Split (1)

train · 861k rows

text stringlengths 16 352k	source stringclasses 2 values
This is a list of notable pizzerias in Australia. Pizzerias in Australia Independent pizzerias Beppi's Restaurant – first pizzeria established in Sydney, New South Wales Toto's Pizza House – first pizzeria established in Melbourne, Victoria Totti's – a pizzeria established in Bondi, New South Wales, Australia Chain restaurants Current Crust Pizza - Australian pizza chain specialising in gourmet pizza, has over 120 stores across Australia, as well as locations in New Zealand and Singapore. Domino's Pizza Enterprises – an Australian company that holds the master franchise for the Domino's Pizza brand in Australia, New Zealand, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Monaco and Japan. Pizza Capers – Australian fast food chain specializing in pizza, based in Queensland that has over 110 stores throughout Australia. Pizza Hut - An international US brand operating in Australia. La Porchetta, a pizza chain originating in Melbourne and also operating in New Zealand Former Eagle Boys – was an Australian fast food chain specialising in pizza with 210 stores throughout Australia, particularly in regional areas. Was acquired by Pizza Hut, with some stores closing and others rebranded as Pizza Hut restaurants. Pizza Haven – Australian and New Zealand restaurant chain and franchise operation specialising in pizza. Later bought by Eagle Boys, which was then purchased by Pizza Hut. Pizza Showtime – was a family restaurant and entertainment center operating in Perth, Western Australia from 1980 to around 1984. Little Caesars - An American chain, that launched locally in 2014 and had 14 restaurants across New South Wales when it went into administration in October 2019, all Locations closed as of December 2019. See also List of companies of Australia List of fast food restaurant chains in Australia List of pizza chains List of restaurant chains in Australia References Lists of restaurants Lists of companies of Australia Australian cuisine-related lists	wiki
Marionette lines (melomental folds) are long vertical lines that laterally circumscribe the chin. They are important landmarks for the general impression of the face. Marionette lines appear with advancing age, but some people never get them, depending on facial structure and anatomy. They tend to appear as the ligaments around the mouth and chin relax and begin to loosen and sag, and fatty tissues of the cheek deflate and descend during the aging process. It can be difficult to get rid of them, but they can be minimized with facelifts that lift cheek tissue away from the area of the mouth combined with synthetic facial fillers, or with facial fillers alone. Facial exercises and proper facial posture are the most effective ways to remove and prevent the lines due to reduced tension in the chin and the muscles lifting the cheeks. References Human anatomy Plastic surgery	wiki
The Achá Cabinet constituted the 26th to 29th cabinets of the Bolivian Republic. It was formed on 17 May 1861, 13 days after José María de Achá was sworn-in as the 14th president of Bolivia following his election by the Constituent National Assembly, succeeding the Government Junta. It was dissolved on 28 December 1864 upon Achá's overthrow in a coup d'état and was succeeded by the Cabinet of Mariano Melgarejo. Composition History One future president and one ex-president, Sebastián Ágreda (1841) and Aniceto Arce (1882–1892) were members of this cabinet. Cabinets Structural changes References Notes Footnotes Bibliography 1861 establishments in Bolivia 1864 disestablishments in Bolivia Cabinets of Bolivia Cabinets established in 1861 Cabinets disestablished in 1864	wiki
After withdrawing their affiliate from the Venezuelan Summer League, the Major League Baseball's New York Mets have had two affiliates in the Dominican Summer League since the 2010 season. The DSL Mets 1 play in the Boca Chica South division while the DSL Mets 2 play in the Boca Chica North division. Rosters External links Baseball teams established in 1992 Dominican Summer League teams New York Mets minor league affiliates Baseball teams in the Dominican Republic 1992 establishments in the Dominican Republic	wiki
The history of the federal government of the United States, including the constitution, the United States Code, the office of the presidency, the executive departments and agencies, Congress, the Supreme Court, and the lower federal courts. It includes government roles, structure, and policy in all aspects, including evolution of the governmental structure, formation of new agencies and departments, assumptions of new roles and functions, enactments of new codes, regulations, and laws, and inception of entirely new roles of government in American society from 1776 to the present day. The United States achieved independent governance with the Lee Resolution and the Declaration of Independence in July 1776. Following the American Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation were adopted in 1781 to establish the federal government. These were succeeded by the Constitution of the United States in 1789, which is the current governing document of the United States. Many of the institutions and customs of the government were established by the Washington administration in the 1790s. The first era of major change to the government was the Jacksonian Era in the 1830s, which saw changes to the structure of the executive branch and the abolition of the national bank. The Nullification crisis in response to high tariffs was the first serious threat to the unity of the United States, with South Carolina threatening secession, but the crisis was averted. Threats of secession reemerged in response to the issue of slavery in the 1860s, resulting in the secession of 11 states to form a rival government, the Confederate States of America. The states were preventing from seceding by the American Civil War and placed under military control before eventually being readmitted. The Progressive Era brought a new wave of reforms, including the direct election of senators and stronger government regulation of business. These reforms were expanded even further by the New Deal policies implemented in response to the Great Depression, which created programs such as Social Security. Following World War II, American foreign policy was dominated by the Cold War while American domestic policy was influenced by economic development and the civil rights movement. In the 21st century, the September 11 attacks caused major shifts in government structure and foreign policy. Articles of Confederation (1776-1789) The Second Continental Congress became the first independent federal government of the United States when it declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain on July 4, 1776. It served as a provisional government and oversaw the drafting of the Articles of Confederation. The Continental Congress transitioned into the Congress of the Confederation when it adopted the Articles of Confederation on March 1, 1781, after they were ratified by all 13 states. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress served as the sole body of the legislature. Each state was to send a delegation of two to seven members as appointed by state legislatures, and each delegation was entitled to a single vote in legislative procedures. The federal government held jurisdiction over treaties, alliances, and declarations of war. Approval of these actions required at least nine states to vote in the affirmative. The states were forbidden from raising an army during peacetime, but all states were required to maintain a militia. The Articles of Confederation tasked the states with raising funds and military strength when requested by the Congress. However, the Articles included no mechanism to compel to states to provide for the federal government, and compliance was voluntary. Modifications to the Articles required the ascent of all 13 state delegations, and the Congress rarely had a quorum as there was no mechanism to maintain attendance of delegates. The Congress elected a presiding officer, often referred to as the president. However, this position was merely administrative and had no executive power. In the 1770s, executive power under the Articles of Confederation was primarily delegated to boards created by Congress. These included the Board of War, the Financial Administration, the Treasury Office of Accounts, and the Navy Board. The Financial Administration was later replaced by a Board of Treasury. Congress also utilized many committees for specific purposes, including foreign affairs and commerce. In 1780, Congress replaced the board system with fixed executive offices, including the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, the Superintendent of Finance, and the Secretary at War. A Secretary of Marine was also created, but its responsibilities were merged with the Superintendent of Finance before the office was ever filled. Federalist Era (1789-1801) Adoption of the Constitution (1789) State delegations met for the Constitutional Convention in 1787. While the convention was initially held to modify the existing Articles of Confederation, the eventual consensus was the drafting of a new constitution. The Constitution of the United States was drafted and ratified, and it came into force on March 4, 1789. The Constitution established a presidential system with separation of powers and three branches of government that are still in use today. Legislative power was vested in the United States Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of an upper chamber representing each state, the United States Senate, and a lower chamber representing equally divided districts within the states, the United States House of Representatives. At the time, members of the House were directly elected while members of the Senate were chosen by state legislatures. Several powers were delegated to Congress, with a simple majority from both chambers required to pass legislation. Executive power was vested in the President of the United States and the federal officers that answer to the president. The president was delegated powers to enforce the law, engage in foreign affairs, and oversee the operations of the federal government. The president was also given veto power over Congressional legislation that requires a two-thirds majority from both chambers to overrule. Judicial power was vested in the Supreme Court of the United States, composed of judges nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Congress was also given the power to establish lower courts. Passage of the Bill of Rights, 1789-1791 The Bill of Rights comprises the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the often bitter 1787–88 debate over the ratification of the Constitution and written to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved to the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those in earlier documents, especially the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), as well as the Northwest Ordinance (1787), the English Bill of Rights (1689), and Magna Carta (1215). Largely because of the efforts of Representative James Madison, who studied the deficiencies of the Constitution pointed out by anti-federalists and then crafted a series of corrective proposals, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment on September 25, 1789, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison's proposal that the proposed amendments be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution (at the relevant articles and sections of the document), they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Presidency of George Washington (1789-1797) The first actions of the new government did not immediately take place following the Constitution's adoption, as not enough members of Congress had arrived to form a quorum. The electoral votes for president and vice president were counted on April 6, 1789, and George Washington was inaugurated the first president on April 30. The Washington administration marked the beginning of the First Party System with the development of the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party. Several disputes over the Constitution persisted following its ratification, and ten amendments were made in 1791, which became the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights established several rights that the federal government cannot infringe, including rights to freedom of speech and expression, the right to keep and bear arms, rights of due process, and states' rights. The three executive departments that existed under the Articles of Confederation were reestablished during Washington's presidency as the Department of State, the Department of War, and the Department of the Treasury. The office of Attorney General was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 to serve as Washington's legal counsel. In 1791, Washington began holding joint meetings with the Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Attorney General, who together became known as the presidential cabinet. The Department of State's responsibilities were divided between foreign affairs, such as consuls to other nations, and domestic affairs, such as legislative records and the Great Seal. These were initially divided between the Home Office and the Foreign Office, but the two offices were consolidated in 1790. The Continental Army, Continental Navy, and Continental Marines were disestablished at the end of the Revolutionary War and replaced by the First American Regiment as a minimal peacetime army. The Continental Army was reconstituted as the Legion of the United States in 1792 in response to the American Indian Wars, which in turn became the United States Army in 1796. Construction of a Naval fleet was authorized by the Naval Act of 1794, and construction began on six frigates. The president was given authority over state militias under certain circumstances by the Militia Acts of 1792 and 1795. During Washington's presidency, the Department of War developed to include several new administrative offices. The Department of the Treasury was established with the offices of Comptroller, Auditor, Treasurer, Register, and assistant to the Secretary. The department adopted the policy of debt assumption and began issuing treasury securities, while tariffs were levied to fund government activity. Excises were also applied, but there were much more controversial, causing the first major insurrection in the Whiskey Rebellion. The Revenue-Marine was established within the Department of the Treasury in 1790 to serve as an armed customs enforcement service, and the Post Office was established in the department under the Postal Clause of the Constitution. The First Bank of the United States, the country's first national bank, was established in 1791, and the Philadelphia Mint, the first United States Mint, was established in 1792. The federal judiciary, the office of the Attorney General, district attorneys, and marshals were established by the Judiciary Act of 1789. Washington nominated John Jay to be the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and he was sworn in on October 19, 1789. The original Supreme Court consisted of six justices in total. The Supreme Court made its first landmark case in 1793 with Chisholm v. Georgia, ruling that states did not have sovereign immunity from citizens in other states. This resulted in the ratification of the Eleventh Amendment in 1794, granting sovereign immunity in federal courts to the states. The number of members of the House of Representatives was capped at 105 by the Apportionment Act of 1792, and the Senate began holding sessions open to the public in 1794. The first federal criminal code was established by the Crimes Act of 1790, and the site of Washington, D.C. was chosen to be the location for the nation's capital in 1790 by the Residence Act. The United States established early foreign relations during this period, with Jay Treaty, Pinckney's Treaty, the Treaty of Tripoli, and the Treaty of Greenville, codifying relations with Great Britain, Spain, Tripoli, and the peoples of the Northwest Territory, respectively. Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were all admitted as states during Washington's presidency. Role of US Marshals Federal marshals were by far the most important government officials in territorial jurisdictions. The marshals thus provided local representation for the federal government within their districts. They took the national census every decade through 1870. They distributed presidential proclamations, collected a variety of statistical information on commerce and manufacturing, supplied the names of government employees for the national register, and performed other routine tasks needed for the central government to function effectively. The office of United States Marshal was created by the First Congress. President Washington signed the Judiciary Act into law on September 24, 1789. The Act provided that a United States Marshal's primary function was to execute all lawful warrants issued to him under the authority of the United States. The law defined marshals as officers of the courts charged with assisting federal courts in their law-enforcement functions. Six days after signing the act into law, President Washington appointed the first thirteen U.S. Marshals, for each of the then extant federal districts. From the nation's earliest days, marshals were permitted to recruit special deputies as local hires, or as temporary transfers to the Marshals Service from other federal law-enforcement agencies. Marshals were also authorized to swear in a posse to assist with manhunts, and other duties, ad hoc. Marshals were given extensive authority to support the federal courts within their judicial districts, and to carry out all lawful orders issued by federal judges, Congress, or the President. Federal marshals are most famous for their law enforcement work, but that was only a minor part of their workload. The largest part of the business was paper work—serving writs (e.g., subpoenas, summonses, warrants), and other processes issued by the courts, making arrests and handling all federal prisoners. They also disbursed funds as ordered by the courts. Marshals paid the fees and expenses of the court clerks, U.S. Attorneys, jurors, and witnesses. They rented the courtrooms and jail space, and hired the bailiffs, criers, and janitors. They made sure the prisoners were present, the jurors were available, and that the witnesses were on time. Presidency of John Adams (1797-1801) Upon taking the office of president, John Adams chose to retain Washington's executive cabinet. The Department of the Navy was established in 1798, and the Secretary of the Navy was added to the cabinet. The United States Marine Corps was established within the Department of the Navy in 1798. The federal government officially moved to Washington, D.C. in 1800, during which time the Library of Congress was established as the national library. Foreign policy of the United States was shaped by the XYZ Affair in 1798 and the resulting Quasi-War with the French First Republic. The Logan Act was passed in 1799 to prevent unauthorized negotiations with foreign governments. The Marine Hospital Service was established within the Revenue-Marine in 1798. The Department of War underwent several reforms in anticipation of war with France, including the establishment of an Apothecary General and other medical officers in 1799. The Provisional Army of the United States was also briefly maintained at this time, but it was dissolved in 1800. In 1798, the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts were passed to mitigate what the Federalists saw as a rising threat of rebellion from the Democratic-Republicans amid the Quasi-War. These laws made it more difficult to immigrate to the United States, gave the president authority to order imprisonment or deportation of non-citizens, and made it a crime to criticize the government or the president in a way that was deemed to be false. These laws were widely criticized, and they were repealed or allowed to expire at the end of Adams' term. Only the "Alien Enemy Act" is still in effect today. Jeffersonian Era and Era of Good Feelings (1801-1825) Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) The influence of the Federalist Party was greatly diminished after the 1800 United States elections, and the federal government came to be controlled by the Democratic-Republican Party. Thomas Jefferson replaced Federalist department heads with members of his own party, but he resisted calls from his party to establish a spoils system and fill all appointments with political allies. Jefferson advocated strong republicanism and egalitarianism in government with emphasis on agrarianism. Jefferson's political ideology became known as Jeffersonian democracy, and these ideas dominated the federal government for decades. Following the competitive presidential elections of 1796 and 1800, it became apparent that the Constitution's mechanism for presidential elections was insufficient. Under the previous system, every elector cast two votes, and the individual with the second most votes became the vice president. The Twelfth Amendment was ratified in 1804 to modify the presidential election process so that the elections of president and vice president are held separately. Developments in the judicial branch resulted from attempts by the Democratic-Republicans to limit the influence of Federalist judges that had been appointed by President Adams. The Judiciary Act of 1802 established a system of six circuit courts, with one corresponding to each Supreme Court justice. This was superseded by the Seventh Circuit Act of 1807, which created a seventh circuit court and added a seventh justice to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court's power in government affairs increased significantly in 1803 after it asserted the power of judicial review by American courts in Marbury v. Madison. The Supreme Court also issued multiple rulings describing the nature of federal power during Jefferson's presidency. It ruled that the president can not ignore laws passed by Congress in Little v. Barreme in 1804, and it ruled that federal courts supersede the decisions of state governments in United States v. Peters in 1809. Foreign policy was dominated by the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The United States sought a neutral stance between France and the United Kingdom. Increasing hostilities by the United Kingdom, such as the Chesapeake–Leopard affair, resulting in a federal policy of banning exports with the Embargo Act of 1807. The ban was reduced to just France and the United Kingdom in 1809 with the Non-Intercourse Act. The United States also engaged in the First Barbary War during Jefferson's presidency. The Democratic-Republicans were skeptical of standing armies and sought to reduce the country's military. Three major laws affecting American military policy were passed by the Jefferson administration. The Military Peace Establishment Act codified the structure of the military as well as establishing the United States Military Academy and the Army Corps of Engineers, the Insurrection Act of 1807 authorized the president to use military force to suppress insurrection in the United States, and the Militia Act of 1808 provided federal funding for state militias to serve as an alternative to a federal standing army. The Office of Indian Trade was established within the Department of War in 1806 to regulate trade with Native American tribes. In 1803, the Senate ratified the Louisiana Purchase, doubling the size of the United States, and Jefferson authorized the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore the new land. Ohio was admitted as a state the same year. In 1804, Samuel Chase became the first and only Supreme Court justice to be impeached. The government's first scientific agency, the United States Survey of the Coast, was established in 1807 as part of the Department of the Treasury. Embargo Act Foreign policy was dominated by the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The United States sought a neutral stance between France and the United Kingdom. Increasing hostilities by the United Kingdom, such as the Chesapeake–Leopard affair, resulting in a federal policy of banning exports with the Embargo Act of 1807. The ban was reduced to just France and the United Kingdom in 1809 with the Non-Intercourse Act. The United States also engaged in the First Barbary War during Jefferson's presidency. The Embargo Act of 1807 was a general trade embargo on all foreign nations that was enacted by the United States Congress. As a successor or replacement law for the 1806 Non-importation Act and passed as the Napoleonic Wars continued, it represented an escalation of attempts to coerce Britain to stop any impressment of American sailors and to respect American sovereignty and neutrality but also attempted to pressure France and other nations in the pursuit of general diplomatic and economic leverage. In the first decade of the 19th century, American shipping grew. During the Napoleonic Wars, rival nations Britain and France targeted neutral American shipping as a means to disrupt the trade of the other nation. American merchantmen who were trading with "enemy nations" were seized as contraband of war by European navies. The British Royal Navy had impressed American sailors who had either been British-born or previously serving on British ships, even if they now claimed to be American citizens with American papers. Incidents such as the Chesapeake–Leopard affair outraged Americans. Congress imposed the embargo in direct response to these events. President Thomas Jefferson acted with restraint, weighed public support for retaliation, and recognized that the United States was militarily far weaker than either Britain or France. He recommended that Congress respond with commercial warfare, a policy that appealed to Jefferson both for being experimental and for foreseeably harming his domestic political opponents more than his allies, whatever its effect on the European belligerents. The 10th Congress was controlled by his allies and agreed to the Act, which was signed into law on December 22, 1807. The embargo proved to be a complete failure. It failed to improve the American diplomatic position, highlighted American weakness and lack of leverage, significantly (and only) damaged the American economy, and sharply increased domestic political tensions. Both widespread evasion of the embargo and loopholes in the legislation reduced its impact on its targets. British commercial shipping, which already dominated global trade, was successfully adapting to Napoleon's Continental System by pursuing new markets, particularly in the restive Spanish and Portuguese colonies in South America. Thus, British merchants were well-positioned to grow at American expense when the embargo sharply reduced American trade activity. The embargo undermined American unity by provoking bitter protests, particularly in New England commercial centers. Support for the declining Federalist Party, which intensely opposed Jefferson, temporarily rebounded and drove electoral gains in 1808 (Senate and House). The embargo simultaneously undermined Americans' faith that their government could execute laws fairly and strengthened the European perception that the republican form of government was inept and ineffectual. Replacement legislation for the ineffective embargo was enacted on March 1, 1809, in the last days of Jefferson's presidency. Tensions with Britain continued to grow and eventually led to the War of 1812. Most historians consider Jefferson's embargo to have been ineffective and harmful to American interests. Even the top officials of the Jefferson administration viewed the embargo as a flawed policy, but they saw it as preferable to war. Appleby describes the strategy as Jefferson's "least effective policy", and Joseph Ellis calls it "an unadulterated calamity". Others, however, portray it as an innovative, nonviolent measure which aided France in its war with Britain while preserving American neutrality. Jefferson believed that the failure of the embargo was due to selfish traders and merchants showing a lack of "republican virtue." He maintained that, had the embargo been widely observed, it would have avoided war in 1812. Presidency of James Madison (1809-1817) James Madison was an ally of President Jefferson and retained much of his predecessor's policy. However, the United States ended its policy of neutrality between France and the United Kingdom when it declared war against the United Kingdom, beginning the War of 1812. The United States government was briefly dislocated from Washington D.C. during the war when the capital was captured and burned by British forces in 1814. The American military was insufficient and unprepared for a major war. Secretary of War William Eustis pushed for reforms to military tactics and readiness, but Eustis was considered to be unqualified and his attempts to lead the Department of War were unsuccessful, leading to his resignation several months into the war. Eustis' successor John Armstrong Jr. was similarly forced to resign in disgrace following the Burning of Washington. The Department of War saw major expansion throughout the war as a result, and it underwent several iterations throughout the 1810s. Conversely, the Department of the Navy was regarded as highly successful during the War of 1812. Following the end of the war, the Navy was updated with the establishment of the Board of Navy Commissioners and the construction of ships of the line. Economic policy of the United States moved toward protectionism with the Tariff of 1816. While tariffs had previously been implemented to raise funds, this tariff was passed to limit imports from other countries, a trend that would continue through the 1820s and 1830s. The First Bank of the United States had its charter expire in 1811, so the Second Bank of the United States was established as the country's national bank in 1816. In the interim period without a national bank, state-charted banks became increasingly common and states began issuing their own banknotes, which had no formal backing. Following the War of 1812, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander J. Dallas was praised for reorganizing his department, emphasizing internal revenue. The Supreme Court reasserted its authority by claiming jurisdiction over state courts in matters of federal law in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee in 1816. Two additional states were admitted during the presidency of James Madison: Louisiana was admitted in 1912, and Indiana was admitted in 1816. Presidency of James Monroe (1817-1825) During the presidency of James Monroe, political parties briefly became less relevant in federal politics. The Federalist Party ceased to be a major party, and most government officials coalesced under a single party for a period called the Era of Good Feelings. Opposition to the Democratic-Republican Party was so minute that Monroe effectively ran for reelection virtually unopposed. The Monroe administration saw the American economy disrupted by the Panic of 1819, the first financial crisis faced by the United States. In response, the government reformed how it sold lands with the Land Act of 1820 and the Relief Act of 1821. Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams codified early American foreign policy in the Monroe Doctrine. Under this policy, the United States would oppose any European interference in the Americas as well as any attempts to establish new colonies in the Western Hemisphere. Monroe also continued the process of restoring relations with the United Kingdom following the War of 1812 and fought the First Seminole War in Florida before buying Florida from Spain. The African Slave Trade Patrol was created in 1819 to assist in the fight against the Atlantic slave trade. Following the disestablishment of the Office of Indian Trade, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun established the Bureau of Indian Affairs without Congressional authorization. Calhoun also established the rank of Commanding General of the United States Army as part of his reforms to improve the Army's efficiency. The Supreme Court further defined the powers of states versus the federal government in three landmark cases. It ruled that the Necessary and Proper Clause grants implied powers and that the states cannot pass laws that interfere with federal programs in McCulloch v. Maryland, it extended this ruling to criminal charges in Cohens v. Virginia, and it ruled that states cannot regulate interstate commerce due to the Commerce Clause in Gibbons v. Ogden. Five states were admitted during the presidency of James Monroe: Mississippi in 1817, Illinois in 1818, Alabama in 1819, Maine in 1820, and Missouri in 1821. The admission of Missouri served to exacerbate the issue of slavery in the United States. Sitting between the northern states and the southern states, the status of Missouri as a slave state or a free state was hotly debated in Congress. The Missouri Compromise was eventually reached. Jacksonian Era (1825-1849) Presidency of John Quincy Adams (1825-1829) The Era of Good Feelings ended following the 1824 United States presidential election, and the Second Party System began with the fracture of the Democratic-Republican Party. Supporters of John Quincy Adams formed the National Republican Party and supporters of Andrew Jackson formed the Democratic Party. Adams maintained the Monroe Doctrine that he had helped develop in the previous administration, and the United States aligned itself with Latin American countries, strengthening ties and negotiating trade agreements. The Post Office established a dead letter office in 1825 to address dead letter mail. The protectionist Tariff of 1828 was a highly controversial development in American economic policy that placed high duties on several imports, and it was criticized for its disproportionate impact on the economies of southern states. Presidency of Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) The presidency of Andrew Jackson represented a major turning point for American government. Jackson believed in a rotation in office system, in which no one individual was allowed to serve in government for too long. Upon taking the presidency, he replaced a large portion of federal officers, which Jackson's opponents criticized as filling the government with political allies, essentially creating a spoils system. Political opponents of Jackson, including the National Republicans, the Anti-Masonic Party, and anti-Jacksonian Democrats, coalesced to form the Whig Party, which would be a major force in American politics for the next two decades. Federalism was more clearly defined by the Supreme Court with the decision of Barron v. Baltimore in 1833, ruling that the Bill of Rights does not apply to state governments. The United States government faced a major challenge from the nullification crisis in 1832. The Tariff of 1832 was passed, and while it was a reduction of the controversial Tariff of 1828, its passage still resulted in conflict. The government of South Carolina declared its intention to nullify the tariff, which would result in a constitutional crisis and threaten the union. The federal government prepared for an escalation of the conflict with the Force Bill, but the crisis was averted after a compromise was made in the Tariff of 1833. Following this incident, the United States moved away from protectionism. Several parts of government saw major reforms during Jackson's presidency. The Post Office was raised to a cabinet level department during Jackson's administration. The Bureau of Pensions was established in 1832. The United States Survey of the Coast was briefly transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of the Navy in 1834, but it was returned to the Department of the Treasury and renamed as the United States Coast Survey in 1836. The judicial branch was expanded with the Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837, creating two new circuit courts and adding two new justices to the Supreme Court, bringing both to a total of nine. The Department of State was reformed into a system of bureaus, going through several iterations before a system of four bureaus was established in 1834: the Diplomatic Bureau; the Consular Bureau; the Home Bureau; and the Keeper of the Archives, Translator, and Disbursing Agent. The Commissioner of Patents was established in 1836. The Jackson administration was hostile to indigenous populations, most notably initiating the forced displacement of approximately 60,000 Native Americans in what became known as the Trail of Tears. Included in this displacement was the Second Seminole War waged between the United States and the Seminole people. The Supreme Court ruled on tribal sovereignty early in Jackson's administration in 1832 in Worcester v. Georgia, but this did little to prevent the removals. Congress also recognized the Bureau of Indian Affairs as an official government bureau in 1832. Jackson was heavily involved in the monetary policy of the government. He was a strong opponent of national banks, seeing them as inherently corrupt, and in 1832 he vetoed a bill that would renew the bank's charter. This triggered the Bank War, a major political dispute over the future of the national bank in the United States. Jackson transferred the national bank's funds to state banks, and he allowed its charter to expire in 1836. Jackson also influenced monetary policy through his policy of Specie Circular, requiring federal land to be purchased directly with silver and gold rather than banknotes. Jackson's monetary policies are often cited as a major cause of the Panic of 1837. Two states were admitted during Jackson's presidency: Arkansas in 1836 and Michigan in 1837. Presidency of Martin Van Buren (1837-1841) Martin Van Buren was a strong supporter of President Jackson and saw to the continuation his policies, particularly in regard to economic policy and the forced displacement of Native Americans. The Panic of 1837 began after hard currency reserves were depleted and banks began refusing the redemption of banknotes. The Van Buren administration worked to establish an Independent Treasury to replace state and national banks. The United States saw diplomatic conflict with the United Kingdom follow border disputes with Colonial Canada, leading to the bloodless Aroostook War in 1838. Tensions also rose with Mexico as the United States maintained relations with and considered annexation of the Republic of Texas, which Mexico claimed as its own territory. In 1838, the United States Mint opened new branches in Charlotte, North Carolina; Dahlonega, Georgia; and New Orleans, Louisiana in addition to its primary location in Philadelphia. Postmaster General John Milton Niles ended postal service on Sundays, a policy that still exists in the modern Post Office. In 1839, Congress established an agricultural division within the Patent Office. Presidencies of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler (1841-1845) The sudden death of President William Henry Harrison one month into his term resulted in a constitutional crisis. As the first instance of a president dying in office, it was unclear what role Vice President John Tyler was to play. Tyler determined that he was to assume the presidency in full, setting the "Tyler precedent". Though not everyone initially recognized him as president, his actions would set the standard procedure for presidential vacancies. The federal government was in disarray for much of Tyler's presidency due to intraparty fighting, in large part because of Tyler's disagreements with the Whig Party platform and his extensive use of the presidential veto. Tyler's hostility toward Congress resulted in the first impeachment proceedings against a president, but the impeachment ultimately never went past the House. The United States worked to improve relations with the United Kingdom following several major disputes in the late 1830s. The Webster–Ashburton Treaty resolved the border dispute between Maine and Canada, and Tyler developed a plan to address the Oregon boundary dispute that was adopted shortly after the end of his presidency. The Treaty of Wanghia established ties between the United States and China in 1845. The Independent Treasury System was abolished during Tyler's presidency, and the use of treasury notes increased significantly. The Department of the Navy was greatly expanded under Secretary of the Navy Abel P. Upshur. The United States Naval Observatory was established, steamships were adopted, and the Board of Navy Commissioners was replaced with a bureau system. Florida was admitted as a state in 1845. Presidency of James K. Polk (1845-1849) The Democratic Party's platform of manifest destiny reached its pinnacle under the direction of James K. Polk, directing westward expansion, justifying the Texas annexation, leading the United States into the Mexican–American War. By the end of Polk's term, the country had claimed most of the present-day Southwestern United States. The United States Naval Academy opened in Annapolis, Maryland in 1845, the Independent Treasury was reestablished in 1846, and the Smithsonian Institution was established in 1846 as the United States National Museum. The United States Life-Saving Service was established under the Department of the Treasury in 1848. The Department of the Post Office began issuing federally endorsed postage stamps in 1847, requiring payment before shipments rather than after. Texas was admitted as a state following its annexation in 1845, Iowa was admitted in 1846, and Wisconsin was admitted in 1848. Department of the Interior The Department of the Interior was established in 1849 by consolidating the Department of the Treasury's General Land Office, the Department of War's Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Department of State's Patent Office, and military pension offices. A large number of governmental functions were assigned to the Interior Department, simply because at that time there was a lack of specialized agencies to handle many vital government functions. The Interior Department carried out the US Census, managed hospitals and universities, and also handled a number of other roles and processes that were not necessarily directly related to each other. In the 1880s, the department's role had greatly expanded, and it handled the pensions for military veterans. The Interior Department was occasionally referred to as "Mother of Departments." When the Department of Agriculture was founded in 1882, it originated from the agricultural division of the Patent Office within the Interior Department. In 1884, The Bureau of Labor was created within Interior, and later became the Department of Labor in 1888. In 1903 various components of Interior Department, including the Census Bureau, were combined with the Labor Department to form the Department of Commerce and Labor, which split into two cabinet departments in 1913. The Interstate Commerce Commission reported to the Secretary of the Interior for the first two years of its life, 1887–89, before becoming an independent agency. In 1930 the Bureau of Pensions went to the new Veterans Administration, which became the Department of Veterans Affairs in 1989. In 1977 several Interior functions helped form another new cabinet agency, the Department of Energy. Antebellum and Civil War Era (1849-1865) Presidencies of Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore (1849-1853) The issues surrounding slavery and the Mexican Cession became the primary concern of the federal government going into the 1850s. Zachary Taylor attempted to avoid the issue during his brief time as president, and his successor Millard Fillmore enforced the terms of the Compromise of 1850. This compromise included provisions that determined the boundaries of western states and territories, the status of slavery in newly claimed land, and the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 that raised tensions regarding slavery between the north and the south. Settlement of the west also prompted the Donation Land Claim Act and the California Land Act of 1851. Potential conflict with the United Kingdom was resolved with the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty in 1850, addressing how the two countries were to interact with Central America. Relations between the United States and France were strained following a diplomatic incident involving the French ambassador and President Taylor, and the United States discouraged French annexation of Hawaii under President Fillmore. Tensions briefly rose with Spain when some Americans called for annexation of Spanish-controlled Cuba. Fillmore also organized the Perry Expedition that would lead to open relations with Japan over the following decades. Coinage was reformed with the Coinage Act of 1853, reducing the amount of silver in American currency. This bill has been identified as a major step toward abandoning bimetallism and adopting the gold standard. The Department of the Interior took shape during the administrations of Taylor and Fillmore, having been created just days prior to Taylor's inauguration. The department was widely criticized as being an opportunity for political patronage. California was admitted as a state in 1850 as part of the Compromise of 1850. Presidency of Franklin Pierce (1853-1857) The presidency of President Franklin Pierce effectively marked the end of the Second Party System. The Third Party System began to form with the Democratic Party losing influence, the Whig Party disappearing, and the Republican Party becoming a major political force. The Republican Party was established in response to the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, which essentially repealed the Missouri Compromise and triggered violent conflict over the issue of slavery in the Kansas Territory. These issues were further exacerbated by the caning of Charles Sumner in the Senate Chamber. The executive branch saw reforms under the Pierce administration that established a predecessor to the civil service system that would later be implemented. The Army and the Navy were significantly expanded during the Pierce administration, including the formation of the United States Camel Corps in 1856. The United States ended its recognition of foreign currencies as legal tender with the Coinage Act of 1857, instead requiring it to be converted into American currency. The Statistical Office was established within the Department of State in 1854. The Gadsden Purchase took place in 1854, bringing the Contiguous United States to its present-day boundaries. The Guano Islands Act was also passed, establishing claims on several uninhabited islands. Conflict between the United States and the United Kingdom over Central America escalated, culminating in the Bombardment of Greytown. Tensions with Spain also rose due to the Black Warrior Affair and the publication of the Ostend Manifesto. In Japan, the United States ended the country's period of isolation with the Convention of Kanagawa. Presidency of James Buchanan (1857-1861) Two days after the inauguration of James Buchanan, the Supreme Court delivered its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, ruling that the rights guaranteed by the Constitution did not apply to people of African descent. Buchanan was criticized for doing little to address the increasingly urgent issue of slavery. Other incidents, such as the raid on Harpers Ferry, further escalated the slavery debate and divided the country. Following the election of Abraham Lincoln at the end of Buchanan's term, 11 states declared their independence from the United States, establishing the unrecognized country of the Confederate States of America in 1861. The Mountain Meadows Massacre took place in 1857. Further provoking Anti-Mormonism in the United States, Buchanan ordered the Army to occupy the Utah Territory and remove Mormon leader Brigham Young from the position of the territory's governor. The resulting conflict set off the Utah War. American foreign policy continued to focus on Central America in the late 1850s, working to limit British influence in the region. The United States also strengthened ties with China through the Treaty of Tientsin. The Buchanan administration was criticized for its deep corruption, patronage, and bribery. The Covode Committee found widespread corruption in the administration, finding that the Buchanan administration was to that point the most corrupt in American history. The Panic of 1857 began following the failure of the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company. This too served divide the North and the South, as the North was disproportionately affected and both blamed the other for the recession. At the end of his presidency, Buchanan signed the Morrill Tariff into law, starting a new period of protectionist tariffs in the United States. The Government Printing Office was established in 1861. Three states were admitted during the presidency of James Buchanan: Minnesota in 1858, Oregon in 1859, and Kansas in 1861. Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865) The American Civil War began in 1861 between the United States and the breakaway Confederate States. The Confederacy ratified the Constitution of the Confederate States in 1861, establishing a presidential system similar to the United States. Many Congressmen from Southern states left the United States Congress to serve in the Confederate States Congress, and many more were expelled from the United States Congress. No government officially recognized the Confederacy as a legitimate state, and it was considered to be an illegal sedition within the United States. The Confiscation Act of 1861 allowed the federal government to confiscate any property that could help the South in the Civil War, including slaves. It was supplemented by the Confiscation Act of 1862 that explicitly gave the president the power to emancipate slaves. Slavery was made illegal in Washington D.C. the same year with the Compensated Emancipation Act. Lincoln used his power of emancipation to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, legally ordering the end of slavery in the South when it came into force on January 1, 1863. As the Civil War ended, the Freedmen's Bureau was created to facilitate reconstruction. On April 15, 1865, Lincoln became the first president to be assassinated. The first military draft in the United States was established with the Militia Act of 1862 and the Enrollment Act. To further the war effort, Lincoln was given authority by Congress to suspend habeas corpus in 1863. Hundreds of citizens were detained by the United States government for expressing sympathies toward the Confederacy for fear that they were spies. American foreign policy during the Civil War was designed to prevent other countries from interfering on behalf of the Confederacy. The United Kingdom and France both maintained tacit relations with the Southern states, but neither recognized the Confederacy or aligned with it over the United States. The Navy first began using hospital ships during the Civil War. The Civil War prompted significant reform to the government revenue system. The first federal income tax was established by the Revenue Act of 1861. It was modified to be a progressive tax by the Revenue Act of 1862, and a Commissioner of Internal Revenue was established to enforce tax collection. The income tax was then increased by the Revenue Act of 1864. The United States began using demand notes in 1861 and United States Notes in 1862. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing was established under the Department of the Treasury in 1862 the facilitate the production of banknotes. A new national bank system was established in 1863 with the National Bank Act, and legislation to prevent defrauding of the government was passed in the False Claims Act the same year. The treasury also began printing the phrase In God We Trust on coins in 1864. The Department of Agriculture was established in 1862, though it consisted of only eight employees and was not given cabinet status. The Morrill Act of 1862 established land-grant universities in the United States, the National Academy of Sciences was founded in 1863, and the Yosemite Grant was approved in 1864, setting aside what would eventually become Yosemite National Park. This would be the first time that park land was set aside by the federal government specifically for conservation and tourism. In the judicial branch, the Tenth Circuit Act of 1863 created a tenth circuit court and added a tenth Associate Justice to the Supreme Court. West Virginia was admitted as a state in 1863 to remain in the union after the secession of Virginia, and Nevada was admitted as a state in 1864. Reconstruction Era (1865-1877) Presidency of Andrew Johnson (1865-1869) As the Civil War ended, the primary issue was the readmission of rebellious states. In 1865, President Andrew Johnson granted pardons to most Confederates. Four Reconstruction Acts were passed between 1867 and 1868 established the procedures for reconstruction and readmission. The states that attempted to secede were put under the jurisdiction of five military districts. In order to be readmitted as states, they would have to draft new constitutions guaranteeing universal male suffrage and they would have to ratify the pending Fourteenth Amendment. Tennessee had previously complied with the government and been readmitted in 1866, so it was exempt from the acts. The remaining states were gradually readmitted over the following two years. Two of the three Reconstruction Amendments were passed during the Johnson administration. The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified in 1865, making slavery illegal in the United States in all cases except as punishment for a crime. The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868, defining the right to citizenship, guaranteeing rights of due process and equal protection to all citizens, adjusting the method of apportionment of representatives to reflect the end of slavery, disqualifying insurrectionists from holding office, and addressing debt incurred by acts of insurrection. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was also passed as the first civil rights law in the United States, affirming that all citizens are protected equally under the law. Johnson had been a Democrat elected as part of a unity ticket, and his presidency resulted in conflict with Congress, which was controlled overwhelmingly by Republicans. 15 bills were vetoed by Johnson only for Congress to override the veto, the most of any presidency. The Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1867 over President Johnson's veto to limit the president's power by forbidding him from removing certain executive officials. Johnson ignored the law, resulting in the first impeachment trial of a United States president, during which Johnson was acquitted by a single vote. With the threat of France supporting the Confederacy alleviated, the United States facilitated the end of the French-controlled Second Mexican Empire, restoring democracy to Mexico. The Expatriation Act of 1868 was passed to affirm the right of a citizen to renounce their citizenship, and it was passed in response to foreign countries claiming that American immigrants still owed their home country allegiance. The office of Examiner of Claims was established in the Department of State in 1868 to oversee claims by American citizens against foreign countries. The federal judiciary was restructured with the Judicial Circuits Act of 1866, modifying the boundaries of the circuit courts and requiring that the number of Supreme Court justices be reduced from ten to seven. In 1866, the Supreme Court ruled that the Lincoln administration's use of military tribunals for citizens was unconstitutional in Ex parte Milligan. In 1868, the Supreme Court ruled that all citizens have a right to move between states without penalty in Crandall v. Nevada. In 1865, the House Committee on Appropriations and the House Committee on Banking and Currency were established, taking on some of the responsibilities of the House Committee on Ways and Means. In addition to the readmitted rebellious states, Nebraska was admitted in 1867 over Johnson's veto. The Alaska Purchase was completed in 1867, transferring ownership of Alaska from Russia to the United States. Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877) The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in 1870, legally guaranteeing that race cannot be a barrier to voting. Following the amendment's ratification, white supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan used violence to prevent African-Americans from voting. In response, Congress passed the Enforcement Acts and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to give the federal government the power to intervene in electoral violence and other acts of racial discrimination. The Amnesty Act was passed in 1872, permitting former Confederate troops to seek office under the Fourteenth Amendment. The Grant administration became notorious for being corrupt and scandal-ridden. The Whiskey Ring, the Star Route scandal, the Sanborn incident, the Trader post scandal, the Black Friday gold panic, and many other scandals and acts of corruption by the Grant administration marred the administration's reputation. The Crédit Mobilier scandal, having taken place during previous administrations, came to light during the Grant administration, further perpetuating the image of a corrupt federal government. Grant himself was uninvolved in most of these scandals and often unaware that they were taking place. In an effort to fight corruption, Grant established the United States Civil Service Commission to regulate appointment of federal employees. Following unsuccessful efforts in 1830 and 1846 to make Attorney General a full-time job, Congress conducted an inquiry into the creation of a "law department" headed by the Attorney General and composed of the various department solicitors and United States attorneys. The Department of Justice was established in 1870, including the office of Solicitor General. The Weather Bureau was established in the same year. The office of Surgeon General was established in 1871 to lead the Marine Hospital Service. The Post Office Act of 1872 established the Department of the Post Office as a cabinet level department. The Comstock Act was passed in 1873, banning anything that could be interpreted as obscene or sexual from the post, as well as contraceptives and abortifacients. Monetary policy of the 1870s centered on addressing the economic fallout of the Civil War and the introduction of paper money, as well as the Panic of 1873 and the resulting Long Depression. In anticipation of a sudden influx of silver into the market, the Coinage Act of 1873 ended the status of silver as legal tender. This controversially moved the United States away from the bimetallism system and toward a pure gold standard. Backlash to the shift emerged with the free silver movement, and the status of bimetallism would be a major political issue for decades. The Specie Payment Resumption Act further cemented the gold standard in 1875 by attaching the fiat United States Notes to the gold standard. The United States did not engage in any major wars under the Grant administration, although there were brief skirmishes, such as a military conflict with Korea in 1871. Grant began the process of annexing Santo Domingo in 1869, but resistance from the rest of the federal government prevented the annexation from being undertaken. Between the United States and the United Kingdom, conflict remained regarding the Alabama Claims of the Civil War. The two countries resolved the issue with international arbitration in 1872, and the United Kingdom agreed to compensate the United States, setting an early standard for international law. Increased focus on developing and populating the Western United States arose during the 1870s. The General Mining Act of 1872 granted mining privileges for prospectors on federal lands. The Timber Culture Act of 1873 and the Desert Land Act of 1877 incentivized the development of land with afforestation and irrigation, respectively. Yellowstone National Park was established as the world's first national park in 1872. The Naturalization Act of 1870 set standards for the country's naturalization process, and the Page Act of 1875 banned the entry of Chinese women into the United States, effectively ending the country's century-long policy of open borders. The Judiciary Act of 1869 reversed plans to reduce the Supreme Court to seven justices by setting the number to nine. The Supreme Court ruled that the Bill of Rights is not applicable to state governments in United States v. Cruikshank, though this was overturned by future decisions. New Year's Day, Independence Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas were established as the first four federal holidays in 1870. Colorado was admitted as a state in 1876. Gilded Age (1877-1897) Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881) The presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes began with the Compromise of 1877. The results of the 1876 presidential election were contested in four states, leaving no candidate with a majority of electoral votes. It was agreed that the contested states would be resolved in Hayes' favor on the condition that he end the military occupation of the Southern states as president. This is credited as a major factor of the white supremacist Redeemers taking power, creating the Solid South voting bloc that would last for nearly a century. The debate over patronage and the spoils system also became more prominent under the Hayes administration, as President Hayes sought to do away with them in favor of civil service reform. The Half-Breed faction of Congress advocated for this civil service reform while the Stalwarts became a major political force in opposition to it. The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 took place early in Hayes' presidency. After it began to threat the security of the nation, Hayes ordered federal troops to end the strike. In response, the president's power to use the military in domestic conflict was curtailed by the Posse Comitatus Act in 1878. Bimetallism was briefly reestablished in 1878 with the Bland–Allison Act, which ordered the creation of millions of dollars in silver coins. The United States Geological Survey was established as part of the Department of the Interior in 1879. The Department of the Post Office saw major reforms in 1880 to address corruption uncovered during the Star Route scandal. The first Supreme Court ruling on religious liberties was delivered in 1879 when the court ruled that religious duty is not justification for a crime in Reynolds v. United States. The Supreme Court also delivered a landmark ruling in Strauder v. West Virginia, ruling that excluding jurors based on race infringes on the right to due process. Washington's Birthday was established as a federal holiday in 1879. Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885) James A. Garfield had run for president with Chester A. Arthur as a running mate to appease the Stalwart faction that opposed civil service reform. Following Garfield's assassination, Arthur committed to continuing work on reform. In 1883, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act ended the spoils system and established a permanent civil service system in the federal government. The establishment of the Civil Service Commission marked a shift in government toward commission oversight in government rather than oversight by individual executives. The Immigration Act of 1882 implemented a tax on immigration and limited the types of immigrants that were welcome. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 expanded a previous ban on immigration of Chinese women, barring all people of Chinese descent from immigrating to the United States. The government had accumulated a large surplus going into the administrations of Garfield and Arthur. Multiple large spending projects were undertaken, including the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1882 and the construction of new protected cruisers and battleships that formed the beginning of the modern Navy. The Depression of 1882–1885 took place gradually during Arthur's presidency, peaking with the Panic of 1884. In 1883, the Supreme Court found that the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments can't be applied to private citizens in a collection of cases known as the Civil Rights Cases, overruling parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1875. First presidency of Grover Cleveland (1885-1889) Following the death of Grover Cleveland's vice president, as well as the previous vacancies during the presidency of Chester A. Arthur, Congress determined that the Presidential Succession Act needed updating. A revised version was passed in 1886 that replaced Congressional leadership in the line of succession with members of the cabinet. The process of counting electoral votes was also updated with the passage of the Electoral Count Act in response to the contested election of 1876. The Department of Agriculture was raised to cabinet status in 1889 and the office of Commissioner of Agriculture was reformed as the Secretary of Agriculture. The Marine Hospital Service was reorganized into a commissioned corps in 1889 that would eventually be known as the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Regulation of transit was a priority during Cleveland's first term. Congress passed the Passenger Vessel Services Act of 1886 to disincentivize cabotage in the United States, and it passed the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 to establish the Interstate Commerce Commission and regulate rail companies. Policy regarding Native Americans turned from tribal sovereignty toward accepting Native Americans in United States society. The Dawes Act granted Native Americans the right to individually hold land, and the Supreme Court decision of United States v. Kagama established Native Americans as part of the legal system of the United States. The first Board of Fortifications was established in 1885 to upgrade American coastal defenses. Other foreign policy at the time primarily regarded access to waters and fishing rights, particularly off the coast of Canada and in the Bering Strait. Legally, the United States rendered itself accountable to certain civil claims through the Tucker Act of 1887. In 1886, the Supreme Court ruled in Yick Wo v. Hopkins that laws enforced in a discriminatory manner violate the Fourteenth Amendment, even if the law does not explicitly mention race. Memorial Day was established as a federal holiday in 1888, at the time called Decoration Day. Presidency of Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893) Economic policy under Benjamin Harrison was affected by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which increased the amount of silver in the federal treasury, and the McKinley Tariff, which raised tariff rates. The United States also developed its antitrust law with the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. The Dependent and Disability Pension Act of 1890 established pensions for veterans. The General Revision Act of 1891 reversed previous resource management policies and granted the president the power to set aside forest reserves as national forests, and the Shoshone National Forest was separated from Yellowstone to become the first national forest in the United States. The United States and Germany engaged in a military standoff during the Samoan crisis in 1889, but a tropical storm ended the conflict by destroying most of the participating Naval ships. The Baltimore crisis risked military action with Chile in 1891, but the two countries worked to settle the dispute. The United States supported Hawaiian constitutionalists in the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1893, and the Republic of Hawaii was established in its place. Regarding immigration, the United States moved further away from its previous policy of open borders with the Immigration Act of 1891 and the Geary Act of 1892, which established new limitations on the immigration process. The United States Board on Geographic Names was established under the Department of the Interior in 1890 to set uniform standards for the names of municipalities in the United States. The United States courts of appeals were established by the Judiciary Act of 1891 to serve as an intermediate court system between the district courts and the circuit courts. Six states were admitted during Harrison's time in office, more than any other presidency: Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Washington were admitted in November 1889 under the Enabling Act of 1889, while Idaho and Wyoming were admitted in July 1890. Second presidency of Grover Cleveland (1893-1897) The Panic of 1893 triggered an economic depression in the United States. The issue of bimetallism was still a major factor in American economic policy, and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act requiring silver in the treasury was repealed in 1894. The Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act of 1894 lowered tariffs and replaced them with a federal income tax, but the Supreme Court ruled the income tax unconstitutional in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. the following year. The landmark Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson was decided in 1896, when the court ruled that the doctrine of separate but equal permitted racial segregation in the United States under the Fourteenth Amendment. Cleveland once again found Hawaii to be a major issue in his second term, and much of American foreign policy considered how to address the country. The Tea Importation Act of 1897 expanded the federal government into food safety by preventing the import of contaminated tea. The Copyright Office was established as a separate agency under the Library of Congress in 1897. Labor Day was established as a federal holiday in 1894. Utah was admitted as a state in 1896. Progressive Era and World War I (1897-1921) Presidency of William McKinley (1897-1901) The election of William McKinley is seen as the starting point of the Fourth Party System, in which the Republican Party held significant power in federal politics. In 1898, President McKinley led the United States to war with Spain in the Spanish–American War. In addition to guaranteeing Cuban independence, the war resulted in the United States taking control of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, as well as increasing its influence in the Caribbean. The United States also annexed Hawaii the same year. After the United States took control of the Philippines, it become a party to the ongoing Philippine Revolution, triggering the Philippine–American War in 1899. In its interactions with Europe, the United States negotiated the Nicaragua Canal with the United Kingdom, and it participated in the Tripartite Convention with the United Kingdom and Germany to determine the fate of Samoa. In 1899, the United States established the Open Door Policy with European powers, discouraging them from colonizing or exerting undue influence over China. American foreign policy under William McKinley is credited with establishing the United States as a great power. Economic debates during McKinley's presidency continued to revolve around tariffs and bimetallism as well as the recovery from the Panic of 1893. The Dingley Act of 1897 restored the high tariffs that had been reduced in 1894, and the Gold Standard Act of 1900 effectively ended bimetallism in the United States, establishing the gold standard as the exclusive monetary system of the United States. The War Revenue Act of 1898 raised taxes to fund the Spanish–American War. The United States enacted its first environmental law with the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899. In 1898, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Wong Kim Ark that children born to foreign residents on U.S. soil are American citizens. In 1900, the Supreme Court ruled in The Paquete Habana that international customary law is integrated into federal American law. Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) The administration of Theodore Roosevelt heavily prioritized competition law and fair practice in business, prosecuting and breaking up several companies for competition law violations. In 1905, the Supreme Court ruled that the federal government has the power to regulate monopolies in Swift & Co. v. United States. The Hepburn Act gave the administration additional powers to regulate monopolies and trusts. The Food and Drug Administration was established as the first consumer protection agency, and the Federal Meat Inspection Act granted the Department of Agriculture the power to regulate and inspect meat. Following the Panic of 1907, the Aldrich–Vreeland Act created the National Monetary Commission to investigate federal banking policies in the United States compared to those of major European countries. The United States Department of Commerce and Labor was created in 1903 by splitting several offices from the Department of the Treasury, including the Bureau of Immigration, Bureau of Navigation, Light House Board, Steamboat Inspection Service, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bureau of Standards. The Department of the Interior's Bureau of Statistics and the independent United States Fish Commission were also moved into the new department, and the Bureau of Corporations and the Bureau of Census were created underneath the department. The Roosevelt administration also prioritized natural conservation. The Bureau of Reclamation was created under the Department of the Interior in 1902, and the United States Forest Service was created under the Department of Agriculture in 1905. The Antiquities Act of 1906 granted the president the power to establish national monuments from federal lands, and Roosevelt established Devils Tower as the country's first national monument. Roosevelt's policies of corporate regulation, consumer protection, and natural conservation were branded together as the Square Deal. American foreign policy under Roosevelt was dictated by Roosevelt's Big Stick Diplomacy and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. These policies detailed the administration's involvement in Latin American affairs and the establishment of a modernized Navy to enforce decisions in the region, and they were developed following the Venezuelan crisis in which several major European powers attempted to intervene in Venezuelan affairs. In 1903, the United States supported Panama in its movement for independence and made an agreement with the new country to build the Panama Canal. In addition to the Panama Canal Zone, the United States also negotiated the leasing of Guantánamo Bay from Cuba. In 1905, the Roosevelt administration intervened diplomatically in the Russo-Japanese War. President Roosevelt personally mediated the Treaty of Portsmouth ending the war, earning him the Nobel Peace Prize. With Roosevelt's foreign policy, as well as increasing recognition of the United States as a great power, the United States military was deemed insufficient. The Roosevelt administration prioritized the expansion of the Navy. To demonstrate improvements in the country's Naval power, Roosevelt authorized the Great White Fleet to tour the world. The militia was also reformed in the United States by the Militia Act of 1903, which established the National Guard. In 1908, the Division of Militia Affairs was established to oversee the National Guard. In response to the assassination of President McKinley by an anarchist, the Immigration Act of 1903 banned anarchists from immigrating to the United States. It also banned epileptics, beggars, and sex traffickers. The Immigration Act of 1907 and the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 further restricted immigration to the United States. The Expatriation Act of 1907 also established ways that citizens can retain or relinquish their citizenship. The Tillman Act of 1907 was the first campaign finance law in the United States, making it illegal for companies to donate to political campaigns. Oklahoma was admitted as a state in 1907. Law enforcement In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, which provided agencies across the country with information to identify known criminals. The 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created a perception that the United States was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, but President Theodore Roosevelt wanted more power to monitor them. The Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the Oregon land fraud scandal at the turn of the 20th century. President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the U.S. Secret Service, for personnel, investigators in particular. On May 27, 1908, Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelt's urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, which would then have its own staff of special agents. The Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was created on July 26, 1908. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including some veterans of the Secret Service, to work for a new investigative agency. Its first "chief" (the title is now "director") was Stanley Finch. Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureau's first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the "White Slave Traffic Act" or Mann Act, passed on June 25, 1910. (In 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation.) Presidency of William Howard Taft (1909-1913) As Roosevelt's chosen successor, William Howard Taft continued Roosevelt's Square Deal program. The Mann–Elkins Act of 1910 strengthened government control over railroad rates, and the Federal Insecticide Act of 1910 regulated pesticides for consumer safety. The Bureau of Mines was created under the Department of the Interior in 1910. In 1913, the Department of Commerce and Labor was split into two departments, with the old department being renamed the Department of Commerce and a separate Department of Labor being created. The Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Bureau of Immigration were moved into the Department of Labor, and the Children's Bureau was created under the new department. The Department of State was expanded in 1909, with the introduction of many new offices and divisions to conduct relations and commerce in several regions of the world. President Taft implemented the policy of dollar diplomacy to leverage influence in foreign affairs through economic rather than military means. Foreign affairs under the Taft administration focused on upheaval in several Latin American countries. Conflict with Nicaragua resulted in occupation of the country in 1912. Conflicts of the Mexican Revolution spilled into the United States as the Border War, and upheaval in Cuba resulted in deployment of U.S. Marines for military support. Close relations were also maintained with Panama during the construction of the Panama Canal. The Federal Corrupt Practices Act was enacted in 1910 and amended in 1911, establishing spending limits and public disclosure of spending in political campaigns. The Lloyd–La Follette Act of 1912 offered protections to government employees from unjust removals, particularly in regard to whistleblowers. The Defense Secrets Act of 1911 criminalized the disclosure of government secrets. The powers of the Speaker of the House were reduced in 1910, and the House of Representatives was capped at 435 members with the Apportionment Act of 1911. Following the retirement of the President pro tempore of the Senate in 1911, the Republican Party could not decide who would hold the position, resulting in a system of rotating the holder of the office. New Mexico and Arizona were admitted as states in 1912. The Sixteenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, permitting the federal income tax and overruling the 1895 Supreme Court decision of Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) The presidency of Woodrow Wilson was dominated by World War I. While the war started in 1914, the United States did not formally enter the war until 1917, declaring war on Germany in response to attacks on American ships. Joining the Allies, the United States waged war against the Central Powers until Allied victory in 1918. American involvement in the war resulted in contentious domestic disputes. The Selective Service Act of 1917 granted the president the power to enforce conscription against American citizens, while the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 criminalized interference with or criticism of the war effort. Conscription was upheld in the Selective Draft Law Cases, and the Espionage Act was upheld in Schenck v. United States. The railroads were also nationalized during the war as the United States Railroad Administration. Following the war, the American Relief Administration was established to provide humanitarian aid to the people of Europe. Prior to American entry into the war, the United States military was expanded and reformed. The Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, the predecessor to the country's air force, was created in 1914. The War Risk Insurance Act created the Bureau of War Risk under the Department of the Treasury in 1914. The Revenue Cutter Service and the U.S. Life-Saving Service were merged to create the United States Coast Guard under the Department of the Treasury in 1915, while the United States Shipping Board was established in 1916. The National Defense Act of 1916 expanded military reserves and upgraded the Division of Militia Affairs into a bureau as the Militia Bureau. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was a federal agency founded on March 3, 1915, to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research, due to the expansion of the role of military aircraft, as part of the changing nature of warfare during World War I. In addition to the World War, the United States also engaged in conflicts in the Western Hemisphere under the Wilson administration. The Border War with Mexico escalated, resulting in several attacks on American border towns. In response, the United States occupied the Mexican city of Veracruz and launched the Pancho Villa Expedition. Following upheaval in Haiti, the United States occupied the country to end the conflict in 1915. The United States similarly occupied the Dominican Republic in 1916. The United States began the shift from tariffs to income tax as the primary method of generating revenue with the Revenue Act of 1913 and the Revenue Act of 1916. The Federal Reserve was established in 1913. The Board of Mediation and Conciliation was established in 1913. Further developments were made to antitrust law, including the establishment of the Federal Trade Commission and the passing of the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. Following the proliferation of the automobile in American society, the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 authorized the first federally funded highway. Three amendments to the Constitution were ratified during Wilson's presidency. The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, allowing citizens to elect their senators directly. The Eighteenth Amendment was ratified in 1919, banning alcohol in the United States and beginning the era of Prohibition with the Volstead Act. The Nineteenth Amendment was ratified in 1920, guaranteeing women's suffrage in the United States. The federal government created its first drug policy with the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914. The National Park Service was established under the Department of the Interior in 1916. The United States purchased what would become the United States Virgin Islands from the Netherlands in 1917. Standardized time zones and daylight saving time were established in 1918. Following a rise in left-wing terrorism, the Palmer Raids were conducted to seek out and deport socialists in 1919 and 1920. During the 1920 United States census, the one-drop rule was adopted for racial classifications. Roaring Twenties (1921-1929) Presidency of Warren G. Harding (1921-1923) Warren G. Harding prioritized balancing the budget during his administration, resulting in the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921. This act established the Bureau of the Budget under the Department of the Treasury and the General Accounting Office in Congress. The Emergency Tariff of 1921, the Revenue Act of 1921, and the Fordney–McCumber Tariff of 1922 were passed to fund the government. The federal government was heavily influenced by a group Harding's associates during his presidency, known as the Ohio Gang. This group infamously engaged in corruption and malfeasance, most notably as part of the Teapot Dome scandal. In 1921, President Harding invited delegations from the world's great powers to attend the Washington Naval Conference in Washington D.C. Several disarmament agreements were made, including the Four-Power Treaty, the Nine-Power Treaty, and the Washington Naval Treaty, which prevented an arms race following World War I and maintained peaceful relations between the world's great powers through the 1920s. Immigration to the United States was restricted by the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, which implemented the National Origins Formula. The Sheppard–Towner Act of 1921 provided regulation and funding for maternity and childcare issues, introducing both welfare and women's issues as responsibilities of the federal government. The Cable Act of 1922 was passed to give women rights independently of their husbands. The Supreme Court clarified the procedures for ratifying constitutional amendments in Dillon v. Gloss. Presidency of Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929) During the presidency of Calvin Coolidge, the United States developed the Dawes Plan and the Kellogg–Briand Pact in an attempt to alleviate issues that resulted following World War I. The Rogers Act of 1924 merged the diplomatic service and the consular service into a single United States Foreign Service under the Department of State. The Immigration Act of 1924 established the United States Border Patrol and applied restrictions to immigration, including a total ban of immigration from Asia. The United States granted citizenship to Native Americans with the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924. The U.S. Board of Tax Appeals was established in 1924. The Public Buildings Act of 1926 provided funding for federal buildings to be constructed throughout the United States. The United States Numbered Highway System was established in 1926. The United States Navy was expanded with the Cruiser Act of 1929, authorizing the construction of 19 cruisers and one aircraft carrier. The Supreme Court ruled that the president has the power to unilaterally remove officials of the executive branch in Myers v. United States, the vagueness doctrine was established in Connally v. General Construction Co., and the legislative branch was confirmed to have the power to delegate authority in J. W. Hampton, Jr. & Co. v. United States. The Judiciary Act of 1925 defined what cases would be heard by the Supreme Court. The Federal Arbitration Act of 1925 established a legal system of arbitration that allows for dispute resolution outside of the courts. The U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System was established in 1925. Great Depression and World War II (1929-1945) Presidency of Herbert Hoover (1929-1933) The presidency of Herbert Hoover was defined by the Great Depression that began after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 during his first year in office. Protectionist tariffs were significantly expanded by the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act, which has been attributed as a major factor contributing to the Great Depression. President Hoover issued the Hoover Moratorium in 1931, freezing debts related to World War I in response to the Great Depression. The Glass–Steagall Act of 1932 expanded the powers of the Federal Reserve in an attempt to mitigate the depression. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was established in 1932 to create the first public works projects to help the unemployed, and the Federal Home Loan Banks were established the same year to provide housing assistance. Labor rights were expanded through the Davis–Bacon Act of 1931 and the Norris–La Guardia Act of 1932. Other reforms also took place during Hoover's presidency. The Federal Farm Loan Board was reformed into the Federal Farm Board by the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, and the Laboratory of Hygiene was reformed into the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act of 1930. In response to the Lindbergh kidnapping, the act of kidnapping across state boundaries was made a federal crime by the Federal Kidnapping Act., giving federal agencies, such as the FBI, jurisdiction to investigate kidnappings. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 reformed how seats of the House of Representatives were delegated to each state. The Supreme Court ruled that symbolic speech was protected under the First Amendment in Stromberg v. California, and it ruled that prior restraint was forbidden under the First Amendment in Near v. Minnesota. The Twentieth Amendment was ratified in 1933, adjusting the schedule for sessions of Congress and inauguration of presidents. Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) Franklin D. Roosevelt was president for 12 years, longer than any other president. During this time, he presided over much of the Great Depression and World War II. Roosevelt's presidency established the New Deal coalition and marked the beginning of the Fifth Party System. The policies of the Roosevelt administration are also credited with codifying modern liberalism in the United States. Roosevelt developed a domestic policy program to address the Great Depression, marketing it as the New Deal. The New Deal was a series of programs, public works projects, financial reforms, and regulations enacted 1933 and 1936. It produced a significant increase in the size and number of federal programs and agencies, such as the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Farm Security Administration (FSA), the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA), the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), and the Social Security Administration (SSA). They provided support for farmers, the unemployed, youth and the elderly. The New Deal included new constraints and safeguards on the banking industry and efforts to re-inflate the economy after prices had fallen sharply. New Deal programs included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term of Roosevelt's presidency. Many of these programs were challenged in court, and some were upheld while others were struck down. Many of these cases set a precedent for the large scope of the Commerce Clause. Nazi Germany began invading neighboring countries, resulting in the start World War II in 1939. The United States maintained neutrality at the onset of the war, providing limited assistance to the Allies through programs such as the Lend-Lease program. Following the Attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States joined the war alongside the Allies against the Axis powers. The War Powers Acts increased the power of the president and the scope of the executive branch. The G.I. Bill of 1944 was passed to provide benefits for veterans of the war. While at war with Japan, Roosevelt ordered the internment of Japanese Americans, which was upheld by the Supreme Court in Korematsu v. United States. In response to increasing violent crime, the National Firearms Act was passed in 1934 to regulate machine guns and other weapons as the country's first federal gun control law, and the law was upheld as constitutional in United States v. Miller. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 reversed the process of integrating Native Americans into the United States, and the Magnuson Act of 1943 legalized immigration from China for the first time in over 60 years, permitting 105 Chinese citizens to immigrate to the United States each year. In relations with Latin America, Roosevelt instituted the Good Neighbor policy that reduced involvement with Latin American countries. The Federal Radio Commission was replaced by the Federal Communications Commission in 1934, which was given expanded responsibilities over interstate telephone and wire communication. The National Archives and Records Administration was established in 1934, and the National Cancer Institute was established in 1937, Fannie Mae was established in 1938. The powers of the Food and Drug Administration were greatly expanded by the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, allowing the agency to regulate a variety of potentially hazardous products. In 1940, the Weather Bureau was transferred from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of Commerce, and the Civil Aeronautics Authority was merged into the department. The Twenty-first Amendment was ratified in 1933, ending Prohibition in the United States. In 1936, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. that the president has plenary power over the foreign relations of the United States. In 1944, the Supreme Court ruled that children have rights independently of their parents in Prince v. Massachusetts. Law enforcement In 1933, the BOI was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition and rechristened the Division of Investigation (DOI); it became an independent service within the Department of Justice in 1935. In the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). J. Edgar Hoover served as FBI director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, and FBI. He was chiefly responsible for creating the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or the FBI Laboratory, which officially opened in 1932, as part of his work to professionalize investigations by the government. Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure. His proved to be a highly controversial tenure as Bureau director, especially in its later years. After Hoover's death, Congress passed legislation that limited the tenure of future FBI directors to ten years. Early homicide investigations of the new agency included the Osage Indian murders. During the "War on Crime" of the 1930s, FBI agents apprehended or killed a number of notorious criminals who committed kidnappings, bank robberies, and murders throughout the nation, including John Dillinger, "Baby Face" Nelson, Kate "Ma" Barker, Alvin "Creepy" Karpis, and George "Machine Gun" Kelly. Other activities of its early decades focused on the scope and influence of the white supremacist group Ku Klux Klan, a group with which the FBI was evidenced to be working in the Viola Liuzzo lynching case. Earlier, through the work of Edwin Atherton, the BOI claimed to have successfully apprehended an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries under the leadership of General Enrique Estrada in the mid-1920s, east of San Diego, California. Hoover began using wiretapping in the 1920s during Prohibition to arrest bootleggers. In the 1927 case Olmstead v. United States, in which a bootlegger was caught through telephone tapping, the United States Supreme Court ruled that FBI wiretaps did not violate the Fourth Amendment as unlawful search and seizure, as long as the FBI did not break into a person's home to complete the tapping. After Prohibition's repeal, Congress passed the Communications Act of 1934, which outlawed non-consensual phone tapping, but did allow bugging. In the 1939 case Nardone v. United States, the court ruled that due to the 1934 law, evidence the FBI obtained by phone tapping was inadmissible in court. After Katz v. United States (1967) overturned Olmstead, Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control Act, allowing public authorities to tap telephones during investigations, as long as they obtained warrants beforehand. The New Deal The New Deal was a series of programs, public work projects, financial reforms, and regulations enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States of America between 1933 and 1939. Major federal programs agencies included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Farm Security Administration (FSA), the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA) and the Social Security Administration (SSA). They provided support for farmers, the unemployed, youth, and the elderly. The New Deal included new constraints and safeguards on the banking industry and efforts to re-inflate the economy after prices had fallen sharply. New Deal programs included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs focused on what historians refer to as the "3 R's": relief for the unemployed and for the poor, recovery of the economy back to normal levels, and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority (as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of the nine presidential terms from 1933 to 1969) with its base in progressive ideas, the South, big city machines and the newly empowered labor unions, and various ethnic groups. The Republicans were split, with progressive Republicans in support but conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as hostile to business and economic growth. The realignment crystallized into the New Deal coalition that dominated presidential elections into the 1960s while the opposing conservative coalition largely controlled Congress in domestic affairs from 1937 to 1964. While Roosevelt's main goal was to increase employment, he also recognized the need for a support system for the poor. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration, started in 1933, addressed the urgent needs of the poor. It spent a stunning 500 million dollars on soup kitchens, blankets, employment schemes, and nursery schools. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was shut down in 1935, and its work taken over by two completely new federal agencies, the Works Progress Administration and the Social Security Administration. FERA was involved with a broad range of projects, including construction, projects for professionals (e.g., writers, artists, actors, and musicians), and the production of consumer goods. They also focused on giving food to the poor, educating workers, and providing nearly 500,000 jobs for women. The fifteen landmark pieces of legislation passed by Congress during the Hundred Days are: Emergency Banking Act (March 9, 1933) Cullen–Harrison Act (March 16), modifying the Volstead Act Economy Act (March 20) Civilian Conservation Corps (March 31) Federal Emergency Relief Act (May 12) Agricultural Adjustment Act (May 12) Emergency Farm Mortgage Act (May 12) Tennessee Valley Authority (May 18) Securities Act (May 27) abrogation of gold clauses in public and private contracts (June 5) Homeowners Refinancing Act (June 13) Glass-Steagall Act (June 15) Farm Credit Act (June 15) Emergency Railroad Transportation Act (June 15) National Industrial Recovery Act (June 16) Some of the key agencies established during the early period of the Roosevelt Administration include the following: The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is an independent agency of the United States federal government, created in the aftermath of the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The primary purpose of the SEC is to enforce the law against market manipulation. In addition to the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, which created it, the SEC enforces the Securities Act of 1933, the Trust Indenture Act of 1939, the Investment Company Act of 1940, the Investment Advisers Act of 1940, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, and other statutes. The SEC was created by Section 4 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (now codified as and commonly referred to as the Exchange Act or the 1934 Act). The Civilian Conservation Corps allowed unemployed men to work for six months on conservation projects such as planting trees, preventing soil erosion, and combating forest fires. Workers lived in militarized camps across the country and made $30 per month. By the end of the program in 1942, the CCC had employed 2.5 million men. On March 9, 1933, Roosevelt ordered some of his senior staff to put unemployed men to work on conservation projects by summertime. On March 21, he submitted a proposal to Congress calling for the employment of 250,000 men by June. It was soon passed into law on March 31, giving the President authority to establish the Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) program. The ECW was the program's official name until 1937, when the popular name of CCC became official. Above and beyond other Hundred-Day programs, the CCC was Roosevelt's favorite creation, often called his "pet." In May 1933, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration was created in order to raise crop prices in response to the rural economic crisis. The administration helped to control the falling prices by setting quotas to reduce farm production. Beyond price adjustment, the act helped farmers to modernize and implement innovative farming methods. In extreme cases, the agency helped farmers with their mortgages and provided direct payment for farmers who would agree to sign acreage reduction contracts. The National Industry Recovery Act came into force on June 16, 1933, just five days after the end of 100 days. The act was an attempt to rebuild the economy from the severe deflation caused by the Great Depression. The act consisted of two sections; the first promoted industrial recovery, and the second established the Public Works Administration (PWA). The National Industry Recovery Act set up the Public Works Administration (PWA) and the National Recovery Administration (NRA). The PWA used government money to build infrastructure, such as roads and bridges, for the state. This demand for construction created new jobs, which achieved Roosevelt's main priority. The National Recovery Act also improved working conditions and outlawed child labor. Wages increased, making it possible for workers to earn and spend more. The Tennessee Valley Authority was established for building dams on the Tennessee River. These dams were designed to stimulate farming in the area while creating hydroelectricity, as well as prevent flooding and deforestation. The hydroelectric power was used effectively to provide electricity for nearby houses. The TVA marked the first time the federal government competed against private companies in the business of selling electricity. Post-War Era (1945-1963) Presidency of Harry S. Truman (1945-1953) Harry S. Truman was inaugurated in the final days of World War II. The Allies ended the war in the European Theater following the Battle of Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945, Truman ordered the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending the war in the Pacific War. President Truman remains the only person to ever order an atomic bombing as an act of war. The end of World War II brought the beginning of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Korean War began in 1950 as a proxy war between the two countries following the invasion of South Korea. As the Cold War began, American foreign policy shifted toward the Truman Doctrine, with a focus on containment of Communism. The United States was a founding member of the United Nations, the Organization of American States (OAS), and NATO in the 1940s. The United Nations was created as a diplomatic body to facilitate negotiations and agreements between countries, the OAS was created to strengthen relations with Latin America as allies in the Cold War, and NATO was created as a military body to directly oppose the Soviet Union. The Marshall Plan was undertaken in 1948 to provide billions of dollars in support for the war-torn countries of Western Europe. The Cold War triggered the second red scare, resulting in a period of anti-Communist investigations in Congress. The House established the House Un-American Activities Committee as a standing committee in 1945 to investigate those suspected of having allegiances to other countries. Senator Joseph McCarthy began a series of investigations in the Senate, and his practice of wide, unsubstantiated accusations became known as McCarthyism. The United States military structure was reorganized with the National Security Act of 1947, which created the Department of Defense. The Department of War was renamed as the Department of the Army, and the Department of the Air Force was established. The three departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force were then placed under the Department of Defense. The National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency were also created by this act, but they remained separate from the Department of Defense. The Military Selective Service Act of 1948 reformed the Selective Service System. The Uniform Code of Military Justice was passed in 1950 as the governing law of the United States military. The United States Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1946 to address the nuclear technologies developed during World War II. The National Institute of Mental Health was established in 1949 in response to post-traumatic stress disorder among veterans. The National Science Foundation was established in 1950. The Hobbs Act of 1946 made robbery and extortion federal crimes when they affect commerce, giving the government a means to prosecute racketeering. The Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 restricted labor unions from engaging in unfair labor practices. Following threats of a steel strike in 1952, the government seized the country's steel mills to ensure that production continued. Truman argued that it was in his power as president to do so, but the Supreme Court ruled against him in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer. Congress was reformed by the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946. Among other provisions, this bill streamlined the system of United States congressional committees, increased staff support, expanded congressional oversight of the executive branch, and required lobbyists to register. The Administrative Procedure Act of 1946 established the modern framework for administrative departments and agencies of the United States government, defining the regulatory powers of these organizations and designating the federal courts as oversight bodies. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 updated the presidential line of succession, restoring Congressional leadership in the list among other changes. The Twenty-second Amendment was ratified in 1951, restricting the president to a maximum of two terms in office. Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961) The presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower saw the end of the Korean War and the beginning of American involvement in Vietnam as the Cold War escalated between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Communist Control Act of 1954 banned Communist organizations in the United States as antithetical to American government. When direct military conflict was deemed unnecessary, the United States used covert means to combat Soviet influence, providing support to movements that were combating Communist-influenced governments. The Cold War triggered the Space Race, beginning in 1955 when both nations pledged to launch artificial satellites. In 1958, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was replaced by NASA, and the Civil Aeronautics Authority was replaced by the Federal Aviation Agency. The Civil Rights Movement of the mid-20th century began to see its first major victories in the 1950s. The Supreme Court delivered several rulings against racial segregation during this period, including Brown v. Board of Education. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 provided federal support to enforce desegregation, and the Civil Rights Act of 1960 did so for voting rights. The United States reduced financial support for Native American tribes in the 1950s, instead incentivizing Native Americans to seek employment in urban areas with the Indian Relocation Act of 1956. The Internal Revenue Code was reformed by the Internal Revenue Code of 1954. The United States began the large scale development of federal highways throughout the United States with the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 to facilitate transit and national defense. The Small Business Administration was established in 1953. The Air Force Academy was established in 1954, and the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was established on the South Pole by the Navy in 1956. In 1957, the Supreme Court ruled that obscenity is not protected speech in Roth v. United States. In 1960, the Supreme Court ruled that it is unconstitutional to draw electoral districts in a way that disenfranchises African Americans in Gomillion v. Lightfoot. Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as states in 1959. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare The Federal Security Agency (FSA) was established on July 1, 1939, under the Reorganization Act of 1939, P.L. 76–19. The objective was to bring together in one agency all federal programs in the fields of health, education, and social security. The first Federal Security Administrator was Paul V. McNutt. The new agency originally consisted of the following major components: (1) Office of the Administrator, (2) Public Health Service (PHS), (3) Office of Education, (4) Civilian Conservation Corps, and (5) Social Security Board. By 1953, the Federal Security Agency's programs in health, education, and social security had grown to such importance that its annual budget exceeded the combined budgets of the Departments of Commerce, Justice, Labor, and Interior and affected the lives of millions of people. Consequently, in accordance with the Reorganization Act of 1949, President Eisenhower submitted to the Congress on March 12, 1953, Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1953, which called for the dissolution of the Federal Security Agency and elevation of the agency to Cabinet status as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The plan was approved on April 1, 1953, and became effective on April 11, 1953. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) was created on April 11, 1953, when Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1953 became effective. HEW thus became the first new Cabinet-level department since the Department of Labor was created in 1913. The Reorganization Plan abolished the FSA and transferred all of its functions to the secretary of HEW and all components of the agency to the department. The six major program-operating components of the new department were the Public Health Service, the Office of Education, the Food and Drug Administration, the Social Security Administration, the Office of Vocational Rehabilitation, and St. Elizabeth's Hospital. The department was also responsible for three federally aided corporations: Howard University, the American Printing House for the Blind, and the Columbia Institution for the Deaf (Gallaudet College since 1954). Unlike statutes authorizing the creation of other executive departments, the contents of Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1953 were never properly codified within the United States Code, although Congress did codify a later statute ratifying the Plan. Today, the Plan is included as an appendix to Title 5 of the United States Code. The result is that HHS is the only executive department whose statutory foundation today rests on a confusing combination of several codified and uncodified statutes. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was renamed the Department of Health & Human Services (HHS) in 1979, when its education functions were transferred to the newly created United States Department of Education under the Department of Education Organization Act. HHS was left in charge of the Social Security Administration, agencies constituting the Public Health Service, and Family Support Administration. In 1995, the Social Security Administration was removed from the Department of Health & Human Services, and established as an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States Government. Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1961-1963) John F. Kennedy served as president during a period of rising tensions in the Cold War. These tensions were exacerbated by the recent Cuban Revolution and the Bay of Pigs Invasion, culminating in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, which threatened nuclear warfare between the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States also sent troops to support South Vietnam in the Vietnam War. The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 established the Agency for International Development to institute programs of foreign aid. The Peace Corps was established in 1961. The United States Navy SEAL teams were established in 1962. In 1963, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union negotiated the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. The Twenty-third Amendment was ratified in 1961, guaranteeing the right to vote for citizens of Washington D.C. In 1962, the Supreme Court ruled that the federal judiciary has the power to oversee redistricting in Baker v. Carr. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 wrote equal pay for equal work into law, shrinking the adjusted gender pay gap. The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 reformed mental healthcare in the United States. The Department of the Post Office began using ZIP Codes in 1963. Civil Rights Era (1963-1981) Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969) Lyndon B. Johnson oversaw the implementation of the Great Society domestic program, which sought to expand government programs to improve quality of life in the United States. Major strides were made in civil rights under this program, with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 making it illegal for the government and for businesses to discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, and national origin, and these protections were extended to voting with the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Other major civil rights achievements include the Older Americans Act of 1965, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. These measures were highly controversial in the South, and they're credited with fracturing the New Deal coalition, ending the Solid South, and establishing the framework of the Sixth Party System. The War on Poverty included several reforms to assist the poor in the United States. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 created the Office of Economic Opportunity, the Community Action Program, the Volunteers in Service to America, and the Job Corps. The Food Stamp Act of 1964 created the food stamp program to feed the poor. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the Higher Education Act of 1965, and the Bilingual Education Act of 1968 implemented far-reaching education reforms and made education more accessible for the poor. The Department of Housing and Urban Development was established in 1965, and the Model Cities Program was established in 1966. The Corporation for Public Broadcasting was established in 1967. The Great Society and the War on Poverty also affected other areas of government policy, including health, transportation, and the environment. The Clean Air Act of 1963 established federal oversight in air quality law. The Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1966 set national regulations on cigarettes. Medicare and Medicaid were created by the Social Security Amendments of 1965. The Highway Beautification Act of 1965 established regulations to promote health and the environment around national highways. The Environmental Science Services Administration was established in 1965. The Child Nutrition Act was passed in 1966. The National Wild and Scenic Rivers System and the National Trails System were established in 1968. The Revenue Act of 1964 reduced income taxes at every level, and the Revenue and Expenditure Control Act of 1968 increased taxes while cutting spending. The Kennedy half dollar was minted in 1964, and the Coinage Act of 1965 reduced the silver content in coins to address a coin shortage. The Freedom of Information Act was passed in 1967 to increase the transparency of the United States government. Congress authorized the use of military force in Southeast Asia with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution of 1964, allowing the United States to enter the Vietnam War. Under President Johnson, American involvement in Vietnam and Laos would escalate in an effort to prevent takeovers of the countries by Communist dictators, prompting opposition and anti-war protests. The United States also participated in the Dominican Civil War in 1965. The Twenty-fourth Amendment was ratified in 1964, making poll taxes unconstitutional. The Twenty-fifth Amendment was ratified in 1967, addressing presidential succession and the filling of vacancies in the vice presidency. In 1963, the Supreme Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment guarantees the right to free legal counsel for individuals charged with a felony in Gideon v. Wainwright. In 1964, the Supreme Court ruled that the Congressional districts within a state have to have similar populations in Wesberry v. Sanders. Columbus Day was established as a federal holiday in 1968, and it along with Washington's Birthday, Memorial Day, Labor Day, and Veteran's Day were set to always fall on a Monday as part of the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. New environmental functions In May 1964, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science and Technology, Dr. Herbert Holloman, established a special committee to review the environmental science service activities and responsibilities of the United States Department of Commerce. The committee recommended that the Department of Commerce consolidate various scientific efforts scattered within and between the Weather Bureau, Coast and Geodetic Survey, and National Bureau of Standards by establishing a new parent agency – the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) – which would coordinate the activities of the Weather Bureau and Coast and Geodetic Survey and bring at least some of their efforts, along with some of the work done in the National Bureau of Standards, together into new organizations that focused scientific and engineering mission support for shared areas of inquiry. ESSA was established on 13 July 1965 under the Department of Commerce's Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1965. Its creation brought the Weather Bureau and the Coast and Geodetic Survey, as well as the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory that had been part of the National Bureau of Standards, together under a single parent scientific agency for the first time. Although the Weather Bureau and Coast and Geodetic Survey retained their independent identities under ESSA, the offices of Director of the Weather Bureau and Director and deputy director of the Coast and Geodetic Survey were abolished. These offices were replaced by a new Administrator and Deputy Administrator of ESSA. Transportation Department and agencies In 1964 and 1966, public pressure grew in the United States to increase the safety of cars, culminating with the publishing of Unsafe at Any Speed, by Ralph Nader, an activist lawyer, and the report prepared by the National Academy of Sciences entitled Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society.In 1966, Congress held a series of publicized hearings regarding highway safety, passed legislation to make the installation of seat belts mandatory, and created the U.S. Department of Transportation on October 15, 1966. In 1967, the new U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) combined major federal responsibilities for air and surface transport. The Federal Aviation Agency's name changed to the Federal Aviation Administration as it became one of several agencies (e.g., Federal Highway Administration, Federal Railroad Administration, the Coast Guard, and the Saint Lawrence Seaway Commission) within DOT. Prior to the creation of the Department of Transportation, its functions were administered by the under secretary of commerce for transportation. In 1965, Najeeb Halaby, administrator of the Federal Aviation Agency (predecessor to the Federal Aviation Administration, FAA), suggested to President Lyndon B. Johnson that transportation be elevated to a cabinet-level post, and that the FAA be folded into the DOT. The idea of having a federal department of transportation was first proposed by former President Woodrow Wilson in 1921–22. At the same time, a new National Transportation Safety Board took over the Civil Aeronautics Board's (CAB) role of investigating and determining the causes of transportation accidents and making recommendations to the secretary of transportation. CAB was merged into DOT with its responsibilities limited to the regulation of commercial airline routes and fares. The FAA gradually assumed additional functions. The hijacking epidemic of the 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security. In response to the hijackings on September 11, 2001, this responsibility is now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security. The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards. Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of a new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety. During the 1960s and 1970s, the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying. Legislation signed by President Lyndon Johnson earlier on September 9, 1966, included the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act and Highway Safety Act that created the National Traffic Safety Agency, the National Highway Safety Agency, and the National Highway Safety Bureau, predecessor agencies to what would eventually become NHTSA. Once the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) came into effect, vehicles not certified by the maker or importer as compliant with US safety standards were no longer legal to import into the United States. Congress established National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1970 with the Highway Safety Act of 1970. In 1972, the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act expanded NHTSA's scope to include consumer information programs. Presidency of Richard Nixon (1969-1974) Richard Nixon oversaw the conclusion of the Vietnam War and the easing of Cold War tensions through a policy of détente, resulting in the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and the first Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. In response to Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution in 1973 to limit the president's power to use military force. In 1974, the Nixon administration was implicated in the Watergate scandal, leading President Nixon to become the first and only American president to resign from office. The Department of the Post Office was abolished in 1970 and replaced by the United States Postal Service. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health were established in 1970. Amtrak was established in 1971. The Legal Services Corporation was established in 1974. Monetary policy under the Nixon administration effectively ended the gold standard and converted the United States to a fiat currency. The alternative minimum tax was created in 1969, and the president was given the power to establish price controls in 1970. Many environmental advances were made under the Nixon administration, including the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970. Other environmental accomplishments include the National Environmental Policy Act of 1970, the Environmental Quality Improvement Act of 1970, the Clean Water Act of 1972, and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. President Nixon started the war on drugs, including the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 and the Controlled Substances Act. He also started the war on cancer. In 1969, the United States became the first country to put humans on the Moon. Congressional procedure was reformed with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970, and federal elections were reformed by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971. The Supreme Court ruled that free speech includes endorsement of violence in Brandenburg v. Ohio and speech by public school students in Tinker v. Des Moines. The Lemon Test and the Miller Test were created to evaluate the First Amendment in Lemon v. Kurtzman and Miller v. California, respectively. The Twenty-sixth Amendment was ratified in 1971, guaranteeing that the minimum voting age could be no higher than 18 years old. The Consumer Product Safety Commission was created in 1972 through the Consumer Product Safety Act, to promote the safety of consumer products by addressing "unreasonable risks" of injury (through coordinating recalls, evaluating products that are the subject of consumer complaints or industry reports, etc.); developing uniform safety standards (some mandatory, some through a voluntary standards process); and conducting research into product-related illness and injury. In part due to its small size, the CPSC attempts to coordinate with outside parties—including companies and consumer advocates—to leverage resources and expertise to achieve outcomes that advance consumer safety. New environmental agencies and regulations Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing public concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act (RCA) of 1959, in the 86th Congress. The bill would have established a Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, declared a national environmental policy, and required the preparation of an annual environmental report. The 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment and Congress's potential responses. In 1968, a joint House–Senate colloquium was convened by the chairmen of the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Senator Henry M. Jackson, and the House Committee on Science and Astronautics, Representative George P. Miller, to discuss the need for and means of implementing a national environmental policy. In the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) was modeled on the 1959 RCA bill. President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1, 1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) in the Executive Office of the President. NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The "detailed statement" would ultimately be referred to as an environmental impact statement (EIS). On July 9, 1970, Nixon proposed an executive reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency, a new Environmental Protection Agency. This proposal included merging pollution control programs from a number of departments, such as the combination of pesticide programs from the United States Department of Agriculture and the United States Department of the Interior. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal. The agency's first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4, 1970. EPA's primary predecessor was the former Environmental Health Divisions of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS), and its creation caused one of a series of reorganizations of PHS that occurred during 1966–1973. From PHS, EPA absorbed the entire National Air Pollution Control Administration, as well as the Environmental Control Administration's Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Bureau of Water Hygiene, and part of its Bureau of Radiological Health. It also absorbed the Federal Water Quality Administration, which had previously been transferred from PHS to the Department of the Interior in 1966. A few functions from other agencies were also incorporated into EPA: the formerly independent Federal Radiation Council was merged into it; pesticides programs were transferred from the Department of the Interior, Food and Drug Administration, and Agricultural Research Service; and some functions were transferred from the Council on Environmental Quality and Atomic Energy Commission. Upon its creation, EPA inherited 84 sites spread across 26 states, of which 42 sites were laboratories. The EPA consolidated these laboratories into 22 sites. In July 1970, the Department of Commerce Reorganization Plan No. 4 proposed the creation in 90 days within the Department of Commerce of the new National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), consisting of ESSA; the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and the marine sport fishing program of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; the Office of Sea Grant Programs from the National Science Foundation; the mapping, charting, and research functions of the U.S. Army's U.S. Lake Survey; the U.S. Navy's National Oceanographic Data Center; the Marine Minerals Technology Center from the Department of the Interior's United States Bureau of Mines; the U.S. Navy's National Oceanographic Instrumentation Center; and the Department of Transportation's National Data Buoy Project, although it did not follow the Stratton Commission's recommendation to include the U.S. Coast Guard in NOAA. One basis for this plan was the findings of the Stratton Commission. Accordingly, on 3 October 1970, ESSA was abolished as part of Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970, and it was replaced by NOAA. Under NOAA, the National Weather Service continued to operate as such, while the Coast and Geodetic Survey was disestablished and its functions were divided under various new NOAA offices. The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries of the United States Department of the Interior′s United States Fish and Wildlife Service was transferred to NOAA, and its fisheries science and oceanographic research ships joined the hydrographic survey ships of the former Coast and Geodetic Survey fleet to form the new NOAA fleet. In the 1970 reorganization that created NOAA, the ESSA Corps was resubordinated to NOAA, becoming the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps, known informally as the "NOAA Corps." Like its predecessors, the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps and ESSA Corps, the NOAA Corps became one of the then-seven (now eight) uniformed services of the United States, and carries out responsibilities similar to those of the ESSA Corps. Presidency of Gerald Ford (1974-1977) Gerald Ford served as the only president not elected to the office of the presidency or vice presidency, having instead been appointed as vice president through the Twenty-fifth Amendment. As president, Gerald Ford continued many of his predecessor's policies. In response to the Watergate scandal, many changes were made to increase government accountability. These include the Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act of 1974, the Privacy Act of 1974, the Foreign Assistance Act of 1974, and the Government in the Sunshine Act of 1976. The Federal Election Commission was established in 1974, and the powers of the president in a national emergency were codified in the National Emergencies Act of 1976. Stagflation and the 1973–1975 recession had begun shortly before President Ford took office, and much of the administration's domestic policy involved addressing economic issues. The Tax Reduction Act of 1975 and the Revenue Adjustment Act of 1975 were passed to ease the country's economic struggle. Presidency of Jimmy Carter (1977-1981) Jimmy Carter was president during the 1979 oil crisis and the resulting recession. The Federal Reserve was reformed by the Federal Reserve Reform Act of 1977. The U.S. Mint began minting the Susan B. Anthony dollar in 1979. The Torrijos–Carter Treaties established an agreement to return the Panama Canal to Panama at the end of the century. The United States government defined unofficial relations with Taiwan under the Taiwan Relations Act of 1979. In 1979, the U.S. embassy in Iran was attacked and those inside were taken hostage for 444 days in the Iran hostage crisis. The Department of Energy was established in 1977. In 1980, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was renamed the Department of Health and Human Services, and the United States Department of Education was established as a separate department. The offices of inspector general in various departments were standardized under the Inspector General Act of 1978. The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 abolished the U.S. Civil Service Commission and replaced it with the Office of Personnel Management, the Merit Systems Protection Board, and the Federal Labor Relations Authority. The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court was established in 1978. Reagan Era (1981-1993) Presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) The United States government saw significant reforms under the presidency of Ronald Reagan. Tax cuts and deregulation were prioritized, moving away from the New Deal principles that had been popular in the mid-20th century. The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982, the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act, and the Tax Reform Act of 1986 all served this end. The War on Drugs was greatly expanded under President Reagan, with laws such as the Aviation Drug-Trafficking Control Act of 1984, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 being passed. The United States began operating under the Reagan Doctrine during the 1980s, building up the American military and taking a hardline stance against the Soviet Union. The United States provided financial support for groups fighting Communist governments, and the United States military invaded Grenada in 1983 to end a military dictatorship. The United States entered into its first free trade agreement when it agreed to the Israel–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1985. The Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement was established in 1988. The federal government expanded its power over the states with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, requiring states to pass legal drinking age laws or be penalized with reduced federal funding. The Department of Defense was reformed by the Goldwater–Nichols Act of 1986. The Veterans Administration was reformed into the cabinet level Department of Veterans Affairs in 1988. The National Archives and Records Administration was made into an independent agency in 1985. Martin Luther King Jr. Day was established as a federal holiday in 1986. Presidency of George H. W. Bush (1989-1993) The Cold War ended under the presidency of George H. W. Bush, as the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991. Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the United States government lobbied the United Nations to intervene. In 1991, the United States led a coalition of countries in the Gulf War, freeing Kuwait from Iraqi occupation. The United States also undertook an invasion of Panama to overthrow the dictatorship of Manuel Noriega in 1989. The United States government expanded civil rights protections to Americans with disabilities with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The United States underwent an economic recession in the early 1990s. Post-Cold War Era (1993-2009) Presidency of Bill Clinton (1993-2001) The United States underwent an economic boom in the 1990s. Bill Clinton oversaw the reduction of the deficit and the creation of a budget surplus in the United States. The Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement was superseded by the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1994, including Mexico in the agreement. The Internal Revenue Service was reformed by the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998. Internet taxes were banned by the Internet Tax Freedom Act of 1998. The Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 deregulated the finance industry. Efforts to reduce crime under the Clinton administration included the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act of 1994, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, and the Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban of 1997, which established strong federal gun control, defined several new federal crimes, and required states to establish sex offender registries. The United States led a NATO intervention during the Kosovo War to repel a Yugoslavian invasion of Kosovo. The don't ask, don't tell policy was established within the Department of Defense, affording some rights to closeted gay and lesbian service-members while banning openly gay and lesbian people from serving. The Defense of Marriage Act of 1996 denied recognition of same-sex marriage. President Clinton became the second president to be impeached in 1998 following the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal. Presidency of George W. Bush (2001-2009) The September 11 attacks occurred during the presidency of George W. Bush, prompting major government reorganization, security reforms, and the war on terror. The Patriot Act greatly expanded the government's anti-terrorism measures, including expansions of government surveillance and legal justifications to treat suspects as terrorists. The Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001 created the Transportation Security Administration, and the Homeland Security Act of 2002 created the Department of Homeland Security. In response to the attacks, the United States invaded Afghanistan in 2001 and overthrew the Taliban government that harbored Al-Qaeda. The United States also invaded Iraq in 2003 to overthrow dictator Saddam Hussein. Other responses to terrorism include the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 and the Protect America Act of 2007. Several tax cuts were passed under the Bush administration. The No Child Left Behind Act reformed education in 2002, and Medicare Part D was established in 2003. Near the end of Bush's presidency, the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 began, triggering the Great Recession. The Economic Stimulus Act of 2008, the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008, and the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 were passed in response, and the Troubled Asset Relief Program was established to limit the economic burden of the recession. Present Era (2009-present) Presidency of Barack Obama (2009-2017) Barack Obama presided over the Great Recession and the War on Terror that began in the Bush administration. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010 were passed in response to the Great Recession. The United States ended its occupation of Iraq in 2011, but military action continued to combat the Islamic State. The Affordable Care Act of 2010 reformed healthcare in the United States. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action was established in 2015 to prevent nuclear proliferation. In 2015, the Supreme Court ruled that the right to marry is guaranteed to same-sex couples in Obergefell v. Hodges. Presidency of Donald Trump (2017-2021) Donald Trump oversaw the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. The Taxpayer First Act of 2019 reformed the Internal Revenue Service. The North American Free Trade Agreement was superseded by the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement in 2020. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic shut down much of the United States. The Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2020, the Families First Coronavirus Response Act, the CARES Act, and the Paycheck Protection Program and Health Care Enhancement Act were passed in response. The federal government was shut down twice during the Trump presidency, including the longest shutdown in American history at 35 days. The 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which was signed into law in 2018, directed the re-establishment of U.S. Space Command as a sub-unified combatant command under U.S. Strategic Command; however, in December 2018, the Trump administration directed that U.S. Space Command instead be a newly established, full unified combatant command, with full responsibilities for space warfighting, which at the time, was under the authority of U.S. Strategic Command. President Trump became the third president to be impeached and the first president to be impeached a second time, following the Trump–Ukraine scandal and the 2021 United States Capitol attack, respectively. Operation Warp Speed was a public–private partnership initiated by the United States government to facilitate and accelerate the development, manufacturing, and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics. The first news report of Operation Warp Speed was on April 29, 2020, and the program was officially announced on May 15, 2020. At the end of February 2021, Operation Warp Speed was transferred into the responsibilities of the White House COVID-19 Response Team. Presidency of Joe Biden (2021-present) The COVID-19 pandemic continued under the presidency of Joe Biden, and the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 was passed in response. The United States ended involvement in Afghanistan in 2021. United States foreign policy under the Biden administration was shaped by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. See also History of the United States Congress History of the United States Constitution History of the United States Senate History of United States foreign policy Outline of United States history Political culture of the United States Political eras of the United States References Bibliography History of the United States Federal government of the United States	wiki
In the German school of swordsmanship, Mordhau, alternatively Mordstreich or Mordschlag (Ger., lit., "murder-stroke" or "murder-strike" or "murder-blow"), is a half-sword technique of holding the sword inverted, with both hands gripping the blade, and hitting the opponent with the pommel or crossguard. This technique allows the swordsman to essentially use the sword as a mace or hammer. The Mordhau is mainly used in armoured combat, although it can be used to surprise an opponent in close quarters. References Codex Wallerstein, ed. Zabinski, Paladin Press, (2002), . Swordsmanship	wiki
Annapurna I East is a subsidiary mountain of Annapurna I Main located in Nepal. It is 8,026 meters tall. References Eight-thousanders of the Himalayas Mountains of the Gandaki Province	wiki
Small Child Fountain, also known as Baby Fountain, is a fountain and sculpture by Mary E. Moore, installed in Boston's Public Garden, in the U.S. state of Massachusetts. The fountain features a bronze sculpture of a nude boy, cast in 1929, that measure approximately 2 ft. 4 in. x 21 in. x 17 in. It rests on a granite base. The work was surveyed as part of the Smithsonian Institution's "Save Outdoor Sculpture!" program in 1993. References External links 1929 establishments in Massachusetts 1929 sculptures Boston Public Garden Bronze sculptures in Massachusetts Fountains in Massachusetts Granite sculptures in Massachusetts Nude sculptures in the United States Outdoor sculptures in Boston Sculptures of children in the United States Statues in Boston	wiki
Сангворский район: Сангворский район (СССР) — район Таджикской ССР, существовавший в 1936—1952 годах. Район Сангвор — район республиканского подчинения в Таджикистане.	wiki
Brisket is a popular Ashkenazi Jewish dish of braised beef brisket, served hot and traditionally accompanied by potato kugel (or other non-dairy kugel), latkes, and/or matzo ball soup. It is commonly served for Jewish holidays such as Hanukkah, Passover, Rosh Hashanah, and Shabbat. It is commonly found in Jewish communities worldwide, though it is most commonly associated with Jews in the United States, where it has been considered the most important and iconic Jewish main course since the early 20th century. Overview In traditional Jewish cooking, brisket is most often slow cooked in an oven for many hours at a low temperature, which helps tenderize the otherwise-tough meat. Brisket is especially popular as a holiday main course, usually served at Rosh Hashanah, Passover, Hanukkah, and on Shabbat. For reasons of economics and kashrut, it was historically one of the more popular cuts of beef among Ashkenazi Jews. History Brisket has been eaten by Ashkenazi Jews in Europe for special occasions such as Passover, since at least the 1700s. Brisket is tough, but cheap, and if cooked for many hours at a low temperature it becomes tender. Brisket became popular among Ashkenazi Jews due to its low cost; farmers would sell the expensive cuts and keep the cheaper ones. Ashkenazi Jewish refugees brought shtetl cooking with them, and introduced brisket to the general American population. Brisket then went on to become one of the most important foods in Jewish cuisine and culture, especially in America. Preparation Brisket is prepared in a wide variety of ways by Ashkenazi Jews. Brisket is cooked for several hours at a low temperature and is cooked with a flavorful sauce and root vegetables. It is commonly seasoned or cooked with a sauce, such as chili sauce or ketchup, or even Coca-Cola, and vegetables such as onions, garlic, potatoes and carrots are added and the brisket is then cooked for several hours in an oven. In modern times a slow cooker has also become a popular cooking method for brisket. One of the most common ways brisket is prepared in American Jewish cuisine is called a sweet-and-sour brisket and consists of a brisket cooked in a sauce containing crushed tomatoes, seasonings, brown sugar, vinegar, and beef or chicken stock. Another preparation of brisket is marinated and cooked with a sauce containing brewed coffee. Uses Brisket is commonly eaten on its own, or alongside pareve kugel (potato or noodle), or matzah ball soup. The leftovers of brisket are traditionally used in a variety of ways, such as in cholent, chamin, and other soups or stews, as well as in sandwiches. See also Corned beef Pastrami Montreal-style smoked meat Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine References Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine Hanukkah foods Jewish American cuisine Passover foods Rosh Hashanah foods Shabbat food Jewish culture Beef	wiki
Marsh v. Buck, 313 U.S. 406 (1941), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held General statements that the law will be enforced if enacted are not threats against entities subject to the law. References External links 1941 in United States case law United States Supreme Court cases United States Supreme Court cases of the Hughes Court	wiki
Across Languages and Cultures is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal published by Akadémiai Kiadó (Budapest, Hungary). It publishes original articles and book reviews on all subdisciplines of translation and interpreting studies. The editor-in-chief is Kinga Klaudy (Eötvös Loránd University). The journal was established in 1999. Abstracting and indexing The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Social Sciences Citation Index, the Arts and Humanities Citation Index, and Scopus. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 1.292, ranking it 98th out of 194 journals in the category "Linguistics". References External links Biannual journals English-language journals Publications established in 1999 Translation journals 1999 establishments in Hungary Akadémiai Kiadó academic journals	wiki
In pathology, an apudoma is an endocrine tumour that arises from an APUD cell from structures such as the ampulla of Vater. They were historically thought to be derived from neural crest cells, but this has since been shown to be untrue (see neuroendocrine tumor).The term dates back to at least 1975. Because the label "apudoma" is very general, it is preferred to use a more specific term when possible. See also VIPoma Carcinoid tumor References External links Endocrine neoplasia	wiki
Inescapable may refer to: Inescapable (film), 2012 Inescapable, 2003 Lesbian erotic film by Helen Lesnick "Inescapable" (song), Jessica Mauboy 2011 "Inescapable", single by Cranes (band), 1990 Inescapable (Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.), an episode of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Inescapable, album by Godsticks, 2020	wiki
William Connick es un deportista estadounidense que compitió en taekwondo. Ganó una medalla de bronce en el Campeonato Panamericano de Taekwondo de 2014 en la categoría de –87 kg. Palmarés internacional Referencias Connick, William	wiki
Fetotomy is a veterinary procedure to recover a deceased fetus in situations where a Caesarean section is not possible. Procedure In some occasions the fetus may die or be dead before the birthing process is finished. It may not always be feasible or possible to transport the animal to a veterinarian with the suitable facilities for a Caesarean section. In such cases, a fetotomy may be performed. During a fetotomy, the veterinarian will dissect the deceased fetus in a way to minimize trauma and discomfort to the mother. The procedure is generally only indicated on larger animals where the size of the birth canal allows the use of specialized instruments to assist in the removal of the dissected fetus. References Obstetrical and gynaecological procedures Theriogenology Veterinary procedures	wiki
Spirit Bear: The Simon Jackson Story is a 2005 independent Canadian film based on the real life campaign by Spirit Bear Youth Coalition founder Simon Jackson to save the habitat of the Kermode bear. It stars Mark Rendall as Jackson, Katie Stuart as his love interest, Graham Greene, and Ed Begley, Jr. Plot Simon Jackson is an awkward high school teenager who befriends a white bear that saves his life. He learns that the bear is endangered by the destruction of its habitat from logging and grows out of his shell to launch a campaign to the government to protect the bear. He then learns about the hardships of a campaign but succeeds with the help of his friend, Lloyd Blackburn, and his supporters. The movie is based on Simon Jackson and his help with protecting the spirit bear in real life. Awards The movie won the Audience Choice Award for Best Feature Film at the Toronto International Film Festival References External links 2005 television films 2005 films Canadian drama television films Environmental films 2005 drama films English-language Canadian films Films about bears 2000s Canadian films	wiki
Denial of medical care or refusal of medical care may refer to: Failure to provide medical treatment: the refusal to provide healthcare to a patient who requires it Refusal of medical assistance: a patient's voluntary refusal to receive medical care	wiki
In mathematics, the Schur algorithm may be: The Schur algorithm for expanding a function in the Schur class as a continued fraction The Lehmer–Schur algorithm for finding complex roots of a polynomial	wiki
Christmas Song may refer to: Christmas music, music performed or heard around the Christmas season "Christmas Song" (Gilbert O'Sullivan song), 1974 song by Gilbert O'Sullivan Christmas Song (album), 2007 album by Mannheim Steamroller Christmas Song, a 2012 TV film starring Natasha Henstridge "The Christmas Song", 1945 song by Bob Wells and Mel Tormé The Christmas Song (Nat King Cole album), or The Magic of Christmas, 1960 album by Nat King Cole The Christmas Song (EP), 2014 EP by Jamey Johnson See also Christmas Songs (disambiguation) Christmas Album (disambiguation)	wiki
The National Park Service (NPS) is an agency of the United States federal government within the U.S. Department of the Interior that manages all national parks, most national monuments, and other natural, historical, and recreational properties with various title designations. The U.S. Congress created the agency on August 25, 1916, through the National Park Service Organic Act. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C., within the main headquarters of the Department of the Interior. The NPS employs approximately 20,000 people in individual units covering over 85 million acres in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories. As of 2019, they had more than 279,000 volunteers. The agency is charged with a dual role of preserving the ecological and historical integrity of the places entrusted to its management while also making them available and accessible for public use and enjoyment. History Yellowstone National Park was created as the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no state government to manage it, so the federal government assumed direct control. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior. Artist George Catlin, during an 1832 trip to the Dakotas, was perhaps the first to suggest a novel solution to this fast-approaching reality. Indian civilization, wildlife, and wilderness were all in danger, wrote Catlin, unless they could be preserved "by some great protecting policy of government...in a magnificent park.... A nation's Park, containing man and beast, in all the wild[ness] and freshness of their nature's beauty!" The movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior. They wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of the NPS. On August 25, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed the National Park Service Organic Act that mandated the agency "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wildlife therein, and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations". Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3, 1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933. The act gave the president the authority to transfer national monuments from one governmental department to another. Later that summer, the new president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, made use of this power after NPS Deputy Director Horace M. Albright suggested that the NPS, rather than the War Department should manage historic American Civil War sites. President Roosevelt agreed and issued two executive orders to implement the reorganization. These two executive orders transferred to the NPS all of the War Department's historic sites as well as national monuments that the Department of Agriculture had managed and parks in and around Washington, D.C. that an independent federal office had previously operated. The demand for parks after the end of the World War II left the parks overburdened with demands that the NPS could not meet. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the NPS and began to bring park facilities up to the standards that the public was expecting. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Wirth began Mission 66, a ten-year effort to upgrade and expand park facilities for the 50th anniversary of the Park Service. New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery and unique natural features to making parks accessible to the public. Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Resource stewardship policies 1963: The Leopold Report A 1963 report titled "Wildlife Management in the National Parks" was prepared by a five-member advisory board on Wildlife Management, appointed by United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall. This report came to be referred to in later years for its chairman and principal author, A. Starker Leopold. The Leopold Report was just fourteen pages in length, but it set forth ecosystem management recommendations that would guide parks policy until it was revisited in 2012. The Leopold Report was the first concrete plan for managing park visitors and ecosystems under unified principles. Park management issues and controversies addressed in this report included the difficulties of managing elk populations in Yellowstone National Park and how "overprotection from natural ground fires" in California's Sequoia National Park, Kings Canyon National Park, and Yosemite National Park had begun to threaten groves of Giant Sequoia with catastrophic wildfires. The report also established an historical baseline that read, "The goal of managing the national parks and monuments should be to preserve, or where necessary to recreate, the ecologic scene as viewed by the first European visitors." This baseline would guide ecological restoration in national parks until a climate change adaptation policy, "Resist-Adapt-Direct," was established in 2021. 2012: Revisiting Leopold: Resource Stewardship in the National Parks National Parks director Jonathan Jarvis charged the twelve-member NPS Advisory Board Science Committee to take a fresh look at the ecological issues and make recommendations for updating the original Leopold Report. The committee published their 23-page report in 2012, titled, "Revisiting Leopold: Resource Stewardship in the National Parks." The report recommended that parks leadership "manage for change while confronting uncertainty.""... New and emerging scientific disciplines — including conservation biology, global change science, and genomics — along with new technological tools like high-resolution remote sensing can provide significant information for constructing contemporary tactics for NPS stewardship. This knowledge is essential to a National Park Service that is science-informed at all organizational levels and able to respond with contemporary strategies for resource management and ultimately park stewardship." 2021: Resist-Accept-Direct (RAD): A Framework for the 21st-century Natural Resource Manager The "Revisiting Leopold" report mentioned climate change three times and "climate refugia" once, but it did not prescribe or offer any management tactics that could help parks managers with the problems of climate change. Hence, the 2021 report specific to the need for climate adaptation: "Resist-Accept-Direct (RAD): A Framework for the 21st-century Natural Resource Manager." This "Natural Resource Report" has ten authors. Among them are four associated with the U.S. National Park Service, three with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and two with the U.S. Geological Survey — all of which are government agencies within the U.S. Department of Interior. The report's Executive Summary, points to "intensifying global change.""... The convention of using baseline conditions to define goals for today’s resource management is increasingly untenable, presenting practical and philosophical challenges for managers. As formerly familiar ecological conditions continue to change, bringing novelty, surprise, and uncertainty, natural resource managers require a new, shared approach to make conservation decisions.... The RAD (Resist-Accept-Direct) decision framework has emerged over the past decade as a simple tool that captures the entire decision space for responding to ecosystems facing the potential for rapid, irreversible ecological change." Here, the iconic species of Joshua Tree National Park is a leading example. The three RAD options are: Resist the trajectory of change, by working to maintain or restore ecosystem processes, function, structure, or composition based upon historical or acceptable current conditions. Accept the trajectory of change, by allowing ecosystem processes, function, structure, or composition to change, without intervening to alter their trajectory. Direct the trajectory of change, by actively shaping ecosystem processes, function, structure, or composition towards desired new conditions. The "Resist-Accept-Direct" Framework is described in an October 2021 paper published in Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. Twenty researchers from federal and state agencies and universities collaborated in this effort, which included short case studies of where and how this framework has already been applied. They conclude, "As more ecosystems pass beyond the point of feasible resistance, managers will actively need to decide whether to accept changes or direct changes toward desired outcomes." National Park System The National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service, which have a wide variety of titles or designations. The system as a whole is considered to be a national treasure of the United States, and some of the more famous national parks and monuments are sometimes referred to as "crown jewels". The system encompasses approximately , of which remain in private ownership. The largest unit is Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska. At 13,200,000 acres (53,000 km2), it is over 16 percent of the entire system. The smallest unit in the system is Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial, Pennsylvania, at 0.02 acre (80 m2). In addition to administering its units and other properties, the NPS also provides technical and financial assistance to several affiliated areas authorized by Congress. The largest affiliated area is New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve at 1,164,025 acres (4711 km2). The smallest is Benjamin Franklin National Memorial at less than . While there are laws generally covering all units of the National Park System, they are subject to management policies of individual pieces of authorizing legislation or, in the case of national monuments created under the Antiquities Act, Executive Order. For example, because of provisions within their enabling legislation, Congaree National Park is almost entirely wilderness area devoid of development, yet Yosemite allows unique developments such as the Badger Pass Ski Area and the O'Shaughnessy Dam within its boundaries. Such irregularities would not be found in other parks unless specifically provided for with exceptions by the legislation that created them. Holdings For current specifics and a multitude of information, see the Quick Facts section of the NPS website. Criteria Most NPS units have been established by an act of Congress, with the president confirming the action by signing the act into law. The exception, under the Antiquities Act, allows the president to designate and protect areas as national monuments by executive order. Regardless of the method used, all parks are to be of national importance. A potential park should meet all four of the following standards: It is an outstanding example of a particular type of resource. It possesses exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting the natural or cultural themes of the nation's heritage. It offers superlative opportunities for recreation, for public use and enjoyment, or for scientific study. It retains a high degree of integrity as a true, accurate, and relatively unspoiled example of the resource. Before creation of a new unit, Congress typically directs the NPS to conduct a special resource study of a site to determine its national significance and suitability to be part of the National Park System. Nomenclature The NPS uses over 20 different titles for the park units it manages, including national park and national monument. National parks preserve nationally and globally significant scenic areas and nature reserves. National monuments preserve a single unique cultural or natural feature. Devils Tower National Monument was the first in 1906. While the National Park Service holds the most national monuments, a monument may be managed or co-managed by a different entity such as the Bureau of Land Management or the Forest Service. National preserves are for the protection of certain resources and operate similar to many National Parks, but allow limited resource extraction. Activities like hunting, fishing, and some mining may be allowed depending on the site. Big Cypress National Preserve and Big Thicket National Preserve were created in 1974 as the first national preserves. National reserves are similar to national preserves, but the operational authority can be placed with a local government. New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve was the first to be established in 1978.National historic sites protect a significant cultural resource that is not a complicated site. National historical parks are larger areas with more complex subjects. Historic sites may also be protected in other unit types. National military parks, battlefield parks, battlefield sites, and battlefields preserve areas associated with military history. The different designations reflect the complexity of the event and the site. Many of the sites preserve important Revolutionary War battles and Civil War battlefields. Military parks are the sites of larger actions, such as Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, Vicksburg National Military Park, Gettysburg National Military Park, and Shiloh National Military Park—the original four from 1890. Examples of battlefield parks, battlefield sites, and national battlefields include Richmond National Battlefield Park, Brices Cross Roads National Battlefield Site, and Antietam National Battlefield. National memorials are areas that officially memorialize a person or event, though unlike a National Historical Site, may or may not be placed at a specific historical location. Several national memorials are on the National Mall, such as the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial. National seashores and national lakeshores offer preservation of the national coast line, while supporting water–based recreation. Cape Hatteras National Seashore was created in 1937. Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, created in 1966, were the first national lakeshores. National rivers and wild and scenic riverways protect free-flowing streams over their length. The riverways may not be altered with dams, channelization, or other changes. Recreational pursuits are encouraged along the waterways. Ozark National Scenic Riverways was established in 1964. National recreation areas originally were units surrounding reservoirs impounded by dams built by other federal agencies, the first being Lake Mead National Recreation Area. Some national recreation areas are in urban centers, such as Gateway National Recreation Area and Golden Gate National Recreation Area, which encompass significant cultural as well as natural resources. The National Trails System preserves long-distance routes across America. The system was created in 1968 and consists of two major components: National scenic trails are long-distance trails through some of the most scenic parts of the country. They received official protection in 1968. The Appalachian Trail is the best known. National historic trails commemorate the routes of major historic events. Some of the best known are the Trail of Tears, the Mormon Trail, and the Santa Fe Trail. These trails are administered by several federal agencies. Special designations Wilderness areas are part of the National Wilderness Preservation System, which consists of federally managed lands that are of a pristine condition, established by the Wilderness Act (Public Law 88-577) in 1964. The National Wilderness Preservation System originally created hundreds of wilderness zones within already protected federally administered property, consisting of over 9 million acres (36,000 km2). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) began with Executive Order 13158 in May 2000, when official MPAs were established for the first time. The initial listing of U.S. areas was presented in 2010, consisting of areas already set aside under other legislation. The NPS has 19 park units designated as MPAs. Visitation The National Park System received over 327 million recreation visits in 2019. Park visitation grew 64 percent between 1979 and 2015. The 10 most-visited units of the National Park System handle over 30 percent of the overall visits. The top 10 percent of parks (41) handle 61.9 percent of all visits, leaving the remaining more than 380 units to accommodate 38.1 percent of visits. (Note that only 380 sites recorded visitors during 2021 due to COVID-19-related closures). Entrance fees Most areas of the National Park System do not charge entrance fees and are completely supported by tax dollars, although some of the most popular areas do charge entrance fees. Fees vary site to site and are charged either on a per-vehicle or per-person basis, with most passes valid for 7 days. The America the Beautiful Pass series waives the per-vehicle fee or per-person fee for the holder and up to 3 other adults (children age 15 and younger are admitted for free at most sites). Annual passes for single areas are also available for those who visit the same site often. Overnight stays Over 15 million visitors spent a night in one of the national park units during 2015. The largest number (3.68 million) were tent campers. The second largest group (3.38 million) stayed in one of the lodges, followed by miscellaneous stays (on boats, group sites—2.15 million). The last three groups of over-night visitors included RV campers (2.26 million), backcountry campers (2.02 million) and users of the concession-run campgrounds (1.42 million). Budget In 2019, the NPS had an annual budget of $4.085 billion and an estimated $12 billion maintenance backlog. On August 4, 2020, the Great American Outdoors Act was signed into law reducing the $12 billion maintenance backlog by $9.5 billion over a 5-year period beginning in FY 2021. The NPS budget is divided into two primary areas, discretionary and mandatory spending. Within each of these areas, there are numerous specific purposes to which Congress directs the services activities. The NPS budget includes discretionary spending which is broken out into two portions: the direct operations of the National Parks and the special initiatives. Listed separately are the special initiatives of the service for the year specified in the legislation. During fiscal year 2010, the service was charged with five initiatives. They include: stewardship and education; professional excellence; youth programs; climate change impacts; and budget restructure and realignment. Discretionary spending Discretionary spending includes the Operations of the National Parks (ONPS), from which all park operations are paid. The United States Park Police funds cover the high-profile law enforcement operations at some of the large parks, including Gateway National Recreation Area, Golden Gate National Recreation Area, and the National Mall. The National Recreation and Preservation Program and the Urban Park and Recreation Fund are outreach programs to support state and local outdoor recreational activities. The ONPS section of the budget is divided into six operational areas. These areas include: Resource stewardship These are funds and people directed towards the restoration, preservation, and maintenance of natural and cultural resources. The resource staff includes biologists, geologists, archeologists, preservation specialists and a variety of specialized employees to restore and preserve cultural buildings or natural features. Visitor services The NPS allocates funds obtained from its visitor services for use in public programs and for educational programs for the general public and school groups. Park rangers trained in providing walks, talks, and educational programs to the public frequently conduct such programs. Media specialists prepare exhibits along trails, roads and in visitor contact facilities, as well as written brochures and web-sites. Park protection This includes the staff responding to visitor emergencies (criminal, medical, search and rescue), and the protection of the park's natural and cultural resources from damage by those persons visiting the park. The staff includes law enforcement rangers, park police, lifeguards, criminal investigators, and communication center operators. Facility maintenance and operations This is the cost of maintaining the necessary infrastructure within each park that supports all the services provided. It includes the plows and heavy equipment for road clearing, repairs and construction. There are buildings, trails, roads, docks, boats, utility pipes and wires, and a variety of hidden systems that make a park accessible by the public. The staff includes equipment operators, custodians, trail crews, electricians, plumbers, engineers, architects, and other building trade specialists. Park support This is the staff that provides for the routine logistical needs of the parks. There are human resource specialists, contracting officers, property specialists, budget managers, accountants and information technology specialists. External administrative costs The NPS pays external administrative costs to outside organizations that provide the logistical support that the NPS needs to operate its facilities. These costs include rent payments to the General Services Administration for building space, postage payments to the postal machine vendor and other direct payments. Land and Water Conservation Fund The Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) supports Land Acquisition and State Conservation Assistance (SCA) grant programs. In 2010, the LWCF began an incremental process to fully fund its programs at a total cost of $900 million. The Department of the Interior and the United States Forest Service use these funds to purchase critical lands to protect existing public lands. The LWCF also issues grants to States and local jurisdictions to preserve and protect Civil War battlefield sites that are not part of the national park system. The SCA program distributes funds for land preservation to individual states. Historic Preservation Fund The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 set the federal vision for historic preservation in the United States. To support the vision and framework laid out in this act, the Historic Preservation Fund (HPF) was established in 1977 to provide financial assistance to, originally, states, to carry out activities related to preservation. Funding is provided from Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas lease revenues, not tax dollars, and an amount is appropriated annually by Congress. Awards from the HPF are made to States, Tribes, Territories, local governments, and non-profits. Two specific programs include the Save America's Treasures and the Preserve America. The Historic Preservation Offices makes grants available to the States, territories, and tribal lands. To honor the 250th anniversary of the United States, Congress authorized the Semiquincentennial Grant in 2020 to support the preservation of State owned sites and structures listed on the National Register of Historic Places that commemorate the founding of the nation. Economic benefits The NPS affects economies at national, state, and local levels. According to a 2011 Michigan State University report prepared for the NPS, for each $1 invested in the NPS, the American public receives $4 in economic value. In 2011, national parks generated $30.1 billion in economic activity and 252,000 jobs nationwide. Thirteen billion of that amount went directly into communities within 60 miles of a NPS unit. In a 2017 study, the NPS found that 331 million park visitors spent $18.2 billion in local areas around National Parks across the nation. This spending helped support 306,000 jobs. The NPS expenditures supported $297 million in economic output in Missouri alone. Concessions In an effort to increase visitation and allow for a larger audience to enjoy national park land, the NPS has numerous concession contracts with private businesses to bring recreation, resorts and other compatible amenities to their parks. NPS lodging opportunities exist at places such as the Wawona Hotel in Yosemite National Park and the Fort Baker Retreat and Conference Center in Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Adaptive reuses like those at Fort Baker, have raised some controversy from concerns about the historical integrity of these buildings, after extensive renovations and whether such alterations fall within the spirit and/or the letter of the preservation laws they are protected by. Delaware North Corporation at Yosemite National Park, Yellowstone National Park, South Rim Grand Canyon National Park. Forever Resorts at Big Bend National Park, Blue Ridge Parkway, Badlands National Park, North Rim of Grand Canyon National Park, Olympic National Park, Lake Mead National Recreation Area, Mammoth Cave National Park, Isle Royale National Park, and Rocky Mountain National Park. Xanterra Parks & Resorts at Bryce Canyon National Park, Crater Lake National Park, Death Valley National Park, South Rim Grand Canyon National Park, Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Painted Desert at Petrified Forest National Park, Yellowstone National Park, and Zion National Park. Litigation with Delaware North In 2015, Delaware North sued the NPS in the United States Court of Claims for breach of contract, alleging that the NPS had undervalued its trademarks of the names of iconic Yosemite National Park concession facilities. The NPS estimated the value of the intangible assets including the names "Ahwahnee", "Badger Pass", "Curry Village", and "Yosemite Lodge" at $3.5 million. Delaware North lost the contract, and asserted that the historic names were worth $51 million and maintained that the incoming concessioner had to be paid that amount. The Justice Department and the NPS asserted that this was an "improper and wildly inflated" value. Rather than pay Delaware North's demanded valuation, in January 2016 the NPS instead opted to rename the famous landmarks, effective in March. The Ahwahnee Hotel is slated to become The Majestic Yosemite Hotel, Curry Village will become Half Dome Village, and the Wawona Hotel will become Big Trees Lodge. Widespread public outcry focused on Delaware North's decision to claim ownership of names within a national park. The names were restored in 2019 upon settlement of the dispute. Bookstores At many Park Service sites a bookstore is operated by a non-profit cooperating association. The largest example is Eastern National, which runs bookstores in 30 states with 178 stores. Eastern National Western National Park Association Park specific: Crater Lake Natural History Association Cuyahoga Valley National Park Association Devils Tower Natural History Association Bookstore Kennesaw Mountain Historical Association Oregon Caves Natural History Association Yellowstone Forever Yosemite Conservancy Offices The national headquarters is located in the Main Interior Building, 1849 C Street NW, several blocks southwest of the White House. The central office is composed of eleven directorates: director/deputy directors; business services; workforce management; chief information officer; cultural resources; natural resource stewardship and science; office of the comptroller; park planning, facilities and lands; partnerships and visitor experience; visitor and resource protection; and the United States Park Police. Regional offices are in Anchorage, Atlanta, Lakewood, CO (Denver), Omaha, NE, Philadelphia, San Francisco and Seattle. The headquarters building of the National Park Service Southwest Regional Office is architecturally significant and is designated a National Historic Landmark. The NPS is an operating unit of the U.S. Department of the Interior. The NPS director is nominated by the president of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. The director is supported by six senior executives. These executives manage national programs, policy, and budget from the Washington, DC, headquarters. Under the deputy director of operations are seven regional directors, who are responsible for national park management and program implementation. Together this group is called the National Leadership Council. Staff and volunteers Directors List of National Park Service directors: Employees By the mid-1950s, the primary employees of the service were the park rangers, who had broad responsibilities on the parks' behalf. They cleaned up trash, operated heavy equipment, fought fires, managed traffic, cleared trails and roads, provided information to visitors, managed museums, performed rescues, flew aircraft, and investigated crime. The NPS employs many kinds of workers: National Park Service Ranger Interpreter Law enforcement Park management (Superintendent/Deputy) United States Park Police Emergency management (Emergency medical providers, search and rescue specialists) Lifeguards Dispatchers Maintenance (including carpenters, plumbers, masons, laborers, auto mechanics, motor vehicle operators, heavy equipment operators, electricians) Park planning Architects, engineers, and landscape architects Resource management (including archeologist, biologist, botanist, aquatics, soil scientist, geologist) History (curators, historians, preservation technicians, historic architects, archivists) Fire management (managers, weather specialist, firefighters, engine captains, crew superintendents, battalion chiefs) Public Affairs Administration (human resources, finance, accountants, information technology, budgeting, concessions management) Locations are varied. Parks exist in the nation's larger cities like New York City (Federal Hall Memorial National Historic Site), Atlanta (Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site), and San Diego (Cabrillo National Monument) to some of the remotest areas of the continent like Hovenweep National Monument in southeastern Utah, to Aniakchak National Monument in King Salmon, Alaska. Volunteers-In-Parks (VIP) The Volunteers-In-Parks program was authorized in 1969 by the Volunteers in the Parks Act of 1969. for the purpose of allowing the public to serve in the nations parks providing support and skills for their enhancement and protection. Volunteers come from all walks of life and include professionals, artists, laborers, homemakers and students, performing varied duties. Many come from surrounding communities and some travel significant distances. In a 2005 annual report, the NPS reported that, ...137,000 VIPs contributed 5.2 million hours of service (or 2500 FTEs) valued at $91,260,000 based on the private sector value figure of $17.55 as used by AARP, Points of Light Foundation, and other large-scale volunteer programs including many federal agencies. There are 365 separate volunteer programs throughout the NPS. Since 1990, the number of volunteers has increased an average of 2% per year. FTE stands for full-time equivalent (one work year). In 2012, the National Park Service reported that over 221,000 volunteers contributed about 6.4 million hours annually. Additionally, other types of volunteers also conduct offsite NPS public outreach and education, such as the Trails & Rails program guides on board certain segments of long-haul Amtrak routes, who offer passengers insights to the travel area's natural resources and heritage. Artist-In-Residence Across the nation, there are special opportunities for artists (visual artists, photographers, sculptors, performers, writers, composers, and crafts) to live and work in a park. Twenty-nine parks currently participate in the Artist-In-Residence program. United States Park Rangers Law enforcement rangers, or protection rangers, are uniformed federal law enforcement officers with broad authority to enforce federal and state laws within NPS sites. The NPS commonly refers to law enforcement operations in the agency as visitor and resource protection. In NPS units, law enforcement rangers are the primary police agency. The NPS also employs special agents who conduct more complex criminal investigations. Rangers and agents receive extensive police training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center and annual in-service and regular firearms training. United States Park Police The United States Park Police (USPP) is the oldest uniformed federal law enforcement agency in the United States. It functions as a full service law enforcement agency with responsibilities and jurisdiction in those NPS areas primarily located in the Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and New York City areas. In addition to performing the normal crime prevention, investigation, and apprehension functions of an urban police force, the park police are responsible for policing many of the famous monuments in the United States and share law enforcement jurisdiction in all lands administered by the service with a force of national park rangers tasked with the same law enforcement powers and responsibilities. Youth programs The NPS partners with a variety of youth oriented programs. The oldest serving group is the Student Conservation Association (SCA). It was established in 1957, committed to conservation and preservation. The SCA's goal is to create the next generation of conservation leaders. SCA volunteers work through internships, conservation jobs, and crew experiences. Volunteers conduct resource management, historic preservation, cultural resources and conservation programs to gain experience, which can lead to career development and further educational opportunities. The SCA places volunteers in more than 350 national park units and NPS offices each year. The Corps Network, formerly known as the National Association for Service and Corps (NASCC), represents 136 Service and Conservation Corps. These groups have programs in 42 states and the District of Columbia. Corpsmembers are between the ages of 16–25. Service and Conservation Corps are direct descendants of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) of the 1930s that built park facilities in the national parks and other public parks around the country. The Corps Network was established in 1985. The Youth Conservation Corps (ages 15–18) brings young people into a park to restore, preserve and protect a natural, cultural, or historical resources. Enrollees are paid for their work. Public Land Corps (ages 16–25) is a job helping to restore, protect, and rehabilitate a local national parks. The enrollees learn about environmental issues and the parks. Special divisions Other special NPS divisions include the Archeology Program, Historic American Buildings Survey, National Register of Historic Places, National Natural Landmarks, the Rivers, Trails and Conservation Assistance Program, the Challenge Cost Share Program, the Federal Lands to Parks, the Hydropower Relicensing Program, the Land and Water Conservation Fund, the National Trails System, the Partnership Wild and Scenic Rivers Program, and the Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division. Centers The NPS operates four archeology-related centers: Harpers Ferry Center in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, the Midwest Archeological Center in Lincoln, Nebraska, the Southeast Archeological Center in Tallahassee, Florida and the Western Archeological and Conservation Center in Tucson, Arizona. The Harpers Ferry Center specializes in interpretive media development and object conservation. The other three focus to various degrees on archaeological research and museum object curation and conservation. National Park Service training centers include the Horace Albright Training Center, Grand Canyon; Stephen Mather Training Center, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia; Historic Preservation Training Center, Frederick, Maryland and Capital Training Center, Washington, D.C. The Submerged Resources Center is the unit responsible for inventory and evaluation of submerged resources throughout the National Park system. The SRC is based out of the Intermountain Region's headquarters in Lakewood, Colorado. The National Center for Preservation Technology and Training, located in Natchitoches, Louisiana, conducts research and training in the fields of archeology, architecture, landscape architecture and materials conservation. Preservation Programs The oldest federal preservation program, the Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record (HABS/HAER), produces graphic and written documentation of historically significant architectural, engineering and industrial sites and structures. Dating from 1934, the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) was chartered to document historic architecture—primarily houses and public buildings—of national or regional significance. Originally a New Deal employment/preservation program, after World War II, HABS employed summer teams of advanced undergraduate and graduate students to carry out the documentation, a tradition followed to this day. Many of the structures they documented no longer exist. HABS/HAER produces measured drawings, large-format photographs and written histories of historic sites, structures and objects, that are significant to the architectural, engineering and industrial heritage of the U.S. Its 25,000 records are part of the Library of Congress. HABS/HAER is administered by the NPS Washington office and five regional offices. Historic American Buildings Survey In 1933, the NPS established the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), based on a proposal by Charles E. Peterson, Park Service landscape architect. It was founded as a make-work program for architects, draftsmen and photographers left jobless by the Great Depression. Guided by field instructions from Washington, D.C., the first recorders were tasked with documenting a representative sampling of America's architectural heritage. After 70 years, there is now an archive of historic architecture. HABS provided a database of primary source material for the then fledgling historic preservation movement. Historic American Engineering Record Recognizing a similar fragility in the national industrial and engineering heritage, the NPS, the Library of Congress and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) formed the HAER program in 1969, to document nationally and regionally significant engineering and industrial sites. Later, HAER was ratified by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) and the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers (AIME). HAER documentation, in the forms of measured and interpretive drawings, large-format photographs and written histories, is archivally preserved in the Prints and Photographs Division of the Library of Congress, where it is readily available to the public. Historic American Landscapes Survey With the growing vitality of landscape history, preservation and management, proper recognition for historic American landscape documentation must be addressed. In response to this need, the American Society of Landscape Architects Historic Preservation Professional Interest Group worked with the National Park Service to establish a national program. Hence, in October 2000 the National Park Service permanently established the Historic American Landscapes Survey (HALS) program for the systematic documentation of historic American landscapes. Rivers, Trails and Conservation Assistance Program The NPS Rivers, Trails and Conservation Assistance program is designed to assist local communities and the public in preservation of rivers, trails and greenways. Unlike the mainline National Park Programs, these programs take place on non-federal property at the request of the local community. One of their better known programs is Rails to Trails, where unused railroad right-of-ways are converted into public hiking and biking trails. National Trails System The National Trails System is a joint mission of the NPS, the Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Forest Service. It was created in 1968 to establish a system of long-distance National Scenic and National Historic Trails, as well as to recognize existing trails in the states as National Recreation Trails. Several additional trails have been established since 1968, and in 2009 Congress established the first National Geologic Trail. National Heritage Areas National Heritage Areas are a unique blend of natural, cultural, historic, and scenic resources. These are not considered units of the NPS, as they are maintained by state/territorial governments or non-profit organizations (described as local coordinating entities). The National Park Service provides an advisory role and limited technical, planning and financial assistance. Designation of National Heritage Areas is done by an Act of Congress. As of 2021 there are 55 designated heritage areas, some of which cross state lines. Initiatives 24-hr all Taxa BioBlitz: A joint venture of the National Geographic Society and the NPS. Beginning in 2004, at Rock Creek Parkway, the National Geographic Society and the NPS began a 10-year program of hosting a major biological survey of ten selected national park units. The intent is to develop public interest in the nations natural resources, develop scientific interest in America's youth and to create citizen scientist. 2007: Rock Creek Park, Washington D.C. 661 species 2008: Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, Los Angeles, California. 1,700 species and more pending. 2009: Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, near Chicago in northern Indiana. 1,716 species and still counting. 2010: Biscayne National Park, Miami, Florida. 810 species were identified during this 24-hr event. As classification continues, more species will be added to the list. 2011: Saguaro National Park, Tucson, Arizona. During the 24 hours, 859 different species were identified, of which more than 400 were previously unknown in the park. 2012: Rocky Mountain National Park, in Estes Park, In August 2012 489 species were identified. 2013: Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve, in New Orleans. May 17–18, 2013 in the park's Barataria Preserve. 2014: Golden Gate National Recreation Area 2015: Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park 2016: Whiskeytown National Recreation Area, Cabrillo National Monument, Channel Islands National Park, Washington, D.C. 2017: Virgin Islands National Park Biological Diversity: Biological Diversity is the vast variety of life as identified through species and genetics. This variety is decreasing as people spread across the globe, altering areas to better meet their needs. Climate Change: Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global sea levels. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007). South Florida Restoration Initiative: Rescuing an Ecosystem in Peril: In partnership with the State of Florida, and the Army Corps of Engineers, the NPS is restoring the physical and biological processes of the South Florida ecosystem. Historically, this ecosystem contained some of the most diverse habitats on earth. Vanishing Treasures Initiative: Ruins Preservation in the American Southwest: The Vanishing Treasures Initiative began in FY 1998 to reduce threats to prehistoric and historic sites and structures in 44 parks of the Intermountain Region. In 2002, the program expanded to include three parks in the Pacific West Region. The goal is to reduce backlogged work and to bring sites and structures up to a condition where routine maintenance activities can preserve them. Wetlands: Wetlands includes marshes, swamps, and bogs. These areas and the plants and animals adapted to these conditions spread from the arctic to the equator. The shrinking wetlands provide habitat for fish and wildlife, help clean water and reduce the impact of storms and floods on the surrounding communities. Wildland Fire: Fires have been a natural part of park eco-systems. Many plants and some animals require a cycle of fire or flooding to be successful and productive. With the advent of human intervention and public access to parks, there are safety concerns for the visiting public. Green Park Plan In September 2010, the NPS released its Climate Change Response Strategy, followed in April 2012 by the Green Parks Plan. Climate Friendly Parks Program The Climate Friendly Parks Program is a subset of the Green Parks Plan. It was created in collaboration between the NPS and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The program is meant to measure and reduce greenhouse gases to help slow the effects of climate change. Parks in the CFP program create and implement plans to reduce greenhouse gases through reducing energy and water use. Facilities are designed and retrofitted using sustainable materials. Alternative transportation systems are developed to reduce dependency on fossil fuels. Parks in the program offer public education programs about how the parks are already affected. The CFP program provides climate-friendly solutions to the visiting public, like using clean energy, reducing waste, and making smart transportation choices. The CFP program can provide technical assistance, tools and resources for the parks and their neighboring communities to protect the natural and cultural resources. The large, isolated parks typically generate their own electricity and heat and must do so without spoiling the values that the visitors have come to experience. Pollution is emitted by the vehicles used to transport visitors around the often-vast expanses of the parks. Many parks have converted vehicles to electric hybrids, and substitute diesel/electric hybrid buses for private automobiles. In 2001 it was estimated that replacement with electric vehicles would eliminate 25 TPY emissions entirely. In 2010, the NPS estimated that reducing bottled water could eliminate 6,000 tons of carbon emissions and 8 million kilowatt-hours of electricity every year. The NPS Concessions office voiced concerns about concessions impacts. By 2014, 23 parks had banned disposable water bottles. In 2015, the International Bottled Water Association stated the NPS was "leaving sugary drinks as a primary alternative", even though the Park Service provides water stations to refill bottles, "encouraging visitors to hydrate for free". The Water Association made the national parks one of its top lobbying targets. In July 2015 Rep. Keith Rothfus added a "last-minute" amendment into Congress's appropriations bill, blocking the NPS from funding or enforcing the program. The NPS discontinued its ban on disposable water bottles in August 2017. Related acts Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 Antiquities Act or Lacy Act of 1906 Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008 Endangered Species Act of 1973 Endangered Species Act Amendments of 1978 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1934 Great American Outdoors Act of 2020 Historic Sites Act of 1935 Lacey Act of 1900 (Wildlife preservation) Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 (NEPA) National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA) National Park Service General Authorities Act of 1970 National Park Service Organic Act of 1916 National Wild and Scenic River of 1968 Redwood Act of 1978, creating one protection standard for the System Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 Wilderness Act of 1964 See also People Individuals Ansel Franklin Hall, first Chief Naturalist and first Chief Forester of the NPS William Kent (U.S. Congressman), donated early parklands to the government John F. Lacey, congressman from Iowa Harry Yount, progenitor of the modern national park ranger Roles National Park People National Park Ranger Related organizations National Park Foundation National Parks Conservation Association (NPCA) Other links Alt National Park Service Land and Water Conservation Fund National Park Passport Stamps National Park Service Rustic, style of architecture National Park Service uniforms National Park Travelers Club National Park to Park Highway US Parks Police United States Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game Wilderness preservation systems in the United States List of World Heritage Sites in the United States References Sources Albright, Horace M. (as told to Robert Cahn). The Birth of the National Park Service. Salt Lake City: Howe Brothers, 1985. Albright, Horace M, and Marian Albright Schenck. Creating the National Park Service: The Missing Years. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. Dilsaver, Lary M., ed. America's National Park System: The Critical Documents. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994. Everhardt, William C. The National Park Service. New York: Praeger, 1972. Foresta, Ronald A. America's National Parks and Their Keepers. Washington: Resources for the Future, 1985. Freemuth, John. Islands Under Siege: National Parks and the Politics of External Threats. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1991. Garrison, Lemuel A;. The Making of a Ranger. Salt Lake City: Howe Brothers, 1983. Gartner, Bob; Exploring Careers in the National Parks. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. 1993 Hartzog, George B. Jr; Battling for the National Parks; Moyer Bell Limited; Mt. Kisco, New York; 1988 Ise, John. Our National Park Policy: A Critical History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1961. Lee, Ronald F.; Family Tree of the National Park System; Eastern National Parks, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1972 Lowery, William. Repairing Paradise: The Restoration of Nature in America's National Parks. Washington: Brookings, 2009 Mackintosh, Barry. The National Parks: Shaping the System. Washington: National Park Service, 1991. National Parks for the 21st Century; The Vail Agenda; The National Park Foundation, 1991 National Park Service Almanac, Edited and Compiled by Ben Moffett and Vickie Carson: Rocky Mountain Region, National Park Service, 1991, revised 2006 The National Parks: Shaping The System; National Park Service, Washington D.C. 1991. Rettie, Dwight F.; Our National Park System; University of Illinois Press; Urbana, Illinois; 1995 Ridenour, James M. The National Parks Compromised: Pork Barrel Politics and America's Treasures. Merrillville, IN: ICS Books, 1994. Rothman, Hal K. Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989. Runte, Alfred. National Parks, the American Experience, Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1987. Sellars, Richard West. Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. Shankland, Robert; Steve Mather of the National Parks; Alfred A. Knopf, New York; 1970 Sontag, William H. National Park Service: The First 75 Years. Philadelphia: Eastern National Park & Monument Assn., 1991. Sutter, Paul. 2002. Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement. Seattle: University of Washington press. . Swain, Donald. Wilderness Defender: Horace M. Albright and Conservation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. Udall, Stewart L., The Quiet Crisis. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963. Wirth, Conrad L. Parks, Politics, and the People. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980. Other sources Gallery of all US National Parks (does not include National Park System units of any other designation) Gallery of National Park "Welcome" Signs National Park Service Meeting Notices and Rule Changes from The Federal Register RSS Feed Records of the National Park Service, including an administrative history and a list of regional offices of the National Park Service up to 1988 National Park Foundation, the Congressionally chartered national charitable partner of America's National Parks External links NPS official website Photos of Park Rangers over the last 100+ years National Park Service in the Federal Register NPS Research Links/Reference Desk NPS Library Information Center NPS Focus Digital Library & Research Station NPS Historic Photograph Collection NPS B-Roll Video (public domain) NPS Digital Image Archives (public domain) NPS Civil War Soldiers and Sailors System (CWSS) Community Assistance Available from the National Park Service Criteria for inclusion in the National Park System Designation of National Park System Units (national monument vs national park, etc.) National Park System Timeline The National Parks: America's Best Idea from the National Park Service Archeology Program National Park Service Records available in the Archival Research Catalog of the National Archives and Records Administration National Park Service Records available at the National Archives and Records Administration's Atlanta facility NPS Climate Friendly Parks Nature conservation in the United States Environmental agencies in the United States Government agencies established in 1916 Land management in the United States Organizations based in Washington, D.C. United States public land law Park police departments of the United States 1916 establishments in the United States National park administrators	wiki
Dammeron Valley – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Utah, w hrabstwie Washington. CDP w stanie Utah	wiki
Lauren McConnell may refer to: Lauren McConnell (performer) on Grease Is the Word Loren McConnell, fictional character	wiki
Jim Wakeman may refer to: Jim Wakeman (Canadian football), in 1973 CFL Draft Jim Wakeman, character in The Reaping	wiki
General Hill may refer to: United Kingdom Augustus Hill (British Army officer) (1853–1921), British Army brigadier general Edward Rowley Hill (1795–1878), British Army general Giles Hill (fl. 1990s–2020s), British Army lieutenant general John Hill (Indian Army officer) (1866–1935), British Indian Army major general John Hill (courtier) (died 1735), British Army major general John Thomas Hill (1811–1902), British Army general Walter Hill (British Army officer) (1877–1942), British Army major general Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill (1772–1842), British Army general United States A. P. Hill (1825–1865), Confederate States Army lieutenant general Benjamin J. Hill (1825–1880), Confederate States Army brigadier general Daniel Harvey Hill (1821–1889), Confederate States Army lieutenant general Donn Hill (fl. 1990s–2020s), U.S. Army major general Edmund Hill (1896–1973), U.S. Army major general Eric T. Hill (fl. 1990s–2020s), U.S. Air Force major general Henry Root Hill (1876–1918), U.S. Army brigadier general Homer S. Hill (1919–1992), U.S. Marine Corps major general James A. Hill (1923–2010), U.S. Air Force four-star general James E. Hill (1921–1999), U.S. Air Force four-star general James T. Hill (born 1946), U.S. Army four-star general John G. Hill Jr. (1926–1999), U.S. Army major general Tex Hill (1915–2007), U.S. Army Air Forces brigadier general Walter Newell Hill (1881–1955), U.S. Marine Corps brigadier general William P. T. Hill (1895–1965), U.S. Marine Corps major general Other Benjamín G. Hill (1874–1920), Mexican Revolutionary general Frederic William Hill (1866–1954), Canadian Expeditionary Force brigadier general See also Attorney General Hill (disambiguation)	wiki
Alternative wine closures are substitute closures used in the wine industry for sealing wine bottles in place of traditional cork closures. The emergence of these alternatives has grown in response to quality control efforts by winemakers to protect against "cork taint" caused by the presence of the chemical trichloroanisole (TCA). The closures debate, chiefly between supporters of screw caps and natural corks, has increased the awareness of post-bottling wine chemistry, and the concept of winemaking has grown to continue after the bottling process, because closures with different oxygen transmission rates may lead to wines that taste different when they reach consumers. The cork-industry group APCOR cites a study showing a 0.7–1.2% taint rate. In a 2005 study of 2800 bottles tasted at the Wine Spectator blind-tasting facilities in Napa, California, 7% of the bottles were found to be tainted. Synthetic corks Synthetic corks are made from plastic compounds designed to look and "pop" like natural cork, but without the risk of TCA contamination. Disadvantages of synthetic corks include a risk of harmful air entering a bottle after as little as 18 months, difficulty in extracting them from the bottle, and difficulty in using the cork to reseal the wine. James Laube of Wine Spectator notes that some can also impart a slight chemical flavour to the wine. Unlike natural corks, many synthetic corks are made from material that is not biodegradable. There are two main production techniques for synthetic wine closures: injection molding and extrusion. There are also methods claimed to combine the two techniques of injection and extrusion. A 2007 study by Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2 University showed that injection-molded synthetic corks allowed the highest levels of oxygen permeation when compared to natural cork and screw caps, offering the lowest protection against oxidation of the wine. Synthetic wine bottle closures may allow for a controlled oxygen transfer rate, which affects the sensory characteristics. Screw caps Screw caps or "Stelvin caps" are closures made only from aluminium material that threads onto the bottleneck. They are the predominant closure used by Austrian, Australian and New Zealand wineries. This can be attributed in part to the New Zealand screw cap initiative which promotes the use of screw caps instead of cork. Screw caps form a tighter seal and can keep out oxygen for a longer time than cork. These benefits aid in maintaining the wine's overall quality and aging potential. Michel Laroche of Domaine Laroche noted that this played a role in his decision to adopt screwcaps. "Extensive quality tests show convincing results: apart from protecting against cork taint, screwcaps are also beneficial in the aging of wine, particularly preserving the aromatic freshness." An often cited contradiction is the case of experiments carried out by Château Haut-Brion in the 1970s, when 100 bottles were placed under screwcap for long term observation. The result was, according to Haut-Brion manager Jean-Bernard Delmas, that "it worked perfectly for the first ten years, until the plastic in the caps went brittle and let air in". A disadvantage of screw caps according to wine expert Jancis Robinson is the opposite of oxidation: reduction, which may suppress a wine's aroma and possibly cause unpleasant ones, a problem that particularly affects Sauvignon blanc which is a grape variety with natural tendencies toward reduction. Furthermore, there is the screwcap's public image, as "consumers still perceive screwcaps as being for 'cheap' wines (regardless of the price tag)". In a 2004 study of consumer opinions conducted by the wine consulting firm Wine Intelligence found that nearly 52% of American consumers and 60% of British consumers reject the idea of using screwcaps for their fine wine. The 2007 Victor Segalen University study in Bordeaux showed that screw caps closures allowed the lowest amount of oxygen permeation when compared to natural and synthetic corks, offering the highest level of protection against oxidation of the wine. Following studies by the faults clinic at the International Wine Challenge in September 2006, it became widely reported in British newspapers that test results show that one in 50 screwcap bottles, 200,000 bottles worldwide, may be affected by the chemical process sulphidisation. Jamie Goode presented arguments against reports he described to "represent the science of closures badly, are filled with inaccuracies and misunderstandings, and do not serve the wine industry well", and addressed the inaccuracies in specific points. Vino-Seal and Vinolok Vino-Seal, also sold as Vinolok, is a plastic/glass closure originally developed by Alcoa and now produced by Czech crystal glass producer Preciosa. Since its introduction into the European market in 2003, over 300 wineries have utilized the closure. Using a glass stopper with an inert o-ring, the closure is claimed to create a hermetic seal that prevents oxidation and TCA contamination. A disadvantage of the closure is the relatively high cost of each plug (70 cents each) and cost either of manual bottling, or else obtaining compatible bottling equipment. Zork Zork is an alternative wine closure for still wines, that seals like a screw cap and pops like a cork, created by an Australian company of the same name. The closure has three parts: an outer cap providing a tamper-evident clamp that locks onto the band of a standard cork mouth bottle; an inner metal foil which provides an oxygen barrier similar to a screw cap, and an inner plunger which creates the ‘pop’ on extraction and reseals after use. Introduced in 2010, it is the first on-bottle, resealable closure for sparkling wines. Opposition There is continuing opposition to the use of alternative closures in some parts of the winemaking industry. In March 2006, the Spanish government outlawed the use of alternative wine closures in 11 of Spain's wine-producing regions as part of their (Denominación de Origen) D.O. regulations. Although environmentalists lament the loss of cork forests to commercial crops such as eucalyptus, advocates of artificial corks claim that "natural corks" are just "granules and dust bonded with solvents", and no more biodegradable than the artificial product. "Granules and dust bonded with solvents" describes "agglomerate corks." These differ from "natural corks" that are one piece made out of cork bark. See also Box wine Bung Storage of wine Cork material References External links New Zealand Screw Cap Initiative official site "The History and Revival of Screwcaps" Wine of the Week webzine Wine packaging and storage	wiki
Lapsi may refer to: Lapsi (Christianity), Christian apostates during the Decian persecutions Lapsi (fruit), a fruit from Nepal Laapsi, a sweet dish from Northern India made with broken wheat	wiki
Subhash Nagar metro station may refer to: Subhash Nagar metro station (Delhi) Subhash Nagar metro station (Nagpur) Subhash Nagar metro station on Kolkata Metro Line 5 Subhash Nagar metro station on the Jaipur Metro Orange Line	wiki
In Mandaeism, Nidbai () is an uthra (angel or guardian) who serves as one of the two guardian spirits () of Piriawis, the heavenly yardna (river) in the World of Light. In the Ginza Rabba and Qolasta, he is usually mentioned together with Shilmai. See also List of angels in theology Adathan and Yadathan Xroshtag and Padvaxtag in Manichaeism References Individual angels Uthras Water spirits	wiki
Latiaxis babelis é uma espécie de gastrópode da família Muricidae. É endémica de Malta. Referências Palazzi, S. 1996. Latiaxis babelis. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Dados de 7 de Agosto de 2007. Fauna de Malta Babelis Animais descritos em 1848	wiki
The Inside may refer to: The Inside (TV series), 2005 American crime drama television series The Inside (album), an album by Zebra & Giraffe The Inside, a 2007 album by Moses Mayfield The Inside (film), 2012 Irish horror film by Eoin Macken See also Inside (disambiguation) The Insider (disambiguation)	wiki
Rally Cry may refer to: Rally Cry (album) by Arkells, 2018 Rally Cry (novel) by William R. Forstchen, 1990	wiki
Sir Ignazio Gavino Bonavito GCMG (1792 1865) was the chief justice of Malta from 1839 to 1853. Selected publications Raccolta delle leggi di procedura delle Corti superiori Ordinarie di Malta pubblicate dal 1814 al 1840 come sono attualmente in vigore (1841) Saggio sulla prova giudiziaria considerata in rapporto all'attuale legislazione maltese (1844, revised second edn. 1849) References 1792 births 1865 deaths Maltese knights 19th-century Maltese judges	wiki
Miho Tanaka may refer to: Miho Tanaka (badminton) (born 1976), Japanese badminton player Miho Tanaka (model) (born 1983), Japanese model	wiki
This is a list of amphibians found in Haiti. There are 58 amphibian species recorded in Haiti. See also List of amphibians of Hispaniola References Amphibians Haiti Haiti	wiki
Golpe has multiple meanings, as described below: In music, golpe can mean golpe (guitar technique) is a Flamenco guitar technique where one uses the fingers to tap on the soundboard of the guitar, from the Spanish golpe, meaning to strike; golpe (cuatro pattern), the percussive strummed patterns of the cuatro. In politics, golpe can mean a coup d'état, from the Spanish term golpe de estado. In heraldry, golpe is a purple (purpure) roundel.	wiki
Sir Paolo Dingli GCMG was the chief justice of Malta from 1854 to 1859. References Maltese knights 19th-century Maltese judges Year of birth missing Year of death missing	wiki
Särklass may refer to: Särklass A, sailing class Särklass C, sailing class	wiki
The domestic international sales corporation is a concept unique to tax law in the United States. In 1971, the U.S. Congress voted to use U.S. tax law to subsidize exports of U.S.-made goods. The initial mechanism was through a Domestic International Sales Corporation (DISC), an entity with no substance which received tax benefits. Today, shareholders of a DISC continue to receive reduced income tax rates on qualifying income from exports of U.S.-made goods. A DISC is a U.S. corporation that has elected DISC status and meets certain other largely symbolic requirements. A corporation so electing is not subject to U.S. Federal income tax. Properly structured, a DISC has no activities other than on paper and no activities not related to the export of qualifying goods. Mechanism for benefit: A DISC contracts with a producer or reseller of U.S.-made goods or provider of certain qualifying construction-related services to provide "services" to such related supplier for a fee. The fee is determined under formulas and rules defined in the law and regulations. Under these regulations, the fee is deductible by the related supplier and results in a specified net profit to the DISC. This net profit is not subject to Federal income tax. The DISC then distributes the profit to its shareholders, who are taxable on the income as a qualified dividend. If the shareholders are U.S. resident individuals or others eligible for the reduced rate of tax (now between 0% and 20%, depending on ordinary income level) on qualified dividends, then the tax rate on the income allocated to the DISC is reduced. The pricing rules in the law and regulation are independent of the transfer pricing rules normally applicable to transactions between related parties. Thus, DISC profits are not dependent on the economic contribution of the DISC, and a DISC need have no substance. Because a DISC has no substance, implementation and maintenance is fairly easy. Complexities can arise, however, in making calculations of the permitted DISC income due to rules designed to help maximize the subsidy. These rules include a "no loss" rule, overall profit percentage, grouping, marginal costing and other techniques, use of which may be improved by software tools. Additional substantial rules apply. The use of DISCs was challenged by the European Community under the GATT. The United States counterclaimed that European tax regulations concerning extraterritorial income were also GATT-incompatible. In 1976, a GATT panel found that both DISCs and the European tax regulations were GATT-incompatible. These cases were settled, however, by the Tokyo Round Code on Subsidies and Countervailing Duties (predecessor to today's SCM), and the GATT Council decided in 1981 to adopt the panel reports subject to the understanding that the terms of the settlement would apply. The WTO Panel in the 1999 case later ruled that the 1981 decision did not constitute a legal instrument within the meaning of GATT-1994, and hence was not binding on the panel. The Foreign Sales Corporation (FSC) was created in 1984 as an alternative to the DISC. In 1984, partially in response to international pressure, U.S. law was amended to provide that a DISC and its shareholders could continue to defer tax on the DISC’s income, but only if the DISC shareholders paid interest on the deferred tax. History In discussing the history of domestic international sales corporations as well as how domestic international sales corporations relate to foreign sale corporations, the U.S. Court of Federal Claims, in Ford Motor Co. v. United States, 132 Fed.Cl. 104, 110 (2017), stated:In 1971, Congress “provided special tax treatment for export sales made by an American manufacturer through a subsidiary that qualified as a ‘domestic international sales corporation’ (DISC).” ...That authority was largely replaced by provisions regarding foreign sales corporations (“FSC”), ... as set forth in the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984, ... A qualifying FSC presented tax advantages for its parent company within the United States because a portion of the FSC’s export income was exempt from taxation. ... The parent company of a FSC could use those tax benefits by selling its products to the FSC for resale in foreign markets, or by paying the FSC a commission for selling the parent’s products in foreign markets. ... The remaining foreign trade income that was not exempt from taxation, when distributed to a parent company as a dividend, would generally not be subject to an additional tax on that distribution. ... “The net effect of this scheme was to shift a prescribed amount of profit on export sales from an entity with a 35 percent effective tax rate to an entity (the FSC) with an effective tax rate of approximately 12 percent.” See also Foreign Sales Corporation Extraterritorial income exclusion List of international trade topics References Taxation in the United States	wiki
Accor Stadium may refer to: Accor Arena, Paris Stadium Australia, Sydney	wiki
The A4148 is an A-class road in the town of Walsall, West Midlands, England. It serves as the town's ring road, as it encircles the town centre, and no road inside it has a number. Major junctions occur where it meets the A34, A454 and A461. Rather than a purpose-built ring road, such as the nearby A4150 Wolverhampton Inner Ring Road, the A4148 consists of existing streets marked as a ring road. Since 2006, Walsall Council has implemented a number of roadwork projects in an attempt to improve traffic flow. This included eliminating the large roundabout near the Arboretum which was replaced by traffic lights. References Roads in England Transport in Walsall	wiki
Unilateral gratuitous obligations (also known as unilateral voluntary obligations or gratuitous promises) are obligations undertaken voluntarily, when a person promises in definite terms to do something to benefit or favour another, and may therefore be under a legal obligation to keep their promise. An example would be a promise to donate a sum of money to a charity. This is unilateral, as it imposes a legal obligation on only one person (the donor) and is gratuitous because the other party (the charity) does not do anything in order to be entitled to the money. Unilateral gratuitous obligations are not a major feature of commercial dealings, but sometimes arise in a business context, such as a promise to keep an offer open for a certain period of time, or a promise to renegotiate the terms of a contract. In England, gratuitous obligations are not generally regarded as enforceable if verbal or executed under hand. This is because, in English law, there is a doctrine of consideration which requires that both parties must be under an obligation to give something of value before either will be legally bound to an obligation. Gratuitous obligations will only be enforced by the courts if they are constituted by deed. References Social ethics	wiki
Pmod interface (peripheral module interface) is an open standard defined by Digilent Inc. in the Digilent Pmod Interface Specification for connecting peripheral modules to FPGA and microcontroller development boards. Overview Modules are available from simple push buttons to more complex modules with network interfaces, analog to digital converters or LCD displays. These modules can be used with a variety of FPGA or microcontroller development boards from different vendors. Pmods are not necessarily plug-and-play - software and configuration is required - but the hardware interface is pre-designed and modules can be quickly assembled with host boards for prototyping or evaluation purposes with no soldering required. Pmods come in a standard 6-pin interface with 4 signals, one ground and one power pin. Double and quad Pmods also exist. These duplicate the standard interface to allow more signals to pass through to the module. Pmods can use either SPI, I2C or UART protocol. With I2C it is possible to use a 4-pin connector. Alternatively the pins 1 to 4 can be used as simple digital I/O pins. Revisions See also Asynchronous serial bus such as RS-232 and RS-422. UEXT References External links Pmod modules - Digilent - YouTube Electrical signal connectors	wiki
White Swan may refer to: Any one of several species of swan White Swan, Washington, a census-designated place in Yakima County, Washington White Swan, Crow Indian Scout The White Swan, a 19th-century establishment in London, England Tupolev Tu-160 (NATO reporting name: Blackjack), a Russian bomber, nicknamed 'White Swan' White Swan (prison), a maximum security prison in Solikamsk, Russia SS White Swan, a steamship which was wrecked in June 1862 while carrying members of New Zealand's parliament 162 pubs in Britain are named "White Swan".	wiki
The Africanized bee, also known as the Africanized honey bee and known colloquially as the "killer bee", is a hybrid of the western honey bee (Apis mellifera), produced originally by crossbreeding of the East African lowland honey bee (A. m. scutellata) with various European honey bee subspecies such as the Italian honey bee (A. m. ligustica) and the Iberian honey bee (A. m. iberiensis). The East African lowland honey bee was first introduced to Brazil in 1956 in an effort to increase honey production, but 26 swarms escaped quarantine in 1957. Since then, the hybrid has spread throughout South America and arrived in North America in 1985. Hives were found in south Texas in the United States in 1990. Africanized honey bees are typically much more defensive, react to disturbances faster, and chase people further (400 m) than other varieties of honey bees. They have killed some 1,000 humans, with victims receiving 10 times more stings than from European honey bees. They have also killed horses and other animals. History There are 29 recognized subspecies of Apis mellifera based largely on geographic variations. All subspecies are cross-fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced (long-distance) foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits. The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America. The hives containing this particular African subspecies were housed at an apiary near Rio Claro, São Paulo, in the southeast of Brazil, and were noted to be especially defensive. These hives had been fitted with special excluder screens (called queen excluders) to prevent the larger queen bees and drones from getting out and mating with the local population of European bees. According to Kerr, in October 1957 a visiting beekeeper, noticing that the queen excluders were interfering with the worker bees' movement, removed them, resulting in the accidental release of 26 Tanganyikan swarms of A. m. scutellata. Following this accidental release, the Africanized honey bee swarms spread out and crossbred with local European honey bee colonies. The descendants of these colonies have since spread throughout the Americas, moving through the Amazon basin in the 1970s, crossing into Central America in 1982, and reaching Mexico in 1985. Because their movement through these regions was rapid and largely unassisted by humans, Africanized honey bees have earned the reputation of being a notorious invasive species. The prospect of killer bees arriving in the United States caused a media sensation in the late 1970s, inspired several horror movies, and sparked debate about the wisdom of humans altering entire ecosystems. The first Africanized honey bees in the U.S. were discovered in 1985 at an oil field in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Bee experts theorized the colony had not traveled overland but instead "arrived hidden in a load of oil-drilling pipe shipped from South America." The first permanent colonies arrived in Texas from Mexico in 1990. In the Tucson region of Arizona, a study of trapped swarms in 1994 found that only 15 percent had been Africanized; this number had grown to 90 percent by 1997. Characteristics Though Africanized honey bees display certain behavioral traits that make them less than desirable for commercial beekeeping, excessive defensiveness and swarming foremost, they have now become the dominant type of honey bee for beekeeping in Central and South America due to their genetic dominance as well as ability to out-compete their European counterpart, with some beekeepers asserting that they are superior honey producers and pollinators. Africanized honey bees, as opposed to other Western bee types: Tend to swarm more frequently and go farther than other types of honey bees. Are more likely to migrate as part of a seasonal response to lowered food supply. Are more likely to "abscond"—the entire colony leaves the hive and relocates—in response to stress. Have greater defensiveness when in a resting swarm, compared to other honey bee types. Live more often in ground cavities than the European types. Guard the hive aggressively, with a larger alarm zone around the hive. Have a higher proportion of "guard" bees within the hive. Deploy in greater numbers for defense and pursue perceived threats over much longer distances from the hive. Cannot survive extended periods of forage deprivation, preventing introduction into areas with harsh winters or extremely dry late summers. Live in dramatically higher population densities. North American distribution Africanized honey bees are considered an invasive species in the Americas. As of 2002, the Africanized honey bees had spread from Brazil south to northern Argentina and north to Central America, Trinidad (the West Indies), Mexico, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Florida, and southern California. In June 2005, it was discovered that the bees had spread into southwest Arkansas. Their expansion stopped for a time at eastern Texas, possibly due to the large population of European honey bee hives in the area. However, discoveries of the Africanized honey bees in southern Louisiana show that they have gotten past this barrier, or have come as a swarm aboard a ship. On 11 September 2007, Commissioner Bob Odom of the Louisiana Department of Agriculture and Forestry said that Africanized honey bees had established themselves in the New Orleans area. In February 2009, Africanized honey bees were found in southern Utah. The bees had spread into eight counties in Utah, as far north as Grand and Emery Counties by May 2017. In October 2010, a 73-year-old man was killed by a swarm of Africanized honey bees while clearing brush on his south Georgia property, as determined by Georgia's Department of Agriculture. In 2012, Tennessee state officials reported that a colony was found for the first time in a beekeeper's colony in Monroe County in the eastern part of the state. In June 2013, 62-year-old Larry Goodwin of Moody, Texas, was killed by a swarm of Africanized honey bees. In May 2014, Colorado State University confirmed that bees from a swarm which had aggressively attacked an orchardist near Palisade, in west-central Colorado, were from an Africanized honey bee hive. The hive was subsequently destroyed. In tropical climates they effectively out-compete European honey bees and, at their peak rate of expansion, they spread north at almost two kilometers (about one mile) a day. There were discussions about slowing the spread by placing large numbers of docile European-strain hives in strategic locations, particularly at the Isthmus of Panama, but various national and international agricultural departments could not prevent the bees' expansion. Current knowledge of the genetics of these bees suggests that such a strategy, had it been tried, would not have been successful. As the Africanized honey bee migrates further north, colonies continue to interbreed with European honey bees. In a study conducted in Arizona in 2004 it was observed that swarms of Africanized honey bees could take over weakened European honey bee hives by invading the hive, then killing the European queen and establishing their own queen. There are now relatively stable geographic zones in which either Africanized honey bees dominate, a mix of Africanized and European honey bees is present, or only non-Africanized honey bees are found, as in the southern portions of South America or northern North America. African honey bees abscond (abandon the hive and any food store to start over in a new location) more readily than European honeybees. This is not necessarily a severe loss in tropical climates where plants bloom all year, but in more temperate climates it can leave the colony with not enough stores to survive the winter. Thus Africanized honey bees are expected to be a hazard mostly in the southern states of the United States, reaching as far north as the Chesapeake Bay in the east. The cold-weather limits of the Africanized honey bee have driven some professional bee breeders from Southern California into the harsher wintering locales of the northern Sierra Nevada and southern Cascade Range. This is a more difficult area to prepare bees for early pollination placement in, such as is required for the production of almonds. The reduced available winter forage in northern California means that bees must be fed for early spring buildup. The arrival of the Africanized honey bee in Central America is threatening the ancient art of keeping Melipona stingless bees in log gums, although they do not interbreed or directly compete with each other. The honey production from an individual hive of Africanized honey bees can be as high as . This value exceeds the much smaller of the various Melipona stingless bee species. Thus economic pressures are forcing beekeepers to switch from the traditional stingless bees of their ancestors to the new reality of the Africanized honey bee. Whether this will lead to their extinction is unknown, but they are well adapted to exist in the wild, and there are a number of indigenous plants that the Africanized honey bees do not visit, so their fate remains to be seen. Foraging behavior Africanized honey bees have a set of characteristics with respect to foraging behavior. Africanized honey bees begin foraging at young ages and harvest a greater quantity of pollen with respect to their European counterparts (Apis mellifera ligustica). This may be linked to the high reproductive rate of the Africanized honey bee which requires pollen to feed the greater number of larvae. Africanized honey bees are also sensitive to sucrose at lower concentrations. This adaptation causes foragers to harvest resources with low concentrations of sucrose that include water, pollen, and unconcentrated nectar. A study comparing A. m. scutellata and A. m. ligustica published by Fewell and Bertram in 2002 suggests that the differential evolution of this suite of behaviors is due to the different environmental pressures experienced by African and European subspecies. Proboscis extension responses Honey bee sensitivity to different concentrations of sucrose is determined by a reflex known as the proboscis extension response or PER. Different species of honey bees that employ different foraging behaviors will vary in the concentration of sucrose that elicits their proboscis extension response. For example, European honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica) forage at older ages and harvest less pollen and more concentrated nectar. The differences in resources emphasized during harvesting are a result of the European honey bee's sensitivity to sucrose at higher concentrations. Evolution The differences in a variety of behaviors between different species of honey bees are the result of a directional selection that acts upon several foraging behavior traits as a common entity. Selection in natural populations of honey bees show that positive selection of sensitivity to low concentrations of sucrose are linked to foraging at younger ages and collecting resources low in sucrose. Positive selection of sensitivity to high concentrations of sucrose were linked to foraging at older ages and collecting resources higher in sucrose. Additionally of interest, “change in one component of a suite of behaviors appear[s] to direct change in the entire suite.” When resource density is low in Africanized honey bee habitats, it is necessary for the bees to harvest a greater variety of resources because they cannot afford to be selective. Honey bees that are genetically inclined towards resources high in sucrose, such as concentrated nectar, will not be able to sustain themselves in harsher environments. The noted PER to low sucrose concentration in Africanized honey bees may be a result of selective pressure in times of scarcity when their survival depends on their attraction to low quality resources. Morphology and genetics The popular term "killer bee" has only limited scientific meaning today because there is no generally accepted fraction of genetic contribution used to establish a cut-off between a "killer" honey bee and an ordinary honey bee. Morphological tests Although the native East African lowland honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) are smaller and build smaller comb cells than the European honey bees, their hybrids are not smaller. Africanized honey bees have slightly shorter wings, which can only be recognized reliably by performing a statistical analysis on micro-measurements of a substantial sample. One of the problems with this test is that there are other subspecies, such as Apis mellifera iberiensis, which also have shortened wings. This trait is hypothesized to derive from ancient hybrid haplotypes thought to have links to evolutionary lineages from Africa. Some belong to Apis mellifera intermissa, but others have an indeterminate origin; the Egyptian honeybee (Apis mellifera lamarckii), present in small numbers in the southeastern U.S., has the same morphology. DNA tests Currently testing techniques have moved away from external measurements to DNA analysis, but this means the test can only be done by a sophisticated laboratory. Molecular diagnostics using the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome b gene can differentiate A. m. scutellata from other A. mellifera lineages, though mtDNA only allows one to detect Africanized colonies that have Africanized queens and not colonies where a European queen has mated with Africanized drones. A test based on single nucleotide polymorphisms was created in 2015 to detect Africanized bees based on the proportion of African and European ancestry. Western variants The western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1600s, it was introduced to North America, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies 200 years later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 29 subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch A, northwestern European subspecies to branch M, southwestern European subspecies to branch C, and Mideast subspecies to branch O. The subspecies are grouped and listed. There are still regions with localized variations that may become identified subspecies in the near future, such as A. m. pomonella from the Tian Shan Mountains, which would be included in the Mideast subspecies branch. The western honey bee is the third insect whose genome has been mapped, and is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bee related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like. African variants There are two lineages of the East African lowland subspecies (Apis mellifera scutellata) in the Americas: actual matrilineal descendants of the original escaped queens and a much smaller number that are Africanized through hybridization. The matrilineal descendants carry African mtDNA, but partially European nuclear DNA, while the honey bees that are Africanized through hybridization carry European mtDNA, and partially African nuclear DNA. The matrilineal descendants are in the vast majority. This is supported by DNA analyses performed on the bees as they spread northwards; those that were at the "vanguard" were over 90% African mtDNA, indicating an unbroken matriline, but after several years in residence in an area interbreeding with the local European strains, as in Brazil, the overall representation of African mtDNA drops to some degree. However, these latter hybrid lines (with European mtDNA) do not appear to propagate themselves well or persist. Population genetics analysis of Africanized honey bees in the United States, using a maternally inherited genetic marker, found 12 distinct mitotypes, and the amount of genetic variation observed supports the idea that there have been multiple introductions of AHB into the United States. A newer publication shows the genetic admixture of the Africanized honey bees in Brazil. The small number of honey bees with African ancestry that were introduced to Brazil in 1956, which dispersed and hybridized with existing managed populations of European origin and quickly spread across much of the Americas, is an example of a massive biological invasion as earlier told in this article. Here, they analysed whole‐genome sequences of 32 Africanized honey bees sampled from throughout Brazil to study the effect of this process on genome diversity. By comparison with ancestral populations from Europe and Africa, they infer that these samples had 84% African ancestry, with the remainder from western European populations. However, this proportion varied across the genome and they identified signals of positive selection in regions with high European ancestry proportions. These observations are largely driven by one large gene‐rich 1.4 Mbp segment on chromosome 11 where European haplotypes are present at a significantly elevated frequency and likely confer an adaptive advantage in the Africanized honey bee population. Consequences of selection The chief difference between the European subspecies of honey bees kept by beekeepers and the African ones is attributable to both selective breeding and natural selection. By selecting only the most gentle, non-defensive subspecies, beekeepers have, over centuries, eliminated the more defensive ones and created a number of subspecies suitable for apiculture. In Central and southern Africa there was formerly no tradition of beekeeping, and the hive was destroyed in order to harvest the honey, pollen and larvae. The bees adapted to the climate of Sub-Saharan Africa, including prolonged droughts. Having to defend themselves against aggressive insects such as ants and wasps, as well as voracious animals like the honey badger, African honey bees evolved as a subspecies group of highly defensive bees unsuitable by a number of metrics for domestic use. As Africanized honey bees migrate into regions, hives with an old or absent queen can become hybridized by crossbreeding. The aggressive Africanized drones out-compete European drones for a newly developed queen of such a hive, ultimately resulting in hybridization of the existing colony. Requeening, a term for replacing out the older existing queen with a new, already fertilized one, can avoid hybridization in apiaries. As a prophylactic measure, the majority of beekeepers in North America tend to requeen their hives annually, maintaining strong colonies and avoiding hybridization. Defensiveness Africanized honey bees exhibit far greater defensiveness than European honey bees and are more likely to deal with a perceived threat by attacking in large swarms. These hybrids have been known to pursue a perceived threat for a distance of well over 500 meters (1,640 ft). The venom of an Africanized honey bee is the same as that of a European honey bee, but since the former tends to sting in far greater numbers, deaths from them are naturally more numerous than from European honey bees. While allergies to the European honey bee may cause death, complications from Africanized honey bee stings are usually not caused from allergies to their venom. Humans stung many times by the Africanized honey bees can exhibit serious side effects such as inflammation of the skin, dizziness, headaches, weakness, edema, nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. Some cases even progress to affecting different body systems by causing increased heart rates, respiratory distress, and even renal failure. Africanized honey bee sting cases can become very serious, but they remain relatively rare and are often limited to accidental discovery in highly populated areas. Impact on humans Fear factor The Africanized honey bee is widely feared by the public, a reaction that has been amplified by sensationalist movies (such as The Swarm) and some of the media reports. Stings from Africanized honey bees kill on average one or two people per year. As the Africanized honey bee spreads through Florida, a densely populated state, officials worry that public fear may force misguided efforts to combat them: Misconceptions "Killer bee" is a term frequently used in media such as movies that portray aggressive behavior or actively seeking to attack humans. "Africanized honey bee" is considered a more descriptive term in part because their behavior is increased defensiveness compared to European honey bees that can exhibit similar defensive behaviors when disturbed. The sting of the Africanized honey bee is no more potent than any other variety of honey bee, and although they are similar in appearance to European honey bees, they tend to be slightly smaller and darker in color. Although Africanized honey bees do not actively search for humans to attack, they are more dangerous because they are more easily provoked, quicker to attack in greater numbers, and then pursue the perceived threat farther, for as much as a quarter of a mile (400 m). While studies have shown that Africanized honey bees can infiltrate European honey bee colonies and then kill and replace their queen (thus usurping the hive), this is less common than other methods. Wild and managed colonies will sometimes be seen to fight over honey stores during the dearth (periods when plants are not flowering), but this behavior should not be confused with the aforementioned activity. The most common way that a European honey bee hive will become Africanized is through crossbreeding during a new queen's mating flight. Studies have consistently shown that Africanized drones are more numerous, stronger and faster than their European cousins and are therefore able to out-compete them during these mating flights. The result of mating between Africanized drones and European queens is almost always Africanized offspring. Impact on apiculture In areas of suitable temperate climate, the survival traits of Africanized honey bee colonies help them outperform European honey bee colonies. They also return later and work under conditions that often keep European honey bees hive-bound. This is the reason why they have gained a well-deserved reputation as superior honey producers, and those beekeepers who have learned to adapt their management techniques now seem to prefer them to their European counterparts. Studies show that in areas of Florida that contain Africanized honey bees, the honey production is higher than in areas in which they do not live. It is also becoming apparent that Africanized honey bees have another advantage over European honey bees in that they seem to show a higher resistance to several health issues, including parasites such as Varroa destructor, some fungal diseases like chalkbrood, and even the mysterious colony collapse disorder which is currently plaguing beekeepers. Despite all its negative factors, it is possible that the Africanized honey bee might actually end up being a boon to apiculture. Queen management In areas where Africanized honey bees are well established, bought and pre-fertilized (i.e. mated) European queens can be used to maintain a hive's European genetics and behavior. However, this practice can be expensive, since these queens must be bought and shipped from breeder apiaries in areas completely free of Africanized honey bees, such as the northern U.S. states or Hawaii. As such, this is generally not practical for most commercial beekeepers outside the U.S., and it is one of the main reasons why Central and South American beekeepers have had to learn to manage and work with the existing Africanized honey bee. Any effort to crossbreed virgin European queens with Africanized drones will result in the offspring exhibiting Africanized traits; only 26 swarms escaped in 1957, and nearly 60 years later there does not appear to be a noticeable lessening of the typical Africanized characteristics. Gentleness Not all Africanized honey bee hives display the typical hyper-defensive behavior, which may provide bee breeders a point to begin breeding a gentler stock (gAHBs). Work has been done in Brazil towards this end, but in order to maintain these traits, it is necessary to develop a queen breeding and mating facility in order to requeen colonies and to prevent reintroduction of unwanted genes or characteristics through unintended crossbreeding with feral colonies. In Puerto Rico, some bee colonies are already beginning to show more gentle behavior. This is believed to be because the more gentle bees contain genetic material that is more similar to the European honey bee, although they also contain Africanized honey bee material. This degree of aggressiveness is surprisingly almost unrelated to individual genetics – instead being almost entirely determined by the entire hive's proportion of aggression genetics. Safety While bee incidents are much less common than they were during the first wave of Africanized honey bee colonization, this can be largely attributed to modified and improved bee management techniques. Prominent among these are locating bee-yards much farther away from human habitation, creating barriers to keep livestock at enough of a distance to prevent interaction, and education of the general public to teach them how to properly react when feral colonies are encountered and what resources to contact. The Africanized honey bee is considered the honey bee of choice for beekeeping in Brazil. Impact on pets and livestock Africanized honey bees are a threat to outdoor pets, especially mammals. The most detailed information available pertains to dogs. Less is known about livestock as victims. There is a widespread consensus that cattle suffer occasional Africanized honey bee attacks in Brazil, but there is little documentation about this. It appears that cows sustain hundreds of stings if they are attacked, but can survive with injury. See also Bee removal Notes References Further reading External links includes information on biology, habits, habitat and prevention tips Lists general information and resources for Africanized Honeybee. Western honey bee breeds Hybrid animals Agricultural pest insects Invasive insect species Pest insects Beekeeping in the United States Invasive animal species in the United States	wiki
A vein disorder is a class of disease involving veins of the circulatory system. Common vein disorders include: Varicose veins Deep vein thrombosis References Diseases of veins, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes	wiki
Rat Rock may refer to Rat Rock (California) Rat Rock (Central Park) Rat Rock (Morningside Heights)	wiki
Ghajini (film 2005) Ghajini (film 2008)	wiki
Killer at Large may refer to: Killer at Large (1936 film), American mystery film directed by David Selman Killer at Large (1947 film), American crime film directed by William Beaudine	wiki
Lasu may refer to: People Amy Lasu (born 1995), South Sudanese football player Nicklas Lasu (born 1989), Swedish ice hockey player Places Lasu, Khuzestan, Iran Other Lagos State University	wiki
is an interactive board game for the Nintendo 64 loosely based on The Game of Life. It was released only in Japan in 1998. References 1998 video games Japan-exclusive video games Nintendo 64 games Nintendo 64-only games Taito games Video games based on board games Video games developed in Japan	wiki
Ultimate End was a 2015 limited series by Marvel Comics, a tie-in for the Secret Wars crossover. It was written by Brian Michael Bendis and illustrated by Mark Bagley, and was the final comic book set in the Ultimate Marvel imprint. Plot Several heroes of the Ultimate Marvel and the mainstream Marvel universes are in the same city. In many cases, this means multiple versions of a same character. It is not clear what event caused it, but the Thor corps forbid any investigation or attempt to fix things. The conflict escalates into an open fight between the characters from both universes, which is stopped by Miles Morales. Morales explains that the universes have been merged and kept merged on purpose by the nigh-omnipotent Dr. Doom, as a punishment for the previous times the heroes had stopped him. The fight is halted, and the heroes of both universes prepare for a fight against Doom. Creation The Ultimate Marvel imprint was created in 2000, and lasted for 15 years. It had a fictional universe of its own, unconnected to the Marvel Universe of the rest of Marvel's comic books. The Secret Wars crossover was created to merge both universes into a single one, and end the imprint. Marvel PR's Chris D'Lando tasked it to writer Brian Michael Bendis and penciller Mark Bagley, who started the imprint with Ultimate Spider-Man. Bendis joked that he would hand the script soaked in tears. He said that the miniseries was not just a tie-in for Secret Wars, but an actual comic book event inside of another, and that it may have taken place anyway. He also pointed that he was glad that, with the miniseries, he could give a proper closure to the stories of most characters. The series was first announced with a teaser image by Bendis, titled "the end", and starring the main characters of the Ultimate Marvel imprint, such as Ultimate Spider-Man, X-Men and Nick Fury. However, the teaser was misleading at the time, as several miniseries titled "the end" had been published in recent years. The layout of the image was similar to the cover of the first issue of Marvel Super Hero Contest of Champions, from 1982. The ending of the story features Miles Morales living in the mainstream Marvel Universe, setting up the new Spider-Man comic book. The cast of the Ultimate Spider-Man comics is kept as well, including Morales' mother, who had been killed in an older story arc. Reception Matt Little of CBR praised the fact that the miniseries could be understood easily as a stand-alone read, without requiring much familiarity with the Secret Wars main plot. He also welcomed the inclusion of the Ultimate versions of Cloak and Dagger, and pointed out the slow pace of the narrative, a common technique for Bendis. Collected edition References 2015 in comics Comics by Brian Michael Bendis Secret Wars Ultimate Marvel titles	wiki
Severe weather terminology is different around the world, varying between regions and countries. These are articles which explain terminology in various parts of the world. Severe weather terminology (United States) Severe weather terminology (Canada) Severe weather terminology (Japan) Hong Kong tropical cyclone warning signals	wiki
Marion – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Utah, w hrabstwie Summit. CDP w stanie Utah	wiki
Typeeto is a software that allows users to use a Bluetooth-compatible Macintosh keyboard with a range of different devices, including iOS and Android smartphones and tablets, Apple TV, game consoles, Windows PCs, iPad, iPhone, iPod Touch, and MacBooks. The tool allows the keyboard to connect to multiple devices simultaneously and users can easily switch between them using either a mouse click or a designated hotkey. Overview Typeeto received recognition for its versatility and functionality when it was featured on Product Hunt and received over 200 upvotes from users. This positive response from the community highlights the usefulness of Typeeto as a tool for seamless keyboard integration between different devices. References Android (operating system) software Bluetooth software iOS software iPod software PlayStation 4 software Utilities for macOS Utilities for Windows Xbox (console) software	wiki
The Cucurbitoideae are a subfamily of the flowering plant family Cucurbitaceae (gourds). The Cucurbitaceae are divided into two subfamilies, the Zanonioideae, probably a paraphyletic group of remainders, and the well-supported monophyletic Cucurbitoideae. The subfamily Cucurbitoideae consists of eight tribes. Members of the tribe Cucurbiteae produce economically valuable fruits, called gourds, which include crops like squashes (including pumpkins), luffas, and melons (including watermelons). The tribe Benincaseae contains a genus called Lagenaria whose members produce gourds that can be eaten when young or whose ripe shells can be dried and used as containers. References External links Rosid subfamilies	wiki
"Last Son" is a five-issue comic book story arc featuring Superman in the monthly Action Comics. It was written by Geoff Johns and Richard Donner, the director of the well-known 1978 film Superman: The Movie and a portion of Superman II, with pencils by Adam Kubert. This story introduces the original character, Christopher Kent and adapts the classic Superman film villains, General Zod (his appearance modeled after the actor, Terence Stamp), Ursa and Non into the regular DC Universe continuity. The arc's first three parts were published in Action Comics #844 through #846. The next parts were delayed to give Kubert sufficient recovery time from health problems he did not wish to disclose. Because of this, the fourth part was delayed and released with issue #851. The eleventh annual of Action Comics, released in May 2008, completed the storyline. The hardcover edition of the complete series was released on July 2 the same year. Plot Reminded by the Fortress of Solitude's AI (in the guise of his Kryptonian father Jor-El) that, despite his appearance, he is not human, Superman heads back to the Daily Planet when people panic as a strange meteor is about to crash. He stops it, and sees that it's a pod ship carrying a little boy. Sarge Steel of the Department of Metahuman Affairs meets with Superman about the boy, whom he learns is Kryptonian. Superman takes a personal interest in the child, and is concerned over what the government might do to him. His concerns are proved justified when the boy is transferred without Superman's knowledge. Enraged, Superman disguises himself to grab the boy from a moving van and goes to the Kent Farm in Smallville, Kansas. With no answers on the boy from the Fortress, Clark talks to Lois about adopting him, but she feels uncomfortable given who and what they are. The boy then speaks English as news breaks out on the young Kryptonian's disappearance. Lex Luthor hears the news and wants Bizarro to grab him. At a press conference, where Superman announces that Clark Kent and Lois Lane will take care of the Kryptonian child, Bizarro arrives and attacks him. The fight threatens the city around the conference location, and Superman finally uses super-breath to throw him away. Lois and Clark walk with their adopted child, named Chris Kent, as three more pods land near the Fortress carrying Phantom Zone criminals: General Zod, Ursa and Non. As the three enter the Fortress, Zod activates the A.I. and is angered by the information it holds on him: he is called everything, including "madman". As Lois and Clark bring Chris to the Daily Planet, it is attacked, and Clark quickly changes as Non grabs him and throws him out the window where he meets Zod. Meanwhile, Lois tries to escape with Chris until Ursa stops her to grab the child, revealing him to be her and Zod's son, Lor-Zod. As Superman fights Zod, dozens of pods rain from the sky, opened to reveal Phantom Zone villains. Scientist Jax-Ur emerges with a Phantom Zone Projector and sends Superman to the Zone. Trapped, Superman witnesses the Kryptonian invasion, and he can't do anything to stop it. Mon-El, whom Clark sent to the Zone when he was younger to preserve his life from fatal lead poisoning, appears before him. Bringing Superman to Fort Rozz, a former prison, he is shown one of the last remaining pods he can use to return home. But prisoner Dev-Em attacks Superman, nearly killing him, until he is slammed into the wall by Mon-El. Using the pod, Superman returns from the Zone to Metropolis, where the city is now enslaved and the buildings transforming into Sunstone structures. He turns to Luthor for help against the criminals when he is attacked by Bizarro, Parasite and Metallo. There, Luthor tells Superman that the Man of Steel will join his team: the Superman Revenge Squad, consisting of Luthor, Parasite, Bizarro, and Metallo. Showing off his sufficiently advanced weaponry that is easily capable of killing other Kryptonians, Superman asks Luthor why he is still alive. Luthor scoffs at him, saying he would much rather defeat Superman than have him become a martyr. As the squad moves out, Metallo uses various forms of Kryptonite to kill the Kryptonian outlaws. When using gold, a pair of the criminals fall out of the sky with a "splat". When using red, one criminal's DNA shifts irregularly, allowing Metallo to step on his head and crush it. Parasite takes pleasure in siphoning Kryptonian powers from many of the escapees. Bizarro goes toe-to-toe with Non, another mindless brute, as they exchange grunts and tests of strength. Luthor goes after Zod's main fortress, seeking to have the Phantom Zone forcefully "recall" all who had been inside of it. Speaking with Lois, she discovers that as a side-effect, Luthor intends to trap Superman within the Zone along with all of the escaped criminals. Superman goes straight for Zod and Ursa, taking Chris out of harm's way. During their fight, Zod tries to tell Kal-El that his father had failed him, with Superman saying that his father gave him life. Hearing much of the argument, Chris flies toward the battle as a distraction as Luthor initiates the recall. Before the Zone can trap Superman, Lois knocks Luthor out with a giant crystal. In the midst of the sweeping storm, Chris realizes that he is keeping the Zone open and must return in order to close it. Superman appeals to him to find another way, but Chris persists, and thanks both him and Lois for all that they had showed him. Superman flies after him, but is unable to stop him from re-entering the Phantom Zone. Back in the Fortress, Superman asks Mon-El if he has found Chris; he has not. He says: "I will not stop looking", and flies back into the zone to continue his search. As Mon-El is floating away, Superman looks into the Phantom Zone at his friend and simply says: "Thank you". Tie-in books During the run of the arc, other issues were released that were connected to the story in some way, with only one written by Richard Donner and Geoff Johns. These were done to explain the backstory to "Last Son", as well as show the changes in continuity to Superman after the effects of Infinite Crisis: Action Comics Annual #10: Featured both stories relating to the arc and other bits like the many versions of kryptonite and the map inside the Fortress of Solitude for example. Such stories were "Who is Clark Kent's Big Brother?", which reintroduced Mon-El to the post-Infinite Crisis continuity, and appears in a cameo in "Last Son". "The Criminals of Krypton", set in Krypton's last days, focuses on how Jor-El sent General Zod, Ursa, and Non to the Phantom Zone. It also showed that Non was one of the greatest scientific minds and Jor-El's mentor before the Kryptonian Council lobotomized him into a mute brute. Action Comics #847 replaced the fourth part of Last Son when it was delayed. The story focused on Jonathan and Martha Kent after Superman is taken to the Phantom Zone, where fearing the world is over, Jonathan tells Martha a story of how he knew their son could handle the situation. Continuity "Last Son" is the first appearance of General Zod, Ursa, and Non in their post-Infinite Crisis incarnations. All three are influenced by the characters' appearance in the films Superman and Superman II. Since Crisis on Infinite Earths, there have been several characters bearing the name of Zod in the Superman comics. However, in current continuity, Superman meets the true Zod for the first time in "Last Son". In Action Comics Annual #10, Clark Kent's life as a child in Smallville is shown in detail for current continuity. Also, in this issue, continuity returns to having multiple versions of kryptonite, after it had previously been decided to do away with all but the green variety during the Crisis on Infinite Earths storyline. Chris' fate at the end of the story creates a continuity paradox. Due to the delays in the completion of the story, Chris Kent's appearances in the Superman title during the interim time between "Last Son"'s fourth and fifth parts appeared to take place after "Last Son". This would be impossible, however, since Chris returned to the Phantom Zone at the conclusion of the story. Due to the pronounced scheduling problems with the arc, a line of dialogue was incorporated into Action Comics Annual #11 ("I even got to meet Robin") that insinuates that the invasion of Zod's army took place after Chris received his power-dampening wristwatch, which would place the events of Superman #664, 668, and 673 chronologically before those of Action Comics #846 despite the fact that the latter was released earlier. Chris Kent's fate was unknown until Action Comics #875, where it was revealed that he is the new Nightwing after the events of "New Krypton". References External links DC Database Project.com DC Wiki listing of Action Comics #844; "Last Son" Part 1 Comics by Geoff Johns Comics by Richard Donner Alien invasions in comics	wiki
Many different conditions can lead to the feeling of dyspnea (shortness of breath). DiagnosisPro, an online medical expert system, listed 497 in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are acute myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure while common pulmonary causes include: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumothorax, and pneumonia. Pulmonary Obstructive lung diseases Asthma Bronchitis Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Cystic fibrosis Emphysema Hookworm disease Diseases of lung parenchyma and pleura Contagious Anthrax through inhalation of Bacillus anthracis Pneumonia COVID-19 Non-contagious Fibrosing alveolitis Atelectasis Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Interstitial lung disease Lung cancer Pleural effusion Pneumoconiosis Pneumothorax Non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema or acute respiratory distress syndrome Sarcoidosis Pulmonary vascular diseases Acute or recurrent pulmonary emboli Pulmonary hypertension, primary or secondary Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease Superior vena cava syndrome Other causes Obstruction of the airway Cancer of the larynx or pharynx Empty nose syndrome Pulmonary aspiration Epiglottitis Laryngeal edema Vocal cord dysfunction Immobilization of the diaphragm Lesion of the phrenic nerve Polycystic liver disease Tumor in the diaphragm Restriction of the chest volume Ankylosing spondylitis Broken ribs Kyphosis of the spine Obesity Costochondritis Pectus excavatum Scoliosis Disorders of the cardiovascular system Aortic dissection Cardiomyopathy Congenital heart disease CREST syndrome Heart failure Ischaemic heart disease Malignant hypertension Pericardium disorders, including: Cardiac tamponade Constrictive pericarditis Pericardial effusion Pulmonary edema Pulmonary embolism Pulmonary hypertension Valvular heart disease Disorders of the blood and metabolism Anemia Hypothyroidism Adrenal insufficiency Metabolic acidosis Sepsis Leukemia Holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency Disorders affecting breathing nerves and muscles Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Guillain–Barré syndrome Multiple sclerosis Myasthenia gravis Parsonage Turner syndrome Eaton-Lambert syndrome Chronic fatigue syndrome Psychological conditions Anxiety disorders and panic attacks Medications Fentanyl Other Carbon monoxide poisoning Pregnancy References Symptoms and signs: Respiratory system Lists of diseases	wiki
The Moldovan Yachting Federation is the national governing body for the sport of sailing in Moldova, recognised by the International Sailing Federation. Famous Sailors See :Category:Moldovan sailors Olympic sailing See :Category:Olympic sailors of Moldova Yacht Clubs See :Category:Yacht clubs in Moldova References Moldova Sailing 1996 establishments in Moldova	wiki
Canon EOS 400D, i Nordamerika kallad Digital Rebel XTi och i Japan EOS Kiss Digital X, är en spegelreflexkamera-kamera. Den introducerades av Canon den 24 augusti 2006. Den är uppföljare till den mycket populära Canon EOS 350D. Några av uppgraderingarna är: 10,1 megapixel (upp från 8,0) Större buffer för fotoserier. DIGIC II -bildprocessor Sensor CMOS APS-C 22,2 mm × 14,8 mm Ett mer precist 9-punkters AF-system taget från Canon EOS 30D. 2,5" LCD-display med 230 000 pixlar. Gummi vid tumgreppet. Canon EOS DSLR-kameror	wiki
Great Council can refer to: Cantonal Council of Zürich, until 1869 the Grosser Rat ('Great Council') Conseil du Roi (France) Great Council of Mechelen Great Council of Venice Magnum Concilium (England) Great Council of Genoa	wiki
Résultats et tournois de la saison 1 du France Poker Series (FPS). Résultats et tournois FPS 1 Beaulieu Lieu : Casino de Beaulieu, Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Prix d'entrée : Date : et 2 mai 2010 Nombre de joueurs : 149 Prize Pool : Nombre de places payées : 22 FPS 1 Divonne Lieu : Casino Partouche de Divonne, Divonne-les-Bains, Prix d'entrée : Date : 25 et 26 septembre 2010 Nombre de joueurs : 399 Prize Pool : Nombre de places payées : 48 FPS 1 Saint-Amand Lieu : Pasino de Saint-Amand-les-Eaux, Saint-Amand-les-Eaux, Prix d'entrée : Date : 16 et 17 octobre 2010 Nombre de joueurs : 228 Prize Pool : Nombre de places payées : 32 FPS 1 Lyon Lieu : Casino Le Lyon Vert, Lyon, Prix d'entrée : Date : 13 et 14 novembre 2010 Nombre de joueurs : 324 Prize Pool : Nombre de places payées : 48 FPS 1 Forges-les-Eaux Lieu : Grand Casino de Forges-les-Eaux, Forges-les-Eaux, Prix d'entrée : Date : 18 et 19 décembre 2010 Nombre de joueurs : 265 Prize Pool : Nombre de places payées : 32 FPS 1 Paris Final Lieu : Cercle Haussmann, Paris, Prix d'entrée : Date : Du 9 au 14 février 2011 Nombre de joueurs : 567 Prize Pool : Nombre de places payées : 80 Notes et références France Poker Series Poker en 2010 Poker en 2011	wiki
This is a list of state forests in Illinois. Illinois state forests See also List of U.S. National Forests References Forests Lists of state forests in the United States	wiki
Un nuage de galaxies est un groupe d'amas de galaxies et une sous-structure d'un superamas de galaxies. Par exemple, le superamas de la Vierge contient, outre l'amas de la Vierge, le nuage des Chiens de chasse, et le nuage de la Vierge II. Notes et références Articles connexes Filament galactique Amas de galaxies	wiki
Prelude to a Kiss est un standard de jazz écrit par Duke Ellington en 1938 Le Baiser empoisonné est un film américain réalisé par Norman René, sorti en 1992	wiki
Glottal can mean: related to the glottis related to the vocal folds glottal consonant related to glottalization	wiki
This is a list of Australia-New Guinea species extinct in the Holocene that covers extinctions from the Holocene epoch, a geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years before present (about 9700 BCE) and continues to the present day. The Australian continent is also called Australia-New Guinea or Sahul to avoid confusion with the country of Australia. The continent includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, the island of New Guinea, the Aru Islands, the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, most of the Coral Sea Islands, and some other nearby islands. The country of Australia includes mainland Australia and Tasmania, while the island of New Guinea is divided between the country of Papua New Guinea and Indonesian Western New Guinea. The Aru Islands are also part of Indonesia. Extinct animals from the rest of Indonesia are covered in List of Asian animals extinct in the Holocene. However, species from the outlying islands of the country of Australia and Papua New Guinea are included below. The fauna of Australia-New Guinea is very unique. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia-New Guinea did they out-compete the placental mammals and come to dominate. Aside from marine mammals, only two orders of placental mammals are native to Australia-New Guinea: rodents and bats. Dingoes and New Guinea singing dogs are considered feral dogs (Canis familiaris) introduced by humans. The Christmas Island shrew is related to Asian shrews; no members of the order Eulipotyphla are native to Australia-New Guinea proper. New Zealand species extinct in the Holocene are listed separately. The fauna of New Zealand is distinct from Australia-New Guinea. Birds, including numerous flightless birds, are the most important part of New Zealand's vertebrate fauna. Bats are New Zealand's only native land mammals. Numerous species have disappeared from Australia-New Guinea as part of the ongoing Holocene extinction, driven by human activity. Most Australian megafauna disappeared in the Late Pleistocene, considerably earlier than in other continental landmasses. As a result, Australian Holocene extinctions generally are of modest size. Most extinctions occurred after the European settlement of Australia, which began with the First Fleet in 1788 CE. However, the thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) was extirpated from New Guinea around 3050 BCE and mainland Australia around 1277-1229 BCE. The Norfolk swamphen and several Papuan mammals also disappeared before European colonisation. Mammals (class Mammalia) Order Dasyuromorphia Thylacine (family Thylacinidae) Bandicoots and bilbies (order Peramelemorphia) Bandicoots (family Peramelidae) Bilbies (family Thylacomyidae) Pig-footed bandicoots (family Chaeropodidae) Order Diprotodontia Brushtail possums and cuscuses (family Phalangeridae) Possibly extinct Trioks, striped possum, Leadbeater's possum, and wrist-winged gliders (family Petauridae) Ring-tailed possums and allies (family Pseudocheiridae) Macropods (family Macropodidae) Bettongs, potoroos, and rat-kangaroos (family Potoroidae) Rodents (order Rodentia) Murids (family Muridae) Possibly extinct, murids (family Muridae) Order Eulipotyphla True shrews (family Soricidae) Possibly extinct Bats (order Chiroptera) Megabats (family Pteropodidae) Possibly extinct, megabats (family Pteropodidae) Vesper bats (family Vespertilionidae) Birds (class Aves) Cassowaries and emus (order Casuariformes) Cassowaries and emus (family Casuariidae) Pigeons and doves (order Columbiformes) Pigeons and doves (family Columbidae) Rails and cranes (order Gruiformes) Rails (family Rallidae) Boobies, cormorants, and allies (order Suliformes) Cormorants and shags (family Phalacrocoracidae) Owls (order Strigiformes) True owls (family Strigidae) Parrots (order Psittaciformes) Kea and kākā (family Nestoridae) Old World parrots (family Psittaculidae) Perching birds (order Passeriformes) Pittas (family Pittidae) Bristlebirds (family Dasyornithidae) Australian warblers (family Acanthizidae) Cuckooshrikes and allies (family Campephagidae) Australasian wrens (family Maluridae) Fantails and silktails (family Rhipiduridae) Australasian robins (family Petroicidae) White-eyes (family Zosteropidae) Possibly extinct, white-eyes (family Zosteropidae) Thrushes (family Turdidae) Starlings (family Sturnidae) Reptiles (class Reptilia) Squamates (order Squamata) Skinks (family Scincidae) Extinct in the wild, skinks (family Scincidae) Common geckos (family Gekkonidae) Extinct in the wild Dragon lizards (family Agamidae) Possibly extinct Amphibians (class Amphibia) Frogs (order Anura) Australian ground frogs (family Myobatrachidae) Treefrogs and allies (family Hylidae) Ray-finned fish (class Actinopterygii) Anglerfish (order Lophiiformes) Handfish (family Brachionichthyidae) Data deficient Galaxias (order Galaxiiformes) Galaxias (family Galaxiidae) Extinct in the wild Insects (class Insecta) Beetles (order Coleoptera) Predaceous diving beetles (family Dytiscidae) Molluscs (phylum Mollusca) Gastropods (class Gastropoda) Order Stylommatophora Family Bothriembryontidae Family Achatinellidae Segmented worms (phylum Annelida) Clitellates (class Clitellata) Order Opisthopora Family Megascolecidae Plants (kingdom Plantae) See also Fauna of Australia Threatened fauna of Australia Lazarus taxon List of New Zealand species extinct in the Holocene List of Hawaiian animals extinct in the Holocene List of Oceanian animals extinct in the Holocene List of recently extinct mammals List of extinct bird species since 1500 Lists of extinct species Notes References Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. EPBC Act List of Threatened Fauna World Conservation Union, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2006 Extinct animals of Australia †Extinct Australia Australia	wiki
ITV strike may refer to: 1968 ITV strike, which left ITV off the air for a few days and resulted in a transmission of an emergency national service for a few weeks afterward 1979 ITV strike, which left ITV off the air for eleven weeks	wiki
A hanging garden is a sustainable landscape architecture, an artistic garden or a small urban farm, attached to or built on a wall. They are mainly found in areas where land is scarce or where the farmer is mobile or not permanent. History The most famous hanging gardens were the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon. They were considered in antiquity as one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and were located in present-day Iraq. Modern In contemporary use, hanging gardens are a green wall on a ground level facade, a balcony, a terrace, or part of a roof garden of a home, or skyrise greenery with a residential, commercial, or government office building. Products Prefabricated modular hanging wall garden systems have been developed and are on the market internationally. See also Urban agriculture Container gardening Sustainable planting Landscape architecture Sustainable gardening Sustainable products Sustainable architecture Types of garden Urban agriculture	wiki
In the Gregorian calendar, New Year's Day is the first day of the year; 1 January. Whilst most solar calendars (like the Gregorian and Julian) begin the year regularly at or near the northern winter solstice, cultures that observe a lunisolar or lunar calendar celebrate their Lunar New Year (such as the Chinese New Year and the Islamic New Year) at less fixed points relative to the solar year. In pre-Christian Rome under the Julian calendar, the day was dedicated to Janus, god of gateways and beginnings, for whom January is also named. From Roman times until the middle of the 18th century, the new year was celebrated at various stages and in various parts of Christian Europe on 25 December, on 1 March, on 25 March and on the movable feast of Easter. In the present day, with most countries now using the Gregorian calendar as their civil calendar, 1 January according to that calendar is among the most celebrated public holidays in the world, often observed with fireworks at the stroke of midnight following New Year's Eve as the new year starts in each time zone. Other global New Year's Day traditions include making New Year's resolutions and calling one's friends and family. History The ancient Babylonian calendar was lunisolar, and around the year 2000BC began observing a spring festival and the new year during the month of Nisan, around the time of the March equinox. The early Roman calendar designated 1 March as the first day of the year. The calendar had just 10 months, beginning with March. That the new year once began with the month of March is still reflected in some of the names of the months. September through to December, the ninth through to the twelfth months of the Gregorian calendar, were originally positioned as the seventh through to the tenth months. (Septem is Latin for "seven"; octo, "eight"; novem, "nine"; and decem, "ten") Roman mythology usually credits their second king Numa with the establishment of the two new months of Ianuarius and Februarius. These were first placed at the end of the year, but at some point came to be considered the first two months instead. The January kalend ( Ianuariae), the start of the month of January, came to be celebrated as the new year at some point after it became the day for the inaugurating new consuls in 153BC. Romans had long dated their years by these consulships, rather than sequentially, and making the kalends of January start the new year aligned this dating. Still, private and religious celebrations around the March new year continued for some time and there is no consensus on the question of the timing for 1 January's new status. Once it became the new year, however, it became a time for family gatherings and celebrations. A series of disasters, notably including the failed rebellion of M. Aemilius Lepidus in 78BC, established a superstition against allowing Rome's market days to fall on the kalends of January and the pontiffs employed intercalation to avoid its occurrence. New Year's Day in the older Julian calendar The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on , by edict. The calendar became the predominant calendar in the Roman Empire and subsequently, most of the Western world for more than 1,600 years. The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January, and this remained the start of the year after the Julian reform. However, even after local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar, they started the new year on different dates. The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt started on 29 August (30 August after an Alexandrian leap year). Several local provincial calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of the Emperor Augustus, 23 September. The indiction caused the Byzantine year, which used the Julian calendar, to begin on 1 September; this date is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year. At various times and in various places throughout mediaeval Christian Europe, the new year was celebrated on 25 December in honour of the birth of Jesus; 1 March in the old Roman style; 25 March in honour of Lady Day (the Feast of the Annunciation, the date of the conception of Jesus); and on the movable feast of Easter. Christian observance As a date in the Christian calendar, New Year's Day liturgically marked the Feast of the Naming and Circumcision of Jesus, which is still observed as such in the Anglican Church, the Lutheran Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church (Julian calendar, see below) and in Traditional Catholicism by those who retain the usage of the General Roman Calendar of 1960. The mainstream Roman Catholic Church celebrates on this day the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God. Gift giving Among the 7th-century pagans of Flanders and the Netherlands, it was the custom to exchange gifts at the winter solstice. This custom was deplored by Saint Eligius (died 659 or 660), who warned the Flemish and Dutch: "(Do not) make visuals, [little figures of the Old Woman], little deer or iotticos or set tables [for the house-elf, compare Puck] at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks [another Yule custom]." However, on the date that European Christians celebrated the Feast of the Circumcision, they exchanged Christmas presents because the feast fell within the 12 days of the Christmas season in the Western Christian liturgical calendar; The custom of exchanging Christmas gifts in a Christian context is traced back to the Biblical Magi who gave gifts to the Christ Child. In Tudor England, 1 January (as the Feast of the Circumcision, not New Year's Day), along with Christmas Day and Twelfth Night, was celebrated as one of three main festivities among the twelve days of Christmastide. Acceptance of 1 January as New Year’s Day Most nations of Europe and their colonies officially adopted 1 January as New Year's Day somewhat before they adopted the Gregorian calendar. France changed to 1 January from 1564, most of Germany did so from 1544, the Netherlands from 1556 or 1573 according to sect, Italy (not being united) did so on a variety of dates, Spain and Portugal from 1556, Sweden, Norway and Denmark from 1599, Scotland from 1600, and Russia from 1725. England, Wales, Ireland, and Britain's American colonies did so from 1752. Great Britain and the British Empire Until 1752 (except Scotland), the Kingdom of Great Britain and its Empire at the time had retained 25 March as the official start of the year (though informal use of 1 January had become common.) With the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, Britain and the Empire formally adopted 1 January as New Year's Day and, with the same Act, also discarded the Julian calendar (though the actions are otherwise unrelated). The Act came into effect "following the last said day of December 1751". By 1750, an eleven-day difference between the older Julian and the newer and more accurate Gregorian calendars also needed to be adjusted for. There was some religious dissent regarding feast days being moved, especially Christmas Day (see Old Christmas), and isolated communities continued the old reckoning to a greater or lesser extent. The years 1800 and 1900 were leap years in the Julian calendar but not in the Gregorian, so the difference increased to twelve then thirteen days. The year 2000 was a leap year in both calendars. In the Gwaun Valley in Wales, the new year is celebrated on 13 January, still based on the 19th century difference in the calendars. Foula, in the Shetland islands celebrates Yule ('Old Christmas' rather than the December solstice) on 6 January and Newerday on 13 January. Again, both dates reflect the nineteenth century reckoning and were not moved again in 1900. Eastern Orthodoxy At various stages during the first half of the twentieth century, all countries in Eastern Christendom adopted the Gregorian calendar as their civil calendar but continued, and have continued into modern times, to use the Julian Calendar for ecclesiastical purposes. As 1 January (Julian) equates to 14 January (Gregorian), a religious celebration of the New Year on this date may seem strange to Western eyes. New Year's Days in other calendars In cultures that traditionally or currently use calendars other than the Gregorian, New Year's Day is often also an important celebration. Some countries concurrently use Gregorian and another calendar. New Year's Day in the alternative calendar attracts alternative celebrations of that new year: African Nayrouz and Enkutatash are the New Year's Days of the Coptic Egyptians and the Ethiopians, respectively. Between 1900 and 2100, both occur on 11 September in most years and on 12 September in the years before Gregorian leap years. They preserve the legacy of the ancient Egyptian new year Wept Renpet, which originally marked the onset of the Nile flood but which wandered through the seasons until the introduction of leap years to the traditional calendar by Augustus in 30-20BC. In Ethiopia, the new year is held to mark the end of the summer rainy season. The Odunde Festival is also called the African New Year is celebrated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the United States on the second Sunday of June. While the name was based on the Yoruba African culture, its celebration marks the largest African celebration in the world, which more or less was started by a local tradition. The Sotho people of Lesotho and South Africa celebrate Selemo sa Basotho on 1 August during the end of the Southern Hemisphere's winter. This is based on the Sotho calendar, and includes observances such as "Mokete wa lewa", a celebration that follows the harvest. East Asian Chinese New Year is celebrated in some countries around East Asia, including China, and South-east Asia, including Singapore. It is the first day of the traditional Chinese calendar, a lunar calendar that is corrected for the solar changes every three years (i.e. a lunisolar calendar). The holiday normally falls between 20 January and 20 February. The holiday is celebrated with food, families, lucky money (usually in a red envelope), and many other red things for good luck. Lion and dragon dances, drums, fireworks, firecrackers, and other types of entertainment fill the streets on this day. 1 January is also a legal holiday in China, and people also celebrate the Gregorian New Year in this day, but it is not as grand as the traditional Chinese New Year. Japanese New Year is celebrated on 1 January because the Gregorian calendar is now used instead of the Chinese calendar in use until 1873. Korean New Year is celebrated on the first day of the traditional Korean calendar in South Korea. The first day of this lunisolar calendar, called Seollal (), is an important national holiday (along with Chuseok), with a minimum of three days off of work and school. Koreans celebrate New Year's Day by preparing food for their ancestors' spirits, visiting ancestors' graves, and playing Korean games such as yunnori with families. Young children show respect to their parents, grandparents, relatives, and other elders by bowing down in a traditional way and are given good wishes and some money by the elders. In addition, South Koreans celebrate the 1 January New Year's Day of the Gregorian Calendar, and as a national holiday, people have the day off. The Gregorian calendar is now the official civil calendar in South Korea, so the populace now considers the 1 January New Year's Day the first day of the year. South Koreans calculate their age using the East Asian age reckoning method, with all South Koreans adding a year to their age at midnight of the New Year (of the Gregorian, not the Korean calendar). Families enjoy the New Year by counting down to midnight on New Year's Eve on 31 December. North Koreans celebrate the New Year's Day holiday on the first day of the Gregorian calendar, 1 January. This New Year's Day, confusingly also called Seollal, is a big holiday in North Korea, while they take a day off on the first day of the Korean calendar. The first day of the Korean calendar is regarded as a day for relaxation, but North Koreans consider the first day of the Gregorian calendar to be even more important. Southeast Asian Cambodian New Year (Chaul Chnam Thmey) is celebrated on 13 April or 14 April. There are three days for the Khmer New Year: the first day is called "Moha Songkran", the second is called "Virak Wanabat" and the final day is called "Virak Loeurng Sak". During these periods, Cambodians often go to the pagoda or play traditional games. Phnom Penh is usually quiet during Khmer New Year as most Cambodians prefer spending it at their respective hometowns. Thai New Year is celebrated on 13 April or 14 April and is called Songkran in the local language. People usually come out to splash water on one another. The throwing of water originated as a blessing. By capturing the water after it had been poured over the Buddhas for cleansing, this "blessed" water is gently poured on the shoulder of elders and family for good fortune. Thingyan, Burmese new year's celebrations, typically begin on 13 April but the actual New Year's Day falls on 17 April in the 21st century. The day has slowly drifted over the centuries. In the 20th century, the day fell on 15 or 16 April while in the 17th century, it fell on 9 or 10 April. Vietnamese New Year (Tết Nguyên Đán or Tết), more commonly known by its shortened name Tết or "Vietnamese Lunar New Year", is the most important and popular holiday and festival in Vietnam, the holiday normally falls between 20 January and 20 February. It is the Vietnamese New Year marking the arrival of spring based on the Chinese calendar, a lunisolar calendar. The name Tết Nguyên Đán is Sino-Vietnamese for Feast of the First Morning, derived from the Hán nôm characters 節元旦. South Asian Diwali related New Year's celebrations include Marwari new year and Gujarati new year. Indian New Year's days has several variations depending on the region and is based on the Hindu calendar. Hindu In Hinduism, different regional cultures celebrate the new year at different times of the year. In Assam, Bengal, Kerala, Nepal, Odisha, Punjab, Telangana, Andra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu households celebrate the new year when the Sun enters Aries on the Hindu calendar. This is normally on 14 April or 15 April, depending on the leap year. Elsewhere in northern/central India, the Vikram Samvat calendar is followed. According to that, the new year day is the first day of the Chaitra Month, also known as Chaitra Shukla Pratipada or Gudi Padwa. This is basically the first month of the Hindu calendar, the first Shukla paksha (fortnight) and the first day. This normally comes around 23–24 March, mostly around the Spring Equinox in Gregorian Calendar. The new year is celebrated by paying respect to elders in the family and by seeking their blessings. They also exchange tokens of good wishes for a healthy and prosperous year ahead. Malayalam New Year (Puthuvarsham) is celebrated either on the first day of the month of Medam in mid-April which is known as Vishu, or the first day of the month of Chingam, in the Malayalam Calendar in mid-August according to another reckoning. Unlike most other calendar systems in India, the New Year's Day on the Malayalam Calendar is not based on any astronomical event. It is just the first day of the first of the 12 months on the Malayalam Calendar. The Malayalam Calendar (called Kollavarsham) originated in 825 AD, based on general agreement among scholars, with the re-opening of the city of Kollam (on Malabar Coast), which had been destroyed by a natural disaster. Nepal Sambat is the Nepalese New Year celebration. Pahela Baishakh or Bangla Nabobarsho is the first day of the Bengali Calendar. It is celebrated on 14 April as a national holiday in Bangladesh, and on 14 or 15 April in the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura, and part of Assam by people of Bengali heritage, irrespective of their religious faith. The Sikh New Year is celebrated as per the Nanakshahi calendar. The epoch of this calendar is the birth of the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak in 1469. New Year's Day falls annually on what is 14 March in the Gregorian Western calendar. Sinhalese New Year is celebrated in Sri Lankan culture predominantly by the Sri Lankan Sinhalese, while the Tamil New Year on the same day is celebrated by Sri Lankan Tamils. The Sinhalese New Year (aluth avurudda), marks the end of the harvest season, by the month of Bak (April) between 13 and 14 April. There is an astrologically generated time gap between the passing year and the New Year, which is based on the passing of the sun from the Meena Rashiya (House of Pisces) to the Mesha Rashiya (House of Aries) in the celestial sphere. The astrological time difference between the New Year and the passing year (nonagathe) is celebrated with several Buddhist rituals and customs that are to be concentrated on, which are exclusive of all types of 'work'. After Buddhist rituals and traditions are attended to, Sinhala and Tamil New Year-based social gatherings and festive parties with the aid of firecrackers, and fireworks would be organized. The exchange of gifts, cleanliness, the lighting of the oil lamp, making kiribath (milk rice), and even the Asian Koel are significant aspects of the Sinhalese New Year. Tamil New Year (Puthandu) is celebrated on 13 April or 14 April. Traditionally, it is celebrated as Chiththirai Thirunaal in parts of Tamil Nadu to mark the event of the Sun entering Aries. Panchangam (almanac), is read in temples to mark the start of the Year. Telugu New Year (Ugadi), Kannada New Year (Yugadi) is celebrated in March (generally), April (occasionally). Traditionally, it is celebrated as Chaitram Chaitra Shuddha Padyami in parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Karnataka to mark the event of New Year's Day for the people of the Deccan region of India. It falls on a different day every year because the Hindu calendar is a lunisolar calendar. The Saka calendar begins with the month of Chaitra (March–April) and Ugadi/Yugadi marks the first day of the new year. Chaitra is the first month in Panchanga which is the Indian calendar. Panchangam (almanac), is read in temples to mark the start of the Year. Middle Eastern The major religions of the Middle East are Islam and Judaism: their adherents worldwide celebrate the first day of their respective new religious calendar years. Islam The two primary sects of Islam are Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. They have different calendars though for both the epoch of the calendar is the Hijrah. Islamic New Year (or "Hijri New Year", )) is the day celebrated in Sunni Islamic culture that marks the beginning of a new year in the Lunar Hijri calendar. It disregards the solar year: its New Year's Day is on a different Gregorian date each year because it is a lunar calendar, making it on average 11 to 12 days shorter than a solar year. The first day of the year is observed on the first day of Muharram, the first month in this calendar. Nowruz marks the first day of spring and the beginning of the year in the Solar Hijri calendar (one of the Iranian calendars). It is celebrated on the day of the astronomical Northern spring equinox, which usually occurs on or about 20 March (Gregorian calendar). Nowruz has been celebrated for over 3,000 years by the cultural continent of Iran, including Kurdistan and Afghanistan. The holiday is also celebrated and observed by many parts of Central Asia, South Asia, Northwestern China, Crimea and some groups in the Balkans. As well as being a Zoroastrian holiday and having significance amongst the Zoroastrian ancestors of modern Iranians, the same time is celebrated in the Indian sub-continent as the new year. The moment the Sun crosses the celestial equator and equalizes night and day is calculated exactly every year and Iranian families gather together to observe the rituals. Judaism Rosh Hashanah (the Jewish New Year), is celebrated by Jews in Israel and throughout the world. The date is the new moon of Tishrei, which is the seventh month counting from Nisan, the first month of Spring. It always falls during September or October. The holiday is celebrated by blasting of shofar trumpets, to signify it as a day of judgment, by prayers of penitence, by readings from the law and prophets, and by special meals. The night of 31 December/1 January, the New Year according to the Gregorian calendar, is also celebrated widely in Israel and is referred to as Sylvester or the civil new year. Martian According to a convention established by NASA, the Martian year begins on its Northward equinox, the spring equinox of its northern hemisphere. Its most recent New Year's Day (of MY37) coincided with 26 December 2022 on Earth's Gregorian calendar. New Year's Day of MY38 will coincide with 12 November 2024. Traditional and modern celebrations and customs New Year's Eve The first of January represents the fresh start of a new year after a period of remembrance of the passing year, including on radio, television, and in newspapers, which starts in early December in countries around the world. Publications have year-end articles that review the changes during the previous year. In some cases, publications may set their entire year's work alight in the hope that the smoke emitted from the flame brings new life to the company. There are also articles on planned or expected changes in the coming year. This day is traditionally a religious feast, but since the 1900s has also become an occasion to celebrate the night of 31 December—New Year's Eve—with parties, public celebrations (often involving fireworks shows) and other traditions focused on the impending arrival of midnight and the new year. Watchnight services are also still observed by many. New Year's Day The celebrations and activities held worldwide on 1 January as part of New Year's Day commonly include the following: Several major parades are held on New Year's Day, including the London's New Year's Day Parade, Pasadena's Tournament of Roses Parade (also known as the "Rose Parade"), and Philadelphia's Mummers Parade. In the Bahamas, it is also associated with Junkanoos. Beginning in the 2010s, it is also the day that First Day Hikes takes place in the fifty state park systems of the United States. The Vienna Philharmonic orchestra traditionally performs a New Year's concert on the morning of New Year's Day. A "polar bear plunge" is a common tradition in some countries, where participants gather on beaches and run into the cold water. Polar Bear Clubs in many Northern Hemisphere cities have a tradition of holding organized plunges on New Year's Day, and they are often held to raise money for charity. In Ireland, New Year's Day was called Lá na gCeapairí, or the day of the buttered bread. A possible meaning to the consumption of buttered bread was to ward off hunger and famine in the coming year, by placing the buttered bread on the doorstep in the morning. Some traditions saw parties of young people calling from house to house to receive buttered bread and occasionally Poitín, or to give out buttered bread in exchange for pennies. This tradition has since died out, having been popular in the 19th century, and waning in the 1930s and 1940s. In Japan, Korea and areas inhabited by the Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, Chukchi and the Iñupiat, watching the first sunrise is a tradition. In the United Kingdom and United States, New Year's Day is associated with several prominent sporting events: In the United States, 1 January is the traditional date for several major post-season college football bowl games, including the Citrus Bowl in Orlando, the Outback Bowl in Tampa, the Rose Bowl Game in Pasadena, and the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans. Since 2015, the Rose and Sugar Bowl games host the semi-finals of the College Football Playoff every three seasons. Since 2008, the National Hockey League has hosted an annual outdoor game, the Winter Classic, which rotates between different host teams annually, and usually showcases a major regional rivalry. If New Year's Day falls on a Sunday, sporting events and associated festivities (such as the Rose Parade) traditionally held on New Year's Day are typically deferred to the following Monday in defense of the National Football League—which plays a Sunday gameday as normal. The Premier League in English football traditionally holds a fixture of matches on New Year's Day, stemming from the historic tradition of games being played over the Christmas holiday period (including, just as prominently, Boxing Day). The final of the PDC World Darts Championship typically falls on New Year's Day. The Cheltenham Racecourse holds a New Year's Day fixture, which includes the Fairlawne Handicap Chase, Dipper Novices' Chase, and Relkeel Hurdle. New Year's Day is a government and bank holiday in many countries. Music Music associated with New Year's Day comes in both classical and popular genres, and there is also Christmas song focus on the arrival of a new year during the Christmas and holiday season. Paul Gerhardt wrote the text for a hymn for the turn of the year, "Nun lasst uns gehn und treten", first published in 1653. Johann Sebastian Bach, in the Orgelbüchlein, composed three chorale preludes for the new year: Helft mir Gotts Güte preisen ["Help me to praise God's goodness"] (BWV 613); Das alte Jahr vergangen ist ["The old year has passed"] (BWV 614); and In dir ist freude ["In you is joy"] (BWV 615). The year is gone, beyond recall is a traditional Christian hymn to give thanks for the new year, dating back to 1713. In English-speaking countries, it is traditional to sing Auld Lang Syne at midnight on New Year's. New Year's Day babies A common image used, often as an editorial cartoon, is that of an incarnation of Father Time (or the "Old Year") wearing a sash across his chest with the previous year printed on it passing on his duties to the Baby New Year (or the "New Year"), an infant wearing a sash with the new year printed on it. Babies born on New Year's Day are commonly called New Year babies. Hospitals, such as the Dyersburg Regional Medical Center in the US, give out prizes to the first baby born in that hospital in the new year. These prizes are often donated by local businesses. Prizes may include various baby-related items such as baby formula, baby blankets, diapers, and gift certificates to stores which specialise in baby-related merchandise. Antarctica On New Year's Day in Antarctica, the stake marking the geographic south pole is moved approximately 10 meters to compensate for the movement of the ice. A new marker stake is designed and made each year by staff at the site nearby. Other celebrations on 1 January The Eastern Orthodox Church, the Anglican Church and the Lutheran Church celebrate the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ on 1 January, based on the belief that if Jesus was born on 25 December, then according to Hebrew tradition, his circumcision would have taken place on the eighth day of his life (1 January). The Roman Catholic Church celebrates on this day the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, which is also a Holy Day of Obligation. Johann Sebastian Bach composed several church cantatas for the double occasion: Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied, BWV 190, 1 January 1724 Jesu, nun sei gepreiset, BWV 41, 1 January 1725 Herr Gott, dich loben wir, BWV 16, 1 January 1726 Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm, BWV 171, 1 January 1729(?) Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben, 1 January 1735 (Christmas Oratorio Part IV) See also First Night List of films set around New Year List of winter festivals Rosh Hashanah Saint Sylvester's Day New Year's Six Notes References Bibliography . . & External links New Year's Around the World – slideshow by Life magazine Day Annual events January observances Holidays Public holidays in Algeria Public holidays in Australia Public holidays in Azerbaijan Public holidays in Cambodia Public holidays in Canada Public holidays in Denmark Public holidays in Indonesia Public holidays in Kazakhstan Public holidays in Malaysia Public holidays in New Zealand Norwegian flag flying days Public holidays in Norway Public holidays in Singapore Swedish flag flying days Public holidays in Sweden Public holidays in Thailand Public holidays in Turkey Public holidays in the United Kingdom United States flag flying days Public holidays in the United States Public holidays in the Republic of Ireland Public holidays in Ukraine Federal holidays in the United States Public holidays in Vietnam	wiki
Красненский — название населённых пунктов в России: Красненский — посёлок в Теучежском районе Адыгеи. Красненский — посёлок в Хвастовичском районе Калужской области.	wiki
HED Cycling Products is a bicycle wheel manufacturer located in Roseville, Minnesota. HED wheels are used in the Olympics, the Tour de France, and various Ironman competitions. Lance Armstrong is known as one of the first proponents of HED wheels. In 2017, HED Cycling made the Forbes annual list of Small Giants, which named it one of 25 of the best small companies in the United States. References Companies based in Minnesota	wiki
Responsibility may refer to: Collective responsibility Corporate social responsibility Duty Legal liability Legal obligation Legal responsibility (disambiguation) Media responsibility Moral responsibility, or personal responsibility Obligation Professional responsibility Responsibility assumption, a doctrine in existential psychotherapy Social responsibility Responsibility for the Holocaust The Westminster system constitutional conventions of: Cabinet collective responsibility Individual ministerial responsibility As a proper name Responsibility (novel), by Nigel Cox "Responsibility" (song), by punk band MxPx See also Accountability Blame Moral hazard Sociological terminology Virtue	wiki
Мьянма — многозначный термин. Мьянма — государство, бывшая Бирма. Мьянма или бирманский язык — официальный язык Мьянмы. Мьянма или бирманцы — народ, основное население Мьянмы. Мьянманцы — все жители Мьянмы.	wiki
Veriton may refer to: Acer Veriton series, a line of Acer PCs Veriton (record label), Polish record label	wiki
Diadegma balticum is a wasp first described by Horstmann in 1969. No subspecies are listed. References balticum Insects described in 1969	wiki
Upanāha (Sanskrit; Tibetan phonetic: khön du dzinpa) is a Buddhist term translated as "resentment" or "enmity". It is defined as clinging to an intention to cause harm, and withholding forgiveness. It is one of the twenty subsidiary unwholesome mental factors within the Mahayana Abhidharma teachings. The Abhidharma-samuccaya states: What is resentment? It is not letting go of an obsession which develops through association with the anger which underlies it. Its function is to be the basis of non-endurance. Alan Wallace described upanāha as "a lingering holding of anger (Sanskrit: krodha)". See also Mental factors (Buddhism) References Sources External links Ranjung Yeshe wiki entry for 'khon_du_'dzin_pa Unwholesome factors in Buddhism Sanskrit words and phrases	wiki
After the break-up of the Beatles in April 1970, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr enjoyed success as solo artists and collaborated with each other on numerous occasions, including on both studio and live recordings. However, none of these collaborations included all four members, with the exception of "Free as a Bird" (1994) and "Real Love" (1995). In the early 1970s, collaborations were common between Harrison and Starr, and between Lennon and either Harrison or Starr, but none of the three worked with McCartney over that time. The only album released during Lennon's lifetime that included compositions and performances by all four ex-Beatles, albeit on separate songs, was Starr's 1973 album Ringo. Starr's Ringo's Rotogravure (1976) also included compositions by all his bandmates (although Harrison did not play on the album), and the 1996 Carl Perkins album Go Cat Go! contained individual contributions by McCartney, Harrison and Starr, together with a Lennon recording from 1969. With Starr's participation, Harrison staged the Concert for Bangladesh in New York City in August 1971. Other than an unreleased jam session on March 28, 1974, later bootlegged as A Toot and a Snore in '74, Lennon and McCartney never recorded together again. Starr and McCartney have performed and recorded together on several occasions since Harrison's death in 2001. Collaborations by the four ex-Beatles since the break-up are listed below. Collaborations that began before the break-up are included for historical interest. The start date of the collaboration, e.g., the recording start date, governs the initial display sequence. Other display sequences may be seen by clicking the buttons in the column headers. Albums Singles Notes Promo single only Ono's B-side to Lennon's "Cold Turkey" Ono's B-side to Lennon's "Mother" Ono's B-side to Lennon's "Power to the People" in the US Live performances Live performances featuring collaboration between two or more ex-Beatles. Separate appearance at the same event does not count. References Sources Timelines of music The Beatles music Beatles	wiki
The following is a list of state forests in Kentucky. References See also List of U.S. National Forests for National Forests in Kentucky Kentucky	wiki
Sweyn Asleifsson or Sveinn Ásleifarson ( 1115 – 1171) was a twelfth-century Viking who appears in the Orkneyinga Saga. Early career Sweyn was born in Caithness in the early twelfth century, to Olaf Hrolfsson and his wife Åsleik. According to the Orkneyinga Saga, he came to prominence when he murdered Earl Paul of Orkney's cup-bearer c. 1134 in a quarrel over a drinking game, and fled to Tiree to take refuge with Holdbodi Hundason. In 1140, Holdbodi called on Sweyn to join him raiding the coast of Wales, but they were beaten off, Holdbodi withdrawing to the Isle of Man and Sweyn to Lewis. In the early summer of 1141, Sweyn arrived in Man to join Holdbodi, but the Hebridean had been persuaded to join forces with the Norman-Welsh lord Robert who had defeated them in the previous year, and attacked Sweyn. This created a feud between the former friends. Quarrels and feuds Some years later, after falling out with his own captains (led by his brother-in-law Thorbjorn Thorsteinsson), Sweyn was driven out of Orkney by Rognvald Kali Kolsson, but King David I persuaded them to make peace. Olvir Rosta killed Sweyn's father; later Sweyn attacked Olvir, killed his grandmother, and Olvir fled to the Hebrides. In 1153, there was a falling-out between the three Earls of Orkney (Rognvald Kali Kolsson, Erlend Haraldsson and Harald Maddadsson). Sweyn, backed by the new King, Malcolm IV, threw in his lot with Erlend, attacking the shipping of the other two Earls and raiding the east coast of Scotland in his company. The Orkneyinga saga records a raid on the Isle of May, by Sweyn Asleifsson and Margad Grimsson, after they had been expelled from Orkney by Earl Rögnvald, that they went raiding on the eastern seaboard of Scotland, "They sailed south off Scotland until they came to Máeyar (the Isle of May). There was a monastery, the head of which was an abbot, by name, Baldwin. Swein and his men were detained there seven nights by stress of bad weather. They said they had been sent by Earl Rögnvald to the King of Scots. The monks suspected their tale, and thinking they were pirates, sent to the mainland for men. When Swein and his comrades became aware of this, they went hastily aboard their ship, after having plundered much treasure from the monastery. They went along Myrkvifjörð (the Firth of Forth), and found David, the King of Scots, in Edinburgh. He received Swein well, and requested him to stay with him. He told the King explicitly the reason of his visit, how matters had gone between him and Earl Rögnvald before they parted, and also that they had plundered in Máeyar. Swein and Margad stayed for a while with the King of Scots, and were well treated. King David sent men to those who had been robbed by Swein, and told them to estimate their loss themselves, and then of his own money, he made good to everyone his loss" After Erlend's death in 1154, Harald drove Sweyn into hiding for a while, but he soon regained his power – the saga claims that he raided as far as the Isles of Scilly. By the time Rognvald died in 1158, Harald and Sweyn were reconciled: and Sweyn even became foster-father to Harald's son Hakon. Death The circumstances of Sweyn's death are confused. It is clear that the events described in the saga are those of the brief recapture of Dublin from the Normans by its last Scandinavian king, Ascall mac Ragnaill, in 1171: but there are many discrepancies between the Orcadian and Anglo-Norman accounts. It is possible that the warlord referred to by Giraldus Cambrensis as "John the Furious" was none other than Sweyn. Be that as it may, when the Normans retook Dublin, both Sweyn and Hakon were killed. Significance The Orkneying Saga, also known as Jarla Sǫgur Orkneyja, was written by an unknown Icelandic scribe c. 1200. Much of the material describes events that are up to three centuries earlier than this date and its historical accuracy is dubious. However, as the document was written only a few decades after Ásleifarson's death it is reasonable to suppose the later chapters may more accurately reflect the events they describe. In fact, Ásleifarson's activities take up fully one quarter of the saga and the oldest version ends with his death. He is depicted as the quintessential Viking, a freebooter whose activities include drunkenness, murder and plundering and whose support is crucial to the politics of the Orkney earldom. His tale is closely bound up with that of Earl Rögnvald, a more rounded character who is also a troubadour and ultimately a saint, and it may be that the saga writers were seeking to portray them as exemplars of the Viking lifestyle. However, there may also be a more complex moral to the story. Although Ásleifarson's dying words are "Be it known to all men... that I belong to the bodyguard of Saint Rögnvald the Earl", he also blackmailed Rögnvald and caused him a great deal of trouble. It is possible that the saga intends to cast Rögnvald as a weak leader who was unable control his nobles. Another interpretation of the narrative is that rather than seeing these two men as protagonist and antagonist that together they live in a golden age where the earl is a cultured ruler and primus inter pares but who owes his position in part to his band of "worthy warriors" and is by no means a despot who rules by divine right. In this case the whole story may be seen as a reaction to the Norwegian royal propaganda of the age that sought to promote the central authority of the crown. Notes References . Pálsson, Hermann; Paul Edwards, translator (1981) Orkneyinga Saga: The History of the Earls of Orkney (London: Penguin Classics) Thomson, William P. L. (2008) The New History of Orkney. Edinburgh. Birlinn. Further reading Gray, James (2006) Sutherland and Caithness in Saga-Time or, The Jarls and The Freskyns (Hard Press) Tales from Braemore & Swein Asleifson - a Northern Pirate by Robert P. Gunn Whittles Publishing External links Orkneyjar account of Sweyn Asleifsson Sweyn Asleifsson – The Ultimate Viking Viking Orkney (Orkneyguide) 1110s births 1171 deaths Scandinavian Scotland Orkneyinga saga characters People associated with Orkney Vikings killed in battle 12th-century Scottish people 12th-century Vikings	wiki
The following is a list of Maine state forests. Maine state forests See also List of U.S. National Forests Maine State forests	wiki
Lindex is a Swedish fashion chain within the Finnish Stockmann Group. The company has around 5000 employees and approximately 480 stores in 18 markets in the Nordic countries, the Baltic States, Central Europe and the Middle East. In addition to sales in store, Lindex also offers their fashion assortment via online shopping in 28 countries: all EU countries plus Norway. The company has had a rapid international expansion and sales growth. The assortment includes several different concepts within women's wear, lingerie, kids’ wear and cosmetics. The history of Lindex In 1954, Ingemar Boman and Bengt Rosell opened the lingerie store Fynd in Alingsås. Shortly thereafter, the Lindex company of Gothenburg was acquired, and this was the name then given in time to all the subsequent stores. During the sixties the lingerie selection was complemented by women's wear, in particular jumpers and blouses. Operations were expanded and the first Lindex store in Norway was opened. During the seventies Lindex continued to grow in Sweden and Norway. The assortment was expanded and Lindex also became known for skirts and trousers as well as kids’ wear. The eighties meant major changes for Lindex and the expansion reached record levels. Major changes occurred in the buying routines, since almost all textile manufacturing moved abroad. Lindex now tested new markets such as Denmark, Great Britain and Finland, but by the end of the eighties, operations were focused on Sweden, Norway and Finland. In 1993 Lindex opened its first production office in Hong Kong and the company started to carry out inspections to check that no child labour occurred at the suppliers. That same year, Lindex sold the fashion chain Gulins with 770 employees to the Norwegian Finansgruppen. The company's requirements on suppliers were increased and a code of conduct for all suppliers was introduced. During the nineties the company also started to make serious efforts with regard to environmental issues. In 1995 the Lindex Club was started - a club for all loyal customers. At the end of the nineties the trademark Fix was acquired, with colourful kids’ wear. The beginning of the 21st century was characterized by huge international expansion. Lindex looked east and started its expansion in Central Europe and opened stores in the Baltic States, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In 2007 the Finnish listed company Stockmann became the new owner of Lindex and with their help the Russian market opened up for Lindex. In 2008 Lindex opened its first store in St Petersburg and the following year the first Lindex store in Moscow was opened. In 2009 Lindex opened its first store in Slovakia. During the 2010s Lindex continues to focus on Central Europe. Stores are opened in Prague and Bratislava. Lindex is now one of Europe's largest fashion chains with approximately 480 stores and a turnover of 650 MEUR. Organisation Stockmann Since December 2007 Lindex is part of the Finnish Stockmann group that is listed on NASDAQ Helsinki. Stockmann has its head office in Helsinki. Lindex board of directors Chairman Lauri Veijalainen, CEO Stockmann Eva Hamilton, Senior Advisor Arholma landsort, former CEO SVT Rossana Mariano, CEO and founder RMPR Tracy Stone Munn, Global Sales Director L.K Bennet Susanne Najafi, Entrepreneur and founder BackingMinds Employee Representatives: Caroline Kull Magnusson and Ann-Britt Neckvall Deputies: Clary Erenman and Cecilia Dahlström Head office Lindex head office is located in Gothenburg, where approximately 400 people work in buying, design, marketing, IT, communication, human resources, finance, logistics and distribution Stores Lindex is one of Europe's leading fashion chains with approximately 480 stores in 18 markets and Lindex Shop Online available in 32 countries. Country office Lindex has country offices in Sweden, Norway, Finland, the Czech Republic and England. Country offices are responsible for the results and store operations, but also that the Lindex concept is realized in the stores. Production Lindex does not own any factories, instead they work with independent suppliers and factories around the world. Lindex has production offices in the main production markets - China, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, India, Turkey, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. Lindex offers women's wear, kids’ wear, lingerie and cosmetics. Women’s wear Lindex assortment consist of three core concept: Easy, Sharp and Holly & Whyte. Besides these three core concepts, Lindex also has a cosmetic brand (Lindex beauty) and an assortment with maternity wear and a range of accessories. Lingerie Lindex started as a lingerie store in Alingsås, Sweden. The company is the market leader of lingerie in Scandinavia. The bra concept is called Bra-volution and consists of 14 different fits for many different needs, body shapes and preferences. Each fit is available in several styles with different materials and colours to choose from and the customer can always match her bra with a variety of panties. The bra assortment is designed after extensive tests in which women of various ages, bra sizes and preferences tested several fits. In addition to the wide assortment Lindex also has the lingerie collections Ella M and So.U and offer socks, hosiery, nightwear and swimwear. Kids’ wear Lindex is the market leader in kids’ wear in Sweden. Lindex works with a wide assortment consisting of tops and bottoms, outerwear, nightwear, underwear, swimwear and various types of accessories. The collections are created in three groups: Newborn collection in sizes 44-86, toddlers in sizes 92 -122, and sizes 128-170 for the oldest children. Today 100% of the Newborn assortment is made of more sustainable materials. Omni Lindex started Shop Online in Sweden in 2007. In 2010 the Shop online was launched for Finland and 2011 it was launched in Norway and all EU countries. Designer collaborations 2009-2011 Ewa Larsson 2010 Narciso Rodriguez 2011 Rachel Zoe - stylist collaboration 2012 Missoni 2013 Matthew Williamson 2014 Jean Paul Gaultier Models 2005 Emma Wiklund 2007 Izabella Scorupco 2007 Alec Wek 2007 Mini Andén 2008 Caroline Winberg 2010-2011 Carmen Kass 2011 Reese Witherspoon 2012 Gwyneth Paltrow 2013 Penélope Cruz 2014 Kate Hudson 2014 Karen Elson 2016 Sienna Mieller 2016 Ashley Graham Stores Own stores: 438 Sweden: 210 Norway: 100 Finland: 60 Czech Republic: 26 Estonia: 10 Latvia: 9 Slovakia: 9 Lithuania: 9 Poland: 3 UK: 2 Franchise: 43 Saudi Arabia: 17 Bosnia and Herzegovina: 10 (+ Shop Online) Serbia: 6 (+ Shop Online) Iceland: 6 (+ Shop Online) Kosovo: 2 Albania: 1 Tunisia : 1 Qatar: 2 Denmark: 1 Total number of stores: 483 See also List of Swedish companies References Companies based in Gothenburg Clothing retailers of Sweden Clothing companies of Sweden Swedish brands 1954 establishments in Sweden Clothing companies established in 1954 Retail companies established in 1954 Multinational companies headquartered in Sweden	wiki
Trailer may refer to: Transportation Trailer (vehicle), an unpowered vehicle pulled by a powered vehicle Baggage trailer, a large flatbed baggage trolley Bicycle trailer, a wheeled frame for hitching to a bicycle to tow cargo or passengers Boat trailer to carry small boats Horse trailer and other trailers designed to haul livestock Semi-trailer, a trailer without a front axle Travel trailer, or caravan, a type of recreational trailer designed to provide sleeping space Semi-trailer truck, the combination of a tractor unit and one or more semi-trailers Shelter Mobile home, a relocatable housing unit with wheels and a hitch. Portable classroom, a temporary classroom for schools with insufficient building capacity - not technically a trailer due to lack of wheels or hitch. This temporary shelter can be relocated with a trailer, but by definition, the structure itself is not a trailer. Construction trailer, relocatable temporary accommodation with wheels and hitch used for offices and building materials storage on construction sites. Computing Trailer (computing), data appended to a main block of data to facilitate its processing Multimedia Trailer (promotion), an advertisement, usually in the form of a brief excerpt or string of excerpts, for media work Teaser trailer, a truncated version of a trailer meant to "tease" an upcoming work Music Trailer (album), a 1994 album from the Northern Irish musical group Ash Tráiler, 2018 extended play by Spanish singer Aitana	wiki
The swingout is the defining dance move of Lindy Hop. Background The swingout evolved from the breakaway, which in turn evolved from the Texas Tommy. The first documented mention of the swingout pattern that resembles breakaway was in 1911, to describe a "Texas Tommy Swing" show done at the Fairmont Hotel in San Francisco. Its variants are used in Jive, East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing and Modern Jive. References See also Swing (dance) Lindy Hop Swing dance moves West Coast Swing dance moves	wiki
Business Insiders is a business news talk show aired weekdays from 6 to 6:30 PM ET on CNBC between 1992 and 1997. The show was hosted by Ron Insana and Neil Cavuto. References CNBC original programming American television news shows Year of television series debut missing 1990s American television talk shows Year of television series ending missing Business-related television series 1997 American television series endings	wiki
"Waiting for the End" is a 2010 song by Linkin Park. Waiting for the End may also refer to: Books Waiting for the End, book by Leslie A. Fiedler 1964 Music "Waiting for the End", song by Honor Bright "Waiting for the End", song by VanVelzen "Waiting for the End", song by The Call (band) composed by Michael Been "Waiting for the End", song by PINS (band) composed by PINS "Waiting for the End", song by Vitamin String Quartet "Waiting for the End", song by Thomas Troelsen "Waiting for the End of the World", song by Elvis Costello from My Aim is True	wiki
Eldorado Mine may refer to: Eldorado Mine (Northwest Territories) Eldorado Mine (Saskatchewan) See also El Dorado (disambiguation)	wiki
The back describes the area of horse anatomy where the saddle goes, and in popular usage extends to include the loin or lumbar region behind the thoracic vertebrae that also is crucial to a horse's weight-carrying ability. These two sections of the vertebral column beginning at the withers, the start of the thoracic vertebrae, and extend to the last lumbar vertebra. Because horses are ridden by humans, the strength and structure of the horse's back is critical to the animal's usefulness. The thoracic vertebrae are the true "back" vertebral structures of the skeleton, providing the underlying support of the saddle, and the lumbar vertebrae of the loin provide the coupling that joins the back to the hindquarters. Integral to the back structure is the rib cage, which also provides support to the horse and rider. A complex design of bone, muscle, tendons and ligaments all work together to allow a horse to support the weight of a rider. Anatomy of the back The structure of the back varies from horse to horse and varies a great deal by breed, age and condition of the animal. Skeleton A horse has an average total of 18 thoracic vertebrae, with five located in the withers. Each thoracic vertebra is also associated with a rib. A horse also has, on average, six lumbar vertebrae. Some breeds, such as the Arabian, will sometimes, but not always, have five lumbar vertebrae and 17 thoracic vertebrae. There appears to be little correlation between back length and number of vertebrae, as many horses with short backs do have the typical number of vertebrae. The length of each vertebra in the lumbar region seems to have the greater influence on the strength of the horse's back. Muscles and ligaments The horse has no collarbone. Hence the entire torso is attached to the shoulders by powerful muscles, tendons, and ligaments. The spine of a horse's back is supported by muscles, three ligaments, and abdominal muscles. The Spinalis Dorsi originates on the fourth cervical vertebra and inserts beneath the thoracic section of the Trapezius. The Longissimus dorsi originates from the last four cervical vertebrae, and courses along the spine, inserting eventually into the ilium and sacrum. This muscle contracts the spine and also raises and supports the head and neck, and is the main muscle used for rearing, kicking, jumping, and turning. It is the longest and strongest muscle in the body, and is the muscle the rider sits on. The Intercostal muscles begin at the spaces between the ribs and aid in breathing. The external and internal abdominal obliques are attached to the ribs and pelvic bones, and support the internal organs. The Supraspinous ligament begins at the poll and ends at the croup (sacral vertebrae). It supports the head and neck, and its traction force aids in supporting the weaker thoracic and lumbar areas. It spreads out and attaches to the spines of the cervical vertebrae. In the wither and neck area, it is called the nuchal ligament. Back conformation Horses' back shape can vary greatly from horse to horse. The upper curvature of a horse's withers, back, and loin is called the "topline." The line of the belly from elbow to flank is the "under line" or "bottom line." In terms of the back, both are important; a long underline with a relatively short topline is ideal. The underline is where the abdominal muscles are, which, like in humans, can provide tremendous support to the back when well-conditioned. The topline will vary in length and in curvature, with some relationship between the two. When being ridden, a horse's back may either be stiff or relaxed as it moves, depending on the tension and strength of ligaments, muscles or tendons; and is also influenced by training and physical level of condition. The length of the back may affect smoothness of gait, ability to collect and move with agility, limits how much weight the horse can carry, and can impact if a horse might be capable of being laterally gaited. The height of the withers also varies and affects freedom of shoulder movement, length of stride, and is a major area of concern in proper saddle fitting. A horse's back and ribcage in cross section is often described as "deep" or "narrow" (sometimes "shallow"), depending on the width of the ribs and the depth of the heartgirth. It can be a "pear" shape, an "apple" or inverted "U" shape, may be wide or narrow, short or long, or combinations of these characteristics. Wider but shorter ribs and loins will usually be stronger than long and narrow ribs and loins. If the ribs "fall off" of the back sharply, the back will be narrow, whereas if the ribs are well sprung, the back will be wide. The average horse can carry up to approximately 25% of its body weight, but body build and, particularly, back structure, may allow it to carry somewhat more or less. Physical condition also plays a role. A horse that is in good physical condition, with well-developed abdominal and back muscles, will be able to carry more weight for a longer time than one that is not in shape. There are two primary flaws in back conformation, a "too-straight" or "roach" back and its opposite, a too low or "swayback" (lordosis). Horses may also have "well-sprung" ribs or be too narrow, called "slab-sided." A horse may also have very high bony withers, which is not generally a flaw, though they can make a saddle hard to fit. Too low withers, called "mutton withers," can make it difficult to keep a saddle on without rolling or slipping, and may be correlated to a shorter stride. A roach back is less common, but is characterized by a back that has insufficient curvature. Such animals will have difficulty with flexion and are often rough-gaited. Conformational defects such as straight shoulders often are correlated with a roach back. When the span of the back dips excessively in the center, a condition known as lordosis, it is called swaybacked (other names include saddle-backed, hollow-backed, low in the back, "soft" in the back, or down in the back). It is a common back condition, particularly in older horses, and in general an undesirable conformation trait. Swayback is caused in part from a loss of muscle tone in both the back and abdominal muscles, plus a weakening and stretching of the ligaments. As in humans, it may be influenced by bearing young; it is sometimes seen in a broodmare that has had multiple foals. However, it is common in older horses whose age leads to loss of muscle tone and stretched ligaments. It also occurs due to overuse or injury to the muscles and ligaments from excess work or loads, or from premature work placed upon an immature animal. Less often, a long-backed horse that in poor condition may develop a sway at a younger age simply due to lack of exercise, particularly if kept in a stall or small pen for long periods without turnout. Equines with too long a back are more prone to the condition than those with a short back, but as a longer back is also linked to smoother gaits, the trait is sometimes encouraged by selective breeding. It has been found to have a hereditary basis in the American Saddlebred breed, transmitted via a recessive mode of inheritance. Research into the genetics underlying the condition has several values beyond just the Saddlebred breed as it may "serve as a model for investigating congenital skeletal deformities in horses and other species." A low back may make a horse more prone to a stiff head and neck carriage and usually causes stiffness in the back and difficulty collecting. A horse with a long back and loin, while often considered a trait associated with smooth gaits, is prone to developing a swayback sooner than average. A swayback often makes it harder for the horse to collect, particularly for dressage and any event that involves jumping. A sway back can also may be linked to back soreness to a horse's because most saddles will "bridge," putting the rider's weight only on the front and the back of the saddle, creating abnormal pressure points, especially over the shoulders and loins. A heavy rider may also put additional strain on already weakened ligaments and muscles. A swaybacked horse is less able to achieve rapid impulsion; which may cause problems in such sports such as horse racing, rodeo and polo. However, with a properly fitting saddle that does not bridge, a swaybacked horse still can be used as a pleasure horse and as a horse for teaching students. Length of back Ideally, the length of a horse's back from the peak of the withers to the point of the hip should be 1/3 of the horse's overall body length (from the point of the shoulder to the point of the buttock, excluding head and neck). A horse's back is called "long" if the length exceeds 1/3 and "short" if less than 1/3. Long backs are more often seen in "gaited" horses, such as Saddlebreds or Tennessee Walkers. They are sometimes, but not always, associated with long, weak loins. The advantage to a long back is that it is flexible, making the movement of the back flatter, quieter, and makes a smoother ride. Even horses that are not gaited often have a smoother trot and long strides, making them comfortable to ride. On the other hand, it makes it harder for the horse to lift or "round" the back to develop speed or engage the hindquarters for high levels of collection. It takes longer to develop the muscles in a long back, and they are more prone to muscular strain and swayback as they age. A moderately short back is generally a desirable trait and can be seen in any breed, though it is more common in American Quarter Horses, Arabians, and Morgans. The advantage to a short back is that the horse is quick, agile and strong, able to change direction with ease. A horse with this conformation is less likely to have back pain associated with the weight of the rider, especially if well-muscled. A short back is usually associated with being "short coupled," that is, short in the loin, making a horse of this conformation ideal for such agility sports as polo, roping, cutting, and reining. However, a short back can be less flexible if too short, and even ideally-conformed horses with short backs can have "springy" gaits that may cause difficulties for inexperienced riders. A too-short back can lead to spinal arthritis if the horse has difficulty bending. Fitting saddles to the back Each horse is different regarding saddle fit, though minor problems can be compensated for with saddle blankets or pads. As a horse's muscles change with age or conditioning, one saddle may not fit during its entire life, and no saddle fits all horses. A properly fitted saddle should have enough height in the gullet to clear the withers of the horse and not be so wide as to press on the spine, but not be so narrow as to pinch the back and shoulders of the horse. It must not be so long in the tree that it interferes with the horse's hips, though a too-short tree may also create abnormal pressure points, particularly when it is too small for the rider as well. Professional saddlers and saddle-fitters may be able to make small adjustments in better-quality saddles to help them better fit an individual horse, but the underlying structure of the saddle tree cannot be changed and must have an adequate fit from the outset. Back pain Causes Back pain in a horse may be caused for a variety of reasons. Saddle fit, poor riding technique, lack of conditioning, overwork, accidents, or lameness can all contribute to back pain. A saddle that is not fitted properly on the horse may lead to immediate, acute pain, or chronic, long-term damage. A saddle of ill fit will repeatedly bruise, pinch, or rub the underlying soft tissue or spinal processes. A horse that is not athletically fit may also experience back pain. Abrupt changes in work, footing, or terrain can make even a fit horse suffer soreness. Accidents, missteps, or awkward jumps all lend themselves to strain. Compensating for any type of limb, joint, or hoof injury can make a horse put extra stress on its back, which can lead to back problems in addition to lameness if not treated promptly. A rider with a poor seat can put abnormal pressure directly on a horse's back, or may indirectly cause back pain in other ways: An ill-fitting bit and bridle or bad hands, resulting in mouth pain, can cause secondary back pain as the horse lifts its neck and stresses its back to avoid the pressure to the mouth. Diagnosis A veterinarian or experienced horse owner can palpate the back of a horse to pinpoint sources of pain and from there assess the most likely cause. Radiographs (X-Rays) can be used to diagnose potential problems with cracked vertebrae, some forms of arthritis, impinging dorsal spinous processes (kissing spines), and other skeletal problems, although with large, heavily muscled animals this diagnostic modality is limited. Certain types of soft tissue injury can be assessed with other modern diagnostic imaging techniques, such as ultrasound. In addition, Scintigraphy is often very useful in localising either bony or soft tissue disorders. For mild problems, it is sometimes useful to ride the horse in a different saddle or without a saddle to see if the problem goes away, but usually a veterinarian or saddle fitter can determine if an ill-fitting saddle is the problem in fairly short order. Failure to obtain a reliable veterinary opinion can lead to further damage if the horse is worked while in pain. Treatment Like humans, back pain in horses may be treated by acupuncture, massage therapy, chiropractic treatments, ultrasound, simple rest, or a combination of any of the above. Drug treatment may also be advised, particularly the use of NSAIDs, or other anti-inflammatory and analgesic medications. In all cases, the first step is to eliminate the root cause of pain to the horse so that the animal is not reinjured after treatment. Degenerative or arthritic back pain is much harder to treat, so prompt attention is advisable in order to avoid a long-term problem. If it seems the back pain is caused by an ill-fitting saddle, the saddle should be changed or adjusted, though as an interim measure a horse can be ridden without a saddle or with a saddle pad that is either thicker or thinner, as needed to reduce saddle pressure. To avoid causing back pain caused by lack of athletic fitness, gradually build the horse's athletic agility until it is strong enough to avoid getting sore in the back. Back pain related to stress or injury may require rest and time without being ridden, with a gradual return to work. See also Lameness (equine) Saddle References External links Back pain causes Back muscles Back shape discussion Horse anatomy	wiki
He's Mine may refer to: He's Mine (MoKenStef song) He's Mine (Billy Ray Cyrus song), also recorded by Rodney Atkins	wiki
In Nepal, the grade system is divided into different ways. The above grading system refers to the Secondary Education Examination (SEE) previously called School leaving Certificate (SLC) examinations when it was implemented, held at the end of at grade 10. It is administered by the Department of Education under the Ministry of Education and Sports, Nepal. Different grading systems are currently being implemented by different universities and education boards. See also Secondary Education Examination (Nepal) School Leaving Certificate (Nepal) References Nepal Grading Grading	wiki
Business Tonight was a business news talk show on CNBC until c. October 1997. The show was hosted by Sue Herera. It was replaced by The Edge. References CNBC original programming 1990s American television news shows Year of television series debut missing 1990s American television talk shows Year of television series ending missing Business-related television series 1997 American television series endings	wiki
The acronym CCDR may refer to: Canada Communicable Disease Report, a publication of the Public Health Agency of Canada Cross-Cultural Dance Resources, a dance research organization in the United States CCDRs or combatant commanders, leader of a unified combatant command in the U.S. military See also CDR (disambiguation)	wiki
Lonely Child may refer to: "Lonely Child", a 2014 song by Christina Perri from Head or Heart "Lonely Child", a 2019 song by YoungBoy Never Broke Again from AI YoungBoy 2	wiki
PointTracker, created by IBM, is an application featured in Grand Slam tennis tournaments that presents an animated 3D view of each shot played in a singles match. A menu to the right of the application displays all points played and allows users to select a point to view from each set. Points may also be grouped according to forehand winners, backhand winners, forehand unforced errors, backhand unforced errors, aces and challenged points. Viewing angles Each point can be viewed from a number of preset angles. Default: Overhead: Umpire: Net: From the view of the players: As well as these fixed angles, the viewing angle can be freely rotated by the user. Serve, Return and Winner speed For each point, the service speed, return of service speed and the winner speed are displayed, if applicable, as a particular point progresses. Preferences A number of preferences can be set by the user. Visible Shots: The number of shots visible at one time in a certain point can be set to either 1, 2, 3 or all. Speed Display: The speed display can be set in mph or km/h. Track Display: The line of the ball in a point can be displayed as a solid line or a ball. If a line is chosen, then a green line (Wimbledon and Roland-Garros)/orange line (Australian Open) (showing the path of the ball hit by one player) and a yellow line (showing the path of the ball hit by the other player) is displayed. The number of lines displayed at one time is dependent on the setting chosen in visible shots. If a ball is chosen, then the path of the ball is shown by a yellow tennis ball and the setting chosen in visible shots is not applicable. Sports television technology Tennis equipment	wiki
The Successful Pyrate is a play by Charles Johnson, first performed 1712, published 1713, dealing with the life of the pirate Henry Avery. It opened at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane on 7 November 1712 and ran for five evenings. The original cast included Barton Booth as Arviragus, Robert Wilks as Aranes, John Mills as Boreal, Theophilus Keene as De Sale, William Pinkethman as Sir Gaudy Tulip, Henry Norris as Chicane, John Leigh as Jollyboy, William Bullock as Judge Bull, Christopher Bullock as Serjeant Dolt and Mary Porter as Zaida. Plot In the play, Avery goes under the name Arviragus, and has made himself a king in Madagascar. He captures the Indian princess Zaida and tries to force her to marry him, but she is in love with a young man named Aranes. There is an offstage fight and Aranes is reported killed; meanwhile, De Sale, who has confided to the audience that he plots to overthrow Arviragus and make himself king, ingratiates himself with Zaida. De Sale's fellow plotters are bumbling incompetents and their plans are easily thwarted, followed by a comic trial scene. It is revealed that Aranes is Arviragus' long lost son, whom he recognizes from a bracelet, and that he is still alive, his friend Alvarez having died in his place. The plotters are executed and Aranes and Zaida marry. Characters Arviragus, king of the island of St. Laurence, or Madagascar Aranes, an Omrah in Zaida's train Boreal, admiral to Arviragus De Sale, lieutenant to Arviragus Richardo, captain of the guards Piracquo, De Sale's creature Sir Gaudy Tulip, master of the ceremonies Chicane, a broken lawyer Jollyboy, treasurer to Arviragus Judge Bull Serjeant Dolt Counsellor Smooth Herring Porpoise Shark Codshead Zaida, Aurengzebe's granddaughter, contracted to and in love with Aranes Samanthe, her chief attendant Lydia, Piracquo's wife Lesbia, Tulip's wife Dramatic analysis The Successful Pyrate is a romanticised dramatisation of two episodes contained in a pamphlet that had been recently published concerning the career of the pirate Henry Avery: his capture of the Mogul Aurengzeb's ship Gang-i-sawai, allegedly carrying the Mogul's granddaughter; and a plot against him by his lieutenant De Sale and other pirates. The play is primarily a comedy. The pirates are mostly fools, in particular Sir Gaudy Tulip, an aged and cowardly London beau; the Gang-i-sawai is, for no reason other than comic effect, carrying two European ladies, Tulip's ex-mistress and another pirate's ex-wife, who exchange tart comments with the men; the drunken conspirators and outrageously partial court are played entirely for laughs. Reception John Dennis condemned the play for "encouraging Villany". References External links 1712 plays West End plays Piracy in fiction Plays set in the 18th century Plays by Charles Johnson	wiki
The Children of Sanchez may refer to: The Children of Sanchez (book), 1961 book by American anthropologist Oscar Lewis The Children of Sanchez (film), 1979 American drama film based on the book Children of Sanchez (album), album by jazz artist Chuck Mangione, soundtrack for the film	wiki
A wheat berry, or wheatberry, is a whole wheat kernel, composed of the bran, germ, and endosperm, without the husk. Botanically, it is a type of fruit called a caryopsis. Wheat berries have a tan to reddish-brown color and are available as either a . They are often added to salads or baked into bread to add a chewy texture. If wheat berries are milled, whole-wheat flour is produced. Wheat berries are the primary ingredient in an Eastern European Christmas porridge called kutya. In France, cooked durum wheat berries are commonly eaten as a side dish instead of rice or corn. This side dish is often called ebly, from the name of the first brand of prepared wheat berries. See also Cuccìa, a Sicilian wheat berry dish Bulgur, another whole wheat preparation Frumenty, a dish made with boiled wheat berries Graham flour Borș, a fermented drink made from sprouted grain References Wheat Cereals	wiki
The Vietnamese grading system is an academic grading system utilized in Vietnam. It is based on a 0- to 10-point scale, similar to the US 1.0-4.0 scale. Typically when an American educational institution requests a grade-point average (GPA) calculated on the 4 point scale, the student will be expected to do a direct mathematical conversion, so 10 becomes 4.0, 7.5 becomes 3.0, etc. This makes sense from a practical standpoint. In reality, however, it is completely inaccurate. In the Vietnamese system, a score of ten is rarely given. In contrast, a 4.0 in a U.S. classroom is not unusual, nor is someone with a 4.0 GPA overall. According to the Research Center for Vocational, Technical and Higher Education under the Vietnamese Ministry of Education, someone with a 7.5 GPA will probably be in the top 10-15% of his or her class. The practice of most Vietnamese colleges is not to provide official transcripts to other universities on behalf of their students. Students can request a signed and stamped original transcript from their school, and then have copies certified with a red stamp at a government office. Translation services are also available at such offices. Grade conversion table Source: EducationUSA Vietnam, U.S. Embassy in Hanoi. In practice, most U.S. universities used a standardized acceptance of A, B, C, D's only. Thus any A+'s, B+, C+ will be down-convert to A, B, C respectively. Standardized Table to Convert University GPAs Credit hours Some universities in Vietnam employ a system of standardized credit hours, which can translate directly over to the U.S. system. Some instead simply note class hours of 15, 30, 45, 60 ... etc., in an arrangement which needs to be converted into credit hours by dividing class hours by 15. Thus a 15-hour class is equivalent to 1 credit hours, a 45-hour class is equivalent to 3 credit hours. Method of calculating GPAs Most universities convert GPAs class by class. Each class is evaluated for credit hour equivalency. Each class grade point is evaluated according to the native Vietnamese system, converted to A, B, C, D, F, and the individual class grade is translated to the 4.0 system. Then, one must multiply each class grade point by the number of credit hours for the respective class. Finally, the points are totalled up, and divided by the total number credit hours, to arrive at the final GPA. The original article can be found at the U.S. Embassy's Education USA office located at: 1st Floor, Rose Garden Tower, 170 Ngoc Khanh St., Hanoi, Vietnam https://photos.state.gov/libraries/vietnam/8621/pdf-forms/VN-Grading-System.pdf High school credit system High schools seem to use a slightly modified GPA system, with higher criteria to receive the equivalent grading letter scale. High school classes are standardized in most Vietnamese public schools, with the respective classes and Grade Point tables listed below. References Vietnam Grading Grading	wiki
Islamophobia is the fear of, hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general, especially when seen as a geopolitical force or a source of terrorism. The scope and precise definition of the term Islamophobia, is the subject of debate. Some scholars consider it to be a form of xenophobia or racism, some consider Islamophobia and racism to be closely related or partially overlapping phenomena, while others dispute any relationship; primarily on the grounds that religion is not a race. The causes of Islamophobia are also the subject of debate, most notably between commentators who have posited an increase in Islamophobia resulting from the September 11 attacks, the rise of the militant group Islamic State, other terror attacks in Europe and the United States by Islamic extremists, those who associated it with the increased presence of Muslims in the United States and in the European Union, and others who view it as a response to the emergence of a global Muslim identity. On 15 March 2022, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution by consensus which was introduced by Pakistan on behalf of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation that proclaimed March 15 as 'International Day to Combat Islamophobia'. Terms There are a number of other possible terms which are also used in order to refer to negative feelings and attitudes towards Islam and Muslims, such as anti-Muslimism, intolerance against Muslims, anti-Muslim prejudice, anti-Muslim bigotry, hatred of Muslims, anti-Islamism, Muslimophobia, demonisation of Islam, or demonisation of Muslims. In German, Islamophobie (fear) and Islamfeindlichkeit (hostility) are used. The Scandinavian term Muslimhat literally means "hatred of Muslims". When discrimination towards Muslims has placed an emphasis on their religious affiliation and adherence, it has been termed Muslimphobia, the alternative form of Muslimophobia, Islamophobism, antimuslimness and antimuslimism. Individuals who discriminate against Muslims in general have been termed Islamophobes, Islamophobists, anti-Muslimists, antimuslimists, islamophobiacs, anti-Muhammadan, Muslimphobes or its alternative spelling of Muslimophobes, while individuals motivated by a specific anti-Muslim agenda or bigotry have been described as being anti-mosque, anti-Shiites (or Shiaphobes), anti-Sufism (or Sufi-phobia) and anti-Sunni (or Sunniphobes). Etymology and definitions The word Islamophobia is a neologism formed from Islam and -phobia, a Greek suffix used in English to form "nouns with the sense 'fear , 'aversion According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word means "Intense dislike or fear of Islam, esp. as a political force; hostility or prejudice towards Muslims". It is attested in English as early as 1923 to quote the French word islamophobie, found in a thesis published by Alain Quellien in 1910 to describe a "a prejudice against Islam that is widespread among the peoples of Western and Christian civilization". The expression did not immediately turn into the vocabulary of the English-speaking world though, which preferred the expression "feelings inimical to Islam", until its re-appearance in an article by Georges Chahati Anawati in 1976. The term did not exist in the Muslim world, and was later translated in the 1990s as ruhāb al-islām (رُهاب الإسلام) in Arabic, literally "phobia of Islam". The University of California at Berkeley's Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project suggested this working definition: "Islamophobia is a contrived fear or prejudice fomented by the existing Eurocentric and Orientalist global power structure. It is directed at a perceived or real Muslim threat through the maintenance and extension of existing disparities in economic, political, social and cultural relations, while rationalizing the necessity to deploy violence as a tool to achieve 'civilizational rehab' of the target communities (Muslim or otherwise). Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended." Debate on the term and its limitations In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia (CBMI), chaired by Gordon Conway, the vice-chancellor of the University of Sussex. The Commission's report, Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw. In the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as "an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination." The introduction of the term was justified by the report's assessment that "anti-Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably and so rapidly in recent years that a new item in the vocabulary is needed". In 2008, a workshop on 'Thinking Thru Islamophobia' was held at the University of Leeds, organized by the Centre for Ethnicity and Racism Studies, the participants included S. Sayyid, Abdoolkarim Vakil, Liz Fekete, and Gabrielle Maranci among others. The symposium proposed a definition of Islamophobia which rejected the idea of Islamophobia as being the product of closed and open views of Islam and focused on Islamophobia as performative which problematized Muslim agency and identity. The symposium was an early attempt to bring insights from critical race theory, postcolonial and decolonial thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia. At a 2009 symposium on "Islamophobia and Religious Discrimination", Robin Richardson, a former director of the Runnymede Trust and the editor of Islamophobia: a challenge for us all, said that "the disadvantages of the term Islamophobia are significant" on seven different grounds, including that it implies it is merely a "severe mental illness" affecting "only a tiny minority of people"; that use of the term makes those to whom it is applied "defensive and defiant" and absolves the user of "the responsibility of trying to understand them" or trying to change their views; that it implies that hostility to Muslims is divorced from factors such as skin color, immigrant status, fear of fundamentalism, or political or economic conflicts; that it conflates prejudice against Muslims in one's own country with dislike of Muslims in countries with which the West is in conflict; that it fails to distinguish between people who are against all religion from people who dislike Islam specifically; and that the actual issue being described is hostility to Muslims, "an ethno-religious identity within European countries", rather than hostility to Islam. Nonetheless, he argued that the term is here to stay, and that it is important to define it precisely. The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed with academics such as Chris Allen saying that it lacks a clear definition. According to Erik Bleich, in his article "Defining and Researching Islamophobia", even when definitions are more specific, there is still significant variation in the precise formulations of Islamophobia. As with parallel concepts like homophobia or xenophobia, Islamophobia connotes a broader set of negative attitudes or emotions directed at individuals of groups because of perceived membership in a defined category. Mattias Gardell defines Islamophobia as "socially reproduced prejudices and aversion to Islam and Muslims, as well as actions and practices that attack, exclude or discriminate against persons on the basis that they are or perceived to be Muslim and be associated with Islam". Fear As opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia, according to professors of religion Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, "Islamophobia" connotes a social anxiety about Islam and Muslims. Some social scientists have adopted this definition and developed instruments to measure Islamophobia in form of fearful attitudes towards, and avoidance of, Muslims and Islam, arguing that Islamophobia should "essentially be understood as an affective part of social stigma towards Islam and Muslims, namely fear". Racism Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism. A 2007 article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism and a continuation of anti-Asian, anti-Turkic and anti-Arab racism. In their books Deepa Kumar and Junaid Rana have argued that formation of Islamophobic discourses has paralleled the development of other forms of racial bigotry. Similarly, John Denham has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the antisemitism of the 1930s, so have Maud Olofsson, and Jan Hjärpe, among others. Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that "academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from other terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness, and anti-Semitism." Erdenir finds that "there is no consensus on the scope and content of the term and its relationship with concepts such as racism ..." and Shryock, reviewing the use of the term across national boundaries, comes to the same conclusion. Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena. Diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on "race" or religion. Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names, or have a look that is associated with Muslims. According to Alan Johnson, Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism "wrapped in religious terms". Sociologists Yasmin Hussain and Paul Bagguley stated that racism and Islamophobia are "analytically distinct", but "empirically inter-related". The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) defines Islamophobia as "the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining to them", adding that whether "it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion". Proposed alternatives The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday. He writes that the target of hostility in the modern era is not Islam and its tenets as much as it is Muslims, suggesting that a more accurate term would be "Anti-Muslimism". He also states that strains and types of prejudice against Islam and Muslims vary across different nations and cultures, which is not recognized in the Runnymede analysis, which was specifically about Muslims in Britain. Poole responds that many Islamophobic discourses attack what they perceive to be Islam's tenets, while Miles and Brown write that Islamophobia is usually based upon negative stereotypes about Islam which are then translated into attacks on Muslims. They also argue that "the existence of different 'Islamophobias' does not invalidate the concept of Islamophobia any more than the existence of different racisms invalidates the concept of racism." In a 2011 paper in American Behavioral Scientist, Erik Bleich stated "there is no widely accepted definition of Islamophobia that permits systematic comparative and causal analysis", and advances "indiscriminate negative attitudes or emotions directed at Islam or Muslims" as a possible solution to this issue. In order to differentiate between prejudiced views of Islam and secularly motivated criticism of Islam, Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker formulated the concept "Islamoprejudice", which they subsequently operationalised in an experiment. The experiment showed that their definition provided a tool for accurate differentiation. Nevertheless, other researchers' experimental work indicates that, even when Westerners seem to make an effort to distinguish between criticizing (Muslim) ideas and values and respecting Muslims as persons, they still show prejudice and discrimination of Muslims—compared to non-Muslims—when these targets defend supposedly antiliberal causes. Origins and causes History of the term One early use cited as the term's first use is by the painter Alphonse Étienne Dinet and Algerian intellectual Sliman ben Ibrahim in their 1918 biography of Islam's prophet Muhammad. Writing in French, they used the term . Robin Richardson writes that in the English version of the book the word was not translated as "Islamophobia" but rather as "feelings inimical to Islam". Dahou Ezzerhouni has cited several other uses in French as early as 1910, and from 1912 to 1918. These early uses of the term did not, according to Christopher Allen, have the same meaning as in contemporary usage, as they described a fear of Islam by liberal Muslims and Muslim feminists, rather than a fear or dislike/hatred of Muslims by non-Muslims. On the other hand, Fernando Bravo López argues that Dinet and ibn Sliman's use of the term was as a criticism of overly hostile attitudes to Islam by a Belgian orientalist, Henri Lammens, whose project they saw as a "'pseudo-scientific crusade in the hope of bringing Islam down once and for all. He also notes that an early definition of Islamophobia appears in the 1910 Ph.D. thesis of Alain Quellien, a French colonial bureaucrat: For some, the Muslim is the natural and irreconcilable enemy of the Christian and the European; Islam is the negation of civilization, and barbarism, bad faith and cruelty are the best one can expect from the Mohammedans. Furthermore, he notes that Quellien's work draws heavily on the work of the French colonial department's 1902–06 administrator, who published a work in 1906, which to a great extent mirrors John Esposito's The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?. The first recorded use of the term in English, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, was in 1923 in an article in The Journal of Theological Studies. The term entered into common usage with the publication of the Runnymede Trust's report in 1997. "Kofi Annan asserted at a 2004 conference entitled "Confronting Islamophobia" that the word Islamophobia had to be coined in order to "take account of increasingly widespread bigotry". Contrasting views on Islam The Runnymede report contrasted "open" and "closed" views of Islam, and stated that the following "closed" views are equated with Islamophobia: Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change. It is seen as separate and "other". It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them. It is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist. It is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a clash of civilizations. It is seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage. Criticisms made of "the West" by Muslims are rejected out of hand. Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society. Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal. These "closed" views are contrasted, in the report, with "open" views on Islam which, while founded on respect for Islam, permit legitimate disagreement, dialogue and critique. According to Benn and Jawad, The Runnymede Trust notes that anti-Muslim discourse is increasingly seen as respectable, providing examples on how hostility towards Islam and Muslims is accepted as normal, even among those who may actively challenge other prevalent forms of discrimination. Identity politics It has been suggested that Islamophobia is closely related to identity politics, and gives its adherents the perceived benefit of constructing their identity in opposition to a negative, essentialized image of Muslims. This occurs in the form of self-righteousness, assignment of blame and key identity markers. Davina Bhandar writes that: She views this as an ontological trap that hinders the perception of culture as something "materially situated in the living practices of the everyday, situated in time-space and not based in abstract projections of what constitutes either a particular tradition or culture." In some societies, Islamophobia has materialized due to the portrayal of Islam and Muslims as the national "Other", where exclusion and discrimination occurs on the basis of their religion and civilization which differs with national tradition and identity. Examples include Pakistani and Algerian migrants in Britain and France respectively. This sentiment, according to Malcolm Brown and Robert Miles, significantly interacts with racism, although Islamophobia itself is not racism. Author Doug Saunders has drawn parallels between Islamophobia in the United States and its older discrimination and hate against Roman Catholics, saying that Catholicism was seen as backwards and imperial, while Catholic immigrants had poorer education and some were responsible for crime and terrorism. Brown and Miles write that another feature of Islamophobic discourse is to amalgamate nationality (e.g. Saudi), religion (Islam), and politics (terrorism, fundamentalism) – while most other religions are not associated with terrorism, or even "ethnic or national distinctiveness". They feel that "many of the stereotypes and misinformation that contribute to the articulation of Islamophobia are rooted in a particular perception of Islam", such as the notion that Islam promotes terrorism – especially prevalent after the September 11, 2001 attacks. The two-way stereotyping resulting from Islamophobia has in some instances resulted in mainstreaming of earlier controversial discourses, such as liberal attitudes towards gender equality and homosexuals. Christina Ho has warned against framing of such mainstreaming of gender equality in a colonial, paternal discourse, arguing that this may undermine minority women's ability to speak out about their concerns. Steven Salaita contends that, since 9/11, Arab Americans have evolved from what Nadine Naber described as an invisible group in the United States into a highly visible community that directly or indirectly has an effect on the United States' culture wars, foreign policy, presidential elections and legislative tradition. The academics S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil maintain that Islamophobia is a response to the emergence of a distinct Muslim public identity globally, the presence of Muslims in itself not being an indicator of the degree of Islamophobia in a society. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live but many institutionalized forms of Islamophobia still exist in them. Links to ideologies Cora Alexa Døving, a senior scientist at the Norwegian Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities, argues that there are significant similarities between Islamophobic discourse and European pre-Nazi antisemitism. Among the concerns are imagined threats of minority growth and domination, threats to traditional institutions and customs, skepticism of integration, threats to secularism, fears of sexual crimes, fears of misogyny, fears based on historical cultural inferiority, hostility to modern Western Enlightenment values, etc. has argued that there are important differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism. While antisemitism was a phenomenon closely connected to European nation-building processes, he sees Islamophobia as having the concern of European civilization as its focal point. Døving, on the other hand, maintains that, at least in Norway, the Islamophobic discourse has a clear national element. In a reply to Bunzl, French scholar of Jewish history, Esther Benbassa, agrees with him in that he draws a clear connection between modern hostile and essentializing sentiments towards Muslims and historical antisemitism. However, she argues against the use of the term Islamophobia, since, in her opinion, it attracts unwarranted attention to an underlying racist current. The head of the Media Responsibility Institute in Erlangen, Sabine Schiffer, and researcher Constantin Wagner, who also define Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism, outline additional similarities and differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism. They point out the existence of equivalent notions such as "Judaisation/Islamisation", and metaphors such as "a state within a state" are used in relation to both Jews and Muslims. In addition, both discourses make use of, among other rhetorical instruments, "religious imperatives" supposedly "proven" by religious sources, and conspiracy theories. The differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism consist of the nature of the perceived threats to the "Christian West". Muslims are perceived as "inferior" and as a visible "external threat", while on the other hand, Jews are perceived as "omnipotent" and as an invisible "internal threat". However, Schiffer and Wagner also note that there is a growing tendency to view Muslims as a privileged group that constitute an "internal threat" and that this convergence between the two discources makes "it more and more necessary to use findings from the study of anti-Semitism to analyse Islamophobia". Schiffer and Wagner conclude, The publication Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives describes Islamophobia as the new form of racism in Europe, arguing that "Islamophobia is as much a form of racism as anti-semitism, a term more commonly encountered in Europe as a sibling of racism, xenophobia and intolerance." Edward Said considers Islamophobia as it is evinced in Orientalism to be a trend in a more general antisemitic Western tradition. Others note that there has been a transition from anti-Asian and anti-Arab racism to anti-Muslim racism, while some note a racialization of religion. According to a 2012 report by a UK anti-racism group, counter-jihadist outfits in Europe and North America are becoming more cohesive by forging alliances, with 190 groups now identified as promoting an Islamophobic agenda. In Islamophobia and its consequences on young people (p. 6) Ingrid Ramberg writes "Whether it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion." Professor John Esposito of Georgetown University calls Islamophobia "the new anti-Semitism". In their 2018 American Muslim Poll, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that when it came to their Islamophobia index (see Public Opinion), they found that those who scored higher on the index, (i.e. more islamophobic) were, "associated with 1) greater acceptance of targeting civilians, whether it is a military or individual/small group that is doling out the violence, 2) greater acquiescence to limiting both press freedoms and institutional checks following a hypothetical terror attack, and 3) greater support for the so-called "Muslim ban" and the surveillance of American mosques (or their outright building prohibition)." Mohamed Nimer compares Islamophobia with anti-Americanism. He argues that while both Islam and America can be subject to legitimate criticisms without detesting a people as a whole, bigotry against both are on the rise. Gideon Rachman wrote in 2019 of a "clash of civilizations" between Muslim and non-Muslim nations, linking anti-Islam radicalisation outside the Muslim world to the rise of intolerant Islamism in some Muslim countries that used to be relatively free from that ideology. Opposition to multiculturalism According to Gabrielle Maranci, the increasing Islamophobia in the West is related to a rising repudiation of multiculturalism. Maranci concludes that "Islamophobia is a 'phobia' of multiculturalism and the transruptive effect that Islam can have in Europe and the West through transcultural processes." Other main cause of Islamophobia in the west is mainly due to the sheer lack of knowledge that the west has about 'Islam' as a religion. The west is unaware about the teachings or the purpose of Islam. Muslims following religious beliefs of Islam, like wearing their traditional clothes or speaking their native language are labelled as 'Inferiors' or 'Terrorists'. Manifestations Media According to Elizabeth Poole in the Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies, the media have been criticized for perpetrating Islamophobia. She cites a case study examining a sample of articles in the British press from between 1994 and 2004, which concluded that Muslim viewpoints were underrepresented and that issues involving Muslims usually depicted them in a negative light. Such portrayals, according to Poole, include the depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values. Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are "closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist." Egorova and Tudor cite European researchers in suggesting that expressions used in the media such as "Islamic terrorism", "Islamic bombs" and "violent Islam" have resulted in a negative perception of Islam. John E. Richardson's 2004 book (Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers, criticized the British media for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling anti-Muslim prejudice. In another study conducted by John E. Richardson, he found that 85% of mainstream newspaper articles treated Muslims as a homogeneous mass and portrayed them as a threat to British society. The Universities of Georgia and Alabama in the United States conducted a study comparing media coverage of "terrorist attacks" committed by Islamist militants with those of non-Muslims in the United States. Researchers found that "terrorist attacks" by Islamist militants receive 357% more media attention than attacks committed by non-Muslims or whites. Terrorist attacks committed by non-Muslims (or where the religion was unknown) received an average of 15 headlines, while those committed by Muslim extremists received 105 headlines. The study was based on an analysis of news reports covering terrorist attacks in the United States between 2005 and 2015. In 2009, Mehdi Hasan in the New Statesman criticized Western media for over-reporting a few Islamist terrorist incidents but under-reporting the much larger number of planned non-Islamist terrorist attacks carried out by "non-Irish white folks". A 2012 study indicates that Muslims across different European countries, such as France, Germany and the United Kingdom, experience the highest degree of Islamophobia in the media. Media personalities have been accused of Islamophobia. The obituary in The Guardian for the Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci described her as "notorious for her Islamaphobia" . The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding published a report in 2018 where they stated, "In terms of print media coverage, Muslim-perceived perpetrators received twice the absolute quantity of media coverage as their non-Muslim counterparts in the cases of violent completed acts. For "foiled" plots, they received seven and half times the media coverage as their counterparts." The term "Islamophobia industry" has been coined by Nathan Lean and John Esposito in the 2012 book The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims. Unlike the relationship of a buyer and a seller, it is a relationship of mutual benefit, where ideologies and political proclivities converge to advance the same agenda. The "Islamophobia industry" has since been discussed by other scholars including Joseph Kaminski, Hatem Bazian, Arlene Stein, Zakia Salime, Reza Aslan, Erdoan A. Shipoli, and Deepa Kumar, the latter drawing a comparison between the "Islamophobia industry" and Cold War era McCarthyism. Some media outlets are working explicitly against Islamophobia. In 2008 Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting ("FAIR") published a study "Smearcasting, How Islamophobes Spread Bigotry, Fear and Misinformation". The report cites several instances where mainstream or close to mainstream journalists, authors and academics have made analyses that essentialize negative traits as an inherent part of Muslims' moral makeup. FAIR also established the "Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism", designed to monitor coverage in the media and establish dialogue with media organizations. Following the attacks of 11 September 2001, the Islamic Society of Britain's "Islam Awareness Week" and the "Best of British Islam Festival" were introduced to improve community relations and raise awareness about Islam. In 2012, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation stated that they will launch a TV channel to counter Islamophobia. Silva and Meaux et al both theorized that one of the main causes of negative interactions, stigma, and marginalization toward the Arabic community is due to the fact that many media framing from news outlets tend to associate Arab-Muslims with terrorism and jihadist-inspired motivations when it came to mass violence incidents. Silva noted in their research looking through New York Times articles about gun violence and noted that over the sixteen-year period of 2000 until 2016 this media framing would only increase through the time period. Silva compared his results to find out that Arabic perpetrators were significantly more like to be framed as terrorists than their White counterparts. Meaux et al note back to research conducted by Park et al that indicated that the most salient association that Americans held on to was Arab-Muslims to terrorism with the notion that people that believed in this association the strongest were more likely to hold implicit bias. Movies Throughout the twentieth century, Muslim characters were portrayed in Hollywood often negatively and with Orientalist stereotypes visualising them as being "uncivilised". Since the Post-9/11 era, in addition to these tropes, a securitization of Muslims; portraying them as a threat to the Western world, have drastically increased in movie depictions. There are growing instances of Islamophobia in Hindi cinema, or Bollywood, in films such as Aamir (2008), New York (2009) and My Name is Khan (2010), which corresponds to a growing anti-minorities sentiment that followed the resurgence of the Hindu right. Organizations A report from the University of California Berkeley and the Council on American–Islamic Relations estimated that was funded to 33 groups whose primary purpose was "to promote prejudice against, or hatred of, Islam and Muslims" in the United States between 2008 and 2013, with a total of 74 groups contributing to Islamophobia in the United States during that period. Stop Islamization of America (SIOA) and the Freedom Defense Initiative are designated as hate groups by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. In August 2012 SIOA generated media publicity by sponsoring billboards in New York City Subway stations claiming there had been 19,250 terrorist attacks by Muslims since 9/11 and stating "it's not Islamophobia, it's Islamorealism." It later ran advertisements reading "In any war between the civilized man and the savage, support the civilized man. Support Israel. Defeat Jihad." Several groups condemned the advertisements as "hate speech" about all Muslims. In early January 2013 the Freedom Defense Initiative put up advertisements next to 228 clocks in 39 New York subway stations showing the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center with a quote attributed to the 151st verse of chapter 3 of the Quran: "Soon shall we cast terror into the hearts of the unbelievers." The New York City Transit Authority, which said it would have to carry the advertisements on First Amendment grounds, insisted that 25% of the ad contain a Transit Authority disclaimer. These advertisements also were criticized. The English Defence League (EDL), an organization in the United Kingdom, has been described as anti-Muslim. It was formed in 2009 to oppose what it considers to be a spread of Islamism, Sharia law and Islamic extremism in the UK. The EDL's former leader, Tommy Robinson, left the group in 2013 saying it had become too extreme and that street protests were ineffective. Furthermore, the 7 July 2005 London bombings and the resulting efforts of the British civil and law enforcement authorities to help seek British Muslims' help in identifying potential threats to create prevention is observed by Michael Lavalette as institutionalized Islamophobia. Lavalette alleges that there is a continuity between the former two British governments over prevention that aims to stop young Muslim people from being misled, misdirected and recruited by extremists who exploit grievances for their own "jihadist" endeavors. Asking and concentrating on Muslim communities and young Muslims to prevent future instances, by the authorities, is in itself Islamophobia as such since involvement of Muslim communities will highlight and endorse their compassion for Britain and negate the perceived threats from within their communities. Public opinion The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe. Polls in Germany and the Czech Republic (as well as South Korea) have suggested that most respondents do not welcome Muslim refugees in those countries. A 2017 Chatham House poll of more than 10,000 people in 10 European countries had on average 55% agreeing that all further migration from Muslim-majority countries should be stopped, with 20% disagreeing and 25% offered no opinion. By country, majority opposition was found in Poland (71%), Austria (65%), Belgium (64%), Hungary (64%), France (61%), Greece (58%), Germany (53%), and Italy (51%). In Canada, surveys have suggested that 55% of respondents think the problem of Islamophobia is "overblown" by politicians and media, 42% think discrimination against Muslims is 'mainly their fault', and 47% support banning headscarves in public. In the United States, a 2011 YouGov poll found that 50% of respondents expressed an unfavorable view of Islam, compared to 23% expressing a favorable view. Another YouGov poll done in 2015 had 55% of respondents expressing an unfavorable view. However, according to a 2018 Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 86% of American respondents said they wanted to "live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity", 83% told ISPU they supported "protecting the civil rights of American Muslims", 66% believed negative political rhetoric toward Muslims was harmful to U.S., and 65% agreed that Islamophobia produced discriminatory consequences for Muslims in America. The chart below displays collected data from the ISPU 2018 American Muslim Poll which surveyed six different faith populations in the United States. The statements featured in this chart were asked to participants who then responded on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The total percentage of those who answered agree and strongly agree are depicted as follows: Question 1: "I want to live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity." Question 2: "The negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country." Question 3: "Most Muslims living in the United States are no more responsible for violence carried out by a Muslim than anyone else." Question 4: "Most Muslims living in the United States are victims of discrimination because of their faith." The table below represents the Islamophobia Index, also from the 2018 ISPU poll. This data displays an index of Islamophobia among faith populations in the United States. Internalized Islamophobia ISPU also highlighted a particular trend in relation to anti-Muslim sentiment in the U.S. – internalized Islamophobia among Muslim populations themselves. When asked if they felt most people want them to be ashamed of their faith identity, 30% of Muslims agreed (a higher percentage than any other faith group). When asked if they believed that their faith community was more prone to negative behavior than other faith communities, 30% of Muslims agreed, again, a higher percentage than other faith groups. Trends Islamophobia has become a topic of increasing sociological and political importance. According to Benn and Jawad, Islamophobia has increased since Ayatollah Khomeini's 1989 fatwa inciting Muslims to attempt to murder Salman Rushdie, the author of The Satanic Verses, and since the 11 September attacks (in 2001). Anthropologist Steven Vertovec writes that the purported growth in Islamophobia may be associated with increased Muslim presence in society and successes. He suggests a circular model, where increased hostility towards Islam and Muslims results in governmental countermeasures such as institutional guidelines and changes to legislation, which itself may fuel further Islamophobia due to increased accommodation for Muslims in public life. Vertovec concludes: "As the public sphere shifts to provide a more prominent place for Muslims, Islamophobic tendencies may amplify." Patel, Humphries, and Naik (1998) claim that "Islamophobia has always been present in Western countries and cultures. In the last two decades, it has become accentuated, explicit and extreme." However, Vertovec states that some have observed that Islamophobia has not necessarily escalated in the past decades, but that there has been increased public scrutiny of it. According to Abduljalil Sajid, one of the members of the Runnymede Trust's Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, "Islamophobias" have existed in varying strains throughout history, with each version possessing its own distinct features as well as similarities or adaptations from others. In 2005 Ziauddin Sardar, an Islamic scholar, wrote in the New Statesman that Islamophobia is a widespread European phenomenon. He noted that each country has anti-Muslim political figures, citing Jean-Marie Le Pen in France; Pim Fortuyn in the Netherlands; and Philippe van der Sande of Vlaams Blok, a Flemish nationalist party in Belgium. Sardar argued that Europe is "post-colonial, but ambivalent". Minorities are regarded as acceptable as an underclass of menial workers, but if they want to be upwardly mobile anti-Muslim prejudice rises to the surface. Wolfram Richter, professor of economics at Dortmund University of Technology, told Sardar: "I am afraid we have not learned from our history. My main fear is that what we did to Jews we may now do to Muslims. The next holocaust would be against Muslims." Similar fears, as noted by Kenan Malik in his book From Fatwa to Jihad, had been previously expressed in the UK by Muslim philosopher Shabbir Akhtar in 1989, and Massoud Shadjareh, chair of the Islamic Human Rights Commission in 2000. In 2006 Salma Yaqoob, a Respect Party Councillor, claimed that Muslims in Britain were "subject to attacks reminiscent of the gathering storm of anti-Semitism in the first decades of the last century." Malik, a senior visiting fellow in the Department of Political, International and Policy Studies at the University of Surrey, has described these claims of a brewing holocaust as "hysterical to the point of delusion"; whereas Jews in Hitler's Germany were given the official designation of Untermenschen, and were subject to escalating legislation which diminished and ultimately removed their rights as citizens, Malik noted that in cases where "Muslims are singled out in Britain, it is often for privileged treatment" such as the 2005 legislation banning "incitement to religious hatred", the special funding Muslim organizations and bodies receive from local and national government, the special provisions made by workplaces, school and leisure centres for Muslims, and even suggestions by the Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams and the former Lord Chief Justice, Lord Phillips, that sharia law should be introduced into Britain. The fact is, wrote Malik, that such well-respected public figures as Akhtar, Shadjareh and Yaqoob need "a history lesson about the real Holocaust reveals how warped the Muslim grievance culture has become." In 2006 ABC News reported that "public views of Islam are one casualty of the post-September 11, 2001 conflict: Nearly six in 10 Americans think the religion is prone to violent extremism, nearly half regard it unfavorably, and a remarkable one in four admits to prejudicial feelings against Muslims and Arabs alike." They also report that 27 percent of Americans admit feelings of prejudice against Muslims. Gallup polls in 2006 found that 40 percent of Americans admit to prejudice against Muslims, and 39 percent believe Muslims should carry special identification. These trends have only worsened with the use of Islamophobia as a campaign tactic during the 2008 American presidential election (with several Republican politicians and pundits, including Donald Trump, asserting that Democratic candidate Barack Obama is secretly a Muslim), during the 2010 mid-term elections (during which a proposed Islamic community center was dubbed the "Ground Zero Mosque"), and the 2016 presidential election, during which Republican nominee Donald Trump proposed banning the entrance into the country of all Muslims. Associate Professor Deepa Kumar writes that "Islamophobia is about politics rather than religion per se" and that modern-day demonization of Arabs and Muslims by US politicians and others is racist and Islamophobic, and employed in support of what she describes as an unjust war. About the public impact of this rhetoric, she says that "One of the consequences of the relentless attacks on Islam and Muslims by politicians and the media is that Islamophobic sentiment is on the rise." She also chides some "people on the left" for using the same "Islamophobic logic as the Bush regime". In this regards, Kumar confirms the assertions of Stephen Sheehi, who "conceptualises Islamophobia as an ideological formation within the context of the American empire. Doing so "allows us to remove it from the hands of 'culture' or from the myth of a single creator or progenitor, whether it be a person, organisation or community." An ideological formation, in this telling, is a constellation of networks that produce, proliferate, benefit from, and traffic in Islamophobic discourses." The writer and scholar on religion Reza Aslan has said that "Islamophobia has become so mainstream in this country that Americans have been trained to expect violence against Muslims – not excuse it, but expect it". A January 2010 British Social Attitudes Survey found that the British public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group," with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam", and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church." A 2016 report by CAIR and University of California, Berkeley's Center for Race and Gender said that groups promoting islamophobia in the US had access to US$206 million between 2008 and 2013. The author of the report said that "The hate that these groups are funding and inciting is having real consequences like attacks on mosques all over the country and new laws discriminating against Muslims in America." In the United States, religious discrimination against Muslims has become a significant issue of concern. In 2018, The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that out of the groups studied, Muslims are the most likely faith community to experience religious discrimination, the data having been that way since 2015. Despite 61% of Muslims reporting experiencing religious discrimination at some level and 62% reporting that most Americans held negative stereotypes about their community, 23% reported that their faith made them feel "out of place in the world". There are intersections with racial identity and gender identity, with 73% of Arabs surveyed being more likely to experience religious discrimination, and Muslim women (75%) and youth (75%) being the most likely to report experiencing racial discrimination. The study also found that, although, "most Muslims (86%) express pride in their faith identity, they are the most likely group studied to agree that others want them to feel shame for that identity (30% of Muslims vs. 12% of Jews, 16% of non-affiliated, and 4–6% of Christian groups)." A 2021 survey affiliated with Newcastle University found that 83% of Muslims in Scotland said they experienced Islamophobia such as verbal or physical attacks. 75% of them said Islamophobia is a regular or everyday issue in Scottish society and 78% believed it was getting worse. Anti-Islamic hate crimes data in the United States Data on types of hate crimes have been collected by the U.S. FBI since 1992, to carry out the dictates of the 1990 Hate Crime Statistics Act. Hate crime offenses include crimes against persons (such as assaults) and against property (such as arson), and are classified by various race-based, religion-based, and other motivations. The data show that recorded anti-Islamic hate crimes in the United States jumped dramatically in 2001. Anti-Islamic hate crimes then subsided, but continued at a significantly higher pace than in pre-2001 years. The step up is in contrast to decreases in total hate crimes and to the decline in overall crime in the U.S. since the 1990s. Specifically, the FBI's annual hate crimes statistics reports from 1996 to 2013 document average numbers of anti-Islamic offenses at 31 per year before 2001, then a leap to 546 in 2001 (the year of 9-11 attacks), and averaging 159 per since. Among those offenses are anti-Islamic arson incidents which have a similar pattern: arson incidents averaged 0.4 per year pre-2001, jumped to 18 in 2001, and averaged 1.5 annually since. 2021, One of the members of Congress shared an anti-Muslim story about Muslim member of Congress during Thanksgiving break. This has happened many times. Year-by-year anti-Islamic hate crimes, all hate crimes, and arson subtotals are as follows: In contrast, the overall numbers of arson and total offenses declined from pre-2001 to post-2001. Anti-Islamic hate crimes in the European countries There have also been reports of hate crimes targeting Muslims across Europe. These incidents have increased after terrorist attacks by extremist groups such as ISIL. Far-right and right-wing populist political parties and organizations have also been accused of fueling fear and hatred towards Muslims. Hate crimes such as arson and physical violence have been attempted or have occurred in Norway, Poland, Sweden, France, Spain, Denmark, Germany and Great Britain. Politicians have also made anti-Muslim comments when discussing the European migrant crisis. According to MDPI: The Islamophobia Industry in America is another related-issue; it mentions: "The industry is driven by neocon stars: Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, David Yerushalmi, Glenn Beck, Pamela Gellner, Paul Wolfowitz, David Horowitz, and Frank Gaffney as well as native informers Walid Shoebat, Walid Phares, Wafa Sultan, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Ibn Warraq, Brigitte Gabriel, Tawfik Hamid, and Zuhdi Jasser. They have been prolific, producing and re-circulating false or exaggerated information about Islam and Muslims in order to gain lucrative speaking engagements and increase their influence among neocons in government." Reports by governmental organizations The largest project monitoring Islamophobia was undertaken following 9/11 by the EU watchdog, European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). Their May 2002 report "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001", written by Chris Allen and Jorgen S. Nielsen of the University of Birmingham, was based on 75 reports – 15 from each EU member nation. The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets for abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks after 9/11. Despite localized differences within each member nation, the recurrence of attacks on recognizable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report's most significant finding. Incidents consisted of verbal abuse, blaming all Muslims for terrorism, forcibly removing women's hijabs, spitting on Muslims, calling children "Osama", and random assaults. A number of Muslims were hospitalized and in one instance paralyzed. The report also discussed the portrayal of Muslims in the media. Inherent negativity, stereotypical images, fantastical representations, and exaggerated caricatures were all identified. The report concluded that "a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated." The EUMC has since released a number of publications related to Islamophobia, including The Fight against Antisemitism and Islamophobia: Bringing Communities together (European Round Tables Meetings) (2003) and Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia (2006). Professor in History of Religion, Anne Sophie Roald, states that Islamophobia was recognized as a form of intolerance alongside xenophobia and antisemitism at the "Stockholm International Forum on Combating Intolerance", held in January 2001. The conference, attended by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, High Commissioner for Human Rights Mary Robinson, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Secretary General Ján Kubis and representatives of the European Union and Council of Europe, adopted a declaration to combat "genocide, ethnic cleansing, racism, antisemitism, Islamophobia and xenophobia, and to combat all forms of racial discrimination and intolerance related to it." The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, in its 5th report to Islamophobia Observatory of 2012, found an "institutionalization and legitimization of the phenomenon of Islamophobia" in the West over the previous five years. In 2014 Integrationsverket (the Swedish National Integration Board) defined Islamophobia as "racism and discrimination expressed towards Muslims." In 2016, the European Islamophobia Report (EIR) presented the "European Islamophobia Report 2015" at European Parliament which analyzes the "trends in the spread of Islamophobia" in 25 European states in 2015. The EIR defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism. While not every criticism of Muslims or Islam is necessarily Islamophobic, anti-Muslim sentiments expressed through the dominant group scapegoating and excluding Muslims for the sake of power is. Research on Islamophobia and its correlates Various studies have been conducted to investigate Islamophobia and its correlates among majority populations and among Muslim minorities themselves. To start with, an experimental study showed that anti-Muslim attitudes may be stronger than more general xenophobic attitudes. Moreover, studies indicate that anti-Muslim prejudice among majority populations is primarily explained by the perception of Muslims as a cultural threat, rather than as a threat towards the respective nation's economy. Studies focusing on the experience of Islamophobia among Muslims have shown that the experience of religious discrimination is associated with lower national identification and higher religious identification. In other words, religious discrimination seems to lead Muslims to increase their identification with their religion and to decrease their identification with their nation of residence. Some studies further indicate that societal Islamophobia negatively influences Muslim minorities' health. One of the studies showed that the perception of an Islamophobic society is associated with more psychological problems, such as depression and nervousness, regardless whether the respective individual had personally experienced religious discrimination. As the authors of the study suggest, anti-discrimination laws may therefore be insufficient to fully protect Muslim minorities from an environment which is hostile towards their religious group. Farid Hafez and Enes Bayrakli publish an annual European Islamophobia Report since 2015. The European Islamophobie Report aims to enable policymakers as well as the public to discuss the issue of Islamophobia with the help of qualitative data. It is the first report to cover a wide range of Eastern European countries like Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latvia. Farid Hafez is also editor of the German-English Islamophobia Studies Yearbook. Geographic trends An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of Wahhabism, according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti-Terrorist Committee. Various translations of the Qur'an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy. Anti-Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia. In Greece, Islamophobia accompanies anti-immigrant sentiment, as immigrants are now 15% of the country's population and 90% of the EU's illegal entries are through Greece. In France Islamophobia is tied, in part, to the nation's long-standing tradition of secularism. In Myanmar (Burma) the 969 Movement has been accused of events such as the 2012 Rakhine State riots. Jocelyne Cesari, in her study of discrimination against Muslims in Europe, finds that anti-Islamic sentiment may be difficult to separate from other drivers of discrimination. Because Muslims are mainly from immigrant backgrounds and the largest group of immigrants in many Western European countries, xenophobia overlaps with Islamophobia, and a person may have one, the other, or both. So, for example, some people who have a negative perception of and attitude toward Muslims may also show this toward non-Muslim immigrants, either as a whole or certain group (such as, for example, Eastern Europeans, sub-Saharan Africans, or Roma), whereas others would not. Nigel Farage, for example, is anti-EU and in favor of crackdowns on immigration from Eastern Europe, but is favourable to immigration from Islamic Commonwealth countries such as Nigeria and Pakistan. In the United States, where immigrants from Latin America and Asia dominate and Muslims are a comparatively small fraction, xenophobia and Islamophobia may be more easily separable. Classism is another overlapping factor in some nations. Muslims have lower income and poorer education in France, Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands while Muslims in the US have higher income and education than the general population. In the UK, Islam is seen as a threat to secularism in response to the calls by some Muslims for blasphemy laws. In the Netherlands, Islam is seen as a socially conservative force that threatens gender equality and the acceptance of homosexuality. The European Network Against Racism (ENAR) reports that Islamophobic crimes are on the increase in France, England and Wales. In Sweden crimes with an Islamophobic motive increased by 69% from 2009 to 2013. A report from Australia has found that "except for Anglicans, all Christian groups have Islamophobia scores higher than the national average" and that "among the followers of non-Christian religious affiliations, Buddhists and Hindus [also] have significantly higher Islamophobia scores." In 2016, the South Thailand Insurgency, having caused more than 6,500 deaths and purportedly fuelled in part by the Thai military's harsh tactics, was reported to be increasing Islamophobia in the country. The Mindanao conflict in the Philippines has also fuelled discrimination against Muslims by some Christian Filipinos. The 2018 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka was suggested to have been a possible trigger for the 2019 Easter bombings. Muslims in the country have reportedly faced increased harassment after the bombings, with some Sinhala Buddhist groups calling for boycotts of Muslim businesses and trade. In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, Germany and France, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other Muslim minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps, though ambassadors from 53 others, not including China, rejected said allegations. According to a 2020 report by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang – 65% of the region's total. The 2020 Delhi riots, which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured, were triggered by protests against a citizenship law seen by many critics as anti-Muslim and part of Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Hindu nationalist agenda. Criticism of term and use Although by the first decade of the 21st century the term "Islamophobia" had become widely recognized and used, its use, its construction and the concept itself have been criticized. Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker, in an article that puts forward the term "Islamoprejudice" as a better alternative, write that "... few concepts have been debated as heatedly over the last ten years as the term Islamophobia." Academic debate Jocelyne Cesari reported widespread challenges in the use and meaning of the term in 2006. According to The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics, "Much debate has surrounded the use of the term, questioning its adequacy as an appropriate and meaningful descriptor. However, since Islamophobia has broadly entered the social and political lexicon, arguments about the appropriateness of the term now seem outdated". At the same time, according to a 2014 edition of A Dictionary of Sociology by Oxford University Press, "the exact meaning of Islamophobia continues to be debated amongst academics and policymakers alike." The term has proven problematic and is viewed by some as an obstacle to constructive criticism of Islam. Its detractors fear that it can be applied to any critique of Islamic practices and beliefs, suggesting terms such as "anti-Muslim" instead. The classification of "closed" and "open" views set out in the Runnymede report has been criticized as an oversimplification of a complex issue by scholars like Chris Allen, Fred Halliday, and Kenan Malik. Paul Jackson, in a critical study of the anti-Islamic English Defence League, argues that the criteria put forward by the Runnymede report for Islamophobia "can allow for any criticism of Muslim societies to be dismissed...". He argues that both jihadi Islamists and far-right activists use the term "to deflect attention away from more nuanced discussions on the make-up of Muslim communities", feeding "a language of polarised polemics". On one hand, it can be used "to close down discussion on genuine areas of criticism" regarding jihadi ideologies, which in turn has resulted in all accusations of Islamophobia to be dismissed as "spurious" by far-right activists. Consequently, the term is "losing much [of its] analytical value". Professor Eli Göndör wrote that the term Islamophobia should be replaced with "Muslimophobia". As Islamophobia is "a rejection of a population on the grounds of Muslimness", other researches suggest "Muslimism". Professor Mohammad H. Tamdgidi of the University of Massachusetts, Boston, has generally endorsed the definition of Islamophobia as defined by the Runnymede Trust's Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. However, he notes that the report's list of "open" views of Islam itself presents "an inadvertent definitional framework for Islamophilia": that is, it "falls in the trap of regarding Islam monolithically, in turn as being characterized by one or another trait, and does not adequately express the complex heterogeneity of a historical phenomenon whose contradictory interpretations, traditions, and sociopolitical trends have been shaped and has in turn been shaped, as in the case of any world tradition, by other world-historical forces." Atheist author and professor Richard Dawkins has criticised the term Islamophobia. He has argued that while hatred of Muslims is "unequivocally reprehensible" the term Islamophobia itself is an "otiose word which doesn't deserve definition." In 2015, along with the National Secular Society, he expressed opposition to a proposal by then Labour Party leader Ed Miliband to make Islamophobia an "aggravated crime". Dawkins stated that the proposed law was based on a term that is too vague, puts religion above scrutiny and questioned if such a law under the term Islamophobia hypothetically could be used to prosecute Charlie Hebdo or if he could be jailed for quoting violent passages from Islamic scripture on Twitter. Philosopher Michael Walzer says that fear of religious militancy, such as "of Hindutva zealots in India, of messianic Zionists in Israel, and of rampaging Buddhist monks in Myanmar", is not necessarily an irrational phobia, and compares fear of Islamic extremism with the fear Muslims and Jews could feel towards Christians during the crusades. However, he also writes that: Islamophobia is a form of religious intolerance, even religious hatred, and it would be wrong for any leftists to support bigots in Europe and the United States who deliberately misunderstand and misrepresent contemporary Muslims. They make no distinction between the historic religion and the zealots of this moment; they regard every Muslim immigrant in a Western country as a potential terrorist; and they fail to acknowledge the towering achievements of Muslim philosophers, poets, and artists over many centuries. Commentary In the wake of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, a group of 12 writers, including novelist Salman Rushdie and activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali, signed a manifesto entitled Together facing the new totalitarianism in the French weekly satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo in March 2006, warning against the use of the term Islamophobia to prevent criticism of "Islamic totalitarianism". Rushdie added in 2012 that 'Islamophobia' "took the language of analysis, reason and dispute, and stood it on its head". Hirsi Ali added in 2017 that Islamophobia was a "manufactured" term whose usage emboldens radical Muslims to push for censorship and that "we can't stop the injustices if we say everything is 'Islamophobic' and hide behind a politically correct screen." Left-wing journalist and 'New Atheist' writer Christopher Hitchens stated in February 2007 that "a stupid term – Islamophobia – has been put into circulation to try and suggest that a foul prejudice lurks behind any misgivings about Islam's infallible 'message. Writing in the New Humanist in May 2007, philosopher Piers Benn suggests that people who fear the rise of Islamophobia foster an environment "not intellectually or morally healthy", to the point that what he calls "Islamophobia-phobia" can undermine "critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite, or ignorant of the religion's true nature." Alan Posener and Alan Johnson have written that, while the idea of Islamophobia is sometimes misused, those who claim that hatred of Muslims is justified as opposition to Islamism actually undermine the struggle against Islamism. The author Sam Harris, while denouncing bigotry, racism, and prejudice against Muslims or Arabs, rejects the term Islamophobia as an invented psychological disorder, and states criticizing those Islamic beliefs and practices he believes pose a threat to civil society is not a form of bigotry or racism. Similarly, Pascal Bruckner calls the term "a clever invention because it amounts to making Islam a subject that one cannot touch without being accused of racism." Writing in 2008 Muslim reformist Ed Husain, a former member of Hizb ut-Tahrir and co-founder of Quilliam, said that under pressure from Islamist extremists, "'Islamophobia' has become accepted as a phenomenon on a par with racism", claiming that "Outside a few flashpoints where the BNP is at work, most Muslims would be hard-pressed to identify Islamophobia in their lives". Conservative political commentator Douglas Murray has described Islamophobia in 2013 as a "nonsense term" and stated "a phobia is something of which one is irrationally afraid. Yet it is supremely rational to be scared of elements of Islam and of its fundamentalist strains in particular. Nevertheless, the term has been very successfully deployed, not least because it has the aura of a smear. Islamophobes are not only subject to an irrational and unnecessary fear; they are assumed to be motivated (because most Muslims in the West are from an ethnic minority) by "racism". Who would not recoil from such charges?" In his paper "A Measure of Islamophobia", British academic Salman Sayyid (2014) argues that these criticisms are a form of etymological fundamentalism and echo earlier comments on racism and antisemitism. Racism and antisemitism were also accused of blocking free speech, of being conceptually weak and too nebulous for practical purposes. French Prime Minister Manuel Valls said in January 2015 following the Charlie Hebdo shooting "It is very important to make clear to people that Islam has nothing to do with ISIS. There is a prejudice in society about this, but on the other hand, I refuse to use this term 'Islamophobia,' because those who use this word are trying to invalidate any criticism at all of the Islamist ideology. The charge of 'Islamophobia' is used to silence people". Conservative journalist and commentator Brendan O'Neill stated in 2018 "Anti-Muslim prejudice is out there, yes. But 'Islamophobia' is an elite invention, a top-down conceit, designed to chill open discussion about religion and values and to protect one particular religion from blasphemy. The war on Islamophobia is in essence a demand for censorship." Muslim reformist Maajid Nawaz, a former member of the Islamist Hizb ut-Tahrir group and founder of the counter-extremism Quilliam think-tank has criticized the term "Islamophobia" on several occasions, stating in 2020 it conflates racism with blasphemy and "there's a huge difference in being critical of an idea and critical of a person because of their political or religious identity." Nawaz argues that "anti-Muslim bigotry" is a more accurate phrase to use instead of Islamophobia when addressing prejudice faced by people of Muslim origin. British-American physician, author and Muslim reformist writer Qanta A. Ahmed has argued against using the term Islamophobia and has cautioned against using it as part of anti-racism or hate speech legislation by claiming jihadis will exploit it. She has argued that "while we're getting better at thwarting terrorist attacks, we're still fighting their ideological underpinning. As a secular pluralistic democracy, we have weapons: intellectual scrutiny, critical thinking and above all the insight to command the language of this war of ideas. And to use the word Islamophobia when talking about anti-Muslim xenophobia is to use the vocabulary and adopt the rulebook of the Islamists who wish to obfuscate their intent." The Associated Press Stylebook In December 2012, media sources reported that the terms "homophobia" and "Islamophobia" would no longer be included in the AP Stylebook. Deputy Standards Editor Dave Minthorn said "a phobia is a psychiatric or medical term for a severe mental disorder," and thus not appropriate to use them in articles with political or social contexts because they imply an understanding of the mental state of another individual. Countering Islamophobia International On 16 March 2022, UN designated March 15 as International Day To Combat Islamophobia. Europe On 26 September 2018, the European Parliament in Brussels launched the "Counter-Islamophobia Toolkit" (CIK), with the goal of combatting the growing Islamophobia across the EU and to be distributed to national governments and other policy makers, civil society and the media. Based on the most comprehensive research in Europe, it examines patterns of Islamophobia and effective strategies against it in eight member states. It lists ten dominant narratives and ten effective counter-narratives. One of the authors of the CIK, Amina Easat-Daas, says that Muslim women are disproportionately affected by Islamophobia, based on both the "threat to the west" and "victims of...Islamic sexism" narratives. The approach taken in the CIK is a four-step one: defining the misinformed narratives based on flawed logic; documenting them; deconstructing these ideas to expose the flaws; and finally, reconstruction of mainstream ideas about Islam and Muslims, one closer to reality. The dominant ideas circulating in popular culture should reflect the diverse everyday experiences of Muslims and their faith. See also Anti-Arabism Criticism of Islam Peace in Islam Persecution of Muslims International Day To Combat Islamophobia Islamophobia in the media Islamophobia Watch Islamophobic incidents Nativism (politics) Nativism (politics) in the United States Religious intolerance Religious persecution Religious violence Religious war 9/11 7/7 Attacks Minority stress World Hijab Day References Notes Citations Sources Further reading Ali, Wajahat; Clifton, Eli; Duss, Matthew; Fang, Lee; Keyes, Scott; and Shakir, Faiz (August 26, 2011) "Fear, Inc.: The Roots of the Islamophobia Network in America". American Progress. Accessed 24 February 2015. Allen, Chris (2011). Islamophobia. Ashgate Publishing Company. Duss, Matthew; Taeb; Yasmine; Gude, Ken; and Sofer, Ken (February 11, 2015) "Fear, Inc. 2.0: The Islamophobia Network's Efforts to Manufacture Hate in America". American Progress. Accessed 24 February 2015. Itaoui, Rhonda (2016). "The Geography of Islamophobia in Sydney: mapping the spatial imaginaries of young Muslims", in Australian Geographer. Vol 47:3, 261–79. Kaplan, Jeffrey (2006). "Islamophobia in America?: September 11 and Islamophobic Hate Crime ", Terrorism and Political Violence (Routledge), 18:1, 1–33. Kincheloe, Joe L. and Steinberg, Shirley R. (2004). The Miseducation of the West: How the Schools and Media Distort Our Understanding of Islam. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press. (Arabic Edition, 2005). Kincheloe, Joe L. and Steinberg, Shirley R. (2010). Teaching Against Islamophobia. New York: Peter Lang. Konrad, Felix (2011). From the "Turkish Menace" to Exoticism and Orientalism: Islam as Antithesis of Europe (1453–1914)?, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History. Retrieved: 22 June 2011. Kundnani, Arun. (2014) The Muslims Are Coming! Islamaphobia, Extremism, and the Domestic War on Terror (Verso; 2014) 327 pages Lajevardi, N. (2020). Outsiders at Home: The Politics of American Islamophobia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sheehi, Stephen (2011). Islamophobia: The Ideological Campaign Against Muslims. Clarity Press. Shryock, Andrew, ed. (2010). Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend. Indiana University Press. p. 250. Essays on Islamophobia past and present; topics include the "neo-Orientalism" of three Muslim commentators today: Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Reza Aslan, and Irshad Manji. Silva, Derek (2017). "The Othering of Muslims: Discourses of Radicalization in the New York Times, 1969–2014", Sociological Forum, 32:1, 138–161. Tausch, Arno with Bischof, Christian; Kastrun, Tomaz; and Mueller, Karl (2007). Against Islamophobia: Muslim Communities, Social-Exclusion and the Lisbon Process in Europe. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. . Tausch, Arno with Bischof, Christian and Mueller, Karl (2008). Muslim Calvinism: Internal Security and the Lisbon Process in Europe. Purdue University Press. . Tausch, Arno (2007). Against Islamophobia: Quantitative Analyses of Global Terrorism, World Political Cycles and Center Periphery Structures. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. . External links Islamophobia Studies Journal – Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project, UC Berkeley Reports – European Islamophobia – European Islamophobia Reports EIR Islamophobia Today newspaper – an Islamophobia news clearing house Sammy Aziz Rahmatti, Understanding and Countering Islamophobia Political neologisms Xenophobia Racism	wiki
Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia may refer to: The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, a former name of the current United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit District of Columbia Court of Appeals, the current appellate court of the District of Columbia	wiki

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.