", called burrows, are created by voles, chipmunks and other rodents for protection and access to food sources. Major accidents Clayton Tunnel rail crash (1861) – confusion about block signals leading to collision, 23 killed. Welwyn Tunnel rail crash (1866) – train failed in tunnel, guard did not protect train. Paris Métro train fire (1904) - train fire in Couronnes underground station, 84 killed by smoke and gases. Balvano train disaster (1944) - asphyxiation of about 500 "unofficial" passengers on freight train. Caldecott Tunnel fire (1982) – major motor vehicle tunnel crash and fire. Channel Tunnel fire (1996) Princess Diana's death (1997) – Car crash in Pont de l'Alma tunnel, Paris, which killed Princess Diana. Mont Blanc Tunnel fire (1999) See also Euphrates Tunnel Cattle creep Culvert Hobby tunneling Megaproject Rapid transit Sequential Excavation Method Structure gauge – measure of maximum physical clearance in a tunnel Tree tunnel – tunnel-like effect from tree canopies above a road Tunnel tree – tunnel bored through the trunk of a tree Tunnels in popular culture Underground living United States Army Corps of Engineers References Bibliography Railway Tunnels in Queensland by Brian Webber, 1997, . Sullivan, Walter. Progress In Technology Revives Interest In Great Tunnels, New York Times, 24 June 1986. Retrieved 15 August 2010. External links ITA-AITES International Tunnelling Association Tunnels & Tunnelling International magazine Crossings Civil engineering Transport buildings and structures Earthworks (engineering)	wiki
The Cosmic Eye is a 1986 American animated science fiction film directed by Faith Hubley and featuring the voices of Dizzy Gillespie, Maureen Stapleton and Jack Warden. Plot A trio of homeward-bound space musicians, suffering from acute nostalgia on their space boat The Cosmic Eye, decided to take a turn over the Milky Way and sympathetically helping Earth while watching several films about contacting life in the cosmos and yearning for peace. Voice cast Dizzy Gillespie as Musician/Father Time Linda Atkinson as Musician Sam Hubley as Musician Maureen Stapleton as Mother Time Jack Warden as Rocko Release The film was released theatrically in New York City on June 6, 1986. Reception Vincent Canby of The New York Times gave the film a mixed review, calling it “an unusually pretty film but, like its title, it's also a bit intimidating.” Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review, writing that it “is as joyous and heartening a movie as you’ll find all year. This eye winks, flutters, stares unabashedly and sees to the heart.” See also Moonbird - The 1959 Academy Award for Best Animated Short winner that is featured on the 1986 film References External links American animated science fiction films 1980s English-language films 1980s American films Compilation films	wiki
West End Park may refer to: Ballparks Burns Park (Detroit), a former ballpark of the Detroit Tigers of the American League Kavanaugh Field, a former ballpark of the Little Rock Travelers of the Southern Association West End Park (Houston), a former ballpark of the Houston Buffaloes of the Texas League West End Park (Kinston, North Carolina), a former ballpark of the Kinston Indians of the Carolina League West End Park or Slag Pile Field, a former ballpark of the Birmingham Barons of the Southern League West End Park or West End Grounds, a former ballpark of the Milwaukee West Ends of the League Alliance Football grounds Recreation Park, Alloa, grounds of Alloa Athletic F.C. of the Scottish Championship Outdoor parks Kelvingrove Park, a park in Glasgow West End Park, a park in Flagami, Miami West End Park, a park in Frostburg, Maryland West End Park, a park in Marshall, Texas West End Park, a park in New Iberia, Louisiana West End Park, a park in West End, Atlanta West End Park, a park in West End, Houston West End Park, a park in West End, New Orleans West End Park, a park in West End, Roanoke, Virginia West End Park, a park in West End, Pittsburgh West End Park, a park in Wood River, Illinois	wiki
St Philip and St James Church may refer to: St Philip and St James Church, Ilfracombe, England St Philip and St James Church, Leckhampton, England Church of St Philip and St James, Norton St Philip, England St Philip and St James Church, Oxford, England St Philip and St James' Church, Plaistow, England St Philip and St James Church, Whitton, England St. Philip and St. James Church, Booterstown, Dublin, Ireland	wiki
Defect or defects may refer to: Related to failure Angular defect, in geometry Birth defect, an abnormal condition present at birth Crystallographic defect, in the crystal lattice of solid materials Latent defect, in the law of the sale of property Product defect, a characteristic of a product which hinders its usability Software bug, an error in computer software Other uses Defection, abandoning allegiance to one country for another The Defects, a Northern Irish punk rock band See also Defective (disambiguation) Defected Records, a music label Fault (disambiguation) Flaw (disambiguation)	wiki
Arzanah Airport is a small private airfield operated by the Zakum Development Company and serves the oil field at Arzanah, Abu Dhabi, UAE. References Airports in the United Arab Emirates	wiki
Penthouse most often refers to: Penthouse apartment, a special apartment on the top floor of a building Penthouse (magazine), a British-founded men's magazine Mechanical penthouse, a floor, typically located directly under a flat-roof, that houses mechanical equipment Penthouse may also refer to: Film and television Penthouse (film), a 1933 American film The Penthouse (1967 film), a British film directed by Peter Collinson The Penthouse (1989 film), an American-Canadian television film directed by David Greene The Penthouse (2010 film), an American film directed by Chris Levitus Penthouse (Australian TV series), a 1960–1961 daytime interview show Penthouse (Mexican TV series), a 1973 telenovela The Penthouse: War in Life, a 2020–2021 television series Penthouse HDTV, a TV channel Music Penthouse (album), a 1995 album by Luna The Penthouse (Seattle), a 1960s jazz club in Seattle, Washington, US Penthouse Records, a Jamaican record label See also The Penthouse Club, a 1970–1978 Australian TV variety programme Pentheus, mythological king of Thebes The Pent House, listed building in Plympton, Devon, England	wiki
In statistics, an outlier is a data point that differs significantly from other observations. An outlier may be due to a variability in the measurement, an indication of novel data, or it may be the result of experimental error; the latter are sometimes excluded from the data set. An outlier can be an indication of exciting possibility, but can also cause serious problems in statistical analyses. Outliers can occur by chance in any distribution, but they can indicate novel behaviour or structures in the data-set, measurement error, or that the population has a heavy-tailed distribution. In the case of measurement error, one wishes to discard them or use statistics that are robust to outliers, while in the case of heavy-tailed distributions, they indicate that the distribution has high skewness and that one should be very cautious in using tools or intuitions that assume a normal distribution. A frequent cause of outliers is a mixture of two distributions, which may be two distinct sub-populations, or may indicate 'correct trial' versus 'measurement error'; this is modeled by a mixture model. In most larger samplings of data, some data points will be further away from the sample mean than what is deemed reasonable. This can be due to incidental systematic error or flaws in the theory that generated an assumed family of probability distributions, or it may be that some observations are far from the center of the data. Outlier points can therefore indicate faulty data, erroneous procedures, or areas where a certain theory might not be valid. However, in large samples, a small number of outliers is to be expected (and not due to any anomalous condition). Outliers, being the most extreme observations, may include the sample maximum or sample minimum, or both, depending on whether they are extremely high or low. However, the sample maximum and minimum are not always outliers because they may not be unusually far from other observations. Naive interpretation of statistics derived from data sets that include outliers may be misleading. For example, if one is calculating the average temperature of 10 objects in a room, and nine of them are between 20 and 25 degrees Celsius, but an oven is at 175 °C, the median of the data will be between 20 and 25 °C but the mean temperature will be between 35.5 and 40 °C. In this case, the median better reflects the temperature of a randomly sampled object (but not the temperature in the room) than the mean; naively interpreting the mean as "a typical sample", equivalent to the median, is incorrect. As illustrated in this case, outliers may indicate data points that belong to a different population than the rest of the sample set. Estimators capable of coping with outliers are said to be robust: the median is a robust statistic of central tendency, while the mean is not. However, the mean is generally a more precise estimator. Occurrence and causes In the case of normally distributed data, the three sigma rule means that roughly 1 in 22 observations will differ by twice the standard deviation or more from the mean, and 1 in 370 will deviate by three times the standard deviation. In a sample of 1000 observations, the presence of up to five observations deviating from the mean by more than three times the standard deviation is within the range of what can be expected, being less than twice the expected number and hence within 1 standard deviation of the expected number – see Poisson distribution – and not indicate an anomaly. If the sample size is only 100, however, just three such outliers are already reason for concern, being more than 11 times the expected number. In general, if the nature of the population distribution is known a priori, it is possible to test if the number of outliers deviate significantly from what can be expected: for a given cutoff (so samples fall beyond the cutoff with probability p) of a given distribution, the number of outliers will follow a binomial distribution with parameter p, which can generally be well-approximated by the Poisson distribution with λ = pn. Thus if one takes a normal distribution with cutoff 3 standard deviations from the mean, p is approximately 0.3%, and thus for 1000 trials one can approximate the number of samples whose deviation exceeds 3 sigmas by a Poisson distribution with λ = 3. Causes Outliers can have many anomalous causes. A physical apparatus for taking measurements may have suffered a transient malfunction. There may have been an error in data transmission or transcription. Outliers arise due to changes in system behaviour, fraudulent behaviour, human error, instrument error or simply through natural deviations in populations. A sample may have been contaminated with elements from outside the population being examined. Alternatively, an outlier could be the result of a flaw in the assumed theory, calling for further investigation by the researcher. Additionally, the pathological appearance of outliers of a certain form appears in a variety of datasets, indicating that the causative mechanism for the data might differ at the extreme end (King effect). Definitions and detection There is no rigid mathematical definition of what constitutes an outlier; determining whether or not an observation is an outlier is ultimately a subjective exercise. There are various methods of outlier detection, some of which are treated as synonymous with novelty detection. Some are graphical such as normal probability plots. Others are model-based. Box plots are a hybrid. Model-based methods which are commonly used for identification assume that the data are from a normal distribution, and identify observations which are deemed "unlikely" based on mean and standard deviation: Chauvenet's criterion Grubbs's test for outliers Dixon's Q test ASTM E178: Standard Practice for Dealing With Outlying Observations Mahalanobis distance and leverage are often used to detect outliers, especially in the development of linear regression models. Subspace and correlation based techniques for high-dimensional numerical data Peirce's criterion It is proposed to determine in a series of observations the limit of error, beyond which all observations involving so great an error may be rejected, provided there are as many as such observations. The principle upon which it is proposed to solve this problem is, that the proposed observations should be rejected when the probability of the system of errors obtained by retaining them is less than that of the system of errors obtained by their rejection multiplied by the probability of making so many, and no more, abnormal observations. (Quoted in the editorial note on page 516 to Peirce (1982 edition) from A Manual of Astronomy 2:558 by Chauvenet.) – Appendix 21, according to the editorial note on page 515 Tukey's fences Other methods flag observations based on measures such as the interquartile range. For example, if and are the lower and upper quartiles respectively, then one could define an outlier to be any observation outside the range: for some nonnegative constant . John Tukey proposed this test, where indicates an "outlier", and indicates data that is "far out". In anomaly detection In various domains such as, but not limited to, statistics, signal processing, finance, econometrics, manufacturing, networking and data mining, the task of anomaly detection may take other approaches. Some of these may be distance-based and density-based such as Local Outlier Factor (LOF). Some approaches may use the distance to the k-nearest neighbors to label observations as outliers or non-outliers. Modified Thompson Tau test The modified Thompson Tau test is a method used to determine if an outlier exists in a data set. The strength of this method lies in the fact that it takes into account a data set's standard deviation, average and provides a statistically determined rejection zone; thus providing an objective method to determine if a data point is an outlier. How it works: First, a data set's average is determined. Next the absolute deviation between each data point and the average are determined. Thirdly, a rejection region is determined using the formula: ; where is the critical value from the Student distribution with n-2 degrees of freedom, n is the sample size, and s is the sample standard deviation. To determine if a value is an outlier: Calculate . If δ > Rejection Region, the data point is an outlier. If δ ≤ Rejection Region, the data point is not an outlier. The modified Thompson Tau test is used to find one outlier at a time (largest value of δ is removed if it is an outlier). Meaning, if a data point is found to be an outlier, it is removed from the data set and the test is applied again with a new average and rejection region. This process is continued until no outliers remain in a data set. Some work has also examined outliers for nominal (or categorical) data. In the context of a set of examples (or instances) in a data set, instance hardness measures the probability that an instance will be misclassified ( where is the assigned class label and represent the input attribute value for an instance in the training set ). Ideally, instance hardness would be calculated by summing over the set of all possible hypotheses : Practically, this formulation is unfeasible as is potentially infinite and calculating is unknown for many algorithms. Thus, instance hardness can be approximated using a diverse subset : where is the hypothesis induced by learning algorithm trained on training set with hyperparameters . Instance hardness provides a continuous value for determining if an instance is an outlier instance. Working with outliers The choice of how to deal with an outlier should depend on the cause. Some estimators are highly sensitive to outliers, notably estimation of covariance matrices. Retention Even when a normal distribution model is appropriate to the data being analyzed, outliers are expected for large sample sizes and should not automatically be discarded if that is the case. The application should use a classification algorithm that is robust to outliers to model data with naturally occurring outlier points. Exclusion Deletion of outlier data is a controversial practice frowned upon by many scientists and science instructors; while mathematical criteria provide an objective and quantitative method for data rejection, they do not make the practice more scientifically or methodologically sound, especially in small sets or where a normal distribution cannot be assumed. Rejection of outliers is more acceptable in areas of practice where the underlying model of the process being measured and the usual distribution of measurement error are confidently known. An outlier resulting from an instrument reading error may be excluded but it is desirable that the reading is at least verified. The two common approaches to exclude outliers are truncation (or trimming) and Winsorising. Trimming discards the outliers whereas Winsorising replaces the outliers with the nearest "nonsuspect" data. Exclusion can also be a consequence of the measurement process, such as when an experiment is not entirely capable of measuring such extreme values, resulting in censored data. In regression problems, an alternative approach may be to only exclude points which exhibit a large degree of influence on the estimated coefficients, using a measure such as Cook's distance. If a data point (or points) is excluded from the data analysis, this should be clearly stated on any subsequent report. Non-normal distributions The possibility should be considered that the underlying distribution of the data is not approximately normal, having "fat tails". For instance, when sampling from a Cauchy distribution, the sample variance increases with the sample size, the sample mean fails to converge as the sample size increases, and outliers are expected at far larger rates than for a normal distribution. Even a slight difference in the fatness of the tails can make a large difference in the expected number of extreme values. Set-membership uncertainties A set membership approach considers that the uncertainty corresponding to the ith measurement of an unknown random vector x is represented by a set Xi (instead of a probability density function). If no outliers occur, x should belong to the intersection of all Xi's. When outliers occur, this intersection could be empty, and we should relax a small number of the sets Xi (as small as possible) in order to avoid any inconsistency. This can be done using the notion of q-relaxed intersection. As illustrated by the figure, the q-relaxed intersection corresponds to the set of all x which belong to all sets except q of them. Sets Xi that do not intersect the q-relaxed intersection could be suspected to be outliers. Alternative models In cases where the cause of the outliers is known, it may be possible to incorporate this effect into the model structure, for example by using a hierarchical Bayes model, or a mixture model. See also Anomaly (natural sciences) Novelty detection Anscombe's quartet Data transformation (statistics) Extreme value theory Influential observation Random sample consensus Robust regression Studentized residual Winsorizing References External links Grubbs test described by NIST manual Statistical charts and diagrams Robust statistics	wiki
Calotes farooqi, Farooq's garden lizard, is a species of agamid lizard. It is endemic to Pakistan. References Calotes Reptiles of Pakistan Endemic fauna of Pakistan Reptiles described in 1995	wiki
Non-solid or nonsolid may refer to: Non-solid, anything not in a solid state of matter Non-solid archive format, in solid compression computer file data compression In computer graphics, a non-solid is a virtual object that does not collide with other objects (see collision detection) Non-solid projection screen, in video technology	wiki
MK3 may refer to: Mortal Kombat 3, the third game in the Mortal Kombat series Mario Kart: Super Circuit, the third game in the Mario Kart series, released in 2001 for the Game Boy Advance See also Mark III (disambiguation)	wiki
The West Texas Roughnecks season was the team's seventh season as a professional indoor football franchise and first in the Indoor Football League (IFL). One of twenty-five teams competing in the IFL for the 2010 season, the Odessa, Texas-based West Texas Roughnecks were members of the Lonestar West Division of the Intense Conference. Under the leadership of head coach Chris Williams, the team played their home games at the Ector County Coliseum in Odessa, Texas. The Roughnecks lost to the Amarillo Venom 36–56 in the Intense Conference Wild Card round. Schedule Regular season Playoffs Standings Roster References External links West Texas Roughnecks official statistics West Texas Roughnecks West Texas Roughnecks	wiki
Костёл миссионеров Костёл миссионеров (костёл Вознесения Господня) — костёл и монастырь в Вильнюсе Костёл миссионеров (костёл Святого Креста) — костёл и монастырь во Львове. Костёл миссионеров (костёл Пресвятой Троицы) — костёл и монастырь в деревне Лысково (Пружанский район)	wiki
The geography of East Timor exhibits a mountainous terrain on the eastern half of the island of Timor in Southeast Asia (or Oceania depending on definitions). East Timor includes the eastern half of Timor, the Ocussi-Ambeno region on the northwest portion of the island of Timor, and the islands of Atauro and Jaco. The country is located northwest of Australia in the Lesser Sunda Islands at the eastern end of the Indonesian Archipelago. 'Timor' is a Portuguese derivation of 'Timor', the Malay word for "Orient"; the island of Timor is part of the Malay Archipelago and is the largest and easternmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East Timor is the only Asian nation to lie entirely within the Southern Hemisphere. The Loes River is the longest with a length of . This river system covers an area of . It is a small country with a land size of . The exclusive economic zone is . Statistics Area Total: 14,874 km² Land: 14,874 km² Water: 0 km² Land boundaries Total: Border countries: Indonesia () Coastline Maritime claims Territorial sea: 12 nmi Contiguous zone: 24 nmo Exclusive economic zone: and 200 nmi Elevation extremes Lowest point: Timor Sea, Savu Sea, and Banda Sea 0 m Highest point: Tatamailau () Natural resources Gold, petroleum, natural gas, manganese, marble Land use Arable land: 10.1% Permanent crops: 4.9% Permanent pasture: 10.1% Forest: 49.1% Other: 25.8% (2011) Irrigated land (2003) Climate Tropical; hot and humid with distinct rainy and dry seasons. Tropical cyclones do occur along with floods. Environment Natural hazards Landslides are common; earthquakes; and tsunamis. Environment - current issues Widespread use of slash and burn agriculture has led to deforestation and soil erosion. Environment - international agreements Biodiversity, climate change, climate change-Kyoto Protocol, desertification References Much of the material in this article is adapted from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and 2012. Further reading	wiki
Invisible Sun may refer to: Invisible Sun, a song by English rock group the Police Invisible Sun (Liam Gallagher song), a song by English musician Liam Gallagher Invisible Sun (role-playing game), a surrealistic fantasy tabletop role-playing game by Monte Cook	wiki
This is a list of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1986. Fellows of the Royal Society Adrian Edmund Gill (1937–1986) Thomas Nelson Marsham (1923–1989) Allan Charles Wilson (1934–1991) Dennis Chapman (1927–1999) Michael Smith (1932–2000) Nicholas Harold Lloyd Ridley (1906–2001) Vulimiri Ramalingaswami (1921–2001) John Marmion Edmond (1943–2001) Sir William Mitchell (1925–2002) John Argyris (1916–2004) Gordon Richard Wray (1928–2005) Michael Augustine Raftery (1936–2007) Peter Berners Fellgett (1936–2008) Sir William Ian Axford (1933–2010) Sir Gabriel Horn (1927–2012) Martin Fleischmann (1927–2012) Sir Roy Malcolm Anderson Sir Alec Broers, Baron Broers Geoffrey Burnstock (1929–2020) John Clarke Peter Day Richard Newland Dixon Simon Kirwan Donaldson John Derek Dowell Charon Robin Ganellin John Rodney Guest Werner Israel Sir Alec Jeffreys Allen Kerr Chris J. Leaver George Huntly Lorimer Robert Hall Michell Henry Keith Moffatt Peter Damian Richardson Raymond Edward Smallman Charles James Matthew Stirling Sir John Sulston Dame Jean Olwen Thomas Sir David James Wallace Elizabeth Kerr Warrington Foreign members Piet Borst Albert Jakob Eschenmoser Antonio Garcia-Bellido Joseph Bishop Keller Edwin Herbert Land (1909–1991) Shosaku Numa (1929–1992) Elected under Statute 12 Roger Makins, 1st Baron Sherfield (1904–1996) References 1986 1986 in science 1986 in the United Kingdom	wiki
Digesta may refer to: The book Digesta seu Pandectae, also called "Pandects", see Digest (Roman law) Food undergoing digestion	wiki
Camp Pioneer may refer to: Camp Pioneer (Oregon) Camp Pioneer (Arkansas) Camp Pioneer (Louisiana) Camp Pioneer (New Mexico) See also Manitoba Pioneer Camp Young Pioneer camp	wiki
The Gulf of Batabanó (; ), also called the Batabanó Gulf, is an inlet or strait off southwestern Cuba in the Caribbean Sea, separating mainland Cuba from the Isle of Youth. Overview The gulf's northern border begins at the southern coast of Cuba in Pinar del Río Province, Artemisa Province, Mayabeque Province and Matanzas Province, ending at the Zapata Peninsula (Península de Zapata), a length of about . The northeastern section of the gulf is also called Ensenada de la Broa. The gulf stretches south about to the Isle of Youth. The gulf is shallow–less than deep–and contains about 350 smaller islands of the Canarreos Archipelago (los Archipiélago de los Canarreos) besides the Isle of Youth. The gulf is a center of sponge fishing. See also Batabanó Surgidero de Batabanó References External links Encyclopædia Britannica Columbia Gazetteer of North America article Bodies of water of Cuba Batabano	wiki
This is a list of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1987. Fellows Robert McNeill Alexander George Brownlee Bruce Macintosh Cattanach John Frederick Clarke (1927–2013) William Compston Donald Watts Davies (1924–2000) Peter Charles Doherty Duncan Dowson John William Fozard (1928–1996) Coluthur Gopalan Peter Raymond Grant James Alexander Green Norman Neill Greenwood (1949–2012) Bryan Desmond Harrison Michael Patrick Hassell Anthony Rex Hunter Herbert Eric Huppert Olga Kennard (d. 2023) Anthony John Kirby William Graeme Laver (d. 2008) Rodney Loudon Nicholas John Mackintosh Sir Peter Mansfield Terence Arthur Mansfield James Desmond Caldwell McConnell Peter Hague Nye (d. 2009) David Ian Olive (1937–2012) Oliver Penrose John Douglas Pettigrew Terence Howard Rabbitts Benton Seymour Rabinovitch Edward Peter Raynes Peter Neville Robson (d. 2010) Sir Michael Llewellyn Rutter (b.1933) Roman Mieczyslaw Sawicki (1930–1990) Anthony James Merrill Spencer (1929–2008) Patrick Christopher Steptoe (1913–1988) William Thomas Tutte (1917–2002) James Kay Graham Watson Sir Martin Francis Wood Foreign members David Baltimore (1938– Norman Ernest Borlaug (1914–2009) Walter Gilbert Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg (1916–2009) George Rankine Irwin (1907–1998) Rudolph Arthur Marcus (b.1923) Other Sir Peter Markham Scott (1909–1989) (elected under statute 12) Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise Princess Royal (elected a Royal Fellow) References 1987 1987 in science 1987 in the United Kingdom	wiki
Estação Hospital (Merval) — estação do Metrô de Valparaíso, Chile Estação Hospital (SITVA) — estação do Metrô de Medellín, Colômbia Estação Hospital (Metrorrey) — estação do Metrorrey, México Hospital	wiki
The Welsh Marches () is an imprecisely defined area along the border between England and Wales in the United Kingdom. The precise meaning of the term has varied at different periods. The English term Welsh March (in Medieval Latin Marchia Walliae) was originally used in the Middle Ages to denote the marches between England and the Principality of Wales, in which Marcher lords had specific rights, exercised to some extent independently of the king of England. In modern usage, "the Marches" is often used to describe those English counties which lie along the border with Wales, particularly Shropshire and Herefordshire, and sometimes adjoining areas of Wales. However, at one time the Marches included all of the historic counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire. In this context the word march means a border region or frontier, and is cognate with the verb "to march," both ultimately derived from Proto-Indo-European *mereg-, "edge" or "boundary". Origins: Mercia and the Welsh After the decline and fall of the Roman Empire which occupied southern Britain until about AD 410, the area which is now Wales comprised a number of separate Romano-British kingdoms, including Powys in the east. Over the next few centuries, the Angles, Saxons and others gradually conquered and settled in eastern and southern Britain. The kingdom of Mercia, under Penda, became established around Lichfield, and initially established strong alliances with the Welsh kings. However, his successors sought to expand Mercia further westwards into what is now Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. As the power of Mercia grew, a string of garrisoned market towns such as Shrewsbury and Hereford defined the borderlands as much as Offa's Dyke, a stronger and longer boundary earthwork erected by order of Offa of Mercia between AD 757 and 796. The Dyke still exists, and can best be seen at Knighton, close to the modern border between England and Wales. Campaigns and raids from Powys led, possibly around about AD 820, to the building of Wat's Dyke, a boundary earthwork extending from the Severn valley near Oswestry to the Dee estuary. In the centuries which followed, Offa's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English. Athelstan, often seen as the first king of a united England, summoned the British kings to a meeting at Hereford in AD 926, and according to William of Malmesbury laid down the boundary between Wales and England, particularly the disputed southern stretch where he specified that the River Wye should form the boundary. By the mid-eleventh century, Wales was united under Gruffudd ap Llywelyn of Gwynedd, until his death in 1063. The Marches in the Middle Ages Immediately after the Norman Conquest, King William of England installed three of his most trusted confidants, Hugh d'Avranches, Roger de Montgomerie, and William FitzOsbern, as Earls of Chester, Shrewsbury and Hereford respectively, with responsibilities for containing and subduing the Welsh. The process took a century and was never permanently effective. The term "March of Wales" was first used in the Domesday Book of 1086. Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small marcher lordships between the Dee and Severn, and further west. Military adventurers went to Wales from Normandy and elsewhere and after raiding an area of Wales, then fortified it and granted land to some of their supporters. One example was Bernard de Neufmarché, responsible for conquering and pacifying the Welsh kingdom of Brycheiniog. The precise dates and means of formation of the lordships varied, as did their size. The March, or Marchia Wallie, was to a greater or lesser extent independent of both the English monarchy and the Principality of Wales or Pura Wallia, which remained based in Gwynedd in the north west of the country. By about AD 1100 the March covered the areas which would later become Monmouthshire and much of Flintshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire, Glamorgan, Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire. Ultimately, this amounted to about two-thirds of Wales. During the period, the Marches were a frontier society in every sense, and a stamp was set on the region that lasted into the time of the Industrial Revolution. Hundreds of small castles were built in the border area in the 12th and 13th centuries, predominantly by Norman lords as assertions of power as well as defences against Welsh raiders and rebels. The area still contains Britain's densest concentration of motte-and-bailey castles. The Marcher lords encouraged immigration from all the Norman-Angevin realms, and encouraged trade from "fair haven" ports like Cardiff. Peasants went to Wales in large numbers: Henry I encouraged Bretons, Flemings, Normans, and English settlers to move into the south of Wales. Many new towns were established, some such as Chepstow, Monmouth, Ludlow and Newtown becoming successful trading centres, and these tended also to be a focus of English settlement. At the same time, the Welsh continued to attack English soil and supported rebellions against the Normans. The Norman lords each had similar rights to the Welsh princes. Each owed personal allegiance, as subjects, to the English king whom they were bound to support in times of war, but their lands were exempt from royal taxation and they possessed rights which elsewhere were reserved to the crown, such as the rights to create forests, markets and boroughs. The lordships were geographically compact and jurisdictionally separate one from another, and their privileges differentiated them from English lordships. Marcher lords ruled their lands by their own law—sicut regale ("like unto a king") as Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester stated — whereas in England fief-holders were directly accountable to the king. The crown's powers in the Marches were normally limited to those periods when the king held a lordship in its own hands, such as when it was forfeited for treason or on the death of the lord without a legitimate heir whereupon the title reverted to the Crown in escheat. At the top of a culturally diverse, intensely feudalised and local society, the Marcher barons combined the authority of feudal lord and vassal of the King among their Normans, and of supplanting the traditional tywysog among their conquered Welsh. However, Welsh law was sometimes used in the Marches in preference to English law, and there were disputes as to which code should be used to decide a particular case. From this developed the distinctive March law. The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of the Principality by Edward I of England. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "Prince of Wales" as legally part of the lands of the Crown, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The Marcher Lords were progressively tied to the English kings by the grants of lands and lordships in England, where control was stricter, and where many marcher lords spent most of their time, and through the English kings' dynastic alliances with the great magnates. The Council of Wales and the Marches, administered from Ludlow Castle, was initially established in 1472 by Edward IV of England to govern the lands held under the Principality of Wales which had become directly administered by the English crown following the Edwardian conquest of Wales in the 13th century. The end of Marcher powers By the 16th century, many marcher lordships had passed into the hands of the crown, as the result of the accessions of Henry IV, who was previously Duke of Lancaster, and Edward IV, the heir of the Earls of March; of the attainder of other lords during the Wars of the Roses; and of other events. The crown was also directly responsible for the government of the Principality of Wales, which had its own institutions and was, like England, divided into counties. The jurisdiction of the remaining marcher lords was therefore seen as an anomaly, and their independence from the crown enabled criminals from England to evade justice by moving into the area and claiming "marcher liberties". Under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 introduced under Henry VIII, the jurisdiction of the marcher lords was abolished in 1536. The Acts had the effect of annexing Wales with England and creating a single state and legal jurisdiction, commonly referred to as England and Wales. The powers of the marcher lordships were abolished, and their areas were organised into the new Welsh counties of Denbighshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire, Monmouthshire, and Carmarthenshire. The counties of Pembrokeshire and Glamorgan were created by adding other districts to existing lordships. In place of assize courts of England, there were Courts of Great Sessions. These administered English law, in contrast with the marcher lordships, which had administered Welsh law for their Welsh subjects. Some lordships were added to adjoining English counties: Ludlow, Clun, Caus and part of Montgomery were incorporated into Shropshire; Wigmore, Huntington, Clifford and most of Ewyas were included in Herefordshire; and that part of Chepstow east of the River Wye was included in Gloucestershire. The Council of Wales, based at Ludlow Castle, was reconstituted as the Council of Wales and the Marches, with statutory responsibilities for the whole of Wales together with, initially, Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire. The City of Bristol was exempted in 1562, and Cheshire in 1569. The Council was eventually abolished in 1689, following the "Glorious Revolution" which overthrew James II (VII of Scotland) and established William III (William of Orange) as king. List of Marcher lordships and successor shires {{Image label small\|scale=305\|x=0.050\|y=1.130\|text=Map illustrating the traditional counties considered to form the "Welsh Marches"}} List of Marcher lordships and successor shires:FlintshireFlint Hawarden Hopedale Maelor Saesneg MoldDenbighshireBromfield and Yale Chirkland Denbigh Ruthin (Dyffryn Clwyd)MontgomeryshireCaus (part) Cedewain Ceri Montgomery (part) PowysRadnorshireCwmwd Deuddor Elfael Glasbury Gwrtheyrnion Maelienydd RadnorBrecknockshireBlaenllyfni Brecon Builth HayMonmouthshireAbergavenny Caerleon Chepstow (part) Ewyas Lacy (part) Gwynllwg (Wentloog) Monmouth UskGlamorganLordship of Glamorgan Lordship of GowerCarmarthenshireCantref Bychan Kidwelly Emlyn Llansteffan Laugharne St ClearsPembrokeshireCemais Cilgerran Haverford Llawhaden Narberth Pebidiog PembrokeTransferred to English shires'Bishop's Castle (Shropshire)Caus (part) (Shropshire)Chepstow (part) (Gloucestershire)Clifford (Herefordshire)Clun (Shropshire)Ewyas Lacy (part) (Herefordshire)Kington (Herefordshire)Huntington (Herefordshire)Montgomery (part) (Shropshire)Oswestry (Shropshire)Whittington (Shropshire)Wigmore (Herefordshire)The Marches today There is no modern legal or official definition of the extent of the Welsh Marches. However, the term the Welsh Marches (or sometimes just the Marches) is commonly used to describe those English counties which lie along the border with Wales, particularly Shropshire and Herefordshire. The term is also sometimes applied to parts of Powys, Monmouthshire and Wrexham. The Welsh Marches Line is a railway line from Newport in the south of Wales to Shrewsbury, via Abergavenny, Hereford, and Craven Arms. The Marches Way is a long distance footpath which connects Chester in the north of England, via Whitchurch, Shrewsbury, Leominster and Abergavenny to the Welsh capital, Cardiff. The Marches School is a secondary school in Oswestry, Shropshire. The school has several meeting rooms named in Welsh, and has students and staff from both sides of the border. See also Marches – for other examples, including Scottish Marches between England and Scotland. Council of the Marches Earl of March – some of the dynastic families controlling the Welsh Marches Welsh Lost Lands England–Wales border A49 – main road that runs north-south through the Marches Honour of Richmond History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages :Category:Towns of the Welsh Marches :Category:Counties of the Welsh Marches Notes References Attribution Further reading Freeman, Edward Augustus Freeman, 1871. The History of the Norman Conquest of England: Its Causes and Its Results, (Clarendon Press, London) Davies, R. R., The Age of Conquest: Wales 1063–1415 (Oxford 1987, 2000 edition), pp. 271–88. ---. Lordship and Society in the March of Wales, 1282–1400 (1978). Froude, James Anthony, 1881. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth (London, Published by C. Scribner's sons) pp. 380–384. Reeves, A. Compton, The Marcher Lords'' (1983) Skeel, C.A.J. "The Council in the Marches of Wales", Hugh Rees Ltd. London (1904) Allott, Andrew. 2011, Marches. Collins New Naturalist Library. London 926 establishments States and territories established in the 920s England–Wales border 01 01 History of Wales Medieval England Medieval Wales Regions of England Regions of Wales West Midlands (region) 16th century in England 16th century in Wales The Lordship of Bromfield and Yale Marches (country subdivision)	wiki
The Greenlandic krone (, ) was a planned currency for Greenland, plans of which were abandoned in 2009. The same name is often used for currency issued during Greenland's time as a Danish colony. The name krone is derived from the Danish krone, introduced in an 1873 currency reform that replaced Danish mark and skilling. Currently, the Danish krone circulates in Greenland. The Greenland krone was not intended to be an independent currency but a version of the Danish krone. Consequently, it was not intended to have its own ISO 4217 currency code, but to use the same ISO 4217 code as the Danish krone, which is DKK. Even if the currency had been adopted, the (regular) Danish krone would have continued to circulate separately. History As in Denmark, the krone replaced the rigsdaler in 1874 at a rate of 2 kroner = 1 rigsdaler. All issues of the krone in Greenland have been equivalent in value to the Danish krone. During the last part of the 19th century, while still a Danish colony, several mining companies operating in Greenland issued their own currencies. Distinct zinc currency was also introduced in the newly founded colony of Amassalik. Between 1926 and 1964, the Danish government's trade monopoly, Kongelig Grønlandske Handel (Royal Greenlandic Trade) introduced a series of distinct coins for use on Greenland. In 1944, the colonial administration issued a 5-kroner coin, using a similar design as the then-circulating 1-krone piece but produced at the U.S. Mint in Philadelphia. Although the colonies in Greenland were incorporated into Denmark by the 1953 change to the Danish constitution, the Greenlandic administration continued to issue its own banknotes until 1968. In 2006, the government of Denmark and the home rule authority on Greenland announced that an agreement had been reached to produce a distinct Greenlandic version of the Danish krone (DKK) bills, a similar relationship as between the Faroese króna and the Danish krone. A bill to this effect was passed unanimously by the Danish parliament in May 2007. The bill specifies the nature of the new issue: However, in a vote in mid-October 2009, Greenland decided not to introduce its own notes for now. Coins In 1926, cupronickel 25 øre and aluminium-bronze 50 øre and 1 krone were issued. The coins were the same size and composition as the corresponding Danish coins. However, the 25 øre was not holed, although some were withdrawn from circulation, holed and then reissued. In 1944, brass 5-kroner coins, produced by the Philadelphia Mint in the United States, were issued. A second issue of aluminium-bronze 1 krone was made in 1957, followed by cupronickel versions in 1960 and 1964. A related foreign issue is the 2-kroner coin that Denmark minted in 1953. To commemorate the start of an anti-tuberculosis campaign in Greenland, 200,000 pieces were struck. On the obverse are profiles of King Frederik IX of Denmark and Queen Ingrid. The reverse shows a map of the island with the native name, Kalåtdlit Nunat, above it. The coin is considered part of the Danish krone series of mintages. Banknotes In 1874, Handelsstederne i Grønland issued 50-øre and 1-krone notes, followed by 25-øre notes the next year. In 1887, 5-kroner notes were introduced. The Handelsstederne continued to issue notes until 1905. In 1911, the Kongelige Grønlandske Handel began issuing paper money, with notes in denominations of 25 and 50 øre, 1 and 5 kroner. In 1913, colonial notes (marked Styrelse af Kolonierne i Grønland) were introduced in denominations of 25 and 50 øre, 1 and 5 kroner. From 1926, colonial notes were marked Grønlands Styrelse, the denominations below 5 kroner ceased production and 10- and 50-kroner notes were introduced. In 1953, the Kongelige Grønlandske Handel resumed note production with 5-, 10- and 50-kroner notes, whilst credit notes (Kreditsedler) for 100 kroner were also issued. These notes were produced until 1967. See also Economy of Greenland Notes References External links Greenland Paper Money Currency of Greenland Modern obsolete currencies Currencies of the Kingdom of Denmark Currencies of North America Krone	wiki
Area codes 818 and 747 are area codes that primarily cover the San Fernando Valley region of Los Angeles County in the U.S. state of California. Area code 818 was created in a split from area code 213 on January 7, 1984. On June 14, 1997, area code 818 was split to form area code 626 for most of the San Gabriel Valley. On May 18, 2009, area code 747 went into service as an overlay. History After the standardization of American telephone area codes in 1947, almost all of Los Angeles County used the 213 area code. Because the population and phone usage of the Los Angeles metropolitan area greatly increased during the 1980s and 1990s, the 213 area code was split into several new area codes, including the 818 and 310 area codes. The 818 area code entered service on January 7, 1984, making Los Angeles one of the first major cities to be split between multiple area codes. Area code 626 was carved out of the eastern portion on June 14, 1997. In November 1999, it was proposed that "at some future date", a new 747 area code would split from 818, the new 747 serving the southern and western portions of the San Fernando Valley. This proposal sat dormant until 2007, when the telephone industry and the California Public Utilities Commission began studying implementing this 818/747 split, or possibly an overlay of all of 818 with 747. Public hearings were held, and the overall public sentiment was for an overlay rather than the split, since they could retain the 818 area code for their existing telephone numbers. The new 747 area code would be used for numbers associated with new service. On April 24, 2008, the CPUC decided that area code 747 would overlay area code 818 effective May 18, 2009. From that date, new numbers could be assigned to the new area code. Callers within the 818 and 747 area codes would be required to dial the area code (including calls to the same area code; cell phones could dial with or without the "1" prefix) for all calls. There was a grace period starting October 11, 2008 during which callers could still complete calls using the seven-digit number. Since mid-April 2009, calls must be dialed with the area code and number; otherwise, the call will not be completed (cell phone users can omit the "1"). The first telephone number block to be assigned to area code 747 became effective on October 11, 2009. Cities in the 747/818 area code Neighborhoods/districts in Los Angeles City Arleta Canoga Park Chatsworth Encino Granada Hills Lake View Terrace Lake Balboa Mission Hills North Hills North Hollywood Northridge Pacoima Panorama City Porter Ranch Reseda Shadow Hills Sherman Oaks Studio City Sunland Sun Valley Sylmar Tarzana Toluca Lake Tujunga Valley Village Van Nuys West Hills Winnetka Woodland Hills Los Angeles County Agoura Hills Burbank Calabasas Glendale Hidden Hills La Cañada Flintridge La Crescenta-Montrose Malibu Lake Monte Nido San Fernando Topanga (mostly in the 310 area code) Universal City Westlake Village Ventura County Bell Canyon North Ranch (part of Thousand Oaks/Westlake Village) Oak Park 747 area code conflict with 747 SIP addresses The 747 area code conflicted with 10-digit Session Initiation Protocol addresses on some VoIP networks such as Gizmo5 (in the format 747NXXXXXX). Because of this conflict, some outgoing calls from VoIP networks using a 10-digit SIP address could have been mistaken for calls originating from the actual 747 area code. These addresses are no longer in use as Gizmo5 service was discontinued as of April 3, 2011. See also List of California area codes List of NANP area codes North American Numbering Plan References External links 747 And 818 Los Angeles County, California San Fernando Valley Telecommunications-related introductions in 1984 Telecommunications-related introductions in 2009 747 And 818	wiki
ZZR may refer to: Kawasaki ZZR series of motorcycles Isuzu Gemini ZZ/R or ZZ-R Target allocation radar TPS-1E (German: Zielzuweisungsradar) A special vehicle in Out of Sight (1966 film)	wiki
Lanperisone (INN) is a muscle relaxant. See also Chemically and mechanistically related drugs: eperisone, inaperisone, silperisone, tolperisone References Muscle relaxants Pyrrolidines Trifluoromethyl compounds	wiki
Quiet Desperation may refer to: "Quiet Desperation", a song by Marilyn Martin from This Is Serious, 1988 "Quiet Desperation", a song by Scatman John from Scatman's World, 1995 Quiet Desperation, an online mockumentary series by Rob Potylo	wiki
AACAP may refer to: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Army Aboriginal Community Assistance Program, Australian federal program	wiki
Acrobatic rock and roll (spelled rock'n'roll by its organizing body, the World Rock'N'Roll Confederation) is a fast, athletic, physically demanding form of partner dance that originated from Lindy Hop but has evolved to a choreographed sport, often done in formal competition. It is danced by both couples (usually of mixed gender) and groups, either all-female or four to eight couples together. History From swing dance, which had come into being around 1920, there emerged Lindy Hop, the first partner dance ever to feature acrobatic elements, which was later modified to suit faster music, spawning dance steps to accompany rock 'n' roll as that genre developed. Today's rock and roll dance has gone far beyond these origins, especially in its gymnastic moves. Technique and basics The Rock and Roll form's specifics vary across the world, but its kick-step footwork style starts with the 6-basic step: Leader starts with left foot kick ball change, kick step (left), kick step (right). Follower starts with right foot kick ball change, kick step (right), kick step (left). Another simple form of basic footwork uses a tap step: Leader starts with their left foot and does a back step, then a tap step (left), tap step (right). Follower starts with the right foot and does a back step, then a tap step (right), tap step (left). The most obvious acrobatic feature of the this dance sport are its kicks (into thin air) and its gymnastic elements like lifts, jumps, throws and flips. Today's rock and roll dance is focused on show and competition dance and, with the exception of its name, has nearly nothing in common with earlier dance steps done to rock music. It is danced in pairs or in formation and can even be danced with one male and two females simultaneously, a form called "triples". Over the years rock and roll dancing has experienced several important changes: the former 6-basic step was converted into the modern tournament's 9-basic step with its typical kick ball change. Other characteristics are techniques such as the man's body wave movement, which he uses to fling his partner from a sitting position upwards, and the throwing basic movement, where she steps onto his hands and is catapulted upwards into breakneck jumps. Because of its demanding technique, high speed, and acrobatics, rock and roll is a straining high-performance dance and is most often performed by young dancers. The name of the basic step comes from the number of separate actions. With the 6-basic one counts (1)step (2)step (3)kick (4)settle (5)kick (6)settle or (1)kick (2)settle (3)kick (4)settle (5)kick (6)settle, with the 9-basic it is (1)kick (2)ball (3)change (4)kick (5)settle (6)settle (7)kick (8)settle (9)settle. This means that a correct rock and roll kick will have the supporting foot settling on the floor a tiny moment before the kicking foot settles. Dance categories The World Rock'N'Roll Confederation (WRRC) recognizes the following dance categories for international competitions: Youth: No acrobatics allowed. Couples are 14 years old or younger. Juniors: A maximum of four acrobatic moves are allowed under the category's safety regulations. Couples are between 12 and 17 years of age. Main Class Contact Style: Two dances per couple and round. One is a dance program with no acrobatics allowed (footwork, or foot technique), the other an acrobatic program (acrobatic) requiring six acrobatic moves. The male may throw the female into the air, but no flips are allowed. Minimum age is 14 years. Main Class Free Style: Two dances, as in B-Class. Only difference to B-Class is that almost all acrobatics (e.g. lifts, jumps, throws and flips) are allowed. Minimum age is 15 years. National associations usually have additional classes (e.g., a C class for beginning competitive dancers). However, all have the four classes listed above (though some rules may differ). Rhythm and music Rock and roll dance works on the 4/4 measure, one basic step comprising six beats and therefore one and a half measures. Unlike much rock 'n' roll music, the dance puts stress on the first and third beats of each measure. Because of its non-off beat stressing and speed, the dance has now replaced traditional rock 'n' roll music with modern disco and pop music, played very fast, between 176 and 208 bpm. Clothes Current advanced tournament rock and roll dancers wear neither petticoats nor jeans, as the dancers originally did, but rather multicoloured costumes made of elastic artificial fibre, made individually by special tailors. One reason is that their acrobatic maneuvers have grown more and more dangerous, requiring rugged apparel that still provides freedom of movement. The shoes they wear are especially important, as their soles must both grip and slip properly. The most common footwear is light jazz shoes for the dance programs and, especially for women, usually aerobics sneakers for the acrobatic programs. Organization The WRRC sets national and international rules and guidelines for tournaments and organizes the World Cups, European championships, and World Championships held every year for couples and bodies. All international competitors are ranked by points won during competitions. The International Olympic Committee has officially recognized the WRRC, which aims for acrobatic rock and roll to become an Olympic sport. Notable dancers Notable dancers of this sport, among others, are Katerina Tikhonova, second daughter of the Russian president Vladimir Putin, and Miguel Angueira, a French world champion of this sport. See also World Rock'n'Roll Confederation International Dance Sport Federation References External links – World Rock'n'Roll Confederation Dancesport Swing dances Gymnastics	wiki
The first season of The Real Housewives of Salt Lake City, an American reality television series, is broadcast on Bravo. It premiered on November 11, 2020 and was primarily filmed in Salt Lake City, Utah. Lisa Shannon, Dan Peirson, Sergio Alfaro, Michaline Babich, Luke Neslage, Lori Gordon, Adam Karpe and Andy Cohen. Season 1 of the Real Housewives of Salt Lake City focuses on the lives of Lisa Barlow, Mary Cosby, Heather Gay, Meredith Marks, Whitney Rose and Jen Shah. It premiered on November 11, 2020. Production and Crew Lisa Shannon, Dan Peirson, Sergio Alfaro, Michaline Babich, Luke Neslage, Lori Gordon, Adam Karpe and Andy Cohen are recognized as the season's executive producers; it is produced and distributed by Shed Media. The series was announced at the BravoCon fan convention in New York City on November 16, 2019. Cast The cast members consisting of Lisa Barlow, Mary Cosby, Heather Gay, Meredith Marks, Whitney Rose and Jen Shah were announced on September 9, 2020. Due to COVID-19 restrictions, the Housewives are seated in separate chairs rather than the usual couches. Episodes References External links 2020 American television seasons 2021 American television seasons Salt Lake City (season 1)	wiki
The Comley Limestone is an Early Cambrian Lagerstätte exposed in Comley, Shropshire, England. It is known for its phosphatic microfossils, which can be extracted by acid maceration and are preserved in three dimensions in a similar fashion to the Orsten fossils. It represents around 10 million years of deposition, and was deposited from 519 to 501 million years ago. See also Geology of Shropshire References Lagerstätten Geology of Shropshire Ordovician south paleopolar deposits	wiki
The Medical Council of Thailand () is the country's professional regulatory body of the medical profession. It operates under the provisions of the Medical Profession Act, B.E. 2525 (1982 CE), which replaced series of earlier legislation dating to the council's foundation in 1923. Under the law, the council is tasked with: upholding the profession's ethics; supporting medical education, research and practice; uniting and upholding the dignity of its members; aiding and educating the general population and organizations on relevant matters; advising the government on medical and public health issues; and representing the medical profession in Thailand. The council is responsible for granting and revoking licences to practice medicine, as well as certification of medical education programmes and degrees. All licensed doctors are members of the council, and are entitled to elect members of its governing body, the Medical Council Committee, and its head, the President of the Medical Council, on a biennial basis. References External links Professional associations based in Thailand Medical and health organizations based in Thailand Medical and health regulators	wiki
Gingerol ([6]-gingerol) is a phenolic phytochemical compound found in fresh ginger that activates spice receptors on the tongue. It is normally found as a pungent yellow oil in the ginger rhizome, but can also form a low-melting crystalline solid. This chemical compound is found in all members of the Zingiberaceae family and is high in concentrations in the grains of paradise as well as an African Ginger species. Cooking ginger transforms gingerol via a reverse aldol reaction into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma. When ginger is dried or mildly heated, gingerol undergoes a dehydration reaction forming shogaols, which are about twice as pungent as gingerol. This explains why dried ginger is more pungent than fresh ginger. Ginger also contains [8]-gingerol, [10]-gingerol, and [12]-gingerol, collectively deemed gingerols. Physiological potential In a pre-clinical meta-analysis of gingerol compounds anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, antioxidant, neuroprotective and gastroprotective properties were reported, which include studies in-vitro and in-vivo. A few in-vivo studies have proposed that gingerols facilitate healthy glucose regulation for diabetics. Many studies have been around the effects of gingerols on a wide range of cancers including leukemia, prostate, breast, skin, ovarian, lung, pancreatic and colorectal. There has not been much clinical testing to observe gingerols physiological impacts in humans. While many of the chemical mechanisms associated with the effects of gingerols on cells have been thoroughly studied, few have been in a clinical setting. This is due to the high variability in natural phytochemicals and the lack of efficacy in research. Most herbal medicine, which include gingerols, are under the restrictions of the Food and Drug Administration in the United States and experimental methods have not held up to scrutiny which has decreased the value in phytochemical research. Herbal medicine is untested for quality assurance, potency and effectiveness in clinical settings due to a lack of funding in eastern medical research. Most research on [6]-Gingerol has been on either mouse subjects (in-vivo) or on cultured human tissue (in-vitro) and may be used in the future to discuss possible applications for multi-target disease control. An investigation scrutinizing gingerol's anti-fungal capabilities remarked that an African species of ginger tested higher in both gingerol and shogaol compounds than the more commonly cultivated Indonesian relative. When tested for the anti-fungal properties the African ginger combated against 13 human pathogens and was three times more effective than the commercial Indonesian counterpart. It is thought that gingerol compounds work in tandem with the other phytochemicals present including shogaols, paradols and zingerone. In a meta analysis looking at many different phytochemical effects on prostate cancer, two specific studies using mice observed [6]-gingerol compounds induced apoptosis in cancer cells by interfering with the mitochondrial membrane. There were also observed mechanisms associated with the disruption of G1 phase proteins to stop the reproduction of cancer cells which is also an associated benefit of other relevant anticancer studies. The main mechanism by which gingerol phytochemicals act on cancer cells seems to be protein disruption. The anti-carcinogenic activity of [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol was analysed in a study observing the cellular mechanisms associated with mouse skin cancer which targeted the activator proteins associated with tumor initiation. Gingerol compounds inhibited the transformation of normal cells into cancer cells by blocking AP-1 proteins and when cancer did develop paradol encouraged apoptosis due to its cytotoxic activity. [6]-Gingerol exhibits cell cycle arrest capabilities, apoptotic action and enzyme-coupled cell signaling receptor degradation in cancer cells. Gingerol has been observed to stop proliferation through inhibiting the translation of Cyclin proteins necessary for replication during G1 and G2 phase of cell division. To promote apoptosis in cancer cells Cytochrome C is ejected from the mitochondria which ceases ATP production leaving a dysfunctional mitochondria. The Cytochrome C assembles an apoptosome which activates the Caspase-9 and initiates an executioner Caspase cascade, effectively breaking down DNA into histones and promoting apoptosis. [6]-Gingerol also inhibits the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins on the surface of mitochondria, which in turn increases the capabilities for the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins to initiate cell death. Cancer cells exhibit high amounts of growth hormone activator proteins that are expressed through enzyme-coupled signaling pathways. By halting the phosphorylation of PI-3-Kinase the Akt protein cannot bind with its PH domain, effectively deactivating the downstream signal. Successively keeping Bad proteins bound to anti-apoptotic proteins which keeps them from promoting cell growth, consequently, a double negative cellular signaling pathway to promote apoptosis. Cultured human breast cancer cells were subjected to various concentrations of [6]-gingerol to determine the impacts on live cells. These concentration dependent results concluded that there was no impact at 5 μM but a reduction of 16% occurred at 10 μM. [6]-gingerol targeted three specific proteins in breast cancer cells that promote metastasis and while adhesion remained relatively unchanged, [6]-gingerol inhibited the cancer cells from invading and increasing in size. This study suggests the mechanism by which cancer cell growth was impacted was due to a reduction in specific mRNA that transcribes for extracellular degrading enzymes called matrix metalloproteinases (MMP's). An examination using human cells in-vitro displayed gingerols capabilities in combating oxidative stress. The results concluded that gingerol had anti-inflammatory effects though shogaol showed the most promising effects combating free radicals. There was an inverted dose- concentration response and as dosage concentration increased the amount of free radicals in cells decreased. Cisplatin is a chemotherapy drug that if used in high dosages causes renal failure which is considered a limiting factor for this life saving drug. By using [6]-gingerol it prevented the occurrence of renal failure in rats. [6]-gingerol improved glutathione production in dose-dependent results which suggested that the higher a dosage the more of an effect [6]-gingerol had. Gingerol compounds are thought to help in diabetic patients because of increases in glutathione, a cellular toxin regulatory factor. Anti-hyperglycaemic effects were studied in diabetic and severely obese mice. Gingerol compounds increased glucose uptake in cells without the need of a synthetic insulin activator, while also decreasing fasting glucose and increasing glucose tolerance. In a different study the exact metabolic mechanisms associated with the physiological benefits of gingerol phytochemicals concluded that there was increased enzyme activity (CAT) and glutathione production while decreasing lipoprotein cholesterol and improving glucose tolerance in mice. Cardio-arrhythmia is a common side effect of diabetic patients and the anti-inflammatory effects of gingerol suppressed the risks by lowering blood glucose levels in-vivo. The anti-oxidant properties of [6]-gingerol has been considered as a defense against Alzheimer’s. A study observed the molecular mechanisms responsible for the protection against DNA fragmentation and mitochondrial membrane potential deterioration of cells which suggests a neuroprotective support of gingerol. This study indicates that ginger up-regulates glutathione production in cells, including nerve cells, through anti-oxidative properties which decreases the risk of Alzheimer's in human neuroblastoma cells and mouse hippocampal cells. While many studies suggest the low risk of using ginger phytochemicals to combat oxidation damage to cells, there are a few studies that suggest potential genotoxic effects. In one study too high of a dose to human hepatoma cells resulted in DNA fragmentation, chromosomal damage and organelle membrane instability which could result in apoptotic behavior. There are some pro-oxidant behaviors to gingerol compounds when the concentration reaches high levels although also considered, in normal conditions these phytochemicals observed have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant qualities. In another study [6]-Gingerol notably inhibited the metabolic rate of rats when given an intraperitoneal injection which induced a hypothermic reaction though, when consumed orally in excess there were no changes in body temperature. Biosynthesis Both ginger (Zingiber officinale) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) had been suspected to utilize phenylpropanoid pathway and produce putative type III polyketide synthase products based on the research of 6-gingerol biosynthesis by Denniff and Whiting in 1976 and by Schröder's research in 1997. 6-Gingerol is the major gingerol in ginger rhizomes and it possesses some interesting pharmacological activities like analgesic effect. While the biosynthesis of 6-gingerol is not fully elucidated, plausible pathways are presented here. In the proposed biosynthetic pathway, Scheme 1, L-Phe (1) is used as the starting material. It is converted into Cinnamic acid (2) via phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL). Then it is turned into p-Coumaric acid (3) with use of cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H). 4-coumarate:CoA ligase (4CL) is then used to get p-Coumaroyl-CoA (5). P-Coumaroyl shikimate transferase (CST) is the enzyme that is responsible for the bonding of shikimic acid and p-Coumaroyl-CoA. The complexed (5) is then selectively oxidized at C3 by p-coumaroyl 5-O-shikimate 3'-hydroxylase (CS3'H) to alcohol. With another action of CST, shikimate is broken off from this intermediate, thereby yielding Caffeoyl-CoA (7). In order to get desired substitution pattern on the aromatic ring, caffeoyl-CoA O-methyltransferase (CCOMT) converts the hydroxyl group at C3 into methoxy as seen in Feruloyl-CoA (8). Up until this step, according to Ramirez-Ahumada et al., the enzyme activities are very active. It is speculated that some polyketide synthases (PKS) and reductases are involved in final synthesis of 6-Gingerol (10). Because it is unclear whether the methoxy group addition is performed before or after the condensation step of the polyketide synthase, alternative pathway is shown in Scheme 2, where methoxy group is introduced after PKS activity. In this alternative pathway, the enzymes involved are likely to be cytochrome p450 hydroxylases, and S-adenosyl-L-methionine-dependent O-methyltransferases (OMT). There are three possibilities for the reduction step by Reductase: directly after PKS activity, after PKS and Hydroxylase activity, or in the end after PKS, Hydroxylase, and OMT activity. References External links Stilbenoid, diarylheptanoid and gingerol biosynthesis pathway at genome.jp O-methylated natural phenols Ginger Pungent flavors Ketones Secondary alcohols	wiki
Anal expulsiveness is the state of a person who exhibits cruelty, emotional outbursts, disorganization, self-confidence, artistic ability, generosity, rebelliousness and general carelessness. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis theory claims the anal stage follows the oral stage of infant/early-childhood development. This is a time when an infant's attention moves from oral stimulation to anal stimulation (usually the bowels but occasionally the bladder), usually synchronous with learning to control their excretory functions, a time of toilet training. For children in this stage of development, control of bowel movements is the stage at which they can express autonomy by withholding, refusing to comply, or soiling themselves. Conflicts with bullying parents regarding toilet training can produce a fixation in this stage, which can manifest itself in adulthood by a continuation of erotic pleasure in defecation. Anal-expulsive refers to a personality trait present in people fixated in the anal stage of psychosexual development. The anal stage is the second of five stages of psychosexual development. In modern times, psychosexual stages are considered to have limited value in understanding the more severe psychopathology. References External links Gerard Keegan's discussion of the anal stage of psychosexual development Psychoanalytic terminology Freudian psychology	wiki
"Everytime We Touch" – utwór nagrany przez Maggie Reilly w 1991, który ukazał się w jej albumie wydanym rok później, zatytułowanym Echoes. Pozycje na listach przebojów Przypisy Linki zewnętrzne Okładka Single wydane w roku 1992 Piosenki Maggie Reilly	wiki
Empire Palace may refer to A number of cinemas run by Moss Empires with this name , a British coaster in service 1945-49	wiki
Webcomics (also known as online comics or Internet comics) are comics published on a website or mobile app. While many are published exclusively on the web, others are also published in magazines, newspapers, or comic books. Webcomics can be compared to self-published print comics in that anyone with an Internet connection can publish their own webcomic. Readership levels vary widely; many are read only by the creator's immediate friends and family, while some of the largest claim audiences well over one million readers. Webcomics range from traditional comic strips and graphic novels to avant garde comics, and cover many genres, styles, and subjects. They sometimes take on the role of a comic blog. The term web cartoonist is sometimes used to refer to someone who creates webcomics. Medium There are several differences between webcomics and print comics. With webcomics the restrictions of traditional books, newspapers or magazines can be lifted, allowing artists and writers to take advantage of the web's unique capabilities. Styles The creative freedom webcomics provide allows artists to work in nontraditional styles. Clip art or photo comics (also known as fumetti) are two types of webcomics that do not use traditional artwork. A Softer World, for example, is made by overlaying photographs with strips of typewriter-style text. As in the constrained comics tradition, a few webcomics, such as Dinosaur Comics by Ryan North, are created with most strips having art copied exactly from one (or a handful of) template comics and only the text changing. Pixel art, such as that created by Richard Stevens of Diesel Sweeties, is similar to that of sprite comics but instead uses low-resolution images created by the artist themself. However, it is also common for some artists to use traditional styles, similar to those typically published in newspapers or comic books. Content Webcomics that are independently published are not subject to the content restrictions of book publishers or newspaper syndicates, enjoying an artistic freedom similar to underground and alternative comics. Some webcomics stretch the boundaries of taste, taking advantage of the fact that internet censorship is virtually nonexistent in countries like the United States. The content of webcomics can still cause problems, such as Leisure Town artist Tristan Farnon's legal trouble after creating a profane Dilbert parody, or the Catholic League's protest of artist Eric Millikin's "blasphemous treatment of Jesus." Format Webcomic artists use many formats throughout the world. Comic strips, generally consisting of three or four panels, have been a common format for many artists. Other webcomic artists use the format of traditional printed comic books and graphic novels, sometimes with the plan of later publishing books. Scott McCloud, one of the first advocates of webcomics, pioneered the idea of the "infinite canvas" where, rather than being confined to normal print dimensions, artists are free to spread out in any direction indefinitely with their comics. Such a format proved highly successful in South-Korean webcomics when JunKoo Kim implemented an infinite scrolling mechanism in the platform Webtoon in 2004. In 2009, French web cartoonist Balak described Turbomedia, a format for webcomics where a reader only views one panel at a time, in which the reader decides their own reading rhythm by going forward one panel at a time. Some web cartoonists, such as political cartoonist Mark Fiore or Charley Parker with Argon Zark!, incorporate animations or interactive elements into their webcomics. History The first comics to be shared through the Internet were Eric Millikin's Witches and Stitches, which he started uploading on CompuServe in 1985. Services such as CompuServe and Usenet were used before the World Wide Web started to rise in popularity in 1993. Early webcomics were often derivatives from strips in college newspapers, but when the Web became widely popular in the mid-1990s, more people started creating comics exclusively for this medium. By 2000, various webcomic creators were financially successful and webcomics became more artistically recognized. Unique genres and styles became popular during this period. The 2010s also saw the rise of webtoons in South Korea, where the form has become very prominent. This decade has also seen an increasingly larger number of successful webcomics being adapted into animated series in China and Japan. Webcomics collectives In March 1995, artist Bebe Williams launched one of the first webcomics collectives, Art Comics Daily. Newspaper comic strip syndicates also launched websites in the mid-1990s. Other webcomics collectives followed, with many launching in the next decade. In March 2000, Chris Crosby, Crosby's mother Teri, and other artists founded Keenspot. In July 2000, Austin Osueke launched eigoMANGA, publishing original online manga, referred to as "webmanga". In 2001, the subscription webcomics site Cool Beans World was launched. Contributors included UK-based comic book creators Pat Mills, Simon Bisley, John Bolton, and Kevin O'Neill, and the author Clive Barker. Serialised content included Scarlet Traces and Marshal Law. In March 2001, Shannon Denton and Patrick Coyle launched Komikwerks.com serving free strips from comics and animation professionals. The site launched with 9 titles including Steve Conley's Astounding Space Thrills, Jason Kruse's The World of Quest, and Bernie Wrightson's The Nightmare Expeditions. On March 2, 2002, Joey Manley founded Modern Tales, offering subscription-based webcomics. The Modern Tales spin-off serializer followed in October 2002, then came girlamatic and Graphic Smash in March and September 2003 respectively. By 2005, webcomics hosting had become a business in its own right, with sites such as Webcomics Nation. Traditional comic book publishers, such as Marvel Comics and Slave Labour Graphics, did not begin making serious digital efforts until 2006 and 2007. DC Comics launched its web comic imprint, Zuda Comics in October 2007. The site featured user submitted comics in a competition for a professional contract to produce web comics. In July 2010, it was announced that DC was closing down Zuda. Business Some creators of webcomics are able to do so professionally through various revenue channels. Webcomic artists may sell merchandise based on their work, such as T-shirts and toys, or they may sell print versions or compilations of their webcomic. Webcomic creators can also sell online advertisements on their websites. In the second half of the 2000s, webcomics became less financially sustainable due to the rise of social media and consumers' disinterest in certain kinds of merchandise. Crowdfunding through Kickstarter and Patreon have also become sources of income for web cartoonists. Webcomics have been used by some cartoonists as a path towards syndication in newspapers. Since the mid-1990s, Scott McCloud advocated for micropayments systems as a source of income for web cartoonists, but micropayment systems have not been popular with artists or readers. Awards Many webcomics artists have received honors for their work. In 2006, Gene Luen Yang's graphic novel American Born Chinese, originally published as a webcomic on Modern Tales, was the first graphic novel to be nominated for a National Book Award. Don Hertzfeldt's animated film based on his webcomics, Everything Will Be OK, won the 2007 Sundance Film Festival Jury Award in Short Filmmaking, a prize rarely bestowed on an animated film. Many traditionally print-comics focused organizations have added award categories for comics published on the web. The Eagle Awards established a Favorite Web-based Comic category in 2000, and the Ignatz Awards followed the next year by introducing an Outstanding Online Comic category in 2001. After having nominated webcomics in several of their traditional print-comics categories, the Eisner Awards began awarding comics in the Best Digital Comic category in 2005. In 2006 the Harvey Awards established a Best Online Comics Work category, and in 2007 the Shuster Awards began an Outstanding Canadian Web Comic Creator Award. In 2012 the National Cartoonists Society gave their first Reuben Award for "On-line comic strips." Other awards focus exclusively on webcomics. The Web Cartoonists' Choice Awards consist of a number of awards that were handed out annually from 2001 to 2008. The Dutch Clickburg Webcomic Awards (also known as the Clickies) has been handed out four times between 2005 and 2010. The awards require the recipient to be active in the Benelux countries, with the exception of one international award. Webcomics in print Though webcomics are typically published primarily on the World Wide Web, often webcomic creators decide to also print self-published books of their work. In some cases, web cartoonists may get publishing deals in which comic books are created of their work. Sometimes, these books are published by mainstream comics publishers who are traditionally aimed at the direct market of comic books stores. Some web cartoonists may pursue print syndication in established newspapers or magazines. The traditional audience base for webcomics and print comics are vastly different, and webcomic readers do not necessarily go to bookstores. For some web cartoonists, a print release may be considered the "goal" of a webcomic series, while for others, comic books are "just another way to get the content out." Webcomics have been seen by some artists as a potential new path towards syndication in newspapers. According to Jeph Jacques (Questionable Content), "there's no real money" in syndication for webcomic artists. Some artists are not able to syndicate their work in newspapers because their comics are targeted to a specific niche audience and wouldn't be popular with a broader readership. Non-anglophone webcomics Many webcomics are published primarily in English, this being a major language in Australia, Canada, India, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Cultures surrounding non-anglophone webcomics have thrived in countries such as China, France, India, Japan, and South Korea. Webcomics have been a popular medium in India since the early 2000s. Indian webcomics are successful as they reach a large audience for free and they are frequently used by the country's younger generation to spread social awareness on topics such as politics and feminism. These webcomics achieve a large amount of exposure by being spread through social media. In China, Chinese webcomics have become a popular way to criticize the communist government and politicians in the country. Many webcomics by popular artists get shared around the country thanks to social networks such as Sina Weibo and WeChat. Many titles will often be censored or taken down by the government. See also Digital comic Digital illustration List of webcomic creators List of webcomics Web fiction Webtoon References Further reading External links The Rise of Web Comics Video produced by Off Book (web series) Comics formats New media New media art Multimedia Digital art Internet art Internet-based works Internet culture	wiki
Mirania may refer to: Mirania (spider), a junior synonym of Perania, a genus of spiders Mirania people, or Bora, an ethnic group of the Amazon Mirania language, or Bora, their language See also Miranha (cicada), a genus of cicadas Merania, a fiefdom of the Holy Roman Empire Language and nationality disambiguation pages	wiki
USB-C (properly known as USB Type-C; commonly known as just Type-C) is a 24-pin USB connector system with a rotationally symmetrical connector. The designation C refers only to the connector's physical configuration or form factor and should not be confused with the connector's specific capabilities, which are designated by its transfer specifications (such as USB 3.2). A notable feature of the USB-C connector is its rotational symmetry; a plug may be inserted into a receptacle in either orientation. The USB Type-C Specification 1.0 was published by the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF) and was finalized in August 2014. It was developed at roughly the same time as the USB 3.1 specification. In July 2016, it was adopted by the IEC as "IEC 62680-1-3". A device with a Type-C connector does not necessarily implement USB, USB Power Delivery, or any Alternate Mode: the Type-C connector is common to several technologies while mandating only a few of them. USB 3.2, released in September 2017, replaces the USB 3.1 standard. It preserves existing USB 3.1 SuperSpeed and SuperSpeed+ data modes and introduces two new SuperSpeed+ transfer modes over the USB-C connector using two-lane operation, with data rates of 10 and 20 Gbit/s (~1.2 and 2.5 GB/s). USB4, released in 2019, is the first USB transfer protocol standard that is only available via USB-C. Overview USB-C cables interconnect hosts and devices, replacing various other electrical cables and connectors, including USB-A and USB-B, HDMI, DisplayPort, and 3.5 mm audio jacks. Name USB Type-C and USB-C are trademarks of USB Implementers Forum. Connectors The 24-pin double-sided connector is slightly larger than the micro-B connector, with a USB-C port measuring wide, high, and deep. Two genders (kinds) of connectors exist, male (plug) and female (receptacle). Plugs are found on cables and adapters. Receptacles are found on devices and adapters. Cables USB 3.1 cables are considered full-featured USB-C cables. They are electronically marked cables that contain a chip with an ID function based on the configuration channel and vendor-defined messages (VDM) from the USB Power Delivery 2.0 specification. Cable length should be ≤2m for Gen 1 or ≤1m for Gen 2. The electronic ID chip provides information about product/vendor, cable connectors, USB signalling protocol (2.0, Gen 1, Gen 2), passive/active construction, use of VCONN power, available VBUS current, latency, RX/TX directionality, SOP controller mode, and hardware/firmware version. USB-C cables that do not have shielded SuperSpeed pairs, sideband use pins, or additional wires for power lines can have increased cable length, up to 4m. These USB-C cables only support 2.0 speeds and do not support alternate modes. With built in reposters 3.0 speed cables up to 10m are available. All USB-C cables must be able to carry a minimum of 3 A current (at 20V, 60W) but some can also carry high-power 5 A current (at 20V, 100W). USB-C to USB-C cables supporting 5A current must contain e-marker chips (also marketed as E-Mark chips) programmed to identify the cable and its current capabilities. USB Charging ports should also be clearly marked with capable power wattage. Full-featured USB-C cables that implement USB 3.1 Gen 2 can handle up to 10Gbit/s data rate at full duplex. They are marked with a SuperSpeed+ (SuperSpeed 10Gbit/s) logo. There are also cables which can carry only USB 2.0 with up to 480Mbit/s data rate. There are USB-IF certification programs available for USB-C products and end users are recommended to use USB-IF certified cables. Devices Devices may be hosts (with a downstream-facing port, DFP) or peripherals (with an upstream-facing port, UFP). Some, such as mobile phones, can take either role depending on what kind is detected on the other end. These types of ports are called Dual-Role-Data (DRD) ports, which was known as USB On-The-Go in the previous specification. When two such devices are connected, the roles are randomly assigned but a swap can be commanded from either end, although there are optional path and role detection methods that would allow devices to select a preference for a specific role. Furthermore, dual-role devices that implement USB Power Delivery may independently and dynamically swap data and power roles using the Data Role Swap or Power Role Swap processes. This allows for charge-through hub or docking station applications where the USB-C device acts as a USB data host while acting as a power consumer rather than a source. USB-C devices may optionally provide or consume bus power currents of 1.5 A and 3.0 A (at 5 V) in addition to baseline bus power provision; power sources can either advertise increased USB current through the configuration channel, or they can implement the full USB Power Delivery specification using both BMC-coded configuration line and legacy BFSK-coded VBUS line. Connecting an older device to a host with a USB-C receptacle requires a cable or adapter with a USB-A or USB-B plug or receptacle on one end and a USB-C plug on the other end. Legacy adapters (i.e. adapters with a USB-A or USB-B [male] plug) with a USB-C [female] receptacle are "not defined or allowed" by the specification because they can create "many invalid and potentially unsafe" cable combinations. Modes Audio Adapter Accessory Mode A device with a USB-C port may support analog headsets through an audio adapter with a 3.5 mm jack, providing four standard analog audio connections (Left, Right, Microphone, and Ground). The audio adapter may optionally include a USB-C charge-through port to allow 500 mA device charging. The engineering specification states that an analog headset shall not use a USB-C plug instead of a 3.5 mm plug. In other words, headsets with a USB-C plug should always support digital audio (and optionally the accessory mode). Analog signals use the USB 2.0 differential pairs (Dp and Dn for Right and Left) and the two side-band use pairs for Mic and GND. The presence of the audio accessory is signalled through the configuration channel and VCONN. Alternate Mode An Alternate Mode dedicates some of the physical wires in a USB-C 3.1 cable for direct device-to-host transmission of alternate data protocols. The four high-speed lanes, two side-band pins, and (for dock, detachable device and permanent cable applications only) two USB 2.0 data pins and one configuration pin can be used for alternate mode transmission. The modes are configured using vendor-defined messages (VDM) through the configuration channel. Specifications USB Type-C Cable and Connector Specification The USB Type-C specification 1.0 was published by the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF) and was finalized in August 2014. It defines requirements for cables and connectors. Rev 1.1 was published 2015-04-03 Rev 1.2 was published 2016-03-25 Rev 1.3 was published 2017-07-14 Rev 1.4 was published 2019-03-29 Rev 2.0 was published 2019-08-29 Rev 2.1 was published 2021-05-25 (USB PD - Extended Power Range - 48 V - 5 A - 240 W) Rev 2.2 was published 2022-10-18, primarily for enabling USB4 Version 2.0 (80 Gbps) over USB Type-C connectors and cables. Adoption as IEC specification: IEC 62680-1-3:2016 (2016-08-17, edition 1.0) "Universal serial bus interfaces for data and power – Part 1-3: Universal Serial Bus interfaces – Common components – USB Type-C cable and connector specification" IEC 62680-1-3:2017 (2017-09-25, edition 2.0) "Universal serial bus interfaces for data and power – Part 1-3: Common components – USB Type-C Cable and Connector Specification" IEC 62680-1-3:2018 (2018-05-24, edition 3.0) "Universal serial bus interfaces for data and power – Part 1-3: Common components – USB Type-C Cable and Connector Specification" Receptacles The receptacle features four power and four ground pins, two differential pairs for high-speed USB data (though they are connected together on devices), four shielded differential pairs for Enhanced SuperSpeed data (two transmit and two receive pairs), two Sideband Use (SBU) pins, and two Configuration Channel (CC) pins. Plugs The male connector (plug) has only one high-speed differential pair, and one of the CC pins (CC2) is replaced by VCONN, to power optional electronics in the cable, and the other is used to actually carry the Configuration Channel (CC) signals. These signals are used to determine the orientation of the cable, as well as to carry USB Power Delivery communications. Cables Related USB-IF specifications USB Type-C Locking Connector Specification The USB Type-C Locking Connector Specification was published 2016-03-09. It defines the mechanical requirements for USB-C plug connectors and the guidelines for the USB-C receptacle mounting configuration to provide a standardized screw lock mechanism for USB-C connectors and cables. USB Type-C Port Controller Interface Specification The USB Type-C Port Controller Interface Specification was published 2017-10-01. It defines a common interface from a USB-C Port Manager to a simple USB-C Port Controller. USB Type-C Authentication Specification Adopted as IEC specification: IEC 62680-1-4:2018 (2018-04-10) "Universal Serial Bus interfaces for data and power - Part 1-4: Common components - USB Type-C Authentication Specification" USB 2.0 Billboard Device Class Specification USB 2.0 Billboard Device Class is defined to communicate the details of supported Alternate Modes to the computer host OS. It provides user readable strings with product description and user support information. Billboard messages can be used to identify incompatible connections made by users. They are not required to negotiate Alternate Modes and only appear when negotiation fails between the host (source) and device (sink). USB Audio Device Class 3.0 Specification USB Audio Device Class 3.0 defines powered digital audio headsets with a USB-C plug. The standard supports the transfer of both digital and analog audio signals over the USB port. USB Power Delivery Specification While it is not necessary for USB-C compliant devices to implement USB Power Delivery, for USB-C DRP/DRD (Dual-Role-Power/Data) ports, USB Power Delivery introduces commands for altering a port's power or data role after the roles have been established when a connection is made. USB 3.2 Specification USB 3.2, released in September 2017, replaces the USB 3.1 standard. It preserves existing USB 3.1 SuperSpeed and SuperSpeed+ data modes and introduces two new SuperSpeed+ transfer modes over the USB-C connector using two-lane operation, doubling the data rates to 10 and 20 Gbit/s (1 and ~2.4 GB/s). USB 3.2 is only supported by USB-C, making micro-USB connectors obsolete. USB4 Specification The USB4 specification released in 2019 is the first USB data transfer specification to require USB-C connectors. Alternate Mode partner specifications five system-defined Alternate Mode partner specifications exist. Additionally, vendors may support proprietary modes for use in dock solutions. Alternate Modes are optional; Type-C features and devices are not required to support any specific Alternate Mode. The USB Implementers Forum is working with its Alternate Mode partners to make sure that ports are properly labelled with respective logos. Other protocols like Ethernet have been proposed, although Thunderbolt 3 and later are also capable of 10 Gigabit Ethernet networking. All Thunderbolt 3 controllers both support "Thunderbolt Alternate Mode" and "DisplayPort Alternate Mode". Because Thunderbolt can encapsulate DisplayPort data, every Thunderbolt controller can either output DisplayPort signals directly over "DisplayPort Alternative Mode" or encapsulated within Thunderbolt in "Thunderbolt Alternate Mode". Low cost peripherals mostly connect via "DisplayPort Alternate Mode" while some docking stations tunnel DisplayPort over Thunderbolt. DisplayPort Alt Mode 2.0: USB 4 supports DisplayPort 2.0 over its alternative mode. DisplayPort 2.0 can support 8K resolution at 60 Hz with HDR10 color and can use up to 80 Gbps, which is double the amount available to USB data. The USB SuperSpeed protocol is similar to DisplayPort and PCIe/Thunderbolt, in using packetized data transmitted over differential LVDS lanes with embedded clock using comparable bit rates, so these Alternate Modes are easier to implement in the chipset. Alternate Mode hosts and sinks can be connected with either regular full-featured Type-C cables, or with converter cables or adapters: USB 3.1 Type-C to Type-C full-featured cable DisplayPort, Mobile High-Definition Link (MHL), HDMI and Thunderbolt (20Gbit/s, or 40Gbit/s with cable length up to 0.5 m) Alternate Mode Type-C ports can be interconnected with standard passive full-featured USB Type-C cables. These cables are only marked with standard "trident" SuperSpeed USB logo (for Gen 1 cables) or the SuperSpeed+ USB 10 Gbit/s logo (for Gen 2 cables) on both ends. Cable length should be 2.0m or less for Gen 1 and 1.0m or less for Gen 2. Thunderbolt Type-C to Type-C active cable Thunderbolt 3 (40Gbit/s) Alternate Mode with cables longer than 0.8 m requires active Type-C cables that are certified and electronically marked for high-speed Thunderbolt 3 transmission, similarly to high-power 5 A cables. These cables are marked with a Thunderbolt logo on both ends. They do not support USB 3 backwards compatibility, only USB 2 or Thunderbolt. Cables can be marked for both Thunderbolt and 5 A power delivery at the same time. Active cables/adapters contain powered ICs to amplify/equalise the signal for extended length cables, or to perform active protocol conversion. The adapters for video Alt Modes may allow conversion from native video stream to other video interface standards (e.g., DisplayPort, HDMI, VGA or DVI). Using full-featured Type-C cables for Alternate Mode connections provides some benefits. Alternate Mode does not employ USB 2.0 lanes and the configuration channel lane, so USB 2.0 and USB Power Delivery protocols are always available. In addition, DisplayPort and MHL Alternate Modes can transmit on one, two, or four SuperSpeed lanes, so two of the remaining lanes may be used to simultaneously transmit USB 3.1 data. USB-C receptacle pin usage in different modes The diagrams below depict the pins of a USB-C socket in different use cases. USB 2.0/1.1 A simple USB 2.0/1.1 device mates using one pair of D+/D− pins. Hence, the source (host) does not require any connection management circuitry, but it lacks the same physical connector so therefore USB-C is not backward compatible. V and GND provide 5V up to 500mA of current. However, to connect a USB 2.0/1.1 device to a USB-C host, use of Rd on the CC pins is required, as the source (host) will not supply V until a connection is detected through the CC pins. This means many USB-A male to USB-C cables will only work in the A to C direction (connecting to a USB-C devices, e.g. for charging) as they do not include the termination resistors needed to work in the C to A direction (from a USB-C host). Adapters or cables from USB-C to USB-A female usually do work as they include the required termination resistor. USB Power Delivery USB Power Delivery uses one of CC1, CC2 pins for power negotiation between source device and sink device, up to 20 V at 5 A. It is transparent to any data transmission mode, and can therefore be used together with any of them as long as the CC pins are intact. USB 3.0/3.1/3.2 In the USB 3.0/3.1/3.2 mode, two or four high speed links are used in TX/RX pairs to provide 5 to 10, or 10 to 20 Gbit/s throughput respectively. One of the CC pins is used to negotiate the mode. V and GND provide 5 V up to 900 mA, in accordance with the USB 3.1 specification. A specific USB-C mode may also be entered, where 5 V at either 1.5 A or 3 A is provided. A third alternative is to establish a Power Delivery contract. In single-lane mode, only the differential pairs closest to the CC pin are used for data transmission. For dual-lane data transfers, all four differential pairs are in use. The D+/D− link for USB 2.0/1.1 is typically not used when USB 3.x connection is active, but devices like hubs open simultaneous 2.0 and 3.x uplinks in order to allow operation of both type devices connected to it. Other devices may have fallback mode to 2.0, in case the 3.x connection fails. Alternate Mode In the Alternate Mode one of up to four high speed links are used in whatever direction is needed. SBU1, SBU2 provide an additional lower speed link. If two high speed links remain unused, then a USB 3.0/3.1 link can be established concurrently to the Alternate Mode. One of the CC pins is used to perform all the negotiation. An additional low band bidirectional channel (other than SBU) may share that CC pin as well. USB 2.0 is also available through D+/D− pins. In regard to power, the devices are supposed to negotiate a Power Delivery contract before an alternate mode is entered. Debug Accessory Mode The external device test system (DTS) signals to the target system (TS) to enter debug accessory mode via CC1 and CC2 both being pulled down with an Rn resistor value or pulled up as Rp resistor value from the test plug (Rp and Rn defined in Type-C specification). After entering debug accessory mode, optional orientation detection via the CC1 and CC2 is done via setting CC1 as a pullup of Rd resistance and CC2 pulled to ground via Ra resistance (from the test system Type-C plug). While optional, orientation detection is required if USB Power Delivery communication is to remain functional. In this mode, all digital circuits are disconnected from the connector, and the 14 bold pins can be used to expose debug related signals (e.g. JTAG interface). USB IF requires for certification that security and privacy consideration and precaution has been taken and that the user has actually requested that debug test mode be performed. If a reversible Type-C cable is required but Power Delivery support is not, the test plug will need to be arranged as below, with CC1 and CC2 both being pulled down with an Rn resistor value or pulled up as Rp resistor value from the test plug: This mirroring of test signals will only provide 7 test signals for debug usage instead of 14, but with the benefit of minimising extra parts count for orientation detection. Audio Adapter Accessory Mode In this mode, all digital circuits are disconnected from the connector, and certain pins become reassigned for analog outputs or inputs. The mode, if supported, is entered when both CC pins are shorted to GND. D− and D+ become audio output left L and right R, respectively. The SBU pins become a microphone pin MIC, and the analog ground AGND, the latter being a return path for both outputs and the microphone. Nevertheless, the MIC and AGND pins must have automatic swap capability, for two reasons: firstly, the USB-C plug may be inserted either side; secondly, there is no agreement, which TRRS rings shall be GND and MIC, so devices equipped with a headphone jack with microphone input must be able to perform this swap anyway. This mode also allows concurrent charging of a device exposing the analog audio interface (through V and GND), however only at 5 V and 500 mA, as CC pins are unavailable for any negotiation. Plug insertions detection is performed by the TRRS plug's physical plug detection switch. On plug insertions, this will pull down both CC and VCONN in the plug (CC1 and CC2 in the receptacle). This resistance must be less than 800 ohms which is the minimum "Ra" resistance specified in the USB Type-C specification). This is essentially a direct connection to USB digital ground. Software support Android from version 6.0 "Marshmallow" onwards works with USB 3.1 and USB-C. ChromeOS, starting with the Chromebook Pixel 2015, supports USB 3.1, USB-C, alternate modes, power delivery, and USB Dual-Role support. FreeBSD released the Extensible Host Controller Interface, supporting USB 3.0, with release 8.2 iOS from version 12.1 (iPad Pro 3rd generation or later, iPad Air 4th generation or later, iPad Mini 6th generation or later, iPad 10th generation or later) onwards works with USB-C. NetBSD began supporting USB 3.0 with release 7.2 Linux has supported USB 3.0 since kernel version 2.6.31 and USB version 3.1 since kernel version 4.6. OpenBSD began supporting USB 3.0 in version 5.7 OS X Yosemite (macOS version 10.10.2), starting with the MacBook Retina early 2015, supports USB 3.1, USB-C, alternate modes, and power delivery. Windows 8.1 added USB-C and billboard support in an update. Windows 10 and Windows 10 Mobile support USB 3.1, USB-C, alternate modes, billboard device class, power delivery and USB Dual-Role. Hardware support USB-C devices An increasing number of motherboards, notebooks, tablet computers, smartphones, hard disk drives, USB hubs and other devices released from 2014 onwards include the USB-C sockets. However, the initial adoption of USB-C was limited by the high cost of USB-C cables and the wide use of Micro-USB chargers. Video output Currently, DisplayPort is the most widely implemented alternate mode, and is used to provide video output on devices that do not have standard-size DisplayPort or HDMI ports, such as smartphones and laptops. All Chromebooks with a USB-C port are required to support DisplayPort alternate mode in Google's hardware requirements for manufacturers. A USB-C multiport adapter converts the device's native video stream to DisplayPort/HDMI/VGA, allowing it to be displayed on an external display, such as a television set or computer monitor. It is also used on USB-C docks designed to connect a device to a power source, external display, USB hub, and optional extra (such as a network port) with a single cable. These functions are sometimes implemented directly into the display instead of a separate dock, meaning a user connects their device to the display via USB-C with no other connections required. Compatibility issues Power issues with cables Many cables claiming to support USB-C are actually not compliant to the standard. Using these cables would have a potential consequence of damaging devices that they are connected to. There are reported cases of laptops being destroyed due to the use of non-compliant cables. Some non-compliant cables with a USB-C connector on one end and a legacy USB-A plug or Micro-B receptacle on the other end incorrectly terminate the Configuration Channel (CC) with a 10 kΩ pullup to VBUS instead of the specification mandated 56 kΩ pullup, causing a device connected to the cable to incorrectly determine the amount of power it is permitted to draw from the cable. Cables with this issue may not work properly with certain products, including Apple and Google products, and may even damage power sources such as chargers, hubs, or PC USB ports. When a defective USB-C cable or power source is used, the voltage seen by a USB-C device can be different from the voltage expected by the device. This may result in an overvoltage on the VBUS pin. Also due to the fine pitch of the USB-C receptacle, the VBUS pin from the cable may contact with the CC pin of the USB-C receptacle resulting in a short-to-VBUS electrical issue due to the fact that the VBUS pin is rated up to 20 V while the CC pins are rated up to 5.5 V. To overcome these issues, USB Type-C port protection must be used between USB-C connector and USB-C Power Delivery controller. Compatibility with audio adapters On devices that have omitted the 3.5 mm audio jack, the USB-C port can be used to connect wired accessories such as headphones. There are primarily two types of USB-C adapters (active adapters with DACs, passive adapters without DACs) and two modes of audio output from devices (phones without onboard DACs that send out digital audio, phones with onboard DACs that send out analog audio). When an active set of USB-C headphones or adapter is used, digital audio is sent through the USB-C port. The conversion by the DAC and amplifier is done inside of the headphones or adapter, instead of on the phone. The sound quality is dependent on the headphones/adapter's DAC. Active adapters with a built-in DAC have near-universal support for devices that output digital and analog audio, adhering to the Audio Device Class 3.0 and Audio Adapter Accessory Mode specifications. Examples of such active adapters include external USB sound cards and DACs that do not require special drivers, and USB-C to 3.5 mm headphone jack adapters by Apple, Google, Essential, Razer, HTC, and Samsung. On the other hand, when a passive set of USB-C headphones or adapter is used, analog audio is sent through the USB-C port. The conversion by the DAC and amplifier is done on the phone; the headphones or adapter simply passthrough the signal. The sound quality is dependent on the phone's onboard DAC. Passive adapters without a built-in DAC are only compatible with devices that output analog audio, adhering to the Audio Adapter Accessory Mode specification. Compatibility with other fast charging technology In 2016, Benson Leung, an engineer at Google, pointed out that Quick Charge 2.0 and 3.0 technologies developed by Qualcomm are not compatible with the USB-C standard. Qualcomm responded that it is possible to make fast charge solutions fit the voltage demands of USB-C and that there are no reports of problems; however, it did not address the standard compliance issue at that time. Later in the year, Qualcomm released Quick Charge 4 technology, which it cited to be – as an advancement over previous generations – "USB Type-C and USB PD compliant". Regulations for compatibility In 2021, the European Commission, proposed the use of USB-C as a universal charger. On 4 October 2022, the European Parliament voted in favor of the new law, Radio Equipment Directive 2021/0291, with 602 votes in favor, 13 against and 8 absentions. The regulation requires that all mobile phones, tablets, and cameras sold in the European Union would have to be equipped with a USB-C port by the end of 2024. These regulations will extend to laptops by spring 2026. See also Thunderbolt (interface) HDMI Version 2.1 References External links The Universal Serial Bus Type-C Cable and Connector Specification is included in a set of USB documents which can be downloaded from USB.org. Introduction to USB Type-C, by Andrew Rogers, Microchip Technology, 2015 USB	wiki
A graded reader book is an "easy reading" book that supports the extensive reading approach to teaching English as a second or foreign language, and other languages. While many graded reader books are written for native speaker children, more often they are targeted at young adults and above, since children's books are already widely available and deal with topics not relevant to more mature language learners. Graded readers can be adapted from literary classics, films, biographies, travel books, etc., or they can be original works written at a less demanding language level. Although they employ simplified language, graded readers do not necessarily lack narrative depth or avoid complex themes; often, they cover the same range of "serious" themes as books written for native speaker audiences. Graded readers are written with specific levels of grammatical complexity in mind and with vocabulary that is limited by frequency headword counts. For example, Level 1 in a series might be restricted to 500 headwords, Level 2 to 600 headwords, and Level 3 to 700 headwords. Simple English Wikipedia is designed along similar lines. Other factors are taken into consideration when selecting titles to publish, or determining levels, might include the number and range of characters; the complexity of the plot; the expected background of the target audience; compliance requirements for certain markets (regarding e.g., sex, dating, religion, gender roles and sexuality, etc.), among other factors. Graded readers are not to be confused with Basal readers, such as Dick and Jane, which tend to target specific language features, and therefore are more like textbooks in nature. References Further reading External links Black Cat CIDEB Cambridge English Readers Easy Readers ELI Graded Readers I Talk You Talk Press Ladybird Macmillan Guided Readers Matatabi Graded Readers Oxford Graded Readers Pearson Readers Penguin Readers Scholastic Readers Wayzgoose Press Language acquisition English as a second or foreign language Reading (process)	wiki
Farming Simulator 2012 (Farming Simulator 3D for the U.S. 3DS version) is a simulation video game in the Farming Simulator series, developed by Giants Software and Astragon for Nintendo 3DS, iOS, and Android in 2012-2013. Reception The 3DS and iOS versions received "mixed" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In Japan, where the 3DS version was ported and published by Intergrow under the name on April 4, 2013, Famitsu gave it a score of two sixes, one four, and one five for a total of 21 out of 40. References External links 2012 video games Android (operating system) games Farming video games Focus Entertainment games IOS games Nintendo 3DS games Simulation video games Single-player video games Video games developed in Germany	wiki
The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It was introduced on February 24 with a papal bull, and went into effect in October 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years differently so as to make the average calendar year 365.2425 days long, more closely approximating the 365.2422-day 'tropical' or 'solar' year that is determined by the Earth's revolution around the Sun. The rule for leap years is: There were two reasons to establish the Gregorian calendar. First, the Julian calendar assumed incorrectly that the average solar year is exactly 365.25 days long, an overestimate of a little under one day per century, and thus has a leap year every four years without exception. The Gregorian reform shortened the average (calendar) year by 0.0075 days to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes. Second, in the years since the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325, the excess leap days introduced by the Julian algorithm had caused the calendar to drift such that the (Northern) spring equinox was occurring well before its nominal 21 March date. This date was important to the Christian churches because it is fundamental to the calculation of the date of Easter. To reinstate the association, the reform advanced the date by 10 days: Thursday 4 October 1582 was followed by Friday 15 October 1582. In addition, the reform also altered the lunar cycle used by the Church to calculate the date for Easter, because astronomical new moons were occurring four days before the calculated dates. It is notable that whilst the reform introduced minor changes, the calendar continued to be fundamentally based on the same geocentric theory as its predecessor. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe and their overseas possessions. Over the next three centuries, the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox countries also moved to what they called the Improved calendar, with Greece being the last European country to adopt the calendar (for civil use only) in 1923. To unambiguously specify a date during the transition period (in contemporary documents or in history texts), both notations were given, tagged as 'Old Style' or 'New Style' as appropriate. During the 20th century, most non-Western countries also adopted the calendar, at least for civil purposes. Description The Gregorian calendar, like the Julian calendar, is a solar calendar with 12 months of 28–31 days each. The year in both calendars consists of 365 days, with a leap day being added to February in the leap years. The months and length of months in the Gregorian calendar are the same as for the Julian calendar. The only difference is that the Gregorian reform omitted a leap day in three centurial years every 400 years and left the leap day unchanged. A leap year normally occurs every four years: the leap day, historically, was inserted by doubling 24 February there were indeed two days dated 24 February. However, for many years it has been customary to put the extra day at the end of the month of February, adding a 29 February for the leap day. Before the 1969 revision of its General Roman Calendar, the Catholic Church delayed February feasts after the 23rd by one day in leap years; Masses celebrated according to the previous calendar still reflect this delay. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers. A calendar date is fully specified by the year (numbered according to a calendar era, in this case Anno Domini or Common Era), the month (identified by name or number), and the day of the month (numbered sequentially starting from 1). Although the calendar year currently runs from 1 January to 31 December, at previous times year numbers were based on a different starting point within the calendar (see the "beginning of the year" section below). Calendar cycles repeat completely every 400 years, which equals 146,097 days. Of these 400 years, 303 are regular years of 365 days and 97 are leap years of 366 days. A mean calendar year is days = 365.2425 days, or 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds. During intervals that do not contain any century common years (such as 1900), the calendar repeats every 28 years, during which February 29 will fall on each of the seven days of the week once and only once. All other dates of the year fall on each day exactly four times, each day of the week having gaps of 6 years, 5 years, 6 years, and 11 years, in that order. Gregorian reform The Gregorian calendar was a reform of the Julian calendar. It was instituted by papal bull Inter gravissimas dated 24 February 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar is named. The motivation for the adjustment was to bring the date for the celebration of Easter to the time of year in which it was celebrated when it was introduced by the early Church. The error in the Julian calendar (its assumption that there are exactly 365.25 days in a year) had led to the date of the equinox according to the calendar drifting from the observed reality, and thus an error had been introduced into the calculation of the date of Easter. Although a recommendation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 specified that all Christians should celebrate Easter on the same day, it took almost five centuries before virtually all Christians achieved that objective by adopting the rules of the Church of Alexandria (see Easter for the issues which arose). Background Because the date of Easter is a functionthe computusof the date of the spring equinox in the northern hemisphere, the Catholic Church considered unacceptable the increasing divergence between the canonical date of the equinox and observed reality. Easter is celebrated on the Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon on or after 21 March, which was adopted as an approximation to the March equinox. European scholars had been well aware of the calendar drift since the early medieval period. Bede, writing in the 8th century, showed that the accumulated error in his time was more than three days. Roger Bacon in c. 1200 estimated the error at seven or eight days. Dante, writing c. 1300, was aware of the need for calendar reform. An attempt to go forward with such a reform was undertaken by Pope Sixtus IV, who in 1475 invited Regiomontanus to the Vatican for this purpose. However, the project was interrupted by the death of Regiomontanus shortly after his arrival in Rome. The increase of astronomical knowledge and the precision of observations towards the end of the 15th century made the question more pressing. Numerous publications over the following decades called for a calendar reform, among them two papers sent to the Vatican by the University of Salamanca in 1515 and 1578, but the project was not taken up again until the 1540s, and implemented only under Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585). Preparation In 1545, the Council of Trent authorised Pope Paul III to reform the calendar, requiring that the date of the vernal equinox be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This would allow for more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of Easter. In 1577, a was sent to expert mathematicians outside the reform commission for comments. Some of these experts, including Giambattista Benedetti and Giuseppe Moleto, believed Easter should be computed from the true motions of the Sun and Moon, rather than using a tabular method, but these recommendations were not adopted. The reform adopted was a modification of a proposal made by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius (or Lilio). Lilius's proposal included reducing the number of leap years in four centuries from 100 to 97, by making three out of four centurial years common instead of leap years. He also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the Moon when calculating the annual date of Easter, solving a long-standing obstacle to calendar reform. Ancient tables provided the Sun's mean longitude. The German mathematician Christopher Clavius, the architect of the Gregorian calendar, noted that the tables agreed neither on the time when the Sun passed through the vernal equinox nor on the length of the mean tropical year. Tycho Brahe also noticed discrepancies. The Gregorian leap year rule (97 leap years in 400 years) was put forward by Petrus Pitatus of Verona in 1560. He noted that it is consistent with the tropical year of the Alfonsine tables and with the mean tropical year of Copernicus (De revolutionibus) and Erasmus Reinhold (Prutenic tables). The three mean tropical years in Babylonian sexagesimals as the excess over 365 days (the way they would have been extracted from the tables of mean longitude) were 0;14,33,9,57 (Alfonsine), 0;14,33,11,12 (Copernicus) and 0;14,33,9,24 (Reinhold). In decimal notation, these are equal to 0.24254606, 0.24255185, and 0.24254352, respectively. All values are the same to two sexagesimal places (0;14,33, equal to decimal 0.2425) and this is also the mean length of the Gregorian year. Thus Pitatus' solution would have commended itself to the astronomers. Lilius's proposals had two components. First, he proposed a correction to the length of the year. The mean tropical year is 365.24219 days long. A commonly used value in Lilius's time, from the Alfonsine tables, is 365.2425463 days. As the average length of a Julian year is 365.25 days, the Julian year is almost 11 minutes longer than the mean tropical year. The discrepancy results in a drift of about three days every 400 years. Lilius's proposal resulted in an average year of 365.2425 days (see Accuracy). At the time of Gregory's reform there had already been a drift of 10 days since the Council of Nicaea, resulting in the vernal equinox falling on 10 or 11 March instead of the ecclesiastically fixed date of 21 March, and if unreformed it would have drifted further. Lilius proposed that the 10-day drift should be corrected by deleting the Julian leap day on each of its ten occurrences over a period of forty years, thereby providing for a gradual return of the equinox to 21 March. Lilius's work was expanded upon by Christopher Clavius in a closely argued, 800-page volume. He would later defend his and Lilius's work against detractors. Clavius's opinion was that the correction should take place in one move, and it was this advice that prevailed with Gregory. The second component consisted of an approximation that would provide an accurate yet simple, rule-based calendar. Lilius's formula was a 10-day correction to revert the drift since the Council of Nicaea, and the imposition of a leap day in only 97 years in 400 rather than in 1 year in 4. The proposed rule was that "years divisible by 100 would be leap years only if they were divisible by 400 as well". The 19-year cycle used for the lunar calendar required revision because the astronomical new moon was, at the time of the reform, four days before the calculated new moon. It was to be corrected by one day every 300 or 400 years (8 times in 2500 years) along with corrections for the years that are no longer leap years (i.e. 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc.) In fact, a new method for computing the date of Easter was introduced. The method proposed by Lilius was revised somewhat in the final reform. When the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of 10 days. The Julian calendar day Thursday, 4 October 1582 was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582 (the cycle of weekdays was not affected). First printed Gregorian calendar A month after having decreed the reform, the pope (with a brief of 3 April 1582) granted to one Antoni Lilio the exclusive right to publish the calendar for a period of ten years. The was printed by Vincenzo Accolti, one of the first calendars printed in Rome after the reform, notes at the bottom that it was signed with papal authorization and by Lilio (Con licentia delli Superiori... et permissu Ant(onii) Lilij). The papal brief was revoked on 20 September 1582, because Antonio Lilio proved unable to keep up with the demand for copies. Adoption Although Gregory's reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church, the bull had no authority beyond the Catholic Church (of which he was the supreme religious authority) and the Papal States (which he personally ruled). The changes that he was proposing were changes to the civil calendar, over which he had no authority. They required adoption by the civil authorities in each country to have legal effect. The bull became the law of the Catholic Church in 1582, but it was not recognised by Protestant Churches, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox Churches, and a few others. Consequently, the days on which Easter and related holidays were celebrated by different Christian Churches again diverged. On 29 September 1582, Philip II of Spain decreed the change from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar. This affected much of Roman Catholic Europe, as Philip was at the time ruler over Spain and Portugal as well as much of Italy. In these territories, as well as in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (ruled by Anna Jagiellon) and in the Papal States, the new calendar was implemented on the date specified by the bull, with Julian Thursday, 4 October 1582, being followed by Gregorian Friday, 15 October. The Spanish and Portuguese colonies followed somewhat later because of delay in communication. The other major Catholic power of Western Europe, France, adopted the change a few months later: 9 December was followed by 20 December. Many Protestant countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic innovation; some Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold. For example, the British could not bring themselves to adopt the Catholic system explicitly: the Annexe to their Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 established a computation for the date of Easter that achieved the same result as Gregory's rules, without actually referring to him. Britain and the British Empire (including the eastern part of what is now the United States) adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752. Sweden followed in 1753. Prior to 1917, Turkey used the lunar Islamic calendar with the Hijri era for general purposes and the Julian calendar for fiscal purposes. The start of the fiscal year was eventually fixed at 1 March and the year number was roughly equivalent to the Hijri year (see Rumi calendar). As the solar year is longer than the lunar year this originally entailed the use of "escape years" every so often when the number of the fiscal year would jump. From 1 March 1917 the fiscal year became Gregorian, rather than Julian. On 1 January 1926 the use of the Gregorian calendar was extended to include use for general purposes and the number of the year became the same as in most other countries. Adoption by country Difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates This section always places the intercalary day on even though it was always obtained by doubling (the (twice sixth) or bissextile day) until the late Middle Ages. The Gregorian calendar is proleptic before 1582 (calculated backwards on the same basis, for years before 1582), and the difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates increases by three days every four centuries (all date ranges are inclusive). The following equation gives the number of days (actually, dates) that the Gregorian calendar is ahead of the Julian calendar, called the "secular difference" between the two calendars. A negative difference means the Julian calendar is ahead of the Gregorian calendar. where is the secular difference and is the year using astronomical year numbering, that is, use for BC years. means that if the result of the division is not an integer it is rounded down to the nearest integer. Thus during the 1900s, 1900/400 = 4, while during the −500s, −500/400 = −2. The general rule, in years which are leap years in the Julian calendar but not the Gregorian, is: Up to 28 February in the calendar being converted , add one day less or subtract one day more than the calculated value. Give February the appropriate number of days for the calendar being converted . When subtracting days to calculate the Gregorian equivalent of 29 February (Julian), 29 February is discounted. Thus if the calculated value is −4 the Gregorian equivalent of this date is 24 February. Beginning of the year The year used in dates during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was the consular year, which began on the day when consuls first entered office—probably 1 May before 222 BC, 15 March from 222 BC and 1 January from 153 BC. The Julian calendar, which began in 45 BC, continued to use 1 January as the first day of the new year. Even though the year used for dates changed, the civil year always displayed its months in the order January to December from the Roman Republican period until the present. During the Middle Ages, under the influence of the Catholic Church, many Western European countries moved the start of the year to one of several important Christian festivals—25 December (Christmas), 25 March (Annunciation), or Easter (France), while the Byzantine Empire began its year on 1 September and Russia did so on 1 March until 1492 when the new year was moved to 1 September. In common usage, 1 January was regarded as New Year's Day and celebrated as such, but from the 12th century until 1751 the legal year in England began on 25 March (Lady Day). So, for example, the Parliamentary record lists the execution of Charles I on 30 January as occurring in 1648 (as the year did not end until 24 March), although later histories adjust the start of the year to 1 January and record the execution as occurring in 1649. Most Western European countries changed the start of the year to 1 January before they adopted the Gregorian calendar. For example, Scotland changed the start of the Scottish New Year to 1 January in 1600 (this means that 1599 was a short year). England, Ireland and the British colonies changed the start of the year to 1 January in 1752 (so 1751 was a short year with only 282 days). Later in 1752 in September the Gregorian calendar was introduced throughout Britain and the British colonies (see the section Adoption). These two reforms were implemented by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750. In some countries, an official decree or law specified that the start of the year should be 1 January. For such countries, a specific year when a 1 January-year became the norm can be identified. In other countries, the customs varied, and the start of the year moved back and forth as fashion and influence from other countries dictated various customs. Neither the papal bull nor its attached canons explicitly fix such a date, though it is implied by two tables of saint's days, one labelled 1582 which ends on 31 December, and another for any full year that begins on 1 January. It also specifies its epact relative to 1 January, in contrast with the Julian calendar, which specified it relative to 22 March. The old date was derived from the Greek system: the earlier specified it relative to 1 January. Dual dating During the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate the date of some event in both the Julian calendar and in the Gregorian calendar, for example, "10/21 February 1750/51", where the dual year accounts for some countries already beginning their numbered year on 1 January while others were still using some other date. Even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double-dated because of the different beginnings of the year in various countries. Woolley, writing in his biography of John Dee (1527–1608/9), notes that immediately after 1582 English letter writers "customarily" used "two dates" on their letters, one OS and one NS. Old Style and New Style dates "Old Style" (O.S.) and "New Style" (N.S.) indicate dating systems before and after a calendar change, respectively. Usually, this is the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries between 1582 and the early 20th century. In England, Wales, Ireland and Britain's American colonies, there were two calendar changes, both in 1752. The first adjusted the start of a new year from Lady Day (25 March) to 1 January (which Scotland had done from 1600), while the second discarded the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, removing 11 days from the September 1752 calendar to do so. To accommodate the two calendar changes, writers used dual dating to identify a given day by giving its date according to both styles of dating. For countries such as Russia where no start of year adjustment took place, O.S. and N.S. simply indicate the Julian and Gregorian dating systems. Many Eastern Orthodox countries continue to use the older Julian calendar for religious purposes. Proleptic Gregorian calendar Extending the Gregorian calendar backwards to dates preceding its official introduction produces a proleptic calendar, which should be used with some caution. For ordinary purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to 15 October 1582 are generally shown as they appeared in the Julian calendar, with the year starting on 1 January, and no conversion to their Gregorian equivalents. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is universally considered to have been fought on 25 October 1415 which is Saint Crispin's Day. Usually, the mapping of new dates onto old dates with a start of year adjustment works well with little confusion for events that happened before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. But for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in continental western Europe and in British domains in English language histories. Events in continental western Europe are usually reported in English language histories as happening under the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. Confusion occurs when an event affects both. For example, William III of England set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November 1688 (Gregorian calendar) and arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November 1688 (Julian calendar). Shakespeare and Cervantes seemingly died on exactly the same date (23 April 1616), but Cervantes predeceased Shakespeare by ten days in real time (as Spain used the Gregorian calendar, but Britain used the Julian calendar). This coincidence encouraged UNESCO to make 23 April the World Book and Copyright Day. Astronomers avoid this ambiguity by the use of the Julian day number. For dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in the international standard ISO 8601, the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the Julian calendar) does not have a year 0 and instead uses the ordinal numbers 1, 2, ... both for years AD and BC. Thus the traditional time line is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO 8601 uses astronomical year numbering which includes a year 0 and negative numbers before it. Thus the ISO 8601 time line is , 0000, 0001, and 0002. Months The Gregorian calendar continued to employ the Julian months, which have Latinate names and irregular numbers of days: January (31 days), from Latin , "Month of Janus", the Roman god of gates, doorways, beginnings and endings February (28 days in common and 29 in leap years), from Latin , "Month of the Februa", the Roman festival of purgation and purification, cognate with fever, the Etruscan death god Februus ("Purifier"), and the Proto-Indo-European word for sulfur March (31 days), from Latin , "Month of Mars", the Roman war god April (30 days), from Latin , of uncertain meaning but usually derived from some form of the verb ("to open") or the name of the goddess Aphrodite May (31 days), from Latin , "Month of Maia", a Roman vegetation goddess whose name is cognate with Latin ("great") and English major June (30 days), from Latin , "Month of Juno", the Roman goddess of marriage, childbirth, and rule July (31 days), from Latin , "Month of Julius Caesar", the month of Caesar's birth, instituted in 44BC as part of his calendrical reforms August (31 days), from Latin , "Month of Augustus", instituted by Augustus in 8BC in agreement with July and from the occurrence during the month of several important events during his rise to power September (30 days), from Latin , "seventh month", of the ten-month Roman year of Romulus BC October (31 days), from Latin , "eighth month", of the ten-month Roman year of Romulus BC November (30 days), from Latin , "ninth month", of the ten-month Roman year of Romulus BC December (31 days), from Latin , "tenth month", of the ten-month Roman year of Romulus BC Europeans sometimes attempt to remember the number of days in each month by memorizing some form of the traditional verse "Thirty Days Hath September". It appears in Latin, Italian, French and Portuguese, and belongs to a broad oral tradition but the earliest currently attested form of the poem is the English marginalia inserted into a calendar of saints : Variations appeared in Mother Goose and continue to be taught at schools. The unhelpfulness of such involved mnemonics has been parodied as "Thirty days hath September/ But all the rest I can't remember" but it has also been called "probably the only sixteenth-century poem most ordinary citizens know by heart". A common nonverbal alternative is the knuckle mnemonic, considering the knuckles of one's hands as months with 31 days and the lower spaces between them as the months with fewer days. Using two hands, one may start from either pinkie knuckle as January and count across, omitting the space between the index knuckles (July and August). The same procedure can be done using the knuckles of a single hand, returning from the last (July) to the first (August) and continuing through. A similar mnemonic is to move up a piano keyboard in semitones from an F key, taking the white keys as the longer months and the black keys as the shorter ones. Weeks In conjunction with the system of months, there is a system of weeks. A physical or electronic calendar provides conversion from a given date to the weekday and shows multiple dates for a given weekday and month. Calculating the day of the week is not very simple, because of the irregularities in the Gregorian system. When the Gregorian calendar was adopted by each country, the weekly cycle continued uninterrupted. For example, in the case of the few countries that adopted the reformed calendar on the date proposed by Gregory XIII for the calendar's adoption, Friday, 15 October 1582, the preceding date was Thursday, 4 October 1582 (Julian calendar). Opinions vary about the numbering of the days of the week. ISO 8601, in common use worldwide, starts with Monday=1; printed monthly calendar grids often list Mondays in the first (left) column of dates and Sundays in the last. In North America, the week typically begins on Sunday and ends on Saturday. Accuracy The Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the Julian calendar by skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of 365.2425 mean solar days long. This approximation has an error of about one day per 3,030 years with respect to the current value of the mean tropical year. However, because of the precession of the equinoxes, which is not constant, and the movement of the perihelion (which affects the Earth's orbital speed) the error with respect to the astronomical vernal equinox is variable; using the average interval between vernal equinoxes near 2000 of 365.24237 days implies an error closer to 1 day every 7,700 years. By any criterion, the Gregorian calendar is substantially more accurate than the 1 day in 128 years error of the Julian calendar (average year 365.25 days). In the 19th century, Sir John Herschel proposed a modification to the Gregorian calendar with 969 leap days every 4,000 years, instead of 970 leap days that the Gregorian calendar would insert over the same period. This would reduce the average year to 365.24225 days. Herschel's proposal would make the year 4000, and multiples thereof, common instead of leap. While this modification has often been proposed since, it has never been officially adopted. On time scales of thousands of years, the Gregorian calendar falls behind the astronomical seasons. This is because the Earth's speed of rotation is gradually slowing down, which makes each day slightly longer over time (see tidal acceleration and leap second) while the year maintains a more uniform duration. Calendar seasonal error This image shows the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the astronomical seasons. The y-axis is the date in June and the x-axis is Gregorian calendar years. Each point is the date and time of the June solstice in that particular year. The error shifts by about a quarter of a day per year. Centurial years are ordinary years, unless they are divisible by 400, in which case they are leap years. This causes a correction in the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300. For instance, these corrections cause 23 December 1903 to be the latest December solstice, and 20 December 2096 to be the earliest solstice—about 2.35 days of variation compared with the astronomical event. Proposed reforms The following are proposed reforms of the Gregorian calendar: Holocene calendar International Fixed Calendar (also called the International Perpetual calendar) World Calendar World Season Calendar Leap week calendars Pax Calendar Symmetry454 Hanke–Henry Permanent Calendar See also Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 Calendar reform Conversion between Julian and Gregorian calendars Doomsday rule French revolutionary calendar Hebrew calendar Dionysius Exiguus Inter gravissimas in English – Wikisource Julian day History of calendars ISO 8601, an international standard for the representation of dates and times, which uses the Gregorian calendar (see Section 3.2.1). List of adoption dates of the Gregorian calendar per country List of calendars Old Calendarists Greek Old Calendarists Revised Julian calendar (Milanković) – used in Eastern Orthodoxy Precursors of the Gregorian reform Johannes de Sacrobosco, De Anni Ratione ("On reckoning the years"), c. 1235 Roger Bacon, Opus Majus ("Greater Work"), c. 1267 Notes Citations References . External links Calendar Converter Inter Gravissimas (Latin and French plus English) History of Gregorian Calendar The Perpetual Calendar Gregorian Calendar adoption dates for many countries. World records for mentally calculating the day of the week in the Gregorian Calendar The Calendar FAQ – Frequently Asked Questions about Calendars Today's date (Gregorian) in over 800 more-or-less obscure foreign languages 1580s introductions 1582 establishments 1582 establishments in Europe Articles which contain graphical timelines	wiki
In geometry, an altitude of a triangle is a line segment through a vertex and perpendicular to (i.e., forming a right angle with) a line containing the base (the side opposite the vertex). This line containing the opposite side is called the extended base of the altitude. The intersection of the extended base and the altitude is called the foot of the altitude. The length of the altitude, often simply called "the altitude", is the distance between the extended base and the vertex. The process of drawing the altitude from the vertex to the foot is known as dropping the altitude at that vertex. It is a special case of orthogonal projection. Altitudes can be used in the computation of the area of a triangle: one-half of the product of an altitude's length and its base's length equals the triangle's area. Thus, the longest altitude is perpendicular to the shortest side of the triangle. The altitudes are also related to the sides of the triangle through the trigonometric functions. In an isosceles triangle (a triangle with two congruent sides), the altitude having the incongruent side as its base will have the midpoint of that side as its foot. Also the altitude having the incongruent side as its base will be the angle bisector of the vertex angle. It is common to mark the altitude with the letter (as in height), often subscripted with the name of the side the altitude is drawn to. In a right triangle, the altitude drawn to the hypotenuse divides the hypotenuse into two segments of lengths and . If we denote the length of the altitude by , we then have the relation (Geometric mean theorem) For acute triangles, the feet of the altitudes all fall on the triangle's sides (not extended). In an obtuse triangle (one with an obtuse angle), the foot of the altitude to the obtuse-angled vertex falls in the interior of the opposite side, but the feet of the altitudes to the acute-angled vertices fall on the opposite extended side, exterior to the triangle. This is illustrated in the adjacent diagram: in this obtuse triangle, an altitude dropped perpendicularly from the top vertex, which has an acute angle, intersects the extended horizontal side outside the triangle. Orthocenter The three (possibly extended) altitudes intersect in a single point, called the orthocenter of the triangle, usually denoted by . The orthocenter lies inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute. If one angle is a right angle, the orthocenter coincides with the vertex at the right angle. Let , , denote the vertices and also the angles of the triangle, and let be the side lengths. The orthocenter has trilinear coordinates and barycentric coordinates Since barycentric coordinates are all positive for a point in a triangle's interior but at least one is negative for a point in the exterior, and two of the barycentric coordinates are zero for a vertex point, the barycentric coordinates given for the orthocenter show that the orthocenter is in an acute triangle's interior, on the right-angled vertex of a right triangle, and exterior to an obtuse triangle. In the complex plane, let the points , , represent the numbers , , and assume that the circumcenter of triangle is located at the origin of the plane. Then, the complex number is represented by the point , namely the altitude of triangle . From this, the following characterizations of the orthocenter by means of free vectors can be established straightforwardly: The first of the previous vector identities is also known as the problem of Sylvester, proposed by James Joseph Sylvester. Properties Let , , denote the feet of the altitudes from , , respectively. Then: The product of the lengths of the segments that the orthocenter divides an altitude into is the same for all three altitudes: The circle centered at having radius the square root of this constant is the triangle's polar circle. The sum of the ratios on the three altitudes of the distance of the orthocenter from the base to the length of the altitude is 1: (This property and the next one are applications of a more general property of any interior point and the three cevians through it.) The sum of the ratios on the three altitudes of the distance of the orthocenter from the vertex to the length of the altitude is 2: The isogonal conjugate of the orthocenter is the circumcenter of the triangle. The isotomic conjugate of the orthocenter is the symmedian point of the anticomplementary triangle. Four points in the plane, such that one of them is the orthocenter of the triangle formed by the other three, is called an orthocentric system or orthocentric quadrangle. Relation with circles and conics Denote the circumradius of the triangle by . Then In addition, denoting as the radius of the triangle's incircle, as the radii of its excircles, and again as the radius of its circumcircle, the following relations hold regarding the distances of the orthocenter from the vertices: If any altitude, for example, , is extended to intersect the circumcircle at , so that is a chord of the circumcircle, then the foot bisects segment : The directrices of all parabolas that are externally tangent to one side of a triangle and tangent to the extensions of the other sides pass through the orthocenter. A circumconic passing through the orthocenter of a triangle is a rectangular hyperbola. Relation to other centers, the nine-point circle The orthocenter , the centroid , the circumcenter , and the center of the nine-point circle all lie on a single line, known as the Euler line. The center of the nine-point circle lies at the midpoint of the Euler line, between the orthocenter and the circumcenter, and the distance between the centroid and the circumcenter is half of that between the centroid and the orthocenter: The orthocenter is closer to the incenter than it is to the centroid, and the orthocenter is farther than the incenter is from the centroid: In terms of the sides , , , inradius and circumradius , Orthic triangle If the triangle is oblique (does not contain a right-angle), the pedal triangle of the orthocenter of the original triangle is called the orthic triangle or altitude triangle. That is, the feet of the altitudes of an oblique triangle form the orthic triangle, . Also, the incenter (the center of the inscribed circle) of the orthic triangle is the orthocenter of the original triangle . Trilinear coordinates for the vertices of the orthic triangle are given by The extended sides of the orthic triangle meet the opposite extended sides of its reference triangle at three collinear points. In any acute triangle, the inscribed triangle with the smallest perimeter is the orthic triangle. This is the solution to Fagnano's problem, posed in 1775. The sides of the orthic triangle are parallel to the tangents to the circumcircle at the original triangle's vertices. The orthic triangle of an acute triangle gives a triangular light route. The tangent lines of the nine-point circle at the midpoints of the sides of are parallel to the sides of the orthic triangle, forming a triangle similar to the orthic triangle. The orthic triangle is closely related to the tangential triangle, constructed as follows: let be the line tangent to the circumcircle of triangle at vertex , and define analogously. Let The tangential triangle is , whose sides are the tangents to triangle 's circumcircle at its vertices; it is homothetic to the orthic triangle. The circumcenter of the tangential triangle, and the center of similitude of the orthic and tangential triangles, are on the Euler line. Trilinear coordinates for the vertices of the tangential triangle are given by The reference triangle and its orthic triangle are orthologic triangles. For more information on the orthic triangle, see here. Some additional altitude theorems Altitude in terms of the sides For any triangle with sides and semiperimeter the altitude from side is given by This follows from combining Heron's formula for the area of a triangle in terms of the sides with the area formula where the base is taken as side and the height is the altitude from . Inradius theorems Consider an arbitrary triangle with sides and with corresponding altitudes . The altitudes and the incircle radius are related by Circumradius theorem Denoting the altitude from one side of a triangle as , the other two sides as and , and the triangle's circumradius (radius of the triangle's circumscribed circle) as , the altitude is given by Interior point If are the perpendicular distances from any point to the sides, and are the altitudes to the respective sides, then Area theorem Denoting the altitudes of any triangle from sides respectively as , and denoting the semi-sum of the reciprocals of the altitudes as we have General point on an altitude If is any point on an altitude of any triangle , then Special cases Equilateral triangle For any point within an equilateral triangle, the sum of the perpendiculars to the three sides is equal to the altitude of the triangle. This is Viviani's theorem. Right triangle In a right triangle the three altitudes (the first two of which equal the leg lengths and respectively) are related according to This is also known as the inverse Pythagorean theorem. History The theorem that the three altitudes of a triangle concur (at the orthocenter) is not directly stated in surviving Greek mathematical texts, but is used in the Book of Lemmas (proposition 5), attributed to Archimedes (3rd century BC), citing the "commentary to the treatise about right-angled triangles", a work which does not survive. It was also mentioned by Pappus (Mathematical Collection, VII, 62; 340). The theorem was stated and proved explicitly by al-Nasawi in his (11th century) commentary on the Book of Lemmas, and attributed to al-Quhi (). This proof in Arabic was translated as part of the (early 17th century) Latin editions of the Book of Lemmas, but was not widely known in Europe, and the theorem was therefore proven several more times in the 17th–19th century. Samuel Marolois proved it in his Geometrie (1619), and Isaac Newton proved it in an unfinished treatise Geometry of Curved Lines Later William Chapple proved it in 1749. A particularly elegant proof is due to François-Joseph Servois (1804) and independently Carl Friedrich Gauss (1810): Draw a line parallel to each side of the triangle through the opposite point, and form a new triangle from the intersections of these three lines. Then the original triangle is the medial triangle of the new triangle, and the altitudes of the original triangle are the perpendicular bisectors of the new triangle, and therefore concur (at the circumcenter of the new triangle). See also Triangle center Median (geometry) Notes References External links Orthocenter of a triangle With interactive animation Animated demonstration of orthocenter construction Compass and straightedge. Fagnano's Problem by Jay Warendorff, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Straight lines defined for a triangle de:Höhe (Geometrie) he:גובה (גאומטריה)	wiki
A hip flask is a thin flask for holding liquor. Description Hip flasks were traditionally made of pewter, silver, or even glass, though most modern flasks are made from stainless steel. Some modern flasks are made of plastic so as to avoid detection by metal detectors. Hip flasks can vary in shape, although they are usually contoured to match the curve of the wearer's hip or thigh for comfort and discretion in a design also known as a kidney flask. Some flasks have a "captive top", which is a small arm that attaches the top to the flask in order to stop it from getting lost when it is taken off. A hip flask is most commonly purchased empty and then filled by the owner. However, the term "flask" also applies to smallest bottle sizes of alcohol in commercial markets. Some flasks come with small cups to make sharing easier, although generally liquid is consumed directly from the flask. History The hip flask began to appear in the form it is recognized today in the 18th century, initially used by members of the gentry. Less compact versions had been in production for several centuries. Notably, in the Middle Ages, there are several accounts of gutted fruit being used to store liquor. During the 18th century, women boarding docked British warships would smuggle gin into the ship via makeshift flasks, created from pig's bladders and hidden inside their petticoats. Following the act of prohibition in 1920s America, the state of Indiana banned the sale of cocktail shakers and hip flasks. Antique hip flasks, particularly those made of silver, are now sought-after collector's items. In the Royal Air Force, "hip-flask" was used as code for a revolver. Legality (US, UK) Many locations in the United States have laws prohibiting to carrying alcohol in open containers in public, which includes hip flasks, whether carried on one's person or in the passenger cabin or compartment of a vehicle. This does not apply in the UK, where carrying or drinking from a hip flask in public places is not illegal. In popular culture The hip flask appears frequently in comedy, in part because it allows drinking in inappropriate situations where a bottle would not normally be found—for instance, in Two and a Half Men, where Charlie Harper (Charlie Sheen) drinks alcohol from a hip flask during a funeral. It also appears rarely in The Simpsons, when Homer drinks from it on occasion, and even allows Bart to take a drink during particularly intolerable occasions. In Family Guy, the character Brian Griffin also carries around a hip flask in the earlier seasons. In another adult animation, Rick and Morty, the character Rick Sanchez, who is shown to be notably alcoholic, carries a hip flask under his lab coat. In the TV series Lucifer, a flask is usually carried around by the title character Lucifer Morningstar. See also Canteen — similar design and function References External links Article mentioning the banning of Hip Flasks RAF codes Pocketful of Joy: An Extensive Article on the History and Etiquette of the Hip Flask Why are Hip Flasks Curved? History of Hip Flasks Engraved Hip Flasks Drinking culture Packaging Bottles	wiki
Camera Thrills is a 1935 American short film produced by Charles E. Ford. It was nominated for an Academy Award at the 8th Academy Awards in 1936 for Best Short Subject (Novelty). The Academy Film Archive preserved Camera Thrills in 2012. References External links 1935 films 1935 short films Universal Pictures short films American black-and-white films 1930s English-language films	wiki
The British Numismatic Trade Association is an association formed by a majority of the leading United Kingdom coin dealers. Originally formed to represent the trade in discussions with UK Customs & Excise regarding value-added tax on coins, it has developed, becoming a part of the fight against forgery, theft and other criminal activities. This helped to establish a benchmark for the highest ethical standards in the domestic coin trade. Members adhere to a strict code of ethics which is a benchmark for the trade. Members receive early warning notices of counterfeit coins and stolen property. The BNTA organise the biggest International coin and medal bourse in the UK called COINEX which is held in late September or early October in Mayfair, London annually and it hosts up to 100 British and foreign dealers for a two-day show, this event promotes a range of auction in London during the preceding week and sales can top £10 million during that week.. The BNTA is a member of FENAP, the Federation of European Numismatic Associations. External links BNTA FENAP Business organisations based in the United Kingdom	wiki
Euler circle may refer to: Nine-point circle, a circle that can be constructed for any given triangle Euler diagram, a diagrammatic means of representing propositions and their relationships Venn diagram, a diagram type originally also called Euler circle	wiki
White City – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Utah, w hrabstwie Salt Lake. CDP w stanie Utah	wiki
The Roughneck – film del 1915 diretto da William S. Hart e Clifford Smith The Roughneck – film del 1916 diretto Harry Beaumont The Rough Neck (o The Roughneck) – film del 1919 diretto da Oscar Apfel (1919) The Roughneck – film del 1924 diretto da Jack Conway	wiki
Haitianism was a widespread fear period during the 19th-century history of America, especially in the United States, the Captaincy General of Cuba and the Empire of Brazil, marked by a widespread fear of a black or slave insurrection, due to real or imagined events; real events included those such as the 1811 German Coast Uprising and the Malê revolt. At its height, concerns over the effects of radical political agitation in American societies and the alleged spread of insurrectionism and rebellion in the slave populations of America fueled a general sense of concern if not paranoia. References Bibliography History of Haiti	wiki
The Merry Month of May may refer to: The Merry Month of May (novel), a 1971 novel by James Jones "The Merry Month of May" (poem), a 16th/17th century poem by Thomas Dekker The Merry Month of May, a 1955 film featuring Lee Hoi-chuen "The Merry Month Of May", regimental march of the 10th Royal Hussars "The Merry Month of May", Irish folksong whose tune was used for the ballad "The Patriot Game" "It is the Merry Month of May", a duet from Edward German's operetta Merrie England "In the merry merry month of May", memorable line from the song "The Fountain in the Park"	wiki
Copperton – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Utah, w hrabstwie Salt Lake. CDP w stanie Utah	wiki
Group 1 may refer to: Alkali metal, a chemical element classification for Alkali metal Group 1 (racing), a historic (until 1981) classification for Touring car racing, applied to standard touring cars. Comparable to modern FIA Group N Group One Thoroughbred horse races, the leading events in the sport Group 1 Automotive, a publicly traded car dealership group in the United States Group 1 Rugby League, a Rugby League Competition in New South Wales, Australia Fax Group 1 & Group 2 are obsolete analog standards for sending faxes Group 1 Software, a former mail, messaging, and document management provider company, acquired by Pitney Bowes in 2004	wiki
This article details the use of telephone numbers in Austria. There are no standard lengths for either area codes or subscriber numbers in Austria, meaning that some subscriber numbers may be as short as three digits. Larger towns have shorter area codes permitting longer subscriber numbers in that area. Some examples: Mobile phone codes In ascending numeric order: 1 Telering was bought by T-Mobile in 2005. As of 2006, Telering uses the network-infrastructure of T-Mobile. As a special requirement of the European commission, many of the former transmitters and frequencies previously operated by Telering were given to Orange and Drei. 2 BoB is a discount service of A1. yesss! was a discount service of Orange, now sold to A1. Eety is a discount service of Orange (now 3). Due to Mobile number portability, the code is not an accurate way to determine the provider of a mobile phone number. The providers assign only in exceptional cases (special sort of custom numbers, more expensive) non-existing numbers with a different prefix, and this is handled similarly to porting an existing number from the desired network. However, the providers still have administrative sovereignty over their own prefixes. Special / Service codes References Austrian Numbering Plan/Nationale Rufnummern Austria communications-related lists	wiki
The Wicked Lady can refer to: The Wicked Lady, a 1945 film The Wicked Lady (1983 film), a 1983 remake of the above film The Wicked Lady (album), the soundtrack album to the 1983 film, by Tony Banks Lady Katherine Ferrers, believed by some to be a notorious highwaywoman known as the "Wicked Lady" Wicked Lady, an aspect of Chibiusa, a character in the anime Sailor Moon See also Wicked (disambiguation)	wiki
Desogestrel is a progestin medication which is used in birth control pills for women. It is also used in the treatment of menopausal symptoms in women. The medication is available and used alone or in combination with an estrogen. It is taken by mouth. Side effects of desogestrel include menstrual irregularities, headaches, nausea, breast tenderness, mood changes, acne, increased hair growth, and others. Desogestrel is a progestin, or a synthetic progestogen, and hence is an agonist of the progesterone receptor, the biological target of progestogens like progesterone. It has very weak androgenic and glucocorticoid activity and no other important hormonal activity. The medication is a prodrug of etonogestrel (3-ketodesogestrel) in the body. Desogestrel was discovered in 1972 and was introduced for medical use in Europe in 1981. It became available in the United States in 1992. Desogestrel is sometimes referred to as a "third-generation" progestin. Along with norethisterone, it is one of the only progestins that is widely available as a progestogen-only "mini pill" for birth control. Desogestrel is marketed widely throughout the world. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, the version with ethinylestradiol was the 120th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 5million prescriptions. Medical uses Desogestrel is used in hormonal contraception in women, specifically in birth control pills. It is used alone in progestogen-only pills ("mini pills") and in combination with the estrogen ethinylestradiol in combined oral contraceptive pills. Desogestrel and norethisterone are the only progestins that are widely used as a progestogen-only "mini pill". It is also the only newer-generation progestin with reduced androgenic activity that is used in such formulations. In addition to hormonal contraception, desogestrel has been used in combination with estrogens such as estradiol as a component of menopausal hormone therapy. The medication has also been used in the treatment of endometriosis. Available forms Desogestrel is available alone in the form of 75 μg oral tablets and at a dose of 150 μg in combination with 20 or 30 μg ethinylestradiol in oral tablets. These formulations are all indicated specifically for contraceptive purposes. Contraindications Contraindications of desogestrel include: Allergy to desogestrel or any other ingredients Active thrombosis (deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism) Jaundice or severe liver disease Hormone-sensitive cancers (e.g., breast cancer) Unexplained vaginal bleeding Desogestrel is not indicated for use in pregnancy. It is not contraindicated during lactation and breastfeeding. Side effects Common side effects of desogestrel may include menstrual irregularities, amenorrhea, headaches, nausea, breast tenderness, and mood changes (e.g., depression), as well as weight gain, acne, and hirsutism. However, it has also been reported to not adversely affect weight. In addition, acne and hirsutism are negligible when combined with ethinylestradiol, and this combination can actually be used to treat such symptoms. Desogestrel can also cause changes in total, , and cholesterol. Uncommon side effects of desogestrel may include vaginal infection, contact lens intolerance, vomiting, hair loss, dysmenorrhea, ovarian cysts, and fatigue, while rare side effects include rash, urticaria, and erythema nodosum. Breast discharge, ectopic pregnancies, and aggravation of angioedema may also occur with desogestrel. Serious side effects of combined oral contraceptives containing desogestrel may include venous thromboembolism, arterial thromboembolism, hormone-dependent tumors (e.g., liver tumors, breast cancer), and melasma. Overdose No serious harmful effects have been reported with overdose of desogestrel. Symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, and, in young girls, slight vaginal bleeding. In safety studies, dosages of up to 750 μg/day desogestrel in women showed no adverse effects on laboratory and various other parameters and produced no reported subjective side effects. There is no antidote to desogestrel overdose and treatment should be based on symptoms. Interactions Inducers of liver enzymes can increase the metabolism of desogestrel and etonogestrel and reduce their circulating levels. This may result in contraceptive failure. Examples of liver enzyme inducers include barbiturates (e.g., phenobarbital), bosentan, carbamazepine, efavirenz, phenytoin, primidone, rifampicin, and possibly also felbamate, griseofulvin, oxcarbazepine, rifabutin, St. John's Wort, and topiramate. Many antivirals for HIV/AIDS and HCV, such as boceprevir, nelfinavir, nevirapine, ritonavir, and telaprevir, may increase or decrease levels of desogestrel and etonogestrel. CYP3A4 inhibitors including strong inhibitors like clarithromycin, itraconazole, and ketoconazole and moderate inhibitors like diltiazem, erythromycin, and fluconazole may increase levels of desogestrel and etonogestrel. Hormonal contraceptives may interfere with the metabolism of other drugs, resulting in increased levels (e.g., ciclosporine) or decreased levels (e.g., lamotrigine). Pharmacology Pharmacodynamics Desogestrel is a prodrug of etonogestrel (3-ketodesogestrel), and, via this active metabolite, it has progestogenic activity, antigonadotropic effects, very weak androgenic activity, very weak glucocorticoid activity, and no other hormonal activity. Progestogenic activity Desogestrel is a progestogen, or an agonist of the progesterone receptor (PR). It is an inactive prodrug of etonogestrel with essentially no affinity for the PR itself (about 1% of that of promegestone). Hence, etonogestrel is exclusively responsible for the effects of desogestrel. Etonogestrel has about 150% of the affinity of promegestone and 300% of the affinity of progesterone for the PR. Desogestrel (via etonogestrel) is a very potent progestogen and inhibits ovulation at very low doses, in the low microgram range. The effective minimum dosage for inhibition of ovulation is 60 μg/day desogestrel (alone, not in combination with an estrogen). However, some studies in combination with oral estradiol have suggested that higher doses may be necessary. Desogestrel and etonogestrel are among the most potent progestogens available, along with gestodene and levonorgestrel (which have effective ovulation-inhibiting dosages 40 μg/day and 60 μg/day, respectively). Oral desogestrel is clinically on the order of 5,000 times more potent than oral micronized progesterone (which has an effective ovulation-inhibiting dosage of more than 300 mg/day) in humans. Due to its progestogenic activity, desogestrel has potent functional antiestrogenic effects in certain tissues. It dose-dependently antagonizes the effects of ethinylestradiol on the vaginal epithelium, cervical mucus, and endometrium, with marked progestogenic effects occurring at a dosage of 60 μg/day. There is a rise in body temperature in some women at 30 μg/day and in all women at 60 μg/day. Desogestrel also has antigonadotropic effects, which are similarly due to its progestogenic activity. The contraceptive effects of desogestrel in women are mediated not only by prevention of ovulation via its antigonadotropic effects but also by its marked progestogenic and antiestrogenic effects on cervical mucus and the endometrium. Aside from its progestogenic activity, desogestrel also has some off-target hormonal activity at other steroid hormone receptors (see below). However, these activities are relatively weak, and desogestrel is said to be one of the most selective and pure progestogens used in oral contraceptives. Antigonadotropic effects Desogestrel has antigonadotropic effects via its progestogenic activity, similarly to other progestogens. It has been found to reduce testosterone levels by 15% in women at a dosage of 125 μg/day. In addition, desogestrel has been extensively investigated as an antigonadotropin at dosages of 150 to 300 μg/day in combination with testosterone in male contraceptive regimens. One study found that 150 μg/day and 300 μg/day desogestrel alone in healthy young men suppressed luteinizing hormone (LH) levels by about 35% and 42%, respectively; follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels by about 47% and 55%, respectively; and testosterone levels by about 59% and 68%, respectively. LH levels were suppressed maximally by desogestrel within 3 days, whereas 14 days were necessary for maximal suppression of FSH and testosterone levels. A previous study by the same authors found that increasing the dosage of desogestrel from 300 μg/day to 450 μg/day resulted in no further suppression of gonadotropin concentrations. The addition of a low dose of 50 or 100 mg/week intramuscular testosterone enanthate after 3 weeks increased testosterone levels and further suppressed LH and FSH levels, to the limits of assay detection (i.e., to undetectable or near-undetectable levels), in both the 150 μg/day and 300 μg/day desogestrel groups. Upon cessation of treatment, levels of LH, FSH, and testosterone all recovered to baseline values within 4 weeks. Androgenic activity Etonogestrel has about 20% of the affinity of metribolone and 50% of the affinity of levonorgestrel for the androgen receptor (AR) while desogestrel has no affinity for this receptor. The 5α-reduced metabolite of etonogestrel, 5α-dihydroetonogestrel (3-keto-5α-dihydrodesogestrel), also has some affinity for the AR (about 17% of that of metribolone). Desogestrel (via etonogestrel) has very low androgenic potency, about 1.9 to 7.4% of that of methyltestosterone in animal assays, and hence is considered to be a very weak androgen. Although etonogestrel has about the same affinity for the AR as norethisterone, due to the relatively increased progestogenic potency and decreased androgenic activity of etonogestrel, the drug has markedly higher selectivity for the PR over the AR than older 19-nortestosterone progestins like norethisterone and levonorgestrel. Conversely, its selectivity for the PR over the AR is similar to other newer 19-nortestosterone progestins like gestodene and norgestimate. It has been estimated that 150 μg/day desogestrel has less than one-sixth of the androgenic effect of 1 mg/day norethisterone (these being common dosages of the drugs used in combined oral contraceptives). Clinical studies with norethisterone even at very high dosages (e.g., 10 to 60 mg/day) have observed only mild androgenic effects in a minority of women including acne, increased sebum production, hirsutism, and slight virilization of female fetuses. In accordance with its very weak androgenic activity, desogestrel has minimal effects on lipid metabolism and the blood lipid profile, although there may still be some significant changes. Desogestrel also reduces sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels by 50% when given to women alone, but when combined with 30 μg/day ethinylestradiol, which in contrast strongly activates SHBG production, there is a 200% increase in SHBG concentrations. Desogestrel may slightly reduce ethinylestradiol-induced increases in SHBG levels. However, at the dosages used in oral contraceptives and in combination with ethinylestradiol, which has potent functional antiandrogenic effects mainly due to increased SHBG levels, the androgenic activity of desogestrel is said to be essentially without any clinical relevance. Indeed, combined oral contraceptives containing ethinylestradiol and desogestrel have been found to significantly decrease free concentrations of testosterone and to possess overall antiandrogenic effects, significantly reducing symptoms of acne and hirsutism in women with hyperandrogenism. Glucocorticoid activity Desogestrel has no affinity for the glucocorticoid receptor, but etonogestrel has about 14% of the affinity of dexamethasone for this receptor. Hence, desogestrel and etonogestrel have weak glucocorticoid activity. At typical clinical dosages, the glucocorticoid activity of desogestrel is said to be negligible or very weak and hence not clinically relevant. However, it may nonetheless possibly influence vascular function, with some upregulation of the thrombin receptor observed with etonogestrel in vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro. This could, in theory, increase coagulation and contribute to an increased risk of venous thromboembolism and atherosclerosis. The affinity of etonogestrel for the glucocorticoid receptor is a product of its C11 methylene substitution, as substitutions at the C11 position are a common feature of corticosteroids and as levonorgestrel, which is etonogestrel without the C11 methylene group (17α-ethynyl-18-methyl-19-nortestosterone), has only 1% of the affinity of dexamethasone for the receptor and hence is considered to have negligible glucocorticoid activity. Other activities Desogestrel and etonogestrel have no affinity for the estrogen receptor, and hence have no estrogenic activity. However, the metabolite 3β-hydroxydesogestrel has weak affinity for the estrogen receptor (about 2% of that of estradiol), although the significance of this is uncertain. Desogestrel and etonogestrel have no affinity for the mineralocorticoid receptor, and hence have no mineralocorticoid or antimineralocorticoid activity. Desogestrel and etonogestrel show some albeit weak inhibition of 5α-reductase (5.7% inhibition at 0.1 μM, 34.9% inhibition at 1 μM) and cytochrome P450 enzymes (e.g., CYP3A4) ( = 5 μM) in vitro. Desogestrel stimulates the proliferation of MCF-7 breast cancer cells in vitro, an action that is independent of the classical PRs and is instead mediated via the progesterone receptor membrane component-1 (PGRMC1). Certain other progestins act similarly in this assay, whereas progesterone acts neutrally. It is unclear if these findings may explain the different risks of breast cancer observed with progesterone and progestins in clinical studies. Pharmacokinetics The bioavailability of desogestrel has been found to range from 40 to 100%, with an average of 76%. This significant interindividual variability is comparable to that with norethisterone and levonorgestrel. Peak concentrations of etonogestrel occur about 1.5 hours after a dose while concentrations of desogestrel are very low and have disappeared by 3 hours after a dose. Steady-state levels of etonogestrel are achieved after about 8 to 10 days of daily administration. Accumulation of etonogestrel is thought to be related to progressive inhibition of 5α-reductase and cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (e.g., CYP3A4). The plasma protein binding of desogestrel is 99% and it is bound exclusively to albumin. Etonogestrel is bound 95 to 98% to plasma proteins. It is bound about 65 to 66% to albumin and 30 to 32% to SHBG, with 2 to 5% free in the circulation. While desogestrel is not bound to SHBG, etonogestrel has relatively high affinity for this plasma protein of 3 to 15% of that of dihydrotestosterone, although this is considerably less than that of the related progestins levonorgestrel and gestodene. Neither desogestrel nor etonogestrel are bound by corticosteroid-binding globulin. Desogestrel is a prodrug of etonogestrel (3-ketodesogestrel) and upon ingestion is rapidly and completely transformed into this metabolite in the intestines and liver. Hydroxylation of the C3 position of desogestrel catalyzed by cytochrome P450-dependent enzymes, with 3α-hydroxydesogestrel and 3β-hydroxydesogetrel as intermediates, followed by oxidation of the C3 hydroxyl group, is responsible for the transformation. A small percentage of desogestrel is metabolized into levonorgestrel, which involves the removal of the C11 methylene group. Following further metabolism of etonogestrel, which occurs mainly by reduction of the Δ4-3-keto group (by 5α- and 5β-reductases) and hydroxylation (by monooxygenases), the major metabolite of desogestrel is 3α,5α-tetrahydroetonogestrel. Desogestrel has a very short terminal half-life of about 1.5 hours while etonogestrel has a relatively long elimination half-life of about 21 to 38 hours, reflecting the nature of desogestrel as a prodrug. Desogestrel and etonogestrel are eliminated exclusively as metabolites 50% in urine and 35% in feces. Chemistry Desogestrel, also known as 3-deketo-11-methylene-17α-ethynyl-18-methyl-19-nortestosterone or as 11-methylene-17α-ethynyl-18-methylestr-4-en-17β-ol, is a synthetic estrane steroid and a derivative of testosterone. It is more specifically a derivative of norethisterone (17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone) and is a member of the gonane (13β-ethylgonane or 18-methylestrane) subgroup of the 19-nortestosterone family of progestins. Desogestrel is the C3 deketo analogue of etonogestrel and the C3 deketo and C11 methylene analogue of levonorgestrel. Synthesis A chemical synthesis of desogestrel has been published. History Desogestrel was synthesized in 1972 by Organon International in the Netherlands and was first described in the literature in 1975. It was developed following the discovery that C11 substitutions enhance the biological activity of norethisterone. Desogestrel was introduced for medical use in 1981 under the brand names Marvelon and Desogen in the Netherlands. Along with gestodene and norgestimate, it is sometimes referred to as a "third-generation" progestin based on the time of its introduction to the market. It was the first of the three "third-generation" progestins to be introduced. Although desogestrel was introduced in 1981 and was widely used in Europe from this time, it was not introduced in the United States until 1992. Society and culture Generic names Desogestrel is the generic name of the drug and its , , , , , and . While under development, it was known as ORG-2969. Brand names Desogestrel is marketed under a variety of brand names throughout the world including Alenvona, Apri, Azalia, Azurette, Bekyree, Caziant, Cerazette, Cerelle, Cesia, Cyclessa, Cyred, Denise, Desogen, Desirett, Diamilla, Emoquette, Enskyce, Feanolla, Gedarel, Gracial, Hana, Isibloom, Juleber, Kalliga, Kariva, Laurina, Linessa, Lovima, Marvelon, Mercilon, Mircette, Mirvala, Novynette, Ortho-Cept, Pimtrea, Reclipsen, Regulon, Simliya, Solia, Velivet, Viorele, and Volnea among others. Availability Desogestrel is available widely throughout the world, including in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, many other European countries, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Latin America, Asia, and elsewhere. In the United States, it is available only in combination with ethinylestradiol as a combined oral contraceptive; it is not available alone and is not approved for any other indications. In the UK, in July 2021, some Desogestrel pills were made available to purchase over the counter, without requiring a prescription from a doctor beforehand. Pharmacists use a suitability questionnaire to determine if the medication is going to be suitable for the person, and if it is then they can purchase it from a pharmacy or online (all online purchases require the suitability questionnaire completed before the medication is sent to the customer). Controversy In February 2007, the consumer advocacy group Public Citizen released a petition requesting that the Food and Drug Administration ban oral contraceptives containing desogestrel in the United States, citing studies going as far back as 1995 that suggest the risk of dangerous blood clots is doubled for women on such pills in comparison to other oral contraceptives. In 2009, Public Citizen released a list of recommendations that included numerous alternative, second-generation birth control pills that women could take in place of oral contraceptives containing desogestrel. Most of those second-generation medications have been on the market longer and have been shown to be as effective in preventing unwanted pregnancy, but with a lower risk of blood clots. Medications cited specifically in the petition include Apri-28, Cyclessa, Desogen, Kariva, Mircette, Ortho-Cept, Reclipsen, Velivet, and some generic pills, all of which contain desogestrel in combination with ethinylestradiol. Medications containing desogestrel as the only active ingredient (as opposed to being used in conjunction with ethinylestradiol, like in combined oral contraceptives) do not show an increased thrombosis risk and are therefore safer than second-generation birth-control pills in regards to thrombosis. Research Desogestrel has been studied extensively as an antigonadotropin for use in combination with testosterone as a hormonal contraceptive in men. Such combinations have been found to be effective in producing reversible azoospermia in most men and reversible azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia in almost all men. References Further reading External links 5α-Reductase inhibitors Ethynyl compounds Androgens and anabolic steroids Schering-Plough brands Merck & Co. brands Antigonadotropins Contraception for males Dienes Estranes Glucocorticoids Hormonal contraception Prodrugs Progestogens Tertiary alcohols Vinylidene compounds	wiki
The Simple Life is a 1919 silent film comedy short directed by and starring Larry Semon. It was produced and distributed by the Vitagraph Company of America. Cast Larry Semon - A Farmer's Boy Lucille Carlisle - Captain Tillie Frank Alexander - A Farmer Frank Hayes - A Police Officer References External links The Simple Life at IMDb.com 1919 short films American silent short films American black-and-white films Films directed by Larry Semon Vitagraph Studios short films Silent American comedy films 1919 comedy films 1919 films 1910s American films	wiki
A presenter is a person or organization responsible for the running of a public event, or someone who conveys information on media via a broadcasting outlet. Presenter may refer to: People News presenter, person who presents news during a news program Sports commentator, an announcer who presents analysis of a sporting event Radio personality, presenter or announcer on a radio show Television presenter, person who introduces or hosts television programs Talk show host, presenter of a television or radio talk show Disc jockey, person who presents recorded music for a live or radio audience Master of ceremonies, host and presenter at a ceremony or staged event Weather presenter, person who presents broadcast weather forecasts Game show host, (Quizmaster) person who ask questions at quiz game programs Other Microsoft PowerPoint, formerly known as Presenter Adobe Presenter, eLearning software released by Adobe Systems Presentation program	wiki
Norethisterone acetate (NETA), also known as norethindrone acetate and sold under the brand name Primolut-Nor among others, is a progestin medication which is used in birth control pills, menopausal hormone therapy, and for the treatment of gynecological disorders. The medication available in low-dose and high-dose formulations and is used alone or in combination with an estrogen. It is ingested orally. Side effects of NETA include menstrual irregularities, headaches, nausea, breast tenderness, mood changes, acne, increased hair growth, and others. NETA is a progestin, or a synthetic progestogen, and hence is an agonist of the progesterone receptor, the biological target of progestogens like progesterone. It has weak androgenic and estrogenic activity and no other important hormonal activity. The medication is a prodrug of norethisterone in the body. NETA was patented in 1957 and was introduced for medical use in 1964. It is sometimes referred to as a "first-generation" progestin. NETA is marketed widely throughout the world. It is available as a generic medication. Medical uses NETA is used as a hormonal contraceptive in combination with estrogen, in the treatment of gynecological disorders such as abnormal uterine bleeding, and as a component of menopausal hormone therapy for the treatment of menopausal symptoms. Available forms NETA is available in the form of tablets for use by mouth both alone and in combination with estrogens including estradiol, estradiol valerate, and ethinylestradiol. Transdermal patches providing a combination of 50 μg/day estradiol and 0.14 or 0.25 mg/day NETA are available under the brand names CombiPatch and Estalis. NETA was previously available for use by intramuscular injection in the form of ampoules containing 20 mg NETA, 5 mg estradiol benzoate, 8 mg estradiol valerate, and 180 mg testosterone enanthate in oil solution under the brand name Ablacton to suppress lactation in postpartum women. Contraindications Side effects Side effects of NETA include menstrual irregularities, headaches, nausea, breast tenderness, mood changes, acne, increased hair growth, and others. Overdose Interactions Pharmacology Pharmacodynamics NETA is a prodrug of norethisterone in the body. Upon oral ingestion, it is rapidly converted into norethisterone by esterases during intestinal and first-pass hepatic metabolism. Hence, as a prodrug of norethisterone, NETA has essentially the same effects, acting as a potent progestogen with additional weak androgenic and estrogenic activity (the latter via its metabolite ethinylestradiol). Progestogenic effects In terms of dosage equivalence, norethisterone and NETA are typically used at respective dosages of 0.35 mg/day and 0.6 mg/day as progestogen-only contraceptives, and at respective dosages of 0.5–1 mg/day and 1–1.5 mg/day in combination with ethinylestradiol in combined oral contraceptives. Conversely, the two drugs have been used at about the same dosages in menopausal hormone therapy for the treatment of menopausal symptoms. NETA is of about 12% higher molecular weight than norethisterone due to the presence of its C17β acetate ester. Micronization of NETA has been found to increase its potency by several-fold in animals and women. The endometrial transformation dosage of micronized NETA per cycle is 12 to 14 mg, whereas that for non-micronized NETA is 30 to 60 mg. Estrogenic effects NETA metabolizes into ethinylestradiol at a rate of 0.20 to 0.33% across a dose range of 10 to 40 mg. Peak levels of ethinylestradiol with a 10, 20, or 40 mg dose of NETA were 58, 178, and 231 pg/mL, respectively. For comparison, a 30 to 40 μg dose of oral ethinylestradiol typically results in a peak ethinylestradiol level of 100 to 135 pg/mL. As such, in terms of ethinylestradiol exposure, 10 to 20 mg NETA may be equivalent to 20 to 30 μg ethinylestradiol and 40 mg NETA may be similar to 50 μg ethinylestradiol. In another study however, 5 mg NETA produced an equivalent of 28 μg ethinylestradiol (0.7% conversion rate) and 10 mg NETA produced an equivalent of 62 μg ethinylestradiol (1.0% conversion rate). Due to its estrogenic activity via ethinylestradiol, high doses of NETA have been proposed for add-back in the treatment of endometriosis without estrogen supplementation. Generation of ethinylestradiol with high doses of NETA may increase the risk of venous thromboembolism but may also decrease menstrual bleeding relative to progestogen exposure alone. Antigonadotropic effects NETA has antigonadotropic effects via its progestogenic activity and can dose-dependently suppress gonadotropin and sex hormone levels in women and men. The ovulation-inhibiting dose of NETA is about 0.5 mg/day in women. In healthy young men, NETA alone at a dose of 5 to 10 mg/day orally for 2 weeks suppressed testosterone levels from ~527 ng/dL to ~231 ng/dL (–56%). Chemistry NETA, also known as norethinyltestosterone acetate, as well as 17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone 17β-acetate or 17α-ethynylestra-4-en-17β-ol-3-one 17β-acetate, is a progestin, or synthetic progestogen, of the 19-nortestosterone group, and a synthetic estrane steroid. It is the C17β acetate ester of norethisterone. NETA is a derivative of testosterone with an ethynyl group at the C17α position, the methyl group at the C19 position removed, and an acetate ester attached at the C17β position. In addition to testosterone, it is a combined derivative of nandrolone (19-nortestosterone) and ethisterone (17α-ethynyltestosterone). Synthesis Chemical syntheses of NETA have been published. History Schering AG filed for a patent for NETA in June 1957, and the patent was issued in December 1960. The drug was first marketed, by Parke-Davis as Norlestrin in the United States, in March 1964. This was a combination formulation of 2.5 mg NETA and 50 μg ethinylestradiol and was indicated as an oral contraceptive. Other early brand names of NETA used in oral contraceptives included Minovlar and Anovlar. Society and culture Generic names Norethisterone acetate is the , , and of NETA while norethindrone acetate is its and . Brand names NETA is marketed under a variety of brand names throughout the world including Primolut-Nor (major), Aygestin (), Gestakadin, Milligynon, Monogest, Norlutate (, ), Primolut N, SH-420 (), Sovel, and Styptin among others. Availability United States NETA is marketed in high-dose 5 mg oral tablets in the United States under the brand names Aygestin and Norlutate for the treatment of gynecological disorders. In addition, it is available under a large number of brand names at much lower dosages (0.1 to 1 mg) in combination with estrogens such as ethinylestradiol and estradiol as a combined oral contraceptive and for use in menopausal hormone therapy for the treatment of menopausal symptoms. Research NETA has been studied for use as a potential male hormonal contraceptive in combination with testosterone in men. See also Ethinylestradiol/norethisterone acetate Norethisterone enanthate References Acetate esters Androgens and anabolic steroids Antigonadotropins Estranes Hormonal contraception Enones Prodrugs Progestogen esters Progestogens Synthetic estrogens	wiki
The 2005-06 Utah Jazz season was the team's 32nd in the NBA. They began the season hoping to improve upon their 26-56 output from the previous season. They managed to improve by 15 games, finishing 41-41, but failed to qualify for the playoffs for the third straight season. On March 23, 2006, the Jazz' retired Karl Malone's jersey number 32 on his rafters reunited with his former teammate John Stockton, Frank Layden, his son Scott Layden, Jeff Hornacek, Mark Eaton, Antoine Carr, and head coach Jerry Sloan. Draft picks Roster Regular season Season standings Record vs. opponents Game log Player statistics Awards and records Andrei Kirilenko, NBA All-Defensive First Team Deron Williams, NBA All-Rookie Team 1st Team References Utah Jazz seasons Utah Utah Utah	wiki
Norelgestromin, or norelgestromine, sold under the brand names Evra and Ortho Evra among others, is a progestin medication which is used as a method of birth control for women. The medication is available in combination with an estrogen and is not available alone. It is used as a patch that is applied to the skin. Side effects of the combination of an estrogen and norelgestromin include menstrual irregularities, headaches, nausea, abdominal pain, breast tenderness, mood changes, and others. Norelgestromin is a progestin, or a synthetic progestogen, and hence is an agonist of the progesterone receptor, the biological target of progestogens like progesterone. It has very weak androgenic activity and no other important hormonal activity. Norelgestromin was introduced for medical use in 2002. It is sometimes referred to as a "third-generation" progestin. Norelgestromin is marketed widely throughout the world. It is available as a generic medication. Medical uses Norelgestromin is used in combination with ethinyl estradiol in contraceptive patches. These patches mediate their contraceptive effects by suppressing gonadotropin levels as well as by causing changes in the cervical mucus and endometrium that diminish the likelihood of pregnancy. Available forms Norelgestromin is available only as a transdermal contraceptive patch in combination with ethinyl estradiol. The Ortho Evra patch is a 20 cm, once-weekly adhesive that contains 6.0 mg norelgestromin and 0.75 mg ethinyl estradiol and delivers 150 µg/day norelgestromin and 35 µg/day ethinyl estradiol. Contraindications Side effects Norelgestromin has mostly been studied in combination with an estrogen, so the side effects of norelgestromin specifically or on its own have not been well-defined. Side effects associated with the combination of ethinylestradiol and norelgestromin as a transdermal patch in premenopausal women, with greater than or equal to 2.5% incidence over 6 to 13 menstrual cycles, include breast symptoms (including discomfort, engorgement, and/or pain; 22.4%), headaches (21.0%), application site reactions (17.1%), nausea (16.6%), abdominal pain (8.1%), dysmenorrhea (7.8%), vaginal bleeding and menstrual disorders (6.4%), mood, affect, and anxiety disorders (6.3%), vomiting (5.1%), diarrhea (4.2%), vaginal yeast infections (3.9%), dizziness (3.3%), acne (2.9%), migraine (2.7%), weight gain (2.7%), fatigue (2.6%), and pruritus (2.5%). Overdose Interactions Pharmacology Pharmacodynamics Norelgestromin is a progestogen. It is one of the active metabolites of norgestimate. Unlike many related progestins, norelgestromin reportedly has negligible androgenic activity. However, it produces levonorgestrel as an active metabolite to some extent, which does have some androgenic activity. Nonetheless, transdermally-administered norelgestromin does not counteract the increase in sex hormone-binding globulin levels produced by ethinyl estradiol. Pharmacokinetics Upon application of a transdermal patch containing norelgestromin and ethinyl estradiol, plateau levels of both are reached by approximately 48 hours, and steady-state levels are reached within 2 weeks of application. Absorption following application to the buttock, upper outer arm, abdomen, and upper torso was assessed and, while absorption from the abdomen was slightly lower, it was considered to be therapeutically equivalent for the various areas. Mean levels of norelgestromin at steady-state ranged from 0.305 ng/mL to 1.53 ng/mL, with an average of about 0.725 ng/mL. The plasma protein binding of norelgestromin is 99%, and it is bound to albumin but not to sex hormone-binding globulin. The metabolism of norelgestromin takes place in the liver and is via transformation into levonorgestrel (conversion of the C3 oxime into a ketone) as well as hydroxylation and conjugation. However, because norelgestromin is used parenterally, first-pass metabolism in the liver and gastrointestinal tract that normally occurs with oral administration are avoided. The biological half-life of norelgestromin is 17 to 37 hours. The metabolites of norelgestromin, along with those of ethinyl estradiol, are eliminated in the urine and feces. Chemistry Norelgestromin, also known as 17α-ethynyl-18-methyl-19-nortestosterone 3-oxime or as 17α-ethynyl-18-methylestr-4-en-17β-ol-3-one 3-oxime, is a synthetic estrane steroid and a derivative of testosterone. It is a racemic mixture of E and Z isomers, which have approximately the same activity. Norelgestromin is more specifically a derivative of norethisterone (17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone) and is a member of the gonane (18-methylestrane) subgroup of the 19-nortestosterone family of progestins. It is the C3 oxime derivative of levonorgestrel and the C17β deacetyl derivative of norgestimate and is also known as levonorgestrel 3-oxime and as 17β-deacetylnorgestimate. A related progestin is norethisterone acetate oxime (17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone 3-oxime 17β-acetate). History Norelgestromin was introduced for medical use in 2002. Society and culture Generic names Norelgestromin is the generic name of the drug and its , , and . The combined ethinyl estradiol and norelgestromin contraceptive patch is also known by its developmental code name RWJ-10553. Brand names Norelgestromin is marketed under the brand names Evra, Ortho Evra, Xulane, and others, all in combination with ethinylestradiol. Availability Norelgestromin is marketed widely throughout the world, including in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, elsewhere throughout Europe, South Africa, Latin America, Asia, and elsewhere in the world. It is not listed as being marketed in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, China, India, or certain other countries. Research A transdermal gel formulation of norgelstromin and ethinyl estradiol was under development by Antares Pharma for use as a method of birth control with the code name AP-1081 but development was discontinued. See also Ethinylestradiol/norelgestromin References Further reading External links Ethinylestradiol/norelgestromin transdermal - AdisInsight Tertiary alcohols Ethynyl compounds Androgens and anabolic steroids Estranes Hormonal contraception Human drug metabolites Progestogens Steroid oximes Ketoximes	wiki
The conservation and restoration of painting frames is the process through which picture frames are preserved. Frame conservation and restoration includes general cleaning of the frame, as well as in depth processes such as replacing damaged ornamentation, gilding, and toning. The purpose of painting frames is two-fold. Frames function to protect and support the artwork as well as to visually enhance the item. Painting frames help us to appreciate and understand its role as it relates to the provenance of the painting. Original frames are often considered museum objects in their own right. As such, frames are subject to wear and tear in their functional roles as a protective component of the art. Regular activities that require the handling of artwork and their frames, such as exhibition, storage, travel, leave the frame susceptible to damage. Authenticity of frames Determining a frame’s authenticity is important to understanding its relationship with the painting. A frame can be considered original or authentic to a painting if it meets one of several possible requirements. Those requirements are: If the frame was created, designed, or selected by the artist If the frame was selected by the first owner or dealer If the frame is a stylistically appropriate and of the same age as the painting If the frame is a “livery” or “gallery” frame If the frame is a replica An authentic frame conveys the spirit of the time in which it was made. For the safety of the art, authentic frames can be modified to include glazing and backboards. Causes of deterioration Frequent handling, redecoration, modification, atmospheric pollution, and deterioration are some of the many issues that have given cause for conservators to specialize in the preservation of frames. Although wood is the most common material used in the creation of painting frames, other materials such as gesso, glass, plastic, and metal are also used. Each material is susceptible to deterioration and damage. Inherent vice Vices inherent to the material the frame is composed of poses potential risks. The most commonly used material used in the production of frames is wood. Wood is highly susceptible to environmental conditions, as well as infestation from pests and general deterioration. Likewise, metals are susceptible to rust, plastics are susceptible to deformity, and glass is susceptible to breakage. Each of these inherent vices can cause damage to the frame that must be addressed based on the frame's composition. Humidity and temperature Changes in humidity and temperature cause major structural damage to frames, such as warping and splitting. This damage makes the frame susceptible to loss of ornamentation from mishandling. In addition, the damage to the frame can endanger the art. Adhesive Deterioration of adhesives cause a frame’s joins to split. Animal glues, which were typically used to join a frame together, are susceptible to changes in temperature and humidity, which may cause the adhesives to give due to the warping of the frame. It is also possible that the adhesives themselves might simply deteriorate over time. Delamination Delamination can occur on the surface of a painted or gilded frame. When moisture travels through a crack in the gilded or painted surface, the support is subsequently weakened and the gilded or painted layers begin to lift. Air pollution The industrialization of the 16th to the 18th century has led to increased air pollution in urban areas. Despite being indoors, paintings and their frames were susceptible to the damage from external air pollution. Other pollution risks include factors such as light, sneezing, and spillage. Pests Pests thrive off of organic materials such as wood and dust particles. General housekeeping will prevent the accumulation of dirt, dust, and other material that might attract pests. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a non-toxic approach that creates an inhospitable environment for pests. Conservation treatment In order to best restore a frame to its intended appearance, conservators must blend traditional techniques with modern materials and approaches. The following treatments are common steps in the restoration of a frame: Preventive treatment The simplest step in treating a frame is dry dusting. Vacuums, sponges, erasers, brushes, and solvent wipes are all tools and methods that should be used regularly to prevent dust build up. Conservation and restoration Taking an initial assessment of the frame will determine the extent of treatment needed. Below are some of the following steps that may be necessary in the following processes: Disassembly In some cases, the frame may require disassembly. Disassembly can reveal the frame’s construction methods and give the conservator insight to the structural integrity of the frame. Disassembling the frame will also allow the conservator to assess damaged ornamentation and easily replicate necessary elements. Cleaning Testing small portions of the frame may be necessary to determine which method is best used to clean the frame. Possible materials used for cleaning include tri-ammonium citrate, Plextol B500, ethyl acrylate, EA, methyl methacrylate, and MMA. Replacement of ornamentation Lost or damaged ornamentation may need to be replaced. It is not uncommon to see ornamentation that has been clumsily re-adhered by past restorations that include unoriginal elements. Depending on the type of ornamentation and the extent of the damage, elements may need to be recarved by a master carver, recast in plaster, or infilled with a reversible gesso One common material used in the recreation of ornamentation is composition, a mixture of animal glue, resin, linseed oil, and venetian turpentine. Once major ornamentation elements have been repaired, it is necessary in a gilded frame to reapply and stabilize the flaking gesso layer with hot rabbit skin glue. Gilding Once major structural treatments have been performed and the gesso layer stabilized, it is necessary to assess the bole layer of the frame. Bole is a mixture of colored clay, glue size, and fat, which is applied on the frame as a base coat for the gilding Typically, the bole layer, which is either red or gray, is revealed in the points of contact of the frame where the gilding has worn off. The color of the bole layer must be closely matched to that of the original bole, as the bole affects the overall tone of the frame. It is essential to determine which gilding process was used before proceeding with the in-gilding process. The two common gilding processes are water gilding and oil gilding. The difference in the two processes is in adhesive coating base. Water gilding is the traditional, more difficult method, which must be cleaned using a mineral spirit or denatured alcohol. Oil gilding can be cleaned with a mild water based soap solution. Toning Once the gold leaf has been applied, additional toning will be required to match the original gold. Toning is usually done by creating layers of color made out of animal glue and watercolor paint. Rebuilding In some cases, all or part of a frame is beyond repair. When this occurs, some conservators will reproduce antique machines to create an authentic replica that matches the period and style of the painting and original frame. This can also involve the use of 3D printing and scanning to recreate preexisting ornamentations. References frames Picture framing	wiki
Core memory or magnetic-core memory, is a form of random access computer memory used by computers in the mid-20th century. Core Memory or core memory may also refer to: Core rope memory, a form of read only computer memory first used in the 1960s Core memories, plot-critical items in the 2005 video game Star Fox Assault Core Memories, plot-critical items in the 2015 animated film Inside Out	wiki
Northern Iraq may refer to: Assyrian homeland Iraqi Kurdistan Kurdistan Region Upper Mesopotamia Geography of Iraq	wiki
This is a list of episodes of the 2015 Japanese tokusatsu television series Garo: Gold Storm Sho, the direct sequel to 2013's Garo: Yami o Terasu Mono which is itself a spinoff of 2005 & 2006's Garo. Episodes References Gold Storm Sho episodes Garo Gold Storm Sho	wiki

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