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Esophagitis, also spelled oesophagitis, is a disease characterized by inflammation of the esophagus. The esophagus is a tube composed of a mucosal lining, and longitudinal and circular smooth muscle fibers. It connects the pharynx to the stomach; swallowed food and liquids normally pass through it.
Esophagitis can be asymptomatic; or can cause epigastric and/or substernal burning pain, especially when lying down or straining; and can make swallowing difficult (dysphagia). The most common cause of esophagitis is the reverse flow of acid from the stomach into the lower esophagus: gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
Signs and symptoms
The symptoms of esophagitis include:
Heartburn – a burning sensation in the lower mid-chest
Nausea
Dysphagia – swallowing is painful, with difficulty passing or inability to pass food through the esophagus
Vomiting (emesis)
Abdominal pain
Cough
Complications
If the disease remains untreated, it can cause scarring and discomfort in the esophagus. If the irritation is not allowed to heal, esophagitis can result in esophageal ulcers. Esophagitis can develop into Barrett's esophagus and can increase the risk of esophageal cancer.
Causes
Infectious esophagitis cannot be spread. However, infections can be spread by those who have infectious esophagitis. Esophagitis can develop due to many causes. GERD is the most common cause of esophagitis because of the backflow of acid from the stomach, which can irritate the lining of the esophagus.
Other causes include:
Medicines – Can cause esophageal damage that can lead to esophageal ulcers
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) – aspirin, naproxen sodium, and ibuprofen. Known to irritate the GI tract.
Antibiotics – doxycycline and tetracycline
Quinidine
Bisphosphonates – used to treat osteoporosis
Steroids
Potassium chloride
Chemical injury by alkaline or acid solutions
Physical injury resulting from nasogastric tubes.
Alcohol use disorder – Can wear down the lining of the esophagus.
Crohn's disease – a type of IBD and an autoimmune disease that can cause esophagitis if it attacks the esophagus.
Stress – Can cause higher levels of acid reflux
Radiation therapy - Can affect the immune system.
Allergies (food, inhalants) – Allergies can stimulate eosinophilic esophagitis.
Infection - People with an immunodeficiencies have a higher chance of developing esophagitis.
Vitamins and supplements (iron, vitamin C, and potassium) – Supplements and minerals can be hard on the GI tract.
Vomiting – Acid can irritate esophagus.
Hernias – A hernia can poke through the diaphragm muscle and can inhibit the stomach acid and food from draining quickly.
Surgery
Eosinophilic esophagitis, a more chronic condition with a theorized autoimmune component
Mechanism
The esophagus is a muscular tube made of both voluntary and involuntary muscles. It is responsible for peristalsis of food. It is about 8 inches long and passes through the diaphragm before entering the stomach. The esophagus is made up of three layers: from the inside out, they are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa. The mucosa, the inner most layer and lining of the esophagus, is composed of stratified squamous epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. At the end of the esophagus is the lower esophageal sphincter, which normally prevents stomach acid from entering the esophagus.
If the sphincter is not sufficiently tight, it may allow acid to enter the esophagus, causing inflammation of one or more layers. Esophagitis may also occur if an infection is present, which may be due to bacteria, viruses, or fungi; or by diseases that affect the immune system.
Irritation can be caused by GERD, vomiting, surgery, medications, hernias, and radiation injury. Inflammation can cause the esophagus to narrow, which makes swallowing food difficult and may result in food bolus impaction.
Diagnosis
Esophagitis can be diagnosed by upper endoscopy, biopsy, upper GI series (or barium swallow), and laboratory tests.
An upper endoscopy is a procedure to look at the esophagus by using an endoscope. While looking at the esophagus, the doctor is able to take a small biopsy. The biopsy can be used to confirm inflammation of the esophagus.
An upper GI series uses a barium contrast, fluoroscopy, and an X-ray. During a barium X-ray, a solution with barium or pill is taken before getting an X-ray. The barium makes the organs more visible and can detect if there is any narrowing, inflammation, or other abnormalities that can be causing the disease. The upper GI series can be used to find the cause of GI symptoms. An esophagram is if only the throat and esophagus are looked at.
Laboratory tests can be done on biopsies removed from the esophagus and can help determine the cause of the esophagitis. Laboratory tests can help diagnose a fungal, viral, or bacterial infection. Scanning for white blood cells can help diagnose eosinophil esophagitis.
Some lifestyle indicators for this disease include stress, unhealthy eating, smoking, drinking, family history, allergies, and immunodeficiency.
Types
Reflux esophagitis
Although it usually assumed that inflammation from acid reflux is caused by the irritant action on the mucosa by hydrochloric acid, one study suggests that the pathogenesis of reflux esophagitis may be cytokine-mediated.
Infectious esophagitis
Esophagitis happens due to a viral, fungal, parasitic or bacterial infection. More likely to happen to people who have an immunodeficiency. Types include:
Fungal
Candida (Esophageal candidiasis)
Viral
Herpes simplex (Herpes esophagitis)
Cytomegalovirus
Drug-induced esophagitis
Damage to the esophagus due to medications. If the esophagus is not coated or if the medicine is not taken with enough liquid, it can damage the tissues.
Eosinophilic esophagitis
Eosinophilic esophagitis is caused by a high concentration of eosinophils in the esophagus. The presence of eosinophils in the esophagus may be due to an allergen and is often correlated with GERD. The direction of cause and effect between inflammation and acid reflux is poorly established, with recent studies (in 2016) hinting that reflux does not cause inflammation. This esophagitis can be triggered by allergies to food or to inhaled allergens. This type is still poorly understood.
Lymphocytic esophagitis
Lymphocytic esophagitis is a rare and poorly understood entity associated with an increased amount of lymphocytes in the lining of the esophagus. It was first described in 2006. Disease associations may include Crohn's disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease and coeliac disease. It causes similar changes on endoscopy as eosinophilic esophagitis including esophageal rings, narrow-lumen esophagus, and linear furrows.
Caustic esophagitis
Caustic esophagitis is the damage of tissue via chemical origin. This occasionally occurs through occupational exposure (via breathing of fumes that mix into the saliva which is then swallowed) or through pica. It occurred in some teenagers during the fad of intentionally eating Tide pods.
By severity
The severity of reflux esophagitis is commonly classified into four grades according to the Los Angeles Classification:
Prevention
Since there can be many causes underlying esophagitis, it is important to try to find the cause to help to prevent esophagitis. To prevent reflux esophagitis, avoid acidic foods, caffeine, eating before going to bed, alcohol, fatty meals, and smoking. To prevent drug-induced esophagitis, drink plenty of liquids when taking medicines, take an alternative drug, and do not take medicines while lying down, before sleeping, or too many at one time. Esophagitis is more prevalent in adults and does not discriminate.
Treatment
Lifestyle changes
Losing weight, stop smoking and alcohol, lowering stress, avoid sleeping/lying down after eating, raising the head of the bed, taking medicines correctly, avoiding certain medications, and avoiding foods that cause the reflux that might be causing the esophagitis.
Medications
Antacids
To treat reflux esophagitis, over the counter antacids, medications that reduce acid production (H-2 receptor blockers), and proton pump inhibitors are recommended to help block acid production and to let the esophagus heal. Some prescription medications to treat reflux esophagitis include higher dose H-2 receptor blockers, proton pump inhibitors, and prokinetics, which help with the emptying of the stomach. However prokinetics are no longer licensed for GERD because their evidence of efficacy is poor, and following a safety review, licensed use of domperidone and metoclopramide is now restricted to short-term use in nausea and vomiting only.
For subtypes
To treat eosinophilic esophagitis, avoiding any allergens that may be stimulating the eosinophils is recommended. As for medications, proton pump inhibitors and steroids can be prescribed. Steroids that are used to treat asthma can be swallowed to treat eosinophil esophagitis due to nonfood allergens. The removal of food allergens from the diet is included to help treat eosinophilic esophagitis.
For infectious esophagitis, medicine is prescribed based on what type of infection is causing the esophagitis. These medicines are prescribed to treat bacterial, fungal, viral, and/or parasitic infections.
Procedures
An endoscopy can be used to remove ill fragments.
Surgery can be done to remove the damaged part of the esophagus.
For reflux esophagitis, a fundooplication can be done to help strengthen the lower esophageal sphincter from allowing backflow of the stomach into the esophagus.
For esophageal stricture, a gastroenterologist can perform a dilation of the esophagus.
As of 2020 evidence for magnetic sphincter augmentation is poor.
Prognosis
The prognosis for a person with esophagitis depends on the underlying causes and conditions. If a patient has a more serious underlying cause such as a digestive system or immune system issue, it may be more difficult to treat. Normally, the prognosis would be good with no serious illnesses. If there are more causes than one, the prognosis could move to fair.
Terminology
The term is from Greek οἰσοφάγος "gullet" and -itis "inflammation".
References
External links
Inflammations
Esophagus disorders
Acute pain | wiki |
In vertebrates, the gallbladder, also known as the cholecyst, is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct, and releases it via the common bile duct into the duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of fats.
The gallbladder can be affected by gallstones, formed by material that cannot be dissolved – usually cholesterol or bilirubin, a product of haemoglobin breakdown. These may cause significant pain, particularly in the upper-right corner of the abdomen, and are often treated with removal of the gallbladder (called a cholecystectomy). Cholecystitis, inflammation of the gallbladder, has a wide range of causes, including result from the impaction of gallstones, infection, and autoimmune disease.
Structure
The gallbladder is a hollow organ that sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the liver, which is grey-blue in life. In adults, the gallbladder measures approximately in length and in diameter when fully distended. The gallbladder has a capacity of about .
The gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip opening into the cystic duct. The gallbladder is divided into three sections: the fundus, body, and neck. The fundus is the rounded base, angled so that it faces the abdominal wall. The body lies in a depression in the surface of the lower liver. The neck tapers and is continuous with the cystic duct, part of the biliary tree. The gallbladder fossa, against which the fundus and body of the gallbladder lie, is found beneath the junction of hepatic segments IVB and V. The cystic duct unites with the common hepatic duct to become the common bile duct. At the junction of the neck of the gallbladder and the cystic duct, there is an out-pouching of the gallbladder wall forming a mucosal fold known as "Hartmann's pouch".
Lymphatic drainage of the gallbladder follows the cystic node, which is located between the cystic duct and the common hepatic duct. Lymphatics from the lower part of the organ drain into lower hepatic lymph nodes. All the lymph finally drains into celiac lymph nodes.
Microanatomy
The gallbladder wall is composed of a number of layers. The innermost surface of the gallbladder wall is lined by a single layer of columnar cells with a brush border of microvilli, very similar to intestinal absorptive cells. Underneath the epithelium is an underlying lamina propria, a muscular layer, an outer perimuscular layer and serosa. Unlike elsewhere in the intestinal tract, the gallbladder does not have a muscularis mucosae, and the muscular fibres are not arranged in distinct layers.
The mucosa, the inner portion of the gallbladder wall, consists of a lining of a single layer of columnar cells, with cells possessing small hair-like attachments called microvilli. This sits on a thin layer of connective tissue, the lamina propria. The mucosa is curved and collected into tiny outpouchings called rugae.
A muscular layer sits beneath the mucosa. This is formed by smooth muscle, with fibres that lie in longitudinal, oblique and transverse directions, and are not arranged in separate layers. The muscle fibres here contract to expel bile from the gallbladder. A distinctive feature of the gallbladder is the presence of Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses, deep outpouchings of the mucosa that can extend through the muscular layer, and which indicate adenomyomatosis. The muscular layer is surrounded by a layer of connective and fat tissue.
The outer layer of the fundus of gallbladder, and the surfaces not in contact with the liver, are covered by a thick serosa, which is exposed to the peritoneum. The serosa contains blood vessels and lymphatics. The surfaces in contact with the liver are covered in connective tissue.
Variation
The gallbladder varies in size, shape, and position between different people. Rarely, two or even three gallbladders may coexist, either as separate bladders draining into the cystic duct, or sharing a common branch that drains into the cystic duct. Additionally, the gallbladder may fail to form at all. Gallbladders with two lobes separated by a septum may also exist. These abnormalities are not likely to affect function and are generally asymptomatic.
The location of the gallbladder in relation to the liver may also vary, with documented variants including gallbladders found within, above, on the left side of, behind, and detached or suspended from the liver. Such variants are very rare: from 1886 to 1998, only 110 cases of left-lying liver, or less than one per year, were reported in scientific literature.
An anatomical variation can occur, known as a Phrygian cap, which is an innocuous fold in the fundus, named after its resemblance to the Phrygian cap.
Development
The gallbladder develops from an endodermal outpouching of the embryonic gut tube. Early in development, the human embryo has three germ layers and abuts an embryonic yolk sac. During the second week of embryogenesis, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround and envelop portions of this sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract. Sections of this foregut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
During the fourth week of embryological development, the stomach rotates. The stomach, originally lying in the midline of the embryo, rotates so that its body is on the left. This rotation also affects the part of the gastrointestinal tube immediately below the stomach, which will go on to become the duodenum. By the end of the fourth week, the developing duodenum begins to spout a small outpouching on its right side, the hepatic diverticulum, which will go on to become the biliary tree. Just below this is a second outpouching, known as the cystic diverticulum, that will eventually develop into the gallbladder.
Function
The main functions of the gallbladder are to store and concentrate bile, also called gall, needed for the digestion of fats in food. Produced by the liver, bile flows through small vessels into the larger hepatic ducts and ultimately through the cystic duct (parts of the biliary tree) into the gallbladder, where it is stored. At any one time, of bile is stored within the gallbladder.
When food containing fat enters the digestive tract, it stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) from I cells of the duodenum and jejunum. In response to cholecystokinin, the gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into the common bile duct, eventually draining into the duodenum. The bile emulsifies fats in partly digested food, thereby assisting their absorption. Bile consists primarily of water and bile salts, and also acts as a means of eliminating bilirubin, a product of hemoglobin metabolism, from the body.
The bile that is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder is not the same as the bile that is secreted by the gallbladder. During gallbladder storage of bile, it is concentrated 3-10 fold by removal of some water and electrolytes. This is through the active transport of sodium and chloride ions across the epithelium of the gallbladder, which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes to be reabsorbed.
Clinical significance
Gallstones
Gallstones form when the bile is saturated, usually with either cholesterol or bilirubin. Most gallstones do not cause symptoms, with stones either remaining in the gallbladder or passed along the biliary system. When symptoms occur, severe "colicky" pain in the upper right part of the abdomen is often felt. If the stone blocks the gallbladder, inflammation known as cholecystitis may result. If the stone lodges in the biliary system, jaundice may occur; if the stone blocks the pancreatic duct, pancreatitis may occur. Gallstones are diagnosed using ultrasound. When a symptomatic gallstone occurs, it is often managed by waiting for it to be passed naturally. Given the likelihood of recurrent gallstones, surgery to remove the gallbladder is often considered. Some medication, such as ursodeoxycholic acid, may be used; lithotripsy, a non-invasive mechanical procedure used to break down the stones, may also be used.
Inflammation
Known as cholecystitis, inflammation of the gallbladder is commonly caused by obstruction of the duct with gallstones, which is known as cholelithiasis. Blocked bile accumulates, and pressure on the gallbladder wall may lead to the release of substances that cause inflammation, such as phospholipase. There is also the risk of bacterial infection. An inflamed gallbladder is likely to cause sharp and localised pain, fever, and tenderness in the upper, right corner of the abdomen, and may have a positive Murphy's sign. Cholecystitis is often managed with rest and antibiotics, particularly cephalosporins and, in severe cases, metronidazole. Additionally the gallbladder may need to be removed surgically if inflammation has progressed far enough.
Gallbladder removal
A cholecystectomy is a procedure in which the gallbladder is removed. It may be removed because of recurrent gallstones and is considered an elective procedure. A cholecystectomy may be an open procedure, or a laparoscopic one. In the surgery, the gallbladder is removed from the neck to the fundus, and so bile will drain directly from the liver into the biliary tree. About 30 percent of patients may experience some degree of indigestion following the procedure, although severe complications are much rarer. About 10 percent of surgeries lead to a chronic condition of postcholecystectomy syndrome.
Complication
Biliary injury (bile duct injury) is the traumatic damage of the bile ducts. It is most commonly an iatrogenic complication of cholecystectomy — surgical removal of gall bladder, but can also be caused by other operations or by major trauma. The risk of biliary injury is more during laparoscopic cholecystectomy than during open cholecystectomy. Biliary injury may lead to several complications and may even cause death if not diagnosed in time and managed properly. Ideally biliary injury should be managed at a center with facilities and expertise in endoscopy, radiology and surgery.
Biloma is collection of bile within the abdominal cavity. It happens when there is a bile leak, for example after surgery for removing the gallbladder (laparoscopic cholecystectomy), with an incidence of 0.3–2%. Other causes are biliary surgery, liver biopsy, abdominal trauma, and, rarely, spontaneous perforation.
Cancer
Cancer of the gallbladder is uncommon and mostly occurs in later life. When cancer occurs, it is mostly of the glands lining the surface of the gallbladder (adenocarcinoma). Gallstones are thought to be linked to the formation of cancer. Other risk factors include large (>1 cm) gallbladder polyps and having a highly calcified "porcelain" gallbladder.
Cancer of the gallbladder can cause attacks of biliary pain, yellowing of the skin (jaundice), and weight loss. A large gallbladder may be able to be felt in the abdomen. Liver function tests may be elevated, particularly involving GGT and ALP, with ultrasound and CT scans being considered medical imaging investigations of choice. Cancer of the gallbladder is managed by removing the gallbladder, however, the prognosis remains poor.
Cancer of the gallbladder may also be found incidentally after surgical removal of the gallbladder, with 1–3% of cancers identified in this way. Gallbladder polyps are mostly benign growths or lesions resembling growths that form in the gallbladder wall, and are only associated with cancer when they are larger in size (>1 cm). Cholesterol polyps, often associated with cholesterolosis ("strawberry gallbladder", a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol), often cause no symptoms and are thus often detected in this way.
Tests
Tests used to investigate for gallbladder disease include blood tests and medical imaging. A full blood count may reveal an increased white cell count suggestive of inflammation or infection. Tests such as bilirubin and liver function tests may reveal if there is inflammation linked to the biliary tree or gallbladder, and whether this is associated with inflammation of the liver, and a lipase or amylase may be elevated if there is pancreatitis. Bilirubin may rise when there is obstruction of the flow of bile. A CA 19-9 level may be taken to investigate for cholangiocarcinoma.
An ultrasound is often the first medical imaging test performed when gallbladder disease such as gallstones are suspected. An abdominal X-ray or CT scan is another form of imaging that may be used to examine the gallbladder and surrounding organs. Other imaging options include MRCP (magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography), ERCP and percutaneous or intraoperative cholangiography. A cholescintigraphy scan is a nuclear imaging procedure used to assess the condition of the gallbladder.
Other animals
Most vertebrates have gallbladders, but the form and arrangement of the bile ducts may vary considerably. In many species, for example, there are several separate ducts running to the intestine, rather than the single common bile duct found in humans. Several species of mammals (including horses, deer, rats, and laminoids), several species of birds (such as pigeons and some psittacine species), lampreys and all invertebrates do not have a gallbladder.
The bile from several species of bears is used in traditional Chinese medicine; bile bears are kept alive in captivity while their bile is extracted, in an industry characterized by animal cruelty.
History
Depictions of the gallbladder and biliary tree are found in Babylonian models found from 2000 BCE, and in ancient Etruscan model from 200 BCE, with models associated with divine worship.
Diseases of the gallbladder are known to have existed in humans since antiquity, with gallstones found in the mummy of Princess Amenen of Thebes dating to 1500 BCE. Some historians believe the death of Alexander the Great may have been associated with an acute episode of cholecystitis. The existence of the gallbladder has been noted since the 5th century, but it is only relatively recently that the function and the diseases of the gallbladder has been documented, particularly in the last two centuries.
The first descriptions of gallstones appear to have been in the Renaissance, perhaps because of the low incidence of gallstones in earlier times owing to a diet with more cereals and vegetables and less meat. Anthonius Benevinius in 1506 was the first to draw a connection between symptoms and the presence of gallstones. Ludwig Georg Courvoisier, after examining a number of cases in 1890 that gave rise to the eponymous Courvoisier's law, stated that in an enlarged, nontender gallbladder, the cause of jaundice is unlikely to be gallstones.
The first surgical removal of a gallstone (cholecystolithotomy) was in 1676 by physician Joenisius, who removed the stones from a spontaneously occurring biliary fistula. Stough Hobbs in 1867 performed the first recorded cholecystotomy, although such an operation was in fact described earlier by French surgeon Jean Louis Petit in the mid eighteenth century. German surgeon Carl Langenbuch performed the first cholecystectomy in 1882 for a sufferer of cholelithiasis. Before this, surgery had focused on creating a fistula for drainage of gallstones. Langenbuch reasoned that given several other species of mammal have no gallbladder, humans could survive without one.
The debate whether surgical removal of the gallbladder or simply gallstones was preferred was settled in the 1920s, with the consensus that removal of the gallbladder was preferred. It was only in the mid and late parts of the twentieth century that medical imaging techniques such as use of contrast medium and CT scans were used to view the gallbladder. The first laparoscopic cholecystectomy performed by Erich Mühe of Germany in 1985, although French surgeons Phillipe Mouret and Francois Dubois are often credited for their operations in 1987 and 1988 respectively.
Society and culture
To have "gall" is associated with bold behaviour, whereas to have "bile" is associated with bitterness.
In the Chinese language, the gallbladder () is associated with courage and a myriad of related idioms, including using terms such as "a body completely [of] gall" () to describe a brave person, and "single gallbladder hero" () to describe a lone hero.
In the Zangfu theory of Chinese medicine, the gallbladder not only has a digestive role, but is seen as the seat of decision-making.
See also
Enterohepatic circulation
Gallbladder flush
References
Books
External links
Diagram of Human Stomach and Gallbladder – Human Anatomy Online dd, MyHealthScore.com
Abdomen
Animal anatomy
Organs (anatomy)
Digestive system | wiki |
Maigret et l'affaire Saint-Fiacre is a 1959 French crime film directed by Jean Delannoy that stars Jean Gabin as the fictional police detective Jules Maigret. Adapted from the novel l'Affaire Saint-Fiacre by the Belgian writer Georges Simenon, it tells how Maigret goes privately to the aid of his late father's employer who has received an anonymous death threat and, though unable to prevent the death, unmasks the plotters.
Plot
Commissioner Maigret returns to Saint-Fiacre, the village he grew up in, where his father had been estate manager for the family owning the château. The widowed countess has asked him to come urgently because she has received an anonymous letter saying she will die next day, which is Ash Wednesday. He finds the château in a sorry state: its contents are being systematically sold by the countess' young assistant Sabatier and its lands by the current estate manager Gautier and his young son Émile, a bank clerk. They say they are doing this to fund the countess' son Maurice, an alcoholic playboy who rarely visits his now-sick mother.
Early next morning the countess goes to mass at the village church where, on returning to her pew after receiving the sacrament, she falls dead. The local doctor Bouchardon is not surprised, telling Maigret that her heart was weak and that she died of natural causes. When that day's local paper arrives, the front page reports that the young count Maurice killed himself in Paris the day before. But Maurice is in fact alive and has rushed back on learning of his mother's death. Ringing the newspaper, Maigret is told that the report was phoned in last thing without time to check.
Now convinced of a plot to rob and kill the countess, whose young favourite he had once been, Maigret starts his own investigation of what caused her sudden death and who wanted her dead. On returning to her pew she had opened her missal, which has disappeared. He finds it hidden in the sacristry and pasted in it is the newspaper report of her son's suicide. At the time of her death the day's newspapers had not reached the village shop, so somebody brought the cutting from the town where the paper was printed.
Without revealing his hand, Maurice has also been investigating and, while his mother's body is still lying upstairs, organises a macabre dinner party for those he suspects. At it, Maigret accuses both the doctor and the assistant of negligence, but not homicide, and then reveals that the plotters were the manager and his son, who sought to cut out Maurice and enrich themselves. He calls the local police to take them away.
Principal cast
Jean Gabin: Commissioner Maigret
Michel Auclair: Maurice de Saint-Fiacre
Valentine Tessier: Countess de Saint-Fiacre
Robert Hirsch: Lucien Sabatier
Paul Frankeur: Doctor Bouchardon
Michel Vitold: Father Jodet, the parish priest
Camille Guérini: Gautier, the estate manager
Serge Rousseau: Émile Gautier, the manager's son
References
External links
1959 crime films
1959 films
French crime films
1950s French-language films
Maigret films
Films directed by Jean Delannoy
Films set in France
Films with screenplays by Michel Audiard
Police detective films
1950s police procedural films
1950s French films | wiki |
Treatment may refer to:
"Treatment" (song), a 2012 song by
Film treatment, a prose telling of a story intended to be turned into a screenplay
Medical treatment or therapy
Sewage treatment
Surface treatment or surface finishing
Water treatment
See also
In Treatment, an American drama television series
In Treatment (Italian TV series), an Italian drama television series
National treatment, an economic concept focused on grantings to foreigners of rights similar to those of domestic nationals
Silent treatment, a form of social rejection
The Treatment (disambiguation)
Treatment group, the collection of items or individuals receiving the same treatment in an experiment
Window treatment, any of various styling choices specific to the interiors of windows | wiki |
Bass control may refer to:
Bass management
Tone control circuit | wiki |
A cardigan is a type of knitted sweater that has an open front, and is worn like a jacket.
Description
Commonly cardigans are open fronted and have buttons: garments that are tied are instead considered a robe.
Knit garments with zippers can also be referred to as a cardigan. A current fashion trend has the garment with no buttons or zipper and hangs open by design. By contrast, a pullover (or sweater) does not open in front but must be "pulled over" the head to be worn. It may be machine- or hand-knitted. Traditionally, cardigans were made of wool but can now be made of cotton, synthetic fibers, or any combination thereof.
History
The cardigan was named after James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan, a British Army major general who led the Charge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava during the Crimean War. It is modelled after the knitted wool waistcoat that British officers supposedly wore during the war. The legend of the event and the fame that Lord Cardigan achieved after the war led to the rise of the garment's popularity – supposedly, Brudenell invented the cardigan after noticing that the tails of his coat had accidentally been burnt off in a fireplace.
The term originally referred only to a knitted sleeveless vest, but expanded to other types of garment over time. Coco Chanel is credited with popularizing cardigans for women because "she hated how tight-necked men's sweaters messed up her hair when she pulled them over her head." The garment is mostly associated with the college culture of the Roaring Twenties and early 1930s, being also popular throughout the 1950s, 1970s, 1990s, 2000s and into the early 2010s.
Usage
Plain cardigans are often worn over shirts and inside suit jackets as a less formal version of the waistcoat or vest that restrains the necktie when the jacket has been removed. Its versatility means it can be worn in casual or formal settings and in any season, but it is most popular during cool weather.
Monochromatic cardigans, in sleeved or vest form, may be viewed as a conservative fashion staple. As an item of formal clothing for any gender, it is worn over a button-down dress shirt. A less formal style is wearing a T-shirt underneath.
In popular culture
Singer Perry Como wore cardigans on the television program The Perry Como Show. The trademark sweaters complemented his easy-going style of singing.
Fred Rogers, star of the long-running children's program Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, donned a cardigan at the beginning of each episode. The cardigans were made by his mother and closed with a zipper instead of buttons.
Steve McQueen popularised cardigans, wearing it in the 1968 action thriller film Bullitt and in his personal life.
Kurt Cobain of the band Nirvana wore vintage cardigans. The sweater he wore during MTV's Nirvana Unplugged concert sold at auction for $137,500 in November 2015. It was reported to have a burn hole, a button missing, and discoloration around the pockets.
Singer-songwriter Taylor Swift wrote a song called "Cardigan" and used cardigans as part of her merchandise accompanying the song and her eighth studio album, Folklore (2020).
The Cardigans are a Swedish rock band formed in 1992, best known for the singles "Lovefool" and "My Favourite Game".
See also
Sweater design
Twinset
References
External links
1920s fashion
1970s fashion
1980s fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
American fashion
Canadian fashion
History of clothing (Western fashion)
History of fashion
Knitted garments
Sweaters
Tops (clothing)
Wool clothing | wiki |
Where's the Dragon? () is a 2015 3D animated comedy film directed by Foo Sing-Choong, co-directed by Betty Tang. A China-Hong Kong co-production, the film was released in China on October 23, 2015.
Voice cast
Zhang Ziyi
Wang Leehom
Michael Wong
Maggie Chiang
Fish Leong
Leon Dai
Reception
The film has earned at the Chinese box office.
References
2015 comedy films
2015 3D films
2015 animated films
2015 films
Animated comedy films
Chinese 3D films
Chinese animated films
Hong Kong 3D films
Hong Kong animated films
Hong Kong comedy films
3D animated films
2010s Hong Kong films | wiki |
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (often abbreviated to Law & Order: SVU or just SVU) is an American crime drama television series created by Dick Wolf's own production company, Wolf Entertainment, for NBC. The first spin-off of Law & Order, it starred Christopher Meloni as Detective Elliot Stabler until Meloni left the series in 2011 after 12 seasons, and Mariska Hargitay as Detective (ultimately promoted to Captain) Olivia Benson, now the commanding officer of the Special Victims Unit after originally having been Stabler's partner in a fictionalized version of the New York City Police Department. Meloni reprised his role as Stabler in 2021 in the spin-off series Law & Order: Organized Crime. Law & Order: Special Victims Unit follows the style of the original Law & Order in that some episodes are loosely based on real crimes that have received media attention.
The show premiered on September 20, 1999. After the premiere of its 21st season in September 2019, the series became TV’s longest-running primetime U.S. live-action series in the history of television. Since the end of the original run of the main Law & Order series in 2010, SVU has been the only live-action primetime series that debuted in the 1990s that has remained in continuous production. As of October 21, 2021, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit has aired 500 original episodes, surpassing the episode count of the original Law & Order series. In terms of all-time episode count for a primetime scripted series, SVU now ranks fourth behind The Simpsons (with 728 episodes), Gunsmoke (with 635 episodes), and Lassie (with 591 episodes). In February 2020, the series was renewed through its 24th season. The 23rd season premiered on September 23, 2021, during which the show aired its milestone 500th episode. The 24th season premiered on September 22, 2022.
The series has received 91 award nominations, winning 33 awards. Mariska Hargitay was the first regular cast member on any Law & Order series to win an Emmy Award when she won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series in 2006.
Premise
Based out of the NYPD New York City Police Department's 16th precinct in Manhattan, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit delves into the dark side of the New York underworld as the detectives of a new elite force, the Special Victims Unit (SVU for short), investigate and prosecute various sexually oriented crimes, including rape, child sexual abuse and domestic violence. They also investigate the abuses of children, the disabled and elderly victims of non-sexual crimes who require specialist handling, all while trying to balance the effects of the investigation on their own lives as they try not to let the dark side of these crimes affect them.
Its stories also touch on the political and societal issues associated with gender identity, sexual preferences, and equality rights. While the victim is often murdered, this is not always the case, and victims frequently play prominent roles in episodes. The unit also works with the Manhattan District Attorney's office as they prosecute cases and seek justice for SVU's victims and survivors with precision and a passion to win and bring closure to the intense investigations. The series often uses stories that are "ripped from the headlines" or based on real crimes. Such episodes take a real crime and fictionalize it by changing some details.
Originally, the show focused around the detective pairing of Elliot Stabler and Olivia Benson. Stabler is a seasoned veteran of the unit who has seen it all and tries his best to protect his family from the horrors he has seen in his career. Meanwhile, Benson's difficult past as the child of a rape victim is the reason she joined the unit. Backing them up are Detective John Munch and his first partner, Brian Cassidy. Munch is a transfer from Baltimore's homicide unit, who brings his acerbic wit, conspiracy theories, and street-honed investigative skills; Cassidy is young and eager to learn from his fellow detectives.
These two detective teams received support from Detectives Monique Jeffries and Ken Briscoe.After thirteen episodes, Cassidy gets transferred to the narcotics division because of his inability to work well on the cases and the fact that they reminded him too much of his childhood abuse. As a result, Jeffries gets partnered up with Munch for the remainder of season one and Briscoe was phased out.
In the beginning of season two, Jeffries leaves the unit following an incident with the Morris Commission and Munch get permanently partnered up with Detective Odafin "Fin" Tutuola, whose unique yet sometimes vulgar sense of humor and investigative experience make him a formidable match for Munch.
Brooklyn SVU Detective Chester Lake would assist on several Manhattan cases during the eighth season and then join during season nine; Lake would then depart at the season's end after being arrested for murdering a crooked cop who had gotten away with rape.
These detectives were supervised by veteran Captain Donald Cragen, who oversaw the team for seasons 1–15 and was previously the commanding officer of the homicide precinct in New York. Cragen's tough-but-supportive approach to the team's complex cases guides the squad through the challenges they face every day.
Also assisting the Special Victims Unit, is FBI Special Agent Dr. George Huang who helps keep the officers sane in a field that could drive ordinary people mad, whilst also serving as the squad's resident criminal profiler, his insights into the criminal mind have often helped the officers to crack the toughest perps. The team also works with Medical Examiner Dr. Melinda Warner, who has become an integral part of the unit, and her personal skills have contributed to the unit's high success rate in closing cases.
The unit did not receive a full-time assistant district attorney until season two, when Alexandra Cabot was assigned to work with the detectives. After Cabot enters the Witness Protection Program after almost being killed in a hit in season five, she was replaced by Casey Novak, who remained as the ADA until the end of season nine, when she was censured for violating due process while trying to bring a rapist cop to justice. Kim Greylek became the permanent ADA in the season ten premiere, until Cabot made a return midway through that season when Greylek returned to the Justice Department in Washington, D.C. Cabot remained the ADA through the second half of season 11.
After Cabot's departure, the ADA void was filled by Sonya Paxton (Christine Lahti) and Jo Marlowe (Sharon Stone) until the conclusion of season 11. Gillian Hardwicke (Melissa Sagemiller) served as the SVU's ADA during season 12, while Novak would return for a guest appearance after completing her suspension near the end of the season. Paxton would also return for one more appearance in the season, during which she is brutally murdered by a rapist/murderer, but manages to leave behind vital evidence to assure his conviction. In season 13, both Cabot and Novak returned as ADAs. From the beginning of season 14, ADA Rafael Barba was SVU's prosecutor, until leaving halfway through season 19 following the death of an infant.
"Chicago Justice"s Peter Stone became SVU's ADA after Chicago Justice was canceled after only one season. At the end of season 20, Stone decided to leave due to some of the cases being too much for him to handle. From there, former SVU Detective Dominick Carisi Jr. takes his place at the start of season 21.
In season 13, other big changes happened with Stabler having retired in the aftermath of the season 12 finale, until he reappeared in season 22, which led him to join NYPD's Organized Crime Control Bureau. Huang also departed at the same time after being reassigned to Oklahoma City, but has returned for occasional guest appearances. Detectives Nick Amaro and Amanda Rollins joined the team filling the void left by Stabler. Amaro brought empathy to his cases while dealing with a stressful home life, while Rollins had dogged persistence and instincts help her close cases, but also secrets from her past that could derail her career.
During season 15, both Munch and Cragen retired from the NYPD, leaving Benson, after being promoted to Sergeant, to take control of the unit; she would later be promoted to Lieutenant at the start of season 17 and then Captain at the start of season 21. Season 16 was another period of change with the introduction of Carisi at the beginning and the departure of Amaro at the end. Also introduced in season 16 was Deputy Chief William Dodds, who served as commanding officer for the Special Victims Units in all five boroughs of New York. Dodds' son Mike transfers into Special Victims as Sergeant in season 17, becoming Benson's second-in-command until his death at the end of the season; Fin later passes the Sergeant's exam during season 18 and is officially promoted in Mike's place in season 19.
Following Carisi's move to the DA's office in season 21, Vice Officer Katriona "Kat" Tamin joined the team after assisting on several cases, eventually getting promoted to detective. Dodds also departed the series at the start of the season due to some issues in the case regarding a mogul raping countless women, allowing new deputy chief Christian Garland to take his place. At the start of season 23, Tamin and Garland both resigned from the NYPD after becoming disillusioned with the legal system's failures and the systematic bias within the department, with Tamin being replaced by Detective Joe Velasco. Chief Tommy McGrath took over Garland's position until he could find a permanent deputy chief for SVU.
At the beginning of season 24, Detective Grace Muncy joins SVU after solving a case that involves a teenage Dominican gang, while Rollins resigns from SVU halfway through the season after accepting an offer from Carisi's old colleague to teach at Fordham University.
Cast and characters
Production
Development
The idea for Law & Order: Special Victims Unit originated with the 1986 "preppie murder" case of Robert Chambers, who strangled and killed a woman he dated, Jennifer Levin, during what he claimed was consensual "rough sex" in Manhattan's Central Park. The crime inspired Dick Wolf to write the story for the season one episode of Law & Order titled "Kiss the Girls and Make Them Die". After writing the episode, Wolf wanted to go deeper into the psychology of crimes to examine the role of human sexuality.
The original title of the show was Sex Crimes. Initially, there was concern among the producers that, should Sex Crimes fail, identifying the new show with the Law & Order franchise could affect the original show. Additionally, Ted Kotcheff wanted to create a new series that was not dependent upon the original series for success. Wolf felt, however, that it was important and commercially desirable to have "Law & Order" in the title, and he initially proposed the title of the show be Law & Order: Sex Crimes. Barry Diller, then head of Studios USA, was concerned about the title, however, and it was changed to Law & Order: Special Victims Unit to reflect the actual unit of the New York City Police Department (NYPD) that handles sexually-based offenses.
Executive producer Neal Baer left Law & Order: SVU as showrunner at the end of season twelve, after eleven years (seasons 2–12) on the show, in order to sign a three-year deal with CBS Studios. Baer was replaced by former Law & Order: Criminal Intent showrunner Warren Leight. In March 2015, it was announced that Warren Leight signed a three-year deal with Sony Pictures Television, that will allow him to work on SVU one more season, its seventeenth. It was announced on March 10, 2016, that original Law & Order veteran producer Rick Eid would take Leight's place as showrunner starting in season 18. Creator Dick Wolf commented to The Hollywood Reporter, "I'm extremely pleased that Rick had decided to rejoin the family and hope that he will be here for years to come." During post-production of season 18, following the announcement that SVU was renewed for a nineteenth season, it was revealed that Rick Eid departed the series. He will be taking over another Dick Wolf/NBC series, Chicago P.D.
It was announced on May 25, 2017, that original Law & Order and Law & Order: Criminal Intent showrunner Michael S. Chernuchin would be reprising his role starting on season nineteen. Chernuchin was also co-creator and executive producing showrunner of Chicago Justice, another Wolf-related show that was canceled by NBC at the end of the 2016–17 TV season. On April 22, 2019, it was announced that Leight would return as showrunner for the series' twenty-first season. On May 3, 2022, Leight announced that he would not be returning for the twenty-fourth season.
Casting
Casting for the lead characters of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit occurred in the spring of 1999. Dick Wolf, along with officials from NBC and Studios USA were at the final auditions for the two leads at Rockefeller Center. The last round had been narrowed down to seven finalists. For the female lead, Detective Olivia Benson, actresses Samantha Mathis, Reiko Aylesworth, and Mariska Hargitay were being considered. For the male role, Detective Elliot Stabler, the finalists were Tim Matheson, John Slattery, Nick Chinlund, and Christopher Meloni. Hargitay and Meloni had auditioned in the final round together and, after the actors left, there was a moment of dead silence, after which Wolf blurted out, "Oh well. There's no doubt who we should choose—Hargitay and Meloni." Wolf believed the duo had the perfect chemistry together from the first time he saw them together, and they ended up being his first choice. Garth Ancier, then head of NBC Entertainment, agreed, and the rest of the panel assembled began voicing their assent.
The first actor to be cast for the show was Dann Florek. Florek had originated the character of Captain Don Cragen in the 1990 pilot for Law & Order, and played the character for the show's first three seasons until he was fired on the orders of network executives, who wanted to add female characters to the all-male primary cast, but he maintained a friendly relationship with Wolf, and went on to direct three episodes of the original series as well as to occasionally guest star on the show. Shortly after Florek reprised his role for Exiled: A Law & Order Movie, he received a call to be on Sex Crimes. Initially reluctant, he eventually agreed to star on the show as Cragen on the assurance that he would not be asked to audition for the role.
Shortly after the cancellation of Homicide: Life on the Street, Richard Belzer heard that Benjamin Bratt had left Law & Order. Belzer requested his manager to call Wolf and pitch the idea for Belzer's character from Homicide, Detective John Munch, to become the new partner of Jerry Orbach's character, Detective Lennie Briscoe, since they had previously teamed in three Homicide crossovers. Wolf loved the idea, but had already cast Jesse L. Martin as Briscoe's new partner, Detective Ed Green. The idea was reconfigured, but to have Munch on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit instead. Since the character of Munch was inspired by David Simon's depiction of Detective Sergeant Jay Landsman and developed for Homicide by Tom Fontana and Barry Levinson, the addition of Munch to the cast required the consent of all three. The appropriate agreements were reached and, while Fontana and Levinson agreed to waive their royalty rights, contracts with Simon required that he be paid royalties for any new show in which Munch is a main character; as a result, Simon receives royalties every time Munch appears in an episode of the show.
Dean Winters was cast as Munch's partner, Brian Cassidy, at the insistence of Belzer. Belzer looked at Winters as a sort of little brother, and told Wolf, "Well, I'll do this new show of yours, SVU, only if you make Dean Winters my partner." Wolf did make Winters Belzer's partner, but he was contractually obligated to his other show at the time, the HBO drama Oz. Since the role on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit was only initially meant to be a few episodes, Winters was forced to leave when it was time to film Oz again. Winters returned for the season 13 finale, "Rhodium Nights", reprising his role as Cassidy. He also appeared (as Cassidy) on the two-part season 14 premiere "Lost Reputation"/"Above Suspicion". He subsequently became a recurring character into season 15. The void left by Winters's departure was filled for the remainder of the season by Michelle Hurd as Detective Monique Jeffries, a character who Wolf promised that, despite starting out as a minor character with one scene in the pilot, would eventually develop. Hurd left the show at the beginning of season two to join the cast of Leap Years. Munch's permanent partner came in the form of rapper-turned-actor Ice-T, who had previously worked with Wolf on New York Undercover and Exiled. Ice-T originally agreed to do only four episodes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, but he quickly gained affection for the ensemble nature of the cast. He relocated to New York City before his four-episode contract was up and remained with the show as Munch's permanent partner, Detective Odafin "Fin" Tutuola.
Initially, the show focused exclusively on the police work of the detectives in the Special Victims Unit of the 16th precinct, with members of the District Attorney's office occasionally appearing as guest roles crossing over from the original Law & Order. From season two onwards, the format was changed to be more faithful to the original Law & Order concept by including court cases. Stephanie March had little television experience before being cast on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, nor did she watch much TV. Nevertheless, March was cast as Assistant District Attorney Alexandra Cabot at the beginning of season two but still believed that, due to the grim nature of the series, it would be short-lived. She stayed with the series for three seasons, however, and left when she believed she had reached the natural conclusion of the character's development. She would later reprise the character as a guest appearance in season six and as a regular character on the short-lived Wolf series, Conviction, where she was promised more to do. Diane Neal had previously guest-starred on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit in season three before being cast as Cabot's replacement, Casey Novak, in season five. Neal remained with the show through the end of season nine, after which she was replaced by Michaela McManus. March returned to the show in the tenth season (after McManus' departure from the cast) when Neal Baer proposed Cabot receive a character arc to revitalize the second part of the season, which would continue through season eleven.
Tamara Tunie was cast as medical examiner Melinda Warner in season two after working with Wolf previously on New York Undercover, Feds, and Law & Order. Warner was initially a recurring character but became a regular character in season seven, and Tunie was added to the opening credits at that time. When initially cast as Warner, Tunie was appearing as attorney Jessica Griffin on the CBS daytime soap opera As the World Turns. From 2000 to 2007 (and again briefly in 2009), she appeared on both series simultaneously. In 2002, she also appeared on the Fox espionage-themed drama series 24, in the recurring role of CTU Acting Director Alberta Green. BD Wong was asked to film four episodes as Dr. George Huang, a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) forensic psychiatrist and criminal profiler on loan to the Special Victims Unit. After his four episodes, he was asked to stay on with the show.
After he starred in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee and guest-starred as Detective Chester Lake in the eighth season, Wolf felt that Adam Beach would be a good addition to the cast and asked him to be a permanent member beginning with the ninth season. Although Beach felt the role was a "dream role", the character proved unpopular with fans who felt that he was designed to gradually write out either Richard Belzer or Ice-T. Feeling there were too many police characters on the show, Beach left the show after only one season. Michaela McManus was originally felt to be too young for the role of an Assistant District Attorney (ADA) before being cast as ADA Kim Greylek in the tenth season. McManus, months removed from a recurring role on One Tree Hill, remained with the series only half a season, however, before departing for unspecified reasons.
Paula Patton joined the cast as ADA Mikka Von. She replaced Stephanie March. However, Patton dropped out after one episode to film Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, and was replaced by Melissa Sagemiller in the recurring role of ADA Gillian Hardwicke.
Before the end of season twelve, Mariska Hargitay asked for a lighter workload. As a way of writing her out of certain episodes, a plan to have her character promoted to a supervisory role was discussed. At the end of season twelve, Christopher Meloni departed the cast, unable to reach agreement on a new contract. Warren Leight became the new showrunner during this same year and signed on before he knew that Meloni would be leaving the cast. The second major departure to be announced in 2011 was that of BD Wong. On July 17, Wong announced on Twitter that, "I actually do not return for season 13, I am jumping to Awake! It's awesome!" Wong added, "I don't know if or when I'll be back on SVU! It was amazing to have such a cool job for 11 years and to be a real NY Actor." Wong reprised his role as Dr. Huang in season 13's episode "Father Dearest".
In June 2011, it was announced that Kelli Giddish and Danny Pino would join the cast as new series regulars. Weeks later, it was announced that Stephanie March and Diane Neal would be reprising their roles as ADA Alexandra Cabot and ADA Casey Novak, respectively. The launch of season 13 was marked with a retooling of the show that Warren Leight referred to as "SVU 2.0". Changes that accompanied this included Tamara Tunie's being bumped from the main cast to a guest-starring role and recurring actor Joel de la Fuente's not appearing for the first time since 2002. Of the latter change, Warren Leight said, "those scenes [which featured Fuente] can be dry" and hired Gilbert Gottfried as a more comedic replacement.
In season 14, Raúl Esparza joined the cast in a recurring capacity as ADA Rafael Barba and prior to the season 15 premiere, Esparza was promoted to a series regular. Also in season 15, Belzer departed the cast in the fifth episode, "Wonderland Story", in which Sgt. Munch retired from the NYPD and took a job in the DA's office as an investigator. Later in the season, Captain Cragen announced his departure from the NYPD, which made newly promoted Sgt. Benson the temporary squad commander. In leaving the cast, Florek ended a 400-episode run as Captain Cragen. In season 16, Peter Scanavino joined the series, first in a recurring role for episodes 1–3 and then was promoted to the main cast in episode 5, with Kelli Giddish, Danny Pino, Ice-T and Raúl Esparza. On May 20, 2015, it was revealed that Danny Pino would be leaving the cast after the season 16 finale "Surrendering Noah".
In August 2017, it was announced that Philip Winchester would recur in season 19 as ADA Peter Stone, his character from Chicago P.D. and Chicago Justice, who is the son of Benjamin Stone, the first ADA on the original Law & Order series. It was later also announced that Brooke Shields was enlisted to assume a major recurring role (Sheila Porter, maternal grandmother of Noah Porter-Benson, Olivia's adopted son) starting in season 19 of the long-running dramatic series. On February 7, 2018, Raúl Esparza left the series after six seasons. His role was taken over by Winchester. Upon being renewed for its twenty-first season, it was announced that Winchester would be departing the series after the twentieth season.
In March 2019, it was announced that the show would come back for season 21, making it the longest-running primetime U.S. live-action series in the history of television. On March 29, 2019, it was revealed that Winchester would not return for season 21. He tweeted the same day about his departure from the show. On May 16, 2019, the season finale aired and Winchester took to Twitter to thank the cast and crew for the send-off. After recurring for several episodes in season 21 as Vice Officer Katriona Tamin, Jamie Gray Hyder joined the cast as a regular, starting in episode 8. On October 6, 2020, Demore Barnes, who had recurred throughout season 21 as new Deputy Chief Christian Garland, was upgraded to regular status for season 22.
On September 3, 2021, it was announced that Hyder and Barnes would both depart the series following the two-hour season 23 premiere. On October 13, 2021, Octavio Pisano, who had guest starred since the start of the season, was promoted to regular status. On August 24, 2022, it was announced that Kelli Giddish would leave the series during the first half of season 24. On November 10, 2022, Molly Burnett, who initially appeared in a recurring capacity for the first six episodes, was promoted to series regular beginning with the seventh episode.
Salaries
By season twelve, both Mariska Hargitay and Christopher Meloni had become among the highest-paid lead actors on a drama, with each earning nearly $400,000 per episode, a salary that TV Guide said was exceeded only by House's Hugh Laurie. During season sixteen, Hargitay was reported to be earning $450,000 per episode, or $10,350,000 per season. In season seventeen, her salary increased to $500,000 per episode.
Filming and location
Many exterior scenes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit are filmed on location in New York City, Wolf's hometown, throughout all five of New York City's boroughs. Fort Lee, New Jersey served as the filming location for Detective Elliot Stabler's residence in Queens, New York.
When searching for a place to film the interiors of the show, the producers found that there were no suitable studio spaces available in New York City. As a result, a space was chosen at NBC's Central Archives building in nearby North Bergen, New Jersey, which had sat empty for some time. of stage area. The Archives building was used for police station and courtroom scenes, with various other locations in Hudson County used for other scenes, such as a scene shot at the Meadowlands Parkway in Secaucus in 2010. The production left New Jersey for New York in 2010, however, when New Jersey Governor Chris Christie suspended the tax credits for film and television production for the Fiscal Year 2011 to close budget gaps. The show moved into the studio space at Chelsea Piers that had been occupied by the original Law & Order series until its cancellation in May 2010.
Episodes
N.B.: Episode counts for seasons 9, 21 and 22 were reduced due to the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike (Season 9) and the COVID-19 pandemic (Seasons 21 and 22).
Release
Broadcast
Law & Order: SVU airs on NBC in the United States. With the season eleven premiere on September 23, 2009, the series vacated its Tuesday 10 p.m. ET slot because NBC began a prime-time weeknight Jay Leno series. The new time slot became Wednesday nights at 9:00 p.m. ET on NBC, with CTV still airing SVU on Tuesdays at 10:00 in Canada. After the 2010 Winter Olympics on March 3, 2010, the time slot for SVU changed again to Wednesdays at 10 p.m. ET, where it stayed until the twelfth season. In the 12th season, SVU moved back to 9:00 p.m. to lead in the newest Law & Order spin-off, Law & Order: LA, until it was pulled from the network in January 2011 to be retooled. SVU moved back to 10:00 p.m. on January 12, 2011, until the end of the 13th season. With season 14, SVU moved back to 9:00 p.m. after a two-hour season premiere event on September 26, 2012. Beginning with Season 20, SVU would air on Thursday nights at 10 p.m., after NBC decided to devote their entire Wednesday primetime lineup to the Chicago Med, PD, and Fire trilogy. It marked the first time ever that Law & Order: SVU would hold this timeslot on Thursday nights. Starting with season 22, the show moved to 9 p.m., with offshoot Law & Order: Organized Crime taking its old slot.
From season 21 Law & Order: Special Victims Unit airs on Sky Witness in the United Kingdom.
Streaming
All seasons, including the season that is currently on the air, are available to stream on Hulu (with a subscription). The latest 5 episodes can be watched for free on NBC.com and the NBC app. Outside of SVOD and NBC platforms, most episodes (outside of seasons 2–4 in the United States for unknown reasons) can be found on electronic sell-through platforms such as iTunes and Amazon Prime Video. The series is available for streaming on Peacock along with Chicago Fire, Chicago P.D., Chicago Med, Law & Order and Law & Order: Criminal Intent. The first thirteen seasons are available for streaming in Australia on Amazon Prime Video. In Brazil, seasons 11 to 13 are available on Amazon Prime Video, and all 22 seasons are available on Globoplay, although seasons 15 to 22 require a subscription expansion or cable access to UniversalTV
Syndication
As of September 2017, the series is rerun on fellow NBCUniversal network USA, as well as local stations Ion Television and MyNetworkTV. The series also briefly ran on Syfy in 2006. In 2008, Fox obtained rights to air Law & Order: SVU on Fox-owned TV stations, and began doing so in the fall of 2009.
Reception
Ratings
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook likes found that SVUs popularity was "atypical: generally slightly more popular in rural areas and the South, but largely restricted to the eastern half of the country. It is most popular in Albany, N.Y.; least in Colorado and Utah".
Awards and honors
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit has received many awards and award nominations. Mariska Hargitay has twice been nominated for a Golden Globe Award and won once in 2005.
The show has been nominated numerous times for the Emmy Award. Mariska Hargitay has been nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category 8 years in a row beginning in 2004 and won the Emmy in 2006. Christopher Meloni was nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series category in 2006. Robin Williams was nominated in the Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2008. The series was nominated in the category Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for Jane Alexander and Tracy Pollan in 2000, Martha Plimpton in 2002, Barbara Barrie in 2003, Mare Winningham and Marlee Matlin in 2004, Amanda Plummer and Angela Lansbury in 2005, Marcia Gay Harden and Leslie Caron in 2007, Cynthia Nixon in 2008, Ellen Burstyn, Brenda Blethyn, and Carol Burnett in 2009, and Ann-Margret in 2010. The series won the award for Plummer in 2005, Caron in 2007, Nixon in 2008, Burstyn in 2009, and Margret in 2010.
Critical reception
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit has been well received among critics. The show holds an average score of 88% on Rotten Tomatoes
In 2014, Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club described it as "most improved, and that uptick in quality is all the more admirable. Ilana Kaplan of The New York Times wrote that the series the longest-running drama in primetime history and Mariska Hargitay as Olivia Benson is a person of repose of real life victims and survivors. Hargitay quoted: "It became very apparent to me early how much, culturally, we needed this character who relentlessly fights and advocates for women and for survivors, and who does it with compassion," she said through tears. "Somebody who is unequivocally committed to righting wrongs, who believes survivors, who's aware of the healing in it."
Criticism
One researcher has condemned the show for casually portraying and dismissing civil rights violations, and for creating moral panic over who is accused of crime. In season five, the show also over-portrays Black perpetrators and offenders higher than real crime statistics: "Victims of color, particularly if they were associated with the lower or working class were more likely to be depicted as contributing to their offense...Furthermore, minority victims were more likely than their white counterparts to be shown only in a photograph and to remain nameless throughout the program. African American females were almost completely missing as rape victims on “SVU”, despite the fact that they are the group most at risk for sexual assault."
Some critics view the show as copaganda. It "serve[s] to legitimate and normalize civil rights violations and increase viewers confidence in the police because they usually protect citizens by apprehending offenders efficiently."
Russian adaptation
In 2007, the Russian production company Studio 2B purchased the rights to create an adaptation of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit for Russian television. Titled Law & Order: Division of Field Investigation, the series stars Alisa Bogart and Vica Fiorelia. It follows a unit of investigators in Moscow whose job is to investigate crimes of a sexual nature. The series aired on NTV until 2010 and was produced by Pavel Korchagin, Felix Kleiman and Edward Verzbovski and directed by Dmitry Brusnikin. The screenplays were written by Sergei Kuznvetsov, Elena Karavaeshnikova, and Maya Shapovalova.
Spin-off
On March 31, 2020, it was announced that NBC had ordered an untitled spin-off series to launch in the 2020–21 television season, with Christopher Meloni reprising his role as Elliot Stabler. Meloni left SVU in 2011. The series order consists of 13 episodes. On June 2, 2020, it was announced that the series would be called Law & Order: Organized Crime and writer Craig Gore had been fired. When NBC announced its fall schedule on June 16, Organized Crime was the only new show on the schedule, slotted for Thursdays at 10/9c. However, the series was later delayed to 2021. On October 2, 2020, it was announced that Matt Olmstead would be stepping down as showrunner and a replacement was not announced at the time. On December 9, 2020, it was announced that Ilene Chaiken has joined as showrunner after her overall deal with Universal Television. Dylan McDermott was announced on January 27, 2021, as joining the cast in an unspecified role. On February 2, 2021, Tamara Taylor was cast in an undisclosed role. On February 4, 2021, it was announced that the series would premiere on April 1, 2021, in a two-hour crossover event.
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General and cited references
External links
on Wolf Entertainment
on NBC
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit on Metacritic
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit on Rotten Tomatoes
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit on MyNetworkTV
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Television series created by Dick Wolf
Television shows featuring audio description
Television shows set in Manhattan
Television shows set in New York City
Transgender-related television shows | wiki |
A clamp holder or clamp fastener is a piece of laboratory apparatus that is used to secure laboratory clamps, such as extension-type utility clamps, or other attachments to a retort stand or lab frame. The material can be made up of brass, cast iron, stainless steel, aluminium or nickel-plated zinc.
Operation
A retort stand rod and clamp are inserted into two jaws of a clamp holder and adjustable thumbscrews fasten the clamp holder to the attachments and lock it in place. The attachments can be secured with the thumbscrews to be positioned at any height or angle, with a regular clamp holder positioning the apparatus at a 90° angle.
Uses
Clamp holders can secure laboratory equipment at specific angles, diameters, and weights, as required. Clamp holders are often used to hold the attached apparatus over a work surface. There are several different types of holders, such as swivel holders and all-position holders, that allow adjustments for different angles and planes. In some cases it can be used to attach support rods together.
Additional images
See also
Retort Stand
Utility Clamp
Iron Ring
References
Laboratory equipment | wiki |
The passage is a movement seen in upper-level dressage, in which the horse performs a highly elevated and extremely powerful trot. The horse is very collected and moves with great impulsion.
The passage differs from the working, medium, collected, and extended trot in that the horse raises a diagonal pair high off the ground and suspends the leg for a longer period than seen in the other trot types. The hindquarters are very engaged, and the knees and hocks are flexed more than the other trot types. The horse appears to trot in slow motion, making it look as if it is dancing. The passage is first introduced in the dressage intermediaire test II. A horse must be well-confirmed in its training to perform the passage, and must be proficient in collecting while remaining energetic, calm, and supple. The horse must also have built up the correct muscles to do the strenuous movement.
External links
Olympic Ferro performing the passage
Analysis of the ideal Passage
Dressage terminology
Riding techniques and movements | wiki |
Animalism may refer to:
Animalism (philosophy), the notion that humans are animals
Animalism (album), a 1966 album by The Animals
Animalism (Animal Farm), an allegory for communism featured in the book Animal Farm
See also
Animal (disambiguation)
Animality (disambiguation) | wiki |
Joseph Somers may refer to:
Joseph Somers (artist)
Joseph Somers (cyclist)
See also
SoMo (Joseph Anthony Somers-Morales), American singer and songwriter | wiki |
Feral is a 2012 American animated short film by Daniel Sousa.
Plot
A feral boy is found in the woods and brought back to live in society. Uncomfortable in this new environment, the boy tries to adapt by using the same strategies and tactics that kept him safe in the wild.
Release
Feral premiered January 19, 2013 at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah
Accolades
References
External links
at Daniel Sousa
2012 films
2012 drama films
2012 animated films
2012 short films
2010s animated short films
American animated short films
2010s English-language films | wiki |
The West Indies A cricket team is a cricket team representing the West Indies. It is considered the second-tier of West Indies international cricket, below the top-level West Indies cricket team.
When playing one-day cricket, the Windies wear a maroon shirt, with grey around the sides. The shirt also sports the logo of the West Indian Cricket Board and the name of their sponsors, at present, Digicel. The one-day cap is maroon with the WICB logo on the left of the front, with two yellow stripes separated by a green stripe running vertically on the right of the front. When playing first-class cricket, in addition to their cricket whites, West Indian fielders sometimes wear a sunhat, which is maroon and has a wide brim. The WICB logo is on the middle of the front of the hat. Helmets are coloured similarly.
Current squad
Table notes
Results
Notes
References
A team
National 'A' cricket teams
C | wiki |
In the context of contract law, debt collection and civil litigation, the term judgment proof is commonly used to refer to defendants or potential defendants who are financially insolvent, or whose income and assets cannot be obtained in satisfaction of a judgment.
Being "judgment proof" is not a defense to a lawsuit. If sued, the defendant cannot claim being "judgment proof" as an affirmative defense. The term "judgment proof" instead refers to the inability of the judgment holder to obtain satisfaction of the judgment.
If a plaintiff were to secure a legal judgment against an insolvent defendant, the defendant's lack of funds would make the satisfaction of that judgment difficult, if not impossible, to secure.
Exempt assets
Some income and assets are exempt from being accessed to pay a judgment. If a judgment debtor has income, it may be possible to get an order of garnishment to collect a judgment from that source of income. However, if the debtor's income is low or if the debtor is already subject to garnishment, in order to prevent the impoverishment of the debtor, the debtor's income may be exempt from additional garnishment. Some states do not permit wage garnishment. If the debtor is living on income from social security benefits, a retirement pension, or other social welfare, garnishment may not be possible, as such income is usually protected against garnishment by creditors.
Cost of collection
The cost of collecting a judgment may also contribute to an assessment of whether a debtor is judgment-proof. If the amount that a judgment holder is able to collect from the debtor is insufficient to cover ongoing legal expenses and related costs of collection, collection efforts become uneconomical.
See also
Writ of execution
References
Tort law | wiki |
Liberation Army may refer to:
General
Earth Liberation Army
National Liberation Army (disambiguation)
Africa
Army for the Liberation of Rwanda
Azanian People's Liberation Army
Caprivi Liberation Army
Moroccan Army of Liberation
Sudan People's Liberation Army
Ambazonia Defence Forces
Asia
Arab Liberation Army
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Balochistan Liberation Army
Palestinian Liberation Army
Liberation Army of Kampuchea
Karen National Liberation Army
Korean Liberation Army
Malayan National Liberation Army
People's Liberation Army
Russian Liberation Army
Viet Cong
Europe
Bavarian Liberation Army
Cornish National Liberation Army
Greek People's Liberation Army
Irish National Liberation Army
Kosovo Liberation Army
Liberation Army of Chameria
National Liberation Army (Albanians of Macedonia)
People's Liberation Army of Macedonia
Scottish National Liberation Army
Ukrainian Liberation Army
America
Black Liberation Army
National Liberation Army (Colombia)
Liberation Army of the South
Popular Liberation Army
Symbionese Liberation Army
Zapatista Army of National Liberation | wiki |
Percent active chlorine is a unit of concentration used for hypochlorite-based bleaches. One gram of a 100% active chlorine bleach has the quantitative bleaching capacity as one gram of free chlorine. The term "active chlorine" is used because most commercial bleaches also contain chlorine in the form of chloride ions, which have no bleaching properties.
Liquid bleaches for domestic use fall in 3 categories: for pool-treatment (10% hypochlorite solutions, without surfactants and detergents), for laundry and general purpose cleaning, at 3–5% active chlorine (which are usually recommended to be diluted substantially before use), and in pre-mixed specialty formulations targeted at particular cleaning, bleaching or disinfecting applications. Commercial chlorine bleaches range from under 10% active chlorine to over 40%.
Values can be higher than 100% because hypochlorite ion has a molecular weight of 51.45 g/mol, whereas dichlorine Cl2 has a molecular weight of 70.90 g/mol. Dichlorine has a reference bleaching potential of 100% for its molecular weight. Hypochlorite (ClO) also has a molecule-to-molecule bleaching potential the same as dichlorine. However, its lower molecular weight leads to a higher potential bleaching power. In the example of lithium hypochlorite, molecular weight 58.39, it only takes 58.39 grams to equal the bleaching power of 70.90 grams of dichlorine. Therefore, 70.9 / 58.39 = 1.214 or 121.4%.
Percent active chlorine values have now virtually replaced the older system of chlorometric degrees: 1% active chlorine is equivalent to 3.16 °Cl. Taking the (reasonable) assumption that all active chlorine present in a liquid bleach is in the form of hypochlorite ions, 1% active chlorine is equivalent to 0.141 mol/kg ClO−(0.141 mol/L if we assume density=1). For a solid bleach, 100% active chlorine is equivalent to 14.1 mol/kg ClO−: lithium hypochlorite has a molar mass of 58.39 g/mol, equivalent to 17.1 mol/kg or 121% active chlorine.
Active chlorine values are usually determined by adding an excess of potassium iodide to a sample of bleach solution and titrating the iodine liberated by displacing it with atomic chlorine with a standard sodium thiosulfate solution and iodine indicator.
Cl2 + 2I− → I2 + 2Cl−
or
ClO− + 2I− + 2 H+ → I2 + H2O + Cl−
then
2S2O32− + I2 → S4O62− + 2I−
From the above equations it can be seen that 2 mole of thiosulfate is equivalent to 70.9 grams of active chlorine.
Again the percentage of available chlorine can be calculated through the concept of normality. The gram equivalent of bleaching powder is equal to the gram equivalent of the standard titrant you have used then calculate the %available chlorine by weight of chlorine/weight of bleaching powder*100=amount of available chlorine | wiki |
The Chestertown Tea Party was a protest against British excise duties which, according to local legend, took place in May 1774 in Chestertown, Maryland as a response to the British Tea Act. Chestertown tradition holds that, following the example of the more famous Boston Tea Party, colonial patriots boarded the brigantine Geddes in broad daylight and threw its cargo of tea into the Chester River. The event is celebrated each Memorial Day weekend with a festival and historic reenactment called the Chestertown Tea Party Festival.
Background
Relations with England
In 1767 in an effort to raise money for England by taxing the Thirteen Colonies, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, as part of a series of other acts, including the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, and Coercive Acts. The Townshend Acts placed taxes on several important items in the Colonial economy including paper, paint, lead, glass and tea. Reaction to the Townshend Acts in the thirteen colonies was so negative that on March 5, 1770, Parliament decided to repeal most of the duties, however, they decided that the tax on tea would remain.
As a result, many colonists refused to buy (boycotted) tea that came to America from England. Instead they smuggled in tea from other countries or made their own tea from local spices. Soon merchants in England began to lose money, especially the East India Company. In order to keep this company from going bankrupt, Parliament passed the Tea Act of 1773. For reasons of economics and social liberty, the colonists were outraged and the seeds of dissent began to grow in the New World.
Beginnings in Boston
On December 16, 1773, a group of angry rebels calling themselves the "Sons of Liberty" protested the Tea Act and disguised as Mohawk natives boarded three ships in Boston Harbor loaded with tea and proceeded to dump 92,000 pounds of tea into the ocean.
King George III reacted to the "tea party" by ordering the closing of the port of Boston.
While Boston's was by far the most famous tea party that occurred in the colonies, it was only the first of many protests against the Tea Act that took place along the Atlantic Coast.
Events in Chestertown
When news of the closing of the port of Boston reached the Chesapeake Bay port of Chester Town, (now Chestertown) on the Eastern Shore of Maryland in the spring of 1774, town leaders called a meeting to discuss what actions should be taken. The local chapter of the Sons of Liberty boldly put forth a list of grievances, which became known as the "Chestertown Resolves". These stated that it was unlawful to buy, sell, or drink tea shipped from England.
The "Resolves" are a matter of historic record, reported in the Maryland Gazette, but for the tossing of tea, there is no contemporary evidence; the earliest record dates to the end of 19th century. The Chestertown Tea Party nonetheless remains a major part of local tradition and a source of civic identity.
Shortly after the Resolves were printed, word came to the citizens that a ship in the local harbor, the brigantine Geddes, had come to port with a shipment of tea. According to tradition, on May 23, 1774, a small group of men (unlike their brethren in New England, in broad daylight and without Indian disguise) forcibly boarded the ship and threw its cargo into the Chester River.
Historic impact
The events in Chester Town as well as others in port cities like Boston, Annapolis and Charleston, SC, marked a turning point in relations between England and the thirteen colonies.
After these "tea parties", it was clear that the colonists were deeply committed to opposing taxes they viewed as unfair. The destruction of British tea was a defiant act against Parliament and King George and viewed by the Crown as treason. The once distinct and autonomous colonies became united under the resolution that they would not accept "taxation without representation" in any form, and that they were willing to act forcefully to protect that right.
Historic record and authenticity
The authenticity of the Chestertown Tea Party has been questioned by historians, who have been able to find no record prior to the very end of the nineteenth century. The first mention of a "tea party" dates from 1899, in a booklet about Chestertown by Fred G. Usilton called History of Chestertown: Gem City on the Chester. Usilton was involved with the local newspaper, which was edited by his father.
Usilton gives no source for his story. Despite efforts to find primary sources (letters, diaries, news accounts) this remains the earliest account. It was picked up in a state of Maryland publication in 1903. Usilton's tale – which could have been nothing more than patriotic embroidery for the Chestertown Resolves – appears to have gained currency in 1906, Chestertown's 200th anniversary. In 1915, Usilton published a county history which included the tale.
In the 1950s, newspaper editor Bill Usilton (Fred's son) revived the story for the town's 250th anniversary. Later, Bill Usilton expanded on the 1915 history book and the Tea Party tale was included.
Through all those years, however, no additional documentation was presented.
Contemporary news accounts of protests and destruction in 1774 are documented in New York; Yorktown, Va., and Annapolis. Chestertown, at the time, was a major commercial center, but Colonial newspapers are silent about the legendary tea-dumping.
A strand remains. The "Brigantine Geddes" bears the name of a respected local merchant and collector of customs, William Geddes. She was built in 1773, in Chestertown. Surviving port records show the ship was in the Chesapeake around the time of the legendary tea party, having returned from a voyage to Europe that began the previous fall. The owner is listed as James Nicholson and the captain, John Harrison.
Geddes was in the vicinity between about May 7 and May 24, when she cleared customs outbound for Madeira. So part of the legend can be documented. There was a brig Geddes and it was in the area in May 1774. It remains uncertain whether tea was aboard.
Tea Party Festival
In the spring of 1968 the citizens of Chestertown staged the first festival to commemorate the actions of their forefathers. The event that year was very small by current standards, but included a parade and historic staging of the events of the fateful day.
With a few years off, the Tea Party Festival has continued every Memorial Day Weekend in earnest since the Bicentennial year of 1976. The current incarnation is showcased by a large colonial parade down High Street, featuring numerous fife and drum bands as well as marching Colonial and British re-enactors.
Local civic clubs offer indigenous cuisine (favorites include cold beer, hot corn, crab cakes and funnel cakes). Craftsmen from around the country ply their wares while musicians, puppeteers and dancers entertain the crowds of as many as 15,000 until the first day culminates with the throng gathering on the bank of the Chester River to cheer for the historic reenactment of the Storming of the Geddes. Colonial re-enactors use the schooner Sultana (a 1768 replica) and they are thrown overboard with the tea.
Other events at the annual event include a cocktail party, homegrown music, historic home tours, the tossing of a major town figure into the river, 10-mile and 5K runs, and a raft race.
References
External links
Chestertown Tea Party Festival Retrieved November 2010
Local Legacies Retrieved November 2010
Schooner Sultana Project Retrieved November 2010
Chestertown, Maryland
Maryland in the American Revolution
Kent County, Maryland
1774 in the Thirteen Colonies
1774 in Maryland | wiki |
Ahmed Ojil es un deportista tunecino que compitió en taekwondo. Ganó una medalla de bronce en el Campeonato Africano de Taekwondo de 1996 en la categoría de –64 kg.
Palmarés internacional
Referencias
Ojil, Ahmed | wiki |
Shinji Tomiyama (Tokio, Japón, ) es un entrenador de baloncesto japonés.
Estadísticas
Referencias
Hombres
Entrenadores de baloncesto de Japón
Personas de Tokio Metrópoli | wiki |
The following is a detailed list of results and scores from National Football League games aired on NFL Network's NFL Network Exclusive Game Series.
Results by season
Listed below are games and their respective results played from 2006 to the present.
Schedule (Prior to NFL Network Special branding)
2006 Season
2007 Season
2008 Season
2009 Season
2010 Season
2011 Season
2013 Season
2014 season
2015 season
2016 season
Schedule (As NFL Network Special)
2017 season
2018 season
2019 season
2020 season
2021 season
Schedule (As NFL Network Exclusive Game Series)
2022 season
See also
NFL Network Thursday Night Football results (2006–present)
NFL Network Special
Thursday Night Football
References
NFL Network Official Website
NFL.com/Live – NFL Network Run to the Playoffs Online Broadcast
2000s in American television
2000s in North American sport
2000s television-related lists
2010s in American television
2010s in North American sport
2010s television-related lists
2020s in American television
2020s in North American sport
2020s-related lists
National Football League on television results | wiki |
Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different morphological characteristics, particularly characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most animals and some plants. Differences may include secondary sex characteristics, size, weight, color, markings, or behavioral or cognitive traits. Male–male reproductive competition has evolved a diverse array of sexually dimorphic traits. Aggressive utility traits such as “battle” teeth and blunt heads reinforced as battering rams are used as weapons in aggressive interactions between rivals. Passive displays such as ornamental feathering or song-calling have also evolved mainly through sexual selection. These differences may be subtle or exaggerated and may be subjected to sexual selection and natural selection. The opposite of dimorphism is monomorphism, when both biological sexes are phenotypically indistinguishable from each other.
Overview
Ornamentation and coloration
Common and easily identified types of dimorphism consist of ornamentation and coloration, though not always apparent. A difference in the coloration of sexes within a given species is called sexual dichromatism, commonly seen in many species of birds and reptiles. Sexual selection leads to the exaggerated dimorphic traits that are used predominantly in competition over mates. The increased fitness resulting from ornamentation offsets its cost to produce or maintain suggesting complex evolutionary implications, but the costs and evolutionary implications vary from species to species. The costs and implications differ depending on the nature of the ornamentation (such as the color mechanism involved).
The peafowl constitute conspicuous illustrations of the principle. The ornate plumage of peacocks, as used in the courting display, attracts peahens. At first sight, one might mistake peacocks and peahens for completely different species because of the vibrant colours and the sheer size of the male's plumage; the peahen is of a subdued brown coloration. The plumage of the peacock increases its vulnerability to predators because it is a hindrance in flight, and it renders the bird conspicuous in general. Similar examples are manifold, such as in birds of paradise and argus pheasants.
Another example of sexual dichromatism is that of the nestling blue tits. Males are chromatically more yellow than females. It is believed that this is obtained by the ingestion of green Lepidopteran larvae, which contain large amounts of the carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin. This diet also affects the sexually dimorphic colours in the human-invisible ultraviolet spectrum. Hence, the male birds, although appearing yellow to humans actually have a violet-tinted plumage that is seen by females. This plumage is thought to be an indicator of male parental abilities. Perhaps this is a good indicator for females because it shows that they are good at obtaining a food supply from which the carotenoid is obtained. There is a positive correlation between the chromas of the tail and breast feathers and body condition. Carotenoids play an important role in immune function for many animals, so carotenoid dependent signals might indicate health.
Frogs constitute another conspicuous illustration of the principle. There are two types of dichromatism for frog species: ontogenetic and dynamic. Ontogenetic frogs are more common and have permanent color changes in males or females. Ranoidea lesueuri is an example of a dynamic frog with temporary color changes in males during the breeding season. Hyperolius ocellatus is an ontogenetic frog with dramatic differences in both color and pattern between the sexes. At sexual maturity, the males display a bright green with white dorsolateral lines. In contrast, the females are rusty red to silver with small spots. The bright coloration in the male population attracts females and is an aposematic sign to potential predators.
Females often show a preference for exaggerated male secondary sexual characteristics in mate selection. The sexy son hypothesis explains that females prefer more elaborate males and select against males that are dull in color, independent of the species' vision.
Similar sexual dimorphism and mating choice are also observed in many fish species. For example, male guppies have colorful spots and ornamentations, while females are generally grey. Female guppies prefer brightly colored males to duller males.
In redlip blennies, only the male fish develops an organ at the anal-urogenital region that produces antimicrobial substances. During parental care, males rub their anal-urogenital regions over their nests' internal surfaces, thereby protecting their eggs from microbial infections, one of the most common causes for mortality in young fish.
Plants
Most flowering plants are hermaphroditic but approximately 6% of species have separate males and females (dioecy). Sexual dimorphism is common in dioecious plants and dioicous species.
Males and females in insect-pollinated species generally look similar to one another because plants provide rewards (e.g. nectar) that encourage pollinators to visit another similar flower, completing pollination. Catasetum orchids are one interesting exception to this rule. Male Catasetum orchids violently attach pollinia to euglossine bee pollinators. The bees will then avoid other male flowers but may visit the female, which looks different from the males.
Various other dioecious exceptions, such as Loxostylis alata have visibly different sexes, with the effect of eliciting the most efficient behavior from pollinators, who then use the most efficient strategy in visiting each gender of flower instead of searching, say, for pollen in a nectar-bearing female flower.
Some plants, such as some species of Geranium have what amounts to serial sexual dimorphism. The flowers of such species might, for example, present their anthers on opening, then shed the exhausted anthers after a day or two and perhaps change their colours as well while the pistil matures; specialist pollinators are very much inclined to concentrate on the exact appearance of the flowers they serve, which saves their time and effort and serves the interests of the plant accordingly. Some such plants go even further and change their appearance once fertilized, thereby discouraging further visits from pollinators. This is advantageous to both parties because it avoids damaging the developing fruit and wasting the pollinator's effort on unrewarding visits. In effect, the strategy ensures that pollinators can expect a reward every time they visit an appropriately advertising flower.
Females of the aquatic plant Vallisneria americana have floating flowers attached by a long flower stalk that are fertilized if they contact one of the thousands of free-floating flowers released by a male. Sexual dimorphism is most often associated with wind-pollination in plants due to selection for efficient pollen dispersal in males vs pollen capture in females, e.g. Leucadendron rubrum.
Sexual dimorphism in plants can also be dependent on reproductive development. This can be seen in Cannabis sativa, a type of hemp, which have higher photosynthesis rates in males while growing but higher rates in females once the plants become sexually mature.
Every sexually reproducing extant species of the vascular plant has an alternation of generations; the plants we see about us generally are diploid sporophytes, but their offspring are not the seeds that people commonly recognize as the new generation. The seed actually is the offspring of the haploid generation of microgametophytes (pollen) and megagametophytes (the embryo sacs in the ovules). Each pollen grain accordingly may be seen as a male plant in its own right; it produces a sperm cell and is dramatically different from the female plant, the megagametophyte that produces the female gamete.
Insects
Insects display a wide variety of sexual dimorphism between taxa including size, ornamentation and coloration. The female-biased sexual size dimorphism observed in many taxa evolved despite intense male–male competition for mates. In Osmia rufa, for example, the female is larger/broader than males, with males being 8–10 mm in size and females being 10–12 mm in size. In the hackberry emperor females are similarly larger than males. The reason for the sexual dimorphism is due to provision size mass, in which females consume more pollen than males.
In some species, there is evidence of male dimorphism, but it appears to be for distinctions of roles. This is seen in the bee species Macrotera portalis in which there is a small-headed morph, capable of flight, and large-headed morph, incapable of flight, for males. Anthidium manicatum also displays male-biased sexual dimorphism. The selection for larger size in males rather than females in this species may have resulted due to their aggressive territorial behavior and subsequent differential mating success. Another example is Lasioglossum hemichalceum, which is a species of sweat bee that shows drastic physical dimorphisms between male offspring. Not all dimorphism has to have a drastic difference between the sexes. Andrena agilissima is a mining bee where the females only have a slightly larger head than the males.
Weaponry leads to increased fitness by increasing success in male–male competition in many insect species. The beetle horns in Onthophagus taurus are enlarged growths of the head or thorax expressed only in the males. Copris ochus also has distinct sexual and male dimorphism in head horns. These structures are impressive because of the exaggerated sizes. There is a direct correlation between male horn lengths and body size and higher access to mates and fitness. In other beetle species, both males and females may have ornamentation such as horns.
Generally, insect sexual size dimorphism (SSD) within species increases with body size.
Sexual dimorphism within insects is also displayed by dichromatism. In butterfly genera Bicyclus and Junonia, dimorphic wing patterns evolved due to sex-limited expression, which mediates the intralocus sexual conflict and leads to increased fitness in males. The sexual dichromatic nature of Bicyclus anynana is reflected by female selection on the basis of dorsal UV-reflective eyespot pupils. The common brimstone also displays sexual dichromatism; males have yellow and iridescent wings, while female wings are white and non-iridescent. Naturally selected deviation in protective female coloration is displayed in mimetic butterflies.
Spiders and sexual cannibalism
Many arachnid groups exhibit sexual dimorphism, but it is most widely studied in the spiders. In the orb-weaving spider Zygiella x-notata, for example, adult females have a larger body size than adult males. Size dimorphism shows a correlation with sexual cannibalism, which is prominent in spiders (it is also found in insects such as praying mantises). In the size dimorphic wolf spider Tigrosa helluo, food-limited females cannibalize more frequently. Therefore, there is a high risk of low fitness for males due to pre-copulatory cannibalism, which led to male selection of larger females for two reasons: higher fecundity and lower rates of cannibalism. In addition, female fecundity is positively correlated with female body size and large female body size is selected for, which is seen in the family Araneidae. All Argiope species, including Argiope bruennichi, use this method. Some males evolved ornamentation including binding the female with silk, having proportionally longer legs, modifying the female's web, mating while the female is feeding, or providing a nuptial gift in response to sexual cannibalism. Male body size is not under selection due to cannibalism in all spider species such as Nephila pilipes, but is more prominently selected for in less dimorphic species of spiders, which often selects for larger male size. In the species Maratus volans, the males are known for their characteristic colorful fan which attracts the females during mating.
Fish
Ray finned fish are an ancient and diverse class, with the widest degree of sexual dimorphism of any animal class. Fairbairn notes that "females are generally larger than males but males are often larger in species with male–male combat or male paternal care ... [sizes range] from dwarf males to males more than 12 times heavier than females."
There are cases where males are substantially larger than females. An example is Lamprologus callipterus, a type of cichlid fish. In this fish, the males are characterized as being up to 60 times larger than the females. The male's increased size is believed to be advantageous because males collect and defend empty snail shells in each of which a female breeds. Males must be larger and more powerful in order to collect the largest shells. The female's body size must remain small because in order for her to breed, she must lay her eggs inside the empty shells. If she grows too large, she will not fit in the shells and will be unable to breed. The female's small body size is also likely beneficial to her chances of finding an unoccupied shell. Larger shells, although preferred by females, are often limited in availability. Hence, the female is limited to the growth of the size of the shell and may actually change her growth rate according to shell size availability. In other words, the male's ability to collect large shells depends on his size. The larger the male, the larger the shells he is able to collect. This then allows for females to be larger in his brooding nest which makes the difference between the sizes of the sexes less substantial. Male–male competition in this fish species also selects for large size in males. There is aggressive competition by males over territory and access to larger shells. Large males win fights and steal shells from competitors. Another example is the dragonet, in which males are considerably larger than females and possess longer fins.
Sexual dimorphism also occurs in hermaphroditic fish. These species are known as sequential hermaphrodites. In fish, reproductive histories often include the sex-change from female to male where there is a strong connection between growth, the sex of an individual, and the mating system it operates within. In protogynous mating systems where males dominate mating with many females, size plays a significant role in male reproductive success. Males have a propensity to be larger than females of a comparable age but it is unclear whether the size increase is due to a growth spurt at the time of the sexual transition or due to the history of faster growth in sex changing individuals. Larger males are able to stifle the growth of females and control environmental resources.
Social organization plays a large role in the changing of sex by the fish. It is often seen that a fish will change its sex when there is a lack of dominant male within the social hierarchy. The females that change sex are often those who attain and preserve an initial size advantage early in life. In either case, females which change sex to males are larger and often prove to be a good example of dimorphism.
In other cases with fish, males will go through noticeable changes in body size, and females will go through morphological changes that can only be seen inside of the body. For example, in sockeye salmon, males develop larger body size at maturity, including an increase in body depth, hump height, and snout length. Females experience minor changes in snout length, but the most noticeable difference is the huge increase in gonad size, which accounts for about 25% of body mass.
Sexual selection was observed for female ornamentation in Gobiusculus flavescens, known as two-spotted gobies. Traditional hypotheses suggest that male–male competition drives selection. However, selection for ornamentation within this species suggests that showy female traits can be selected through either female–female competition or male mate choice. Since carotenoid-based ornamentation suggests mate quality, female two-spotted guppies that develop colorful orange bellies during the breeding season are considered favorable to males. The males invest heavily in offspring during the incubation, which leads to the sexual preference in colorful females due to higher egg quality.
Amphibians and non-avian reptiles
In amphibians and reptiles, the degree of sexual dimorphism varies widely among taxonomic groups. The sexual dimorphism in amphibians and reptiles may be reflected in any of the following: anatomy; relative length of tail; relative size of head; overall size as in many species of vipers and lizards; coloration as in many amphibians, snakes, and lizards, as well as in some turtles; an ornament as in many newts and lizards; the presence of specific sex-related behaviour is common to many lizards; and vocal qualities which are frequently observed in frogs.
Anole lizards show prominent size dimorphism with males typically being significantly larger than females. For instance, the average male Anolis sagrei was 53.4 mm vs. 40 mm in females. Different sizes of the heads in anoles have been explained by differences in the estrogen pathway. The sexual dimorphism in lizards is generally attributed to the effects of sexual selection, but other mechanisms including ecological divergence and fecundity selection provide alternative explanations. The development of color dimorphism in lizards is induced by hormonal changes at the onset of sexual maturity, as seen in Psamodromus algirus, Sceloporus gadoviae, and S. undulates erythrocheilus. Sexual dimorphism in size is also seen in frog species like P. bibronii.
Male painted dragon lizards, Ctenophorus pictus. are brightly conspicuous in their breeding coloration, but male colour declines with aging. Male coloration appears to reflect innate anti-oxidation capacity that protects against oxidative DNA damage. Male breeding coloration is likely an indicator to females of the underlying level of oxidative DNA damage (a significant component of aging) in potential mates.
Birds
Sexual dimorphism in birds can be manifested in size or plumage differences between the sexes. Sexual size dimorphism varies among taxa with males typically being larger, though this is not always the case, e.g. birds of prey, hummingbirds, and some species of flightless birds. Plumage dimorphism, in the form of ornamentation or coloration, also varies, though males are typically the more ornamented or brightly colored sex. Such differences have been attributed to the unequal reproductive contributions of the sexes. This difference produces a stronger female choice since they have more risk in producing offspring. In some species, the male's contribution to reproduction ends at copulation, while in other species the male becomes the main caregiver. Plumage polymorphisms have evolved to reflect these differences and other measures of reproductive fitness, such as body condition or survival. The male phenotype sends signals to females who then choose the 'fittest' available male.
Sexual dimorphism is a product of both genetics and environmental factors. An example of sexual polymorphism determined by environmental conditions exists in the red-backed fairywren. Red-backed fairywren males can be classified into three categories during breeding season: black breeders, brown breeders, and brown auxiliaries. These differences arise in response to the bird's body condition: if they are healthy they will produce more androgens thus becoming black breeders, while less healthy birds produce less androgens and become brown auxiliaries. The reproductive success of the male is thus determined by his success during each year's non-breeding season, causing reproductive success to vary with each year's environmental conditions.
Migratory patterns and behaviors also influence sexual dimorphisms. This aspect also stems back to the size dimorphism in species. It has been shown that the larger males are better at coping with the difficulties of migration and thus are more successful in reproducing when reaching the breeding destination. When viewing this in an evolutionary standpoint many theories and explanations come to consideration. If these are the result for every migration and breeding season the expected results should be a shift towards a larger male population through sexual selection. Sexual selection is strong when the factor of environmental selection is also introduced. The environmental selection may support a smaller chick size if those chicks were born in an area that allowed them to grow to a larger size, even though under normal conditions they would not be able to reach this optimal size for migration. When the environment gives advantages and disadvantages of this sort, the strength of selection is weakened and the environmental forces are given greater morphological weight. The sexual dimorphism could also produce a change in timing of migration leading to differences in mating success within the bird population. When the dimorphism produces that large of a variation between the sexes and between the members of the sexes multiple evolutionary effects can take place. This timing could even lead to a speciation phenomenon if the variation becomes strongly drastic and favorable towards two different outcomes. Sexual dimorphism is maintained by the counteracting pressures of natural selection and sexual selection. For example, sexual dimorphism in coloration increases the vulnerability of bird species to predation by European sparrowhawks in Denmark. Presumably, increased sexual dimorphism means males are brighter and more conspicuous, leading to increased predation. Moreover, the production of more exaggerated ornaments in males may come at the cost of suppressed immune function. So long as the reproductive benefits of the trait due to sexual selection are greater than the costs imposed by natural selection, then the trait will propagate throughout the population. Reproductive benefits arise in the form of a larger number of offspring, while natural selection imposes costs in the form of reduced survival. This means that even if the trait causes males to die earlier, the trait is still beneficial so long as males with the trait produce more offspring than males lacking the trait. This balance keeps the dimorphism alive in these species and ensures that the next generation of successful males will also display these traits that are attractive to the females.
Such differences in form and reproductive roles often cause differences in behavior. As previously stated, males and females often have different roles in reproduction. The courtship and mating behavior of males and females are regulated largely by hormones throughout a bird's lifetime. Activational hormones occur during puberty and adulthood and serve to 'activate' certain behaviors when appropriate, such as territoriality during breeding season. Organizational hormones occur only during a critical period early in development, either just before or just after hatching in most birds, and determine patterns of behavior for the rest of the bird's life. Such behavioral differences can cause disproportionate sensitivities to anthropogenic pressures. Females of the whinchat in Switzerland breed in intensely managed grasslands. Earlier harvesting of the grasses during the breeding season lead to more female deaths. Populations of many birds are often male-skewed and when sexual differences in behavior increase this ratio, populations decline at a more rapid rate. Also not all male dimorphic traits are due to hormones like testosterone, instead they are a naturally occurring part of development, for example plumage. In addition, the strong hormonal influence on phenotypic differences suggest that the genetic mechanism and genetic basis of these sexually dimorphic traits may involve transcription factors or cofactors rather than regulatory sequences.
Sexual dimorphism may also influence differences in parental investment during times of food scarcity. For example, in the blue-footed booby, the female chicks grow faster than the males, resulting in booby parents producing the smaller sex, the males, during times of food shortage. This then results in the maximization of parental lifetime reproductive success. In Black-tailed Godwits Limosa limosa limosa females are also the larger sex, and the growth rates of female chicks are more susceptible to limited environmental conditions.
Sexual dimorphism may also only appear during mating season, some species of birds only show dimorphic traits in seasonal variation. The males of these species will molt into a less bright or less exaggerated color during the off breeding season. This occurs because the species is more focused on survival than reproduction, causing a shift into a less ornate state.
Consequently, sexual dimorphism has important ramifications for conservation. However, sexual dimorphism is not only found in birds and is thus important to the conservation of many animals. Such differences in form and behavior can lead to sexual segregation, defined as sex differences in space and resource use. Most sexual segregation research has been done on ungulates, but such research extends to bats, kangaroos, and birds. Sex-specific conservation plans have even been suggested for species with pronounced sexual segregation.
The term sesquimorphism (the Latin numeral prefix sesqui- means one-and-one-half, so halfway between mono- (one) and di- (two)) has been proposed for bird species in which "both sexes have basically the same plumage pattern, though the female is clearly distinguishable by reason of her paler or washed-out Examples include Cape sparrow (Passer melanurus), rufous sparrow (subspecies P. motinensis motinensis), and saxaul sparrow (P. ammodendri).
Mammals
In a large proportion of mammal species, males are larger than females. Both genes and hormones affect the formation of many animal brains before "birth" (or hatching), and also behaviour of adult individuals. Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, and also brain development at puberty. A 2004 review in Nature Reviews Neuroscience observed that "because it is easier to manipulate hormone levels than the expression of sex chromosome genes, the effects of hormones have been studied much more extensively, and are much better understood, than the direct actions in the brain of sex chromosome genes." It concluded that while "the differentiating effects of gonadal secretions seem to be dominant," the existing body of research "support the idea that sex differences in neural expression of X and Y genes significantly contribute to sex differences in brain functions and disease."
Pinnipeds
Marine mammals show some of the greatest sexual size differences of mammals, because of sexual selection and environmental factors like breeding location. The mating system of pinnipeds varies from polygamy to serial monogamy. Pinnipeds are known for early differential growth and maternal investment since the only nutrients for newborn pups is the milk provided by the mother. For example, the males are significantly larger (about 10% heavier and 2% longer) than the females at birth in sea lion pups. The pattern of differential investment can be varied principally prenatally and post-natally. Mirounga leonina, the southern elephant seal, is one of the most dimorphic mammals.
Primates
Humans
According to Clark Spencer Larsen, modern day Homo sapiens show a range of sexual dimorphism, with average body mass between the sexes differing by roughly 15%. Substantial discussion in academic literature considers potential evolutionary advantages associated with sexual competition (both intrasexual and intersexual), as well as short- and long-term sexual strategies. According to Daly and Wilson, "The sexes differ more in human beings than in monogamous mammals, but much less than in extremely polygamous mammals."
The average basal metabolic rate is about 6 percent higher in adolescent males than females and increases to about 10 percent higher after puberty. Females tend to convert more food into fat, while males convert more into muscle and expendable circulating energy reserves. Aggregated data of absolute strength indicates that females have, on average, 40–60% the upper body strength of males, and 70–75% the lower body strength. The difference in strength relative to body mass is less pronounced in trained individuals. In Olympic weightlifting, male records vary from 5.5× body mass in the lowest weight category to 4.2× in the highest weight category, while female records vary from 4.4× to 3.8×, a weight adjusted difference of only 10–20%, and an absolute difference of about 40% (i.e. 472 kg vs 333 kg for unlimited weight classes; see Olympic weightlifting records). A study, carried about by analyzing annual world rankings from 1980 to 1996, found that males' running times were, on average, 11% faster than females'.
In early adolescence, females are on average taller than males (as females tend to go through puberty earlier), but males, on average, surpass them in height in later adolescence and adulthood. In the United States, adult males are on average 9% taller and 16.5% heavier than adult females.
Males typically have larger tracheae and branching bronchi, with about 30 percent greater lung volume per body mass. On average, males have larger hearts, 10 percent higher red blood cell count, higher hemoglobin, hence greater oxygen-carrying capacity. They also have higher circulating clotting factors (vitamin K, prothrombin and platelets). These differences lead to faster healing of wounds and lower sensitivity to nerve pain after injury. In males, pain-causing injury to the peripheral nerve occurs through the microglia, while in females it occurs through the T cells (except in pregnant women, who follow a male pattern).
Females typically have more white blood cells (stored and circulating), as well as more granulocytes and B and T lymphocytes. Additionally, they produce more antibodies at a faster rate than males, hence they develop fewer infectious diseases and succumb for shorter periods. Ethologists argue that females, interacting with other females and multiple offspring in social groups, have experienced such traits as a selective advantage. Females have a higher sensitivity to pain due to aforementioned nerve differences that increase the sensation, and females thus require higher levels of pain medication after injury. Hormonal changes in females affect pain sensitivity, and pregnant women have the same sensitivity as males. Acute pain tolerance is also more consistent over a lifetime in females than males, despite these hormonal changes. Despite differences in the physical feeling, both sexes have similar psychological tolerance to (or ability to cope with and ignore) pain.
In the human brain, a difference between sexes was observed in the transcription of the PCDH11X/Y gene pair unique to Homo sapiens. Sexual differentiation in the human brain from the undifferentiated state is triggered by testosterone from the fetal testis. Testosterone is converted to estrogen in the brain through the action of the enzyme aromatase. Testosterone acts on many brain areas, including the SDN-POA, to create the masculinized brain pattern. Brains of pregnant females carrying male fetuses may be shielded from the masculinizing effects of androgen through the action of sex hormone-binding globulin.
The relationship between sex differences in the brain and human behavior is a subject of controversy in psychology and society at large. Many females tend to have a higher ratio of gray matter in the left hemisphere of the brain in comparison to males. Males on average have larger brains than females; however, when adjusted for total brain volume the gray matter differences between sexes is almost nonexistent. Thus, the percentage of gray matter appears to be more related to brain size than it is to sex. Differences in brain physiology between sexes do not necessarily relate to differences in intellect. Haier et al. found in a 2004 study that "men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions, suggesting that there is no singular underlying neuroanatomical structure to general intelligence and that different types of brain designs may manifest equivalent intellectual performance". (See the sex and intelligence article for more on this subject.) Strict graph-theoretical analysis of the human brain connections revealed that in numerous graph-theoretical parameters (e.g., minimum bipartition width, edge number, the expander graph property, minimum vertex cover), the structural connectome of women are significantly "better" connected than the connectome of men. It was shown that the graph-theoretical differences are due to the sex and not to the differences in the cerebral volume, by analyzing the data of 36 females and 36 males, where the brain volume of each man in the group was smaller than the brain volume of each woman in the group.
Sexual dimorphism was also described in the gene level and shown to extend from the sex chromosomes. Overall, about 6500 genes have been found to have sex-differential expression in at least one tissue. Many of these genes are not directly associated with reproduction, but rather linked to more general biological features. In addition, it has been shown that genes with sex-specific expression undergo reduced selection efficiency, which lead to higher population frequencies of deleterious mutations and contributing to the prevalence of several human diseases.
Immune function
Sexual dimorphism in immune function is a common pattern in vertebrates and also in a number of invertebrates. Most often, females are more 'immunocompetent' than males. This trait is not consistent among all animals, but differs depending on taxonomy, with the most female-biased immune systems being found in insects. In mammals this results in more frequent and severe infections in males and higher rates of autoimmune disorders in females. One potential cause may be differences in gene expression of immune cells between the sexes. Another explanation is that endocrinological differences between the sexes impact the immune system – for example, testosterone acts as an immunosuppressive agent.
Cells
Phenotypic differences between sexes are evident even in cultured cells from tissues. For example, female muscle-derived stem cells have a better muscle regeneration efficiency than male ones. There are reports of several metabolic differences between male and female cells and they also respond to stress differently.
Reproductively advantageous
In theory, larger females are favored by competition for mates, especially in polygamous species. Larger females offer an advantage in fertility, since the physiological demands of reproduction are limiting in females. Hence there is a theoretical expectation that females tend to be larger in species that are monogamous.
Females are larger in many species of insects, many spiders, many fish, many reptiles, owls, birds of prey and certain mammals such as the spotted hyena, and baleen whales such as blue whale. As an example, in some species, females are sedentary, and so males must search for them. Fritz Vollrath and Geoff Parker argue that this difference in behaviour leads to radically different selection pressures on the two sexes, evidently favouring smaller males. Cases where the male is larger than the female have been studied as well, and require alternative explanations.
One example of this type of sexual size dimorphism is the bat Myotis nigricans, (black myotis bat) where females are substantially larger than males in terms of body weight, skull measurement, and forearm length. The interaction between the sexes and the energy needed to produce viable offspring make it favorable for females to be larger in this species. Females bear the energetic cost of producing eggs, which is much greater than the cost of making sperm by the males. The fecundity advantage hypothesis states that a larger female is able to produce more offspring and give them more favorable conditions to ensure their survival; this is true for most ectotherms. A larger female can provide parental care for a longer time while the offspring matures. The gestation and lactation periods are fairly long in M. nigricans, the females suckling their offspring until they reach nearly adult size. They would not be able to fly and catch prey if they did not compensate for the additional mass of the offspring during this time. Smaller male size may be an adaptation to increase maneuverability and agility, allowing males to compete better with females for food and other resources.
Some species of anglerfish also display extreme sexual dimorphism. Females are more typical in appearance to other fish, whereas the males are tiny rudimentary creatures with stunted digestive systems. A male must find a female and fuse with her: he then lives parasitically, becoming little more than a sperm-producing body in what amounts to an effectively hermaphrodite composite organism. A similar situation is found in the Zeus water bug Phoreticovelia disparata where the female has a glandular area on her back that can serve to feed a male, which clings to her (note that although males can survive away from females, they generally are not free-living). This is taken to the logical extreme in the Rhizocephala crustaceans, like the Sacculina, where the male injects itself into the female's body and becomes nothing more than sperm producing cells, to the point that the superorder used to be mistaken for hermaphroditic.
Some plant species also exhibit dimorphism in which the females are significantly larger than the males, such as in the moss Dicranum and the liverwort Sphaerocarpos. There is some evidence that, in these genera, the dimorphism may be tied to a sex chromosome, or to chemical signalling from females.
Another complicated example of sexual dimorphism is in Vespula squamosa, the southern yellowjacket. In this wasp species, the female workers are the smallest, the male workers are slightly larger, and the female queens are significantly larger than her female worker and male counterparts.
Evolution
[[File:Eccaparadoxides mediterraneus - Murero, Zaragoza - Museo Ciencias Naturales Universidad Zaragoza.jpg|thumb|260 px|Sexual dimorphism in Cambrian trilobites.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dies Alvarez ME, Rushton AW, Gozalo R, Pillola GL, Linan E, Ahlberg P | year = 2010 | title = Paradoxides brachyrhachis Linnarsson, 1883 versus Paradoxides mediterraneus Pompeckj, 1901: a problematic determination | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232865261 | journal = GFF | volume = 132 | issue = 2| pages = 95–104 | doi = 10.1080/11035897.2010.481363 | s2cid = 129620469 }}</ref>]]
In 1871, Charles Darwin advanced the theory of sexual selection, which related sexual dimorphism with sexual selection.
The first step towards sexual dimorphism is the size differentiation of sperm and eggs (anisogamy). Anisogamy and the usually large number of small male gametes relative to the larger female gametes usually lies in the development of strong sperm competition, because small sperm enable organisms to produce a large number of sperm, and make males (or male function of hermaphrodites) more redundant.
This intensifies male competition for mates and promotes the evolution of other sexual dimorphism in many species, especially in vertebrates including mammals. However, in some species females compete for mates in ways more usually associated with males (usually species in which males invest a lot in rearing offspring and thus are no longer considered as so redundant).
Sexual dimorphism by size is evident in some extinct species such as the velociraptor. In the case of velociraptors the sexual size dimorphism may have been caused by two factors: male competition for hunting ground to attract mates, and/or female competition for nesting locations and mates, males being a scarce breeding resource.
Volvocine algae have been useful in understanding the evolution of sexual dimorphism and species like the beetle C. maculatus'', where the females are larger than the males, are used to study its underlying genetic mechanisms.
In many non-monogamous species, the benefit to a male's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple females is large, whereas the benefit to a female's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple males is small or nonexistent. In these species, there is a selection pressure for whatever traits enable a male to have more matings. The male may therefore come to have different traits from the female.
These traits could be ones that allow him to fight off other males for control of territory or a harem, such as large size or weapons; or they could be traits that females, for whatever reason, prefer in mates. Male–male competition poses no deep theoretical questions but mate choice does.
Females may choose males that appear strong and healthy, thus likely to possess "good alleles" and give rise to healthy offspring. In some species, however, females seem to choose males with traits that do not improve offspring survival rates, and even traits that reduce it (potentially leading to traits like the peacock's tail). Two hypotheses for explaining this fact are the sexy son hypothesis and the handicap principle.
The sexy son hypothesis states that females may initially choose a trait because it improves the survival of their young, but once this preference has become widespread, females must continue to choose the trait, even if it becomes harmful. Those that do not will have sons that are unattractive to most females (since the preference is widespread) and so receive few matings.
The handicap principle states that a male who survives despite possessing some sort of handicap thus proves that the rest of his genes are "good alleles". If males with "bad alleles" could not survive the handicap, females may evolve to choose males with this sort of handicap; the trait is acting as a hard-to-fake signal of fitness.
See also
Bateman's principle
List of homologues of the human reproductive system
Sex differences in humans
Sex differences in human psychology
Sexual differentiation
Sexual dimorphism in dinosaurs
Sexual dimorphism in non-human primates
Sexual dimorphism measures
Sexually dimorphic nucleus
Gynandromorphism
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Animal anatomy
Sexual selection
Polymorphism (biology)
Asymmetry | wiki |
Minification may refer to:
Magnification, by a factor of less than one, producing a smaller image
Minification (programming), a software coding technique
Minimisation (psychology), a form of cognitive distortion
See also
Minimization (disambiguation) | wiki |
A motorcycle lift is a lift table that is designed to handle motorcycles. Many repair shops use such lifts to bring the vehicle off of the ground and up to a level so that the mechanic does not have to put any strain on his or her back or lay upon the ground to perform any kind of work upon the vehicle. Also, motorcycle enthusiasts have put these lifts into their home garages so that they can perform simple maintenance jobs such as changing the oil and cleaning the bike without having to get down on the ground. These lifts are typically made of steel and powered by air or hydraulic cylinders that handle load capacities up to .
Variations
There are many different variations and styles of motorcycle lifts. Some are simple and only large enough to handle a simple motorbike. Others have front and side extensions that make them long enough for a chopper and wide enough for an All-terrain vehicle. Most lifts come with a clamp for the front wheel to help stabilize the bike so that it stands upright on its own. Other options that these motorcycle lift tables have are the rear wheel drop out that allows the back of the table to be taken away so that a person can perform maintenance on their rear tire without it touching the table.
Lift | wiki |
A transmission line may refer to:
a power transmission line, that conveys electrical energy
a radio-frequency transmission line, that conveys an information signal | wiki |
Preben Jensen (canoeist)
Preben Jensen (footballer) | wiki |
Egon Johansen (field hockey)
Egon Johansen (footballer) | wiki |
Tacoma henviser til flere opslag:
Tacoma (by) – by i staten Washington, USA.
Tacoma Narrows – en indsnævring i Puget Sound ved byen Tacoma.
Tacoma Narrows-broen – bro som krydser Tacoma Narrows.
Tacoma (fregat) – amerikansk fregat-type.
Se også
Tacoma Guitars – en amerikansk guitarproducent, eget af Fender. | wiki |
The term heat sink may refer to:
Heat sink, a component used to conduct heat away from an object
Thermal energy storage, a number of technologies that store energy in a thermal reservoir for later reuse
A heat reservoir which can absorb arbitrary amounts of energy without changing temperature | wiki |
ChopChop: The Fun Cooking Magazine for Families is a quarterly children's magazine published by ChopChop Kids, Inc., a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization founded in 2010 by cookbook author Sally Sampson. It is based in Watertown, Massachusetts, United States.
The content in ChopChop is designed to teach cooking and nutrition to children for the purpose of combating childhood obesity. Each issue has 12 recipes which are selected as nutritious, ethnically diverse, and inexpensive to make, as well as games, exercises, and food facts.
ChopChop is distributed by subscription in both English and Spanish in seven countries, as well as at pedriatic offices, hospitals, community centers, schools, farmers' markets, and grocery stores. About 500,000 copies of each issue are produced.
Recognition
In 2013, ChopChop received the James Beard Foundation Award for Publication of the Year. ChopChop was also the winner of the 2013 Parents' Choice Magazine Award (gold). The magazine is endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics, the Parents' Choice Foundation, and The White House's "Let's Move" campaign.
References
External links
Cooking
Magazines established in 2010
Magazines published in Massachusetts
Children's magazines published in the United States
Health magazines
Quarterly magazines published in the United States
Spanish-language magazines
Spanish-language mass media in Massachusetts
Education magazines | wiki |
Marrus est un genre de siphonophores de la famille des Agalmatidae.
Liste des espèces
Selon :
Marrus antarcticus Totton, 1954 - espèce type
Marrus claudanielis Dunn, Pugh & Haddock, 2005
Marrus orthocanna (Kramp, 1942)
Marrus orthocannoides Totton, 1954
Publication originale
Totton, 1954 : Siphonophora of the Indian Ocean together with systematic and biological notes on related specimens from other oceans. Discovery Reports, , (texte intégral) .
Notes et références
Liens externes
Physonectae | wiki |
World Inflammatory Bowel Disease Day, also known as World IBD Day, is an annual event to raise awareness of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, known collectively as inflammatory bowel disease. The day is coordinated by the European Federation of Crohn's and Ulcerative Colitis Associations (EFCCA). It was created in 2010 during Digestive Disease Week in the United States and takes place on 19 May.
References
External links
Health awareness days
May observances | wiki |
Liu Qingnan is a Chinese chess Grandmaster.
Chess career
He played in the Chess World Cup 2013, being defeated by Wang Hao in the first round.
References
External links
Liu Qingnan chess games at 365Chess.com
1992 births
Living people
Chinese chess players
Chess grandmasters | wiki |
The Caribbean Cup was the championship tournament for national association football teams that are members of the Caribbean Football Union.
Qualifying tournament
Preliminary round
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Bahamas withdrew meaning that US Virgin Islands progressed.
Qualifying round
Top team in each group and best runner up qualified for finals
Group 1
Played in Guyana
Group 2
Played in Martinique
Group 3
Played in Haiti
Group 4
Played in Antigua and Barbuda ( were scheduled to be hosts but they withdrew)
Group 5
Played in Suriname
Final tournament
Played in Trinidad and Tobago
First round
Group 1
Group 2
Semi-finals
Third-place match
Final
Trinidad & Tobago, Haiti and Martinique qualified automatically for 2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup. Fourth-placed team qualified for home and away playoff against fourth-placed team in UNCAF Nations Cup 2001.
References
Caribbean Cup
Caribbean Cup
Caribbean Cup
International association football competitions hosted by Trinidad and Tobago | wiki |
Proto-Indo-Aryan (sometimes Proto-Indic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the Proto-Indo-Aryans. Being descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian (which in turn is descended from Proto-Indo-European), it has the characteristics of a Satem language.
History
Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan (1500–300 BCE), which is directly attested as Vedic and Classical Sanskrit, as well as by the Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni. Indeed, Vedic Sanskrit is very close to Proto-Indo-Aryan.
Some of the Prakrits display a few minor features derived from Proto-Indo-Aryan that had already disappeared in Vedic Sanskrit.
Today, numerous modern Indo-Aryan languages are extant.
Differences from Vedic
Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of conservative features lost in Vedic.
One of these is the representation of Proto-Indo-European *l and *r. Vedic (as also most Iranic languages) merges both as . Later, however, some instances of Indo-European again surface in Classical Sanskrit, indicating that the contrast survived in an early Indo-Aryan dialect parallel to Vedic. (A dialect with only is additionally posited to underlie Magadhi Prakrit.) However, it is not clear that the contrast actually survived anywhere in Indo-Iranian, not even in Proto-Indo-Iranian, as is also found in place of original *r in Indo-Iranian languages.
The common consonant cluster kṣ of Vedic and later Sanskrit has a particularly wide range of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (PII) sources, which partly remain distinct in later Indo-Aryan languages:
PIE *ks, *kʷs, *gs, *gʷs > PII *kš > Middle Indo-Aryan kh-, -kkh-
PIE *dʰgʷʰ, *gʰs, *gʷʰs > PII *gʱžʱ > Middle Indo-Aryan gh-, -ggh-
PIE *tḱ; *ǵs, *ḱs > PII *tć, *ćš > Middle Indo-Aryan ch-, -cch-
PIE *dʰǵʰ, *ǵʰs > PII *ȷ́ʱžʱ > Middle Indo-Aryan jh-, -jh-
Further reading
Morgenstierne, Georg. "Early Iranic Influence upon Indo-Aryan." Acta Iranica, I. série, Commemoration Cyrus. Vol. I. Hommage universel (1974): 271-279.
References
External links
Category:Proto-Indo-Aryan language on Wiktionary
Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan languages
Languages of India
History of India | wiki |
Caustic Zombies is an independent horror film written and directed by Johnny Daggers. It was filmed in Latrobe and Ligonier, Pennsylvania. The film premiered on July 22, 2011 at the Hollywood Theater in Dormont, Pennsylvania.
Plot
Residents of a small town must survive a zombie attack stemming from the Three Mile Island accident.
Cast and crew
The cast and crew listed at the film's official website are:
Aleesha Asper - survivor
Greg Wainwright - survivor
Jake Hursh - survivor
Melanie Stone - caged zombie
Chad Hammitt - zombie hunter
Matt Eames - hacker
Writer/Director - Johnny Daggers
Cinematographer - James Bowley
Editor - James Bowley, Johnny Daggers, John Stefanik
Title Credits Design - Brian Cottington
Key grip - Barry Stephens
References
External links
2011 films
American zombie films
American independent films
2011 horror films
2010s English-language films
2010s American films | wiki |
The name Vallabha means lover or beloved in Sanskrit. It is a name of Vishnu. It is sometimes spelled as Vallabh or Vallava. Notable people with this name include:
Vallabha (philosopher), an ancient Indian philosopher and acharya
Vallabharaja, a king of Gujarat
Lakshmi Vallabha, a name for Vishnu
Vallabha Devi, Thai princess
Indian given names | wiki |
Central Gardens can refer to:
Central Gardens, Memphis, USA
Central Gardens, Texas, USA
Central Gardens Nature Reserve, a popular picnic and recreational area in Merrylands, New South Wales, Australia | wiki |
Bushwhacked may refer to:
Bushwhacked (film), a 1995 film starring Daniel Stern, Brad Sullivan, and Corey Carrier
Bushwhacked!, an Australian children's adventure television series
Bushwhacked: Life in George W. Bush's America, book by Molly Ivins and Lou Dubose
"Bushwacked" MP3, satirical speeches created from parts of George W. Bush's orations
"Bushwhacked" (Firefly), the third episode of science-fiction television series Firefly
See also
Bushwhackers (disambiguation) | wiki |
The 18-hole private golf course at Haworth Country Club officially opened in 1965 is located in Haworth, New Jersey.
Re-designed by the golf course architect, Robert Trent Jones Jr. in 2000, the course length is 7000 yards. The course has five sets of tees and over four acres of teeing ground.
Other amenities include grass driving range, seven indoor tennis courts, gourmet restaurant, bar, and meeting rooms. Haworth Country Club is located 10.5 miles from the George Washington Bridge, and is in a deciduous forest behind the reservoir.
References
External links
Map:
1965 establishments in New Jersey
Sports venues in Bergen County, New Jersey
Golf clubs and courses in New Jersey
Haworth, New Jersey | wiki |
Paradise Valley Hospital may refer to:
Paradise Valley Hospital (Arizona)
Paradise Valley Hospital (California) | wiki |
The British 60 metres athletics champions are only women and the Championships only took place outdoors from 1935 until 1950. The 60 metres event is now primarily an indoor event.
Past winners
References
60 metres
British | wiki |
A bedpan or bed pan is a receptacle used for the toileting of a bedridden patient in a health care facility, and is usually made of metal, glass, ceramic, or plastic. A bedpan can be used for both urinary and fecal discharge. Many diseases can confine a patient to bed, necessitating the use of bedpans, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, and dementia. Additionally, many patients may be confined to a bed temporarily as a result of a temporary illness, injury, or surgery.
Bedpans are usually constructed of stainless steel, which is easy to clean and durable, but may be cold, hard, and uncomfortable to use. Also, the supporting area of some products is very small, and prolonged use can cause pressure ulcers. To solve these problems, ergonomic bedpans have been developed, which support the patient with a larger area of less-conductive plastic. Some designs completely cover the genitalia during use, offering protection and an extra measure of privacy. On the other hand, the material is more difficult to sterilize, and may become a reservoir for microorganisms.
Fracture bedpans are smaller than standard size bedpans, and have one flat end. These bedpans are designed specifically for patients who have had a hip fracture or are recovering from hip replacement. This type of bedpan may be used for those patients who cannot raise their hips high enough or roll over onto a regular size bedpan.
In recent years, single-use bedpan liners made of recycled wood pulp (molded pulp) have become more widely used in UK hospitals; they decrease the risk of cross-contamination. Another alternative is the plastic bedpan liner. Some liners are made of biodegradable plastic and contain absorbent powder to eliminate splashing and spills. Liners are used in hospitals to decrease infection, and are also used for home health care.
See also
Chamber pot
Urinal (health care), used for male patients' urination
References
Toilets
Medical equipment | wiki |
In seismology, a supershear earthquake is an earthquake in which the propagation of the rupture along the fault surface occurs at speeds in excess of the seismic shear wave (S-wave) velocity. This causes an effect analogous to a sonic boom.
Rupture propagation velocity
During seismic events along a fault surface the displacement initiates at the focus and then propagates outwards. Typically for large earthquakes the focus lies towards one end of the slip surface and much of the propagation is unidirectional (e.g. the 2008 Sichuan and 2004 Indian Ocean earthquakes). Theoretical studies have in the past suggested that the upper bound for propagation velocity is that of Rayleigh waves, approximately 0.92 of the shear wave velocity. However, evidence of propagation at velocities between S-wave and compressional wave (P-wave) values have been reported for several earthquakes in agreement with theoretical and laboratory studies that support the possibility of rupture propagation in this velocity range.
Occurrence
Evidence of rupture propagation at velocities greater than S-wave velocities expected for the surrounding crust have been observed for several large earthquakes associated with strike-slip faults. During strike-slip, the main component of rupture propagation will be horizontal, in the direction of displacement, as a Mode II (in-plane) shear crack. This contrasts with a dip-slip rupture where the main direction of rupture propagation will be perpendicular to the displacement, like a Mode III (anti-plane) shear crack. Theoretical studies have shown that Mode III cracks are limited to the shear wave velocity but that Mode II cracks can propagate between the S and P-wave velocities and this may explain why supershear earthquakes have not been observed on dip-slip faults.
Initiation of supershear rupture
The rupture velocity range between those of Rayleigh waves and shear waves remains forbidden for a Mode II crack (a good approximation to a strike-slip rupture). This means that a rupture cannot accelerate from Rayleigh speed to shear wave speed. In the "Burridge–Andrews" mechanism, supershear rupture is initiated on a 'daughter' rupture in the zone of high shear stress developed at the propagating tip of the initial rupture. Because of this high stress zone, this daughter rupture is able start propagating at supershear speed before combining with the existing rupture. Experimental shear crack rupture, using plates of a photoelastic material, has produced a transition from sub-Rayleigh to supershear rupture by a mechanism that "qualitatively conforms to the well-known
Burridge-Andrews mechanism".
Geological effects
The high rates of strain expected near faults that are affected by supershear propagation are thought to generate what is described as pulverized rocks. The pulverization involves the development of many small microcracks at a scale smaller than the grain size of the rock, while preserving the earlier fabric, quite distinct from the normal brecciation and cataclasis found in most fault zones. Such rocks have been reported up to 400 m away from large strike-slip faults, such as the San Andreas Fault. The link between supershear and the occurrence of pulverized rocks is supported by laboratory experiments that show very high strain rates are necessary to cause such intense fracturing.
Examples
Directly observed
1999 Izmit earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.6 associated with strike-slip movement on the North Anatolian Fault Zone
1999 Düzce earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.2 associated with strike-slip movement on the North Anatolian Fault Zone
2001 Kunlun earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.8 associated with strike-slip movement on the Kunlun fault
2002 Denali earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.9 associated with strike-slip movement on the Denali Fault
2008 Sichuan earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.9 associated with strike-slip movement on the Longmenshan Fault
2010 Yushu earthquake, magnitude Mw 6.9 associated with strike-slip movement on the Yushu Fault
2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes, magnitude Mw 8.6 associated with strike-slip on several fault segments - the first supershear event recognised in oceanic lithosphere.
2013 Craig, Alaska earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.6 associated with strike-slip on the Queen Charlotte Fault - the first supershear event recognised on an oceanic plate boundary.
2014 Aegean Sea earthquake, magnitude Mw 6.9, supershear was recognised during the second sub-event.
2015 Tajikistan earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.2, supershear slip on two segments, with normal slip at the restraining bend linking them.
2016 Romanche fracture zone earthquake, magnitude 7.1, westwards-directed supershear rupture following an initial easterly-travelling phase on the Romanche ocean transform fault in the equatorial Atlantic
2017 Komandorsky Islands earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.7, supershear transition followed a rupture jump across a fault stepover.
2018 Swan Islands earthquake, 7.5 earthquake consisted of three sub-events with a compact rupture area and large cosesimic slip.
2018 Sulawesi earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.5, associated with strike-slip movement on the Palu-Koro Fault
2020 Caribbean Sea earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.7, unilateral rupture propagation westward from the epicenter along a 300 km section of the Oriente transform fault with two episodes of supershear rupture
2021 Maduo earthquake, 7.4 earthquake in the Tibetan Plateau. This earthquake ruptured bilaterally for a length of 170 km within the Bayan Har block.
Inferred
1906 San Francisco earthquake, magnitude 7.8 associated with strike-slip movement on the San Andreas Fault
1979 Imperial Valley earthquake, magnitude 6.4 associated with slip on the Imperial Fault
1990 Sakhalin earthquake, 7.2 earthquake at over 600 km depth inferred to have ruptured at supershear speeds.
2013 Okhotsk Sea earthquake magnitude 6.7 aftershock was an extremely deep (640 kilometers (400 miles)) supershear as well as unusually fast at "eight kilometers per second (five miles per second), nearly 50 percent faster than the shear wave velocity at that depth."
See also
Slow earthquake
References
Further reading
External links
Eric Dunham's webpage on Supershear Dynamics
Seismology
Types of earthquake
Strike-slip earthquakes | wiki |
Symantec may refer to:
An American consumer software company now known as Gen Digital Inc.
A brand of enterprise security software purchased by Broadcom Inc. in August 2019 | wiki |
"Here's Not Here" is the fourth episode of the sixth season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead, which aired on AMC on November 1, 2015. The episode was written by Scott M. Gimple and directed by Stephen Williams.
This episode is the second episode in the show's history to feature only one main cast member (after "Live Bait", which is centered on The Governor), and it focuses on the experiences of Morgan Jones (Lennie James) between the episodes "Clear" (season 3) and "No Sanctuary" (season 5).
Plot
After the Wolves' attack on Alexandria is repelled, Morgan secretly imprisons the Wolf he had captured in the unfinished ground floor of an unoccupied Alexandria townhouse. In an effort to redeem the Wolf by convincing him to renounce his violent ways, Morgan decides to tell him about his past.
Flashbacks show Morgan's life some time after Rick's brief reunion with him. Morgan exhibits deranged and obsessive behaviour and accidentally burns his house down when he knocks over a lamp. Morgan then camps out in the forest where he lives with his illness and kills any walkers or humans that intrude upon his marked territory, including a father and son who cross his path.
While further exploring the forest, Morgan follows the bleating of a goat, named Tabitha, and finds the remote cabin of Eastman (John Carroll Lynch) who calls out to him, offering to talk and feed him despite Morgan's attempts to shoot him, eventually knocking Morgan out with a bō stick. Morgan awakens in a cell in the cabin, behind bars, and orders Eastman to kill him. Eastman instead feeds Morgan and gives him a tract, The Art of Peace. Eastman goes about his peaceful life, taking care of Tabitha and trying to make cheese. After giving Morgan a while to adjust, Eastman explains that he was a forensic psychiatrist employed by Georgia to evaluate convicts prior to release. Though Morgan admits to be an unrepentant killer who lives only to "clear" areas of walkers and the living, Eastman sees that Morgan has PTSD over the loss of his family. He also reveals that the cell was never locked and Morgan is free to go. Morgan attempts to attack Eastman who proves capable of reading intent and defending himself with aikido. Beaten, Morgan returns to his cell.
Eastman begins talking about taking a trip, though he has no specific destination in mind, and leaves to scavenge supplies. Morgan leaves the cell to rescue Tabitha from attack by a pair of walkers and discovers a graveyard where Eastman has buried at least two dozen bodies. Eastman thanks Morgan on his return, they repair the damage together, and Eastman gives Morgan a bō stick and begins teaching him aikido.
Eastman begins recounting more of his personal life to Morgan, and how his job had him suffering emotional distress over working in close proximity with violent offenders. Practicing aikido helped him, and he came to see that all life is precious. Morgan later recounts how he lost his wife and son to walkers. Eastman tells of the one true psychopath he'd met, Crighton Dallas Wilton, who attacked him during an interview and later escaped to kill Eastman's wife, son, and daughter. Eastman reveals he had the cell built to hold Wilton, but evades whether he actually did it, repeating that he believes all life is precious.
To gather supplies for their trip, Morgan takes Eastman to his camp. The setting brings back old feelings and behavioral patterns, and Morgan freezes when the walker of the young man he'd strangled comes at him. Eastman saves Morgan but is bitten, and Morgan lashes out at Eastman, wanting to die again. Eastman subdues Morgan, and the two part ways. Morgan regresses and resumes patrolling his territory, killing a walker and inadvertently saving a couple who reward him with a large can of soup and an ammunition cartridge.
Morgan takes up the bō staff, recognizing that Eastman's way is better, and returns to the cabin only to find a walker feasting on Tabitha. Morgan kills the walker and takes its body and Tabitha's to the graveyard where he finds Eastman succumbing to the bite. Morgan spots a grave marker with Wilton's name and Eastman confesses to kidnapping Wilton and starving him to death over 47 days, over which Eastman lost himself, and when he went to Atlanta to turn himself in he found that society had collapsed. Eastman bequeaths all he has to Morgan, including a rabbit's foot his daughter gave him, but advises Morgan to find more people and live. After burying Eastman and Tabitha, Morgan begins searching and finds a sign that leads to Terminus.
In the present, Morgan finishes his story. The Wolf prisoner reveals that he has a gut wound and probably doesn't have time to change, though he doesn't really want to, and isn't repentant about following his code to kill everyone in Alexandria. Morgan locks the door as he exits the townhome. In the street, Morgan hears Rick screaming to open the gate.
Production
Showrunner and executive producer Scott M. Gimple wrote the episode in July 2015, during San Diego Comic-Con, and said about "Here's Not Here": "Working on that episode was one of the great pleasures of the season for me." The episode was Stephen Williams' first directing credit for the series. Out of 17 credited series regulars, only Lennie James appears. Andrew Lincoln's voice is briefly included at the end, and the episode features a guest appearance by John Carroll Lynch. Steven Yeun, who portrays Glenn, is removed from the opening credits with this episode; commentators speculated whether this was done intentionally to further indicate Glenn's fate (dead or alive). Despite airing as the fourth episode of the season, this was actually the ninth episode filmed. The episode was also the second expanded 90-minute (with commercials) episode this season, after the season premiere.
Reception
Critical reception
Upon airing, the episode received widespread critical acclaim, earning a 93% rating with an average score of 8.9/10 on Rotten Tomatoes, with the consensus that "'Here's Not Here' is a stand-out installment of The Walking Dead, using Morgan's backstory as a powerful reminder of what it means to be human."
Particular praise was given for the performances of Lennie James as Morgan Jones and John Carroll Lynch as Eastman. Jonathon Dornbush of Entertainment Weekly notes that during the episode, "The Walking Dead becomes a two-man play that succeeds or fails based on the performances of Lennie James and guest star John Carroll Lynch...And wow, does it succeed."
For his role as Eastman, Lynch was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role on Television.
Ratings
The episode averaged a 6.8 rating in adults 18-49 and 13.339 million viewers overall, a rise from the previous episode, which averaged a 6.7 rating and 13.143 million.
References
External links
"Here's Not Here" at AMC
2015 American television episodes
The Walking Dead (season 6) episodes | wiki |
Rich Kids (film), een comedy-dramafilm uit 1979
Rich Kids (band), een newwaveband uit Londen, die eind jaren 70 actief was
Rich Kidz, een Amerikaanse hiphopgroep uit Atlanta, begonnen als Rich Kids in 2008
Rich Kidz (album), een album van de rapper Kay One uit 2013, en tevens een track van dat album
Rich Kids, een lied van Bea Miller, van haar album Not an Apology uit 2014 | wiki |
Cause for Alarm may refer to:
Cause for Alarm! (film), a 1951 film noir starring Loretta Young
Cause for Alarm (album), a 1986 album by Agnostic Front
Cause for Alarm (novel), a 1938 novel by Eric Ambler
Cause for Alarm (band), a Krishnacore group
See also
No Cause for Alarm, a 1979 album by Violinski | wiki |
Sensei is an honorific term in Japan.
Sensei may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Sensei (DC Comics), a fictional villain in the DC Comics universe
Sensei, a fictional penguin from the online game Club Penguin
Sensei (band), a melodic rock band from Jacksonville, Florida
"Sensei", a track on the 2017 album Heartbreak on a Full Moon by Chris Brown
Sensei (First Comics), a four-issue limited series published in 1989
The Sensei, an independent feature film
Sensei!, 2017 film
Sensei (wrestler), Mexican masked professional wrestler
Other uses
Sensei robotic catheter system, a medical device in interventional cardiology
Sensei Lānai, a wellness center on Lānai, Hawaii
See also
O-Sensei (comics), a fictional character in the DC Comics universe
Sansai (disambiguation) | wiki |
In corporate finance a stock swap is the exchange of one equity-based asset for another, where, during the merger or acquisition, the swap provides an opportunity to pay with stock rather than with cash; see .
Overview
The acquiring company essentially uses its own stock as cash to purchase the business. Each shareholder of the acquired company will receive a pre-determined number of shares from the acquiring company.
Before the swap occurs each party must accurately value their company so that a fair "swap ratio" can be calculated. The valuation of a company is complicated in general; here though, additional to fair market value, the investment- and intrinsic value are to be determined as well.
After the valuation is complete, the parties will agree upon the swap ratio; this will determine the number of shares that each shareholder will receive.
In theory, a fair ratio is such that shareholders in both previous companies now own a pro-rated share of the new company: value-wise or re earnings per share.
The acquiring company may also need to add an extra incentive in the form of shares to ensure that the board of directors of the acquired company approve the takeover.
In South Korea, the merger ratio is defined by a certain formula according to the law, if both companies are listed on the KRX.
When this swap is realised, the shareholders receive the new stock and own a share in the new company. Sometimes, a part of the agreement will not allow the new shareholders to sell for a certain time period to avoid a sudden drop in share price. This is a form of a shareholder rights plan or poison pill strategy that is used to combat hostile takeovers. When all things come together and are fair, then the takeover will proceed without incident.
Internal swap
Stock swaps can also happen internally within a company. Starbucks has used this strategy in the past. When the stock options they offered to their employees dropped so low in price that they became virtually worthless, Starbucks offered a swap option. The company allowed the employees to swap their worthless shares for more that had a higher value.
References
Accounting terminology
Corporate finance
Mergers and acquisitions | wiki |
The Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute () (JAERI) is a former semi-governmental organization that existed for the purpose of further nuclear power in Japan. It was created in June 1956 by the Atomic Energy Basic Law. It merged with Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute and became Japan Atomic Energy Agency on October 1, 2005, which currently carries out the purpose outlined in the law. It was called Genken (原研) for short.
Development
A small number of researchers in Japan studied at Argonne National Laboratory in America with the purpose of gaining knowledge that could be taken back to Japan in 1955. Kinichi Torikai was one of those researchers, and he later became president of JAERI. After returning, facilities for nuclear research were established in Tōkai, Ibaraki.
In the 1950s, it was decided that individual electric utilities would import reactor types to meet the rapidly increasing demand for energy in the post-war Japan. In September 1955, JAERI was established as a juridical foundation. In May 1956, it was established as a semi-governmental corporation. In order to secure nuclear fuel as well, Nuclear Fuel Industries was also created. Construction of new plants began shortly thereafter and the first of them, the Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant, started operation in 1966.
See also
2011 Japanese nuclear accidents
Fukushima I nuclear accidents
Japanese nuclear incidents
Japanese reaction to Fukushima I nuclear accidents
Nuclear power in Japan
External links
JAERI (English)
JAERI (Japanese)
Nuclear technology organizations of Japan | wiki |
The Lesbian Mothers Union (LMU), later known as Lesbian Mothers and Friends, was created by Del Martin and Pat Norman, along with other activists, in an effort to combat the legal persecution and separation from society that lesbian mothers face. Lesbian mothers were in desperate need of support, and the Lesbian Mothers Union offered assistance to those residing in the San Francisco Bay area.
Origins
The Lesbian Mothers Union can trace its origins to the Gay Women's West Coast Conference in June of 1971, in Los Angeles. The conference planners neglected to provide child care options to attendees, and had previously ignored a request for events specifically for Lesbian mothers. The initial membership included thirty-six women, out of the conference attendance of two hundred, with Del Martin as a contact for the organization. Eventually the Lesbian Mothers Union was established in both San Francisco and Oakland, California, totaling more than a hundred members locally by 1973.
The group described their unique burden as both mothers and lesbians, facing rejection from within even their own community. They described difficulties securing housing, navigating relationships between romantic partners and their children, and preparing their children to deal with "the cruelties of straight world oppression." Specifically the organization sought to provide financial and legal aid to Lesbian mothers as, at the time of the group's formation, no "admitted Lesbians" had won a child custody case in California. The organization would find witnesses and research to demonstrate that Lesbian mothers provided good homes for their children. Because custody battles were inextricably linked to morality, and Lesbianism was perceived to be deviant, the organization also worked to change the perception of Lesbians.
Founders and Prominent Members
Del Martin, a lesbian rights activist, passed away in 2008 after five decades of her efforts to promote gay rights. Martin was married to Phyllis Lyon, and the two were partners for 55 years. Working together, Martin and Lyon spent their lives working for these rights for themselves, as well as other lesbians and gays. Del Martin became known as one of the founders for the Lesbian Mothers Union, and her contact information was tied to the organization within its first year. She also founded various other similar organizations, such as the National Organization for Women, Council on Religion and the Homosexual, and the Alice B. Toklas Democratic Club, America’s first openly gay political organization. Together, the two women co-founded the organization the Daughters of Bilitis in 1956. It was in this same area, the San Francisco Bay, that the Lesbian Mothers Union was created, just a mere 15 years later.
Pat Norman was born on October 21, 1939 in Brooklyn, New York. Throughout her life, she has advocated for women’s rights, as well as spending much of her life dedicated to the rights of the LGBTQ+ community. In 1971, she founded the Lesbian Mothers Union, along with other activists. Between the years of 1972 and 1979, she focused her time on policies about mental health services for sexual minority groups. She also spent her time training employees on how to best help the LGBTQ+ communities, using sensitivity and awareness of the proper resources. Pat spent a great deal of the 1970s working for the San Francisco Health Department, in which she was the only openly gay employee. Her time spent her was focused on the AIDS epidemic. In 2017, ABC released a docuseries about the life of Cleve Jones, another LGBT activist. The series featured LGBTQ+ activists as well, including Pat Norman, who was played by Whoopi Goldberg.
Other active members of the LMU included Phyllis Lyon, Ruth Mahaney, Judie Ghidinelli, and Cathy Cade.
Support
After the creation of the Lesbian Mothers Union in San Francisco, other women from different cities were inspired by the idea and created similar groups to support the lesbian mothers of their areas. The Lesbian Mothers Union also circulated their newsletter in Boston, Chicago, and New York. Groups like the LMU “raised funds for legal fees, put lesbians fighting for custody in touch with sympathetic expert witnesses, and in rare cases, helped lesbian mothers and their children go underground when it was clear that they were going to be separated.” Members Del Martin and Pat Norman conducted outreach like speaking at UC Davis School of Law on issues facing lesbian mothers. The groups also aimed to hold discussions to address concerns of the lesbian mothers in their area, as well as deeper topics, such as the societal push for heterosexuality. They helped to link other lesbian mothers together by organizing events that all members could participate in.
By 1973 the LMU had created a legal defense fund to support members financially as they fought custody battles. Scott’s Pit, a popular gay bar in San Francisco, was the site of two benefit auctions/raffles in 1973 and 1974, that included guest auctioneers like José Sarria and J.J. Van Dyke. At this time, the Lesbian Mothers’ National Defense Fund also began fundraising in Seattle to support custody battles involving Lesbians. Other events included a 1972 Christmas party, planned by gay motorcycle clubs of San Francisco; Toys for Tots drives in 1973 and 1975, sporadic potluck dinners for members, and a 1977 "day in the park" for mothers and children. All these events served to encourage community.
At the fundamental level, the Lesbian Mothers Union made lesbian mothers visible, which is a political act in itself. The organization grew from meeting every so often to regular meetings which were held along with fund-raising events. Through their fundraisers and events they received many supporters and friends which was vital to their organization. One of their main fundraisers was called the Lesbian Mothers Day Auction. People would gather in a popular lesbian bar where objects would be auctioned off. All funds would go directly to lesbian mothers and their custody battles.
It is estimated that there were 130 members in San Francisco. In May of 1975, The Lesbian Mothers Union was changed to Lesbian Mothers and Friends. This gave space for people who were allies to join political and social conversations surrounding lesbian mothers.
Today
After the 1970s, there is little evidence that the group remains active. However, they were a large inspiration for many other similar groups that spread throughout other cities in the nation. Many of these other groups are still active today and are still working towards supporting and fighting for the rights of the LGBTQ+ community.
References
Further Resources
Guide to the Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin Papers, 1924-2000. Online Archive of California. Retrieved April 10, 2020.
Guide to Old Lesbian Oral Herstory Project. Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collections. Northampton, Mass. Accessed May 13, 2020.
Lesbian culture in California
Lesbian organizations in the United States
Organizations established in 1971
Parenting in the United States
LGBT in California
1971 establishments in California | wiki |
Obstacle swimming is a sport in which competitors swim through a water course that includes obstacles that impede their path between the starting and finishing point. It has been an event at various international sporting competitions like the 1900 Summer Olympics. It is also one of the five events that are a part of the military pentathlon, and has been used as a part of recruitment competitions for the Royal Marines. Progressing through underwater obstacles has also been integrated into the obstacle courses of the American Ninja Warrior competition.
References
Swimming
Underwater sports
Military sports | wiki |
This article describes the anatomy of the head and neck of the human body, including the brain, bones, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, glands, nose, mouth, teeth, tongue, and throat.
Structure
Bones
The head rests on the top part of the vertebral column, with the skull joining at C1 (the first cervical vertebra known as the atlas). The skeletal section of the head and neck forms the top part of the axial skeleton and is made up of the skull, hyoid bone, auditory ossicles, and cervical spine.
The skull can be further subdivided into:
the cranium (8 bones: frontal, 2-parietal, occipital, 2-temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid), and
the facial bones (14 bones: 2-zygomatic, 2-maxillary, 2-palatine, 2-nasal, 2-lacrimal, vomer, 2-inferior conchae, mandible).
The occipital bone joins with the atlas near the foramen magnum, a large hole () at the base of the skull. The atlas joins with the occipital condyle above and the axis below. The spinal cord passes through the foramen magnum.
Muscles
Skin
The head and neck is covered in skin and its appendages, termed the integumentary system. These include hair, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and sensory nerves. The skin is made up of three microscopic layers: epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium and is divided into the following five sublayers or strata, listed in order from outer to inner:
Stratum corneum,
Stratum lucidum,
Stratum granulosum,
Stratum spinosum,
Stratum germinativum also called stratum basale. The deepest layer is the miotic layer, stratum basale producing daughter cells by mitosis.
Mouth
The mouth, also called the oral cavity, is the entranceway into the digestive system containing both primary and accessory organs of digestion.
Teeth
Two rows of teeth are supported by facial bones of the skull, the maxilla above and the mandible below. Adults have 32 permanent teeth, and children have 20 deciduous teeth. There are various tooth shapes for different jobs. For example, when chewing, the upper teeth work together with the lower teeth of the same shape to bite, chew, and tear food. The names of these teeth are:
(1) Incisors, there are eight incisors located in the front of the mouth (four on the top and four on the bottom). They have sharp, chisel-shaped crowns that cut food.
(2) Cuspids (or canine tooth), the four cuspids are next to each incisor. Cuspids have a pointed edge to tear food.
(3) Premolars (or bicuspids), the four pairs of molars are located next to the cuspids. They crush and tear food.
(4) Molars, there are twelve molars, in sets of three, at the back of the mouth. They have wide surfaces that help to grind food.
The white visible part of a tooth is called the crown. The rounded upper projections of the back teeth are cusps. The hard white exterior covering of the tooth is the enamel. As the tooth tapers below the gumline, the neck is formed. Below the neck, holding the tooth into the bone, is the root of the tooth. The inner portions of the tooth consist of the dentin, a bonelike tissue, and the pulp. The pulp is a soft tissue area containing the nerve and blood vessels to nourish and protect the tooth, located within the pulp cavity.
A tooth sits in a specialized socket called the alveolus. The tooth is held in location by a periodontal ligament, with the assistance of cementum. Teeth are surrounded by gingiva, or gums, part of the periodontium, support tissue of oral cavity protection. The periodontium includes all of the support membranes of the dental structures surround and support the teeth such as the gums and the attachment surfaces and membranes. These include epithelial tissues (epithelium), connective tissues, (ligaments and bone), muscle tissue and nervous tissue.
Salivary glands
There are three sets of salivary glands: the parotid, the submandibular and the sublingual glands. The (exocrine) glands secrete saliva for proper mixing of food and provides enzymes to start chemical digestion. Saliva helps to hold together the formed bolus which is swallowed after chewing. Saliva is composed primarily of water, ions, salivary amylase, lysozymes, and trace amounts of urea.
Tongue
The tongue is a specialized skeletal muscle that is specially adapted for the activities of speech, chewing, developing gustatory sense (taste) and swallowing. The tongue contains two sets of muscles, the intrinsic- involved with shape of tongue, and the extrinsic- involved with tongue movement. It is attached to the hyoid bone. Terms meaning tongue include "glosso" () and "lingual" (().
Nose
Microanatomy
The outer surfaces of the head and neck are lined by epithelium. The protective tissues of the oral cavity are continuous with the digestive tract are called mucosa or mucous membranes. The cells of the inner oral cavity are called the buccal mucosa.
The oral cavity is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium containing about three layers of cells. They line the oral, nasal, and external auditory meatus, (ear), providing lubrication and protection against pathogens.
The lips are also protected by specialized sensory cells called Meissner's corpuscles.
Blood, lymph and nerve supply
Blood supply
Blood circulates from the upper systemic loop originating at the aortic arch, and includes: the brachiocephalic artery, left common carotid artery and left subclavian artery. The head and neck are emptied of blood by the subclavian vein and jugular vein.
The brachiocephalic artery or trunk is the first and largest artery that branches to form the right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery. This artery provides blood to the right upper chest, right arm, neck, and head, through a branch called right vertebral artery. The right and left vertebral artery feed into the basilar artery and upward to the Posterior cerebral artery, which provides most of the brain with oxygenated blood.
The posterior cerebral artery and the posterior communicating artery are within the circle of Willis.
The left common carotid artery divides to form the: internal carotid artery (ICA) and an external carotid artery (ECA). The ICA supplies the brain. The ECA supplies the neck and face.
The left subclavian artery and the right subclavian artery, one on each side of the body form the internal thoracic artery, the vertebral artery, the thyrocervical trunk, and the costocervical trunk. The subclavian becomes the axillary artery at the lateral border of the first rib. The left subclavian artery also provides blood to the left upper chest and left arm.
Blood–brain barrier
The Blood–brain barrier (BBB) is semi-permeable membrane that controls the capillary leak potential of the circulatory system. In most parts of the body, the smallest blood vessels, called capillaries, are lined with endothelial cells, which have small spaces between each individual cell so substances can move readily between the inside and the outside of the capillary. This is not in the case of brain. In the brain, the endothelial cells fit tightly together to create a tight junction and substances cannot pass out of the bloodstream.
Specialized glial cells called astrocytes form a tight junction or protective barrier around brain blood vessels and may be important in the development of the BBB. Astrocytes may also be responsible for transporting ions (electrolytes) from the brain to the blood.
Venous drainage
Blood from the brain and neck flows from: (1) within the cranium via the internal jugular veins, a continuation of the sigmoid sinuses. The right and left external jugular veins drain from the parotid glands, facial muscles, scalp into the subclavian veins. The right and left vertebral veins drain the vertebrae and muscles into the right subclavian vein and into the superior vena cava, into the right atrium of the heart.
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system drains the head and neck of excess interstitial fluid via lymph vessels or capillaries, equally into the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
Lymph nodes line the cervical spine and neck regions as well as along the face and jaw.
The tonsils also are lymphatic tissue and help mediate the ingestion of pathogens.
Tonsils in humans include, from superior to inferior: nasopharyngeal tonsils (also known as adenoids), palatine tonsils, and lingual tonsils.
Together this set of lymphatic tissue is called the tonsillar ring or Waldeyer's ring.
Nerve supply
The spinal nerves arise from the spinal column. The top section of the spine is the cervical section, which contains nerves that innervate muscles of the head, neck and thoracic cavity, as well as transmit sensory information to the CNS.
The cervical spine section contains seven vertebrae, C-1 through C-7, and eight nerve pairs, C-1 through C-8.
There is the formation of an extensive network of nerve groups or tracts attaching to the spinal cord in arrangements called rami or plexus.
The sensory branches of spinal nerves include: lesser occipital, C-2, great auricular, (C-2 and C-3); transverse cervical, C-2 and C-3; and supraclavicular, C-3 and C-4. These nerve groups transmit afferent (sensory) information from the scalp, neck, and shoulders to the brain.
The motor branches of spinal nerves include: ansa cervicalis, dividing into a superior root, C-1, and an inferior root, C-2 and C-3, and the phrenic nerve, C-3 to C-5, the segmental nerve branches, C-1 to C-5. These nerve groups transmit efferent nerve (motor) information from the brain to muscle groups of the scalp, neck, diaphragm (anatomy), and shoulders.
Additionally there are: (C5-C8, and T1) Brachial plexus, providing the entire nerve supply of the shoulder and upper limb; and includes supraclavicular branches (dorsal scapular, suprascapular, long thoracic) lateral cord (musculocutaneous, lateral antibrachial cutaneous, lateral head of median nerve), medial cord (ulnar, medial head of median nerve, medial antibrachial cutaneous, medial brachial cutaneous), posterior cord (axillary, radial), controlling the arm.
Damage to a person's spinal cord above C-5 may result in respiratory arrest and death if medicinal aid does not intervene.
Cranial nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the brain; these affect movements and sensation, and some special organs such as hearing of parts of the head and neck.
Function
Movements of the neck includes: flexion, extension, (nodding yes), and rotation (shaking head no).
The mouth has evolved to support chewing, (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition), and speech (phonation).
In addition to the teeth, other structures that aid chewing are the lips, cheeks, tongue, hard palate, soft palate, and floor of the mouth.
Endocrine glands
Several glands of the endocrine system are found within the head and neck. Endocrine means that the secretion is used within the body. Endocrine glands are termed as ductless and release their secretions directly into the blood. The endocrine system is under the direct supervision of the nervous system, using the negative feedback principal of homeostasis, to create hormones which act as chemical instant messengers.
The hypothalamus connects directly to the pituitary gland, both through the circulatory system and by direct connection of neurons. Also, within the cranium, the pineal gland, which attaches to the thalamus, controls the body's 24-hour rhythms circadian rhythm through the release of melatonin.
The pituitary gland secretes hormones that directly impact the body as well as hormones that indirectly control body functions because they activate other endocrine glands, such as the adrenal cortex (ACTH) and the thyroid gland (TSH). These two glands when stimulated by pituitary hormones then release their own hormones.
The pituitary gland has two lobes, the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe secretes: growth hormone (GH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Prolactin (PRL), and the posterior lobe secretes: Antidieuretic hormone (ADH), and Oxytocin. There is an intermediate lobe, in adult humans it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary, nearly indistinguishable from the anterior lobe. The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH).
In the neck are the thyroid and parathyroid glands, that secrete hormones that control metabolism and blood calcium levels. The four parathyroid glands are situated upon the back surface of the thyroid gland.
Respiratory system
The respiratory system begins in the head and neck, with air entering and leaving the body through the mouth and nose. The respiratory system involving the head and neck includes:
the nasal cavity for filtering, moistening, and warming the air
the pharynx or throat which is the combining point for respiratory and digestive system
the larynx or voice box containing the epiglottis
the trachea, or windpipe
These lead down into the lower respiratory tract. A critical junction between the respiratory and digestive systems is the epiglottis, a cartilage flap which shuts during swallowing to prevent aspiration. The epiglottis is normally open to support respiration and shuts during swallowing to prevent food and fluids from entering the trachea, activating the gag reflex or initiates the choking mechanism.
Central nervous system
The nervous system is composed of a central nervous system (CNS), brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), cranial nerves and spinal nerves. The CNS is located within the dorsal cavity, and the PNS extends through the ventral cavity. The central nervous system provides control and coordination of all eleven body systems and utilizes the endocrine system to form hormone chemical messengers that transport through the blood to influence the activity of individual cells of the body and their associated tissues, organs and systems.
The CNS receives sensory (afferent) input from the PNS and directs the flow of information to association neurons (interneurons) to create chemical synapse responses which in turn cause the formation of motor (efferent nerve) responses to stimulus. Association neurons are located in the grey matter of the spinal cord and the brain.
The CNS is protected by the cranium, vertebral column, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. The spinal cord and the brain stem are joined at the base of the cranium at the foramen magnum. Most of the functions of the head and neck are directly influenced by the brain and transmitted to the PNS via the cranial nerves and spinal nerves of the cervical portion of the spine.
The PNS has two subdivisions
somatic nervous system (SNS). The SNS is associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the action of skeletal muscles, and also the reception of external stimuli.
the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS is divided into subsystems: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic (PNS) nervous systems. The SNS and PNS often have opposing effects in the same organs or physiological systems, and the ANS is a major factor in maintaining homeostasis.
Development
Bones
The facial bones usually form into pairs and then fuse together. As the cranium fuses, sutures are formed that resemble stitching between bone plates. In a newborn, the junction of the parietal bones with the frontal and occipital bones, form the anterior (front) and posterior (back) fontanelle, or soft spots. The separation of the cranial bone plates at time of birth facilitate passage of the head of the fetus through the mother's birth canal, or pelvic girdle. The parietal bones, and occipital bone can overlap each other in the birth canal, and form the unusual looking "cone head" appearance in a newborn when delivered in a natural, or vaginal, delivery.
Teeth
Humans normally will produce two sets of teeth called primary dentition, or deciduous teeth, and secondary dentition, or permanent teeth.
A tooth is the toughest known substance in the body exceeding bones in density and strength. Tooth enamel lends great strength to the tooth structure. The formation of a developing tooth includes the process of dentin formation, (see: Dentinogenesis) and enamel formation, (see: amelogenesis). The tooth breaks through the gum into the mouth in a process called eruption. The formation of teeth begins in early fetal development and goes through six stages:
(1) initiation stage, 6th - 7th week
(2) bud stage, 8th wk
(3) cap stage, 9th-10 wk
(4) bell stage, 11th-12th wk
(5) apposition
(6) maturation stage
Clinical significance
Infection
Severe viral infections that affect the mouth, lips, or the oral cavity include:
Oral cancer may have a viral link.
Minor viral infections include: Mumps is a viral infection of the parotid salivary glands. Chicken pox is a viral infection that can spread to the mouth.
Thrush (Candidiasis) fungal infection. Tonsillitis is an inflammation of the tonsils and may cause a sore throat and fever. In chronic cases tonsillectomy may be required.
Infected teeth can on rare occasions cause infection to spread leading to cavernous sinus thrombosis, mediastinitis, or Ludwig's angina causing airway blockage.
Diseases may be transmitted by contact of the head, mouth, or body fluids, such as Herpes Simplex Virus Type I (HSV-1), Herpes Simplex Virus Type II (HSV-2) genital herpes, which may present as a lesion on the lips, and contactable via skin to skin contact
Other
Other diseases include: Gingivitis gum disease, periodontal disease, oral forms of syphilis and gonorrhea. Dental caries or dental cavities.
Temporomandibular joint diseases and disorders, commonly called TMJ.
Autoimmune diseases such as: Crohn's disease of the oral cavity, see reference below.
Careful observation of the oral cavity, teeth and gums may reveal indicators of other medical conditions. For example, a person suffering from the eating disorder, Bulimia nervosa may show signs of excessive tooth and gum erosion.
Airway obstruction
The airway in the head and neck may be obstructed with swelling associated with an enlarged tongue (macroglossia), tonsils, with swelling associated with anaphylactic shock, angiooedema, or a foreign body.
Anaphylactic shock requires advanced medical care immediately; but other first aid measures include rescue breathing (part of CPR) and administration of epinephrine using an EpiPen for immediate administration of epinephrine (adrenaline) to reverse swelling and to keep the respiratory airway (trachea) open.
References
http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/rad/cspine/anatomy1.html
http://www.pediatric-orthopedics.com/Topics/Bones/Skull/Skullduggery/Foramen_Magnum/foramen_magnum.html
ADHA Dental Hygiene
Medline, Crohn disease
Brain-blood barrier, University of Washington
Skin nerve receptors
Cells Alive, Anatomy of a splinter
External links
Core Curriculum Syllabus: Review of Anatomy at Baylor College of Medicine
Core Curriculum Syllabus: Review of Anatomy - Temporal Bone and Ear at Baylor College of Medicine
Dental anatomy at Colorado State University
Neuroscience for Kids at University of Washington
Histology of peridontium at University of Pittsburgh
Human head and neck | wiki |
A black nail cocktail is a mixture of Irish Mist and Irish whiskey in roughly equal portions, and is typically garnished with orange zest.
A black nail can be served in an old-fashioned glass on the rocks, neat, or "up" in a stemmed glass. It is most commonly served over ice. A black nail served without ice is sometimes called a straight black nail.
History
The black nail cocktail was invented sometime between 1947 and 1952. The black nail cocktail drink started as a St. Patrick's Day specialty in New York, following the invention of the Irish Mist brown whiskey liqueur in 1947.
Preparation and serving
The black nail cocktail consists of 3/4 ounce Irish whiskey and 3/4 Irish Mist with orange zest twist to garnish.
Fill a rocks glass with ice cubes and then add the Irish whiskey and then Irish Mist.
Garnish the cocktail with the orange zest twist and then serve immediately.
Some variations of the classic black nail cocktail recipe have been made including Difford's Guide's black nail #1 and black nail #2.
References
Cocktails with whisky
Cocktails with liqueur
Two-ingredient cocktails | wiki |
Cape lilac is a common name for several plants. It may refer to:
Melia azedarach, native to China, India and Japan to Indonesia, Australia and the Pacific Islands, commonly known as "Cape Lilac" in Australia
Virgilia, native to southern Africa and cultivated as an ornamental | wiki |
Le Styx du Verdon est un embranchement escarpé et étroit des Gorges du Verdon.
Gorges du Verdon
Canyon en fente | wiki |
Spice rub is any mixture of ground spices that is made to be rubbed on raw food before the food is cooked. The spice rub forms a coating on the food. The food can be marinated in the spice rub for some time for the flavors to incorporate into the food, or it can be cooked immediately after it is coated in the rub. The spice rub can be left on or partially removed before cooking.
Rubs are typically applied as a powder, aka "dry." Some "wet" rubs may have oil, water, or other liquid added to make a thick paste.
Ingredients
The spices are usually coarsely ground. In addition to spices, salt and sugar may be added to the rub, the salt for flavor, and the sugar for caramelization. Different salts are sometimes used for their unique qualities, such as Himalayan pink salt. The most straightforward rub is just coarsely ground black pepper as in steak au poivre.
Spice rubs can also add ingredients such as herbs, crushed garlic, or oil to make a paste. Less common ingredients can include coffee beans.
Foods
Spice rubs are mainly used for preparing meats and fish. There are many different recipes for rubs, and most are targeted toward a specific kind of food. The exact combination of spices that makes a good rub for a particular food varies from region to region and culture to culture.
Cooking methods
Cooking with rubs is almost always done using the dry heat cooking method, where almost no water-based liquid is used. The most popular cooking method for food prepared using a spice rub is grilling. Baking and pan roasting are other dry-heat methods. Sautéing is another method, especially if the spice rub includes flour or bread crumbs. When water is used for cooking, it is usually after the food has already been partially cooked with the dry heat method.
See also
Regional variations of barbecue
References
External links
Lafayette Spices Website
Spice rub video from PBS Site
New York Times Article About Dry Rub
Herb and spice mixtures | wiki |
This is a condensed list of worldwide tropical cyclone records set by different storms and seasons.
Major records
See also
List of weather records
Tornado records
List of the most intense tropical cyclones
List of wettest tropical cyclones
List of tropical cyclones
List of Atlantic hurricane records
List of Pacific hurricanes
Notes
References
External links
Tropical Cyclone Records from the Global Weather & Climate Extremes (World Meteorological Organization)
Bureau of Meteorology, Australian Cyclone History
Discussion of size extremes for tropical cyclones near Australia
Typhoon Ophelia Record: Had a 5000 mi traveling
Records
Tropical cyclone | wiki |
In computer science, the ski rental problem is a name given to a class of problems in which there is a choice between continuing to pay a repeating cost or paying a one-time cost which eliminates or reduces the repeating cost.
The problem
Many online problems have a sub-problem called the rent/buy problem. We need to decide whether to stay in the current state and pay a certain amount of cost per time unit, or switch to another state and pay some fixed large cost with no further payment. Ski rental is one example where the rent/buy is the entire problem. Its basic version is:
A person is going skiing for an unknown number of days. Renting skis costs $1 per day and buying skis costs $10. Every day, the person must decide whether to continue renting skis for one more day or buy a pair of skis. If the person knows in advance how many days she will go skiing, she can decide her minimum cost. If she will be skiing for more than 10 days it will be cheaper to buy skis but if she will be skiing for fewer than 10 days it will be cheaper to rent. What should she do when she does not know in advance how many days she will ski?
Formally, the problem can be set up as follows. There is a number of days d (unknown) that the person will ski. The goal is to find an algorithm that minimizes the ratio between what the person would pay when d is not known in advance and what the person would pay optimally if the person knew d in advance. The problem is generally analyzed in the worst case, where the algorithm is fixed and then we look at the worst-case performance of the algorithm over all possible d. In particular, no assumptions are made regarding the distribution of d (and it is easy to see that, with knowledge of the distribution of d, a different analysis as well as different solutions would be preferred).
The break-even algorithm
The break-even algorithm instructs one to rent for 9 days and buy skis on the morning of day 10 if one is still up for skiing. If one has to stop skiing during the first 9 days, it costs the same as what one would pay if one had known the number of days one would go skiing. If one has to stop skiing after day 10, one's cost is $19 which is 90% more than what one would pay if one had known the number of days one would go skiing in advance. This is the worst case for the break-even algorithm.
The break-even algorithm is known to be the best deterministic algorithm for this problem.
The randomized algorithm
A person can flip a coin. If it comes up heads, she buy skis on day eight; otherwise, she buys skis on day 10. This is an instance of a randomized algorithm. The expected cost is at most 80% more than what the person would pay if she had known the number of days she would go skiing, regardless of how many days she skis. In particular, if the person skis for 10 days, her expected cost is 1/2 [7 +10] + 1/2 [9+10] = 18 dollars, only 80% excess instead of 90%.
A randomized algorithm can be understood as a composition of different algorithms, each one which occurs with a given probability. We define the expected competitive ratio on a given instance i as:
, where is the competitive ratio for instance i, given .
Consequently, the competitive ratio of a randomized algorithm is given by the worst value of over all given instances. In the case of the coin flipping ski-rental, we note that the randomized algorithm has 2 possible branches: If the coin comes up heads, we buy on day 8, otherwise we buy on day 10. We may call the branches and , respectively. , for .
,
, and
, for .
Therefore, the competitive ratio of the randomized ski-rental coin flipping algorithm is 1.8.
The best randomized algorithm against an oblivious adversary is to choose some day i at random according to the following distribution p, rent for i-1 days and buy skis on the morning of day i if one are still up for skiing. Karlin et al. first presented this algorithm with distribution
where buying skis costs $ and renting costs $1. Its expected cost is at most e/(e-1) 1.58 times what one would pay if one had known the number of days one would go skiing. No randomized algorithm can do better.
Applications
Snoopy caching: several caches share the same memory space that is partitioned into blocks. When a cache writes to a block, caches that share the block spend 1 bus cycle to get updated. These caches can invalidate the block to avoid the cost of updating. But there is a penalty of p bus cycles for invalidating a block from a cache that shortly thereafter needs access to it. We can break the write request sequences for several caches into request sequences for two caches. One cache performs a sequence of write operations to the block. The other cache needs to decide whether to get updated by paying 1 bus cycle per operation or invalidate the block by paying p bus cycles for future read request of itself. The two cache, one block snoopy caching problem is just the ski rental problem.
TCP acknowledgment: A stream of packets arrive at a destination and are required by the TCP protocol to be acknowledged upon arrival. However, we can use a single acknowledgment packet to simultaneously acknowledge multiple outstanding packets, thereby reducing the overhead of the acknowledgments. On the other hand, delaying acknowledgments too much can interfere with the TCP's congestion control mechanisms, and thus we should not allow the latency between a packet's arrival time and the time at which the acknowledgment is sent to increase too much. Karlin et al. described a one-parameter family of inputs, called the basis inputs, and showed that when restricted to these basis inputs, the TCP acknowledgement problem behaves the same as the ski rental problem.
Total completion time scheduling: We wish to schedule jobs with fixed processing times on m identical machines. The processing time of job j is pj. Each job becomes known to the scheduler on its release time rj. The goal is to minimize the sum of completion times over all jobs. A simplified problem is one single machine with the following input: at time 0, a job with processing time 1 arrives; k jobs with processing time 0 arrive at some unknown time. We need to choose a start time for the first job. Waiting incurs a cost of 1 per time unit, yet starting the first job before the later k jobs may incur an extra cost of k in the worst case. This simplified problem may be viewed as a continuous version of the ski rental problem.
Refactoring versus working with a poor design: In software development, engineers have to choose between the friction and risk of errors of working with an overly-complex design and reducing the complexity of the design before making a change. The extra cost of each change with the old design is the "rental" cost, the cost of refactoring is the "buy" cost. "How many times does one work with a poor design before cleaning it up?" is a ski rental problem.
See also
Adversary (online algorithm)
Competitive analysis (online algorithm)
Online algorithm
Optimal stopping
Worst-case proof
References
Online algorithms | wiki |
A bench dog is a removable clamp used on a woodworking workbench to hold an item fast while being worked. It is characteristically used in concert with an adjustable dog on a bench vise, allowing an item compressed between the two to be held fast on each end, and if offset in both directions.
A dog in general is something which holds. Technically, a simple peg installed in a dog hole in the top of a bench is a basic form of bench dog, though those dogs which clamp an item fast to the bench rather than merely sandwich it between itself and a dog on a vise, known as holdfasts, are most common.
Dog holes are arranged in a line perpendicular to the jaws of a vise, typically in intervals of four to six inches. Some workbenches have a second row parallel to the vise jaws, to allow broad or long items to be held fast in two directions, as well as to the benchtop itself when using one or more holdfasts.
Bench dogs may be square or round. Round dog holes are easier to make but do not secure a dog as securely as square. Some woodworkers use round dogs which have been flattened on their rear to bear in square holes.
See also
Dog (engineering)
Vise (tool)
Holdfast
References
Woodworking clamps | wiki |
3P or 3p may refer to:
3P, People Planet Profit, or Triple bottom line
3P, Aruban Tiara Air's IATA airline designator
3P, proved plus probable plus possible Oil reserves
3p, an arm of Chromosome 3 (human)
People's Policy Project, a US think tank
See also
P3 (disambiguation)
Third party (disambiguation), often abbreviated 3P | wiki |
Driver may refer to:
Transportion
A person whose occupation is driving
Chauffeur, a person who drives an automobile as a job
Motorman (locomotive), an electric vehicle driver
Bus driver
Truck driver
SS Empire Driver or SS Driver, a cargo ship
Driver (sail), a type of sail
Driver Group, an Australian bus company
People
Driver (surname)
Places
Driver, Arkansas, United States
Driver, Northern Territory, Australia
Drivers, Illinois, United States
Driver, Virginia, United States
Sport
Wood (golf), a golf club
Driver, a type of disc golf disc
Driver, a position in water polo
Driver, a kind of throw in professional wrestling
Computing and electronics
Device driver, software used to interact with hardware devices
Driver (software), a general term for a programming interface to control and manage lower level interface(s)
Database driver, application programming interface software used to interact with databases in accordance with Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) standard
In 3D computer animation, a driver of a property animates its value over time based some other property
Driver circuit, in electronics, a circuit or component used to control another circuit or component
Speaker driver, a transducer in a loudspeaker
Military
HMS Driver, two British Royal Navy ships
Driver (rank), British army rank
Arts and entertainment
Driver (series), series of video games
Driver (video game), the first game in the series
Driver 2, the second game in the series
Driver 3, the third game in the series
Driver: Parallel Lines, the fourth game in the series
Driver 76, a 2007 PSP game
Driver: Vegas, a 2005 mobile game
Driver: L.A. Undercover, a 2007 mobile game
Driver: San Francisco, the fifth game in the series
Driver: Renegade, a 2011 3DS game
"Driver" (Blue October song)
See also
The Driver (disambiguation)
Drive (disambiguation)
Pilot (disambiguation)
Dorylus, the driver ant
Screwdriver, mechanical device used to tighten or loosen screws
Pile driver
Drover
Taxi Driver
Train driver
Co-driver | wiki |
A wide-issue architecture is a computer processor that issues more than one instruction per clock cycle. They can be considered in three broad types:
Statically-scheduled superscalar architectures execute instructions in the order presented; the hardware logic determines which instructions are ready and safe to dispatch on each clock cycle.
VLIW architectures rely on the programming software (compiler) to determine which instructions to dispatch on a given clock cycle.
Dynamically-scheduled superscalar architectures execute instructions in an order that gives the same result as the order presented; the hardware logic determines which instructions are ready and safe to dispatch on each clock cycle.
See also
Out-of-order execution
Explicitly parallel instruction computing
References
Instruction processing
Parallel computing | wiki |
Trout Valley – wieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Illinois, w hrabstwie McHenry.
Wsie w stanie Illinois | wiki |
Le SMITTY, la version de SMIT en mode texte.
Smitty, un rappeur américain.
Smitty, un comics strip américain.
Smitty, un policier dans la série animée futurama. | wiki |
Resistance mutations are mutations producing a resistant phenotype. These include:
Resistance mutation (virology)
See also
Resistance gene (disambiguation) | wiki |
A regimen is a plan, or course of action such as a diet, exercise or medical treatment. A low-salt diet is a regimen. A course of penicillin is a regimen, and there are many chemotherapy regimens in the treatment of cancer.
History
The work, Regimen in Acute Diseases, attributed to the ancient Greek physician, Hippocrates of Cos, describes the types and usage of medical regimens in his era (400 BCE). This is perhaps the first appearance of the term.
PubMed at the US National Library of Medicine lists over 220,000 articles using the term "regimen" from 1892 to January 2013. In the context of medieval medicine, regimen referred to the careful management of habits, diet, and schedule to keep the four humors in equilibrium. By manipulating the six non-naturals (airs, diet, sleep, exercise, evacuation, and emotion) a person could keep track of their physical and mental wellbeing by attending to regimen.
Usage in statistics
In economic statistics, a regimen refers to the selected goods and/or services priced for the purpose of compiling a price index. The most well known example is the consumer price index.
References
Therapy | wiki |
Breid Bay is a bay about wide, irregularly indenting, for as much as , the ice shelf fringing the coast of Queen Maud Land. This feature was charted and descriptively named "Breidvika" ("broad bay") by H.E. Hansen, as a result of aerial photographs made on February 6, 1937, by the Lars Christensen Expedition of 1936–37.
References
Bays of Queen Maud Land
Princess Ragnhild Coast | wiki |
"Rainbow" is a song by Italian singer-songwriter Elisa. It was the second single from the 2001 album Then Comes the Sun and the first single released from the American compilation Dancing, published in 2008. The song was a hit in Italy.
Music video
The American music video of Rainbow was filmed in July 2008 with the participation of Lacey Schwimmer from So You Think You Can Dance.
Track listing
Standard edition
"Rainbow" (Bedroom Rockers Remix)
"Rainbow" (Radio edit)
"Heaven Out " (Sensual Heaven remix)
"Heaven Out " (Live at Tropical Pizza 14/11/01)
US edition
"Rainbow" (Glen Ballard remix)
"Rainbow" (Album Version)
Chart performance
References
2002 songs
2002 singles
Songs written by Elisa (Italian singer)
Elisa (Italian singer) songs
Song recordings produced by Glen Ballard | wiki |
A SIM card (full form: Subscriber Identity Module or Subscriber Identification Module) is an integrated circuit (IC) intended to securely store the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) number and its related key, which are used to identify and authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony devices (such as mobile phones and laptops). Technically the actual physical card is known as a universal integrated circuit card (UICC); this smart card is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and semiconductors, with the SIM as its primary component. In practise the term "SIM card" refers to the entire unit and not simply the IC.
A SIM contains a unique serial number (ICCID), international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) number, security authentication and ciphering information, temporary information related to the local network, a list of the services the user has access to, and two passwords: a personal identification number (PIN) for ordinary use, and a personal unblocking key (PUK) for PIN unlocking. In Europe, the serial SIM number (SSN) is also sometimes accompanied by an international article number (IAN) or a European article number (EAN) required when registering online for the subscription of a prepaid card. It is also possible to store contact information on many SIM cards.
SIMs are always used on GSM phones; for CDMA phones, they are needed only for LTE-capable handsets. SIM cards can also be used in satellite phones, smart watches, computers, or cameras.
The first SIM cards were the size of credit and bank cards; sizes were reduced several times over the years, usually keeping electrical contacts the same, so that a larger card could be cut down to a smaller size.
SIMs are transferable between different mobile devices by removing the card itself. eSIM is replacing physical SIM cards in some domains, including cellular telephony. eSIM uses a software-based SIM embedded into an unremovable eUICC.
History and procurement
The SIM card is a type of smart card, the basis for which is the silicon integrated circuit (IC) chip. The idea of incorporating a silicon IC chip onto a plastic card originates from the late 1960s. Smart cards have since used MOS integrated circuit chips, along with MOS memory technologies such as flash memory and EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory).
The SIM was initially specified by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute in the specification with the number TS 11.11. This specification describes the physical and logical behaviour of the SIM. With the development of UMTS, the specification work was partially transferred to 3GPP. 3GPP is now responsible for the further development of applications like SIM (TS 51.011) and USIM (TS 31.102) and ETSI for the further development of the physical card UICC.
The first SIM card was developed in 1991 by Munich smart-card maker Giesecke & Devrient, who sold the first 300 SIM cards to the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.
Today, SIM cards are ubiquitous, allowing over 7 billion devices to connect to cellular networks around the world. According to the International Card Manufacturers Association (ICMA), there were 5.4 billion SIM cards manufactured globally in 2016 creating over $6.5 billion in revenue for traditional SIM card vendors. The rise of cellular IoT and 5G networks is predicted to drive the growth of the addressable market for SIM card manufacturers to over 20 billion cellular devices by 2020. The introduction of embedded-SIM (eSIM) and remote SIM provisioning (RSP) from the GSMA may disrupt the traditional SIM card ecosystem with the entrance of new players specializing in "digital" SIM card provisioning and other value-added services for mobile network operators.
Design
There are three operating voltages for SIM cards: , and (ISO/IEC 7816-3 classes A, B and C, respectively). The operating voltage of the majority of SIM cards launched before 1998 was . SIM cards produced subsequently are compatible with and . Modern cards support , and .
Modern SIM cards allow applications to load when the SIM is in use by the subscriber. These applications communicate with the handset or a server using SIM Application Toolkit, which was initially specified by 3GPP in TS 11.14. (There is an identical ETSI specification with different numbering.) ETSI and 3GPP maintain the SIM specifications. The main specifications are: ETSI TS 102 223 (the toolkit for smart cards), ETSI TS 102 241 (API), ETSI TS 102 588 (application invocation), and ETSI TS 131 111 (toolkit for more SIM-likes). SIM toolkit applications were initially written in native code using proprietary APIs. To provide interoperability of the applications, ETSI chose Java Card. A multi-company collaboration called GlobalPlatform defines some extensions on the cards, with additional APIs and features like more cryptographic security and RFID contactless use added.
Data
SIM cards store network-specific information used to authenticate and identify subscribers on the network. The most important of these are the ICCID, IMSI, authentication key (Ki), local area identity (LAI) and operator-specific emergency number. The SIM also stores other carrier-specific data such as the SMSC (Short Message service center) number, service provider name (SPN), service dialling numbers (SDN), advice-of-charge parameters and value-added service (VAS) applications. (Refer to GSM 11.11.)
SIM cards can come in various data capacities, from to at least . All can store a maximum of 250 contacts on the SIM, but while the has room for 33 mobile network codes (MNCs) or network identifiers, the version has room for 80 MNCs. This is used by network operators to store data on preferred networks, mostly used when the SIM is not in its home network but is roaming. The network operator that issued the SIM card can use this to have a phone connect to a preferred network that is more economic for the provider instead of having to pay the network operator that the phone discovered first. This does not mean that a phone containing this SIM card can connect to a maximum of only 33 or 80 networks, instead it means that the SIM card issuer can specify only up to that number of preferred networks. If a SIM is outside these preferred networks, it uses the first or best available network.
ICCID
Each SIM is internationally identified by its integrated circuit card identifier (ICCID). ICCID is the identifier of the actual SIM card itself: i.e. an identifier for the SIM chip. Nowadays ICCID numbers are also used to identify eSIM profiles, and not only physical SIM cards. ICCIDs are stored in the SIM cards and are also engraved or printed on the SIM card body during a process called personalisation. The ICCID is defined by the ITU-T recommendation E.118 as the primary account number. Its layout is based on ISO/IEC 7812. According to E.118, the number can be up to 19 digits long, including a single check digit calculated using the Luhn algorithm. However, the GSM Phase 1 defined the ICCID length as an opaque data field, 10 octets (20 digits) in length, whose structure is specific to a mobile network operator.
The number is composed of the following subparts:
Issuer identification number (IIN)
Maximum of seven digits:
Major industry identifier (MII), 2 fixed digits, 89 for telecommunication purposes.
Country code, 2 or 3 digits, as defined by ITU-T recommendation E.164.
NANP countries, apart from Canada, use 01, i.e. prepending a zero to their common calling code +1
Canada uses 302
Russia uses 701, i.e. appending 01 to its calling code +7
Kazakhstan uses 997, even though it shares the calling code +7 with Russia
Issuer identifier, 1–4 digits.
Often identical to the mobile network code (MNC).
Individual account identification
Individual account identification number. Its length is variable, but every number under one IIN has the same length.
Often identical to the mobile subscription identification number (MSIN).
Check digit
Single digit calculated from the other digits using the Luhn algorithm.
With the GSM Phase 1 specification using 10 octets into which ICCID is stored as packed BCD, the data field has room for 20 digits with hexadecimal digit "F" being used as filler when necessary.
In practice, this means that on GSM SIM cards there are 20-digit (19+1) and 19-digit (18+1) ICCIDs in use, depending upon the issuer. However, a single issuer always uses the same size for its ICCIDs.
As required by E.118, the ITU-T updates a list of all current internationally assigned IIN codes in its Operational Bulletins which are published twice a month (the last as of January 2019 was No. 1163 from 1 January 2019). ITU-T also publishes complete lists: as of January 2019, the list issued on 1 December 2018 was current, having all issuer identifier numbers before 1 December 2018.
International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)
SIM cards are identified on their individual operator networks by a unique international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI). Mobile network operators connect mobile phone calls and communicate with their market SIM cards using their IMSIs. The format is:
The first three digits represent the mobile country code (MCC).
The next two or three digits represent the mobile network code (MNC). Three-digit MNC codes are allowed by E.212 but are mainly used in the United States and Canada. One MCC can have both 2 digit and 3 digit MNCs, an example is 350 007.
The next digits represent the mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN). Normally there are 10 digits, but can be fewer in the case of a 3-digit MNC or if national regulations indicate that the total length of the IMSI should be less than 15 digits.
Digits are different from country to country.
Authentication key (Ki)
The Ki is a 128-bit value used in authenticating the SIMs on a GSM mobile network (for USIM network, the K is still needed but other parameters are also needed). Each SIM holds a unique Ki assigned to it by the operator during the personalisation process. The Ki is also stored in a database (termed authentication center or AuC) on the carrier's network.
The SIM card is designed to prevent someone from getting the Ki by using the smart-card interface. Instead, the SIM card provides a function, Run GSM Algorithm, that the phone uses to pass data to the SIM card to be signed with the Ki. This, by design, makes using the SIM card mandatory unless the Ki can be extracted from the SIM card, or the carrier is willing to reveal the Ki. In practice, the GSM cryptographic algorithm for computing a signed response (SRES_1/SRES_2: see steps 3 and 4, below) from the Ki has certain vulnerabilities that can allow the extraction of the Ki from a SIM card and the making of a duplicate SIM card.
Authentication process:
When the mobile equipment starts up, it obtains the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) from the SIM card, and passes this to the mobile operator, requesting access and authentication. The mobile equipment may have to pass a PIN to the SIM card before the SIM card reveals this information.
The operator network searches its database for the incoming IMSI and its associated Ki.
The operator network then generates a random number (RAND, which is a nonce) and signs it with the Ki associated with the IMSI (and stored on the SIM card), computing another number, that is split into the Signed Response 1 (SRES_1, 32 bits) and the encryption key Kc (64 bits).
The operator network then sends the RAND to the mobile equipment, which passes it to the SIM card. The SIM card signs it with its Ki, producing Signed Response 2 (SRES_2) and Kc, which it gives to the mobile equipment. The mobile equipment passes SRES_2 on to the operator network.
The operator network then compares its computed SRES_1 with the computed SRES_2 that the mobile equipment returned. If the two numbers match, the SIM is authenticated and the mobile equipment is granted access to the operator's network. Kc is used to encrypt all further communications between the mobile equipment and the operator.
Location area identity
The SIM stores network state information, which is received from the location area identity (LAI). Operator networks are divided into location areas, each having a unique LAI number. When the device changes locations, it stores the new LAI to the SIM and sends it back to the operator network with its new location. If the device is power cycled, it takes data off the SIM, and searches for the prior LAI.
SMS messages and contacts
Most SIM cards store a number of SMS messages and phone book contacts. It stores the contacts in simple "name and number" pairs. Entries that contain multiple phone numbers and additional phone numbers are usually not stored on the SIM card. When a user tries to copy such entries to a SIM, the handset's software breaks them into multiple entries, discarding information that is not a phone number. The number of contacts and messages stored depends on the SIM; early models stored as few as five messages and 20 contacts, while modern SIM cards can usually store over 250 contacts.
Formats
SIM cards have been made smaller over the years; functionality is independent of format. Full-size SIM was followed by mini-SIM, micro-SIM, and nano-SIM. SIM cards are also made to embed in devices.
All versions of the non-embedded SIM cards share the same ISO/IEC 7816 pin arrangement.
Full-size SIM
The full-size SIM (or 1FF, 1st form factor) was the first form factor to appear. It was the size of a credit card (85.60 mm × 53.98 mm × 0.76 mm). Later smaller SIMs are often supplied embedded in a full-size card from which they can be removed.
Mini-SIM
The mini-SIM (or 2FF) card has the same contact arrangement as the full-size SIM card and is normally supplied within a full-size card carrier, attached by a number of linking pieces. This arrangement (defined in ISO/IEC 7810 as ID-1/000) lets such a card be used in a device that requires a full-size card or in a device that requires a mini-SIM card, after breaking the linking pieces. As the full-size SIM is no longer used, some suppliers refer to the mini-SIM as a "standard SIM" or "regular SIM".
Micro-SIM
The micro-SIM (or 3FF) card has the same thickness and contact arrangements, but reduced length and width as shown in the table above.
The micro-SIM was introduced by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) along with SCP, 3GPP (UTRAN/GERAN), 3GPP2 (CDMA2000), ARIB, GSM Association (GSMA SCaG and GSMNA), GlobalPlatform, Liberty Alliance, and the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) for the purpose of fitting into devices too small for a mini-SIM card.
The form factor was mentioned in the December 1998 3GPP SMG9 UMTS Working Party, which is the standards-setting body for GSM SIM cards, and the form factor was agreed upon in late 2003.
The micro-SIM was designed for backward compatibility. The major issue for backward compatibility was the contact area of the chip. Retaining the same contact area makes the micro-SIM compatible with the prior, larger SIM readers through the use of plastic cutout surrounds. The SIM was also designed to run at the same speed (5 MHz) as the prior version. The same size and positions of pins resulted in numerous "How-to" tutorials and YouTube videos with detailed instructions how to cut a mini-SIM card to micro-SIM size.
The chairman of EP SCP, Dr Klaus Vedder, said
Micro-SIM cards were introduced by various mobile service providers for the launch of the original iPad, and later for smartphones, from April 2010. The iPhone 4 was the first smartphone to use a micro-SIM card in June 2010, followed by many others.
Nano-SIM
The nano-SIM (or 4FF) card was introduced on 11 October 2012, when mobile service providers in various countries started to supply it for phones that supported the format. The nano-SIM measures and reduces the previous format to the contact area while maintaining the existing contact arrangements. A small rim of isolating material is left around the contact area to avoid short circuits with the socket. The nano-SIM is thick, compared to the of its predecessors. 4FF can be put into adapters for use with devices designed for 2FF or 3FF SIMs, and is made thinner for that purpose, and telephone companies give due warning about this.
The iPhone 5, released in September 2012, was the first device to use a nano-SIM card, followed by other handsets.
Security
In July 2013, Karsten Nohl, a security researcher from SRLabs, described vulnerabilities in some SIM cards that supported DES, which, despite its age, is still used by some operators. The attack could lead to the phone being remotely cloned or let someone steal payment credentials from the SIM. Further details of the research were provided at BlackHat on 31 July 2013.
In response, the International Telecommunication Union said that the development was "hugely significant" and that it would be contacting its members.
In February 2015, it was reported by The Intercept that the NSA and GCHQ had stolen the encryption keys (Ki's) used by Gemalto (the manufacturer of 2 billion SIM cards annually), enabling these intelligence agencies to monitor voice and data communications without the knowledge or approval of cellular network providers or judicial oversight. Having finished its investigation, Gemalto claimed that it has “reasonable grounds” to believe that the NSA and GCHQ carried out an operation to hack its network in 2010 and 2011, but says the number of possibly stolen keys would not have been massive.
In September 2019, Cathal Mc Daid, a security researcher from Adaptive Mobile Security, described how vulnerabilities in some SIM cards that contained the S@T Browser library were being actively exploited. This vulnerability was named Simjacker. Attackers were using the vulnerability to track the location of thousands of mobile phone users in several countries. Further details of the research were provided at VirusBulletin on 3 October 2019.
Developments
When GSM was already in use, the specifications were further developed and enhanced with functionality such as SMS and GPRS. These development steps are referred as releases by ETSI. Within these development cycles, the SIM specification was enhanced as well: new voltage classes, formats and files were introduced.
USIM
In GSM-only times, the SIM consisted of the hardware and the software. With the advent of UMTS, this naming was split: the SIM was now an application and hence only software. The hardware part was called UICC. This split was necessary because UMTS introduced a new application, the universal subscriber identity module (USIM). The USIM brought, among other things, security improvements like mutual authentication and longer encryption keys and an improved address book.
UICC
"SIM cards" in developed countries today are usually UICCs containing at least a SIM application and a USIM application. This configuration is necessary because older GSM only handsets are solely compatible with the SIM application and some UMTS security enhancements rely on the USIM application.
Other variants
On cdmaOne networks, the equivalent of the SIM card is the R-UIM and the equivalent of the SIM application is the CSIM.
A virtual SIM is a mobile phone number provided by a mobile network operator that does not require a SIM card to connect phone calls to a user's mobile phone.
Embedded SIM (eSIM)
An embedded SIM (eSIM) is a form of programmable SIM that is embedded directly into a device. The surface mount format provides the same electrical interface as the full size, 2FF and 3FF SIM cards, but is soldered to a circuit board as part of the manufacturing process. In M2M applications where there is no requirement to change the SIM card, this avoids the requirement for a connector, improving reliability and security. An eSIM can be provisioned remotely; end-users can add or remove operators without the need to physically swap a SIM from the device.
In September 2017, Apple introduced Apple Watch Series 3 featuring eSIM.
Integrated SIM (iSIM)
An integrated SIM (iSIM) is a form of SIM directly integrated into the modem chip or main processor of the device itself. As a consequence they are smaller, cheaper and more reliable than eSIMs, they can improve security and ease the logistics and production of small devices i.e. for IoT applications. In 2021, the German Telekom introduced the nuSIM, an "Integrated SIM for IoT".
Usage in mobile phone standards
The use of SIM cards is mandatory in GSM devices.
The satellite phone networks Iridium, Thuraya and Inmarsat's BGAN also use SIM cards. Sometimes, these SIM cards work in regular GSM phones and also allow GSM customers to roam in satellite networks by using their own SIM cards in a satellite phone.
Japan's 2G PDC system (which was shut down in 2012; SoftBank Mobile has already shut down PDC from 31 March 2010) also specifies a SIM, but this has never been implemented commercially. The specification of the interface between the Mobile Equipment and the SIM is given in the RCR STD-27 annexe 4. The Subscriber Identity Module Expert Group was a committee of specialists assembled by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to draw up the specifications (GSM 11.11) for interfacing between smart cards and mobile telephones. In 1994, the name SIMEG was changed to SMG9.
Japan's current and next-generation cellular systems are based on W-CDMA (UMTS) and CDMA2000 and all use SIM cards. However, Japanese CDMA2000-based phones are locked to the R-UIM they are associated with and thus, the cards are not interchangeable with other Japanese CDMA2000 handsets (though they may be inserted into GSM/WCDMA handsets for roaming purposes outside Japan).
CDMA-based devices originally did not use a removable card, and the service for these phones is bound to a unique identifier contained in the handset itself. This is most prevalent in operators in the Americas. The first publication of the TIA-820 standard (also known as 3GPP2 C.S0023) in 2000 defined the Removable User Identity Module (R-UIM). Card-based CDMA devices are most prevalent in Asia.
The equivalent of a SIM in UMTS is called the universal integrated circuit card (UICC), which runs a USIM application. The UICC is still colloquially called a SIM card.
SIM and carriers
The SIM card introduced a new and significant business opportunity for who lease capacity from one of the network operators rather than owning or operating a cellular telecoms network and only provide a SIM card to their customers. MVNOs first appeared in Denmark, Hong Kong, Finland and the UK. Today they exist in over 50 countries, including most of Europe, the United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia and parts of Asia, and account for approximately 10% of all mobile phone subscribers around the world.
On some networks, the mobile phone is locked to its carrier SIM card, meaning that the phone only works with SIM cards from the specific carrier. This is more common in markets where mobile phones are heavily subsidised by the carriers, and the business model depends on the customer staying with the service provider for a minimum term (typically 12, 18 or 24 months). SIM cards that are issued by providers with an associated contract are called SIM-only deals. Common examples are the GSM networks in the United States, Canada, Australia, the UK and Poland. Many businesses offer the ability to remove the SIM lock from a phone, effectively making it possible to then use the phone on any network by inserting a different SIM card. Mostly, GSM and 3G mobile handsets can easily be unlocked and used on any suitable network with any SIM card.
In countries where the phones are not subsidised, e.g., India, Israel and Belgium, all phones are unlocked. Where the phone is not locked to its SIM card, the users can easily switch networks by simply replacing the SIM card of one network with that of another while using only one phone. This is typical, for example, among users who may want to optimise their carrier's traffic by different tariffs to different friends on different networks, or when travelling internationally.
In 2016, carriers started using the concept of automatic SIM reactivation whereby they let users reuse expired SIM cards instead of purchasing new ones when they wish to re-subscribe to that operator. This is particularly useful in countries where prepaid calls dominate and where competition drives high churn rates, as users had to return to a carrier shop to purchase a new SIM each time they wanted to churn back to an operator.
SIM-only
Commonly sold as a product by mobile telecommunications companies, "SIM-only" refers to a type of legally binding contract between a mobile network provider and a customer. The contract itself takes the form of a credit agreement and is subject to a credit check.
Within a SIM-only contract, the mobile network provider supplies their customer with just one piece of hardware, a SIM card, which includes an agreed amount of network usage in exchange for a monthly payment. Network usage within a SIM-only contract can be measured in minutes, text, data or any combination of these. The duration of a SIM-only contract varies depending on the deal selected by the customer, but in the UK they are available over 1, 3, 6, and 12-month periods.
SIM-only contracts differ from mobile phone contracts in that they do not include any hardware other than a SIM card. In terms of network usage, SIM-only is typically more cost-effective than other contracts because the provider does not charge more to offset the cost of a mobile device over the contract period. The short contract length is one of the key features of SIM-only made possible by the absence of a mobile device.
SIM-only is increasing in popularity very quickly. In 2010 pay monthly based mobile phone subscriptions grew from 41 per cent to 49 per cent of all UK mobile phone subscriptions. According to German research company GfK, 250,000 SIM-only mobile contracts were taken up in the UK during July 2012 alone, the highest figure since GfK began keeping records.
Increasing smartphone penetration combined with financial concerns is leading customers to save money by moving onto a SIM-only when their initial contract term is over.
Multiple-SIM devices
Dual SIM devices have two SIM card slots for the use of two SIM cards, from one or multiple carriers. Multiple SIM devices are commonplace in developing markets such as in Africa, East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia, where variable billing rates, network coverage and speed make it desirable for consumers to use multiple SIMs from competing networks. Dual-SIM phones are also useful to separate one's personal phone number from a business phone number, without having to carry multiple devices. Some popular devices, such as the BlackBerry KeyOne, have dual-SIM variants; however, dual-SIM devices were not common in the US or Europe due to lack of demand. This has changed with mainline products from Apple and Google featuring either two SIM slots or a combination of a physical SIM slot and an eSIM.
In September 2018, Apple introduced iPhone XS, iPhone XS Max, and iPhone XR featuring Dual SIM (nano-SIM and eSIM) and Apple Watch Series 4 featuring Dual eSIM.
Thin SIM
A thin SIM (or overlay SIM or SIM overlay) is a very thin device shaped like a SIM card, approximately 120 microns thick. It has contacts on its front and back. It is used by placing it on top of a regular SIM card. It provides its own functionality while passing through the functionality of the SIM card underneath. It can be used to bypass the mobile operating network and run custom applications, particularly on non-programmable cell phones.
Its top surface is a connector that connects to the phone in place of the normal SIM. Its bottom surface is a connector that connects to the SIM in place of the phone. With electronics, it can modify signals in either direction, thus presenting a modified SIM to the phone, and/or presenting a modified phone to the SIM. It is a similar concept to the Game Genie, which connects between a game console and a game cartridge, creating a modified game. Similar devices have also been developed for iPhones to circumvent SIM card restrictions on carrier-locked models, thus allowing otherwise SIM-locked iPhones to accept SIM cards other than the ones they were authorised to accept.
In 2014, Equitel, an MVNO operated by Kenya's Equity Bank, announced its intention to begin issuing thin SIMs to customers, raising security concerns by competition, particularly concerning the safety of mobile money accounts. However, after months of security testing and legal hearings before the country's Parliamentary Committee on Energy, Information and Communications, the Communications Authority of Kenya (CAK) gave the bank the green light to roll out its thin SIM cards.
See also
Apple SIM
eSIM
GSM 03.48
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
IP Multimedia Services Identity Module (ISIM)
Mobile broadband
Mobile equipment identifier (MEID)
Mobile signature
Regional lockout
SIM cloning
SIM connector
Single Wire Protocol (SWP)
Tethering
Transponder
GSM USSD codes Unstructured Supplementary Service Data: list of standard GSM codes for network and SIM related functions
VMAC
W-SIM (Willcom-SIM)
References
External links
GSM 11.11 – Specification of the Subscriber Identity Module-Mobile Equipment (SIM-ME) interface.
GSM 11.14 – Specification of the SIM Application Toolkit for the Subscriber Identity Module-Mobile Equipment (SIM-ME) interface
GSM 03.48 – Specification of the security mechanisms for SIM application toolkit
GSM 03.48 Java API – API and realization of GSM 03.48 in Java
ITU-T E.118 – The International Telecommunication Charge Card 2006 ITU-T
German inventions
Mobile phone standards
Cryptographic hardware
Smart cards
Computer access control | wiki |
Canyoning (canyoneering in the United States, kloofing in South Africa) is a type of mountaineering that involves travelling in canyons using a variety of techniques that may include other outdoor activities such as walking, scrambling, climbing, jumping, abseiling (rappelling), and swimming.
Although non-technical descents such as hiking down a canyon (canyon hiking) are often referred to as canyoneering, the terms canyoning and canyoneering are more often associated with technical descents — those that require abseils (rappels) and ropework, technical climbing or down-climbing, technical jumps, and/or technical swims.
Canyoning is frequently done in remote and rugged settings and often requires navigational, route-finding, and other wilderness travel skills.
Canyons that are ideal for canyoning are often cut into the bedrock stone, forming narrow gorges with numerous drops, beautifully sculpted walls, and sometimes spectacular waterfalls. Most canyons are cut into limestone, sandstone, granite, or basalt, though other rock types are found. Canyons can be very easy or extremely difficult, though emphasis in the sport is usually on aesthetics and fun rather than pure difficulty. A wide variety of canyoning routes are found throughout the world, and canyoning is enjoyed by people of all ages and skill levels.
Canyoning gear includes climbing hardware, static or semi-static ropes, helmets, wetsuits, and specially designed shoes, packs, and rope bags. While canyoneers have used and adapted climbing, hiking, and river running gear for years, more and more specialized gear is invented and manufactured as canyoning popularity increases.
Canyoning around the world
In most parts of the world canyoning is done in mountain canyons with flowing water. The number of countries with established canyoning outfitters is growing yearly.
Asia
Nepal has huge potential in adventure activities like mountaineering, trekking, canyoning, rafting, paragliding, mountain biking, honey hunting, etc. Canyoning is famous in Sundarijal (Kathmandu), Pokhara, Jalabire (Chitwan),etc. In Vietnam you can try in Dalat, its call "Dalat Canyoning Challenge", organized by Viet Challenge Tours. In Japan they have both "kyanioningu" and (sawanobori) the later being the sport of climbing up canyons and gorges. Taiwan has both canyoning and a sport called river tracing that typically involves traveling upstream.
Europe
Canyoning in the United Kingdom has gained in popularity over recent years. In the UK, Wales, Scotland, Cumbria and Yorkshire and some areas of Cornwall are recognized as the prime locations for this activity. In the Welsh language, canyoning is called "cerdded ceunant". It is also referred to as "gorge walking", which the UK Scout Association defines as "the activity of following a river bed through a gorge. This often includes climbing, swimming, abseiling and scrambling depending upon the environment".
Ticino, Switzerland, is a popular canyoning destination because of its granite rock, crystal green pools and its pleasant Mediterranean climate.
Some nice and popular canyoning spots can also be found in Slovenia, Italy and Austria.
Spain has also emerged as a popular canyoning spot, owing to its warm climate and abundance of rock formations conducive to canyoning.
Portugal also has canyoning in the Azores and Madeira.
North America
In the United States, descending mountain canyons with flowing water is sometimes referred to as canyoning, although the term "canyoneering" is more common. Most canyoneering in the United States occurs in the many slot canyons carved in the sandstone found throughout the Colorado Plateau. Outside of the Colorado Plateau, numerous canyoneering opportunities are found in the San Gabriel, Sierra Nevada, Cascade, and Rocky Mountain ranges.
Oceania
Canyoning is common in Australia in the many sandstone slot canyons of the Blue Mountains National Park, known for their technical abseil starts and lack of fast flowing water.
Hazards
Canyoning can be dangerous. Escape via the sides of a canyon is often impossible, and completion of the descent is the only possibility. Due to the remoteness and inaccessibility of many canyons, rescue can be impossible for several hours or several days.
High water flow / hydraulics
Canyons with significant water flow may be treacherous and require special ropework techniques for safe travel. Hydraulics, undercurrents, and sieves (or strainers) occur in flowing canyons and can trap or pin and drown a canyoneer. A 1993 accident in Zion National Park, Utah, USA, in which two leaders of a youth group drowned in powerful canyon hydraulics (and the lawsuit which followed) brought notoriety to the sport.
Flash floods
A potential danger of many canyoning trips is a flash flood. A canyon "flashes" when a large amount of precipitation falls in the drainage, and water levels in the canyon rise quickly as the runoff rushes down the canyon. In canyons that drain large areas, the rainfall could be many kilometers away from the canyoners, completely unbeknown to them. A calm or even dry canyon can quickly become a violent torrent due to a severe thunderstorm in the vicinity. Fatalities have occurred as a result of flash floods; in one widely publicized 1999 incident, 21 tourists on a commercial canyoning adventure trip drowned in Saxetenbach Gorge, Switzerland. Authorities in Switzerland have set in the last few years high standards on safety, "Safety in adventures" label is becoming the standard for all companies to prove they are following the standard safety procedures.
Hypothermia and hyperthermia
Temperature-related illnesses are also canyoning hazards. In arid desert canyons, heat exhaustion can occur if proper hydration levels are not maintained and adequate steps are not taken to avoid the intense rays of the sun. Hypothermia can be a serious danger in any canyon that contains water, during any time of the year. Wetsuits and drysuits can mitigate this danger to a large degree, but when people miscalculate the amount of water protection they will need, dangerous and sometimes fatal situations can occur. Hypothermia due to inadequate cold water protection is cited as a cause of a 2005 incident in which two college students drowned in a remote Utah canyon.
Keeper potholes
Some canyoneering, especially in sandstone slots, involves escaping from large potholes. Also called "keeper potholes," these features, carved out by falling water at the bottom of a drop in the watercourse, are circular pits that often contain water that is too deep to stand up in and whose walls are too smooth to easily climb out of. Canyoneers use several unique and creative devices to escape potholes, including hooks used for aid climbing attached to long poles and specialized weighted bags that are attached to ropes and tossed over the lip of a pothole.
Very narrow slots
Narrow slot canyons, especially those narrower than humans, present difficult obstacles for canyoners. At times a canyoner is forced to climb up (using chimneying or off-width climbing techniques) to a height where one can comfortably maneuver laterally with pressure on both walls of the canyon. This tends to be strenuous and can require climbing high above the canyon floor, unprotected, for long periods of time. Failure to complete the required moves could result in being trapped in a canyon where rescue is extremely difficult. Past rescues have required extensive rigging systems and dishsoap to extract stuck canyoners.
Narrow sandstone slot canyons tend to have abrasive walls which rip clothing and gear, and can cause painful skin abrasion as a canyoner moves or slides along them.
Exposure to water-borne diseases
Immersion in water may lead to exposure to diseases such as Weil's Disease (Leptospirosis), dermatitis and gastroenteritis. Ingestion of water should be avoided and taking a shower immediately after canyoning or gorge walking is recommended.
Rockfall
Canyons are changing environments and falling rocks, including chockstones, are not uncommon. A moving chockstone caused Aron Ralston's 2003 accident where he was forced to amputate his forearm.
Becoming lost
Many canyons are located in remote areas with limited or sparse trails, and due to their harsh environments, straying from established areas can be dangerous.
Education and training
As the sport of canyoneering begins to grow, there are more and more people looking to learn the skills needed to safely descend canyons. There are several reputable organizations that are now offering classes of various forms to the public; some organizations are training organizations that offer certifications, while other commercial operations offer classes in addition to purely recreational guided tours. The latter is particularly popular in tourist destinations around the world, such as Costa Rica, Hawaii, the Philippines, and Utah. Most programs have multiple levels of skill-set classes. The lowest levels usually cover the basics such as rappelling, rope work, navigation, identification of gear and clothing, and rappel setups. The higher levels cover more complex situations such as anchor building and strategies on how to descend various types of canyons. Other higher level and specialty classes typically cover rescue situations, wilderness first aid, and swift water canyons.
For professional canyoning guide training there are a number of organisations spread throughout the world. In Europe the CIC (Commission Internationale de Canyon) was one of the first organisations, (formerly CEC) for professionals to teach over multiple countries. ICO Pro (International Canyoning Organisation for Professionals), ICA (International Academy of Canyoning Association) and the ACA (American Canyoneering Association), CGI (Canyon Guides International) all offer training courses in multiple countries. There are also many certification systems governed by single countries, many which are based on the original CEC methodology.
With the widespread and growing interest in online training courses, 2021 saw the launch of V7 Academy, an online canyoning technical resource platform offering multi-level programs to the community, including a free introductory course aimed at beginners.
References
External links
Types of climbing | wiki |
Brenda Shanahan may refer to:
Brenda Shanahan (businesswoman), Irish businesswoman
Brenda Shanahan (politician), Canadian politician | wiki |
Butts Up or Wall Ball is a North American elementary school children's playground game originating in the 1950s or earlier.. It is slightly similar to the game Screen Ball, and began in the 1940s or 1950s as a penalty phase of various city street games. Butts Up is played with a ball (such as a tennis ball, handball, or racquetball) on a paved surface against a wall, with a variable number of participants—usually more than three and often likely to exceed ten. Butts Up tends to be played during recess, before or after school. . Popular in New England is another frequent variation of wallball that usually differs a lot from the more widely known 'Butts Up'.
Players determine the variations of the game prior to start of play. Some of the rules of the game very loosely resemble the rules of baseball and racquetball.
Names
There are many alternate names for butts up, including "Butt Ball" and "Fireball".
Basic game
Players line up facing a wall, one of them throwing a tennis ball or similar-sized ball against it. If the thrower fails to catch the ball on its return, they must run and attempt to touch the wall - if another player can grab the ball and "hit them in the butt" with it before they reach the wall, the runner is out of the game until the next round. The game continues until two or three players remain.
Variations
In some variations of the game, there is no specific object of the game. Play continues until time runs out. In this variation, when players are "out" three times, they must lean against the wall and wait to be hit by the ball ("Butts Up").
The first player, usually the tennis ball owner, starts the game or "breaks the ice" (see terminology below) by throwing the ball against the wall with the objective of having the ball hit the wall without hitting the ground first or if someone catches the ball in the air before it hits the ground and yells ”poison” and throws the ball at the wall before the thrower touches the wall he’s out.
Under some rules players must hit the wall rather than the runner to eliminate them, or may hit either.
If the ball is caught before hitting the pavement, the thrower is penalized with one "out", much like baseball. Some refer to this as a "cobra", or "ace". After three outs a player leaves the game. Sometimes alternate words, such as "wall," are used instead. In some cases, such as in New York City, the catcher has to "peg" the thrower, while the thrower tries to touch the wall, if the thrower misses, the throwers doesn't get an out.
If the thrower's ball bounces before hitting the wall, the thrower must run to the wall and touch the wall before an opponent can pick up the ball and throw it to the wall. If the original thrower doesn't make contact with the wall before the ball reaches the wall, the original thrower is out. If the thrower reaches for the ball and makes contact with it before dropping it, this counts as missing the throw, and the thrower must run to the wall.
If a player catches the ball far from the wall, other players can yell "beartrap", which freezes the thrower in place. They can either throw the ball from where they are, or risk their chances by throwing the ball up or in front and run to the wall. If they don't make it to the wall in time, they are out.
In one variation of the game, a runner who does not reach the wall before the thrown ball hits must, in addition to receiving an out, stand facing the wall and allow the thrower to "peg" him or her with the ball (usually with all possible force).
In another variation, a player who is "out" three times must lean against the wall while other players take turns throwing the ball at them, until the out player is hit.
In the "three–out elimination", the game continues until all but one player have received three outs and left the game.
In New York City, the game is usually called "Asses Up", and the game is played exactly the same, the only major difference is that when ever a kid is "out", or doesn't touch the wall before the ball or is hit with the ball by another player, instead of eliminated after three "outs", they get eliminated when they complete the word "Asses Up" with each "out" is a letter in the game (I.e. A-S-S-E-S-U-P). This is similar with spelling out "Horse" in Basketball. Also, the term "Reach" is used when a catcher is far away, and the ball is usually thrown at the thrower as an alternative to "pegging" (usually when smaller kids are playing).
In a variation practiced widely in Santa Clara County, California elementary schools as late as the mid-1980s, each time a player earned an out, that player's "butt was up," and they would have to stand with hands against the wall, waiting to be pegged by the player who threw them out. If the player is hit in the "target area", they are convicted of the out, and gets a letter (B-U-T-T, for example), and leave the game. In this variation, at the ice breaker's discretion, play may pass by number, i.e., Player 1 breaks the ice, then Player 2 must retrieve and throw the ball, followed by Player 3, etc. In more physical games, the ball is not required to bounce after touching the wall, and aggressive players will stand near the wall, within arms' reach, pegging other players and quickly touching the wall, then retrieving the ball and throwing the other player out. Other rules included "handsies", which prohibits players from touching the ball with both hands at once (the ball could be tossed in the air and caught with the other hand, but typically a great show was made of this feat in order to avoid even the appearance of a foul). Also, a player with ball in hand must keep one foot planted at all times, or, in the interest of fairness, if a player was stranded well beyond throwing or relay distance (see "Savies"), that player could take one large step toward the wall. If a player knowingly mishandles the ball and thus must "hit the wall," and deliberately "spikes" the ball to avoid being sent out, the offending player's butt is automatically up; at the other players' discretion, they may each take a turn at throwing that player out. The attack does not cease simply because a pegger has successfully scored in the target area; each player throws nonetheless, usually with intent to cause injury or disfigurement.
In one variation of the game played in Huntington Beach, California, if the game has been going for a long time, the last two players enter "Sudden Death" mode, where additional rules are added. A player must catch the ball before it bounces, or they are eliminated. If the ball hits the wall above a certain area, then the thrower is out. In nearby Palos Verdes, California, players must alternate between catching with the right hand and the left hand, in order to avoid any bias against left-handed players.
In more recent variations of the game, a player only receives an out if they actually hit by the peg, rather than receiving it for having to be on the wall. Also, if a player wins without having gotten an out, the win is called a 'lockdown'.
In New England, specifically the Tri-State Area, another version of Wall Ball was invented. In this variation two or more people line up to take turns hitting the ball. The ball must bounce first, then hit the wall, then bounce; the next person in line must hit the ball before its second bounce on the ground, then the ball must hit the wall, then bounce. This repeats for however many people there are. It is usually played with three outs, but the number could vary depending on the number of people. There are also many variations in each school, but the overall premise is usually the same. Wall Ball in New England is usually considered a separate game from Butts Up. In some areas in Westchester county, this variant is called "Watermelon", which is named for the legal action of going completely under the ball as a hit.
In a Maryland version of wallball, the icebreaker starts the game, with all other players nearby. Players are allowed to catch the ball if it has not bounced, as well as catching other players' throws. Failing to catch the ball, taking too long to get a handle on the ball or any other type of "bobbling" is the "bobblers" cue to touch the wall. If a player is relatively far from the wall while holding the ball, other players may call "wallball" (hence the name), meaning the player with the ball has ten seconds to hit the wall, without moving or bouncing the ball off the ground. An out player must stand on the wall and get pegged by the player who got them out. If the peg is successful (player hit), play continues with the icebreaker throwing the ball first. If the peg is unsuccessful (player not hit), other players have the opportunity to get the thrower out. No penalty besides pegging occurs from an out. Fouls include kicking the ball, preventing a player from getting you out (kicking or throwing the ball after bobbling as opposed to dropping it), tampering with a throw or interfering with a peg (interference can also occur if a player running to touch the wall is obstructed by another player.) Interference is determined by the other players in the game.
Yet another playground version of the game (popular in southern Arizona) simply had all the participants apart from the first player line up against the wall, with the immediate goal of the first player to hit a participant with the ball (typically as hard as possible) and thus make that participant "it". This version resembles dodge ball but with the wall limiting the possible dodging moves to two dimensions rather than three. Any participant who strayed too far away from the wall during play was "punished" by a penalty shot, where the thrower would aim solely at him or her and throw the ball as hard as possible, although a hit in this case did not make the person "it". When a player became "it" by legal means, that player assumes the role of thrower. The object of this game—like many other playground games—was simply to inflict pain on classmates, and was thus often played in relatively obscure or off-limits areas of the playground.
Another version of wallball is that the ball is catchable off the wall and the catching player can move about freely as long as they throw the ball within the next few seconds. If the ball bounces very far away from the wall the other players may call "challenge" to the player with the ball. A call of challenge means the player may not move and must throw the ball and try to hit the wall. If the player chooses to drop the ball at their feet then the player is automatically out. The thrower, however, may choose to simply throw it at an object that would cause the ball to be hard to get before the thrower can be thrown out, possibly causing a successive number of challenges until a suitable throw has been made. If a player catches the ball they may run to the wall and place both their off hand and foot on the wall and call "bulldog." If the player does this they can freely throw the ball at whomever they wish. If they hit another player then the hit player must touch the wall before they are thrown out. "Bulldogs" are usually frowned upon by other players and considered a cheap way of getting other players out. If a player has committed a double touch another player may call the foul and is allowed a throw at the person. The offending player must be "spread eagle" as it is called, against the wall and may not move. The thrower is not allow a full force throw unless the person moves or flinches as it is usually taken from a short distance. This can either result in a peg or a double throw depending on the rules. If the thrower makes a full force throw without the offender moving then the thrower must be pegged by the original offender. In some games the thrower on "spread eagle" must touch the wall or they too will be out, unless they missed and hit the wall.
In Australian schools, most notably in Victoria and New South Wales, a variation, similarly called Fumble, is played. This game is indeed similar to Butts Up, but the main differences include:
Players can also get out if they are hit by the ball. If a player was to have a ball thrown at them, then that player, as well as the player who threw the ball, must run to the wall before the ball hits the wall.
If the ball hits the ground before it hits the wall, the player must touch the wall before the ball does. This is because the ball becomes anyone's ball, and therefore anyone can pick it up and throw it off the wall.
If you get out, you are placed in a waiting list. The first person to get out will be replaced by the person that gets out after him.
The ball is a normal handball, but can be varied, but usually it is a bouncy ball, that can repel off a wall at high speed.
Of course, the rules vary per match and per school. Between all the schools, the variations shown are generally what are the most basic variations.
One little-known version of the game popular at schools in some areas of Toronto is called "redeye." Redeye, also called redass, or “Celery” involves throwing the ball at the wall and having to run to the wall in all circumstances. The other players try to throw the ball and have it touch the wall before the previous thrower makes it to the wall. If they do succeed in beating the thrower to the wall, the thrower is out and "gets a letter." The letter he gets depends on how many times he has gotten out. The letters spell out either R-E-D-E-Y-E or R-E-D-A-S-S. So if it's first out, he gets an R, second, E, third D, &c. Last one to get all letters, wins.
Terminology
Black Mail or Reach: (Some variations) Once the ball is caught (usually from a long distance) any player may yell "Black Mail!" The player with the ball must now throw the ball to the wall without moving feet.
Break the Ice: To start the game by making the first throw regardless of ball ownership.
Savies or Taxis or Relay: If a player feels he is too far from the wall to throw the ball and make wall contact, the thrower can throw the ball to another player and hope the receiver will wait until the thrower has run to the wall and touched it. However, Savies can backfire if the catcher betrays the thrower (or mis-times) by throwing the ball to the wall before the thrower has run and touched the wall. Normally, if the catcher drops the ball both players must run to the wall and hope to make it before being thrown out. Players are then individually ruled out, or safe. If the ball never makes it near the catcher or never touched it, then he has no obligation to throw it to continue play, unless he is the closest player. In some places, there is no betrayal aspect as, if you save them they don't have to run.
Chicken Drops: An alternative to Savies. If a player is too far from the wall to make a complete pass to hit the wall, he can drop the ball at his feet and head to the wall as quickly as he can to make contact. If another player picks up the ball that player can throw the runner out by getting the ball to the wall before the runner. This technique is frowned upon by Butts Up enthusiasts. If a player attempts a Chicken Drop but the ball is not dropped where standing, he can also be ruled out by a verbal majority.
Double Touch: The act of a player touching the ball twice, resulting in an automatic out. Typically this occurs when the ball is bobbled or tripped over.
Handsies: (Some variations) The act of a player touching the ball with both hands at once, resulting in an obligation to "hit the wall".
Hit the Wall: Alternative terminology for a player's obligation, upon committing "handsies," "chicken drops," "traveling," or other offense, failure to accomplish which before any other player has thrown the player out by causing it to hit the wall results in an out or the runner's butt being "up".
Over the Wall: (Some variations) If the ball is thrown over the wall, it is considered an automatic out. The ball must then be retrieved in a game time-out by a volunteer, usually by throwing the ball back over the wall and play immediately restarted (time-in) with the next throw by a player, as if the ball had never left play. The volunteer walks or jogs back into the game and resumes playing as quickly as possible.
Peg: A player throws the ball at another player, usually resulting in an out for both players.
Self-Out: A player throws the ball to the wall and then catches it before the ball hits the pavement. This rule is optional and can be determined by the players prior to the start of the game.
Self-Peg: A thrower's ball bounces off the wall and hits the thrower. In this case the thrower must run to the wall and touch the wall before an opponent picks up the ball and throws it to the wall.
Stripping: In more physical iterations of the game, a player may attempt to strip the ball from the hand of another player. If successful, both players must run to the wall to avoid earning an out.
Tie Goes to the Runner: If there is a dispute among the players about whether a runner is safe or out, and the decision for and against is a 50/50 tie among players, the runner stays in the game.
Traveling: The act of a player moving both feet with ball in hand.
Lockdown: Occurs when a player wins the game without having gotten out.
Poison: When someone catches the ball without the ball hitting the ground. If they say "poison" the "poisoned" person must run to the wall before the person who caught the ball throws it to the wall.
Beartrap: Freezes the thrower in place.
In the Australian schoolyard variation, the following are also included in the list of terminology used:
Fumbled: Yelled out when a player has fumbled the ball.
Truce: Said to another player when they want to give them the ball due to distance.
Full: Yelled out when the ball has been caught on the full by another player.
Run to the Wall, Run to the Wall: Yelled out when people have touched the ball
Shoddy/Dibs service: Yelled out at the beginning of a game when a player wants to throw first
Peg: Denotes when a player intentionally throws the ball at another player, usually requiring both players to hit the wall prior to another player doing so.
Blocker: If another player blocks the thrower and the ball rebounds off the player, then both the thrower and blocker need to run to the wall.
Lost ball: If the ball is lost in a drain or a car park, then the thrower must go and get it, no matter how perilous it is.
Near Miss: If the ball comes close to hitting another person not playing the game, the thrower is warned.
References
Bailey, Guy. The Ultimate Playground & Recess Game Book (Educators Press 2001)
Further reading
See also
Wallball
Chinese Handball
American Handball
Pinners
Children's games
Street games
Ball games
Games of physical skill
Wall and ball games
Physical education | wiki |
Three motets may refer to:
Drei Motetten, Op. 39 (Mendelssohn) by Felix Mendelssohn in 1830
Three Latin Motets by Charles Villiers Stanford in 1905 | wiki |
Notes
Cities marked with * have several different post codes, the one here is only the most general one.
Hungary | wiki |
Miniature painting may refer to:
Miniature (illuminated manuscript), a small illustration used to decorate an illuminated manuscript
Persian miniature, a small painting on paper in the Persian tradition, for a book or album
Ottoman miniature, a small painting on paper in the tradition of the Ottoman Empire, for a book or album
Mughal painting
Deccan painting
Portrait miniature, a miniature portrait painting
Miniature figure (gaming), used in wargaming or role-playing games
Miniature figure painting, the hobby of painting miniature figures | wiki |
The East Ravenswood Historic District is a primarily residential historic district in the Ravenswood neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. Constructed between 1880 and 1940, the buildings in the district include the first parts of Ravenswood to be developed. Ravenswood was one of Chicago's first suburban neighborhoods, and the area's many trees and proximity to the Chicago River appealed to residents looking for less urbanized surroundings. Transit connections, including the new Ravenswood branch of the Chicago 'L', and the growth of Chicago as a whole brought new residents and greater density to the neighborhood over the ensuing decades. The district is mainly composed of houses and small apartment buildings, the designs of which reflect the transition from the Queen Anne and Victorian designs of the late nineteenth century to the Prairie School and revival styles of the twentieth. It is also noted for its many churches, which represent the variety of religious denominations in the neighborhood and showcase religious architecture of the period.
The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 3, 1991.
References
National Register of Historic Places in Chicago
Historic districts in Chicago | wiki |
Notes
Cities marked with * have several different post codes, the one here is only the most general one.
Hungary | wiki |
Notes
Cities marked with * have several different post codes, the one here is only the most general one.
Hungary | wiki |
Cinema
Off the Wall – film del 1977 diretto da Rick King
Off the Wall – film del 1983 diretto da Rick Friedberg
Letteratura
Off the Wall – romanzo del 1980 di Charles Willeford
Musica
Off the Wall – album di Budd Johnson del 1965
Off the Wall – album di Michael Jackson del 1979
Off the Wall – singolo di Michael Jackson del 1980, dall'album omonimo
Off the Wall – bootleg di Eminem del 2000
Off the Wall – singolo di Big Noyd del 2005, dall'album On the Grind
Televisione
Sfratti senza scrupoli (Off the Wall) – episodio della settima stagione di MacGyver
Un proiettile pericoloso (Off the Wall) – episodio della decima stagione di NYPD | wiki |
Notes
Cities marked with * have several different post codes, the one here is only the most general one.
Hungary | wiki |
The Smurfs (French: Les Schtroumpfs) was the first animated adaptation of the popular Belgian comic book series The Smurfs.
The show was produced by TVA Dupuis and aired on RTB (Radio Télévision Belge de la Communauté Française) from 1961 to 1967. Some of the television episodes from this series were chosen and became a part of the film Les Aventures des Schtroumpfs. The film was released in 1965 in Belgium. Some of the recovered episodes are exhibited in the Belgian Comic Strip Center in Brussels, Belgium.
Episode list
References
Bibliography
1961 Belgian television series debuts
Wizards in television
The Smurfs
Black-and-white television shows
Television series set in the Middle Ages
Television series based on Belgian comics
Television about magic
French-language television programming in Belgium
Belgian children's animated adventure television series
Belgian children's animated fantasy television series | wiki |
Notes
Cities marked with * have several different post codes, the one here is only the most general one.
Hungary | wiki |
Notes
Cities marked with * have several different post codes, the one here is only the most general one.
Hungary | wiki |
Notes
Cities marked with * have several different post codes, the one here is only the most general one.
Hungary | wiki |
Coonskin may refer to:
The skin of a raccoon
Coonskin cap, a type of hat
Coonskin (film), a 1975 animated film by Ralph Bakshi | wiki |
Jane Bennett may refer to:
Jane Bennett (artist) (born 1960), Australian painter
Jane Bennett (academic)
Jane Bennett (political theorist) (born 1957), American professor
Jane Bennett, a character in the novel Pride and Prejudice | wiki |
The counting board is the precursor of the abacus, and the earliest known form of a counting device (excluding fingers and other very simple methods). Counting boards were made of stone or wood, and the counting was done on the board with beads, or pebbles etc. Not many boards survive because of the perishable materials used in their construction.
The oldest known counting board, the Salamis Tablet () was discovered on the Greek island of Salamis in 1899. It is thought to have been used as more of a gaming board than a calculating device. It is marble, about 150 x 75 x 4.5 cm, and is in the Epigraphical Museum in Athens. It has carved Greek letters and parallel grooves.
The German mathematician Adam Ries described the use of counting boards in . In the novel Wolf Hall, Hilary Mantel refers to Thomas Cromwell using a counting board in 16th-century England.
See also
Abacus
Calculator
References
Mathematical tools | wiki |
Magnetic pole may refer to:
One of the two ends of a magnet
Magnetic monopole, a hypothetical elementary particle
The magnetic poles of astronomical bodies, a special case of magnets, especially:
The North Magnetic Pole of planet Earth, a point where the north end of a compass points downward
The South Magnetic Pole of planet Earth, a point where the south end of a compass points downward | wiki |
Quadruple helix may refer to:
G-quadruplex secondary structures formed in nucleic acids.
Quadruple helix model of innovation economics. | wiki |
Somali Youth League (SYL), do 1948 r. – Somali Youth Club (SYC) – najstarsza partia somalijska. Odegrała ważną rolę w uzyskaniu przez Somalię niepodległości w 1960 r. Była najpotężniejszą partią w tym kraju do przewrotu wojskowego Mohameda Siada Barre w 1969 r., po którym jej działalność została zakazana w wyniku wprowadzenia systemu jednopartyjnego.
Przypisy
Partie nacjonalistyczne
Partie i ugrupowania w Somalii | wiki |
Parquet (; French for "a small compartment") is a geometric mosaic of wood pieces used for decorative effect in flooring.
Parquet patterns are often entirely geometrical and angular—squares, triangles, lozenges—but may contain curves. The most popular parquet flooring pattern is herringbone.
Etymology
The word derives from the Old French parchet (the diminutive of parc), literally meaning "a small enclosed space".
History
Large diagonal squares known as parquet de Versailles were introduced in 1684 as parquet de menuiserie ("woodwork parquet") to replace the marble flooring that required constant washing, which tended to rot the joists beneath the floors. Such parquets en losange were noted by the Swedish architect Daniel Cronström at Versailles and at the Grand Trianon in 1693.
Materials
Timber contrasting in color and grain, such as oak, walnut, cherry, lime, pine, maple etc. are sometimes employed, and in the more expensive kinds the richly coloured mahogany and sometimes other tropical hardwoods are also used. While not technically a wood, bamboo is also a popular material for modern floors.
Parquet floors were formerly usually adhered with hot bitumen. Today modern cold adhesives are usually used.
Repair
Parquet floors are usually long lasting if maintained correctly . Unstuck blocks are re-glued. Bitumen-glued blocks require use of either hot bitumen, cold bitumen emulsion, or a spirit based parquet adhesive.
Domestic use
Parquet floors are often found in bedrooms and hallways. They are considered better than regular floor tiles since they feel warmer underfoot. However they do little to absorb sounds such as walking, vacuum cleaning and television, which can cause problems in multi-occupancy dwellings.
Basketball courts
One of the most famous parquet floors is the one used by the Boston Celtics of the NBA. The original floor, which was installed at the Celtics' original home of Boston Arena in 1946, was moved intact to Boston Garden in 1952 and used there until the team moved to what was then known as FleetCenter in 1995, now known as TD Garden. The floor remained intact and in use until it was cut up and sold as souvenirs in 1999, after the 1998 demolition of Boston Garden. The Celtics today play on a parquet floor inside TD Garden that combines old and new sections. In 2018 the Celtics constructed a new parquet floor for use in their new Auerbach Center practice facility. It is the only NBA court floor made from red oak; all others are made from rock maple.
Similar square-paneled parquet floors, albeit in maple, were made for the Orlando Magic, Minnesota Timberwolves, Denver Nuggets, and New Jersey Nets. Of the four, only the Magic continue to use a square-paneled parquet floor (starting in 1989 at the Orlando Arena, and moved to Amway Center in 2010). The Nets debuted their parquet at the Meadowlands Arena in 1988, and continued to use the floor until 1997; the floor remained in use with the Seton Hall basketball team until 2007. The Nuggets used a parquet floor from 1990 to 1993 at the McNichols Sports Arena, while the Timberwolves played on a parquet floor from 1996 to 2008 at the Target Center.
In 1995, the Toronto Raptors debuted with a herringbone parquet, and used the floor until 1999 while playing in three different home venues: SkyDome, Copps Coliseum and Maple Leaf Gardens. The Nets revived the use of the herringbone upon moving to the Barclays Center in 2012. However, its sister WNBA team (since 2019), the New York Liberty, continue to use a traditional floor at the venue.
While the Charlotte Hornets unveiled a parquet-like floor at the Time Warner Cable Arena for the 2014–15 season, it is not considered a true parquet floor. Instead, it simulated the pattern of the parquet by alternately painting light and dark trapezoid sections through the use of varnish, forming a beehive pattern that is synonymous with the franchise. In 2021 the Hornets changed its court design, relegating the trapezoids to midcourt.
See also
Wood flooring
Marquetry
Hardwood
Harewood
Tessellation
Tunbridge ware
Notes and references
External links
J. W. Boughton - Wood Flooring Pamphlet (1907) Kenneth Franzheim II Rare Books Room, William R. Jenkins Architecture and Art Library, University of Houston Digital Library.
Floors
Composite materials
Surface decorative techniques in woodworking
Woodworking | wiki |
Cost model may refer to
Cost model (computer science): A model used in the analysis of algorithms to define what constitutes a single step in the execution of an algorithm.
Whole-life cost, the total cost of ownership over the life of an asset. Also known as Life-cycle cost (LCC). | wiki |
Something in My Heart is a 1944 novel by the British writer Walter Greenwood. It is a loose sequel to his debut and best-known novel Love on the Dole, a 1933 work set in Salford at the height of the Great Depression. This book presented a more optimistic view of a potential postwar future that was absent in the despair in the original novel.
Synopsis
The story opens in 1937 with Helen Oakroyd working in a textile mill while her two friends Harry and Taffy are both on the dole. When war breaks out with Nazi Germany in 1939 both enlist in the RAF.
References
Bibliography
Hopkins, Chris. Walter Greenwood's Love on the Dole: Novel, Play, Film. Oxford University Press, 2018.
1944 British novels
Novels by Walter Greenwood
Novels set in Manchester
Novels set in the 1930s
Hutchinson (publisher) books | wiki |
Share of Voice in advertising is a measurement model within advertising. Share of voice measures the percentage of media spending by a company compared to the total media expenditure for the product, service, or category in the market. For example, if an electronics brand were to invest $5,000,000 advertising their latest e-reader, but $100,000,000 worth of advertising was spent advertising e-readers across the entire market for this shared category, then the 5 million dollar investment would equal a 5% share of voice.
Share of Voice can be calculated by taking your advertising spend and dividing it by the total of all market advertising spend for the same type of product or category.
Share of Voice is used to "represent the relative portion of ad inventory available to a single advertiser within a defined market over a specified time period."
Theory
The goal of advertising is to make your target audience aware of your brand, product, or service and influence them to act. Therefore, having a high share of voice can lead to increased awareness, and ultimately, increased sales and market share.
From the perspective of publishers and those selling ad space, Share of Voice capitalizes on the concept of exclusivity. By limiting the number of ad space available on websites, email newsletters, and other media, ads are more likely to be seen by their target audiences. When you limit a website, for example, to 10 advertisers in each ad position with each paying equally, on average each advertiser will be seen at least once every 10 rotations.
Share of Voice is designed to create a mutually beneficial relationship between the advertiser and the web publisher. The advertiser is willing to pay a premium for exclusivity and less competition for their target audience's viewership. The publisher no longer has to rely on volume and can attract advertisers that want to specifically reach the publisher's audience.
Because the Share of Voice method values quality of ads over quantity of ads, publishers are perceived to have higher levels of credibility and interaction. When high quality content is presented, high quality advertisers tend to follow.
Benefits versus pay-for-performance models
The share of voice advertising model is contrary to pay per click, cost per impression and/or pay to play (see brokered programming), which are pay-for-performance models that generate revenue for the publisher (typically, the website owner) only if the advertisement is clicked or viewed. The publisher is incentivized to seek out as many advertisers as possible, often on a bid-based system. Furthermore, Share of Voice bypasses the ethical dilemmas that come with PPC and CPI models, which are subject to abuse by click fraud, or Pay to Play tactics (advertorials, product placement, news coverage in exchange for ad purchases, etc) that are not always transparently paid ads.
When content is compromised for ad dollars, the level of reputation and respect for the publisher can dwindle as readers become disenfranchised and advertisers see less return on their initial investment.
Share of Voice models
Share of Voice models can be contract models where ad placement and content are pre-negotiated. This way, advertisers have the option to have longer advertising campaigns where content does not need to change based on the availability of advertising space. Additionally, the publisher's non-ad content, i.e. in the case of a news publisher, is independent of the advertiser's marketing campaign, regardless of other sponsors or advertisers that work with the web publisher.
Share of Voice can also be employed to maximize a brand or group of brands' exposure via advertising weight expressed as a percentage of a defined total market or market segment in a given time period. The weight is usually defined in terms of expenditure, ratings, pages, poster sites etc.
References
Advertising
Audience measurement | wiki |
Return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) is the resumption of a sustained heart rhythm that perfuses the body after cardiac arrest. It is commonly associated with significant respiratory effort. Signs of return of spontaneous circulation include breathing, coughing, or movement and a palpable pulse or a measurable blood pressure. Someone is considered to have sustained return of spontaneous circulation when circulation persists and cardiopulmonary resuscitation has ceased for at least 20 consecutive minutes.
Predictors of ROSC
There are multiple factors during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and defibrillation that are associated with success of achieving return of spontaneous circulation. One of the factors in CPR is the chest compression fraction, which is a measure of how much time during cardiac arrest are chest compressions performed. A study measured the effects of chest compression fraction on return of spontaneous circulation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients with a non-ventricular fibrillation arrhythmia and it showed a trend to achieving return of spontaneous circulation with an increased chest compression fraction. Another study highlighted the benefits of minimizing chest compression intervals before and after shocking a patient's rhythm, which would in turn increase chest compression fraction. A coronary perfusion pressure of 15 mmHg is thought to be the minimum necessary to achieve ROSC.
Pertaining to defibrillation, the presence of a shockable rhythm (ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia) is associated with increased chances of return of spontaneous circulation. Although a shockable rhythm increases chances for return of spontaneous circulation, a cardiac arrest can present with pulseless electrical activity or asystole, which are non-shockable cardiac rhythms.
Prognosis
Return of spontaneous circulation can be achieved through cardiopulmonary resuscitation and defibrillation. Though ROSC is necessary for survival, it is not, itself, a predictor of a favorable medium- or long-term outcome. Patients have died not long after their circulation has returned. One study showed that those who had had an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and had achieved return of spontaneous circulation, 38% of those people had a cardiac re-arrest before arriving at the hospital with an average time of 3 minutes to re-arrest. Patients with sustained ROSC generally present with post-cardiac arrest syndrome (PCAS). Longer time-to-ROSC is associated with a worse presentation of PCAS.
Lazarus phenomenon is the spontaneous return of circulation after cardiopulmonary resuscitation attempts have stopped in someone with cardiac arrest. This phenomenon most frequently occurs within 10 minutes of cessation of resuscitation, thus passive monitoring is recommended for 10 minutes.
References
Cardiology | wiki |
El Líder puede referirse a:
El Líder de San Antonio
El Líder de Melipilla | wiki |
A refuge island, also known as a pedestrian refuge or pedestrian island, is a small section of pavement or sidewalk, surrounded by asphalt or other road materials, where pedestrians can stop before finishing crossing a road. It is typically used when a street is very wide, as the pedestrian crossing can be too long for some individuals to cross in one traffic light cycle. They may also be seen on roads with higher speed limits. In the United Kingdom, refuge islands are commonly illuminated by a white 300 mm beacon mounted on a 5 m grey pole with white reflective bands.
Refuge islands may also be used when no light exists and pedestrians need safe harbour after managing one direction of traffic and before taking on the next. This significantly improves amenity for pedestrians trying to cross busy streets, as they are much more likely to find two small gaps in traffic rather than one situation in which gaps for both directions coincide. Since this reduces pedestrians' average waiting time, it also improves safety, with impatient pedestrians less likely to use gaps that turn out to be too short for safe crossing.
See also
Traffic island
Traffic sign
Traffic light
Road surface marking
Sneckdown
References
Traffic calming
Road infrastructure
Pedestrian crossing components | wiki |
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay are alpha decay (), beta decay (), and gamma decay (), all of which involve emitting one or more particles. The weak force is the mechanism that is responsible for beta decay, while the other two are governed by the electromagnetism and nuclear force. A fourth type of common decay is electron capture, in which an unstable nucleus captures an inner electron from one of the electron shells. The loss of that electron from the shell results in a cascade of electrons dropping down to that lower shell resulting in emission of discrete X-rays from the transitions. A common example is iodine-125 commonly used in medical settings.
Radioactive decay is a stochastic (i.e. random) process at the level of single atoms. According to quantum theory, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay, regardless of how long the atom has existed. However, for a significant number of identical atoms, the overall decay rate can be expressed as a decay constant or as half-life. The half-lives of radioactive atoms have a huge range; from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe.
The decaying nucleus is called the parent radionuclide (or parent radioisotope), and the process produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except for gamma decay or internal conversion from a nuclear excited state, the decay is a nuclear transmutation resulting in a daughter containing a different number of protons or neutrons (or both). When the number of protons changes, an atom of a different chemical element is created.
Alpha decay occurs when the nucleus ejects an alpha particle (helium nucleus).
Beta decay occurs in two ways;
In gamma decay a radioactive nucleus first decays by the emission of an alpha or beta particle. The daughter nucleus that results is usually left in an excited state and it can decay to a lower energy state by emitting a gamma ray photon.
In neutron emission, extremely neutron-rich nuclei, formed due to other types of decay or after many successive neutron captures, occasionally lose energy by way of neutron emission, resulting in a change from one isotope to another of the same element.
In electron capture, the nucleus may capture an orbiting electron, causing a proton to convert into a neutron. A neutrino and a gamma ray are subsequently emitted.
In cluster decay and nuclear fission, a nucleus heavier than an alpha particle is emitted.
By contrast there are radioactive decay processes that do not result in a nuclear transmutation. The energy of an excited nucleus may be emitted as a gamma ray in a process called gamma decay, or that energy may be lost when the nucleus interacts with an orbital electron causing its ejection from the atom, in a process called internal conversion. Another type of radioactive decay results in products that vary, appearing as two or more "fragments" of the original nucleus with a range of possible masses. This decay, called spontaneous fission, happens when a large unstable nucleus spontaneously splits into two (or occasionally three) smaller daughter nuclei, and generally leads to the emission of gamma rays, neutrons, or other particles from those products.
In contrast, decay products from a nucleus with spin may be distributed non-isotropically with respect to that spin direction. Either because of an external influence such as an electromagnetic field, or because the nucleus was produced in a dynamic process that constrained the direction of its spin, the anisotropy may be detectable. Such a parent process could be a previous decay, or a nuclear reaction.
For a summary table showing the number of stable and radioactive nuclides, see radionuclide. There are 28 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth that are radioactive, consisting of 34 radionuclides (6 elements have 2 different radionuclides) that date before the time of formation of the Solar System. These 34 are known as primordial nuclides. Well-known examples are uranium and thorium, but also included are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, such as potassium-40.
Another 50 or so shorter-lived radionuclides found on Earth such as radium-226 and radon-222, are the products of decay chains that began with the primordial nuclides, or are the product of ongoing cosmogenic processes, such as the production of carbon-14 from nitrogen-14 in the atmosphere by cosmic rays. Radionuclides may also be produced artificially in particle accelerators or nuclear reactors, resulting in 650 of these with half-lives of over an hour, and several thousand more with even shorter half-lives. (See List of nuclides for a list of these sorted by half-life.)
History of discovery
Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by scientists Henri Becquerel and Marie Skłodowska-Curie, while working with phosphorescent materials. These materials glow in the dark after exposure to light, and he suspected that the glow produced in cathode ray tubes by X-rays might be associated with phosphorescence. Becquerel wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various phosphorescent salts on it. All results were negative until he used uranium salts. The uranium salts caused a blackening of the plate in spite of the plate being wrapped in black paper. These radiations were given the name "Becquerel Rays".
It soon became clear that the blackening of the plate had nothing to do with phosphorescence, as the blackening was also produced by non-phosphorescent salts of uranium and by metallic uranium. It became clear from these experiments that there was a form of invisible radiation that could pass through paper and was causing the plate to react as if exposed to light.
At first, it seemed as though the new radiation was similar to the then recently discovered X-rays. Further research by Becquerel, Ernest Rutherford, Paul Villard, Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and others showed that this form of radioactivity was significantly more complicated. Rutherford was the first to realize that all such elements decay in accordance with the same mathematical exponential formula. Rutherford and his student Frederick Soddy were the first to realize that many decay processes resulted in the transmutation of one element to another. Subsequently, the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy was formulated to describe the products of alpha and beta decay.
The early researchers also discovered that many other chemical elements, besides uranium, have radioactive isotopes. A systematic search for the total radioactivity in uranium ores also guided Pierre and Marie Curie to isolate two new elements: polonium and radium. Except for the radioactivity of radium, the chemical similarity of radium to barium made these two elements difficult to distinguish.
Marie and Pierre Curie's study of radioactivity is an important factor in science and medicine. After their research on Becquerel's rays led them to the discovery of both radium and polonium, they coined the term "radioactivity" to define the emission of ionizing radiation by some heavy elements. (Later the term was generalized to all elements.) Their research on the penetrating rays in uranium and the discovery of radium launched an era of using radium for the treatment of cancer. Their exploration of radium could be seen as the first peaceful use of nuclear energy and the start of modern nuclear medicine.
Early health dangers
The dangers of ionizing radiation due to radioactivity and X-rays were not immediately recognized.
X-rays
The discovery of X‑rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895 led to widespread experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. Many people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. In February of that year, Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of Vanderbilt University performed an experiment involving X-raying Dudley's head that resulted in his hair loss. A report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, of his suffering severe hand and chest burns in an X-ray demonstration, was the first of many other reports in Electrical Review.
Other experimenters, including Elihu Thomson and Nikola Tesla, also reported burns. Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an X-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects, including ultraviolet rays and ozone, were sometimes blamed for the damage, and many physicians still claimed that there were no effects from X-ray exposure at all.
Despite this, there were some early systematic hazard investigations, and as early as 1902 William Herbert Rollins wrote almost despairingly that his warnings about the dangers involved in the careless use of X-rays were not being heeded, either by industry or by his colleagues. By this time, Rollins had proved that X-rays could kill experimental animals, could cause a pregnant guinea pig to abort, and that they could kill a foetus. He also stressed that "animals vary in susceptibility to the external action of X-light" and warned that these differences be considered when patients were treated by means of X-rays.
Radioactive substances
However, the biological effects of radiation due to radioactive substances were less easy to gauge. This gave the opportunity for many physicians and corporations to market radioactive substances as patent medicines. Examples were radium enema treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie protested against this sort of treatment, warning that "radium is dangerous in untrained hands." Curie later died from aplastic anaemia, likely caused by exposure to ionizing radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death of radium treatment enthusiasts, radium-containing medicinal products had been largely removed from the market (radioactive quackery).
Radiation protection
Only a year after Röntgen's discovery of X rays, the American engineer Wolfram Fuchs (1896) gave what is probably the first protection advice, but it was not until 1925 that the first International Congress of Radiology (ICR) was held and considered establishing international protection standards. The effects of radiation on genes, including the effect of cancer risk, were recognized much later. In 1927, Hermann Joseph Muller published research showing genetic effects and, in 1946, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his findings.
The second ICR was held in Stockholm in 1928 and proposed the adoption of the röntgen unit, and the International X-ray and Radium Protection Committee (IXRPC) was formed. Rolf Sievert was named Chairman, but a driving force was George Kaye of the British National Physical Laboratory. The committee met in 1931, 1934, and 1937.
After World War II, the increased range and quantity of radioactive substances being handled as a result of military and civil nuclear programs led to large groups of occupational workers and the public being potentially exposed to harmful levels of ionising radiation. This was considered at the first post-war ICR convened in London in 1950, when the present International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) was born.
Since then the ICRP has developed the present international system of radiation protection, covering all aspects of radiation hazards.
In 2020, Hauptmann and other 15 international researchers of eight nations, among which: Institutes of Biostatistics, Registry Research, Centers of Cancer Epidemiology, Radiation Epidemiology, and then also U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI), International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and Radiation Effects Research Foundation of Hiroshima studied definitively through meta-analysis the damage resulting from the "low doses" that have afflicted the populations of survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and also in numerous accidents of nuclear plants that have occurred in the world. These scientists reported, in JNCI Monographs: Epidemiological Studies of Low Dose Ionizing Radiation and Cancer Risk, that the new epidemiological studies directly support excess cancer risks from low-dose ionizing radiation. In 2021, Italian researcher Venturi reported the first correlations between radio-caesium and pancreatic cancer with the role of caesium in biology and in pancreatitis and in diabetes of pancreatic origin.
Units
The International System of Units (SI) unit of radioactive activity is the becquerel (Bq), named in honor of the scientist Henri Becquerel. One Bq is defined as one transformation (or decay or disintegration) per second.
An older unit of radioactivity is the curie, Ci, which was originally defined as "the quantity or mass of radium emanation in equilibrium with one gram of radium (element)". Today, the curie is defined as disintegrations per second, so that 1 curie (Ci) = .
For radiological protection purposes, although the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission permits the use of the unit curie alongside SI units, the European Union European units of measurement directives required that its use for "public health ... purposes" be phased out by 31 December 1985.
The effects of ionizing radiation are often measured in units of gray for mechanical or sievert for damage to tissue.
Types
Early researchers found that an electric or magnetic field could split radioactive emissions into three types of beams. The rays were given the names alpha, beta, and gamma, in increasing order of their ability to penetrate matter. Alpha decay is observed only in heavier elements of atomic number 52 (tellurium) and greater, with the exception of beryllium-8 (which decays to two alpha particles). The other two types of decay are observed in all the elements. Lead, atomic number 82, is the heaviest element to have any isotopes stable (to the limit of measurement) to radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is seen in all isotopes of all elements of atomic number 83 (bismuth) or greater. Bismuth-209, however, is only very slightly radioactive, with a half-life greater than the age of the universe; radioisotopes with extremely long half-lives are considered effectively stable for practical purposes.
In analysing the nature of the decay products, it was obvious from the direction of the electromagnetic forces applied to the radiations by external magnetic and electric fields that alpha particles carried a positive charge, beta particles carried a negative charge, and gamma rays were neutral. From the magnitude of deflection, it was clear that alpha particles were much more massive than beta particles. Passing alpha particles through a very thin glass window and trapping them in a discharge tube allowed researchers to study the emission spectrum of the captured particles, and ultimately proved that alpha particles are helium nuclei. Other experiments showed beta radiation, resulting from decay and cathode rays, were high-speed electrons. Likewise, gamma radiation and X-rays were found to be high-energy electromagnetic radiation.
The relationship between the types of decays also began to be examined: For example, gamma decay was almost always found to be associated with other types of decay, and occurred at about the same time, or afterwards. Gamma decay as a separate phenomenon, with its own half-life (now termed isomeric transition), was found in natural radioactivity to be a result of the gamma decay of excited metastable nuclear isomers, which were in turn created from other types of decay.
Although alpha, beta, and gamma radiations were most commonly found, other types of emission were eventually discovered. Shortly after the discovery of the positron in cosmic ray products, it was realized that the same process that operates in classical beta decay can also produce positrons (positron emission), along with neutrinos (classical beta decay produces antineutrinos). In a more common analogous process, called electron capture, some proton-rich nuclides were found to capture their own atomic electrons instead of emitting positrons, and subsequently, these nuclides emit only a neutrino and a gamma ray from the excited nucleus (and often also Auger electrons and characteristic X-rays, as a result of the re-ordering of electrons to fill the place of the missing captured electron). These types of decay involve the nuclear capture of electrons or emission of electrons or positrons, and thus acts to move a nucleus toward the ratio of neutrons to protons that has the least energy for a given total number of nucleons. This consequently produces a more stable (lower energy) nucleus.
A hypothetical process of positron capture, analogous to electron capture, is theoretically possible in antimatter atoms, but has not been observed, as complex antimatter atoms beyond antihelium are not experimentally available. Such a decay would require antimatter atoms at least as complex as beryllium-7, which is the lightest known isotope of normal matter to undergo decay by electron capture.
Shortly after the discovery of the neutron in 1932, Enrico Fermi realized that certain rare beta-decay reactions immediately yield neutrons as an additional decay particle, so called beta-delayed neutron emission. Neutron emission usually happens from nuclei that are in an excited state, such as the excited 17O* produced from the beta decay of 17N. The neutron emission process itself is controlled by the nuclear force and therefore is extremely fast, sometimes referred to as "nearly instantaneous". Isolated proton emission was eventually observed in some elements. It was also found that some heavy elements may undergo spontaneous fission into products that vary in composition. In a phenomenon called cluster decay, specific combinations of neutrons and protons other than alpha particles (helium nuclei) were found to be spontaneously emitted from atoms.
Other types of radioactive decay were found to emit previously seen particles but via different mechanisms. An example is internal conversion, which results in an initial electron emission, and then often further characteristic X-rays and Auger electrons emissions, although the internal conversion process involves neither beta nor gamma decay. A neutrino is not emitted, and none of the electron(s) and photon(s) emitted originate in the nucleus, even though the energy to emit all of them does originate there. Internal conversion decay, like isomeric transition gamma decay and neutron emission, involves the release of energy by an excited nuclide, without the transmutation of one element into another.
Rare events that involve a combination of two beta-decay-type events happening simultaneously are known (see below). Any decay process that does not violate the conservation of energy or momentum laws (and perhaps other particle conservation laws) is permitted to happen, although not all have been detected. An interesting example discussed in a final section, is bound state beta decay of rhenium-187. In this process, the beta electron-decay of the parent nuclide is not accompanied by beta electron emission, because the beta particle has been captured into the K-shell of the emitting atom. An antineutrino is emitted, as in all negative beta decays.
Radionuclides can undergo a number of different reactions. These are summarized in the following table. A nucleus with mass number A and atomic number Z is represented as (A, Z). The column "Daughter nucleus" indicates the difference between the new nucleus and the original nucleus. Thus, (A − 1, Z) means that the mass number is one less than before, but the atomic number is the same as before.
If energy circumstances are favorable, a given radionuclide may undergo many competing types of decay, with some atoms decaying by one route, and others decaying by another. An example is copper-64, which has 29 protons, and 35 neutrons, which decays with a half-life of hours. This isotope has one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron, so either the proton or the neutron can decay to the other particle, which has opposite isospin. This particular nuclide (though not all nuclides in this situation) is more likely to decay through beta plus decay (%) than through electron capture (%). The excited energy states resulting from these decays which fail to end in a ground energy state, also produce later internal conversion and gamma decay in almost 0.5% of the time.
More common in heavy nuclides is competition between alpha and beta decay. The daughter nuclides will then normally decay through beta or alpha, respectively, to end up in the same place.
Radioactive decay results in a reduction of summed rest mass, once the released energy (the disintegration energy) has escaped in some way. Although decay energy is sometimes defined as associated with the difference between the mass of the parent nuclide products and the mass of the decay products, this is true only of rest mass measurements, where some energy has been removed from the product system. This is true because the decay energy must always carry mass with it, wherever it appears (see mass in special relativity) according to the formula E = mc2. The decay energy is initially released as the energy of emitted photons plus the kinetic energy of massive emitted particles (that is, particles that have rest mass). If these particles come to thermal equilibrium with their surroundings and photons are absorbed, then the decay energy is transformed to thermal energy, which retains its mass.
Decay energy, therefore, remains associated with a certain measure of the mass of the decay system, called invariant mass, which does not change during the decay, even though the energy of decay is distributed among decay particles. The energy of photons, the kinetic energy of emitted particles, and, later, the thermal energy of the surrounding matter, all contribute to the invariant mass of the system. Thus, while the sum of the rest masses of the particles is not conserved in radioactive decay, the system mass and system invariant mass (and also the system total energy) is conserved throughout any decay process. This is a restatement of the equivalent laws of conservation of energy and conservation of mass.
List of decay modes
Rates
The decay rate, or activity, of a radioactive substance is characterized by the following time-independent parameters:
The half-life, , is the time taken for the activity of a given amount of a radioactive substance to decay to half of its initial value.
The decay constant, "lambda", the reciprocal of the mean lifetime (in ), sometimes referred to as simply decay rate.
The mean lifetime, "tau", the average lifetime (1/e life) of a radioactive particle before decay.
Although these are constants, they are associated with the statistical behavior of populations of atoms. In consequence, predictions using these constants are less accurate for minuscule samples of atoms.
In principle a half-life, a third-life, or even a (1/√2)-life, can be used in exactly the same way as half-life; but the mean life and half-life have been adopted as standard times associated with exponential decay.
Those parameters can be related to the following time-dependent parameters:
Total activity, , is the number of decays per unit time of a radioactive sample.
Number of particles, , is the total number of particles in the sample.
Specific activity, , is the number of decays per unit time per amount of substance of the sample at time set to zero (). "Amount of substance" can be the mass, volume or moles of the initial sample.
These are related as follows:
where N0 is the initial amount of active substance — substance that has the same percentage of unstable particles as when the substance was formed.
Mathematics
Universal law
The mathematics of radioactive decay depend on a key assumption that a nucleus of a radionuclide has no "memory" or way of translating its history into its present behavior. A nucleus does not "age" with the passage of time. Thus, the probability of its breaking down does not increase with time but stays constant, no matter how long the nucleus has existed. This constant probability may differ greatly between one type of nucleus and another, leading to the many different observed decay rates. However, whatever the probability is, it does not change over time. This is in marked contrast to complex objects that do show aging, such as automobiles and humans. These aging systems do have a chance of breakdown per unit of time that increases from the moment they begin their existence.
Aggregate processes, like the radioactive decay of a lump of atoms, for which the single-event probability of realization is very small but in which the number of time-slices is so large that there is nevertheless a reasonable rate of events, are modelled by the Poisson distribution, which is discrete. Radioactive decay and nuclear particle reactions are two examples of such aggregate processes. The mathematics of Poisson processes reduce to the law of exponential decay, which describes the statistical behaviour of a large number of nuclei, rather than one individual nucleus. In the following formalism, the number of nuclei or the nuclei population N, is of course a discrete variable (a natural number)—but for any physical sample N is so large that it can be treated as a continuous variable. Differential calculus is used to model the behaviour of nuclear decay.
One-decay process
Consider the case of a nuclide that decays into another by some process (emission of other particles, like electron neutrinos and electrons e− as in beta decay, are irrelevant in what follows). The decay of an unstable nucleus is entirely random in time so it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay. However, it is equally likely to decay at any instant in time. Therefore, given a sample of a particular radioisotope, the number of decay events expected to occur in a small interval of time is proportional to the number of atoms present , that is
Particular radionuclides decay at different rates, so each has its own decay constant . The expected decay is proportional to an increment of time, :
The negative sign indicates that decreases as time increases, as the decay events follow one after another. The solution to this first-order differential equation is the function:
where is the value of at time = 0, with the decay constant expressed as
We have for all time :
where is the constant number of particles throughout the decay process, which is equal to the initial number of nuclides since this is the initial substance.
If the number of non-decayed nuclei is:
then the number of nuclei of (i.e. the number of decayed nuclei) is
The number of decays observed over a given interval obeys Poisson statistics. If the average number of decays is , the probability of a given number of decays is
Chain-decay processes
Chain of two decays
Now consider the case of a chain of two decays: one nuclide decaying into another by one process, then decaying into another by a second process, i.e. . The previous equation cannot be applied to the decay chain, but can be generalized as follows. Since decays into , then decays into , the activity of adds to the total number of nuclides in the present sample, before those nuclides decay and reduce the number of nuclides leading to the later sample. In other words, the number of second generation nuclei increases as a result of the first generation nuclei decay of , and decreases as a result of its own decay into the third generation nuclei . The sum of these two terms gives the law for a decay chain for two nuclides:
The rate of change of , that is , is related to the changes in the amounts of and , can increase as is produced from and decrease as produces .
Re-writing using the previous results:
The subscripts simply refer to the respective nuclides, i.e. is the number of nuclides of type ; is the initial number of nuclides of type ; is the decay constant for – and similarly for nuclide . Solving this equation for gives:
In the case where is a stable nuclide ( = 0), this equation reduces to the previous solution:
as shown above for one decay. The solution can be found by the integration factor method, where the integrating factor is . This case is perhaps the most useful since it can derive both the one-decay equation (above) and the equation for multi-decay chains (below) more directly.
Chain of any number of decays
For the general case of any number of consecutive decays in a decay chain, i.e. , where is the number of decays and is a dummy index (), each nuclide population can be found in terms of the previous population. In this case , , ..., . Using the above result in a recursive form:
The general solution to the recursive problem is given by Bateman's equations:
Alternative modes
In all of the above examples, the initial nuclide decays into just one product. Consider the case of one initial nuclide that can decay into either of two products, that is and in parallel. For example, in a sample of potassium-40, 89.3% of the nuclei decay to calcium-40 and 10.7% to argon-40. We have for all time :
which is constant, since the total number of nuclides remains constant. Differentiating with respect to time:
defining the total decay constant in terms of the sum of partial decay constants and :
Solving this equation for :
where is the initial number of nuclide A. When measuring the production of one nuclide, one can only observe the total decay constant . The decay constants and determine the probability for the decay to result in products or as follows:
because the fraction of nuclei decay into while the fraction of nuclei decay into .
Corollaries of laws
The above equations can also be written using quantities related to the number of nuclide particles in a sample;
The activity: .
The amount of substance: .
The mass: .
where = is the Avogadro constant, is the molar mass of the substance in kg/mol, and the amount of the substance is in moles.
Decay timing: definitions and relations
Time constant and mean-life
For the one-decay solution :
the equation indicates that the decay constant has units of , and can thus also be represented as 1/, where is a characteristic time of the process called the time constant.
In a radioactive decay process, this time constant is also the mean lifetime for decaying atoms. Each atom "lives" for a finite amount of time before it decays, and it may be shown that this mean lifetime is the arithmetic mean of all the atoms' lifetimes, and that it is , which again is related to the decay constant as follows:
This form is also true for two-decay processes simultaneously , inserting the equivalent values of decay constants (as given above)
into the decay solution leads to:
Half-life
A more commonly used parameter is the half-life . Given a sample of a particular radionuclide, the half-life is the time taken for half the radionuclide's atoms to decay. For the case of one-decay nuclear reactions:
the half-life is related to the decay constant as follows: set and = to obtain
This relationship between the half-life and the decay constant shows that highly radioactive substances are quickly spent, while those that radiate weakly endure longer. Half-lives of known radionuclides vary by almost 54 orders of magnitude, from more than years ( sec) for the very nearly stable nuclide 128Te, to seconds for the highly unstable nuclide 5H.
The factor of in the above relations results from the fact that the concept of "half-life" is merely a way of selecting a different base other than the natural base for the lifetime expression. The time constant is the -life, the time until only 1/e remains, about 36.8%, rather than the 50% in the half-life of a radionuclide. Thus, is longer than . The following equation can be shown to be valid:
Since radioactive decay is exponential with a constant probability, each process could as easily be described with a different constant time period that (for example) gave its "(1/3)-life" (how long until only 1/3 is left) or "(1/10)-life" (a time period until only 10% is left), and so on. Thus, the choice of and for marker-times, are only for convenience, and from convention. They reflect a fundamental principle only in so much as they show that the same proportion of a given radioactive substance will decay, during any time-period that one chooses.
Mathematically, the life for the above situation would be found in the same way as aboveby setting , and substituting into the decay solution to obtain
Example for carbon-14
Carbon-14 has a half-life of years and a decay rate of 14 disintegrations per minute (dpm) per gram of natural carbon.
If an artifact is found to have radioactivity of 4 dpm per gram of its present C, we can find the approximate age of the object using the above equation:
where:
Changing rates
The radioactive decay modes of electron capture and internal conversion are known to be slightly sensitive to chemical and environmental effects that change the electronic structure of the atom, which in turn affects the presence of 1s and 2s electrons that participate in the decay process. A small number of nuclides are affected. For example, chemical bonds can affect the rate of electron capture to a small degree (in general, less than 1%) depending on the proximity of electrons to the nucleus. In 7Be, a difference of 0.9% has been observed between half-lives in metallic and insulating environments. This relatively large effect is because beryllium is a small atom whose valence electrons are in 2s atomic orbitals, which are subject to electron capture in 7Be because (like all s atomic orbitals in all atoms) they naturally penetrate into the nucleus.
In 1992, Jung et al. of the Darmstadt Heavy-Ion Research group observed an accelerated β− decay of 163Dy66+. Although neutral 163Dy is a stable isotope, the fully ionized 163Dy66+ undergoes β− decay into the K and L shells to 163Ho66+ with a half-life of 47 days.
Rhenium-187 is another spectacular example. 187Re normally undergoes beta decay to 187Os with a half-life of 41.6 × 109 years, but studies using fully ionised 187Re atoms (bare nuclei) have found that this can decrease to only 32.9 years. This is attributed to "bound-state β− decay" of the fully ionised atom – the electron is emitted into the "K-shell" (1s atomic orbital), which cannot occur for neutral atoms in which all low-lying bound states are occupied.
A number of experiments have found that decay rates of other modes of artificial and naturally occurring radioisotopes are, to a high degree of precision, unaffected by external conditions such as temperature, pressure, the chemical environment, and electric, magnetic, or gravitational fields. Comparison of laboratory experiments over the last century, studies of the Oklo natural nuclear reactor (which exemplified the effects of thermal neutrons on nuclear decay), and astrophysical observations of the luminosity decays of distant supernovae (which occurred far away so the light has taken a great deal of time to reach us), for example, strongly indicate that unperturbed decay rates have been constant (at least to within the limitations of small experimental errors) as a function of time as well.
Recent results suggest the possibility that decay rates might have a weak dependence on environmental factors. It has been suggested that measurements of decay rates of silicon-32, manganese-54, and radium-226 exhibit small seasonal variations (of the order of 0.1%). However, such measurements are highly susceptible to systematic errors, and a subsequent paper has found no evidence for such correlations in seven other isotopes (22Na, 44Ti, 108Ag, 121Sn, 133Ba, 241Am, 238Pu), and sets upper limits on the size of any such effects. The decay of radon-222 was once reported to exhibit large 4% peak-to-peak seasonal variations (see plot), which were proposed to be related to either solar flare activity or the distance from the Sun, but detailed analysis of the experiment's design flaws, along with comparisons to other, much more stringent and systematically controlled, experiments refute this claim.
GSI anomaly
An unexpected series of experimental results for the rate of decay of heavy highly charged radioactive ions circulating in a storage ring has provoked theoretical activity in an effort to find a convincing explanation. The rates of weak decay of two radioactive species with half lives of about 40 s and 200 s are found to have a significant oscillatory modulation, with a period of about 7 s.
The observed phenomenon is known as the GSI anomaly, as the storage ring is a facility at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt, Germany. As the decay process produces an electron neutrino, some of the proposed explanations for the observed rate oscillation invoke neutrino properties. Initial ideas related to flavour oscillation met with skepticism. A more recent proposal involves mass differences between neutrino mass eigenstates.
Theoretical basis
The neutrons and protons that constitute nuclei, as well as other particles that approach close enough to them, are governed by several interactions. The nuclear force (also known as residual strong force), not observed at the familiar macroscopic scale, is the most powerful force over subatomic distances. The electrostatic force is almost always significant, and, in the case of beta decay, the weak nuclear force is also involved.
The combined effects of these forces produces a number of different phenomena in which energy may be released by rearrangement of particles in the nucleus, or else the change of one type of particle into others. These rearrangements and transformations may be hindered energetically so that they do not occur immediately. In certain cases, random quantum vacuum fluctuations are theorized to promote relaxation to a lower energy state (the "decay") in a phenomenon known as quantum tunneling. Radioactive decay half-life of nuclides has been measured over timescales of 54 orders of magnitude, from seconds (for hydrogen-5) to seconds (for tellurium-128). The limits of these timescales are set by the sensitivity of instrumentation only, and there are no known natural limits to how brief or long a decay half-life for radioactive decay of a radionuclide may be.
The decay process, like all hindered energy transformations, may be analogized by a snowfield on a mountain. While friction between the ice crystals may be supporting the snow's weight, the system is inherently unstable with regard to a state of lower potential energy. A disturbance would thus facilitate the path to a state of greater entropy; the system will move towards the ground state, producing heat, and the total energy will be distributable over a larger number of quantum states thus resulting in an avalanche. The total energy does not change in this process, but, because of the second law of thermodynamics, avalanches have only been observed in one direction and that is toward the "ground state" — the state with the largest number of ways in which the available energy could be distributed.
Such a collapse (a gamma-ray decay event) requires a specific activation energy. For a snow avalanche, this energy comes as a disturbance from outside the system, although such disturbances can be arbitrarily small. In the case of an excited atomic nucleus decaying by gamma radiation in a spontaneous emission of electromagnetic radiation, the arbitrarily small disturbance comes from quantum vacuum fluctuations.
A radioactive nucleus (or any excited system in quantum mechanics) is unstable, and can, thus, spontaneously stabilize to a less-excited system. The resulting transformation alters the structure of the nucleus and results in the emission of either a photon or a high-velocity particle that has mass (such as an electron, alpha particle, or other type).
Occurrence and applications
According to the Big Bang theory, stable isotopes of the lightest three elements (H, He, and traces of Li) were produced very shortly after the emergence of the universe, in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. These lightest stable nuclides (including deuterium) survive to today, but any radioactive isotopes of the light elements produced in the Big Bang (such as tritium) have long since decayed. Isotopes of elements heavier than boron were not produced at all in the Big Bang, and these first five elements do not have any long-lived radioisotopes. Thus, all radioactive nuclei are, therefore, relatively young with respect to the birth of the universe, having formed later in various other types of nucleosynthesis in stars (in particular, supernovae), and also during ongoing interactions between stable isotopes and energetic particles. For example, carbon-14, a radioactive nuclide with a half-life of only years, is constantly produced in Earth's upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen.
Nuclides that are produced by radioactive decay are called radiogenic nuclides, whether they themselves are stable or not. There exist stable radiogenic nuclides that were formed from short-lived extinct radionuclides in the early Solar System. The extra presence of these stable radiogenic nuclides (such as xenon-129 from extinct iodine-129) against the background of primordial stable nuclides can be inferred by various means.
Radioactive decay has been put to use in the technique of radioisotopic labeling, which is used to track the passage of a chemical substance through a complex system (such as a living organism). A sample of the substance is synthesized with a high concentration of unstable atoms. The presence of the substance in one or another part of the system is determined by detecting the locations of decay events.
On the premise that radioactive decay is truly random (rather than merely chaotic), it has been used in hardware random-number generators. Because the process is not thought to vary significantly in mechanism over time, it is also a valuable tool in estimating the absolute ages of certain materials. For geological materials, the radioisotopes and some of their decay products become trapped when a rock solidifies, and can then later be used (subject to many well-known qualifications) to estimate the date of the solidification. These include checking the results of several simultaneous processes and their products against each other, within the same sample. In a similar fashion, and also subject to qualification, the rate of formation of carbon-14 in various eras, the date of formation of organic matter within a certain period related to the isotope's half-life may be estimated, because the carbon-14 becomes trapped when the organic matter grows and incorporates the new carbon-14 from the air. Thereafter, the amount of carbon-14 in organic matter decreases according to decay processes that may also be independently cross-checked by other means (such as checking the carbon-14 in individual tree rings, for example).
Szilard–Chalmers effect
The Szilard–Chalmers effect is the breaking of a chemical bond as a result of a kinetic energy imparted from radioactive decay. It operates by the absorption of neutrons by an atom and subsequent emission of gamma rays, often with significant amounts of kinetic energy. This kinetic energy, by Newton's third law, pushes back on the decaying atom, which causes it to move with enough speed to break a chemical bond. This effect can be used to separate isotopes by chemical means.
The Szilard–Chalmers effect was discovered in 1934 by Leó Szilárd and Thomas A. Chalmers. They observed that after bombardment by neutrons, the breaking of a bond in liquid ethyl iodide allowed radioactive iodine to be removed.
Origins of radioactive nuclides
Radioactive primordial nuclides found in the Earth are residues from ancient supernova explosions that occurred before the formation of the Solar System. They are the fraction of radionuclides that survived from that time, through the formation of the primordial solar nebula, through planet accretion, and up to the present time. The naturally occurring short-lived radiogenic radionuclides found in today's rocks, are the daughters of those radioactive primordial nuclides. Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive nuclides are cosmogenic nuclides, that are formed by cosmic ray bombardment of material in the Earth's atmosphere or crust. The decay of the radionuclides in rocks of the Earth's mantle and crust contribute significantly to Earth's internal heat budget.
Decay chains and multiple modes
The daughter nuclide of a decay event may also be unstable (radioactive). In this case, it too will decay, producing radiation. The resulting second daughter nuclide may also be radioactive. This can lead to a sequence of several decay events called a decay chain (see this article for specific details of important natural decay chains). Eventually, a stable nuclide is produced. Any decay daughters that are the result of an alpha decay will also result in helium atoms being created.
An example is the natural decay chain of 238U:
Uranium-238 decays, through alpha-emission, with a half-life of billion years to thorium-234
which decays, through beta-emission, with a half-life of days to protactinium-234m
which decays, through beta-emission, with a half-life of minutes to uranium-234
which decays, through alpha-emission, with a half-life of thousand years to thorium-230
which decays, through alpha-emission, with a half-life of thousand years to radium-226
which decays, through alpha-emission, with a half-life of thousand years to radon-222
which decays, through alpha-emission, with a half-life of days to polonium-218
which decays, through alpha-emission, with a half-life of minutes to lead-214
which decays, through beta-emission, with a half-life of minutes to bismuth-214
which decays, through beta-emission, with a half-life of minutes to polonium-214
which decays, through alpha-emission, with a half-life of microseconds to lead-210
which decays, through beta-emission, with a half-life of years to bismuth-210
which decays, through beta-emission, with a half-life of days to polonium-210
which decays, through alpha-emission, with a half-life of days to lead-206, which is a stable nuclide.
Some radionuclides may have several different paths of decay. For example, % of bismuth-212 decays, through alpha-emission, to thallium-208 while % of bismuth-212 decays, through beta-emission, to polonium-212. Both thallium-208 and polonium-212 are radioactive daughter products of bismuth-212, and both decay directly to stable lead-208.
Hazard warning signs
See also
Actinides in the environment
Background radiation
Chernobyl disaster
Crimes involving radioactive substances
Decay correction
Fallout shelter
Geiger counter
Induced radioactivity
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
Nuclear engineering
Nuclear pharmacy
Nuclear physics
Nuclear power
Particle decay
Poisson process
Radiation therapy
Radioactive contamination
Radioactivity in biology
Radiometric dating
Transient equilibrium
Notes
References
Inline
General
"Radioactivity", Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. December 18, 2006
Radio-activity by Ernest Rutherford Phd, Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition
External links
The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search – Contains tabulated information on radioactive decay types and energies.
Nomenclature of nuclear chemistry
Specific activity and related topics.
The Live Chart of Nuclides – IAEA
Interactive Chart of Nuclides
Health Physics Society Public Education Website
Annotated bibliography for radioactivity from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Stochastic Java applet on the decay of radioactive atoms by Wolfgang Bauer
Stochastic Flash simulation on the decay of radioactive atoms by David M. Harrison
"Henri Becquerel: The Discovery of Radioactivity", Becquerel's 1896 articles online and analyzed on BibNum [click 'à télécharger' for English version].
"Radioactive change", Rutherford & Soddy article (1903), online and analyzed on Bibnum [click 'à télécharger' for English version].
Exponentials
Poisson point processes | wiki |
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