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A marque or brand is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company from competitors.
Marque may also refer to:
People
Marque (musician), Austrian pop singer
Albert Marque (1872–1939), French sculptor and doll maker
Alejandro Marque (born 1981), Spanish cyclist
Other uses
Marque (river), a tributary of the Deûle in France
Letter of marque, government license authorising a privateer to attack enemy vessels
See also
Marquesas Islands, a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia
Marques (disambiguation)
Marquee (disambiguation)
Marquis (disambiguation)
Mark (disambiguation) | wiki |
Negligent homicide is a criminal charge brought against a person who, through criminal negligence, allows another person to die.
Examples include the crash of Aeroperu Flight 603 near Lima, Peru. The accident was caused by a piece of duct tape that was left over the static ports (on the bottom side of the fuselage) after cleaning the aircraft, which led to the crash. An employee had left the tape on and was charged with negligent homicide. Other times, an intentional killing may be negotiated down to the lesser charge as a compromised resolution of a murder case, as might occur in the context of the intentional shooting of an unarmed man after a traffic altercation.
United States
In the United States, all states define negligent homicide by statute, often defining the offense as involuntary manslaughter. Negligent homicide may be a lesser included offense to first and second degree murder, meaning that all of the elements of negligent homicide are elements of those more serious charges.
In some states, negligent homicide charges are possible following the killing of a person while driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol.
See also
Criminally negligent manslaughter, which has various titles in different countries
Depraved-heart murder
References
Homicide | wiki |
White Canyon may refer to:
White Canyon (San Juan County, Utah), a canyon in the United States that is known for several large natural bridges
White Canyon (roller coaster), a former roller coaster at the Yomiuriland amusement park near Inagi, Tokyo, Japan
Premonstratensians, The Order of Canons Regular of Prémontré, also known as the Premonstratensians, the Norbertines and, in Britain and Ireland, as the White Canons | wiki |
Anna-Marie "Bunny" Bruning (born September 5, 1957) is an American former professional tennis player.
Bruning grew up in California and was active on the WTA Tour during the 1970s and 1980s. She competed in the main draws of all four grand slam tournaments and was runner-up in the Wimbledon Plate in 1976.
Now a resident of Adel, Iowa, Bruning has worked in the region as a tennis coach since leaving professional tennis and is currently Tennis Director of the Wakonda Club in Des Moines.
WTA Tour finals
Doubles (0–2)
References
External links
1957 births
Living people
American female tennis players
Tennis people from California | wiki |
In the medical profession, a general practitioner (GP) or family physician is a physician who treats acute and chronic illnesses and provides preventive care and health education to patients of all ages. GPs' duties are not confined to specific fields of medicine, and they have particular skills in treating people with multiple health issues. They are trained to treat patients to levels of complexity that vary between countries. The term "primary care physician" is more usually used in the US. In Asian countries like India, this term has been replaced mainly by Medical Officers, Registered Medical Practicioner etc.
A core element in general practice is continuity that bridges episodes of various illnesses. Greater continuity with a general practitioner has been shown to reduce the need for out-of-hours services and acute hospital admittance. Continuous care by the same general practitioner has been found to reduce mortality.
The role of a GP can vary greatly between (or even within) countries. In urban areas of developed countries, their roles tend to be narrower and focused on the care of chronic health problems; the treatment of acute non-life-threatening diseases; the early detection and referral to specialised care of patients with serious diseases; and preventive care including health education and immunisation. Meanwhile, in rural areas of developed countries or in developing countries, a GP may be routinely involved in pre-hospital emergency care, the delivery of babies, community hospital care and performing low-complexity surgical procedures. In some healthcare systems GPs work in primary care centers where they play a central role in the healthcare team, while in other cases GPs work as sole practitioners.
The term general practitioner or GP is common in the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Australia, Canada, Singapore, South Africa, New Zealand and many other Commonwealth countries. In these countries, the word "physician" is largely reserved for certain other types of medical specialists, notably in internal medicine. While in these countries, the term GP has a clearly defined meaning, in North America the term has become somewhat ambiguous, and is sometimes synonymous with the terms family doctor or primary care physician, as described below.
Historically, the role of a GP was once performed by any doctor with qualifications from a medical school working in the community. However, since the 1950s, general practice has become a specialty in its own right, with each country having specific training requirements. The 1978 Alma Ata Declaration set the intellectual foundation of primary care and general practice.
Asia
India and Bangladesh
The basic medical degree in India and Bangladesh is MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery). These generally consist of a four-and-a-half-year course followed by a year of compulsory rotatory internship in India. In Bangladesh it is a five-year course followed by a year of compulsory rotatory internship. The internship requires the candidate to work in all departments for a stipulated period of time, to undergo hands-on training in treating patients.
The registration of doctors is usually managed by state medical councils. A permanent registration as a Registered Medical Practitioner is granted only after satisfactory completion of the compulsory internship.
The Federation of Family Physicians' Associations of India (FFPAI) is an organization which has a connection with more than 8000 general practitioners through having affiliated membership.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, 5 years of MBBS is followed by one year of internship in different specialties. Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PMDC) then confers permanent registration, after which the candidate may choose to practice as a GP or opt for specialty training.
The first Family Medicine Training programme was approved by the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Pakistan (CPSP) in 1992 and initiated in 1993 by the Family Medicine Division of the Department of Community Health
Sciences, Aga Khan University, Pakistan.
Family Medicine residency training programme of Ziauddin University is approved for Fellowship in Family Medicine.
Europe
France
In France the médecin généraliste (commonly called docteur) is responsible for the long-term care in a population. This implies prevention, education, care of the diseases and traumas that do not require a specialist, and orientation towards a specialist when necessary. They also follow the severe diseases day-to-day (between the acute crises that require the intervention of a specialist).
They have a role in the survey of epidemics, a legal role (constatation of traumas that can bring compensation, certificates for the practice of a sport, death certificate, certificate for hospitalisation without consent in case of mental incapacity), and a role in the emergency care (they can be called by the samu, the French EMS). They often go to a patient's home when the patient cannot come to the consulting room (especially in case of children or old people), and have to contribute to a night and week-end duty (although this was contested in a strike in 2002).
The studies consist of six years in the university (common to all medical specialties), and three years as a junior practitioner (interne) :
the first year (PACES, première année commune aux études de santé, often abbreviated to P1 by students) is common with the dentists, pharmacists and midwifery. The rank at the final competitive examination determines in which branch the student can choose to study.
the following two years, called propédeutique, are dedicated to the fundamental sciences: anatomy, human physiology, biochemistry, bacteriology, statistics...
the three following years are called externat and are dedicated to the study of clinical medicine; they end with a classifying examination, the rank determines in which specialty (general medicine is one of them) the student can make her or his internat;
the internat is three years -or more depending on the specialty- of initial professional experience under the responsibility of a senior; the interne can prescribe, s/he can replace physicians, and usually works in a hospital.
This ends with a doctorate, a research work which usually consist of a statistical study of cases to propose a care strategy for a specific condition (in an epidemiological, diagnostic, or therapeutic point of view).
Greece
General Practice was established as a medical specialty in Greece in 1986. To qualify as a General Practitioner (γενικός ιατρός, genikos iatros) doctors in Greece are required to complete four years of vocational training after medical school, including three years and two months in a hospital setting. General Practitioners in Greece may either work as private specialists or for the National Healthcare Service, ESY (Εθνικό Σύστημα Υγείας, ΕΣΥ).
Netherlands and Belgium
General practice in the Netherlands and Belgium is considered advanced. The huisarts (literally: "home doctor") administers first line, primary care. In the Netherlands, patients usually cannot consult a hospital specialist without a required referral. Most GPs work in private practice although more medical centers with employed GPs are seen. Many GPs have a specialist interest, e.g. in palliative care.
In Belgium, one year of lectures and two years of residency are required. In the Netherlands, training consists of three years (full-time) of specialization after completion of internships of 3 years. First and third year of training takes place at a GP practice. The second year of training consists of six months training at an emergency room, or internal medicine, paediatrics or gynaecology, or a combination of a general or academic hospital, three months of training at a psychiatric hospital or outpatient clinic and three months at a nursing home (verpleeghuis) or clinical geriatrics ward/policlinic. During all three years, residents get one day of training at university while working in practice the other days. The first year, a lot of emphasis is placed on communications skills with video training. Furthermore, all aspects of working as a GP gets addressed including working with the medical standards from the Dutch GP association NHG (Nederlands Huisartsen Genootschap).
All residents must also take the national GP knowledge test (Landelijke Huisartsgeneeskundige Kennistoets (LHK-toets)) twice a year. In this test of 120 multiple choice questions, medical, ethical, scientific and legal matters of GP work are addressed.
Russia
In the Russian Federation, the General Practitioner's Regulation was put into effect in 1992, after which medical schools started training in the relevant specialty.
The right to practice as a general practitioner gives a certificate of appropriate qualifications. General medical practice can be carried out both individually and in a group, including with the participation of narrow specialists. The work of general practitioners is allowed, both in the medical institution and in private.
The general practitioner has broad legal rights. He can lead junior medical personnel, provide services under medical insurance contracts, conclude additional contracts to the main contract, and conduct an examination of the quality of medical services. For independent decisions, the general practitioner is responsible in accordance with the law.
The main tasks of a general practitioner are:
Prevention, diagnosis and treatment of the most common diseases;
Emergency and emergency medical care;
Performance of medical manipulations.
Spain
In Spain GPs are officially especialistas en medicina familiar y comunitaria but are commonly called "médico de cabecera" or "médico de familia". Was established as a medical specialty in Spain in 1978.
Most Spanish GPs work for the state funded health services provided by the county's 17 regional governments (comunidades autónomas). They are in most cases salary-based healthcare workers.
For the provision of primary care, Spain is currently divided geographically in basic health care areas (áreas básicas de salud), each one containing a primary health care team (Equipo de atención primaria). Each team is multidisciplinary and typically includes GPs, community pediatricians, nurses, physiotherapists and social workers, together with ancillary staff. In urban areas all the services are concentrated in a single large building (Centro de salud) while in rural areas the main center is supported by smaller branches (consultorios), typically single-handled.
Becoming a GP in Spain involves studying medicine for 6 years, passing a competitive national exam called MIR (Medico Interno Residente) and undergoing a 4 years training program. The training program includes core specialties as general medicine and general practice (around 12 months each), pediatrics, gynecology, orthopedics and psychiatry. Shorter and optional placements in ENT, ophthalmology, ED, infectious diseases, rheumathology or others add up to the 4 years curriculum. The assessment is work based and involves completing a logbook that ensures all the expected skills, abilities and aptitudes have been acquired by the end of the training period.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom physicians wishing to become GPs take at least five years training after medical school, which is usually an undergraduate course of five to six years (or a graduate course of four to six years) leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery.
Until 2005, those wishing to become a general practitioner of medicine had to do a minimum of the following postgraduate training:
One year as a pre-registration house officer (PRHO) (formerly called a house officer), in which the trainee would usually spend six months on a general surgical ward and six months on a general medical ward in a hospital;
Two years as a senior house officer (SHO) – often on a General Practice Vocational Training Scheme (GP-VTS) in which the trainee would normally complete four six-month jobs in hospital specialties such as obstetrics and gynaecology, paediatrics, geriatric medicine, accident and emergency or psychiatry;
One year as a general practice registrar on a GPST.
This process changed under the programme Modernising Medical Careers. Medical practitioners graduating from 2005 onwards have to do a minimum of five years postgraduate training:
Two years of Foundation Training, in which the trainee will do a rotation around either six four-month jobs or eight three-month jobs – these include at least three months in general medicine and three months in general surgery, but will also include jobs in other areas;
A three-year "run-through" GP Speciality Training Programme containing (GPSTP): This comprises a minimum of twelve months as a hospital based Specialty Trainee during which time the trainee completes a mixture of jobs in specialties such as obstetrics and gynaecology, paediatrics, geriatric medicine, accident and emergency or psychiatry; eighteen to twenty-four months as a GP Specialty Trainee working in General Practice. The balance of training time spent in hospital versus in GP is planned to shift in 2022 to be consistently 12 months' hospital training and 24 months' training time in general practice.
The postgraduate qualification Membership of the Royal College of General Practitioners (MRCGP) was previously optional. In 2008, a requirement was introduced for physicians to succeed in the MRCGP assessments in order to be issued with a certificate of completion of their specialty training (CCT) in general practice. After passing the assessments, they are eligible to use the post-nominal letters MRCGP (so long as the physicians continued to pay membership fees to the RCGP, though many do not). During the GP specialty training programme, the medical practitioner must complete a variety of assessments in order to be allowed to practice independently as a GP. There is a knowledge-based exam with multiple choice questions called the Applied Knowledge Test (AKT). The practical examination takes the form of a "simulated surgery" in which the physicians is presented with thirteen clinical cases and assessment is made of data gathering, interpersonal skills and clinical management. This Clinical Skills Assessment (CSA) is held on three or four occasions throughout the year and takes place at the renovated headquarters of the Royal College of General Practitioners (RCGP), at 30 Euston Square, London. Finally, throughout the year the physician must complete an electronic portfolio which is made up of case-based discussions, critique of videoed consultations and reflective entries into a "learning log".
In addition, many hold qualifications such as the DCH (Diploma in Child Health of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health) or the DRCOG (Diploma of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists), the DPD (Diploma in Practical Dermatology) or the DGH (Diploma in Geriatric Medicine of the Royal College of Physicians). Some General Practitioners also hold the MRCP (Member of the Royal College of Physicians) or other specialist qualifications, but generally only if they had a hospital career, or a career in another speciality, before training in General Practice.
There are many arrangements under which general practitioners can work in the UK. While the main career aim is becoming a principal or partner in a GP surgery, many become salaried or non-principal GPs, work in hospitals in GP-led acute care units, or perform locum work. Whichever of these roles they fill, the vast majority of GPs receive most of their income from the National Health Service (NHS). Principals and partners in GP surgeries are self-employed, but they have contractual arrangements with the NHS which give them considerable predictability of income.
Visits to GP surgeries are free in all countries of the United Kingdom, but charges for prescriptions are applied in England. Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have abolished all charges.
Recent reforms to the NHS have included changes to the GP contract. General practitioners are no longer required to work unsociable hours, and get paid to some extent according to their performance, (e.g. numbers of patients treated, what treatments were administered, and the health of their catchment area, through the Quality and Outcomes Framework). The IT system used for assessing their income based on these criteria is called QMAS. The amount that a GP can expect to earn does vary according to the location of their work and the health needs of the population that they serve. Within a couple of years of the new contract being introduced, it became apparent that there were a few examples where the arrangements were out step with what had been expected. A full-time self-employed GP, such as a GMS or PMS practice partner, might currently expect to earn a profit share of around £95,900 before tax while a GP employed by a CCG could expect to earn a salary in the range of £54,863 to £82,789. This can equate to an hourly rate of around £40 an hour for a GP partner.
A survey by Ipsos MORI released in 2011 reports that 88% of adults in the UK "trust doctors to tell the truth".
In May 2017, there was said to be a crisis in the UK with practices having difficulties recruiting GPs they need. Prof. Helen Stokes-Lampard of the Royal College of General Practitioners said, "At present, UK general practice does not have sufficient resources to deliver the care and services necessary to meet our patients' changing needs, meaning that GPs and our teams are working under intense pressures, which are simply unsustainable. Workload in general practice is escalating – it has increased 16% over the last seven years, according to the latest research – yet investment in our service has steadily declined over the last decade and the number of GPs has not risen in step with patient demand ... This must be addressed as a matter of urgency.". Professor Azeem Majeed from Imperial College has also raised concerns about general practice in the UK.
In 2018 the average GP worked less than three and a half days a week because of the "intensity of working day".
There is an NHS England initiative to situate GPs in or near hospital emergency departments to divert minor cases away from A&E and reduce pressure on emergency services. 97 hospital trusts have been allocated money, mostly for premises alterations or development.
North America
United States
The population of this type of medical practitioner is declining, however. Currently, the Medical Departments of the US Air Force, Army and Navy have many of these general practitioners, known as General Medical Officers or GMOs, in active practice. The GMO is an inherent concept to all military medical branches. GMOs are the gatekeepers of medicine in that they hold the purse strings and decide upon the merit of specialist consultation. The US now holds a different definition for the term "general practitioner". The two terms "general practitioner" and "family practice" were synonymous prior to 1970. At that time both terms (if used within the US) referred to someone who completed medical school and the one-year required internship, and then worked as a general family doctor. Completion of a post-graduate specialty training program or residency in family medicine was, at that time, not a requirement. A physician who specializes in "family medicine" must now complete a residency in family medicine, and must be eligible for board certification, which is required by many hospitals and health plans for hospital privileges and remuneration, respectively. It was not until the 1970s that family medicine was recognized as a specialty in the US.
Many licensed family medical practitioners in the United States after this change began to use the term "general practitioner" to refer to those practitioners who previously did not complete a family medicine residency. Family physicians (after completing medical school) must then complete three to four years of additional residency in family medicine. Three hundred hours of medical education within the prior six years is also required to be eligible to sit for the board certification exam; these hours are largely acquired during residency training.
The existing general practitioners in the 1970s were given the choice to be grandfathered into the newly created specialty of Family Practice. In 1971 the American Academy of General Practice changed its name to the American Academy of Family Physicians. The prior system of graduating from medical school and completing one year of post-graduate training (rotating internship) was not abolished as 47 of the 50 states allow a physician to obtain a medical license without completion of residency. If one wanted to become a "house-call-making" type of physician, one still needs to only complete one or two years of a residency in either pediatrics, family medicine or internal medicine. This would make a physician a non-board eligible general practitioner able to qualify and obtain a license to practice medicine in 47 of the 50 United States of America. Since the establishment of the Board of Family Medicine, a family medicine physician is no longer the same as a general practitioner. What makes a Family Medicine Physician different than a General Practitioner/Physician is two-fold. First off a Family Medicine Physician has completed the three years of Family Medicine residency and is board eligible or board certified in Family Medicine; while a General Practitioner does not have any board certification and cannot sit for any board exam. Secondly, a Family Medicine Physician is able to practice obstetrics, the care of the pregnant woman from conception to delivery, while a general practitioner is not adequately trained in obstetrics.
Prior to recent history most postgraduate education in the United States was accomplished using the mentor system. A physician would finish a rotating internship and move to some town and be taught by the local physicians the skills needed for that particular town. This allowed each community's needs to be met by the teaching of the new general practitioner the skills needed in that community. This also allowed the new physician to start making a living and raising a family, etc. General practitioners would be the surgeons, the obstetricians, and the internists for their given communities. Changes in demographics and the growing complexities of the developing bodies of knowledge made it necessary to produce more highly trained surgeons and other specialists. For many physicians it was a natural desire to want to be considered "specialists".
What was not anticipated by many physicians is that an option to be a generalist would lose its prestige and be further degraded by a growing bureaucracy of insurance and hospitals requiring board certification. It has been shown that there is no statistically significant correlation between board certification and patient safety or quality of care which is why 47 states do not require board certification to practice medicine. Board certification agencies have been increasing their fees exponentially since establishment and the board examinations are known to not be clinically relevant and are at least 5 years out of date. Yet, there is still a misbelief that board certification is necessary to practice medicine and therefore it has made a non-board eligible general physician a rare breed of physician due to the lack of available job opportunities for them.
Certificates of Added Qualifications (CAQs) in adolescent medicine, geriatric medicine, sports medicine, sleep medicine, and hospice and palliative medicine are available for those board-certified family physicians with additional residency training requirements. Recently, new fellowships in International Family Medicine have emerged. These fellowships are designed to train family physicians working in resource-poor environments.
In 2009 an ongoing shortage of primary care physicians (and also other primary care providers) was reported. It was due to several factors, notably the lesser prestige associated with the young specialty, the lower pay, and the increasingly frustrating practice environment. In the US physicians are increasingly forced to do more administrative work, and pay higher malpractice insurance premiums.
Canada
The College of General Practice of Canada was founded in 1954 but in 1967 changed its name to College of Family Physicians of Canada (CFPC).
Oceania
Australia
General Practice in Australia and New Zealand has undergone many changes in training requirements over the past decade. The basic medical degree in Australia is the MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery), which has traditionally been attained after completion of an undergraduate five or six-year course. Over the last few years, an ever-increasing number of post-graduate four-year medical programs (previous bachelor's degree required) have become more common and now account more than half of all Australian medical graduates. After graduating, a one-year internship is completed in a public and private hospitals prior to obtaining full registration. Many newly registered medical practitioners undergo one year or more of pre-vocational position as Resident Medical Officers (different titles depending on jurisdictions) before specialist training begins. For general practice training, the medical practitioner then applies to enter a three- or four-year program either through the "Australian General Practice Training Program", "Remote Vocational Training Scheme" or "Independent Pathway". The Australian Government has announced an expansion of the number of GP training places through the AGPT program- 1,500 places per year will be available by 2015.
A combination of coursework and apprenticeship type training leading to the awarding of the FRACGP (Fellowship of the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners) or FACRRM (Fellowship of Australian College of Rural and Remote Medicine), if successful. Since 1996 this qualification or its equivalent has been required in order for new GPs to access Medicare rebates as a specialist general practitioner. Doctors who graduated prior to 1992 and who had worked in general practice for a specified period of time were recognized as "Vocationally Registered" or "VR" GPs, and given automatic and continuing eligibility for general practice Medicare rebates. There is a sizable group of doctors who have identical qualifications and experience, but who have been denied access to VR recognition. They are termed "Non-Vocationally Registered" or so-called "non-VR" GPs. The federal government of Australia recognizes the experience and competence of these doctors, by allowing them access to the "specialist" GP Medicare rebates for working in areas of government policy priority, such as areas of workforce shortage, and metropolitan after hours service. Some programs awarded permanent and unrestricted eligibility for VR rebate levels after 5 years of practice under the program. There is a community-based campaign in support of these so-called Non-VR doctors being granted full and permanent recognition of their experience and expertise, as fully identical with the previous generation of pre-1996 "grandfathered" GPs. This campaign is supported by the official policy of the Australian Medical Association (AMA).
Medicare is Australia's universal health insurance system, and without access to it, a practitioner cannot effectively work in private practice in Australia.
Procedural General Practice training in combination with General Practice Fellowship was first established by the "Australian College of Rural and Remote Medicine" in 2004. This new fellowship was developed in aid to recognise the specialised skills required to work within a rural and remote context. In addition it was hoped to recognise the impending urgency of training Rural Procedural Practitioners to sustain Obstetric and Surgical services within rural Australia. Each training registrar select a speciality that can be used in a rural area from the Advanced Skills Training list and spends a minimum of 12 months completing this specialty, the most common of which are Surgery, Obstetrics/Gynaecology and Anaesthetics. Further choices of specialty include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, Adult Internal Medicine, Emergency Medicine, Mental Health, Paediatrics, Population health and Remote Medicine. Shortly after the establishment of the FACRRM, the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners introduced an additional training year (from the basic 3 years) to offer the "Fellowship in Advanced Rural General Practice". The additional year, or Advanced Rural Skills Training (ARST) can be conducted in various locations from Tertiary Hospitals to Small General Practice.
The competent authority pathway is a work-based place assessment process to support International Medical Graduates (IMGs) wishing to work in General Practice. Approval for the ACRRM to undertake these assessments was granted by the Australian Medical Council in August 2010 and the process is to be streamlined in July 2014.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, most GPs work in clinics and health centres usually as part of a Primary Health Organisation (PHO). These are funded at a population level, based on the characteristics of a practice's enrolled population (referred to as capitation-based funding). Fee-for-service arrangements still exist with other funders such as Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) and Ministry of Social Development (MSD), as well as receiving co-payments from patients to top-up the capitation-based funding.
The basic medical degree in New Zealand is the MBChB degree (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery), which has traditionally been attained after completion of an undergraduate five or six-year course. In NZ new graduates must complete the GPEP (General Practice Education Program) Stages I and II in order to be granted the title Fellowship of the Royal New Zealand College of General Practitioners (FRNZCGP), which includes the PRIMEX assessment and further CME and Peer group learning sessions as directed by the RNZCGP. Holders of the award of FRNZCGP may apply for specialist recognition with the New Zealand Medical Council (MCNZ), after which they are considered specialists in General Practice by the council and the community. In 2009 the NZ Government increased the number of places available on the state-funded programme for GP training.
There is a shortage of GPs in rural areas and increasingly outer metropolitan areas of large cities, which has led to the use of overseas trained doctors (international medical graduates (IMGs)).
See also
American Board of Family Medicine
ATC codes Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals CPR
Dental General Practitioner (GDP)
Family medicine
General practice
ICD-10 International Classification of Diseases
ICPC-2 PLUS
International Classification of Primary Care ICPC-2
National Integrated Medical Association
Primary care
Quaternary prevention
Referral (medicine)
Sessional GP
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Practitioner | wiki |
This list of mines in Oregon summarizes the mines listed by the Geographic Names Information System. As of January 7, 2014, there are 595 entries.
See also
Lists of Oregon-related topics
Lists of mines in the United States
Oregon
Oregon geography-related lists | wiki |
The under-five mortality rate (U5MR) is the number of deaths of infants and children under five years old per 1000 live births. The under-five mortality rate for the world is 39 deaths according to the World Bank and the World Health Organization (WHO). 5.3 million children under age five died in 2018, 14,722 every day.
The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births. This rate is often used as an indicator of the level of health in a country. The infant mortality rate of the world in 2019 was 28 according to the United Nations and the projected estimate for 2020 was 30.8 according to the CIA World Factbook.
Note that due to differences in reporting, these numbers may not be comparable across countries. The WHO recommendation is that all children who show signs of life should be recorded as live births. In many countries this standard is not followed, artificially lowering their infant mortality rates relative to countries which follow those standards.
Under-five mortality from the World Bank
World average of Under-five mortality rate is 36.6 per 1000 live births, according to 2020 estimates.
* indicates "Health in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links.
OECD. Under-five mortality from the World Bank
The following is a list of OECD countries and their under-five mortality rate per 1000 live births as published by the World Bank.
* indicates "Health in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links.
Infant mortality from the CIA World Factbook
Note: The link in the last column takes you to the same country in the UN table in the next section.
* indicates "Health in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links.
Infant mortality from the United Nations population division (from birth to 1 year-olds only)
Note: The link in the last column takes you to the same country in the CIA table in the previous section.
* indicates "Health in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links.
Notes
See also
List of countries by maternal mortality ratio
Global Newborn Society
References
Further reading
CME Info - Child Mortality Estimates. UNICEF.
Death of children
Infant mortality
Infant mortality
Demographic lists
Infant mortality
Infant mortality | wiki |
The 2010–11 Skeleton World Cup was a multi race tournament over a season for bob skeleton. The season started on 25 November 2010 in Whistler, Canada, and ended on 4 February 2011 in Cesana, Italy. The World Cup was organised by the FIBT who also ran world cups and championships in bobsleigh. This season was sponsored by Viessmann.
Calendar
Below is the schedule of the 2010/11 season.
Results
Men
Notes
Note 1: Ben Sandford's bronze medal at the St. Moritz World Cup race was New Zealand's first ever World Cup medal.
Women
Standings
Men
Women
References
External links
FIBT
Skeleton World Cup
Skeleton World Cup, 2010-11
Skeleton World Cup, 2010-11 | wiki |
A cream pie is a type of pie filled with a rich custard or pudding.
Cream pie or creampie may also refer to:
Food
Boston cream pie, a cake with a cream filling
Chocolate cream pie, an old name for Boston cream pie
Sugar cream pie, also known as a sugar pie
Other
Creampie (sexual act), a sexual act | wiki |
Double Exposure Blackjack (also known as Zweikartenspiel ) is a variant of the casino game blackjack in which the dealer receives two cards face-up in part of the initial deal. Knowing the dealer's hand provides significant information to the player. To maintain the house edge, the payout when the player receives a natural blackjack is reduced to even money from 3:2, and players lose their bets when their hand is tied with the dealer. In addition, with both dealers' cards exposed at the outset, players cannot buy insurance or surrender their hand.
Other rules changes also exist to the detriment of players. Certain tables restrict doubling down and splitting, and do not allow doubles after splits.
The game was proposed by Richard A. Epstein in 1977, and first appeared at Vegas World in 1979 with rule changes that favored the house.
The basic strategy for this game is different, both because the player can see dealer cards 11 to 20 and because the player loses all ties except blackjacks. For examples, two ten-value cards are split whenever the dealer has 13 through 16, and a hard 19 must be hit if the dealer has a 20.
References
20th-century card games
Blackjack
Year of introduction missing | wiki |
Decora may refer to:
Decora, Georgia, a community in the United States
Decora (rapper), an American hip hop artist
a line of electrical and electronic products offered by Leviton
Fruits (magazine), Japanese fashion magazine
Decora (style), a Japanese street fashion seen in Harajuku, first documented by Fruits (magazine) | wiki |
Imperative may refer to:
Imperative mood, a grammatical mood (or mode) expressing commands, direct requests, and prohibitions
Imperative programming, a programming paradigm in computer science
Imperative logic
Imperative (film), a 1982 German drama film
In philosophy
Moral imperative, a philosophical concept relating to obligation
Categorical imperative, central philosophical concept in the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant
Hypothetical imperative, introduced by Immanuel Kant as a commandment of reason that applies only conditionally | wiki |
Pleurochrysis is a genus of haptophytes. It includes the species Pleurochrysis carterae, Pleurochrysis dentata, Pleurochrysis elongata, Pleurochrysis gayraliae, Pleurochrysis haptonemofera, Pleurochrysis placolithoides, Pleurochrysis pseudoroscoffensis, Pleurochrysis roscoffensis and Pleurochrysis scherffelii.
References
Haptophyte genera | wiki |
Looping may refer to:
Media and entertainment
Loop (music), a repeating section of sound material
Audio induction loop, an aid for the hard of hearing
a film production term for dubbing (filmmaking)
repeating drawings in an animated cartoon
Other uses
Looping (education), the practice of moving groups of children up from one grade to the next with the same teacher
Loop (computing), a sequence of statements which is specified once but which may be carried out several times in succession
Looping (yo-yo trick)
Looping (video game), 1982 arcade game
a specific type of roller coaster inversion
an aerobatic maneuver
a sociology term in a total institution in which an individual's protective response to one assault on the self is made the basis of another
an ancient worldwide single element textile technique
a primitive method of textile construction as used to create a bilum
See also
Loop (disambiguation) | wiki |
Status of the Gaelic language may refer to:
Status of the Irish language
See also
Gaelic revival, a 19th-century movement to foster use of the Irish language | wiki |
Paternity fraud, also known as misattributed paternity or paternal discrepancy, occurs when a man is incorrectly identified as the biological father of a child. The underlying assumption of "paternity fraud" is that the mother deliberately misidentified the biological father, while "misattributed paternity" may be accidental. Paternity fraud is related to the historical understanding of adultery.
Occurrence
Research published in 2016 indicated that one in 50 British fathers is unknowingly raising a child who is the biological child of another man, and that misattributed paternity is rarer than commonly believed.
A 2005 scientific review of international published studies of paternal discrepancy found a range in incidence, around the world, from 0.8% to 30% (median 3.7%). However, as many of the studies were conducted between the 1950s and the 1980s, numbers may be unreliable due to the inaccuracies of genetic testing methods and procedures used at the time. Studies ranging in date from 1991 to 1999 quote the following incidence rates: 11.8% (Mexico), 4.0% (Canada), 2.8% (France), 1.4% and 1.6% (UK), and 0.8% (Switzerland). These numbers suggest that the widely quoted and unsubstantiated figure of 10% of non-paternal events is an overestimate. However, in studies that solely looked at couples who obtained paternity testing because paternity was being disputed, there are higher levels: an incidence of 17% to 33% (median of 26.9%). Most at risk were those born to younger parents, to unmarried couples and those of lower socio-economic status, or from certain cultural groups.
A 2008 study in the United Kingdom found that biological fathers were misidentified in 0.2% (1 in 500) of the cases processed by the Child Support Agency. Of that 0.2%, those resolved with DNA paternity testing between 2004 and 2008 showed that between 10 and 19% of mothers had misidentified the biological father; data about why mothers identified the wrong biological father was not available.
Consequences
Paternity fraud can have far-reaching consequences for families. According to Niccol D. Kording:
"Marriages, relationships and families end. Children are abandoned by the only fathers they ever knew. Fathers are bitter and fight to disown the nonbiological child. Children lose their sense of identity. And the damage cannot
be undone".
Criticism
The topic of paternity fraud is controversial. In the Journal of Medical Ethics, Heather Draper writes that: "claims for reimbursement and compensation in cases of misattributed paternity produce the same distorted and thin view of what it means to be a father that paternity testing assumes, and underscores a trend that is not in the interests of children." Lyn Turney says that the concept of paternity fraud is about the "demonization of mothers".
Law by country
Australia
The Victorian County Court in 2002 awarded Mr. Magill $70,000 compensation for damages and economic loss against his ex-wife as a result of DNA testing in 2000 that showed only one of three children he was paying support for were genetically his.
That ruling was later overturned in 2005 by the Victorian Court of Appeal finding that "intent to deceive" by the ex-wife had not been proven regarding misrepresentations made by Ms. Magill in birth forms about the children's paternity.
This ruling was in turn then appealed with the High Court of Australia.
In 2006, Australia's High Court struck down the appeal, upholding the 2005 Victorian Court of Appeal ruling.
Chief Justice Murray Gleeson in the 94 page High Court Ruling opined, "Without doubt the appellant's wife deceived him but the hurtful deception was in her infidelity, not in her failure to admit it."
Mr. Magill as part of the ruling was also ordered to pay the Child Support Agency's legal fees during the previous 18 months of litigation.
The 2006 High Court Ruling led to many calls from within Australia for reforms and changes to the Family Law Act and the Child Support Act to help protect men in Mr Magill's situation.
By 2008, putative fathers in Australia could begin using DNA testing to confirm paternity regarding support orders after new changes, "section 143 of the Child Support (Assessment) Act", took effect regarding Family Court policies. The Magill case is often cited regarding new law reforms in Australia and is considered a landmark type case.
Canada
Mr. Cornelio began paying child support for his ex-wife's twins after the couple separated in 1998. The former couple settled upon a joint custody agreement in 2002 that continued Mr. Cornelio's monetary child support for the twins.
Shortly afterwards, Ms. Cornelio requested a reduction in visitation time along with an increase in support payments. Mr. Cornelio became suspicious of the paternity of the twins. A subsequent DNA test revealed that he was not their biological father. A request was made by Mr. Cornelio to be excused from paying further child support, claiming to be the victim of misrepresentation or fraud when Ms. Cornelio failed to disclose the extramarital affair when he signed the 2002 joint custody agreement.
The Ontario Superior Court of Justice in 2008 ruled against the request to be excused or reimbursed for child support payments. Judge van Rensburg, in deciding to deny the request, noted that Mr. Cornelio had wondered at the time of his separation if an affair by his ex-wife had actually been responsible for the twins. "It was not until access was interrupted and Ms. Cornelio commenced proceedings seeking increased child support that the respondent began pursuing this issue," the judge remarked. "The fact of that relationship – even if it has now become strained – is sufficient to require Mr. Cornelio to continue to contribute toward the children's material needs."
Finland
The default in Finnish law as of 2018 is that the husband is the acknowledged father of the child who is born into wedlock (or to a deceased husband). Only if the wife agrees, can that initial determination be set to something else. However, from 2016 the general right the mother to solely allow or prevent the parental investigation was abolished. The default and immediately forcing juridical assumption of paternity of a husband was not changed in the latest 2015 act.
A man can bring up a later legal action to annul his paternity, disregarding of the resistance of his wife. The legal action for annulment may be brought in the district court by a man whose paternity has been determined on the basis of either marriage or by some other authoritative decision. However, the ruling of the court can be pretty much anything and the UN declaration of children's rights are not followed.
A man who has officially acknowledged paternity relinquishes his rights to further actions if he, knowing the woman had a sexual intercourse with another man, or that she has used foreign sperm for fertilization, has stated in writing following birth of the child that the child is biologically his.
Otherwise legally binding prebirth acknowledgment of a man must be rejected, if either the health care staff of the child supervisor do have a founded suspicion that the man is not a father of the child, or he is for any reason not capable to understand what he is doing when acknowledging the paternity.
If a mother deliberately gives false information to the authorities, which contributes to the erroneous establishment of paternity, she may be fined.
South Korea
In 2004, a South Korean man was awarded $42,380 compensation for pain and suffering when a DNA test established that his ex-wife's paternity claim regarding their child was misattributed. When Mr. Doe, who had married Ms. Doe based on her paternity claim, began a lawsuit against a hospital for switching his child at birth, Ms. Doe claimed to having been pregnant with another man's baby.
Switzerland
On 5 January 2015, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland (decision 5A_619 of 2015) decided on a case wherein a plaintiff challenged the paternity of his (alleged) daughter. The plaintiff had his sperm examined in November 2009. As a result of the examination, the plaintiff's fertility was found to be 3%. The court contended that the alleged father should have started investigating his paternity as a consequence of that finding. The plaintiff actually had his non-paternity confirmed via DNA evidence in 2013 upon failure of his marriage. The court held that the one year time limit under Swiss civil code article 260c for filing an action lapsed due to the plaintiff's (the alleged father's) inactivity for more than two years. The Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland thus confirmed the ruling by the first instance and dismissed the appeal. It follows that the plaintiff's financial obligations as to his (alleged) daughter will not change.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, paternity fraud, like adultery, is not a criminal offence except in the case of the lineage of the children of the British monarch under the Treason Act 1351 where the adulterers are punishable as adultering against the lineage of the King with the King's "companion, ... or the wife of the King's eldest son and heir". Knowingly making a false statement on a public document is a criminal offence, including naming someone who is not the biological father. As of 2008, no individual has been prosecuted in a case involving paternity fraud. A mother is permitted to not state the name of the biological father if she does not know it. Paternity fraud is a form of misattributed paternity.
The split in 2002 between a couple, identified for legal reasons as Mr. A and Ms. B, prompted Mr. A to pursue a parental contract to establish his non-married rights as their child's father. Ms. B then requested a DNA test that later showed Mr. A was not the (then) five year old's father. Following the discovery Mr. A then sued Ms. B for damages of up to £100,000 as a result of the deceit.
During 2007 in what was reported as the first known case of its kind to reach trial in Britain, the High Court ruled in favor of awarding £7,500 distress damages with another £14,943 for holidays and meals out Mr. A spent on Ms. B (not the child). The judgment fell short of listed suit amount because the London court did not allow damages for the child's material costs incurred because of Mr. A's enjoyment of the relationship. The judge, Sir John Blofeld, said he was satisfied that Mr. A's motivation in coming to court was not as a lever for contact with the child but because he did not want "to be taken for a ride".
In 2019, the unnamed former wife of Richard Mason was ordered to pay him £250,000 in compensation for paternity fraud. Mason discovered that he could not have fathered his three grown up children after being diagnosed with cystic fibrosis, meaning he had been infertile since birth.
In 2021, a man from Kingston upon Hull who had already paid £38,000 in child maintenance payments discovered that he was not the father of the girl he had been led to believe was his daughter by his ex-girlfriend and had helped raise for 14 years. The Child Maintenance Service agreed to suspend future payments, but still held him liable for his £2000 arrears. After public outcry and intervention from his local MP Emma Hardy, the CMS reviewed the case and agreed to waive his arrears.
United States
The United States has historically imposed a strong presumption of paternity and has also imposed barriers to paternity challenges once paternity has been legally established. Since the advent of DNA testing, laws and guidelines have been proposed or enacted that may allow for a paternity challenge by a legal father who later determines he is not a child's biological father, or by a biological father who learns that somebody else has been named on a child's birth certificate as the child's father.
Georgia
Paternity fraud activist Carnell Smith has raised awareness about the problem of men paying child support for children that aren't theirs. He has successfully lobbied the Georgia state legislature to expand the time frame in which paternity tests could be administered.
Mandatory paternity testing is available in Georgia and is necessary in order to obtain a child support order in the state, the law differentiates between legitimacy and paternity and child support orders can only be ordered after a paternity test.
California
In the case of County of Los Angeles v. Navarro, in 1996, the County of Los Angeles entered a default judgment against putative father Mr. Navarro and ordered him to pay monthly support for Ms. Doe's two children. The complaint to establish paternity filed by the Bureau of Family Support Operations was based on information provided by Ms. Doe naming "Manuel Nava" as the children's father. The agency determined that Mr. Navarro was the father in question and delivered notice to his sister's residence listing Mr. Navarro as "co-resident", a notice Mr. Navarro denied ever receiving.
In 2001, Mr. Navarro, armed with a DNA test showing he was not the children's father, sued the County of Los Angeles asking to be relieved from the support order. The County of Los Angeles opposed the motion, arguing the motion was filed after the six month limit to contest a default judgment and the mother's mere assertion that he was the father was insufficient to establish extrinsic fraud. The trial court sided with the county and denied the motion. This ruling was then appealed before the California 2nd Appellate Court of Appeal.
In 2004, the court of appeal reversed the trial court decision ruling in favor of Mr. Navarro and became the first published California case to hold that the statute of limitations did not apply in setting aside an old default judgment against a paternity fraud victim. Immediately after the ruling was issued, the Los Angeles County Child Support Services Department announced that it would request that the case be depublished so it could not be used as a precedent by other men in Mr. Navarro's situation. That request was later denied by the California Supreme Court.
In 2002, California Governor Gray Davis vetoed a proposed Paternity Justice Act, which would have provided more protection for victims of Paternity Fraud, citing that the bill could cost the state $40 million in federal funding. 2004, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed in to law AB 252, which allows men who prove they are not the biological father more resources to fight paying child support; the law expired in 2007.
Florida
In the case of Parker v. Parker, as part of their 2001 Florida divorce settlement, Mr. Parker was obliged to pay $1200 monthly child support based on Ms. Parker's representations to the court that Mr. Parker was the child's biological father. In 2003, Ms. Parker filed a motion for contempt and a petition to enforce child support against Mr. Parker which prompted a DNA test showing that Mr. Parker was not the child's biological father.
The motion was 16 months after their divorce, Florida law (at that time) only allowed the husband 12 months to contest paternity following divorce.
Mr. Parker's court-ordered payments would total about $216,000 over the next fifteen years.
Mr. Parker filed a petition for relief claiming that the misrepresentation of paternity had resulted in a fraudulent support order. This was dismissed by both the Trial and then, in 2005, the Court of Appeal as being intrinsic fraud and subject to the Florida one year time limit to contest a dissolution decree, not extrinsic fraud, or a fraud upon the court, that can form the basis for relief from judgment more than a year later. This ruling was then appealed before the Florida Supreme Court who, in 2007, denied Mr. Parker's suit upholding the Fourth District Court of Appeal 2005 ruling.
During 2006, the Florida statutes changed allowing a DNA test to be considered new evidence to contest a support order after the one year time limit.
In its published opinion the Supreme Court Ruling in 2007 noted the change in Florida Statutes, "which provides the circumstances and procedures under which a male may disestablish paternity and terminate a child support obligation"; however, the court decided not to consider the applicability of this new statute to Mr. Parker's circumstances, kicking the question of a retrial under the new law back to the Trial Courts.
Because the basic facts are little questioned and the case explores differences between extrinsic and intrinsic fraud, other state Supreme Courts, including Iowa and Tennessee, have cited Parker v. Parker when writing opinions of their own for paternity fraud type cases.
Iowa
In 2012, the Iowa Supreme Court in ruling to allow a paternity fraud tort to proceed as it "fits comfortably within the traditional boundaries of fraud law.", and that "It is supported by common law standards for fraud and is not contrary to public policy or the statutory policy of this state."
Tennessee
In the case of Hodge v. Craig in October 2012, intentional misrepresentation of paternity was recognized by a unanimous Tennessee Supreme Court in Hodge v. Craig, a case where the mother intentionally lied to a man about who the father of the child was. Based on the mother's assurances the couple married but later divorced. The plaintiff dutifully paid child support including medical insurance for the child. Based on physical differences between himself and the child he obtained a tissue sample and confirmed his suspicions. Damages were awarded in compensation for child support paid for 15 years. The court's decision was based on the common law remedy of intentional misrepresentation; the court distinguished the award of damages from a retroactive modification of child support. The action was for damages; it was not a suit to disestablish paternity.
See also
Medical
DNA paternity testing
Medical ethics
DNA profiling
Non-paternity event
Genealogical DNA test
Reproductive rights
Legal
Equitable fatherhood
Lord Mansfield's Rule
Paternity (law)
U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child
Reproductive coercion
Putative father registry
Sperm theft
Social
Shared parenting
Fathers' rights movement
References
External links
Child support
Fathers' rights
Family law
Fraud
Reproductive rights
Fraud | wiki |
A crash test dummy, or simply dummy, is a full-scale anthropomorphic test device (ATD) that simulates the dimensions, weight proportions and articulation of the human body during a traffic collision. Dummies are used by researchers, automobile and aircraft manufacturers to predict the injuries a person might sustain in a crash. Modern dummies are usually instrumented to record data such as velocity of impact, crushing force, bending, folding, or torque of the body, and deceleration rates during a collision.
Prior to the development of crash test dummies, automobile companies tested using human cadavers, animals and live volunteers. Cadavers have been used to modify different parts of a car, such as the seatbelt. This type of testing may provide more realistic test results than using a dummy, but it raises ethical dilemmas because human cadavers and animals are not able to consent to research studies. Animal testing is not prevalent today. Computational models of the human body are increasingly being used in the industry and research to complement the use of dummies as virtual tools.
There is a constant need for new testing because each new vehicle has a different design and as technology changes ATDs must be developed to accurately test safety and efficacy.
History
On August 31, 1869, Mary Ward became the first recorded victim of an automobile accident; the car involved was steam-powered (Karl Benz did not invent the gasoline-powered automobile until 1886). Ward, of Parsonstown, Ireland, was thrown out of a motor vehicle and killed. Thirty years later, on September 13, 1899, Henry Bliss became North America's first motor vehicle fatality when hit while stepping off a New York City trolley.
The need for a means of analyzing and mitigating the effects of motor vehicle accidents on humans was felt soon after commercial production of automobiles began in the late 1890s, and by the 1930s, when the automobile became a common part of daily life and the number of motor vehicle deaths were rising. Death rates had surpassed 15.6 fatalities per 100 million vehicle-miles continue to climb. (Currently, according to the CDC, each year approximately 1.35 million people are killed on roadways around the world. ).
In 1930 cars had dashboards of rigid metal, non-collapsible steering columns, and protruding knobs, buttons, and levers. Without seat belts, passengers in a frontal collision could be hurled against the interior of the automobile or through the windshield. The vehicle body itself was rigid, and impact forces were transmitted directly to the vehicle occupants. As late as the 1950s, car manufacturers were on public record as saying that vehicle accidents simply could not be made survivable because the forces in a crash were too great.
Cadaver testing
Detroit's Wayne State University was the first to begin serious work on collecting data on the effects of high-speed collisions on the human body. In the late 1930s there was no reliable data on how the human body responds to the sudden, violent forces acting on it in an automobile accident. Furthermore, no effective tools existed to measure such responses.
Biomechanics was a field barely in its infancy. It was therefore necessary to employ two types of test subjects in order to develop initial data sets.
The first test subjects were human cadavers. They were used to obtain fundamental information about the human body's ability to withstand the crushing and tearing forces typically experienced in a high-speed accident. To such an end, steel ball bearings were dropped on skulls, and bodies were dumped down unused elevator shafts onto steel plates. Cadavers fitted with crude accelerometers were strapped into automobiles and subjected to head-on collisions and vehicle rollovers.
Albert King's 1995 Journal of Trauma article, "Humanitarian Benefits of Cadaver Research on Injury Prevention", clearly states the value in human lives saved as a result of cadaver research. King's calculations indicate that as a result of design changes implemented up to 1987, cadaver research since saved 8,500 lives annually. He notes that for every cadaver used, each year 61 people survive due to wearing seat belts, 147 live due to air bags, and 68 survive windshield impact.
However, work with cadavers presented almost as many problems as it resolved. Not only were there the moral and ethical issues related to working with the dead, but there were also research concerns. The majority of cadavers available were older adults males who had died non-violent deaths; they did not represent a demographic cross-section of accident victims. Deceased accident victims could not be employed because any data that might be collected from such experimental subjects would be compromised by the cadaver's previous injuries. Since no two cadavers are the same, and since any specific part of a cadaver could only be used once, it was extremely difficult to achieve reliable comparison data. In addition, child cadavers were not only difficult to obtain, but both legal and public opinion made them effectively unusable. Moreover, as crash testing became more routine, suitable cadavers became increasingly scarce. As a result, biometric data were limited in extent and skewed toward the older males.
Very little attention has been paid to obesity and car crash studies, and it is hard to obtain an obese dummy for the experiment. Instead, human cadavers were used. Body weight is a vital factor when it comes to automobile accidents, and body mass is distributed differently in an obese person versus a non-obese person. At the University of Michigan, obese cadavers were tested and compared to non-obese cadavers, and they found that the obese cadavers had more injuries in their lower extremities. The researchers also suggested that an obese person could be protected by their fat almost causing a "cushioning effect."
The use of NDTs or Neutral Density Targets were implemented inside cadavers' brains to focus on the impact and separation of the brain and skull. NDTs provided detailed observations and allowed researchers to look at a specific area of the brain after the crash stimulation. It also helped to establish and develop the Finite Element model, initially developed to measure neck injuries for three-year-olds. A real child's neck was interpreted and incorporated into the FE model. FE models of the human head have become increasingly more important to the study of head injury.
Volunteer testing
Some researchers took it upon themselves to serve as crash test dummies. In 1954, USAF Colonel John Paul Stapp was propelled to over 1000 km/h on a rocket sled and stopped in 1.4 seconds. Lawrence Patrick, then a professor at Wayne State University, endured some 400 rides on a rocket sled in order to test the effects of rapid deceleration on the human body. He and his students allowed themselves to be hit in the chest with heavy metal pendulums, impacted in the face by pneumatically driven rotary hammers, and sprayed with shattered glass to simulate window implosion. While admitting that it made him "a little sore", Patrick has said that the research he and his students conducted was seminal in developing mathematical models against which further research could be compared. While data from live testing was valuable, human subjects could not withstand tests that exceeded a certain degree of physical injury. To gather information about the causes and prevention of injuries and fatalities would require a different kind of test subject.
Animal testing
By the mid-1950s, the bulk of the information cadaver testing could provide had been collected. It was also necessary to collect data on accident survivability, research for which cadavers were woefully inadequate. In concert with the shortage of cadavers, this need forced researchers to seek other models. A description by Mary Roach of the Eighth Stapp Car Crash and Field Demonstration Conference shows the direction in which research had begun to move. "We saw chimpanzees riding rocket sleds, a bear on an impact swing...We observed a pig, anesthetized and placed in a sitting position on the swing in the harness, crashed into a deep-dish steering wheel at about 10 mph."
One important research objective that could not be achieved with either cadavers or live humans was a means of reducing the injuries caused by impalement on the steering column. By 1964, over a million fatalities resulting from steering wheel impact had been recorded, a significant percentage of all fatalities; the introduction by General Motors in the early 1960s of the collapsible steering column reduced the risk of steering-wheel death by fifty percent. The most commonly used animal subjects in cabin-collision studies were pigs, primarily because their internal structure is similar to a human's. Pigs can also be placed in a vehicle in a good approximation of a seated human.
Pigs were used for steering wheel impacts because they have an internal structure similar to humans, and can be easily placed correctly via sitting upright in the vehicle. The ability to sit upright was an important requirement for test animals so that another common fatal injury among human victims, decapitation, could be studied. Additionally, it was important for researchers to be able to determine to what extent cabin design needed to be modified to ensure optimal survival circumstances. For instance, a dashboard with too little padding or padding that was too stiff or too soft would not significantly reduce head injury over a dash with no padding at all. While knobs, levers, and buttons are essential in the operation of a vehicle, it was essential to determine which design modifications would best ensure that these elements did not tear or puncture victims in a crash. Rear-view mirror impact is a significant occurrence in a frontal collision: How should a mirror be built so that it is rigid enough to perform its task, yet of low injury risk if struck?
While work with cadavers had aroused some opposition, primarily from religious institutions, it was grudgingly accepted because the dead, being dead, felt no pain, and the indignity of their situations was directly related to easing the pain of the living. Animal research, on the other hand, aroused much greater passion. Animal rights groups such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) were vehement in their protest, and while researchers such as Patrick supported animal testing because of its ability to produce reliable, applicable data, there was nonetheless a strong ethical unease about this process. Researchers at the University of Virginia have to call the cadaver's family and tell them what they are using their loved one for, after getting consent from the family. This seems to lessen ethical dilemmas in contrast to animal testing, because there is no sufficient way to get consent to use an animal.
Although animal test data were still more easily obtained than cadaver data, the anatomical differences between animals and people and the difficulty of employing adequate internal instrumentation limited their usefulness. Animal testing is no longer practiced by any of the major automobile makers; General Motors discontinued live testing in 1993 and other manufacturers followed suit shortly thereafter.
In 1980, animals such as bears and pigs were tested in car crash simulations. This led to moral dilemmas and was not the first time that animals were used in car crashes. In 1978, The University of Michigan Highway Safety Research Institute used baboons as a substitute for human test subjects in car crashes. Although there was the objection of animal cruelty that arose, there was also the controversy of how they are similar to humans and can be used as a sufficient testing substitution for us. The researchers did not end up stopping the use of baboons because of moral objections, but instead stopped because they had collected sufficient data. The moral inputs from other people and organizations were inconsistent, which caused implications when deciding to ban healthy animals from research testing. The animals were put under anesthesia, so there was no pain put upon them, but the aftereffects cannot justify this. General Motors used animals for testing, and also suggested that they put the animals under anesthesia and then would kill the animals after completing the testing.
Although the University of Michigan Highway Safety Research Institute did get bad publicity, it was suggested that this is not the reason why they stopped using baboons. The University of Michigan's mission was to create safer cars for human use. In order to reach this goal, research and testing is inevitable. The cruelty and the moral dilemmas of animal testing did not trump researchers still using them as subjects. They reasoned that biomechanics data are needed for an experiment like this, which will lead to safer cars. Years later, animal testing ceased and instead an instrumented dummy was created as a replacement. In 1978, animals were their only subjects that could be a reliable substitution for the human being. The disadvantage, though, to using an instrumented dummy or a human cadaver, is that the tissue is not alive and will not elicit the same response as a live animal. By 1991, the use of animals in vehicle collision tests was in decline because of advances in computers and technology. It is difficult to use cadavers instead of animals because of human rights, and it is difficult to obtain permission from the families of the deceased. Consent for a research and testing can occur only if the person responsible for giving consent is mentally competent and comprehends the research and testing procedures fully.
Dummy evolution
There are a growing number of specialized dummies used to gather data to improve safety for women, children, the elderly, the obese, rib impacts, and spinal impacts. THOR is a very advanced dummy because it uses sensors and has a humanlike spine, pelvis, and can capture neck data in 6DOF (six degrees of freedom) motion. Special classes of dummies called Hybrid IIIs are designed to research the effects of frontal impacts, and are less useful in assessing the effects of other types of impact, such as side impacts, rear impacts, or rollovers. Hybrid IIIs use dummies that directed towards a specific age, for example, a typical ten-year-old, six-year-old, three-year-old, and a grown man.The equipment that is put on, or in, dummies to gather data is also evolving and the most up-to-date equipment is embedded inside the ATD to create a more biofidelic response for more accurate data.
Sierra Sam and VIP-50
The information gleaned from cadaver research and animal studies had already been put to some use in the construction of human simulacra as early as 1949, when "Sierra Sam" was created by Samuel W. Alderson at his Alderson Research Labs (ARL) and Sierra Engineering Co. to test aircraft ejection seats, aviation helmets and pilot restraint harnesses. This testing involved the use of high acceleration to 1000 km/h (600 mph) rocket sleds, beyond the capability of human volunteers to tolerate. In the early 1950s, Alderson and Grumman produced a dummy which was used to conduct crash tests in both motor vehicles and aircraft. The original "Sierra Sam" was a 95th percentile male dummy (heavier and taller than 95% of human males).
Alderson went on to produce what it called the VIP-50 series, built specifically for General Motors and Ford, but which was also adopted by the National Bureau of Standards. Sierra followed up with a competitor dummy, a model it called "Sierra Stan".
Hybrid I and II
General Motors, who had taken over the impetus in developing a reliable and durable dummy, found neither Sierra model satisfied its needs. GM engineers decided to combine the best features of the VIP series and Sierra Stan, and so in 1971 Hybrid I was born.
Hybrid I was what is known as a "50th percentile male" dummy. That is to say, it modeled an average male in height, mass, and proportion. In cooperation with the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), GM shared this design, and a subsequent 50th percentile female dummy, with its competitors.
Since then, considerable work has gone into creating more and more sophisticated dummies. Hybrid II was introduced in 1972, with improved shoulder, spine, and knee responses, and more rigorous documentation. Hybrid II became the first dummy to comply with the American Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) for testing of automotive lap and shoulder belts. In 1973, a 50th percentile male dummy was released, and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) undertook an agreement with General Motors to produce a model exceeding Hybrid II's performance in a number of specific areas.
Though a great improvement over cadavers for standardized testing purposes, Hybrid I and Hybrid II were still very crude, and their use was limited to developing and testing seat belt designs. A dummy was needed which would allow researchers to explore injury-reduction strategies. It was this need that pushed GM researchers to develop the current Hybrid line, the Hybrid III family of crash test dummies.
Hybrid III family
Hybrid III, the 50th percentile male dummy which made its first appearance in 1976, is the familiar crash test dummy, and he is now a family man. If he could stand upright, he would be 175 cm (5'9") tall and would have a mass of 77 kg (170 lb). He occupies the driver's seat in all the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) 65 km/h (40 mph) offset frontal crash tests. He is joined by a "big brother", the 95th percentile Hybrid III, at 188 cm (6 ft 2 in) and 100 kg (223 lb). Ms. Hybrid III is a 5th percentile female dummy, at a diminutive 152 cm (5 ft) tall and 50 kg (110 lb). The three Hybrid III child dummies represent a ten-year-old, 21 kg (47 lb) six-year-old, and a 15 kg (33 lb) three-year-old. The child models are very recent additions to the crash test dummy family; because so little hard data are available on the effects of accidents on children and such data are very difficult to obtain, these models are based in large part on estimates and approximations. The primary benefit provided by the Hybrid III is improved neck response in forward flexion and head rotation that better simulates the human.
The Hybrid III dummy for three-, six- and ten-year-olds has its limitations, and does not provide the same physical outcome a human would encounter with a frontal crash. It was found that when testing the three-year-old Hybrid III dummy, it showed that frontal crashes would most likely cause cervical spine injuries. When using data from the real world, the results did not match up to the Hybrid III stimulation injuries. To get around this, THUMS was created which stands for Total Human Model of Safety. The model can be easily relatable to the human body anatomically especially focusing on the human spine upon impact. Clinical testing and experiments are more accurate than a dummy and more reliable case studies can be implemented with this model. The model is based on a male only, and mimics human tissues and organs. This model is accurate for males in the 50th percentile, and it can not easily relate to three-year-olds when dealing with neck and head injuries, which are responsible for 57 percent of car crash fatalities. Instead, the FE model can be appropriately implemented for this criteria.
There are certain testing procedures for Hybrid IIIs to ensure that they obtain a correct humanlike neck flexure, and to ensure that they would react to a crash in a similar way that human bodies would.
Test device for Human Occupant Restraint (THOR)
THOR-50M mid-size male
THOR is an advanced crash test dummy designed to expand the Hybrid-III test dummy capabilities in assessing frontal impacts. THOR-50M, the mid-size male, was created to improve human-like anthropometry and increase the instrumentation for mitigating injury.
Although development started in the 1990s, with the latest design update by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in contract with Humanetics, the first new prototypes were delivered in 2013. Since then, Europe's New Car Assessment Program became the first agency to adopt THOR into testing protocols, replacing the Hybrid III mid-sized male in the driver's seat.
THOR-5F small female
The small female version of THOR is based on the technology of the male version, but has more female-like anthropometry to represent females in frontal impact testing.
The female THOR and the lack of female test dummies has received new interest as gender equity issues have emerged citing the lack of female crash test dummies and availability of new technology in regulation testing. A Center for Applied Biomechanics, University of Virginia, paper published in 2019 citing the increased risk of injury in female automobile occupants which started a fresh examination into female impact testing and protection.
The THOR dummies can accommodate 150+ channels of data collection throughout their bodies.
Warrior Injury Assessment Manikin (WIAMan)
WIAMan is a blast test dummy designed to assess potential skeletal injuries of soldiers exposed to under-body blast (UBB). Designed jointly by the U.S. Army and Diversified Technical Systems (DTS), the project includes an anthropomorphic test device and in-dummy data acquisition and sensor solution. Since the project started in February 2015, two generations of WIAMan prototypes have undergone a series of lab tests and blast events in the field.
With the prototype's delivery in 2018, WIAMan evaluates the effects of under-body blasts involving vehicles, and assess the risk to soldiers in ground vehicle systems. The goal of the WIAMan project is to acquire data that will improve the design of military vehicles and personal protective equipment. WIAMan and the platform created to simulate an IED explosion are undergoing continued testing.
Test dummies of the past were intended for the auto industry and lacked the same response a human would have to explosions. A challenge for the Army has been to develop a crash test dummy that moves enough like a human body to get an accurate result. The Army is working to make the mannequin "biofidelic," meaning it can match human movement. At 5-feet-11-inches tall and 185 lbs., WIAMan is based on the size and movement of an average soldier.
U.S. Army Research Laboratory and its partners at Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab completed biofidelity testing in 2017. The purpose of the testing was to develop a dummy capable of predicting specific injury risk to occupants in a vehicle during live-fire tests, based on human response data.
The manikin supports up to 156 channels of data acquisition, measuring different variables a soldier may experience in a vehicle blast. WIAMan includes self-contained internal power and the world's smallest data acquisition system called SLICE6, based on SLICE NANO architecture, eliminating the huge mass of sensor cables normally exiting dummies. The data measured within WIAMan includes forces, moments, accelerations and angular velocity.The DEVCOM Analysis Center (DAC) processes WIAMan data via a software analysis tool called the Analysis of Manikin Data, or AMANDA. On Feb. 2, 2022, AMANDA was accredited by the U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command for use in live fire test and evaluation.
Testing procedure
Every Hybrid III undergoes calibration prior to a crash test. Its head is removed and then dropped from to calibrate the head instrumentation. Then the head and neck are reattached, set in motion, and stopped abruptly to check for proper neck flexure. Hybrids wear chamois leather skin; the knees are struck with a metal probe to check for proper puncture. Finally, the head and neck are attached to the body, which is attached to a test platform and struck violently in the chest by a heavy pendulum to ensure that the ribs bend and flex as they should.
When the dummy has been determined to be ready for testing, calibration marks are fastened to the side of the head to aid researchers when slow-motion films are reviewed later. The dummy is then placed inside the test vehicle, set to seating position and then marked on the head and knees. Up to fifty-eight data channels located in all parts of the Hybrid III, from the head to the ankle, record between 30,000 and 35,000 data items in a typical 100–150 millisecond crash. These data are recorded in a temporary data repository in the dummy's chest and then downloaded to a computer once the test is complete.
Because the Hybrid is a standardized data collection device, any part of a particular Hybrid type is interchangeable with any other. Not only can one dummy be tested several times, but if a part should fail, it can be replaced with a new part. A fully instrumented dummy is worth about €150,000.
Positioning and restraints
Children in the three-year-old age group are more likely to have a fatality because it is the age where positioning is crucial. In some countries, children transition from facing the rear of the car to facing the front at this age. A study was done on restraints and positioning of three-year-olds. It was concluded that being restrained and in the front seat has a lower fatality rate than children positioned in the back seat but not restrained. The safety results indicated that children should be placed in the back seat and restrained. It also suggests that restraints have a bigger impact on safety than seating positions. A lap belt used on children will not provide as much safety as it would for an adult, due to the flexibility of children. An adult seatbelt could do more harm to a child than good, which is why children should properly be utilizing the Child Restraint System instead. This system includes a booster seat and a proper belt that fits the child's criteria including age, weight and height.
Specialized dummies
Hybrid IIIs are designed to research the effects of frontal impacts, and are less useful in assessing the effects of other types of impact, such as side impacts, rear impacts, or rollovers. After head-on collisions, the most common severe injury accident is the side impact.
The SID (Side Impact Dummy) family of test dummies is designed to measure rib, spine, and internal organ effects in side collisions. It also assesses spine and rib deceleration and compression of the chest cavity. SID is the United States government testing standard, EuroSID is used in Europe to ensure compliance with safety standards, and SID II(s) represents a 5th-percentile female. BioSID is a more sophisticated version of SID and EuroSID, but is not used in a regulatory capacity. The WorldSID is a project to develop a new generation of dummy under the International Organization for Standardization.</ref>
BioRID is a dummy designed to assess the effects of a rear impact. Its primary purpose is to research whiplash, and to aid designers in developing effective head and neck restraints. BioRID is more sophisticated in its spinal construction than Hybrid; 24 vertebra simulators allow BioRID to assume a much more natural seating posture, and to demonstrate the neck movement and configuration seen in rear-end collisions.
CRABI is a child dummy used to evaluate the effectiveness of child restraint devices, including seat belts and air bags. There are three models of the CRABI, representing 18-month, 12-month, and 6-month-old children.
FGOA is a first generation obese anthropometric test device which can be used to study the automotive safety challenges for obese occupants, who are believed to have higher risk of mortality in automobile collisions comparing to non-obese occupants.
THOR is currently the most advanced dummy on the market. The successor of Hybrid III, THOR has a more human-like spine and pelvis, and its face contains a number of sensors which allow analysis of facial impacts to an accuracy currently unobtainable with other dummies. THOR's range of sensors is also greater in quantity and sensitivity than those of Hybrid III. THOR's original manufacturer, GESAC Inc., ceased production after the slowdown of the auto industry in the late 2000s. THOR was being further developed, and two other companies were working on similar dummies; NHTSA's ultimate goal for this government-funded project was the development of a single THOR dummy, but THOR dummy development stopped. FTSS, bought by Humanetics, and DentonATD both continued to produce the THOR LX and THOR FLX.
Animal models have been used to test the safety of dog harnesses and crates in crash conditions.
Regulation
For the purpose of U.S. regulation and Global Technical Regulations and for clear communication in safety and seating design, dummies carry specifically designated reference points, such as the H-point; these are also used, for example, in automotive design.
Popular culture
In 1986, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), a division of the United States Department of Transportation, launched a series of public service announcements in magazines and on television featuring two talking crash dummies named Vince (voiced by Jack Burns) (played by Tony Reitano) and Larry (voiced by Lorenzo Music) (played by Tom Harrison, later replaced by Whitney Rydbeck) who modelled seat belt safety practices through their slapstick antics, with the slogan "You Could Learn a Lot from a Dummy". By the time the campaign was retired in 1999, it was credited for raising seat belt usage from 21% to 67%. Since then crash dummy characters have continued to be used in seat belt safety campaigns, especially those aimed at children.
In the early 1990s, Tyco Toys created a line of action figures called The Incredible Crash Dummies based on the characters from the NHTSA television advertisements. They were intended to fall apart at the touch of a button on their abdomens. Vehicles that could be crashed into walls and broken were also produced. Dummies and vehicles were easily reassembled. They prompted a half-hour television special, The Adventures of the Incredible Crash Dummies. Unique for its time, the cartoon was produced entirely using 3D computer animation techniques. A comic book series and a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy and other gaming consoles were produced.
In 2004, a series of "Crash Dummies" animated shorts were commissioned for the FOX network. Related toys from Mattel's Hot Wheels brand were produced.
The television series MythBusters employed a Hybrid II model crash test dummy, "Buster", for dangerous experiments. Additionally, the show utilized a number of simulaids in addition to using the hosts themselves as the test subjects if the experiment was safe enough.
In Discovery Kids children's educational series Crash Test Danny the title character is a living crash test dummy, played by Ben Langley, who gets crushed, blown up, and pulled apart in the name of science.
In 2020, actor Aamir Khan played a crash test dummy in a series of advertisements for Indian tire manufacturer CEAT Tyres.
See also
Car accident
Chicken gun, impact simulator to measure damages on the vehicle side.
Crash test
Crashworthiness
Euro NCAP
Safety car
Mannequin
Crash simulation
Secchi disk, the characteristic test-dummy fiducial marker symbol.
Footnotes
References
"Anatomy of a Crash-Test Dummy", IEEE Spectrum, October 2007
History of Crash Dummies
How the dead have helped the living
I was a human crash test dummy
The Female Crash Test Dummy She May Not Have a Brain, but She Could Save Your Life
The "Sierra Sam" Story
Meet 50th Percentile Hybrid III
Biomechanics and the Cyberhuman
It's Smart to be a Dummy
Pregnant crash test dummy
External links
Research of the Relationship of Pedestrian Injury to Collision Speed, Car-type, Impact Location and Pedestrian Sizes using Human FE model (THUMS Version 4)
Crash Test Dummy
American mascots
Cartoon mascots
Toy mascots
Dummies and mannequins
Transport safety
American inventions
Test items
United States Department of Transportation
zh-yue:撞擊測試假人 | wiki |
Programming style, also known as code style, is a set of rules or guidelines used when writing the source code for a computer program. It is often claimed that following a particular programming style will help programmers read and understand source code conforming to the style, and help to avoid introducing errors.
A classic work on the subject was The Elements of Programming Style, written in the 1970s, and illustrated with examples from the Fortran and PL/I languages prevalent at the time.
The programming style used in a particular program may be derived from the coding conventions of a company or other computing organization, as well as the preferences of the author of the code. Programming styles are often designed for a specific programming language (or language family): style considered good in C source code may not be appropriate for BASIC source code, etc. However, some rules are commonly applied to many languages.
Elements of good style
Good style is a subjective matter, and is difficult to define. However, there are several elements common to a large number of programming styles. The issues usually considered as part of programming style include the layout of the source code, including indentation; the use of white space around operators and keywords; the capitalization or otherwise of keywords and variable names; the style and spelling of user-defined identifiers, such as function, procedure and variable names; and the use and style of comments.
Code appearance
Programming styles commonly deal with the visual appearance of source code, with the goal of readability. Software has long been available that formats source code automatically, leaving coders to concentrate on naming, logic, and higher techniques. As a practical point, using a computer to format source code saves time, and it is possible to then enforce company-wide standards without debates.
Indentation
Indentation styles assist in identifying control flow and blocks of code. In some programming languages, indentation is used to delimit logical blocks of code; correct indentation in these cases is more than a matter of style. In other languages, indentation and white space do not affect function, although logical and consistent indentation makes code more readable. Compare:
if (hours < 24 && minutes < 60 && seconds < 60) {
return true;
} else {
return false;
}
or
if (hours < 24 && minutes < 60 && seconds < 60)
{
return true;
}
else
{
return false;
}
with something like
if ( hours < 24
&& minutes < 60
&& seconds < 60
)
{return true
;} else
{return false
;}
The first two examples are probably much easier to read because they are indented in an established way (a "hanging paragraph" style). This indentation style is especially useful when dealing with multiple nested constructs.
ModuLiq
The ModuLiq Zero Indentation Style groups with carriage returns rather than indentations. Compare all of the above to:
if (hours < 24 && minutes < 60 && seconds < 60)
return true;
else
return false;
Lua
Lua does not use the traditional curly braces or parenthesis. if/else statements only require the expression be followed by then, and closing the if/else statement with end.
if hours < 24 and minutes < 60 and seconds < 60 then
return true
else
return false
end
Indentation is optional. and, or, not are used in between true/false statements.
They are true/false statements, as print(not true) would mean false.
Python
Python uses indentation to indicate control structures, so correct indentation is required. By doing this, the need for bracketing with curly braces (i.e. { and }) is eliminated. On the other hand, copying and pasting Python code can lead to problems, because the indentation level of the pasted code may not be the same as the indentation level of the current line. Such reformatting can be tedious to do by hand, but some text editors and IDEs have features to do it automatically. There are also problems when Python code being rendered unusable when posted on a forum or web page that removes white space, though this problem can be avoided where it is possible to enclose code in white space-preserving tags such as "<pre> ... </pre>" (for HTML), "[code]" ... "[/code]" (for bbcode), etc.
if hours < 24 and minutes < 60 and seconds < 60:
return True
else:
return False
Notice that Python does not use curly braces, but a regular colon (e.g. else:).
Many Python programmers tend to follow a commonly agreed style guide known as PEP8. There are tools designed to automate PEP8 compliance.
Haskell
Haskell similarly has the off-side rule, i.e. it has a two-dimension syntax where indentation is meaningful to define blocks (although, an alternate syntax uses curly braces and semicolons).
Haskell is a declarative language, there are statements, but declarations within a Haskell script. Example:
let c_1 = 1
c_2 = 2
in
f x y = c_1 * x + c_2 * y
may be written in one line as:
let {c_1=1;c_2=2} in f x y = c_1 * x + c_2 * y
Haskell encourage the use of literate programming, where extended text explain the genesis of the code.
In literate Haskell scripts (named with the lhs extension), everything is a comment except blocks marked as code.
The program can be written in LaTeX, in such case the code environment marks what is code.
Also each active code paragraph can be marked by preceding and ending it with an empty line, and starting each line of code with a greater than sign and a space.
Here an example using LaTeX markup:
The function \verb+isValidDate+ test if date is valid
\begin{code}
isValidDate :: Date -> Bool
isValidDate date = hh>=0 && mm>=0 && ss>=0
&& hh<24 && mm<60 && ss<60
where (hh,mm,ss) = fromDate date
\end{code}
observe that in this case the overloaded function is \verb+fromDate :: Date -> (Int,Int,Int)+.
And an example using plain text:
The function isValidDate test if date is valid
> isValidDate :: Date -> Bool
> isValidDate date = hh>=0 && mm>=0 && ss>=0
> && hh<24 && mm<60 && ss<60
> where (hh,mm,ss) = fromDate date
observe that in this case the overloaded function is fromDate :: Date -> (Int,Int,Int).
Vertical alignment
It is often helpful to align similar elements vertically, to make typo-generated bugs more obvious. Compare:
$search = array('a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e');
$replacement = array('foo', 'bar', 'baz', 'quux');
// Another example:
$value = 0;
$anothervalue = 1;
$yetanothervalue = 2;
with:
$search = array('a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e');
$replacement = array('foo', 'bar', 'baz', 'quux');
// Another example:
$value = 0;
$anothervalue = 1;
$yetanothervalue = 2;
The latter example makes two things intuitively clear that were not clear in the former:
the search and replace terms are related and match up: they are not discrete variables;
there is one more search term than there are replacement terms. If this is a bug, it is now more likely to be spotted.
However, note that there are arguments against vertical alignment:
Inter-line false dependencies; tabular formatting creates dependencies across lines. For example, if an identifier with a long name is added to a tabular layout, the column width may have to be increased to accommodate it. This forces a bigger change to the source code than necessary, and the essential change may be lost in the noise. This is detrimental to Revision control where inspecting differences between versions is essential.
Brittleness; if a programmer does not neatly format the table when making a change, maybe legitimately with the previous point in mind, the result becomes a mess that deteriorates with further such changes. Simple refactoring operations, such as search-and-replace, may also break the formatting.
Resistance to modification; tabular formatting requires more effort to maintain. This may put off a programmer from making a beneficial change, such as adding, correcting or improving the name of an identifier, because it will mess up the formatting.
Reliance on mono-spaced font; tabular formatting assumes that the editor uses a fixed-width font. Many modern code editors support proportional fonts, and the programmer may prefer to use a proportional font for readability.
Tool dependence; some of the effort of maintaining alignment can be alleviated by tools (e.g. a source code editor that supports elastic tabstops), although that creates a reliance on such tools.
For example, if a simple refactoring operation is performed on the code above, renaming variables "$replacement" to "$r" and "$anothervalue" to "$a", the resulting code will look like this:
$search = array('a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e');
$r = array('foo', 'bar', 'baz', 'quux');
// Another example:
$value = 0;
$a = 1;
$yetanothervalue = 2;
The original sequential formatting will still look fine after such change:
$search = array('a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e');
$r = array('foo', 'bar', 'baz', 'quux');
// Another example:
$value = 0;
$a = 1;
$yetanothervalue = 2;
Spaces
In those situations where some white space is required, the grammars of most free-format languages are unconcerned with the amount that appears. Style related to white space is commonly used to enhance readability. There are currently no known hard facts (conclusions from studies) about which of the whitespace styles have the best readability.
For instance, compare the following syntactically equivalent examples of C code:
int i;
for(i=0;i<10;++i){
printf("%d",i*i+i);
}
versus
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
printf("%d", i * i + i);
}
Tabs
The use of tabs to create white space presents particular issues when not enough care is taken because the location of the tabulation point can be different depending on the tools being used and even the preferences of the user.
As an example, one programmer prefers tab stops of four and has their toolset configured this way, and uses these to format their code.
int ix; // Index to scan array
long sum; // Accumulator for sum
Another programmer prefers tab stops of eight, and their toolset is configured this way. When someone else examines the original person's code, they may well find it difficult to read.
int ix; // Index to scan array
long sum; // Accumulator for sum
One widely used solution to this issue may involve forbidding the use of tabs for alignment or rules on how tab stops must be set. Note that tabs work fine provided they are used consistently, restricted to logical indentation, and not used for alignment:
class MyClass {
int foobar(
int qux, // first parameter
int quux); // second parameter
int foobar2(
int qux, // first parameter
int quux, // second parameter
int quuux); // third parameter
};
See also
Coding conventions
MISRA C
Naming convention (programming)
References
External links
Source code
Articles with example C code
Articles with example PHP code
Articles with example pseudocode | wiki |
Hi-Jinks is a hidden camera show that aired on Nick at Nite from August 2, 2005 to October 31, 2006. In the show, hosted by Leila Sbitani, parents are given a chance to play practical jokes on their children, in a similar fashion to Candid Camera. Taking a cue from Punk'd, each episode features a prank that is conducted with the assistance of a known celebrity.
Episodes
Series overview
Season 1 (2005)
Season 2 (2006)
Special (2006)
References
External links
2000s American comedy television series
2000s American reality television series
2005 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
English-language television shows
American hidden camera television series
Nick at Nite original programming | wiki |
Platichthys stellatus est une espèce de poissons plats appartenant à la famille des Pleuronectidae.
Liens externes
Pleuronectidae | wiki |
Pioneer Monument or Pioneer Memorial may refer to:
in Canada
Pioneer Monument Obelisk (Montreal), Quebec
in the United States
Pioneer Monument (San Francisco), California
Pioneer Memorial (Denver, Colorado) or Pioneer Monument (Denver, Colorado), in the Civic Center Historic District (Denver, Colorado) (in the Denver Civic Center)
Pioneer Memorial (Houston), Texas
See also
Pioneer (disambiguation), for sculptures named "The Pioneer" or "Pioneer" | wiki |
NHL 13 is an ice hockey video game developed by EA Canada published by EA Sports. It is the 22nd installment of the NHL series. The game was released on the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360, featuring Philadelphia Flyers forward Claude Giroux on the cover. The game was featured at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012, which took place between June 5–7, 2012. The demo of the game was released on August 21–22, 2012, at the Xbox Live Marketplace and the PlayStation Store.
An exclusive "Stanley Cup Collector's Edition" was also released, apart from the actual NHL 13 game. The Collector's Edition includes five random Hockey Ultimate Team (HUT) player packs from the two 2012 Stanley Cup Finals teams; a Gold Jumbo HUT pack including legend Wayne Gretzky; and a boost pack featuring the CCM RBZ stick.
On September 20, GamesIndustry.biz reported that NHL 13 had posted the best first week sales in the franchise's history.
Giroux became the first Philadelphia Flyer to appear on an EA Sports NHL video game cover since Eric Lindros in NHL 99, as well as the first Philadelphia Flyer to appear on any ice hockey video game cover since Jeremy Roenick on ESPN NHL Hockey in 2003. With this, the Philadelphia Flyers have more cover athletes than any other team.
Features
All modes and features from NHL 12 remain in NHL 13. The following new features are included:
EA Sports Hockey IQ (AI): Makes CPU-controlled players and teammates smarter by reacting to everything on the ice, not just what they see in front of them. Skaters will be more easily able to prevent scoring opportunities. For goaltenders, Hockey IQ opens up for a lot of new different types of desperation saves as they are better able to identify "potential" scoring threats. As part of Hockey IQ, there are over five times as many strategy options in NHL 13 compared to previous titles of the current generation of the NHL series to replicate the real-life plays in the National Hockey League (NHL). Also, players can now develop their own plays and implement them for the computer AI in gameplay. According to Dean Richards, general manager of the NHL series, the development team spent more time on the AI development in NHL 13 than in the past three years combined.
True Performance Skating, a new skating engine based on physics, makes the player skating more dynamic and realistic with over 1,000 new animations created using motion capture. The engine is divided into three parts: explosiveness, top-end speed, and momentum. Explosiveness refers to how quickly a player can accelerate when gliding, being in a stationary state or how far a player can skate quickly. Top-end speed means that the players can skate as quickly as in real-life in their top speeds. Momentum is part of the physics; for example, a player skating at top speed may not turn around as quickly when carrying the puck as compared to when skating at normal speed or just gliding. Also, a player skating at top speed has his shooting and passing accuracies decreased. Momentum also means that players have a harder time recovering from mistakes. The new animations, combined with the Skill Stick features, allow for a lot of new plays and dekes that can be pulled off. True Performance Skating is taglined "Every Stride Matters".
Improved rating system: In NHL 12, each player's overall rating is based on that player's role in the team (playmaker, enforcer, defensive defenceman etc.). In NHL 13, however, the player's overall rating is based on that player's skill in their position (i.e. forward, defenceman, or goaltender). For example, in NHL 12, George Parros (at that time playing for the Anaheim Ducks) was rated 81 overall (out of 99) based on his role as an enforcer. In NHL 13, Parros' overall rating has been lowered down to 69 as determined by his skill as a forward. EA Sports stated that this was "a fan-requested change". Based on their attribute values, the players are now also given 5-star ratings for these six categories: shooting, puck skills, senses, skating, physical, and defense. Further, the teams' overall ratings for offense, defense and goaltending are now also 5-star based ratings instead of out-of-100 ones.
Team First Presentation aims to make the in-game experience more authentic than previously. Team-specific presentations for the NHL teams have been added, and it's also possible to manually customize the experience.
GM Connected: Allows players to play in online Be a GM leagues with human-controlled teams. Players can keep track of what's happening in their league with a mobile app.
NHL Moments Live: taglined "Can you recreate history?", this mode allows players to re-play and re-live great moments from the 2011–12 NHL season. In addition, new moments will be uploaded as the 2012–13 NHL season progresses.
Hockey Ultimate Team: The design of HUT has been revamped, the reward system improved and a new playoff format for HUT has been added. New features for player-card collections have been added to make it easier to create a HUT team.
All new GM Brain: Revamped Trade logic between AI GMs and users.
EA Sports Hockey League remains in the game and features like club captains and improved matchmaking have been added.
Be a Pro: Players are now able to demand a trade from their teams. Once the user demands a trade, their GM will evaluate the player's performance and place the user on the trading block. Players can also choose to retire at any given point at their career.
Refined goalie controls: In previous games of the current NHL generation, the right stick was used to make a manual save. In NHL 13 the right stick is now used to anticipate a save instead of actually attempting to make a save.
National teams
Players who do not participate in the official leagues in NHL 13 do not participate in the national teams either. The rest of the rosters are created by the game creators.
The demo includes three HUT Item Packs that players can earn and use in the retail version of NHL 13. One can be earned by winning the demo moment in NHL Moments Live; another one can be found in the HUT mode by defeating Team USA and winning the playoff tournament; and a third one can be obtained by inviting a friend to play the NHL 13 demo.
Soundtrack
The soundtrack features songs from various artists such as Shinedown, Classified, Anti-Flag, The Offspring and The Hives.
Game Modes
NHL 13, like many of the other games in the series, includes a season game mode, playoffs, practice, GM Connected, Be a Pro, Hockey Ultimate Team, NHL Moments Live, and EASports Hockey League. If playing on Xbox 360 Xbox Live may be required to access some of these game modes.
Reception
NHL 13 received "favorable" reviews on both platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
References
External links
2012 video games
Electronic Arts games
EA Sports games
NHL (video game series)
PlayStation 3 games
Sports video games with career mode
Xbox 360 games
Video games developed in Canada
Video games set in Finland
Video games set in Sweden
Video games set in Switzerland
Video games set in the Czech Republic
Video games set in Canada
Video games set in the United States
Video games set in 2012
Video games set in 2013
Multiplayer and single-player video games | wiki |
Jan Louise Murray Wade (née Noone; born 8 July 1937) is a former Australian politician.
She was born in Sydney to John Murray Noone and Lillian, née Knight. She attended Sydney High School and Firbank Girls' Grammar School in Melbourne, and graduated from the University of Melbourne in 1959 with a Bachelor of Law. She later attained a Bachelor of Arts in 1979.
She married Francis Bannatyne Lewis, with whom she had four children. From 1960 to 1961 she worked in London as a schoolteacher before returning to Australia as a law tutor at the University of Melbourne from 1963 to 1964. A solicitor from 1964 to 1967, she joined the Parliamentary Counsel's office in 1967, becoming Assistant Chief Parliamentary Counsel in 1978. Also in 1978, she married Peter Brian Wade, and, in so doing, acquired a step-daughter. In 1979, she was appointed Commissioner for Corporate Affairs and, in 1985, President of the Equal Opportunity Board.
In 1988, she successfully contested a by-election in the Victorian Legislative Assembly seat of Kew, for the Liberal Party. After her election she was appointed Shadow Attorney-General. She moved to Women's Affairs in 1989 but resumed her previous role in 1990. Following the Coalition victory at the 1992 state election she became Attorney-General, Minister for Fair Trading, and Minister for Women's Affairs.
She retired from politics in 1999, after which she was a visiting professor at Victoria University and a writer of an occasional column in the Australian Financial Review.
References
1937 births
Living people
Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Victoria
Members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Victorian Ministers for Women
Attorneys-General of Victoria
Women members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
University of Melbourne alumni
Academic staff of the University of Melbourne
University of Melbourne women
Academic staff of the Victoria University, Melbourne
Australian solicitors
People educated at Sydney Girls High School
People educated at Firbank Girls' Grammar School
Politicians from Sydney | wiki |
Stanford – wieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Illinois, w hrabstwie McLean.
Wsie w stanie Illinois | wiki |
Michael Stanley (born 1948) is an American singer-songwriter, musician, and radio personality.
Michael or Mike Stanley may also refer to:
Michael Stanley (rugby union) (born 1989), Samoan rugby union rugby player
Mike Stanley, American baseball player
Mike Stanley (rower) (born 1957), New Zealand sports administrator and rower
Mike Stanley (filmmaker) (born 1963), American director, screenwriter, producer and editor
See also
Mickey Stanley (born 1942), baseball player | wiki |
A pregnene is an alkene derivative of a pregnane.
An example is cortisone.
References
See also
Pregnanes
Pregnanes | wiki |
Debeaking, beak trimming (also spelt beak-trimming), or beak conditioning is the partial removal of the beak of poultry, especially layer hens and turkeys although it may also be performed on quail and ducks. Most commonly, the beak is shortened permanently, although regrowth can occur. The trimmed lower beak is somewhat longer than the upper beak. A similar but separate practice, usually performed by an avian veterinarian or an experienced birdkeeper, involves clipping, filing or sanding the beaks of captive birds for health purposes – in order to correct or temporarily alleviate overgrowths or deformities and better allow the bird to go about its normal feeding and preening activities. Amongst raptor-keepers, this practice is commonly known as "coping".
Beak trimming is most common in egg-laying strains of chickens. In some countries, such as the United States, turkeys routinely have their beaks trimmed. In the UK, only 10% of turkeys are beak trimmed. Beak trimming is a preventive measure to reduce damage caused by injurious pecking such as cannibalism, feather pecking and vent pecking, and thereby improve livability. Commercial broiler chickens are not routinely beak trimmed as they reach slaughter weight at approximately 6 weeks of age, i.e. before injurious pecking usually begins. However, broiler breeding stock may be trimmed to prevent damage during mating. In some countries, beak trimming is done as a last resort where alternatives are considered not to be possible or appropriate.
Opponents of beak trimming state that the practice reduces problem pecking by minor amounts compared to the trauma, injury, and harm done to the entire flock by beak trimming. Reduction is in single digit percentiles, whereas improvement of conditions especially in layer colonies will cease problematic behavior entirely.
Several European countries have banned beak trimming, including Denmark (2013), Finland (1986), Germany (2017), the Netherlands (2019), Norway (1974) and Sweden (1988); analysts expect other European countries such as the UK to follow in the near future.
In close confinement, cannibalism, feather pecking and aggression are common among turkeys, ducks, pheasants, quail, and chickens of many breeds (including both heritage breeds and modern hybrids) kept for eggs. The tendency to cannibalism and feather pecking varies among different strains of chickens, but does not manifest itself consistently. Some flocks of the same breed may be entirely free from cannibalism, while others, under the same management, may have a serious outbreak. Mortalities, mainly due to cannibalism, can be up to 15% in egg laying flocks housed in aviaries, straw yards, and free-range systems.
Because egg laying strains of chickens can be kept in smaller group sizes in caged systems, cannibalism is reduced leading to a lowered trend in mortality as compared to non-cage systems. Cannibalism among flocks is highly variable and when it is not problematic, then mortalities among production systems are similar.
History
Beak trimming was developed at the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station in the 1930s. The original technique was temporary, cutting approximately 6 mm (1/4 inch) off the beak. It was thought that the tip of the beak had no blood supply and presumably no sensation. The procedure was performed by hand with a sharp knife, either when deaths due to cannibalism became excessive, or when the problem was anticipated because of a history of cannibalism in the particular strain of chicken.
Cannibalism is a serious management problem dating back to the periods before intensive housing of poultry became popular. Poultry books written before vertical integration of the poultry industry describe the abnormal pecking of poultry:
Chicks and adult birds' picking at each other until blood shows and then destroying one another by further picking is a source of great loss in many flocks, especially when kept in confinement .... The recommendation of the Ohio Experiment Station of cutting back the tip of the upper beak has been found to be effective until the beak grows out again.
Cannibalism has two peaks in the life of a chicken; during the brooding period and at the onset of egg laying. The point-of-lay cannibalism is generally the most damaging and gets most of the attention. The temporary beak trimming developed at the Ohio Experiment Station assumed that cannibalism was a phase, and that blunting the beak temporarily would be adequate.
Current methods and guidelines
In recent years, the aim has been to develop more permanent beak trimming (although repeat trimming may be required), using electrically heated blades in a beak trimming machine, to provide a self-cauterizing cut. There are currently (2012) four widely used methods of beak trimming: hot blade, cold blade (including scissors or secateurs), electrical (the Bio-beaker) and infrared. The latter two methods usually remove only the tip of the beak and do not leave an open wound; therefore they may offer improvements in welfare. Other approaches such as the use of lasers, freeze drying and chemical retardation have been investigated but are not in widespread use. The infrared method directs a strong source of heat into the inner tissue of the beak and after a few weeks, the tip of the upper and lower beak dies and drops off making the beak shorter with blunt tips. The Bio-beaker, which uses an electric current to burn a small hole in the upper beak, is the preferred method for trimming the beaks of turkeys. The Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) wrote regarding beak trimming of turkeys that cold cutting was the most accurate method, but that substantial re-growth of the beak occurred; although the Bio-beaker limited beak re-growth, it was less accurate. It was considered that the hot cut was the most distressing procedure for turkeys.
In the UK, beak trimming of layer hens normally occurs at 1-day of age at the same time as the chick is being sexed and vaccinated.
USA's UEP guidelines suggest that in egg laying strains of chickens, the length of the upper beak distal from the nostrils that remains following trimming, should be 2 to 3 mm. In the UK, the Farm Animal Welfare Council stated: "The accepted procedure is to remove not more than one third of the upper and lower beaks or not more than one third of the upper beak only" but went on to recommend: "Where beak trimming is carried out, it should, wherever possible, be restricted to beak tipping; that is the blunting of the beak to remove the sharp point which can be the cause of the most severe damage to other birds."
Legislation
There is a trend towards prohibition of beak trimming in Europe over the course of decades. Analysts expect the practice to be gradually banned across the continent.
EU law allows member states to debeak poultry according to two regulations: Directive 1999/74/EC for laying hens allows beak trimming, while Directive 2007/43/EC for broilers permits beak trimming only in certain cases. As of April 2019, 80% of laying hens in the EU were estimated to be beak-trimmed.
Australia
As of July 2019, beak trimming is only banned in the Australian Capital Territory by means of the Animal Welfare Act 1992 (ACT) s 9C. It is currently debated in parliament whether debeaking should be banned in Victoria and New South Wales. A 2019 Voiceless report recommended the NSW Parliament to prohibit debeaking and instead '[introduce] enriched environmental conditions, such as litter and suitable range areas [to] encourage interaction and mental stimulation for hens. Better nutrition, lighting and parasite management may also help reduce injurious pecking.' In a 2015 survey conducted by the Humane Society International Australia, 91% of respondents stated that free range egg boxes should display whether the hens had undergone beak trimming.
Canada
Beak trimming is legal but regulated in Canada. The National Farm Animal Care Council's 2016 Poultry Code of Practice urges to 'make every effort to manage breeders so that physical alterations, such as beak trimming, are not necessary'; should it prove necessary, however, infrared treatment is recommended over hot blade treatment.
China
There are no regulations on beak trimming in the People's Republic of China. Some companies have decided to voluntarily phase out debeaking, such as Ningxia Xiaoming Farming and Animal Husbandry Co. Ltd.
France
In France, clipping beaks of poultry chickens is authorised only when it preserves the health and wellbeing of animals, meaning to limit the risks of cannibalism and pecking. It is only authorised on chicks less than 10 days old intended for laying eggs and must be carried out by qualified personnel. It can therefore be carried out by breeders and agricultural workers.
Germany
Agriculture Minister Christian Meyer announced that Germany would phase out beak trimming by 2017 due to animal welfare concerns.
Netherlands
A ban on beak trimming in the Netherlands was first announced in 1996, but due to objections from the poultry sector it was delayed for years. In June 2013, the government struck an agreement between poultry farmers and animal welfare groups to phase out debeaking and prohibit it in 2018. The prohibition on trimming eventually went into effect on 1 January 2019.
New Zealand
Beak trimming, officially known as 'beak tipping' in law, is legal but regulated in New Zealand. The Layer Hens Code of Welfare (last updated 1 October 2018) notes that the National Animal Welfare Advisory Committee (NAWAC) 'encourages the industry to develop management systems to protect against all forms of injurious pecking without the need for beak tipping'. The Code recommends that '[a]lternative strategies for managing injurious (feather) pecking that minimise the need for beak tipping should be employed e.g. use and availability of different foraging resources.' In case that beak tipping is deemed necessary, however, it requires competent trained operators, must be carried out within 3 days of hatching (except in emergencies under veterinary supervision) and may not remove more than one-quarter of the upper or lower beaks.
Nordic countries
Norway was the first country in the world to outlaw beak trimming in 1974, followed by Finland in 1986 and Sweden in 1988. Beak trimming was subsequently phased out in Denmark in two stages: in 2013 for the enriched cage system and in 2014 for aviary and free range systems.
Switzerland
Beak trimming in Switzerland is legal but regulated; it is expected that the practice will be prohibited in the near future. Although the use of cages for layer hens was prohibited in 1992, by 2000 still 59% of flocks (61% of hens) was still debeaked.
United Kingdom
Beak trimming is legal but regulated in the UK; it is expected that the practice will be prohibited in the near future. In 2011, the British government set up the Beak Trimming Action Group (BTAG) to review the matter with representatives from different stakeholders, including the industry, the government, animal welfare groups and veterinarians. A late 2015 BTAG report endorsed by Farming Minister George Eustice concluded that banning it in January 2016 would be too early as the sector needed more time to change its management techniques in order to avoid feather pecking, but that beak trimming should be phased out in the future. Laying Hen Welfare Forum chairman Andrew Joret stated in March 2020: 'A ban is coming. In my opinion, we have five years at most to prepare for this. We need to work out ways of keeping birds well-feathered, and if we can, eventually do that without beak trimming.'
United States
Beak trimming is legal in the United States, but there are some regulations: producers need to have a beak-trimming policy, it may not be employed to improve feed efficiency, but may be used to prevent cannibalism. Humane Society vice president Paul Shapiro claimed that birds only resort to cannibalism when they are confined and have nothing to do.
Costs and benefits
Costs
The costs of beak trimming relate primarily to welfare concerns. These include acute stress, and acute, possibly chronic, pain following trimming. A bird's ability to consume food is impaired following beak trimming because of the new beak shape and pain. Most studies report reduced body weights and feed intake following beak trimming; however, by sexual maturity or peak egg production, growth rates are usually normal. Weight losses were reduced in chicks that were beak trimmed by infrared compared with chicks trimmed by a hot-blade.
Pain of beak trimming
Whether beak trimming causes pain is a hotly debated concern. It is a complex issue as it may involve acute and/or chronic pain, and depends on the age it is performed, the method of trimming and the length of beak that is removed. Beak trimming in the poultry industry usually occurs without anaesthetic at 1-day of age or when the chicks are very young, but can occur at a later age if an outbreak of feather pecking occurs, and in some cases, birds may be beak trimmed on repeated occasions. Beak trimming is not permitted in the UK on meat chickens that are aged over 10 days.
Acute pain
The beak is a complex, functional organ with an extensive nervous supply including nociceptors that sense pain and noxious stimuli. These would almost certainly be stimulated during beak trimming, indicating strongly that acute pain would be experienced. Behavioural evidence of pain after beak trimming in layer hen chicks has been based on the observed reduction in pecking behavior, reduced activity and social behavior, and increased sleep duration.
In Japanese quail, beak-trimming by cauterization caused lower body weights and feed intake in the period just after beak trimming. Beak trimmed Muscovy ducks spent less time engaging in beak-related behaviours (preening, feeding, drinking, exploratory pecking) and more time resting than non-trimmed ducks in the days immediately post-trim. These differences disappeared by 1 week post-trim. At 1 week post-trim the trimmed ducks weighed less than non-trimmed ducks, but this difference disappeared by 2 weeks post-trim. It is, however, unclear if the above changes in behaviour arise from pain or from a loss of sensitivity in the beak.
Pecking force has been found to decrease after beak trimming in adult hens, possibly indicating that hens are protecting a painful area from further stimulation. However, pecking force did not differ between chicks with or without minor beak-trims at 2 to 9 days of age, suggesting that chicks with minor beak-trims do not experience pain from the beak.
Chronic pain
Severe beak trimming or beak trimming birds at an older age is thought to cause chronic pain. Following beak trimming of older or adult hens, the nociceptors in the beak stump show abnormal patterns of neural discharge, which indicate acute pain. Neuromas, tangled masses of swollen regenerating axon sprouts, are found in the healed stumps of birds beak trimmed at 5 weeks of age or older and in severely beak trimmed birds. Neuromas have been associated with phantom pain in human amputees and have therefore been linked to chronic pain in beak trimmed birds. If beak trimming is severe because of improper procedure or done in older birds, the neuromas will persist which suggests that beak trimmed older birds experience chronic pain, although this has been debated.
Benefits
The benefits of beak trimming are mainly welfare advantages for birds kept in close confinement, some of which directly relate to increases (or reduced decreases) in production. These include reduced feather pecking and cannibalism, better feathering (though they find it hard to preen with shortened beaks, which means they are not cleaning themselves well), less fearfulness and nervousness, less chronic stress, and decreased mortality.
Alternatives
A range of options have been proposed as possible alternatives to beak trimming including modifying the genetics of domesticated poultry to reduce cannibalistic tendencies. For confined housing where light control is possible, lowering light intensity so that birds cannot see each other as easily reduces antagonistic encounters and aggressive behaviour. Enrichment devices, introduced at an early age, such as simple objects hung in a habitat, can reduce aggressive behavior. Dividing the population into smaller group sizes reduces cannibalism. Proper body weight management that avoids underweight pullets reduces the probability of underweight pullets with uterine prolapse that leads to cloacal cannibalism.
See also
Livestock dehorning
Overview of mutilatory procedures on animals
Veterinary ethics
References
Cruelty to animals
Ethically disputed business practices towards animals
Poultry farming | wiki |
Electrical pacing may refer to:
Medicine
Transcutaneous pacing
Transvenous pacing
Epicardial pacing | wiki |
Many notable human fatalities have resulted from aviation accidents and incidents.
Those killed as part of a sporting, political or musical group who flew together when the accident took place are usually only listed under the group sections; however, some are also listed as individuals.
Individuals
Musical groups or artists
Political groups
Sporting teams
References
Further reading
1911 aviation necrology
External links
A detailed list at PlaneCrashInfo.com
aviation accidents
+Fatalities | wiki |
This article lists the films composed by Ilaiyaraaja in the 2020's.
Ilaiyaraaja 2020
Ilaiyaraaja 2021
Ilaiyaraaja 2022
Decade-wise Statistics
References
External links
Raaja.com: The official Internet website of Ilaiyaraaja
Collection of Ilayaraja songs at Paadal.com
Collection of Ilayaraja Songs, Videos, Images and BGM
Indian songs
Discographies
Discographies of Indian artists | wiki |
Algestone (), also known as alphasone or alfasone, as well as dihydroxyprogesterone, is a progestin which was never marketed. Another progestin, algestone acetophenide, in contrast, has been marketed as a hormonal contraceptive.
Chemistry
Algestone, also known as 16α,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or as 16α,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, is a synthetic pregnane steroid and a derivative of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone. Closely related analogues of algestone include 16α-hydroxyprogesterone, algestone acetonide, and algestone acetophenide.
References
Abandoned drugs
Diketones
Diols
Pregnanes
Progestogens | wiki |
John Nance Garner, Amerikaans politicus
John Garner, Engels golfer | wiki |
Dexamethasone isonicotinate is an anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic glucocorticoid that can be administered orally, by inhalation, locally, and parenterally. It may cause salt and water retention.
References
Corticosteroid esters
Fluorinated corticosteroids
Isonicotinate esters | wiki |
A sex swing (also known as a sling) is a type of harness designed to allow sexual intercourse between one partner suspended by the swing and another who moves freely. Though there is considerable variety in the design, the most common sex swings have a support for the back, another for the buttocks, and stirrups for each leg, which can be adjusted whilst the user is suspended.
Description
A sex swing or sling is designed to assist in sexual activity. Materials for constructing these devices include nylon webbing, heavy canvas, leather, neoprene, heavy rubber, wood, and steel. The designs provide access to the passive (receptive) partner's genitalia, perineum, buttocks, and anal areas while supporting the individual in a comfortable position, with the hips flexed, to allowing the passive partner to fully relax.
Types
There are many variations of swings that can be broken down to four basic types: sex slings, sex swings, door sex swings and body sex swings.
Sex slings are a category of sex swings that include a large panel to support the entire body. These can generally be constructed from leather, fabric or wood. Sex slings can range from 1 to 5 mounting points depending on design with 4 points being the most common. A sex sling has more limited number of position options than some other swing styles. Subcategories include traditional sex slings and platform sex slings.
Traditional sex swings are composed of 2 primary straps and stirrups. Additional options such as handles and headrests are available. There are many installation options including ceiling hooks, stands and between the walls in a hallway. The traditional sex swing has the largest number of position options available. Subcategories include pinning swings, bondage swings, single hook swings, and dual hook swings.
Door sex swings are a type of sling that installs over a door. It is secured in place by the door frame. Door swings have a limited range or positions options but are favored because of the quick installation. Standard door swings include leg straps and optionally handles. Deluxe door swings add an additional seat strap. Subcategories include standard door swings and deluxe door swings.
Body sex swings are a harness that is worn on the body with handles and leg straps to support another person to facilitate standing sex positions.
Purpose
The main purpose of sex swings is to make sexual intercourse more exciting and effortless. A sex swing may enable greater freedom of movement during intercourse or assist with challenging sex positions. Swings may also be used by couples who are into BDSM, since it acts like bondage where the partner in the swing has very little to no control. Swings may be used for vaginal and anal sex, fellatio, and cunnilingus.
Sex swings can enable individuals with a physical impairment or disability to enjoy a wide range of sexual activities. Individuals with muscular weakness or arthritis may use a sex swing to reduce the strain on affected muscles or joints. Individuals who use a wheelchair can engage in sexual activity using a sex swing suspended from a hoist.
Safety
It is important to follow the provided instructions when using a sex swing. Secure mounting is vital to avoid injury to the suspended partner from falling; toggle bolts would generally be insufficient. Installing springs, if supplied, is important to reduce physical shock to the suspended partner caused by rapid deceleration when bouncing in a sex swing.
References
Sex toys
Furniture | wiki |
April L. Sykes (born July 30, 1990) is an American professional basketball player most recently with the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women's National Basketball Association.
Rutgers statistics
Source
USA Basketball
Sykes was selected to represent the U.S. at the 2011 Pan American Games held in Guadalajara, Mexico. The USA team lost their first two games in close contests, losing to Argentina 58–55 and Puerto Rico 75–70. The team rebounded to win their games against Mexico and Jamaica, but the 2–2 overall record left them in seventh place. Sykes averaged 9.0 points per game.
References
1990 births
Living people
American women's basketball players
Basketball players at the 2011 Pan American Games
Basketball players from Mississippi
Los Angeles Sparks draft picks
Los Angeles Sparks players
McDonald's High School All-Americans
Pan American Games competitors for the United States
Parade High School All-Americans (girls' basketball)
Rutgers Scarlet Knights women's basketball players
Shooting guards
Small forwards
Sportspeople from Starkville, Mississippi | wiki |
Jacob "Jake" Horton (died April 10, 1989) was a senior vice-president of Southern Company's Gulf Power Unit, killed when a corporate airplane caught fire and crashed into a Pensacola apartment complex, shortly after takeoff from Pensacola, Florida. Journalist Greg Palast has alleged that Horton was murdered, by the corporation, in order to prevent him from accusing the board of directors of making illegal payments to politicians (1 -- p. 109).
References
The Best Democracy Money Can Buy by Greg Palast (2002)
1989 deaths
Year of birth missing | wiki |
Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), also known as depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) in injectable form and sold under the brand name Depo-Provera among others, is a hormonal medication of the progestin type. It is used as a method of birth control and as a part of menopausal hormone therapy. It is also used to treat endometriosis, abnormal uterine bleeding, abnormal sexuality in males, and certain types of cancer. The medication is available both alone and in combination with an estrogen. It is taken by mouth, used under the tongue, or by injection into a muscle or fat.
Common side effects include menstrual disturbances such as absence of periods, abdominal pain, and headaches. More serious side effects include bone loss, blood clots, allergic reactions, and liver problems. Use is not recommended during pregnancy as it may harm the baby. MPA is an artificial progestogen, and as such activates the progesterone receptor, the biological target of progesterone. It also has androgenic activity and weak glucocorticoid activity. Due to its progestogenic activity, MPA decreases the body's release of gonadotropins and can suppress sex hormone levels. It works as a form of birth control by preventing ovulation.
MPA was discovered in 1956 and was introduced for medical use in the United States in 1959. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. MPA is the most widely used progestin in menopausal hormone therapy and in progestogen-only birth control. DMPA is approved for use as a form of long-acting birth control in more than 100 countries. In 2020, it was the 214th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions.
Medical uses
The most common use of MPA is in the form of DMPA as a long-acting progestogen-only injectable contraceptive to prevent pregnancy in women. It is an extremely effective contraceptive when used with relatively high doses to prevent ovulation. MPA is also used in combination with an estrogen in menopausal hormone therapy in postmenopausal women to treat and prevent menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes, vaginal atrophy, and osteoporosis. It is used in menopausal hormone therapy specifically to prevent endometrial hyperplasia and cancer that would otherwise be induced by prolonged unopposed estrogen therapy in women with intact uteruses. In addition to contraception and menopausal hormone therapy, MPA is used in the treatment of gynecological and menstrual disorders such as dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and endometriosis. Along with other progestins, MPA was developed to allow for oral progestogen therapy, as progesterone (the progestogen hormone made by the human body) could not be taken orally for many decades before the process of micronization was developed and became feasible in terms of pharmaceutical manufacturing.
DMPA reduces sex drive in men and is used as a form of chemical castration to control inappropriate or unwanted sexual behavior in those with paraphilias or hypersexuality, including in convicted sex offenders. DMPA has also been used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia, as a palliative appetite stimulant for cancer patients, and at high doses (800 mg per day) to treat certain hormone-dependent cancers including endometrial cancer, renal cancer, and breast cancer. MPA has also been prescribed in feminizing hormone therapy for transgender women due to its progestogenic and functional antiandrogenic effects. It has been used to delay puberty in children with precocious puberty but is not satisfactory for this purpose as it is not able to completely suppress puberty. DMPA at high doses has been reported to be definitively effective in the treatment of hirsutism as well.
Though not used as a treatment for epilepsy, MPA has been found to reduce the frequency of seizures and does not interact with antiepileptic medications. MPA does not interfere with blood clotting and appears to improve blood parameters for women with sickle cell anemia. Similarly, MPA does not appear to affect liver metabolism, and may improve primary biliary cirrhosis and chronic active hepatitis. Women taking MPA may experience spotting shortly after starting the medication but is not usually serious enough to require medical intervention. With longer use amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) can occur as can irregular menstruation which is a major source of dissatisfaction, though both can result in improvements with iron deficiency and risk of pelvic inflammatory disease and often do not result in discontinuation of the medication.
Birth control
DMPA, under brand names such as Depo-Provera and Depo-SubQ Provera 104, is used in hormonal birth control as a long-lasting progestogen-only injectable contraceptive to prevent pregnancy in women. It is given by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection and forms a long-lasting depot, from which it is slowly released over a period of several months. It takes one week to take effect if given after the first five days of the period cycle, and is effective immediately if given during the first five days of the period cycle. Estimates of first-year failure rates are about 0.3%. MPA is effective in preventing pregnancy, but offers no protection against sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
Effectiveness
Trussell's estimated perfect use first-year failure rate for DMPA as the average of failure rates in seven clinical trials at 0.3%. It was considered perfect use because the clinical trials measured efficacy during actual use of DMPA defined as being no longer than 14 or 15 weeks after an injection (i.e., no more than 1 or 2 weeks late for a next injection).
Prior to 2004, Trussell's typical use failure rate for DMPA was the same as his perfect use failure rate: 0.3%.
DMPA estimated typical use first-year failure rate = 0.3% in:
Contraceptive Technology, 16th revised edition (1994)
Contraceptive Technology, 17th revised edition (1998)
Adopted in 1998 by the FDA for its current Uniform Contraceptive Labeling guidance
In 2004, using the 1995 NSFG failure rate, Trussell increased (by 10 times) his typical use failure rate for DMPA from 0.3% to 3%.
DMPA estimated typical use first-year failure rate = 3% in:
Contraceptive Technology, 18th revised edition (2004)
Contraceptive Technology, 19th revised edition (2007)
Trussell did not use 1995 NSFG failure rates as typical use failure rates for the other two then newly available long-acting contraceptives, the Norplant implant (2.3%) and the ParaGard copper T 380A IUD (3.7%), which were (as with DMPA) an order of magnitude higher than in clinical trials. Since Norplant and ParaGard allow no scope for user error, their much higher 1995 NSFG failure rates were attributed by Trussell to contraceptive overreporting at the time of a conception leading to a live birth.
Advantages
DMPA has a number of advantages and benefits:
Highly effective at preventing pregnancy.
Injected every 12 weeks. The only continuing action is to book subsequent follow-up injections every twelve weeks, and to monitor side effects to ensure that they do not require medical attention.
No estrogen. No increased risk of deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, stroke, or myocardial infarction.
Minimal drug interactions (compared to other hormonal contraceptives).
Decreased risk of endometrial cancer. DMPA reduces the risk of endometrial cancer by 80%. The reduced risk of endometrial cancer in DMPA users is thought to be due to both the direct anti-proliferative effect of progestogen on the endometrium and the indirect reduction of estrogen levels by suppression of ovarian follicular development.
Decreased risk of iron deficiency anemia, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), ectopic pregnancy, and uterine fibroids.
Decreased symptoms of endometriosis.
Decreased incidence of primary dysmenorrhea, ovulation pain, and functional ovarian cysts.
Decreased incidence of seizures in women with epilepsy. Additionally, unlike most other hormonal contraceptives, DMPA's contraceptive effectiveness is not affected by enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drugs.
Decreased incidence and severity of sickle cell crises in women with sickle-cell disease.
The United Kingdom Department of Health has actively promoted Long Acting Reversible Contraceptive use since 2008, particularly for young people; following on from the October 2005 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guidelines. Giving advice on these methods of contraception has been included in the 2009 Quality and Outcomes Framework "good practice" for primary care.
Comparison
Proponents of bioidentical hormone therapy believe that progesterone offers fewer side effects and improved quality of life compared to MPA. The evidence for this view has been questioned; MPA is better absorbed when taken by mouth, with a much longer elimination half-life leading to more stable blood levels though it may lead to greater breast tenderness and more sporadic vaginal bleeding. The two compounds do not differentiate in their ability to suppress endometrial hyperplasia, nor does either increase the risk of pulmonary embolism. The two medications have not been adequately compared in direct tests to clear conclusions about safety and superiority.
Available forms
MPA is available alone in the form of 2.5, 5, and 10 mg oral tablets, as a 150 mg/mL (1 mL) or 400 mg/mL (2.5 mL) microcrystalline aqueous suspension for intramuscular injection, and as a 104 mg (0.65 mL of 160 mg/mL) microcrystalline aqueous suspension for subcutaneous injection. It has also been marketed in the form of 100, 200, 250, 400, and 500 mg oral tablets; 500 and 1,000 mg oral suspensions; and as a 50 mg/mL microcrystalline aqueous suspension for intramuscular injection. A 100 mg/mL microcrystalline aqueous suspension for intramuscular injection was previously available as well. In addition to single-drug formulations, MPA is available in the form of oral tablets in combination with conjugated estrogens (CEEs), estradiol, and estradiol valerate for use in menopausal hormone therapy, and is available in combination with estradiol cypionate in a microcrystalline aqueous suspension as a combined injectable contraceptive.
Depo-Provera is the brand name for a 150 mg microcrystalline aqueous suspension of DMPA that is administered by intramuscular injection. The shot must be injected into thigh, buttock, or deltoid muscle four times a year (every 11 to 13 weeks), and provides pregnancy protection instantaneously after the first injection. Depo-subQ Provera 104 is a variation of the original intramuscular DMPA that is instead a 104 mg microcrystalline dose in aqueous suspension administered by subcutaneous injection. It contains 69% of the MPA found in the original intramuscular DMPA formulation. It can be injected using a smaller injection needle inserting the medication just below the skin, instead of into the muscle, in either the abdomen or thigh. This subcutaneous injection claims to reduce the side effects of DMPA while still maintaining all the same benefits of the original intramuscular DMPA.
Contraindications
MPA is not usually recommended because of unacceptable health risk or because it is not indicated in the following cases:
Conditions where the theoretical or proven risks usually outweigh the advantages of using DMPA:
Multiple risk factors for arterial cardiovascular disease
Current deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolus
Migraine headache with aura while using DMPA
Before evaluation of unexplained vaginal bleeding suspected of being a serious condition
A history of breast cancer and no evidence of current disease for five years
Active liver disease: (acute viral hepatitis, severe decompensated cirrhosis, benign or malignant liver tumours)
Conditions of concern for estrogen deficiency and reduced HDL levels theoretically increasing cardiovascular risk:
Hypertension with vascular disease
Current and history of ischemic heart disease
History of stroke
Diabetes for over 20 years or with nephropathy/retinopathy/neuropathy or vascular disease
Conditions which represent an unacceptable health risk if DMPA is used:
Current or recent breast cancer (a hormonally sensitive tumour)
Conditions where use is not indicated and should not be initiated:
Pregnancy
MPA is not recommended for use prior to menarche or before or during recovery from surgery.
Side effects
In women, the most common adverse effects of MPA are acne, changes in menstrual flow, drowsiness, and can cause birth defects if taken by pregnant women. Other common side effects include breast tenderness, increased facial hair, decreased scalp hair, difficulty falling or remaining asleep, stomach pain, and weight loss or gain. Lowered libido has been reported as a side effect of MPA in women. DMPA can affect menstrual bleeding. After a year of use, 55% of women experience amenorrhea (missed periods); after two years, the rate rises to 68%. In the first months of use "irregular or unpredictable bleeding or spotting, or, rarely, heavy or continuous bleeding" was reported. MPA does not appear to be associated with vitamin B12 deficiency. Data on weight gain with DMPA likewise are inconsistent.
At high doses for the treatment of breast cancer, MPA can cause weight gain and can worsen diabetes mellitus and edema (particularly of the face). Adverse effects peak at five weeks, and are reduced with lower doses. Less frequent effects may include thrombosis (though it is not clear if this is truly a risk, it cannot be ruled out), painful urination, headache, nausea, and vomiting. When used as a form of androgen deprivation therapy in men, more frequent complaints include reduced libido, impotence, reduced ejaculate volume, and within three days, chemical castration. At extremely high doses (used to treat cancer, not for contraception) MPA may cause adrenal suppression and may interfere with carbohydrate metabolism, but does not cause diabetes.
When used as a form of injected birth control, there is a delayed return of fertility. The average return to fertility is 9 to 10 months after the last injection, taking longer for overweight or obese women. By 18 months after the last injection, fertility is the same as that in former users of other contraceptive methods. Fetuses exposed to progestogens have demonstrated higher rates of genital abnormalities, low birth weight, and increased ectopic pregnancy particularly when MPA is used as an injected form of long-term birth control. A study of accidental pregnancies among poor women in Thailand found that infants who had been exposed to DMPA during pregnancy had a higher risk of low birth weight and an 80% greater-than-usual chance of dying in the first year of life.
Mood changes
There have been concerns about a possible risk of depression and mood changes with progestins like MPA, and this has led to reluctance of some clinicians and women to use them. However, contrary to widely-held beliefs, most research suggests that progestins do not cause adverse psychological effects such as depression or anxiety. A 2018 systematic review of the relationship between progestin-based contraception and depression included three large studies of DMPA and reported no association between DMPA and depression. According to a 2003 review of DMPA, the majority of published clinical studies indicate that DMPA is not associated with depression, and the overall data support the notion that the medication does not significantly affect mood.
In the largest study to have assessed the relationship between MPA and depression to date, in which over 3,900 women were treated with DMPA for up to 7 years, the incidence of depression was infrequent at 1.5% and the discontinuation rate due to depression was 0.5%. This study did not include baseline data on depression, and due to the incidence of depression in the study, the FDA required package labeling for DMPA stating that women with depression should be observed carefully and that DMPA should be discontinued if depression recurs. A subsequent study of 495 women treated with DMPA over the course of 1 year found that the mean depression score slightly decreased in the whole group of continuing users from 7.4 to 6.7 (by 9.5%) and decreased in the quintile of that group with the highest depression scores at baseline from 15.4 to 9.5 (by 38%). Based on the results of this study and others, a consensus began emerging that DMPA does not in fact increase the risk of depression nor worsen the severity of pre-existing depression.
Similarly to the case of DMPA for hormonal contraception, the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS), a study of 2,763 postmenopausal women treated with 0.625 mg/day oral CEEs plus 2.5 mg/day oral MPA or placebo for 36 months as a method of menopausal hormone therapy, found no change in depressive symptoms. However, some small studies have reported that progestins like MPA might counteract beneficial effects of estrogens against depression.
Long-term effects
The Women's Health Initiative investigated the use of a combination of oral CEEs and MPA compared to placebo. The study was prematurely terminated when previously unexpected risks were discovered, specifically the finding that though the all-cause mortality was not affected by the hormone therapy, the benefits of menopausal hormone therapy (reduced risk of hip fracture, colorectal and endometrial cancer and all other causes of death) were offset by increased risk of coronary heart disease, breast cancer, strokes and pulmonary embolism.
When combined with CEEs, MPA has been associated with an increased risk of breast cancer, dementia, and thrombus in the eye. In combination with estrogens in general, MPA may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, with a stronger association when used by postmenopausal women also taking CEEs. It was because of these unexpected interactions that the Women's Health Initiative study was ended early due to the extra risks of menopausal hormone therapy, resulting in a dramatic decrease in both new and renewal prescriptions for hormone therapy.
Long-term studies of users of DMPA have found slight or no increased overall risk of breast cancer. However, the study population did show a slightly increased risk of breast cancer in recent users (DMPA use in the last four years) under age 35, similar to that seen with the use of combined oral contraceptive pills.
Blood clots
DMPA has been associated in multiple studies with a higher risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) when used as a form of progestogen-only birth control in premenopausal women. The increase in incidence of VTE ranges from 2.2-fold to 3.6-fold. Elevated risk of VTE with DMPA is unexpected, as DMPA has little or no effect on coagulation and fibrinolytic factors, and progestogens by themselves normally do not increase the risk of thrombosis. It has been argued that the higher incidence with DMPA has reflected preferential prescription of DMPA to women considered to be at an increased risk of VTE. Alternatively, it is possible that MPA may be an exception among progestins in terms of VTE risk. A 2018 meta-analysis reported that MPA was associated with a 2.8-fold higher risk of VTE than other progestins. It is possible that the glucocorticoid activity of MPA may increase the risk of VTE.
Bone density
DMPA may cause reduced bone density in premenopausal women and in men when used without an estrogen, particularly at high doses, though this appears to be reversible to a normal level even after years of use.
On 17 November 2004, the United States Food and Drug Administration put a black box warning on the label, indicating that there were potential adverse effects of loss of bone mineral density. While it causes temporary bone loss, most women fully regain their bone density after discontinuing use. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that the use not be restricted. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists notes that the potential adverse effects on BMD be balanced against the known negative effects of unintended pregnancy using other birth control methods or no method, particularly among adolescents.
Three studies have suggested that bone loss is reversible after the discontinuation of DMPA. Other studies have suggested that the effect of DMPA use on postmenopausal bone density is minimal, perhaps because DMPA users experience less bone loss at menopause. Use after peak bone mass is associated with increased bone turnover but no decrease in bone mineral density.
The FDA recommends that DMPA not be used for longer than two years, unless there is no viable alternative method of contraception, due to concerns over bone loss. However, a 2008 Committee Opinion from the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) advises healthcare providers that concerns about bone mineral density loss should neither prevent the prescription of or continuation of DMPA beyond two years of use.
HIV risk
There is uncertainty regarding the risk of HIV acquisition among DMPA users; some observational studies suggest an increased risk of HIV acquisition among women using DMPA, while others do not. The World Health Organization issued statements in February 2012 and July 2014 saying the data did not warrant changing their recommendation of no restriction – Medical Eligibility for Contraception (MEC) category 1 – on the use of DMPA in women at high risk for HIV. Two meta-analyses of observational studies in sub-Saharan Africa were published in January 2015. They found a 1.4- to 1.5-fold increase risk of HIV acquisition for DMPA users relative to no hormonal contraceptive use. In January 2015, the Faculty of Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists issued a statement reaffirming that there is no reason to advise against use of DMPA in the United Kingdom even for women at 'high risk' of HIV infection. A systematic review and meta-analysis of risk of HIV infection in DMPA users published in fall of 2015 stated that "the epidemiological and biological evidence now make a compelling case that DMPA adds significantly to the risk of male-to-female HIV transmission." In 2019, a randomized controlled trial found no significant association between DMPA use and HIV.
Breastfeeding
MPA may be used by breastfeeding mothers. Heavy bleeding is possible if given in the immediate postpartum time and is best delayed until six weeks after birth. It may be used within five days if not breast feeding. While a study showed "no significant difference in birth weights or incidence of birth defects" and "no significant alternation of immunity to infectious disease caused by breast milk containing DMPA", a subgroup of babies whose mothers started DMPA at two days postpartum had a 75% higher incidence of doctor visits for infectious diseases during their first year of life.
A larger study with longer follow-up concluded that "use of DMPA during pregnancy or breastfeeding does not adversely affect the long-term growth and development of children". This study also noted that "children with DMPA exposure during pregnancy and lactation had an increased risk of suboptimal growth in height," but that "after adjustment for socioeconomic factors by multiple logistic regression, there was no increased risk of impaired growth among the DMPA-exposed children." The study also noted that effects of DMPA exposure on puberty require further study, as so few children over the age of 10 were observed.
Overdose
MPA has been studied at "massive" dosages of up to 5,000 mg per day orally and 2,000 mg per day via intramuscular injection, without major tolerability or safety issues described. Overdose is not described in the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) product labels for injected MPA (Depo-Provera or Depo-SubQ Provera 104). In the FDA product label for oral MPA (Provera), it is stated that overdose of an estrogen and progestin may cause nausea and vomiting, breast tenderness, dizziness, abdominal pain, drowsiness, fatigue, and withdrawal bleeding. According to the label, treatment of overdose should consist of discontinuation of MPA therapy and symptomatic care.
Interactions
MPA increases the risk of breast cancer, dementia, and thrombus when used in combination with CEEs to treat menopausal symptoms. When used as a contraceptive, MPA does not generally interact with other medications. The combination of MPA with aminoglutethimide to treat metastases from breast cancer has been associated with an increase in depression. St John's wort may decrease the effectiveness of MPA as a contraceptive due to acceleration of its metabolism.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
MPA acts as an agonist of the progesterone, androgen, and glucocorticoid receptors (PR, AR, and GR, respectively), activating these receptors with EC50 values of approximately 0.01 nM, 1 nM, and 10 nM, respectively. It has negligible affinity for the estrogen receptor. The medication has relatively high affinity for the mineralocorticoid receptor, but in spite of this, it has no mineralocorticoid or antimineralocorticoid activity. The intrinsic activities of MPA in activating the PR and the AR have been reported to be at least equivalent to those of progesterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), respectively, indicating that it is a full agonist of these receptors.
Progestogenic activity
MPA is a potent agonist of the progesterone receptor with similar affinity and efficacy relative to progesterone. While both MPA and its deacetylated analogue medroxyprogesterone bind to and agonize the PR, MPA has approximately 100-fold higher binding affinity and transactivation potency in comparison. As such, unlike MPA, medroxyprogesterone is not used clinically, though it has seen some use in veterinary medicine. The oral dosage of MPA required to inhibit ovulation (i.e., the effective contraceptive dosage) is 10 mg/day, whereas 5 mg/day was not sufficient to inhibit ovulation in all women. In accordance, the dosage of MPA used in oral contraceptives in the past was 10 mg per tablet. For comparison to MPA, the dosage of progesterone required to inhibit ovulation is 300 mg/day, whereas that of the 19-nortestosterone derivatives norethisterone and norethisterone acetate is only 0.4 to 0.5 mg/day.
The mechanism of action of progestogen-only contraceptives like DMPA depends on the progestogen activity and dose. High-dose progestogen-only contraceptives, such as DMPA, inhibit follicular development and prevent ovulation as their primary mechanism of action. The progestogen decreases the pulse frequency of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release by the hypothalamus, which decreases the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary. Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development, preventing an increase in estradiol levels. Progestogen negative feedback and the lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevent a LH surge. Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of a LH surge prevent ovulation. A secondary mechanism of action of all progestogen-containing contraceptives is inhibition of sperm penetration by changes in the cervical mucus. Inhibition of ovarian function during DMPA use causes the endometrium to become thin and atrophic. These changes in the endometrium could, theoretically, prevent implantation. However, because DMPA is highly effective in inhibiting ovulation and sperm penetration, the possibility of fertilization is negligible. No available data support prevention of implantation as a mechanism of action of DMPA.
Antigonadotropic and anticorticotropic effects
MPA suppresses the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axes at sufficient dosages, resulting decreased levels of gonadotropins, androgens, estrogens, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and cortisol, as well as levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). There is evidence that the suppressive effects of MPA on the HPG axis are mediated by activation of both the PR and the AR in the pituitary gland. Due to its effects on androgen levels, MPA can produce strong functional antiandrogenic effects, and is used in the treatment of androgen-dependent conditions such as precocious puberty in boys and hypersexuality in men. In addition, since the medication suppresses estrogen levels as well, MPA can produce strong functional antiestrogenic effects similarly, and has been used to treat estrogen-dependent conditions such as precocious puberty in girls and endometriosis in women. Due to low estrogen levels, the use of MPA without an estrogen poses a risk of decreased bone mineral density and other symptoms of estrogen deficiency.
Oral MPA has been found to suppress testosterone levels in men by about 30% (from 831 ng/dL to 585 ng/dL) at a dosage of 20 mg/day, by about 45 to 75% (average 60%; to 150–400 ng/dL) at a dosage of 60 mg/day, and by about 70 to 75% (from 832–862 ng/dL to 214–251 ng/dL) at a dosage of 100 mg/day. Dosages of oral MPA of 2.5 to 30 mg/day in combination with estrogens have been used to help suppress testosterone levels in transgender women. One study of injectable MPA in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia reported that a single 150 mg dose suppressed testosterone levels into the defined male castrate range (<58 ng/dL) within 7 days and that castration levels of testosterone were maintained for 3 months. Very high doses of intramuscular MPA of 150 to 500 mg per week (but up to 900 mg per week) have similarly been reported to suppress testosterone levels to less than 100 ng/dL. The typical initial dose of intramuscular MPA for testosterone suppression in men with paraphilias is 400 or 500 mg per week.
Androgenic activity
MPA is a potent full agonist of the AR. Its activation of the AR may play an important and major role in its antigonadotropic effects and in its beneficial effects against breast cancer. However, although MPA may produce androgenic side effects such as acne and hirsutism in some women,. In fact, likely due to its suppressive actions on androgen levels, it has been reported that MPA is generally highly effective in improving pre-existing symptoms of hirsutism in women with the condition. However, MPA has been seen to cause androgenic effects in children with precocious puberty. The reason for the general lack of virilizing effects with MPA, despite it binding to and activating the AR with high affinity and this action potentially playing an important role in many of its physiological and therapeutic effects, is not entirely clear. However, MPA has been found to interact with the AR differently compared to other agonists of the receptor such as dihydrotestosterone (DHT). The result of this difference appears to be that MPA binds to the AR with a similar affinity and intrinsic activity to that of DHT, but requires about 100-fold higher concentrations for a comparable induction of gene transcription, while at the same time not antagonizing the transcriptional activity of normal androgens like DHT at any concentration. Thus, this may explain the low propensity of MPA for producing androgenic side effects.
MPA shows weak androgenic effects on liver protein synthesis, similarly to other weakly androgenic progestins like megestrol acetate and 19-nortestosterone derivatives. While it does not antagonize estrogen-induced increases in levels of triglycerides and HDL cholesterol, DMPA every other week may decrease levels of HDL cholesterol. In addition, MPA has been found to suppress sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) production by the liver. At a dosage of 10 mg/day oral MPA, it has been found to decrease circulating SHBG levels by 14 to 18% in women taking 4 mg/day oral estradiol valerate. Conversely, in a study that combined 2.5 mg/day oral MPA with various oral estrogens, no influence of MPA on estrogen-induced increases in SHBG levels was discerned. In another, higher-dose study, SHBG levels were lower by 59% in a group of women treated with 50 mg/day oral MPA alone relative to an untreated control group of women. In massive-dose studies of oral or injectable MPA (e.g., 500–1,000 mg/day), the medication decreased SHBG levels by about 80%.
Unlike the related steroids megestrol acetate and cyproterone acetate, MPA is not an antagonist of the AR and does not have direct antiandrogenic activity. As such, although MPA is sometimes described as an antiandrogen, it is not a "true" antiandrogen (i.e., AR antagonist).
Glucocorticoid activity
As an agonist of the GR, MPA has glucocorticoid activity, and as a result can cause symptoms of Cushing's syndrome, steroid diabetes, and adrenal insufficiency at sufficiently high doses. It has been suggested that the glucocorticoid activity of MPA may contribute to bone loss. The glucocorticoid activity of MPA may also result in an upregulation of the thrombin receptor in blood vessel walls, which may contribute to procoagulant effects of MPA and risk of venous thromboembolism and atherosclerosis. The relative glucocorticoid activity of MPA is among the highest of the clinically used progestins.
Steroidogenesis inhibition
MPA has been found to act as a competitive inhibitor of rat 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3α-HSD). This enzyme is essential for the transformation of progesterone, deoxycorticosterone, and DHT into inhibitory neurosteroids such as allopregnanolone, , and 3α-androstanediol, respectively. MPA has been described as very potent in its inhibition of rat 3α-HSD, with an IC50 of 0.2 μM and a Ki (in rat testicular homogenates) of 0.42 μM. However, inhibition of 3α-HSD by MPA does not appear to have been confirmed using human proteins yet, and the concentrations required with rat proteins are far above typical human therapeutic concentrations.
MPA has been identified as a competitive inhibitor of human 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/Δ5-4 isomerase II (3β-HSD II). This enzyme is essential for the biosynthesis of sex steroids and corticosteroids. The Ki of MPA for inhibition of 3β-HSD II is 3.0 μM, and this concentration is reportedly near the circulating levels of the medication that are achieved by very high therapeutic dosages of MPA of 5 to 20 mg/kg/day (dosages of 300 to 1,200 mg/day for a 60 kg (132 lb) person). Aside from 3β-HSD II, other human steroidogenic enzymes, including cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc/CYP11A1) and 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (CYP17A1), were not found to be inhibited by MPA. MPA has been found to be effective in the treatment of gonadotropin-independent precocious puberty and in breast cancer in postmenopausal women at high dosages, and inhibition of 3β-HSD II could be responsible for its effectiveness in these conditions.
GABAA receptor allosteric modulation
Progesterone, via transformation into neurosteroids such as 5α-dihydroprogesterone, 5β-dihydroprogesterone, allopregnanolone, and pregnanolone (catalyzed by the enzymes 5α- and 5β-reductase and 3α- and 3β-HSD), is a positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor, and is associated with a variety of effects mediated by this property including dizziness, sedation, hypnotic states, mood changes, anxiolysis, and cognitive/memory impairment, as well as effectiveness as an anticonvulsant in the treatment of catamenial epilepsy. It has also been found to produce anesthesia via this action in animals when administered at sufficiently high dosages. MPA was found to significantly reduce seizure incidence when added to existing anticonvulsant regimens in 11 of 14 women with uncontrolled epilepsy, and has also been reported to induce anesthesia in animals, raising the possibility that it might modulate the GABAA receptor similarly to progesterone.
MPA shares some of the same metabolic routes of progesterone and, analogously, can be transformed into metabolites such as 5α-dihydro-MPA (DHMPA) and 3α,5α-tetrahydro-MPA (THMPA). However, unlike the reduced metabolites of progesterone, DHMPA and THMPA have been found not to modulate the GABAA receptor. Conversely, unlike progesterone, MPA itself actually modulates the GABAA receptor, although notably not at the neurosteroid binding site. However, rather than act as a potentiator of the receptor, MPA appears to act as a negative allosteric modulator. Whereas the reduced metabolites of progesterone enhance binding of the benzodiazepine flunitrazepam to the GABAA receptor in vitro, MPA can partially inhibit the binding of flunitrazepam by up to 40% with half-maximal inhibition at 1 μM. However, the concentrations of MPA required for inhibition are high relative to therapeutic concentrations, and hence, this action is probably of little or no clinical relevance. The lack of potentiation of the GABAA receptor by MPA or its metabolites is surprising in consideration of the apparent anticonvulsant and anesthetic effects of MPA described above, and they remain unexplained.
Clinical studies using massive dosages of up to 5,000 mg/day oral MPA and 2,000 mg/day intramuscular MPA for 30 days in women with advanced breast cancer have reported "no relevant side effects", which suggests that MPA has no meaningful direct action on the GABAA receptor in humans even at extremely high dosages.
Appetite stimulation
Although MPA and the closely related medication megestrol acetate are effective appetite stimulants at very high dosages, the mechanism of action of their beneficial effects on appetite is not entirely clear. However, glucocorticoid, cytokine, and possibly anabolic-related mechanisms are all thought to possibly be involved, and a number of downstream changes have been implicated, including stimulation of the release of neuropeptide Y in the hypothalamus, modulation of calcium channels in the ventromedial hypothalamus, and inhibition of the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines including IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, actions that have all been linked to an increase in appetite.
Other activity
MPA weakly stimulates the proliferation of MCF-7 breast cancer cells in vitro, an action that is independent of the classical PRs and is instead mediated via the progesterone receptor membrane component-1 (PGRMC1). Certain other progestins are also active in this assay, whereas progesterone acts neutrally. It is unclear if these findings may explain the different risks of breast cancer observed with progesterone, dydrogesterone, and other progestins such as medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone in clinical studies.
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
Surprisingly few studies have been conducted on the pharmacokinetics of MPA at postmenopausal replacement dosages. The bioavailability of MPA with oral administration is approximately 100%. A single oral dose of 10 mg MPA has been found to result in peak MPA levels of 1.2 to 5.2 ng/mL within 2 hours of administration using radioimmunoassay. Following this, levels of MPA decreased to 0.09 to 0.35 ng/mL 12 hours post-administration. In another study, peak levels of MPA were 3.4 to 4.4 ng/mL within 1 to 4 hours of administration of 10 mg oral MPA using radioimmunoassay. Subsequently, MPA levels fell to 0.3 to 0.6 ng/mL 24 hours after administration. In a third study, MPA levels were 4.2 to 4.4 ng/mL after an oral dose of 5 mg MPA and 6.0 ng/mL after an oral dose of 10 mg MPA, both using radioimmunoassay as well.
Treatment of postmenopausal women with 2.5 or 5 mg/day MPA in combination with estradiol valerate for two weeks has been found to rapidly increase circulating MPA levels, with steady-state concentrations achieved after three days and peak concentrations occurring 1.5 to 2 hours after ingestion. With 2.5 mg/day MPA, levels of the medication were 0.3 ng/mL (0.8 nmol/L) in women under 60 years of age and 0.45 ng/mL (1.2 nmol/L) in women 65 years of age or over, and with 5 mg/day MPA, levels were 0.6 ng/mL (1.6 nmol/L) in women under 60 years of age and in women 65 years of age or over. Hence, area-under-curve levels of the medication were 1.6 to 1.8 times higher in those who were 65 years of age or older relative to those who were 60 years of age or younger. As such, levels of MPA have been found to vary with age, and MPA may have an increased risk of side effects in elderly postmenopausal women. This study assessed MPA levels using liquid-chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), a more accurate method of blood determinations.
Oral MPA tablets can be administered sublingually instead of orally. Rectal administration of MPA has also been studied.
With intramuscular administration of 150 mg microcrystalline MPA in aqueous suspension, the medication is detectable in the circulation within 30 minutes, serum concentrations vary but generally plateau at 1.0 ng/mL (2.6 nmol/L) for 3 months. Following this, there is a gradual decline in MPA levels, and the medication can be detected in the circulation for as long as 6 to 9 months post-injection. The particle size of MPA crystals significantly influences its rate of absorption into the body from the local tissue depot when used as a microcrystalline aqueous suspension via intramuscular injection. Smaller crystals dissolve faster and are absorbed more rapidly, resulting in a shorter duration of action. Particle sizes can differ between different formulations of MPA, potentially influencing clinical efficacy and tolerability.
Distribution
The plasma protein binding of MPA is 88%. It is weakly bound to albumin and is not bound to sex hormone-binding globulin or corticosteroid-binding globulin.
Metabolism
The elimination half-life of MPA via oral administration has been reported as both 11.6 to 16.6 hours and 33 hours, whereas the elimination half-lives with intramuscular and subcutaneous injection of microcrystalline MPA in aqueous suspension are 50 and 40 days, respectively. The metabolism of MPA is mainly via hydroxylation, including at positions C6β, C21, C2β, and C1β, mediated primarily via CYP3A4, but 3- and 5-dihydro and 3,5-tetrahydro metabolites of MPA are also formed. Deacetylation of MPA and its metabolites (into, e.g., medroxyprogesterone) has been observed to occur in non-human primate research to a substantial extent as well (30 to 70%). MPA and/or its metabolites are also metabolized via conjugation. The C6α methyl and C17α acetoxy groups of MPA make it more resistant to metabolism and allow for greater bioavailability than oral progesterone.
Elimination
MPA is eliminated 20 to 50% in urine and 5 to 10% in feces following intravenous administration. Less than 3% of a dose is excreted in unconjugated form.
Level–effect relationships
With intramuscular administration, the high levels of MPA in the blood inhibit luteinizing hormone and ovulation for several months, with an accompanying decrease in serum progesterone to below 0.4 ng/mL. Ovulation resumes when once blood levels of MPA fall below 0.1 ng/mL. Serum estradiol remains at approximately 50 pg/mL for approximately four months post-injection (with a range of 10–92 pg/mL after several years of use), rising once MPA levels fall below 0.5 ng/mL.
Hot flashes are rare while MPA is found at significant blood levels in the body, and the vaginal lining remains moist and creased. The endometrium undergoes atrophy, with small, straight glands and a stroma that is decidualized. Cervical mucus remains viscous. Because of its steady blood levels over the long term and multiple effects that prevent fertilization, MPA is a very effective means of birth control.
Time–concentration curves
Chemistry
MPA is a synthetic pregnane steroid and a derivative of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone. Specifically, it is the 17α-acetate ester of medroxyprogesterone or the 6α-methylated analogue of hydroxyprogesterone acetate. MPA is known chemically as 6α-methyl-17α-acetoxyprogesterone or as 6α-methyl-17α-acetoxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, and its generic name is a contraction of 6α-methyl-17α-hydroxyprogesterone acetate. MPA is closely related to other 17α-hydroxyprogesterone derivatives such as chlormadinone acetate, cyproterone acetate, and megestrol acetate, as well as to medrogestone and nomegestrol acetate. 9α-fluoromedroxyprogesterone acetate (FMPA), the C9α fluoro analogue of MPA and an angiogenesis inhibitor with two orders of magnitude greater potency in comparison to MPA, was investigated for the potential treatment of cancers but was never marketed.
History
MPA was independently discovered in 1956 by Syntex and the Upjohn Company. It was first introduced on 18 June 1959 by Upjohn in the United States under the brand name Provera (2.5, 5, and 10 mg tablets) for the treatment of amenorrhea, metrorrhagia, and recurrent miscarriage. An intramuscular formulation of MPA, now known as DMPA (400 mg/mL MPA), was also introduced, under the brand name brand name Depo-Provera, in 1960 in the U.S. for the treatment of endometrial and renal cancer. MPA in combination with ethinylestradiol was introduced in 1964 by Upjohn in the U.S. under the brand name Provest (10 mg MPA and 50 μg ethinylestradiol tablets) as an oral contraceptive, but this formulation was discontinued in 1970. This formulation was marketed by Upjohn outside of the U.S. under the brand names Provestral and Provestrol, while Cyclo-Farlutal (or Ciclofarlutal) and Nogest-S were formulations available outside of the U.S. with a different dosage (5 mg MPA and 50 or 75 μg ethinylestradiol tablets).
Following its development in the late 1950s, DMPA was first assessed in clinical trials for use as an injectable contraceptive in 1963. Upjohn sought approval of intramuscular DMPA as a long-acting contraceptive under the brand name Depo-Provera (150 mg/mL MPA) in 1967, but the application was rejected. However, this formulation was successfully introduced in countries outside of the United States for the first time in 1969, and was available in over 90 countries worldwide by 1992. Upjohn attempted to gain FDA approval of DMPA as a contraceptive again in 1978, and yet again in 1983, but both applications failed similarly to the 1967 application. However, in 1992, the medication was finally approved by the FDA, under the brand name Depo-Provera, for use in contraception. A subcutaneous formulation of DMPA was introduced in the United States as a contraceptive under the brand name Depo-SubQ Provera 104 (104 mg/0.65 mL MPA) in December 2004, and subsequently was also approved for the treatment of endometriosis-related pelvic pain.
MPA has also been marketed widely throughout the world under numerous other brand names such as Farlutal, Perlutex, and Gestapuran, among others.
Society and culture
Generic names
Medroxyprogesterone acetate is the generic name of the drug and its , , , and , while medrossiprogesterone is the and médroxyprogestérone the of its free alcohol form. It is also known as 6α-methyl-17α-acetoxyprogesterone (MAP) or 6α-methyl-17α-hydroxyprogesterone acetate.
Brand names
MPA is marketed under a large number of brand names throughout the world. Its most major brand names are Provera as oral tablets and Depo-Provera as an aqueous suspension for intramuscular injection. A formulation of MPA as an aqueous suspension for subcutaneous injection is also available in the United States under the brand name Depo-SubQ Provera 104. Other brand names of MPA formulated alone include Farlutal and Sayana for clinical use and Depo-Promone, Perlutex, Promone-E, and Veramix for veterinary use. In addition to single-drug formulations, MPA is marketed in combination with the estrogens CEEs, estradiol, and estradiol valerate. Brand names of MPA in combination with CEEs as oral tablets in different countries include Prempro, Premphase, Premique, Premia, and Premelle. Brand names of MPA in combination with estradiol as oral tablets include Indivina and Tridestra.
Availability
Oral MPA and DMPA are widely available throughout the world. Oral MPA is available both alone and in combination with the estrogens CEEs, estradiol, and estradiol valerate. DMPA is registered for use as a form of birth control in more than 100 countries worldwide. The combination of injected MPA and estradiol cypionate is approved for use as a form of birth control in 18 countries.
United States
, MPA is available in the United States in the following formulations:
Oral pills: Amen, Curretab, Cycrin, Provera – 2.5 mg, 5 mg, 10 mg
Aqueous suspension for intramuscular injection: Depo-Provera – 150 mg/mL (for contraception), 400 mg/mL (for cancer)
Aqueous suspension for subcutaneous injection: Depo-SubQ Provera 104 – 104 mg/0.65 mL (for contraception)
It is also available in combination with an estrogen in the following formulations:
Oral pills: CEEs and MPA (Prempro, Prempro (Premarin, Cycrin), Premphase (Premarin, Cycrin 14/14), Premphase 14/14, Prempro/Premphase) – 0.3 mg / 1.5 mg; 0.45 mg / 1.5 mg; 0.625 mg / 2.5 mg; 0.625 mg / 5 mg
While the following formulations have been discontinued:
Oral pills: ethinylestradiol and MPA (Provest) – 50 μg / 10 mg
Aqueous suspension for intramuscular injection: estradiol cypionate and MPA (Lunelle) – 5 mg / 25 mg (for contraception)
The state of Louisiana permits sex offenders to be given MPA.
Generation
Progestins in birth control pills are sometimes grouped by generation. While the 19-nortestosterone progestins are consistently grouped into generations, the pregnane progestins that are or have been used in birth control pills are typically omitted from such classifications or are grouped simply as "miscellaneous" or "pregnanes". In any case, based on its date of introduction in such formulations of 1964, MPA could be considered a "first-generation" progestin.
Controversy
Outside the United States
In 1994, when DMPA was approved in India, India's Economic and Political Weekly reported that "The FDA finally licensed the drug in 1990 in response to concerns about the population explosion in the third world and the reluctance of third world governments to license a drug not licensed in its originating country." Some scientists and women's groups in India continue to oppose DMPA. In 2016, India introduced DMPA depo-medroxyprogesterone IM preparation in the public health system.
The Canadian Coalition on Depo-Provera, a coalition of women's health professional and advocacy groups, opposed the approval of DMPA in Canada. Since the approval of DMPA in Canada in 1997, a $700 million class-action lawsuit has been filed against Pfizer by users of DMPA who developed osteoporosis. In response, Pfizer argued that it had met its obligation to disclose and discuss the risks of DMPA with the Canadian medical community.
Clinical trials for this medication regarding women in Zimbabwe were controversial with regard to human rights abuses and Medical Experimentation in Africa.
A controversy erupted in Israel when the government was accused of giving DMPA to Ethiopian immigrants without their consent. Some women claimed they were told it was a vaccination. The Israeli government denied the accusations but instructed the four health maintenance organizations to stop administering DMPA injections to women "if there is the slightest doubt that they have not understood the implications of the treatment".
United States
There was a long, controversial history regarding the approval of DMPA by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The original manufacturer, Upjohn, applied repeatedly for approval. FDA advisory committees unanimously recommended approval in 1973, 1975 and 1992, as did the FDA's professional medical staff, but the FDA repeatedly denied approval. Ultimately, on 29 October 1992, the FDA approved DMPA for birth control, which had by then been used by over 30 million women since 1969 and was approved and being used by nearly 9 million women in more than 90 countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Sweden, Thailand, New Zealand and Indonesia. Points in the controversy included:
Animal testing for carcinogenicity – DMPA caused breast cancer tumors in dogs. Critics of the study claimed that dogs are more sensitive to artificial progesterone, and that the doses were too high to extrapolate to humans. The FDA pointed out that all substances carcinogenic to humans are carcinogenic to animals as well, and that if a substance is not carcinogenic it does not register as a carcinogen at high doses. Levels of DMPA which caused malignant mammary tumors in dogs were equivalent to 25 times the amount of the normal luteal phase progesterone level for dogs. This is lower than the pregnancy level of progesterone for dogs, and is species-specific.DMPA caused endometrial cancer in monkeys – 2 of 12 monkeys tested, the first ever recorded cases of endometrial cancer in rhesus monkeys. However, subsequent studies have shown that in humans, DMPA reduces the risk of endometrial cancer by approximately 80%.Speaking in comparative terms regarding animal studies of carcinogenicity for medications, a member of the FDA's Bureau of Drugs testified at an agency DMPA hearing, "...Animal data for this drug is more worrisome than any other drug we know of that is to be given to well people."
Cervical cancer in Upjohn/NCI studies. Cervical cancer was found to be increased as high as 9-fold in the first human studies recorded by the manufacturer and the National Cancer Institute. However, numerous larger subsequent studies have shown that DMPA use does not increase the risk of cervical cancer.
Coercion and lack of informed consent. Testing or use of DMPA was focused almost exclusively on women in developing countries and poor women in the United States, raising serious questions about coercion and lack of informed consent, particularly for the illiterate and for mentally disabled people, who in some reported cases were given DMPA long-term for reasons of "menstrual hygiene", although they were not sexually active.
Atlanta/Grady Study – Upjohn studied the effect of DMPA for 11 years in Atlanta, mostly on black women who were receiving public assistance, but did not file any of the required follow-up reports with the FDA. Investigators who eventually visited noted that the studies were disorganized. "They found that data collection was questionable, consent forms and protocol were absent; that those women whose consent had been obtained at all were not told of possible side effects. Women whose known medical conditions indicated that use of DMPA would endanger their health were given the shot. Several of the women in the study died; some of cancer, but some for other reasons, such as suicide due to depression. Over half the 13,000 women in the study were lost to followup due to sloppy record keeping." Consequently, no data from this study was usable.
WHO Review – In 1992, the WHO presented a review of DMPA in four developing countries to the FDA. The National Women's Health Network and other women's organizations testified at the hearing that the WHO was not objective, as the WHO had already distributed DMPA in developing countries. DMPA was approved for use in United States on the basis of the WHO review of previously submitted evidence from countries such as Thailand, evidence which the FDA had deemed insufficient and too poorly designed for assessment of cancer risk at a prior hearing.
The Alan Guttmacher Institute has speculated that United States approval of DMPA may increase its availability and acceptability in developing countries.
In 1995, several women's health groups asked the FDA to put a moratorium on DMPA, and to institute standardized informed consent forms.
Research
DMPA was studied by Upjohn for use as a progestogen-only injectable contraceptive in women at a dose of 50 mg once a month but produced poor cycle control and was not marketed for this use at this dosage. A combination of DMPA and polyestradiol phosphate, an estrogen and long-lasting prodrug of estradiol, was studied in women as a combined injectable contraceptive for use by intramuscular injection once every three months.
High-dose oral and intramuscular MPA monotherapy has been studied in the treatment of prostate cancer but was found to be inferior to monotherapy with cyproterone acetate or diethylstilbestrol. High-dose oral MPA has been studied in combination with diethylstilbestrol and CEEs as an addition to high-dose estrogen therapy for the treatment of prostate cancer in men, but was not found to provide better effectiveness than diethylstilbestrol alone.
DMPA has been studied for use as a potential male hormonal contraceptive in combination with the androgens/anabolic steroids testosterone and nandrolone (19-nortestosterone) in men. However, it was never approved for this indication.
MPA was investigated by InKine Pharmaceutical, Salix Pharmaceuticals, and the University of Pennsylvania as a potential anti-inflammatory medication for the treatment of autoimmune hemolytic anemia, Crohn's disease, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, and ulcerative colitis, but did not complete clinical development and was never approved for these indications. It was formulated as an oral medication at very high dosages, and was thought to inhibit the signaling of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha, with a mechanism of action that was said to be similar to that of corticosteroids. The formulation of MPA had the tentative brand names Colirest and Hematrol for these indications.
MPA has been found to be effective in the treatment of manic symptoms in women with bipolar disorder.
Veterinary use
MPA has been used to reduce aggression and spraying in male cats. It may be particularly useful for controlling such behaviors in neutered male cats. The medication can be administered in cats as an injection once per month.
See also
Conjugated estrogens/medroxyprogesterone acetate
Estradiol/medroxyprogesterone acetate
Estradiol cypionate/medroxyprogesterone acetate
Polyestradiol phosphate/medroxyprogesterone acetate
References
External links
3α-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitors
3β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitors
Acetate esters
Androgens and anabolic steroids
Antigonadotropins
Appetite stimulants
Diketones
Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action
Hormonal antineoplastic drugs
GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulators
Glucocorticoids
Pregnanes
Progestogen esters
Progestogens
Feminizing hormone therapy
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Hormonal contraception | wiki |
Biomedical technology is the application of engineering and technology principles to the domain of living or biological systems, with an emphasis on human health and diseases.
Biomedical engineering and Biotechnology alike are often loosely called Biomedical Technology or Bioengineering. The Biomedical technology field is currently growing at a rapid pace. Required jobs for the industry expect to grow 23% by 2024, and with the pay averaging over $86,000.
Biomedical technology involves:
Biomedical science
Biomedical informatics
Biomedical research
Biomedical engineering
Bioengineering
Biotechnology
Biomedical technologies:
Cloning
Therapeutic cloning
References
Biological engineering | wiki |
Promegestone, sold under the brand name Surgestone, is a progestin medication which is used in menopausal hormone therapy and in the treatment of gynecological disorders. It is taken by mouth.
Side effects of promegestone include menstrual irregularities among others. Promegestone is a progestin, or a synthetic progestogen, and hence is an agonist of the progesterone receptor, the biological target of progestogens like progesterone. It has weak antiandrogenic, glucocorticoid, and antimineralocorticoid activity and no other important hormonal activity. The medication is largely a prodrug of trimegestone.
Promegestone was first described in 1973 and was introduced for medical use in France in 1983. It has only been marketed in a few countries, including France, Portugal, Tunisia, and Argentina. In addition to its use as a medication, promegestone has been widely used in scientific research as a radioligand of the progesterone receptor.
Medical uses
Promegestone is used in menopausal hormone therapy and in the treatment of gynecological conditions caused by luteal insufficiency, including premenopausal disorders, dysmenorrhea and other menstrual disorders, and premenstrual syndrome. It has also been used to treat benign breast disorders such as mastalgia (breast pain). Promegestone tablets have a contraceptive effect and are used as a form of progestogen-only birth control, although it is not specifically licensed as such.
Side effects
Side effects of promegestone include menstrual irregularities among others. It has no androgenic side effects.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Promegestone is a progestogen, or an agonist of the progesterone receptor. It has about 200% of the affinity of progesterone for the PR. The endometrial transformation dosage of promegestone is 10 mg per cycle and its ovulation-inhibiting dosage is 0.5 mg/day. Promegestone has weak glucocorticoid activity in addition to its progestogenic activity. Conversely, it has no androgenic, estrogenic, mineralocorticoid, or other hormonal activity. It appears to possess antiandrogenic activity. Its major metabolite trimegestone has weak antimineralocorticoid and antiandrogenic activity. In addition, promegestone has been found to possess some neurosteroid activity by acting as a non-competitive antagonist of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, similarly to progesterone.
Pharmacokinetics
Following oral administration, peak serum levels of promegestone are reached after 1 to 2 hours. The medication is mainly bound to albumin; it does not bind to sex hormone-binding globulin, and binds only weakly to corticosteroid-binding globulin. The metabolism of promegestone is mainly via hydroxylation at the C21 position and at other positions. Progesterone is similarly hydroxylated at the C21 position, into 11-deoxycorticosterone (21-hydroxyprogesterone). However, the C9(10) double bond of promegestone greatly limits the A-ring reduction that progesterone undergoes, resulting in 21-hydroxylation being the main route of metabolism for promegestone. The medication is stereoselectively metabolized into trimegestone, the 21(S)-hydroxy metabolite, which is the main compound found in plasma; it circulates at levels approximately twice those of promegestone itself. In addition, trimegestone has more than three-fold higher affinity for the PR than does promegestone. As such, promegestone is largely a prodrug of trimegestone. A second metabolite, 21(R)-hydroxypromegestone, circulates at far lower concentrations ( ratio for the (S)- and (R)-isomers of about 21). The elimination half-life of trimegestone is 13.8 to 15.6 hours. Promegestone, trimegestone, and 21(R)-hydroxypromegestone are not excreted in urine, while 3% of a dose is recovered as the glucuronide and/or sulfate conjugate of trimegestone and 1% of a dose is recovered as the glucuronide and/or sulfate conjugate of 21(R)-hydroxypromegestone.
Chemistry
Promegestone, also known as 17α,21-dimethyl-δ9-19-norprogesterone or as 17α,21-dimethyl-19-norpregna-4,9-diene-3,20-dione, is a synthetic norpregnane steroid and a derivative of progesterone. It is specifically a combined derivative of 17α-methylprogesterone and 19-norprogesterone, or of 17α-methyl-19-norprogesterone. Related derivatives of 17α-methyl-19-norprogesterone include demegestone and trimegestone.
History
Promegestone was first described in the literature in 1973 and was introduced for medical use in France in 1983. It was developed by Roussel Uclaf in France.
Society and culture
Generic names
Promegestone is the generic name of the drug and its , while promégestone is its . It is also known by its developmental code name R-5020 or RU-5020.
Brand names
Promegestone is marketed exclusively under the brand name Surgestone.
Availability
Promegestone is or has been marketed in France, Portugal, Tunisia, and Argentina.
References
Further reading
Antiandrogens
Antimineralocorticoids
Dienes
Diketones
Glucocorticoids
Nicotinic antagonists
Norpregnanes
Prodrugs
Progestogens | wiki |
Leucogenenol is a blood cell stimulating secondary metabolite isolated from the mold Penicillium gilmanii. Its chemical structure was reported; however, later studies determined that the original structure is incorrect and the true chemical structure of leucogenenol remains unknown.
References
Hematology | wiki |
William Mayhew may refer to:
William Mayhew (politician) (1787–1855), British politician
William Mayhew (doctor) (1821–1905), doctor in Toodyay, Western Australia
William Mayhew (died 1559), English politician, Great Yarmouth borough, 1554
William Mayhew (librarian), librarian of the Harvard Library | wiki |
YouTube Premium, formerly known as YouTube Red, is a subscription service that provides advertising-free streaming of all videos hosted by YouTube, offline play and background playback of videos on mobile devices, access to advertising-free music streaming through YouTube Music, and access to "YouTube Original" series and films. Following is a list of all available, upcoming, and abandoned "YouTube Original" films and documentaries.
Original programming
Drama
Comedy
Adult animation
Anime
Kids and family
Unscripted
Docu-series
Reality
Non-English language
These shows were created by YouTube and are spoken entirely or almost entirely in a non-English language.
French
German
Hindi
Japanese
Korean
Portuguese
Spanish
Continuations
Original films
Drama
Comedy
Documentary
Acquisitions
Upcoming original programming
Original series
Ordered
In development
Abandoned projects
References
External links
YouTube-related lists
YouTube Red | wiki |
Casey Station, commonly called Casey, is one of three permanent stations and research outposts in Antarctica managed by the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD). Casey lies on the northern side of the Bailey Peninsula overlooking Vincennes Bay on the Budd Coast of Wilkes Land in the Australian Antarctic Territory, a territory claimed by Australia. Casey is due south of Perth, Western Australia.
Casey was named in honour of Richard, Baron Casey.
History
Casey is close to the now-abandoned Wilkes Station, established by the United States of America to support science and exploration of Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957–1958.
Australia took Wilkes over after the IGY, but the American buildings were already unusable due to the build-up of ice around them. Australia built the first Casey Base, originally as "Repstat", referring to "replacement station", on the opposite south side of the Newcomb Bay in 1964, with works completed in February 1969. This set of buildings was a unique attempt to prevent the problem of ice build-up by elevating the buildings on stilts, to encourage the wind to blow beneath as well as above, and connecting the entire line of buildings with a corrugated iron tunnel. This would, it was hoped, clear the buildup of snow each year, while allowing personnel to move between buildings without having to brave the elements. It worked for some time until corrosion occurred.
The current Casey Station headquarters (the "Red Shed") was built in the late 1980s as part of the Australian Government's Antarctic Re-building Program. It was prefabricated in Hobart, Tasmania, by Hobart construction firm Contas Pty Ltd; trial-erected on the wharf at Hobart; then dismantled, packaged and shipped to Antarctica. Erected at Casey by tradespeople employed as workers on the normal summer expedition crews, it incorporates innovative design features to prevent the transfer of heat through the structure. The "Shed" is conspicuously located near the top of the hill on which the old radio masts stood. It is probably the largest single structure on Antarctica and was first occupied in 1988. The station has two other sheds, the green shed for storing food and the yellow shed for brewing. Homebrew beer is served at the station's bar, "Splinters".
Current research
Since 2008, scientists based at Casey have contributed to research into study of the Law Dome, the bedrock geology and structure of the East Antarctic ice sheet and its glaciological processes. In more recent years, Casey has served as a base for marine biologists to examine changes to polar seafloor communities exposed to different carbon dioxide concentrations. Adélie penguin research is conducted at Casey. Scientists are also studying the influence of climate change and human impact on extensive and well developed moss beds that grow at and near Casey.
Infrastructure
Casey is from Hobart, the AAD's main supply hub for Antarctic operations, and from Fremantle.
Access methods
Access to Casey is possible via a four-hour flight from Hobart, followed by a four-hour ride in an over-snow bus.
Road
The old and new stations are connected by a road. The road is excavated by a bulldozer/excavator set at the end of every winter, providing a means to get supplies from the wharf to the new station, leaving ice walls tall in places.
Earth stations
Casey has a dome-covered satellite tracking antenna. The antenna was upgraded in March 2016 to communicate with a Himawari-8 satellite, allowing the station to monitor and track weather related information. There is also an ANARESAT satellite for communication.
Airstrips
Casey is significant as a transport hub for the Australian Antarctic program, with the introduction of intercontinental jet flights for scientists and operational staff from Hobart to the Wilkins ice runway, inland from Casey station. The inaugural landing of the AAD's Airbus A319 aircraft was on the evening of 9 December 2007.
The smaller Casey Station Skiway () is located east of the station, and opened on 30 December 2004.
In March 2009, the Australian ABC Foreign Correspondent international affairs television program featured air operations at Casey Station as part of a report titled Antarctica - What Lies Beneath.
See also
Brown Bay
List of Antarctic research stations
List of Antarctic field camps
List of airports in Antarctica
Climate
Casey Station experiences a tundra climate:
This station experienced record warm temperatures and precipitation due to an unprecedented atmospheric river event in March 2022.
References
External links
AAD Casey Station page
Casey Station webcam
A Year In Antarctica (1972)
COMNAP Antarctic Facilities
COMNAP Antarctic Facilities Map
Outposts of Antarctica
Wilkes Land
1969 establishments in Australia
Earth stations in the Antarctic Territory Australia
1969 establishments in Antarctica | wiki |
Swat the Fly – film del 1911 prodotto dalla Essanay
Swat the Fly – film del 1912 prodotto dalla Powers Picture Plays
Swat the Fly – film del 1916 prodotto dalla Willie Hopkins
Swat the Fly – film del 1918 diretto da Gregory La Cava
Swat the Fly – film del 1935 diretto da Dave Fleischer | wiki |
The Mawson Station, commonly called Mawson, is one of three permanent bases and research outposts in Antarctica managed by the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD). Mawson lies in Holme Bay in Mac. Robertson Land, East Antarctica in the Australian Antarctic Territory, a territory claimed by Australia. Established in 1954, Mawson is Australia's oldest Antarctic station and the oldest continuously inhabited Antarctic station south of the Antarctic Circle. It houses approximately 20 personnel over winter and up to 53 in summer.
Mawson was named in honour of the Australian Antarctic explorer Sir Douglas Mawson.
Mawson was listed on the Register of the National Estate in 2001 and listed on the Commonwealth Heritage List on 22 June 2004, reflecting the post-World War Two revival of Australia's scientific research and territorial interests in Antarctica.
Purpose
Mawson Station is a base for scientific research programs including an underground cosmic ray detector, various long-term meteorological aeronomy and geomagnetic studies, as well as ongoing conservation biology studies, in particular of nearby Auster rookery, a breeding ground for emperor penguins and Adélie penguins.
History
In 1946, the Minister for External Affairs, H.V. Evatt indicated his support for a proposal by Douglas Mawson for the establishment of a permanent Australian base in Antarctica. It was another seven years before a suitable ship, the Kista Dan could be chartered to set up facilities on the southern continent.
The station site was chosen in 1953 by Phillip Law, the first director of the AAD, who drew aerial photographs taken during the U.S. Operation Highjump (OpHjp) of 1946-1947 to select the site for its large natural harbour (Horseshoe Harbour) and permanently exposed rock for building. The station was built during 1954. Some of the small pre-fabricated huts used in the first years remain on the station, but these are overshadowed by large steel-framed modular buildings dating from a major rebuilding program that started in the late 1970s.
By 1959, the facilities at Mawson Station had expanded significantly. Personnel at that time included 6 scientists, 4 technicians, 2 pilots, 2 weather observers, and 10 others. Scientific disciplines represented included cartography, geology and geomagnetism, glaciology, seismology, ionospheric and auroral physics, meteorology, and physiology. Vehicles included 2 de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver aircraft, 3 Caterpillar D4 tractors, 1 TEA-20 Ferguson, and 1 Sno-Cat.
Geography
Mawson Station is located at Holme Bay in Mac Robertson Land, East Antarctica, named in January 1930 by Sir Douglas Mawson during the first British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) voyage, aboard Discovery. It is in a region which Mawson proclaimed as British territory on several occasions in 1930 and 1931 (including at Proclamation Island, Scullin Monolith and Cape Bruce), and later became Australian Antarctic Territory.
Some notable geographic features in the region include the Framnes Mountains, which form the dramatic backdrop to Mawson Station. The Framnes Mountains were named in the 1930s by Norwegian explorers financed by the shipowner and whaling magnate Lars Christensen.
Climate
Mawson Station experiences a Polar climate:
Research
During March and April 1960, an ANARE survey party from Mawson Station carried out a barometric mapping control traverse along the route of a dog sledge journey from Cape Batterbee through the Napier Mountains to Martin Island in Edward VIII Bay. The members of this survey party — led by Syd Kirkby — were the first people to set foot in the Napier Mountains. The highest peak of this small range — Mount Elkins — was identified and named at this time for Terence James Elkins. Many other terrain features were mapped, visited or named as a result of this expedition, including Armstrong Peak, Bird Ridge, Mount Griffiths, Newman Nunataks, Wilkinson Peaks, and the Young Nunataks.
In 2018, astronaut and academic Jay C. Buckey conducted research using virtual reality, at the Australian Antarctic Division’s Mawson Station, wherein the expeditioners used VR headsets to view Australian beach scenes, European nature scenes, and North American nature scenes of forests and urban environments, which were different from the isolation of the whiteness and silence of Antarctica. The research will inform psychological techniques to support long-duration spaceflight such as for astronauts going to Mars.
Logistics
Mawson is from Hobart, the AAD's main supply hub for Antarctic operations, and from Fremantle.
Communications
Mawson's infrastructure includes an ANARESAT satellite antenna Earth station for communication.
Air transport
In early summer when sea ice conditions are most favourable, a ski landing area (SLA) is constructed adjacent to Mawson. As sea ice conditions progressively worsen over summer, operations are moved to Rumdoodle SLA, a field camp on the inland ice plateau 10 km from Mawson.
Rumdoodle SLA has been in use since the 1950s, and the glacier surface requires annual inspection and preparation prior to use. It is accessible from Mawson by Hägglunds ground vehicles.
Sea transport
Mawson Station is accessible by sea for only a short period each austral summer, between February and March.
It has a deep, sheltered natural harbour and is ice-free in February. A direct voyage from Hobart to Mawson takes about 10—12 days, due to variable weather and sea-ice conditions. The approach to Horseshoe Harbour is through the Mawson Corridor and the Entrance Shoal.
Between 1953 and 1987, Mawson was supplied by the ice-strengthened polar research vessels, including Kista Dan, Magga Dan, Thala Dan, and Nella Dan. This period came to an end when Nella Dan ran aground and sank at Macquarie Island on 3 December 1987.
Wind power
Mawson is the only Antarctic station to use wind generators designed to take advantage of the fierce katabatic winds. Two 300 kW wind turbines were installed in 2003, but one failed in 2017.
See also
List of Antarctic research stations
List of Antarctic field camps
Marble Rock (Antarctica)
Mawson Corridor
References
Further reading
External links
Official website Australian Antarctic Division
Australian Antarctic Division's Mawson Station page
Mawson Station webcam
Restoration of Biscoe Hut, one of the original 1954 buildings
COMNAP Antarctic Facilities
COMNAP Antarctic Facilities Map
Australian Antarctic Territory
East Antarctica
Outposts of Antarctica
1954 establishments in Australia
Commonwealth Heritage List
Earth stations in the Antarctic Territory Australia
1954 establishments in Antarctica | wiki |
Saint David's Day ( or ; ), or the Feast of Saint David, is the feast day of Saint David, the patron saint of Wales, and falls on 1 March, the date of Saint David's death in 589 AD.
Traditional festivities include wearing daffodils and leeks, recognized symbols of Wales and Saint David, respectively, eating traditional Welsh food including cawl and Welsh rarebit, and women wearing traditional Welsh dress. An increasing number of cities and towns across Wales, including Cardiff, Swansea, and Aberystwyth also put on parades throughout the day.
The day is not a public holiday in Wales, which has prompted calls for a St David's Day to be a bank holiday in Wales and some organisations designating unofficial celebrations.
The feast has been regularly celebrated since the canonisation of David in the 12th century by Pope Callixtus II.
Significance of the day
Saint David () was born in Caerfai, southwest Wales into an aristocratic family. He was reportedly a scion of the royal house of Ceredigion, and founded a Celtic monastic community at Glyn Rhosyn (The Vale of Roses) on the western headland of Pembrokeshire () at the spot where St Davids Cathedral stands today.
David's fame as a teacher and his asceticism spread among Celtic Christians, and he helped found about 1200 monasteries. His foundation at Glyn Rhosyn became an important Christian shrine, and the most important centre in Wales. The date of Saint David's death is believed to be 1 March 589. His final words to the community of monks were: "Brothers be ye constant. The yoke which with single mind ye have taken, bear ye to the end; and whatsoever ye have seen with me and heard, keep and fulfil."
For centuries, 3 March has been a national festival. Saint David was recognized as a national patron saint in the 12th century at the peak of Welsh resistance to the Normans. He was canonised by Pope Callixtus II in 1120. The 17th-century diarist Samuel Pepys noted how Welsh celebrations in London for Saint David's Day would spark wider counter-celebrations amongst their English neighbors: life-sized effigies of Welshmen were symbolically lynched, and by the 18th century the custom had arisen of confectioners producing "taffies"—gingerbread figures baked in the shape of a Welshman riding a goat—on Saint David's Day.
In the poem Armes Prydein (The Prophesy of Britain), composed in the early to mid-10th century, the anonymous author prophesies that the Cymry (the Welsh people) will unite and join an alliance of fellow-Celts to repel the Anglo-Saxons, under the banner of Saint David: A lluman glân Dewi a ddyrchafant ("And they will raise the pure banner of Dewi"). Although there were occasional Welsh uprisings in the Middle Ages, the country was briefly united by various Welsh princes before its conquest at different times, and it arguably had a very short period of independence during the rising of Owain Glyndŵr, but Wales as a whole was never an independent kingdom for long. Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond, who was born in Pembroke Castle as a patrilineal descendant of the Tudor Dynasty of North Wales, became King Henry VII of England after his victory over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, to end the Wars of the Roses. Henry's green and white banner with a red dragon became a rallying point for Welsh patriotism with the memory of Saint David on his Feast Day. Henry was the first monarch of the House of Tudor, and during the reign of that dynasty, the royal coat of arms included the Welsh Dragon, a reference to the monarch's origin. The banner from Henry's victory was not adopted as the official Flag of Wales until 1959. The flag of Saint David, however, a golden cross on a black background, was not part of the symbolism of House of Tudor.
Proposals for a public holiday
Unlike Saint Patrick's Day in Ireland, Saint David's Day is not a national holiday, though there is strong support for it becoming a bank holiday in Wales. In the past, schools have taken a half-day holiday, which continues in some parts of Wales. Saint David's Day is also celebrated in expatriate Welsh communities outside the UK. Cross-party support resulted in the National Assembly for Wales voting unanimously to make Saint David's Day a public holiday in 2000. A poll conducted for Saint David's Day in 2006 found that 87% of people in Wales wanted it to be a bank holiday, with 65% prepared to sacrifice a different bank holiday to achieve this. A petition in 2007 to make Saint David's Day a bank holiday was rejected by the office of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair. In 2022 Gwynedd County Council voted to make the day a paid public holiday for their staff.
Saint David's Day events
Cardiff
Around Wales each year, Saint David is commemorated in parades, the largest of which is in Cardiff. The parade is a non-military celebration of Welsh heritage and culture.
To mark Saint David's Day and their return from a six-month tour of Afghanistan, soldiers from the Royal Welsh Regiment provided the Changing of the Guard ceremony at Cardiff Castle's south gate on 27 and 28 February 2010.
On 1 March 2010, the seventh National Saint David's Day Parade occurred in Cardiff city centre. Celebrations included concerts, a parade, and a food festival. The food festival ran from 26 February with the third annual Really Welsh Food Festival in Queen Street, featuring all-Welsh produce. Following the parade, several Welsh entertainers performed and in the evening Cardiff Central Library provided free entertainment and food.
Other locations
Many towns now hold an annual parade through the town centre. Concerts are held in pubs, clubs, and other venues.
In the town of Colwyn Bay in north Wales, an annual parade through the town centre is now held with several hundred citizens and schoolchildren participating. Other events are centred on the parade.
Swansea inaugurated a "St David's Week" festival in 2009 with a range of musical, sporting, and cultural events held throughout the city to mark the national day. For 2018, the city followed St David's Day celebrations with a two-day food festival.
Disneyland Paris also organises yearly events to celebrate Saint David's Day, which includes a Welsh-themed week, fireworks, parades, and Disney characters dressed in traditional Welsh attire.
Washington, DC holds a St. David's Day congressional reception at the United States Capitol in honor of the First Minister of Wales' biannual visits.
The Los Angeles St. David's Day Festival – National Day of Wales is the largest annual event of its kind in the United States, encompassing an eisteddfod, Celtic marketplace, classes, and a concert.
Traditions
Children in Wales participate in school concerts or eisteddfodau, with recitation and singing as the main activities. Formerly, schoolchildren were given a half-day holiday. Officially this custom does not continue, although the practice can vary between schools. The younger girls sometimes wear traditional Welsh costumes to school. This costume includes a long woollen skirt, apron, white blouse, woollen shawl, and a Welsh hat.
Also, various Welsh Regiments of the British Army use aspects of Saint David's cross, Saint David himself, or songs of Saint David in their formalities during the celebrations. Many Welsh people wear one or both of the National symbols of Wales to celebrate St. David: the daffodil (a generic Welsh symbol) or the leek (Saint David's personal symbol) on this day. The leek arises when a troop of Welsh could distinguish each other from a troop of English enemy (some historical accounts indicate Saxon invading forces), dressed similarly, by wearing leeks.
The flag of Saint David often plays a central role in the celebrations and can be seen flying throughout Wales. Popular dishes traditionally eaten on Saint David's Day include cawl (soup), bara brith tea loaf, Welsh Cakes, Welsh lamb and Welsh rarebit.
References
External links
The official site of the St. David's Day Parade in Cardiff
BBC News – 1st St David's Day Parade in Cardiff (2004)
Wales.com celebration resources | wiki |
Mikamycins are a group of macrolide antibiotics.
Mikamycin can refer to:
Mikamycin A
Mikamycin B | wiki |
Pinnacle Atlantic City was a holding company for a planned casino resort which was to be located on the site of the former Sands Atlantic City. The property was purchased from investor Carl Icahn. After the property was bought, Pinnacle gave 60 days' notice to employees of the casino. After the closure of the Sands, Pinnacle sold the hotel supplies at a liquidation sale and destroyed more than $61 million of table chips.
When Pinnacle removed the Sands' slot machines to other Pinnacle properties, a total of $17,193.34 was found, some of which went to taxes and to fund the dismantling of the people mover that ran from the Boardwalk to Sands Atlantic City, along Brighton Park.
The Pinnacle Atlantic City was slated to open in late 2011 or early 2012. However, on March 6, 2009, Pinnacle's Chairman and chief executive officer Dan Lee announced that the project was suspended indefinitely and the company may seek to sell the property.
On July 30, 2010, in an article in The Press of Atlantic City, Pinnacle said that it would be selling its Atlantic City assets and abandoning its casino projects there.
Pinnacle Entertainment has also considered building an additional casino on the Bader Field site, but no official announcements have been made.
On March 1, 2013, Pinnacle disclosed in a filing with the SEC that it had entered a definitive agreement to sell its Atlantic City holdings to an undisclosed buyer for $30.6 million. The deal was expected to close by the end of March.
Present use
The site is now the home of a temporary public art park.
References
Casinos in Atlantic City, New Jersey
Hotels in Atlantic City, New Jersey
Unbuilt buildings and structures in the United States
Unbuilt casinos | wiki |
The Abortion Pill is a 1997 documentary that examines the pros and cons of a Mifepristone (RU486), a drug that can end pregnancy without surgery. The film was produced and directed by Marion Lipschutz and Rose Rosenblatt of Incite Pictures.
Awards
Chicago International Film Festival's annual award for a social/political documentary
External links
Incite Pictures - Production Company Site
1997 films
Sexuality and society
Documentary films about abortion
1997 documentary films | wiki |
Cribbage, or crib, is a card game, traditionally for two players, that involves playing and grouping cards in combinations which gain points. It can be adapted for three or four players.
Cribbage has several distinctive features: the cribbage board used for score-keeping, the crib, box, or kitty (in parts of Canada), two distinct scoring stages, and a unique scoring system including points for groups of cards that total 15. It has been characterized as "Britain's national card game" and the only one legally playable in licensed pubs and clubs without requiring local authority permission.
The game has relatively few rules yet yields endless subtleties during play, which accounts for its ongoing appeal and popularity. Tactical play varies, depending on which cards one's opponent has played, how many cards in the remaining pack will help the hand one holds, and what one's position on the board is. A game may be decided by a single point, and the edge often goes to an experienced player who utilizes strategy, including calculating odds and making decisions based on the relative positions of players on the board.
Both cribbage and its close relative costly colours are descended from the old English card game of noddy. Cribbage added the distinctive feature of a crib and changed the scoring system for points, whereas costly colours added more combinations but retained the original noddy scoring scheme.
History
According to John Aubrey, cribbage was created by the English poet Sir John Suckling in the early 17th century, as a derivation of the game "noddy". While noddy has become a historical, rarely-played game, cribbage has continued as a popular game in the English-speaking world. The objective of the game is to be the first player to score a target number of points, typically 61 or 121. Points are scored for showing certain jacks, playing the last card, for card combinations adding up to 15 or 31, and for pairs, triples, quadruples (cards of the same rank), runs (sequences of consecutive numbers irrespective of suit) and flushes (sets of cards of the same suit).
The earliest rules were published in England and appear in Cotgrave (1662) and are soon followed by Willughby (1672) and Cotton (1674).
The continuing popularity of cribbage is due in some part to the influence of the Victorian novelist Charles Dickens, who depicted the game in his novel The Old Curiosity Shop.
Cribbage was popular among prospectors in the American West, and the small mining town of Nelson, Montana, to this day has a sign proclaiming it the "Cribbage Capital of the World".
Cribbage is played by American submariners, serving as a common pastime. The wardroom of the oldest active submarine in the United States Pacific Fleet carries on board the personal cribbage board of World War II submarine commander and Medal of Honor recipient Rear Admiral Dick O'Kane, and upon the boat's decommissioning, the board is transferred to the next oldest boat.
Rules
Play proceeds through a succession of "hands", each hand consisting of a "deal", "the play" and "the show". At any time during any of these stages, if a player reaches the target score (usually 121), play ends immediately with that player being the winner of the game. This can even happen during the deal, since the dealer scores if a jack is cut as the starter.
Deal
The players cut for first deal, and the person who cuts the lowest card deals. The dealer shuffles and deals five or six cards to each player, depending on the number of players. For two players, each is dealt six cards; for three or four players, each is dealt five cards. In the case of three players, a single card is dealt face down in the centre of the table to start the crib. Once the cards have been dealt, each player chooses four cards to retain, then discards the other one or two face-down to form the "crib" (also called the box), which will be used later by the dealer.
At this point, each player's hand and the crib will contain exactly four cards. The player on the dealer's left or, in a two-player game, the pone, cuts the remaining pack. The dealer reveals the top card of the lower half, called the "starter card" or "cut", and places it face up on top of the reunited pack. If this card is a jack, the dealer scores two points for "his heels" or "his nibs".
Play
Starting with the player on the dealer's left, the players each, in turn, lay one card face up on the table in front of them, stating the count—that is, the cumulative value of the cards that have been laid (for example, the first player lays a five and says "five", the next lays a six and says "eleven", and so on)—without the count going above 31. Face cards (kings, queens, and jacks) count as 10. The cards are not laid in the centre of the table as, at the end of the "play", each player needs to pick up the cards they have laid.
Players score points during the play as follows:
15 – For causing the count to reach exactly 15 a player scores two points, then play continues.
Pair – Completing a pair (two of a kind) scores two points.
Three of a kind is the same as three different pairs, or 6 points.
Four of a kind is 6 different pairs, or 12 points.
A run of three or more cards (consecutively played, but not necessarily in order) scores the number of cards in the run.
If a player cannot play without causing the count to exceed 31, they call "Go". Continuing with the player on their left, the other players continue the play until no one can play without the count exceeding 31. A player is obliged to play a card unless there is no card in their hand that can be played without the count exceeding 31 (one cannot voluntarily pass). Once 31 is reached or no one is able to play, the player who played the last card scores one point if the count is still under 31 and two if it is exactly 31. The count is then reset to zero and those players with cards remaining in their hands repeat the process starting with the player to the left of the player who played the last card. When all players have played all of their cards the game proceeds to the "show".
Players choose the order in which to lay their cards in order to maximize their scores; experienced players refer to this as either good or poor "pegging" or "pegsmanship". If one player reaches the target (usually 61 or 121), the game ends immediately and that player wins. When the scores are level during a game, the players' pegs will be side by side, and it is thought that this gave rise to the phrase "level pegging".
Show
Once the play is complete, each player in turn, starting with the player on the left of the dealer, displays their own hand on the table and scores points based on its content in conjunction with the starter card. Points are scored for:
Combinations of any number of cards totalling fifteen
Runs
Pairs (Multiple pairs are scored pair by pair but may be referred to as three or four of a kind.)
Four-card flush (All four cards in the hand of the same suit score four points.)
Five-card flush (All four cards in the hand of the same suit as the starter card score five points. A flush in the crib must be a five-card flush according to the official rules of the ACC.)
Having a jack of the same suit as the starter card ("one for his nob [or nobs or nibs]", sometimes called the "right" jack)
The dealer scores their hand last and then turns the cards in the crib face up. These cards are then scored by the dealer as an additional hand, also in conjunction with the starter card. Unlike the dealer's own hand, the crib cannot score a four-card flush, but it can score a five-card flush with the starter.
All scores from 0 to 29 are possible, with the exception of 19, 25, 26 and 27. Players may refer colloquially to a hand scoring zero points as a “nineteen hand”.
Muggins
Muggins is a commonly used but optional rule, which must be announced before game play begins. If a player fails to claim their full score on any turn, the opponent may call out "Muggins" and peg any points overlooked by the player.
Match
A match (much like tennis) consists of more than one game, often an odd number. The match points are scored on the cribbage board using the holes reserved for match points. On a spiral board, these are often at the bottom of the board in a line with 5 or 7 holes. On a conventional board, they are often in the middle of the board or at the top or bottom.
In a two-player game of cribbage, a player scores one match point for winning a game. Their opponent will start as dealer in the next game. If a player lurches (British) or skunks (US) their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent scores 91 points), that player wins two match points for that game. If a player double skunks their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent reaches 61), they score three or four match points for the game, depending on local convention. If a player triple skunks their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent reaches 31 points), they automatically win the match. Double and triple skunks are not included in the official rules of cribbage play and are optional. There are several different formats for scoring match points.
Cribbage board
Visually, cribbage is known for its scoring board—a series of holes ("streets") on which the score is tallied with pegs (also known as "spilikins"). Scores can be kept on a piece of paper, but a cribbage board is almost always used, since scoring occurs throughout the game, not just at the conclusion of hands as in most other card games.
Points are registered as having been scored by "pegging" along the crib board. Two pegs are used in a leapfrog fashion, so that if a player loses track during the count one peg still marks the previous score. Some boards have a "game counter" with many additional holes for use with a third peg to count the games won by each side.
There are several designs of crib board:
The classic design is a flat wooden board approximately 250–300 mm (10–12 in) by 70–80 mm (3–4 in) and 10–20 mm (0.4–0.8 in) deep. There are two sets of 60 holes (30 'out' and 30 'back') divided into 5 point sections. A pegging-out hole in the middle at each end allows the board to be used in either direction. One player or team scores on one set of 60 holes and the other player or team scores on the second set. Different arrangements are made for three player games.
A relatively old design is that of an equilateral triangle with two rows of forty holes on each side. These boards did not generally include extra pegging-out holes or holes to count games.
A newer design has three or four rows of 120 holes in a "paperclip" shape (with a pegging-out hole at the end) and is often brightly coloured. It is best suited to games played to 121, though it can also be used for 61-point games.
Another common variation is based on features of the highest-scoring cribbage hand. The board takes the form of the number 29 (the highest possible score), with the pegging rows following the contour of the numbers "2" and "9". The design can sometimes include a background image of three fives and a jack, with the fourth five offset—the "perfect hand" giving that score. The count being 8 combinations of 15 for 16 points, 6 pairs of 2 for 12 points and a matching "nobs" jack (matching the cut card) for 1 totalling 29.
Each of the four 30-point divisions of the cribbage board (1–30, 31–60, 61–90, and 91–120) is colloquially called a "street". Being at 15 points would be on first street, being at 59 points would be on second street, etc.
Noddy and costly colours
The ancestor of cribbage is noddy, a game for two or four players, each receiving just three cards and playing and scoring in a similar manner to modern cribbage. However, instead of scoring 2 points for reaching 15 or 31 (called hitter), players scored the number of constituent cards making up the point. In addition, there was originally a third point at 25. Players also scored for pairs, prials, runs and flushes as in cribbage. There was no crib and game was 31.
Costly colours may have developed separately from noddy, as it retains several original features that are no longer part of cribbage. Again, only three cards are dealt, there is no crib and it uses the same scoring scheme for points at 15, 25 and 31 or hitter. What is new is that deuces play a similar role to jacks and that players may score for colours—i.e., having three or four cards of the same suit or colour. Four cards of the same suit are costly colours, hence the name.
See also
Card game
Cribbage statistics
Cribbage Solitaire and Cribbage Square Solitaire, two solitaire card games based on Cribbage
Hounds and Jackals, an Ancient Egyptian game, which uses a similar board
Kings Cribbage, a game with cribbage hands being constructed crossword-style
Pub games
References
Further reading
Willughby, Francis. A Volume of Plaies. (Manuscript in the Middleton collection, University of Nottingham, shelfmark Li 113.) c1665-70. Published in Francis Willughby's Book of Games in 2003 by Jeff Forgeng, Dorothy Johnston and David Cram (2003). Ashgate Press. .(2003).
External links
American Cribbage Congress
UK Cribbage Association
17th-century card games
Adding games
Two-player card games
Four-player card games
Pub games
English card games | wiki |
In addition to contributing scores to over 100 feature films and themes to television series, Danny Elfman has made a number of appearances in film and on television, typically as himself, in a singing role or as the lead singer of Oingo Boingo. For a full list of Elfman's compositions and discographies, see the List of compositions by Danny Elfman page, his film and concert music discography page and the Oingo Boingo discography page.
References
Elfman, Danny
Danny Elfman
Lists of films and television series | wiki |
Streptovaricins are a group of structurally related macrolide antibiotics. They belong to the larger class of antibiotics known as ansamycins.
References
Macrolide antibiotics
Ansamycins | wiki |
Pinchbeck is a form of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc mixed in proportions so that it closely resembles gold in appearance. It was invented in the early 18th century by Christopher Pinchbeck (died 1732), a London clock- and watch-maker. Since gold was only sold in 18-carat quality at that time, the development of pinchbeck allowed ordinary people to buy gold 'effect' jewellery on a budget. The inventor allegedly made pinchbeck jewellery clearly labelled as such. Pinchbeck jewellery was used in places like stagecoaches where there was a risk of theft. The original Pinchbeck was made by Christopher Pinchbeck and his descendants until the 1830s. Later dishonest jewellers passed pinchbeck off as gold; over the years the name came to mean a cheap and tawdry imitation of gold. Today, depending on the dealer, "Pinchbeck" can mean original Pinchbeck or any gilt metal.
Pinchbeck fell out of use in the second half of the 19th century, being replaced by low-carat gold which had been legalised in 1854.
Pinchbeck is typically composed of copper and zinc in ratios of 89% copper to 11% zinc; or 93% copper to 7% zinc.
See also
Gilding metal
Prince's metal
References
Copper alloys | wiki |
A hiatal hernia or hiatus hernia is a type of hernia in which abdominal organs (typically the stomach) slip through the diaphragm into the middle compartment of the chest. This may result in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) with symptoms such as a taste of acid in the back of the mouth or heartburn. Other symptoms may include trouble swallowing and chest pains. Complications may include iron deficiency anemia, volvulus, or bowel obstruction.
The most common risk factors are obesity and older age. Other risk factors include major trauma, scoliosis, and certain types of surgery. There are two main types: sliding hernia, in which the body of the stomach moves up; and paraesophageal hernia, in which an abdominal organ moves beside the esophagus. The diagnosis may be confirmed with endoscopy or medical imaging. Endoscopy is typically only required when concerning symptoms are present, symptoms are resistant to treatment, or the person is over 50 years of age.
Symptoms from a hiatal hernia may be improved by changes such as raising the head of the bed, weight loss, and adjusting eating habits. Medications that reduce gastric acid such as H2 blockers or proton pump inhibitors may also help with the symptoms. If the condition does not improve with medications, a surgery to carry out a laparoscopic fundoplication may be an option. Between 10% and 80% of people in the United States are affected.
Signs and symptoms
Hiatal hernia has often been called the "great mimic" because its symptoms can resemble many disorders. Among them, a person with a hiatal hernia can experience dull pains in the chest, shortness of breath (caused by the hernia's effect on the diaphragm), heart palpitations (due to irritation of the vagus nerve), and swallowed food "balling up" and causing discomfort in the lower esophagus until it passes on to the stomach. In addition, hiatal hernias often result in heartburn but may also cause chest pain or pain with eating.
In most cases, however, a hiatal hernia does not cause any symptoms. The pain and discomfort that a patient experiences is due to the reflux of gastric acid, air, or bile. While there are several causes of acid reflux, it occurs more frequently in the presence of hiatal hernia.
In newborns, the presence of Bochdalek hernia can be recognised from symptoms such as difficulty breathing, fast respiration, and increased heart rate.
Causes
The following are potential causes of a hiatal hernia.
Increased pressure within the abdomen caused by:
Heavy lifting or bending over
Frequent or hard coughing
Hard sneezing
Violent vomiting
Straining during defecation (i.e., the Valsalva maneuver)
Obesity and age-related changes to the diaphragm are also general risk factors.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of a hiatal hernia is typically made through an upper GI series, endoscopy, high resolution manometry, esophageal pH monitoring, and computed tomography (CT). Barium swallow as in upper GI series allows the size, location, stricture, stenosis of oesophagus to be seen. Besides, it can also evaluate the oesophageal movements. Endoscopy can analyse the esophageal internal surface for erosions, ulcers, and tumours. Meanwhile, manometry can determine the integrity of esophageal movements, and the presence of esophageal achalasia. pH testings allows the quantitative analysis of acid reflux episodes. CT scan is useful in diagnosing complications of hiatal hernia such as gastric volvulus, perforation, pneumoperitoneum, and pneumomediastinum.
Classification
Four types of esophageal hiatal hernia are identified:
Type I: A type I hernia, also known as a sliding hiatal hernia, occurs when part of the stomach slides up through the hiatal opening in the diaphragm. There is a widening of the muscular hiatal tunnel and circumferential laxity of the phrenoesophageal ligament, allowing a portion of the gastric cardia to herniate upward into the posterior mediastinum. The clinical significance of type I hernias is in their association with reflux disease. Sliding hernias are the most common type and account for 95% of all hiatal hernias. (C)
Type II: A type II hernia, also known as a paraesophageal or rolling hernia, occurs when the fundus and greater curvature of the stomach roll up through the diaphragm, forming a pocket alongside the esophagus. It results from a localized defect in the phrenoesophageal ligament while the gastroesophageal junction remains fixed to the pre aortic fascia and the median arcuate ligament. The gastric fundus then serves as the leading point of herniation. Although type II hernias are associated with reflux disease, their primary clinical significance lies in the potential for mechanical complications. (D)
Type III: Type III hernias have elements of both types I and II hernias. With progressive enlargement of the hernia through the hiatus, the phrenoesophageal ligament stretches, displacing the gastroesophageal junction above the diaphragm, thereby adding a sliding element to the type II hernia.
Type IV: Type IV hiatus hernia is associated with a large defect in the phrenoesophageal ligament, allowing other organs, such as colon, spleen, pancreas and small intestine to enter the hernia sac.
The end stage of type I and type II hernias occurs when the whole stomach migrates up into the chest by rotating 180° around its longitudinal axis, with the cardia and pylorus as fixed points. In this situation the abnormality is usually referred to as an intrathoracic stomach.
Treatment
In the great majority of cases, people experience no significant discomfort, and no treatment is required. People with symptoms should elevate the head of their beds and avoid lying down directly after meals. If the condition has been brought on by stress, stress reduction techniques may be prescribed, or if overweight, weight loss may be indicated.
Medications
Antisecretory drugs such as proton pump inhibitors and H2 receptor blockers can be used to reduce acid secretion. Medications that reduce the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) pressure should be avoided.
Procedures
There is tentative evidence from non-controlled trials that oral neuromuscular training may improve symptoms. This has been approved by the UK National Health Service for supply on prescription from 1 May 2022.
Surgery
In some unusual instances, as when the hiatal hernia is unusually large, or is of the paraesophageal type, it may cause esophageal stricture or severe discomfort. About 5% of hiatal hernias are paraesophageal. If symptoms from such a hernia are severe for example if chronic acid reflux threatens to severely injure the esophagus or is causing Barrett's esophagus, surgery is sometimes recommended. However surgery has its own risks including death and disability, so that even for large or paraesophageal hernias, watchful waiting may on balance be safer and cause fewer problems than surgery. Complications from surgical procedures to correct a hiatal hernia may include gas bloat syndrome, dysphagia (trouble swallowing), dumping syndrome, excessive scarring, and rarely, achalasia. Surgical procedures sometimes fail over time, requiring a second surgery to make repairs.
One surgical procedure used is called Nissen fundoplication. In fundoplication, the gastric fundus (upper part) of the stomach is wrapped, or plicated, around the inferior part of the esophagus, preventing herniation of the stomach through the hiatus in the diaphragm and the reflux of gastric acid. The procedure is now commonly performed laparoscopically. With proper patient selection, laparoscopic fundoplication studies in the 21st century have indicated relatively low complication rates, quick recovery, and relatively good long term results.
Regarding the discussion of partial versus complete fundoplication procedures, significant variations in the postoperative outcome emphasize the increased prevalence of dysphagia after Nissen. The statistics given support the superiority of laparoscopic over traditional surgery, owing to the greater aesthetic result, shorter admission time – with lower costs – and faster social reintegration.
Epidemiology
Incidence of hiatal hernias increases with age; approximately 60% of individuals aged 50 or older have a hiatal hernia. Of these, 9% are symptomatic, depending on the competence of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). 95% of these are "sliding" hiatal hernias, in which the LES protrudes above the diaphragm along with the stomach, and only 5% are the "rolling" type (paraesophageal), in which the LES remains stationary, but the stomach protrudes above the diaphragm.
Hiatal hernias are most common in North America and Western Europe and rare in rural African communities. Some have proposed that insufficient dietary fiber and the use of a high sitting position for defecation may increase the risk.
References
External links
Congenital disorders of digestive system
Diaphragmatic hernias
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | wiki |
Android devices have the ability to run virtual machines or emulate other operating systems. It does this either via desktop virtualization, platform virtualization, or emulation via compatibility layer.
Desktop virtualization
Desktop virtualization apps are the least resource and space intensive compared to other virtualization types, since the Operating System that is being displayed on the Android device is actually located on another computer on the local network or elsewhere like on the internet. Depending upon how the desktop virtualization app works, they use RDP or can use another protocol of their own. Most business oriented desktop virtualization apps require specific types of equipment or services in order for the app to fully function. For example, VMware Horizon Client requires specific VMware equipment for the app to work.
A major downside that desktop virtualization apps have compared to other types of virtualization or emulation technologies is that they require a network connection to the server as stated previously above.
Platform virtualization
Platform virtualization allows more leverage to the developer as anything that relates to the guest operating system only affects the guest operating system, and not the host operating system. Due to this it is possible for the guest operating system to be rooted, where as the host operating system remains unrooted. Due to the nature of platform virtualization and the fact that it can virtualize a rooted guest OS, it has a greater advantage over emulators as it can run applications or utilize packages that require access to the underlying system itself.
As with all platform virtualization software and applications, they take up a lot of resources of the host in order to do the virtualization.
Emulation
Types of emulations
Emulation of other operating systems
Emulation of other operating systems on Android require the usage of some form of compatibility layer, where the compatibility layer must utilize some form of technologies or APIs to run the OS inside of the app container. This does come with limitations as some emulators utilize PRoot which is a chroot like environment. Unlike terminal emulators that emulate the internal OS with/without any extension package support, it can install actual (for example) Ubuntu packages, as it does not rely too much on the Android system limitations. However, not all packages and applications can run.
Terminal emulation of internal operating system
Terminal emulation of the Android device itself is done via either an actual local loopback to the device, or an emulation that seems to be a local loopback. Most of these terminal emulations of the device itself utilize the native terminal Toybox toolchain's library and functions that come with every android device. However due to the fact that the majority of the functions that are readily available without utilizing a compatibility layer, means that Toybox functions can only be utilized. In order for a user to add any other functions or libraries would require the user to root their own device and add the functions or libraries manually. Some of these terminal emulators allow users to enter Toybox commands implicitly, where those that don't require the usage of "toybox COMMAND".
With enhancements via semi-emulation
Some terminal emulators like Termux allow users to add packages. This is done via semi-emulating a different environment via the usage of PRoot and/or Toybox in the back-end. With the semi-emulating, some predefined ported packages can be used and installed without the need of rooting the device, as they do not utilize Android system files, and reside and run in the apps' own data containers and directories. Because Toybox is used mostly in the back-end, it depends on how the app was developed, for Toybox to be accessed from the semi-emulated enhanced terminal.
Extensions
Many emulators of other OSes allow the use of extensions. Aside from the use of standard SSH, some emulators allow the use of technologies like VNC and XSDL. Via the use of these extensions, the user can have the emulated/virtualized OS running in a desktop-like environment.
Limitations
The majority of limitations are seen in emulation-based apps rather than the platform virtualization based apps, as the emulation apps must utilize a compatibility layer. Thus for libraries and packages to work as expected like in a real OS, the compatibility layer must work properly and must be able to provide accurate information. However, this requires that the compatibility layer or any predefined software it uses (ex. Docker) to have access to many types of system- and device-related information. This can either be done via Toybox or programing language libraries that Android apps can be made from (e.g., Java, C#). However, starting with Android 8, many new security restrictions have been placed on apps; due to these restrictions, some API libraries/classes are no longer available or have been replaced by more restrictive API libraries/classes.
One of the known limitations that was implemented is that apps can only natively access only their own sandbox root directory or sub-directories on an SD card. Apps wanting to access files or folders outside that on the SD card, are required to use Android's own system file selector. Due to this limitation, guest OSes running on, emulation, platform virtualization, or compatibility apps are no longer allowed to access files outside of their own SD card Sandbox.
The majority of these limitations can be bypassed by rooting the Android device. However, utilizing Linux via utilizing an emulator or virtualization app would be redundant at that point as one could turn the device itself into a Linux environment.
OS internal security enhancements
More modern versions of Android have been seen having more internal system security enhancements, such that some system folders and files are no longer accessible or even viewable for that directory's existence. Versions of Android before 9 allowed terminal apps to view Android's root "/" directory (although not allowing modifications or execution).
SELinux
Android utilizes SELinux; due to this, all system configuration files are not editable and some are not even readable. Thus, apps can only utilize Android API's to learn about the device's or system's configuration or settings. However, not all information is available to apps; due to this, many OS compatibility layers or emulation apps are not able to run every package or application.
Here are some known applications and packages that are unable to run:
Udisks2 requires udev which does not work well in most compatibility layer environments, as stated in the sub-sub-section below.
Snort
Open vSwitch
mininet (requires open vSwitch to run)
Here are some commands that do not work, due to SELinux:
ip link show
ADB, PRoot, $HOME and $PREFIX usage
Because all Android apps run in a non-privileged container space, the virtualization or emulation apps must utilize their own app space to do the virtualization or emulation. This can be done either by ADB, PRroot, or the usage of $HOME and $PREFIX, however majority of these three are utilized by emulation apps as platform virtualization apps usually use different methods. Each of these is used for a different purpose. ADB is used for the emulation of a terminal-like environment for the entire Android system, but usually as an unprivileged user. $HOME and $PREFIX can be using $HOME as "~" and $PREFIX for ".". However, $HOME can not be set outside of the "/data/apps data space" directory on the Android file system, nor can $PREFIX be moved to another place like the SD Card.
For emulators or compatibility layers to emulate or virtualize a Linux-based OS on Android, PRoot must be used. However, when PRoot is used, the environment inside of Proot can act like a Chroot environment, and/or a separate mounted environment. In this scenario (especially in the case of compatibility layer and emulator for Guest OSes), there are packages and applications that can not run as they were never designed to run inside a chroot like environment. Some of these are well known, prominent packages, applications, or commands, including the following:
Systemd
Libudev (Works alongside Systemd).
Init
Mutter (software) relies upon systemd
Alternatives
Due to the issue of SeLinux and PRoot, alternatives must be used and not all of the unusable packages or applications have alternatives. Being an alternative, they don't necessarily have all the functions of the original packages or applications. Some of these alternatives include:
Eudev
Elogind
Metacity (Predecessor of Mutter)
Android itself being a modified Linux kernel
Because Android is a modified Linux kernel, not all configuration or system files exist or are the same in Android. Because of this, emulation apps either need to provide either their own version of the configuration or system files in the application's data space, use a pre-modified distribution of ported Linux libraries that do not require the usage of the missing configuration or system files, or not support the usage of those packages. Some well known configuration and system files that are not in Android include:
/etc/resolv.conf
See also
Comparison of OS emulation or virtualization apps on Android
Virtualization
References
Android (operating system) software
Virtualization software
Emulation software | wiki |
The bit ring is the ring on the side of a horse's bit, particularly on a snaffle bit. It is used as a point of attachment for the cheekpieces of the bridle and for the reins. It also has an effect on the action of the bit. Therefore, the design of the ring is something to consider when choosing a bit for a horse, even though the bit mouthpiece generally has a greater effect than the ring.
Choices in bit rings can be found in direct pressure bits such as snaffle bits or bradoons. Leverage bits such as the pelham, and curb bit have a bit shank rather than a bit ring. (see bit shank). The Kimblewick has a unique design in that the side of the bit resembles a bit ring, but actually is a very short bit shank, as it applies leverage pressure to the mouthpiece.
Bit ring designs also are subject to fads. The loose ring is currently one of the most popular overall designs, but several years ago the eggbutt and dee-ring were quite common. There are also differences in the popularity of a given design from one discipline to another and from geographic region to the next.
Loose ring
Types of Bits: Found on snaffles, gag bits, and bradoons.
Action: The loose ring is a circular ring which may rotate around on the mouthpiece. The sliding makes it more difficult for the horse to tighten against it, promoting relaxation and chewing from the horse. The loose ring therefore keeps the bit more mobile than any other ring type. The ring will also rotate slightly before the bit mouthpiece adds pressure to the mouth, thus allowing it to give more signal than a more fixed bit.
Disadvantages: the loose ring may pinch the corners of the lips as it rotates, causing pain to the horse. This is especially a problem if the bit mouthpiece is too small. If this occurs, a bit guard may be used. The bit mouthpiece should be slightly wider (to accommodate the bit guard) should one be used; it is best if it is at least 1/2 inch wider than required by the horse's mouth. There are some horses that dislike the rattling noise of the loose ring. Additionally, the loose-ring is more easily pulled through the mouth than a bit with cheeks.
Size and Thickness of the Rings: Rings are generally 2–5 inches in diameter, most commonly ranging in the 2.5–3 inch range that is legal for horse show competition. Rings for bradoons are smaller than those used on a plain snaffle. Rings may be larger on gag bits, especially if the rider wishes to increase the severity. Thickness ranges from 10 to 23 mm, with most found at 15 mm.
Mouthpiece: comes in many mouthpiece sizes, with 5" being the most standard size for the average horse, with a range from 3" for miniature horses to over 6 inches for a large warmblood or a draft horse. Various metals are used, and mouthpieces may be made in almost any type (see bit mouthpiece).
Uses: One of the three most popular designs, loose rings are often used for training young horses, as the action is mild and the loose movement of the ring provides warning prior to rein pressure. The loose ring is the most common bit seen at the lower levels of dressage and on junior horses in western riding disciplines. It is also seen through all the levels of eventing (especially in the dressage phase), and is a common bit for race horses and some show jumpers.
Eggbutt/Barrel head
Types of Bits: Found on snaffles, gag bits, and bradoons. Pelham bits also usually have an eggbutt design for the snaffle ring on the shank.
Action: the eggbutt has a slightly oval (egglike) shape, and consists of a round outer ring attached to a more upright, straighter cheek which is fixed to the mouthpiece. The ring can move back and forth where it attached to the cheek, but does not rotate like the loose-ring, and so is more stable in the horse's mouth, and not as fixed as the other types of rings.
Advantages: This is a mild bit and will not pinch like the loose ring.
Disadvantages: It is more easily pulled through the mouth than a bit with cheeks.
Size and Thickness of Rings: The rings range from rounder and thinner to wider and flatter in shape. Their thickness varies from 10-23mm, and most are about 3" across.
Mouthpiece: This is also a popular bit that comes in many sizes, ranging from 3–6.5 inches. The mouthpiece is usually solid, but may be hollow mouthed.
Uses: Eggbutts are overall one of the most popular ring designs, less common in the dressage arena than loose-rings, more often seen in show hunter disciplines. They are popular for riding schools, and sometimes in horse racing. Eggbutts are sometimes seen in eventing, show jumping, and equitation riding. They are occasionally seen in western riding. Eggbutts are also useful as a gentle design with which to start young horses.
Dee-ring/Racing snaffle
Types of Bits: snaffle. The Kimblewick shank has a modified Dee-ring design.
Action: the Dee-ring, as its name suggest, has a ring shape like a "D" with the cheek side of the "D" attached to the mouthpiece of the bit. The straight bars of the Dee-ring provide a slight lateral guiding effect. This is because the bit ring is pulled against the side of the mouth opposite the rein that is activated, pushing the sides of the Dee against the horse's mouth, encouraging a turn. The Dee-ring is fixed in the horse's mouth, because its shape does not allow the bit to rotate. The Dee-ring is most similar to the full cheek.
Advantages: does not pinch like the loose ring, and is not as likely to be pulled through the mouth as a loose ring or eggbutt. Otherwise is fairly mild, but acts quickly on the mouth of the horse.
Disadvantages: Has little loose movement and thus provides less warning to the horse.
Size and Thickness of the Rings: The ring is usually about 3" in width, although they may reach 5" (a popular size for race horses, but illegal for horse shows). The larger the ring size, the more lateral guiding effect it has.
Mouthpiece: varies in thickness, and may be hollow or solid. Generally comes in a variety of sizes and a wide variety of mouthpieces.
Uses: Another very popular design, the Dee-ring was the traditional bit used in hunt seat riding, and is still seen in that discipline. It is also one of the most popular designs in horse racing. The D-ring is not seen as often in dressage, eventing or show jumping. A modified Dee-ring design with the straight side and a rounder ring is sometimes seen in western riding.
Full cheek
Types of Bits: snaffle
Action: The cheeks of these bits extend both upward and downward, tapering as they get farther away from the mouthpiece, with a half-moon ring similar in shape to the Dee-ring or eggbutt (depending on the design). The long sides provide a great deal of lateral guiding effect. The full cheek without bit keepers is more fixed in the mouth than a loose ring, and thus has a similar action to the eggbutt or Dee-ring. Use of bit keepers, however, makes the full cheek even more fixed than the Dee-ring, concentrating bit pressure on the bars and tongue.
Advantages: The full-cheek is not as likely to be pulled through the mouth as a loose-ring or eggbutt and gives considerable lateral commands.
Disadvantages: The full-cheek can easily jab or be caught on something if bit keepers are not used.
In some cases, a young horse may be scared by the strong lateral pressure of the full cheek. Bit guards can help this problem.
Adjustment: The full cheek should be adjusted like any normal snaffle, although it may be placed slightly lower in the mouth when bit keepers are used. When choosing this bit, it may be best to test ride with and without bit keepers, depending on the needs of the horse.
Mouthpieces: Range in all sizes and thickness (10–21 mm). Usually in solid mouths, although hollow mouths are available.
Uses: The full cheek is becoming more popular and is now seen in many disciplines, including dressage, eventing, show jumping, western riding and hunt seat. Additionally, the guiding effect makes it popular for use on young horses.
Half-cheek/Half-spoon
Type of bit: snaffle
Action: As the name suggests, the half-cheek has only a lower cheek, though occasionally the bit is put on upside down, with the half cheek pointing up. The cheek is generally flat and spoon-like, as opposed to the long, cylindrical shape of the full cheek. The bit provides some lateral guiding effect, and is more fixed in the mouth than the loose ring.
Advantages: This bit is not as likely to be pulled through the mouth as a loose-ring or eggbutt. Additionally, it is not as likely to be caught on something, which may happen with a full-cheek used without keepers.
Mouthpieces: Size varies, Mouthpieces come in all types, except waterfords are rare.
Uses: The half-cheek is most commonly seen in driving classes, because it is less likely to be caught on the harness. It is also frequently used on young horses in Saddle seat disciplines. It is sometimes seen in horse racing.
Fulmer/Australian loose-ring
Type of Bit: snaffle
Action: The fulmer is similar to the full cheek in that it has an upper and lower cheek, which taper off as they move from the mouthpiece. However, the ring to which the bit is attached is not an eggbutt or Dee-ring design, but a loose ring. This bit therefore gives the lateral guiding effect of the full-cheek, without the rigidity of many other bit rings.
Advantages: Provides the rotation of the loose ring without as great a chance that the ring will pinch. Also prevents the bit from being pulled through the mouth like an eggbutt or loose ring.
Mouthpieces: Usually seen in smooth single- or double-jointed mouthpieces
Uses: not as common in the United States as other bit rings, but seen in a variety of disciplines
Baucher/Fillis/Hanging cheek/Drop cheek
Type of Bit: snaffle, named after François Baucher, a 19th century French riding master whose theories are still widely followed.
Action: The Baucher has an eggbutt-like ring at the mouthpiece for the rein, with an upper cheek that has a ring at its end, to which the cheekpieces of the bridle are attached. The mouthpiece of a true Baucher does not slide on its ring, though there are Baucher-like designs that do. This bit lies flat against the horse's face, is fixed in the mouth and concentrates pressure on the bars. Contrary to common belief, the bit does not exert poll pressure unless it is put onto the bridle upside-down.
Advantages: will not be pulled through the mouth.
Mouthpieces: All types. The Baucher however is traditionally just a single jointed bit, so you could not technically have a "waterford baucher".
Uses: Not a common design, most often seen in eventing, during the dressage or show jumping phase. Also sometimes used by dressage riders. May be used in preparation for the curb bit. Is never seen in western riding, where it is illegal for show.
NOTE: the Baucher can be misused in an upside-down position, with the cheek containing the smaller ring hanging below the bit, as if the reins were supposed to attach at that point. Such positioning makes the cheek into a short bit shank, but without a curb chain, there is no poll pressure, merely a rotation of the mouthpiece onto the bars. This fitting is illegal in competition.
Other
Full-spoon: similar to the full-cheek, except the cheeks are flat and spoon-like instead of round and cylindrical. The cheeks are generally shorter than those found on a full-cheek.
Flat-ring: Similar to the loose-ring, but the circular ring has been flattened so it has edges. Generally more common in western riding. Has similar action as the loose-ring, though is a little more stable in the horse's mouth and the rings may be less likely to pinch.
Tubular Butt: Similar to the eggbutt but with a sliding loose-ring and is suitable for use with reins that are connected with various knots.
Wing Cheek: A relatively recent innovation in snaffle cheeks, the wing bit offers extensive protection at the corners of the horse's mouth by having winged plates on the ends of the mouthpiece that curve around the side of the mouth. Essentially acting like a bit guard, these metal plates ensure that the rings of the bit do not rub or pinch against the sides of the horse's mouth.
See also
Bridle
Bit (horse)
Bit shank
Horse tack
References and external links
The Bit Gallery
Bits (horse) | wiki |
Faraday's law may refer to the following:
Faraday's laws of electrolysis in chemistry
Faraday's law of induction, also known as Faraday-Lenz Law, in electromagnetism physics
The Maxwell–Faraday equation | wiki |
Video Vixens (also known as Black Socks) is a 1975 sex comedy film written by Joel Gross and directed by Ron Sullivan under the pseudonym Henri Pachard. The crew features many of the cast from the 1972 horror film The Last House on the Left with Sandra Peabody and Steve Miner working as the script supervisor and assistant editor for the film. It stars Keith Luckett, James Walters, George Buck Flower, Con Covert, and Robyn Hilton. It is currently distributed by Troma Entertainment.
Premise
The plot follows the fictional television broadcast station WKLITT as they broadcast a stag film award show. The film is made up of several vignettes regarding the preparation of the show, clips from fictional movies, and parodies of commercials.
External links
Video Vixens at allmovie.com
1970s sex comedy films
1975 films
American sex comedy films
American independent films
Troma Entertainment films
1975 comedy films
1975 independent films
1970s English-language films
1970s American films | wiki |
Wish You Were Here (Badfinger-album)
Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd-album)
Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd-dal)
Wish You Were Here (Robin Gibb-album)
Wish You Were Here (Avril Lavigne-dal)
Wish You Were Here (Rednex-dal)
Wish You Were Here (Delta Goodrem-dal)
Wish You Were Here (Memorial Version)
Wish You Were Here (musical) | wiki |
A. armeniaca may refer to:
An abbreviation of a species name. In binomial nomenclature the name of a species is always the name of the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the species name (also called the species epithet). In A. armeniaca the genus name has been abbreviated to A. and the species has been spelled out in full. In a document that uses this abbreviation it should always be clear from the context which genus name has been abbreviated.
Some of the most common uses of A. armeniaca are:
Althaea armeniaca, a herb species
Amanita armeniaca, a mushroom species in the genus Amanita
Amara armeniaca, a beetle species
Artemisia armeniaca, an abortifacient species in the genus Artemisia
See also
Armeniaca (disambiguation) | wiki |
Pollicipes (syn. Mitella) is een geslacht van rankpootkreeften, het eerst beschreven door William Elford Leach in 1817. Het geslacht omvat vijf soorten. Het zijn allen filtervoeders.
Soorten
Pollicipes mitella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pollicipes pollicipes (Gmelin, 1789)
Pollicipes elegans (Lesson, 1831)
Pollicipes polymerus (Sowerby, 1833)
Pollicipes caboverdensis Fernandes, Cruz & Van Syoc, 2010
Externe links
Pollicipes polymerus
Pollicipedidae | wiki |
Alsea High School is a public high school in Alsea, Oregon, United States.
Recent achievements
In 2008, 100% of the school's seniors received their high school diploma. Of 12 students, 12 graduated and none dropped out.
References
High schools in Benton County, Oregon
Public high schools in Oregon
Public middle schools in Oregon | wiki |
Olympic order in artistic gymnastics refers to the sequence in which a gymnast performs from one exercise after another in a competition. Male gymnasts use six apparatuses in Olympic order. Female gymnasts use four apparatuses.
For male gymnasts, the Olympic order is as follows:
1) Floor
2) Pommel horse
3) Rings
4) Vault
5) Parallel bars
6) Horizontal bar
For female gymnasts, the Olympic order is as follows:
1) Vault
2) Uneven bars
3) Balance beam
4) Floor
Olympic order is performed in a circular format, i.e. in an all-around competition where there are 24 competitors, there might be four competitors on each apparatus in the first rotation. In the second rotation, each group of four gymnasts progress to the next apparatus. Male gymnast A might start on vault in the first rotation, then progress to parallel bars in the second rotation, to horizontal bar in the third rotation, then circle around to floor on the fourth rotation and end on rings in the last rotation. Male gymnast Q might start on floor in the first rotation and then logically progress to horizontal bar in the last (sixth) rotation in an all-around competition.
References
Artistic gymnastics
Artistic gymnasts
Artistic gymnastics apparatus | wiki |
The 2004 SEC Championship Game was played on December 4, 2004, in the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, Georgia. The game matched SEC Western Division champion Auburn against SEC Eastern Division champion Tennessee. The game was a 38–28 victory for Auburn.
Game summary
Scoring summary
Game statistics
See also
Auburn–Tennessee football rivalry
References
SEC Championship
SEC Championship Game
Auburn Tigers football games
Tennessee Volunteers football games
December 2004 sports events in the United States
2004 in sports in Georgia (U.S. state)
2004 in Atlanta | wiki |
Eddie V's Prime Seafood is an American seafood and steak restaurant chain.
History
The first Eddie V's was opened in Austin, Texas in 2000 by Guy Villavaso and Larry Foles. In 2011, the brand was sold for $59 million cash to Darden Restaurants, Inc. and became a part of Darden's Specialty Restaurant Group.
Locations
As of 2022, there are a total of 29 Eddie V's restaurants.
See also
List of seafood restaurants
References
External links
Official website
Darden Restaurants, Inc. website
Companies based in Orlando, Florida
Restaurants established in 2000
Darden Restaurants brands
Restaurant chains in the United States
Seafood restaurants in the United States
2000 establishments in Texas
American companies established in 2000
2011 mergers and acquisitions | wiki |
Le Tropical Park Stadium est un stade de 7000 places multi-sports situé à Glenvar Heights, quartier de Miami, en Floride.
Il se trouve dans le Tropical Park. Le stade polyvalent dispose d'une piste d'athlétisme, et d'une pelouse utilisée pour le soccer, le football américain, le rugby, et d'autres divers sports.
Depuis 2016, c'est le domicile du FC Miami City, une équipe de soccer évoluant dans la division Sud-Ouest de la Premier Development League.
Histoire
Tropical Park a accueilli au cours de 2006 des matchs de la CONCACAF Gold Cup féminine.
Stade multifonction aux États-Unis
Stade de soccer en Floride
Stade de football américain en Floride
Stade de rugby à XV aux États-Unis
Stade d'athlétisme aux États-Unis
Comté de Miami-Dade | wiki |
James Ferguson – astronomo scozzese
James Ferguson – astronomo statunitense
James Ferguson – giocatore di pallanuoto statunitense
Pagine correlate
James Fergusson | wiki |
Inurement may refer to:
Inurement, or desensitization in psychology
Private inurement, the illegal use of one's influence over a non-profit organization for personal profit | wiki |
Alvin Ranglin (1942-), chanteur et producteur jamaïcain de reggae.
Ernest Ranglin (1932-), guitariste jamaïcain de jazz et de reggae.
George Samuel Ranglin (?-), président du sénat de la Jamaïque de 1962 à 1972 | wiki |
A laptop computer or notebook computer, also known as a laptop or notebook for short, is a small, portable personal computer (PC). Laptops typically have a clamshell form factor with a flat panel screen (usually in diagonal size) on the inside of the upper lid and an alphanumeric keyboard and pointing device (such as a trackpad and/or trackpoint) on the inside of the lower lid, although 2-in-1 PCs with a detachable keyboard are often marketed as laptops or as having a "laptop mode". Most of the computer's internal hardware is fitted inside the lower lid enclosure under the keyboard, although many laptops have a built-in webcam at the top of the screen and some modern ones even feature a touch-screen display. In most cases, unlike table computers which run on mobile operating systems, laptops tend to run on desktop operating systems which have been traditionally associated with desktop computers.
Laptops run on both an AC power supply and a rechargeable battery pack and can be folded shut for convenient storage and transportation, making them suitable for mobile use. Today, laptops are used in a variety of settings, such as at work (especially on business trips), in education, for playing games, web browsing, for personal multimedia, and for general home computer use.
The names "laptop" and "notebook" refer to the fact that the computer can be practically placed on (or on top of) the user's lap and can be used similarly to a notebook. As of 2022, in American English, the terms "laptop" and "notebook" are used interchangeably; in other dialects of English, one or the other may be preferred. Although the term "notebook" originally referred to a specific size of laptop (originally smaller and lighter than mainstream laptops of the time), the term has come to mean the same thing and no longer refers to any specific size.
Laptops combine many desktop components and capabilities into a single unit, including the central processing unit (CPU), random-access memory (RAM), hard disk drive (HDD) or solid-state drive (SSD), and graphics processing unit (GPU). Most modern laptops include a built-in webcam and microphone, and many also have touchscreens. Laptops can be powered by an internal battery or an external power supply by using an AC adapter. Hardware specifications may vary significantly between different types, models, and price points.
Design elements, form factors, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on the intended use. Examples of specialized models of laptops include rugged notebooks for use in construction or military applications, as well as low-production-cost laptops such as those from the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) organization, which incorporate features like solar charging and semi-flexible components not found on most laptop computers. Portable computers, which later developed into modern laptops, were originally considered to be a small niche market, mostly for specialized field applications, such as in the military, for accountants, or traveling sales representatives. As portable computers evolved into modern laptops, they became widely used for a variety of purposes.
History
As the personal computer (PC) became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A "personal, portable information manipulator" was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968, and described in his 1972 paper as the "Dynabook". The IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable (SCAMP) was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor. The IBM 5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype.
As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly. The first "laptop-sized notebook computer" was the Epson HX-20, invented (patented) by Suwa Seikosha's Yukio Yokozawa in July 1980, introduced at the COMDEX computer show in Las Vegas by Japanese company Seiko Epson in 1981, and released in July 1982. It had an LCD screen, a rechargeable battery, and a calculator-size printer, in a chassis, the size of an A4 notebook. It was described as a "laptop" and "notebook" computer in its patent.
The portable micro computer Portal of the French company R2E Micral CCMC officially appeared in September 1980 at the Sicob show in Paris. It was a portable microcomputer designed and marketed by the studies and developments department of R2E Micral at the request of the company CCMC specializing in payroll and accounting. It was based on an Intel 8085 processor, 8-bit, clocked at . It was equipped with a central 64 KB RAM, a keyboard with 58 alphanumeric keys and 11 numeric keys (separate blocks), a 32-character screen, a floppy disk: capacity = 140,000 characters, of a thermal printer: speed = 28 characters / second, an asynchronous channel, asynchronous channel, a 220 V power supply. It weighed and its dimensions were 454515cm. It provided total mobility. Its operating system was aptly named Prologue.
The Osborne 1, released in 1981, was a luggable computer that used the Zilog Z80 CPU and weighed . It had no battery, a cathode-ray tube (CRT) screen, and dual single-density floppy drives. Both Tandy/RadioShack and Hewlett-Packard (HP) also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period. The first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85. The GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000, Ampere and Gavilan SC released in 1983. The Gavilan SC was described as a "laptop" by its manufacturer, while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design. The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the mass market as a way to have PC portability.
From 1983 onward, several new input techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touch pad (Gavilan SC, 1983), the pointing stick (IBM ThinkPad 700, 1992), and handwriting recognition (Linus Write-Top, 1987). Some CPUs, such as the 1990 Intel i386SL, were designed to use minimum power to increase battery life of portable computers and were supported by dynamic power management features such as Intel SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow! in some designs.
Displays reached 640x480 (VGA) resolution by 1988 (Compaq SLT/286), and color screens started becoming a common upgrade in 1991, with increases in resolution and screen size occurring frequently until the introduction of 17" screen laptops in 2003. Hard drives started to be used in portables, encouraged by the introduction of 3.5" drives in the late 1980s, and became common in laptops starting with the introduction of 2.5" and smaller drives around 1990; capacities have typically lagged behind physically larger desktop drives.
Common resolutions of laptop webcams are 720p (HD), and in lower-end laptops 480p. The earliest known laptops with 1080p (Full HD) webcams like the Samsung 700G7C were released in the early 2010s.
Optical disc drives became common in full-size laptops around 1997; this initially consisted of CD-ROM drives, which were supplanted by CD-R, DVD, and Blu-ray drives with writing capability over time. Starting around 2011, the trend shifted against internal optical drives, and as of 2022, they have largely disappeared, but are still readily available as external peripherals.
Etymology
While the terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably today, there are some questions as to the original etymology and specificity of either term. The term laptop appears to have been coined in the early 1980s to describe a mobile computer which could be used on one's lap, and to distinguish these devices from earlier and much heavier portable computers (informally called "luggables"). The term notebook appears to have gained currency somewhat later as manufacturers started producing even smaller portable devices, further reducing their weight and size and incorporating a display roughly the size of A4 paper; these were marketed as notebooks to distinguish them from bulkier mainstream or desktop replacement laptops.
Types of laptops
Since the introduction of portable computers during the late 1970s, their form has changed significantly, spawning a variety of visually and technologically differing subclasses. Except where there is a distinct legal trademark around a term (notably, Ultrabook), there are rarely hard distinctions between these classes and their usage has varied over time and between different sources. Since the late 2010s, the use of more specific terms has become less common, with sizes distinguished largely by the size of the screen.
Smaller and larger laptops
There were in the past a number of marketing categories for smaller and larger laptop computers; these included "subnotebook" models, low cost "netbooks", and "ultra-mobile PCs" where the size class overlapped with devices like smartphone and handheld tablets, and "Desktop replacement" laptops for machines notably larger and heavier than typical to operate more powerful processors or graphics hardware. All of these terms have fallen out of favor as the size of mainstream laptops has gone down and their capabilities have gone up; except for niche models, laptop sizes tend to be distinguished by the size of the screen, and for more powerful models, by any specialized purpose the machine is intended for, such as a "gaming laptop" or a "mobile workstation" for professional use.
Convertible, hybrid, 2-in-1
The latest trend of technological convergence in the portable computer industry spawned a broad range of devices, which combined features of several previously separate device types. The hybrids, convertibles, and 2-in-1s emerged as crossover devices, which share traits of both tablets and laptops. All such devices have a touchscreen display designed to allow users to work in a tablet mode, using either multi-touch gestures or a stylus/digital pen.
Convertibles are devices with the ability to conceal a hardware keyboard. Keyboards on such devices can be flipped, rotated, or slid behind the back of the chassis, thus transforming from a laptop into a tablet. Hybrids have a keyboard detachment mechanism, and due to this feature, all critical components are situated in the part with the display. 2-in-1s can have a hybrid or a convertible form, often dubbed 2-in-1 detachable and 2-in-1 convertibles respectively, but are distinguished by the ability to run a desktop OS, such as Windows 10. 2-in-1s are often marketed as laptop replacement tablets.
2-in-1s are often very thin, around , and light devices with a long battery life. 2-in-1s are distinguished from mainstream tablets as they feature an x86-architecture CPU (typically a low- or ultra-low-voltage model), such as the Intel Core i5, run a full-featured desktop OS like Windows 10, and have a number of typical laptop I/O ports, such as USB 3 and Mini DisplayPort.
2-in-1s are designed to be used not only as a media consumption device but also as valid desktop or laptop replacements, due to their ability to run desktop applications, such as Adobe Photoshop. It is possible to connect multiple peripheral devices, such as a mouse, keyboard, and several external displays to a modern 2-in-1.
Microsoft Surface Pro-series devices and Surface Book are examples of modern 2-in-1 detachable, whereas Lenovo Yoga-series computers are a variant of 2-in-1 convertibles. While the older Surface RT and Surface 2 have the same chassis design as the Surface Pro, their use of ARM processors and Windows RT do not classify them as 2-in-1s, but as hybrid tablets. Similarly, a number of hybrid laptops run a mobile operating system, such as Android. These include Asus's Transformer Pad devices, examples of hybrids with a detachable keyboard design, which do not fall in the category of 2-in-1s.
Rugged laptop
A rugged laptop is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage conditions such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty environments. Rugged laptops are bulkier, heavier, and much more expensive than regular laptops, and thus are seldom seen in regular consumer use.
Hardware
The basic components of laptops function identically to their desktop counterparts. Traditionally they were miniaturized and adapted to mobile use, The design restrictions on power, size, and cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components, although that difference has increasingly narrowed.
In general, laptop components are not intended to be replaceable or upgradable by the end-user, except for components that can be detached; in the past, batteries and optical drives were commonly exchangeable. This restriction is one of the major differences between laptops and desktop computers, because the large "tower" cases used in desktop computers are designed so that new motherboards, hard disks, sound cards, RAM, and other components can be added. Memory and storage can often be upgraded with some disassembly, but with the most compact laptops, there may be no upgradeable components at all.
The following sections summarizes the differences and distinguishing features of laptop components in comparison to desktop personal computer parts.
Display
The typical laptop has a screen that, when unfolded, is upright to the user.
Screen technology
Laptop screens most commonly employ liquid-crystal display (LCD) technology, although use of OLED panels has risen substantially since 2020. The display interfaces with the motherboard using the Low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) or embedded DisplayPort protocol.
Surface finish
Externally, it can be a glossy or a matte (anti-glare) screen.
Sizes
In the past, there was a broader range of marketing terms (both formal and informal) to distinguish between different sizes of laptops. These included Netbooks, subnotebooks, Ultra-mobile PC, and Desktop replacement computers; these are sometimes still used informally, although they are essentially dead in terms of manufacturer marketing.
As of 2021, mainstream consumer laptops tend to come with 11", 13" or 15"-16" screens; 14" models are more popular among business machines. Larger and smaller models are available, but less common – there is no clear dividing line in minimum or maximum size. Machines small enough to be handheld (screens in the 6–8" range) can be marketed either as very small laptops or "handheld PCs," while the distinction between the largest laptops and "All-in-One" desktops is whether they fold for travel.
Resolution
Having a higher resolution display allows more items to fit onscreen at a time, improving the user's ability to multitask, although at the higher resolutions on smaller screens, the resolution may only serve to display sharper graphics and text rather than increasing the usable area. Since the introduction of the MacBook Pro with Retina display in 2012, there has been an increase in the availability of "HiDPI" (or high Pixel density) displays; as of 2022, this is generally considered to be anything higher than 1920 pixels wide. This has increasingly converged around 4K (3840-pixel-wide) resolutions.
External displays can be connected to most laptops, with most models supporting at least one. The use of technology such as USB4 (section Alternate Mode partner specifications)|DisplayPort Alt Mode]] has been utilized to charge a laptop and provide display output over one USB-C Cable.
Refresh rates
Most laptop displays have a maximum refresh rate of 60Hz. The Dell M17x and Samsung 700G7A, both released in 2011, were among the first laptops to feature a 120Hz refresh rate, and more such laptops have appeared in the years since.
Central processing unit (CPU)
A laptop's CPU has advanced power-saving features and produces less heat than one intended purely for desktop use. Mainstream laptop CPUs made after 2018 have at least two processor cores, often four cores, and sometimes more, with 8 cores becoming more common.
For the low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest desktop CPUs still substantially outperform the fastest laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power consumption and heat generation; the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 watts of heat, while the fastest desktop processors top out at 150 watts (and often need water cooling).
There has been a wide range of CPUs designed for laptops available from both Intel, AMD, and other manufacturers. On non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the former PowerPC-based Apple laptops (iBook and PowerBook). Between around 2000 to 2014, most full-size laptops had socketed, replaceable CPUs; on thinner models, the CPU was soldered on the motherboard and was not replaceable or upgradable without replacing the motherboard. Since 2015, Intel has not offered new laptop CPU models with pins to be interchangeable, preferring ball grid array chip packages which have to be soldered; and as of 2021, only a few rare models using desktop parts.
In the past, some laptops have used a desktop processor instead of the laptop version and have had high-performance gains at the cost of greater weight, heat, and limited battery life; this is not unknown as of 2022, but since around 2010, the practice has been restricted to small-volume gaming models. Laptop CPUs are rarely able to be overclocked; most use locked processors. Even on gaming models where unlocked processors are available, the cooling system in most laptops is often very close to its limits and there is rarely headroom for an overclocking–related operating temperature increase.
Graphics processing unit (GPU)
On most laptops, the GPU is integrated into the CPU to conserve power and space. This was introduced by Intel with the Core i-series of mobile processors in 2010, followed by similar AMD APU processors in January 2011.
Before that, lower-end machines tended to use graphics processors integrated into the system chipset, while higher-end machines had a separate graphics processor. In the past, laptops lacking a separate graphics processor were limited in their utility for gaming and professional applications involving 3D graphics, but the capabilities of CPU-integrated graphics have converged with the low-end of dedicated graphics processors since the mid-2010s. For laptops posessing limited onboard graphics capability but sufficient I/O throughput, an external GPU (eGPU) can provide additional graphics power at the cost of physical space and portability.
Higher-end laptops intended for gaming or professional 3D work still come with dedicated (and in some cases even dual) graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internal expansion card. Since 2011, these almost always involve switchable graphics so that when there is no demand for the higher performance dedicated graphics processor, the more power-efficient integrated graphics processor will be used. Nvidia Optimus and AMD Hybrid Graphics are examples of this sort of system of switchable graphics.
Traditionally, the system RAM on laptops (as well as on desktop computers) was physically separate from the graphics memory used by the GPU. Apple's M series SoCs feature a unified pool of memory for both the system and the GPU; this approach can produce substantial efficiency gains for some applications but comes at the cost of eGPU support.
Memory
Since around the year 2000, most laptops have used SO-DIMM RAM, although, as of 2021, an increasing number of models use memory soldered to the motherboard. Before 2000, most laptops used proprietary memory modules if their memory was upgradable.
In the early 2010s, high end laptops such as the 2011 Samsung 700G7A have passed the 10 GB RAM barrier, featuring 16 GB of RAM.
When upgradeable, memory slots are sometimes accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of upgrading; in other cases, accessing them requires significant disassembly. Most laptops have two memory slots, although some will have only one, either for cost savings or because some amount of memory is soldered. Some high-end models have four slots; these are usually mobile engineering workstations, although a few high-end models intended for gaming do as well.
As of 2021, 8 GB RAM is most common, with lower-end models occasionally having 4GB. Higher-end laptops may come with 16 GB of RAM or more.
Internal storage
The earliest laptops most often used floppy disk for storage, although a few used either RAM disk or tape, by the late 1980s hard disk drives had become the standard form of storage.
Between 1990 and 2009, almost all laptops typically had a hard disk drive (HDD) for storage; since then, solid-state drives (SSD) have gradually come to supplant hard drives in all but some inexpensive consumer models. Solid-state drives are faster and more power-efficient, as well as eliminating the hazard of drive and data corruption caused by a laptop's physical impacts, as they use no mechanical parts such as a rotational platter. In many cases, they are more compact as well. Initially, in the late 2000s, SSDs were substantially more expensive than HDDs, but as of 2021 prices on smaller capacity (under 1 terabyte) drives have converged; larger capacity drives remain more expensive than comparable-sized HDDs.
Since around 1990, where a hard drive is present it will typically be a 2.5-inch drive; some very compact laptops support even smaller 1.8-inch HDDs, and a very small number used 1" Microdrives. Some SSDs are built to match the size/shape of a laptop hard drive, but increasingly they have been replaced with smaller mSATA or M.2 cards. SSDs using the newer and much faster NVM Express standard for connecting are only available as cards.
As of 2022, many laptops no longer contain space for a 2.5" drive, accepting only M.2 cards; a few of the smallest have storage soldered to the motherboard. For those that can, they can typically contain a single 2.5-inch drive, but a small number of laptops with a screen wider than 15 inches can house two drives.
A variety of external HDDs or NAS data storage servers with support of RAID technology can be attached to virtually any laptop over such interfaces as USB, FireWire, eSATA, or Thunderbolt, or over a wired or wireless network to further increase space for the storage of data. Many laptops also incorporate a SD or microSD card slot. This enables users to download digital pictures from an SD card onto a laptop, thus enabling them to delete the SD card's contents to free up space for taking new pictures.
Removable media drive
Optical disc drives capable of playing CD-ROMs, compact discs (CD), DVDs, and in some cases, Blu-ray discs (BD), were nearly universal on full-sized models between the mid-1990s and the early 2010s. As of 2021, drives are uncommon in compact or premium laptops; they remain available in some bulkier models, but the trend towards thinner and lighter machines is gradually eliminating these drives and players – when needed they can be connected via USB instead.
Inputs
An alphanumeric keyboard is used to enter text, data, and other commands (e.g., function keys). A touchpad (also called a trackpad), a pointing stick, or both, are used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard is used for typing. Some touchpads have buttons separate from the touch surface, while others share the surface. A quick double-tap is typically registered as a click, and operating systems may recognize multi-finger touch gestures.
An external keyboard and mouse may be connected using a USB port or wirelessly, via Bluetooth or similar technology. Some laptops have multitouch touchscreen displays, either available as an option or standard. Most laptops have webcams and microphones, which can be used to communicate with other people with both moving images and sound, via web conferencing or video-calling software.
Laptops typically have USB ports and a combined headphone/microphone jack, for use with headphones, a combined headset, or an external mic. Many laptops have a card reader for reading digital camera SD cards.
Input/output (I/O) ports
On a typical laptop there are several USB ports; if they use only the older USB connectors instead of USB-C, they will typically have an external monitor port (VGA, DVI, HDMI or Mini DisplayPort or occasionally more than one), an audio in/out port (often in form of a single socket) is common. It is possible to connect up to three external displays to a 2014-era laptop via a single Mini DisplayPort, using multi-stream transport technology.
Apple, in a 2015 version of its MacBook, transitioned from a number of different I/O ports to a single USB-C port. This port can be used both for charging and connecting a variety of devices through the use of aftermarket adapters. Apple has since transitioned back to using a number of different ports. Google, with its updated version of Chromebook Pixel, shows a similar transition trend towards USB-C, although keeping older USB Type-A ports for a better compatibility with older devices. Although being common until the end of the 2000s decade, Ethernet network port are rarely found on modern laptops, due to widespread use of wireless networking, such as Wi-Fi. Legacy ports such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serial port, parallel port, or FireWire are provided on some models, but they are increasingly rare. On Apple's systems, and on a handful of other laptops, there are also Thunderbolt ports, but Thunderbolt 3 uses USB-C. Laptops typically have a headphone jack, so that the user can connect headphones or amplified speaker systems for listening to music or other audio.
Expansion cards
In the past, a PC Card (formerly PCMCIA) or ExpressCard slot for expansion was often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on; these are becoming increasingly rare since the introduction of USB 3.0. Some internal subsystems such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a wireless cellular modem can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. The standard for such cards is PCI Express, which comes in both mini and even smaller M.2 sizes. In newer laptops, it is not uncommon to also see Micro SATA (mSATA) functionality on PCI Express Mini or M.2 card slots allowing the use of those slots for SATA-based solid-state drives.
Battery and power supply
Since the late 1990s, laptops have typically used lithium ion or lithium polymer batteries, These replaced the older nickel metal-hydride typically used in the 1990s, and nickel–cadmium batteries used in most of the earliest laptops. A few of the oldest laptops used non-rechargeable batteries, or lead–acid batteries.
Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance gradually decreases over time; a noticeable reduction in capacity is typically evident after two to three years of regular use, depending on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.
Laptops with removable batteries may support larger replacement batteries with extended capacity.
A laptop's battery is charged using an external power supply, which is plugged into a wall outlet. The power supply outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of 7.2—24 volts. The power supply is usually external and connected to the laptop through a DC connector cable. In most cases, it can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously. When the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on power supplied by the external power supply, avoiding battery use. If the used power supply is not strong enough to power computing components and charge the battery simultaneously, the battery may charge in a shorter period of time if the laptop is turned off or sleeping. The charger typically adds about to the overall transporting weight of a laptop, although some models are substantially heavier or lighter. Most 2016-era laptops use a smart battery, a rechargeable battery pack with a built-in battery management system (BMS). The smart battery can internally measure voltage and current, and deduce charge level and State of Health (SoH) parameters, indicating the state of the cells.
Power connectors
Historically, DC connectors, typically cylindrical/barrel-shaped coaxial power connectors have been used in laptops. Some vendors such as Lenovo made intermittent use of a rectangular connector.
Some connector heads feature a center pin to allow the end device to determine the power supply type by measuring the resistance between it and the connector's negative pole (outer surface). Vendors may block charging if a power supply is not recognized as original part, which could deny the legitimate use of universal third-party chargers.
With the advent of USB-C, portable electronics made increasing use of it for both power delivery and data transfer. Its support for 20 V (common laptop power supply voltage) and 5 A typically suffices for low to mid-end laptops, but some with higher power demands such as gaming laptops depend on dedicated DC connectors to handle currents beyond 5 A without risking overheating, some even above 10 A. Additionally, dedicated DC connectors are more durable and less prone to wear and tear from frequent reconnection, as their design is less delicate.
Cooling
Waste heat from the operation is difficult to remove in the compact internal space of a laptop. The earliest laptops used passive cooling; this gave way to heat sinks placed directly on the components to be cooled, but when these hot components are deep inside the device, a large space-wasting air duct is needed to exhaust the heat. Modern laptops instead rely on heat pipes to rapidly move waste heat towards the edges of the device, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and heat sink cooling system. Waste heat is usually exhausted away from the device operator towards the rear or sides of the device. Multiple air intake paths are used since some intakes can be blocked, such as when the device is placed on a soft conforming surface like a chair cushion. Secondary device temperature monitoring may reduce performance or trigger an emergency shutdown if it is unable to dissipate heat, such as if the laptop were to be left running and placed inside a carrying case. Aftermarket cooling pads with external fans can be used with laptops to reduce operating temperatures.
Docking station
A docking station (sometimes referred to simply as a dock) is a laptop accessory that contains multiple ports and in some cases expansion slots or bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects to a docking station, typically through a single large proprietary connector. A docking station is an especially popular laptop accessory in a corporate computing environment, due to a possibility of a docking station transforming a laptop into a full-featured desktop replacement, yet allowing for its easy release. This ability can be advantageous to "road warrior" employees who have to travel frequently for work, and yet who also come into the office. If more ports are needed, or their position on a laptop is inconvenient, one can use a cheaper passive device known as a port replicator. These devices mate to the connectors on the laptop, such as through USB or FireWire.
Charging trolleys
Laptop charging trolleys, also known as laptop trolleys or laptop carts, are mobile storage containers to charge multiple laptops, netbooks, and tablet computers at the same time. The trolleys are used in schools that have replaced their traditional static computer labs suites of desktop equipped with "tower" computers, but do not have enough plug sockets in an individual classroom to charge all of the devices. The trolleys can be wheeled between rooms and classrooms so that all students and teachers in a particular building can access fully charged IT equipment.
Laptop charging trolleys are also used to deter and protect against opportunistic and organized theft. Schools, especially those with open plan designs, are often prime targets for thieves who steal high-value items. Laptops, netbooks, and tablets are among the highest–value portable items in a school. Moreover, laptops can easily be concealed under clothing and stolen from buildings. Many types of laptop–charging trolleys are designed and constructed to protect against theft. They are generally made out of steel, and the laptops remain locked up while not in use. Although the trolleys can be moved between areas from one classroom to another, they can often be mounted or locked to the floor, support pillars, or walls to prevent thieves from stealing the laptops, especially overnight.
Solar panels
In some laptops, solar panels are able to generate enough solar power for the laptop to operate. The One Laptop Per Child Initiative released the OLPC XO-1 laptop which was tested and successfully operated by use of solar panels. Presently, they are designing an OLPC XO-3 laptop with these features. The OLPC XO-3 can operate with 2 watts of electricity because its renewable energy resources generate a total of 4 watts. Samsung has also designed the NC215S solar–powered notebook that will be sold commercially in the U.S. market.
Accessories
A common accessory for laptops is a laptop sleeve, laptop skin, or laptop case, which provides a degree of protection from scratches. Sleeves, which are distinguished by being relatively thin and flexible, are most commonly made of neoprene, with sturdier ones made of low-resilience polyurethane. Some laptop sleeves are wrapped in ballistic nylon to provide some measure of waterproofing. Bulkier and sturdier cases can be made of metal with polyurethane padding inside and may have locks for added security. Metal, padded cases also offer protection against impacts and drops. Another common accessory is a laptop cooler, a device that helps lower the internal temperature of the laptop either actively or passively. A common active method involves using electric fans to draw heat away from the laptop, while a passive method might involve propping the laptop up on some type of pad so it can receive more airflow. Some stores sell laptop pads that enable a reclining person on a bed to use a laptop.
Modularity
Some of the components of earlier models of laptops can easily be replaced without opening completely its bottom part, such as keyboard, battery, hard disk, memory modules, CPU cooling fan, etc.
Some of the components of recent models of laptops reside inside. Replacing most of its components, such as keyboard, battery, hard disk, memory modules, CPU cooling fan, etc., requires removal of its either top or bottom part, removal of the motherboard, and returning them.
In some types, solder and glue are used to mount components such as RAM, storage, and batteries, making repairs additionally difficult.
Obsolete features
Features that certain early models of laptops used to have that are not available in most current laptops include:
Reset ("cold restart") button in a hole (needed a thin metal tool to press)
Instant power off button in a hole (needed a thin metal tool to press)
Integrated charger or power adapter inside the laptop
Dedicated Media buttons (Internet, Volume, Play, Pause, Next, Previous)
Floppy disk drive
Serial port
Parallel port
Modem
IEEE 1394 port
Docking port
Shared PS/2 input device port
IrDA
S-video port
S/PDIF audio port
PC Card / PCMCIA slot
ExpressCard slot
CD/DVD Drives (starting with 2013 models)
VGA port (starting with 2013 models)
Characteristics
Advantages
Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus desktop PCs. Physical portability allows a laptop to be used in many places—not only at home and the office but also during commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' locations or a meeting room, etc. Within a home, portability enables laptop users to move their devices from room to room. Portability offers several distinct advantages:
Productivity: Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC cannot be used can help employees and students to increase their productivity on work or school tasks, such as an office worker reading their work e-mails during an hour-long commute by train, or a student doing their homework at the university coffee shop during a break between lectures, for example.
Up-to-date information: Using a single laptop prevents fragmentation of files across multiple PC's as the files exist in a single location and are always up-to-date.
Connectivity: A key advantage of laptops is that they almost always have integrated connectivity features such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, and sometimes connection to cellular networks either through native integration or use of a hotspot. Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at university campuses.
Other advantages of laptops:
Size: Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and put away in a desk drawer.
Low power consumption: Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 10–100 W, compared to 200–800W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for large businesses, which run hundreds of personal computers thus economies of scale, and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.).
Quiet: Laptops are typically much quieter than desktops, due both to the components (often silent solid-state drives replacing hard drives) and to less heat production leading to the use of fewer, sometimes no cooling fans. The latter has given rise to laptops that have no moving parts, resulting in complete silence during use.
Battery: a charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions and blackouts, an issue that is present with desktop PC's.
All-in-One: designed to be portable, most modern laptops have all components integrated into the chassis. For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is usually divided into the desktop "tower" (the unit with the CPU, hard drive, power supply, etc.), keyboard, mouse, display screen, and optional peripherals such as speakers.
Disadvantages
Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following areas:
Performance
The majority of laptops released in 2022 are capable of common tasks such as web browsing, video playback, and office applications, even at the low end. That said, performance of desktops often surpass comparably priced laptops. The upper limits of performance of laptops remain lower than desktops, due to mostly practical reasons, such as decreased battery life, increased size and heat, etc.
Upgradeability
The upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to thoroughly standardized desktops, due to technical and economic reasons. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Due to the integrated nature of laptops, however, the motherboard, CPU, and graphics, are seldom officially upgradeable. Some efforts towards industry standard parts and layouts have been attempted, such as Common Building Block, but the industry remains largely proprietary and fragmented. There is no industry-wide standard form factor for laptops; Moreover, starting with 2013 models, laptops have become increasingly integrated (soldered) with the motherboard for most of its components (CPU, SSD, RAM, etc.) to reduce size and upgradeability prospects.
Ergonomics and health effects
Wrists
Prolonged use of laptops can cause repetitive strain injury because of their small, flat keyboard and trackpad pointing devices. Usage of separate, external ergonomic keyboards and pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working for long periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USB, Bluetooth or via a docking station. Some health standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.
Neck and spine
A laptop's integrated screen often requires users to lean over for a better view, which can cause neck or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be connected to almost any laptop to alleviate this and to provide additional screen space for more productive work. Another solution is to use a computer stand.
Possible effect on fertility
A study by State University of New York researchers found that heat generated from laptops can increase the temperature of the lap of male users when balancing the computer on their lap, potentially putting sperm count at risk. The study, which included roughly two dozen men between the ages of 21 and 35, found that the sitting position required to balance a laptop can increase scrotum temperature by as much as . However, further research is needed to determine whether this directly affects male sterility. A later 2010 study of 29 males published in Fertility and Sterility found that men who kept their laptops on their laps experienced scrotal hyperthermia (overheating) in which their scrotal temperatures increased by up to . The resulting heat increase, which could not be offset by a laptop cushion, may increase male infertility.
A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk or to use a book or pillow between the body and the laptop. Another solution is to obtain a cooling unit for the laptop. These are usually USB powered and consist of a hard thin plastic case housing one, two, or three cooling fans – with the entire assembly designed to sit under the laptop in question – which results in the laptop remaining cool to the touch, and greatly reduces laptop heat buildup.
Thighs
Heat generated from using a laptop on the lap can also cause skin discoloration on the thighs known as "toasted skin syndrome".
Durability
Laptops are less durable than desktops/PCs. However, the durability of the laptop depends on the user if proper maintenance is done then the laptop can work longer.
Because of their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical damage than desktops, additionally hindered by their integrated nature. A liquid spill onto the keyboard, while a minor issue with a desktop system, can damage the internals of a laptop and destroy the computer, result in a costly repair or entire replacement of laptops. One study found that a laptop is three times more likely to break during the first year of use than a desktop. To maintain a laptop, it is recommended to clean it every three months for dirt, debris, dust, and food particles. Most cleaning kits consist of a lint-free or microfiber cloth for the screen and keyboard, compressed air for getting dust out of the cooling fan, and a cleaning solution. Harsh chemicals such as bleach should not be used to clean a laptop, as they can damage it.
Heating and cooling
Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems involving a fan and heat sink that can fail from blockage caused by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most laptops do not have any type of removable dust collection filter over the air intake for these cooling systems, resulting in a system that gradually conducts more heat and noise as the years pass. In some cases, the laptop starts to overheat even at idle load levels. This dust is usually stuck inside where the fan and heat sink meet, where it can not be removed by a casual cleaning and vacuuming. Most of the time, compressed air can dislodge the dust and debris but may not entirely remove it. After the device is turned on, the loose debris is reaccumulated into the cooling system by the fans. Complete disassembly is usually required to clean the laptop entirely. However, preventative maintenance such as regular cleaning of the heat sink via compressed air can prevent dust build-up on the heat sink. Many laptops are difficult to disassemble by the average user and contain components that are sensitive to electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Battery life
Battery life is limited because the capacity drops with time, eventually warranting replacement after as little as 2-3 years. A new battery typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for five to six hours or more, depending on usage and the battery size. The battery is often easily replaceable and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer charging and discharging time. Some laptops do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to the service center of their manufacturer or a third-party laptop service center to have their battery replaced. Replacement batteries can also be expensive, depending on the availability of the parts.
Security and privacy
Because they are valuable, commonly used, portable, and easy to hide in a backpack or other type of bag, laptops are often stolen. Every day, over 1,600 laptops go missing from U.S. airports. The cost of stolen business or personal data, and of the resulting problems (identity theft, credit card fraud, breach of privacy), can be many times the value of the stolen laptop itself. Consequently, the physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained on them are both of great importance. Some laptops, primarily professional and educational devices, have a Kensington security slot, which can be used to tether them with a security cable and lock. In addition, modern operating systems have features such as Activation Lock or similar that prevents the use of the device without credentials. As of 2015, some laptops also have additional security elements added, including biometric security components such as Windows Hello or Touch ID.
Software such as GadgetTrak and Find My Mac have been engineered to help people locate and recover their stolen laptops in the event of theft. Setting one's laptop with a password on its firmware (protection against going to firmware setup or booting), internal HDD/SSD (protection against accessing it and loading an operating system on it afterward), and every user account of the operating system are additional security measures that a user should do. Fewer than 5% of lost or stolen laptops are recovered by the companies that own them, however, that number may decrease due to a variety of companies and software solutions specializing in laptop recovery. In the 2010s, the common availability of webcams on laptops raised privacy concerns. In Robbins v. Lower Merion School District (Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2010), school-issued laptops loaded with special software enabled staff from two high schools to take secret webcam shots of students at home, via their students' laptops.
Sales
Manufacturers
There are many laptop brands and manufacturers. Several major brands that offer notebooks in various classes are listed in the adjacent box.
The major brands usually offer good service and support, including well-executed documentation and driver downloads that remain available for many years after a particular laptop model is no longer produced. Capitalizing on service, support, and brand image, laptops from major brands are more expensive than laptops by smaller brands and ODMs. Some brands specialize in a particular class of laptops, such as gaming laptops (Alienware), high-performance laptops (HP Envy), netbooks (EeePC) and laptops for children (OLPC).
Many brands, including the major ones, do not design and do not manufacture their laptops. Instead, a small number of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) design new models of laptops, and the brands choose the models to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the world, with the largest one (Quanta Computer) having 30% of the world market share. Therefore, identical models are available both from a major label and from a low-profile ODM in-house brand.
Adoption by users
Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986. However, laptops have become increasingly popular, both for business and personal use. Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006. In 2008 it was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million. The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops, with 38.6 million units versus 38.5 million units. Due to the advent of tablets and affordable laptops, many computer users now have laptops due to the convenience offered by the device.
Price
Before 2008, laptops were very expensive. In May 2005, the average notebook sold for while desktops sold for an average of . Around 2008, however, prices of laptops decreased substantially due to low-cost netbooks, drawing an average at U.S. retail stores in August 2008. Starting with the 2010's, laptops have decreased substantially in price at the low end due to inexpensive and low power Arm processors, less demanding operating systems such as ChromeOS, and SoC's. As of 2022, a new laptop can easily be obtained for
Disposal
The list of materials that go into a laptop computer is long, and many of the substances used, such as beryllium, lead, chromium, and mercury compounds, are toxic or carcinogenic to humans. Although these toxins are relatively harmless when the laptop is in use, concerns that discarded laptops cause a serious health and environmental risks when improperly discarded have arisen. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) in Europe specified that all laptop computers must be recycled by law. Similarly, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has outlawed landfill dumping or the incinerating of discarded laptop computers.
Most laptop computers begin the recycling process with a method known as Demanufacturing, this involves the physical separation of the components of the laptop. These components are then either grouped into materials (e.g. plastic, metal and glass) for recycling or more complex items that require more advanced materials separation (e.g.) circuit boards, hard drives and batteries.
Corporate laptop recycling can require an additional process known as data destruction. The data destruction process ensures that all information or data that has been stored on a laptop hard drive can never be retrieved again. Below is an overview of some of the data protection and environmental laws and regulations applicable for laptop recycling data destruction:
Data Protection Act 1998 (DPA)
EU Privacy Directive (Due 2016)
Financial Conduct Authority
Sarbanes-Oxley Act
PCI-DSS Data Security Standard
Waste, Electronic & Electrical Equipment Directive (WEEE)
Basel Convention
Bank Secrecy Act (BSA)
FACTA Sarbanes-Oxley Act
FDA Security Regulations (21 C.F.R. part 11)
Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA)
HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act)
NIST SP 800–53
Add NIST SP 800–171
Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act
Patriot Act of 2002
PCI Data Security Standard
US Safe Harbor Provisions
Various state laws
JAN 6/3
Gramm-leach-Bliley Act
DCID
Extreme use
The ruggedized Grid Compass computer was used since the early days of the Space Shuttle program. The first commercial laptop used in space was a Macintosh portable in 1990 on Space Shuttle mission STS-41 and again in 1991 aboard STS-43. Apple and other laptop computers continue to be flown aboard crewed spaceflights, though the only long-duration flight certified computer for the International Space Station is the ThinkPad. As of 2011, over 100 ThinkPads were aboard the ISS. Laptops used aboard the International Space Station and other spaceflights are generally the same ones that can be purchased by the general public but needed modifications are made to allow them to be used safely and effectively in a weightless environment such as updating the cooling systems to function without relying on hot air rising and accommodation for the lower cabin air pressure. Laptops operating in harsh usage environments and conditions, such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty conditions differ from those used in space in that they are custom designed for the task and do not use commercial off-the-shelf hardware.
See also
List of computer size categories
List of laptop brands and manufacturers
Netbook
Smartbook
Chromebook
Ultrabook
Smartphone
Subscriber Identity Module
Mobile broadband
Mobile Internet device (MID)
Personal digital assistant
VIA OpenBook
Tethering
XJACK
Open-source computer hardware
Novena
Portal, a make of a French luggable accounting computer of 1980
Mobile modem
Stereoscopy glasses
Notes
References
Classes of computers
Japanese inventions
Mobile computers
Office equipment
Personal computers
1980s neologisms | wiki |
Electrical cell may refer to:
Electrochemical cell, a device which produces electricity through chemical reactions, commonly referred to as a battery
Solar cell, a device which produces electricity from sunlight
Electrolytic cell, a device which decomposes chemical compounds through electrolysis | wiki |
HMS Colchester was a 50-gun fourth-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, built by Joseph Allin the elder at Deptford Dockyard and launched on 13 February 1707.
She underwent a rebuild at Chatham according to the 1719 Establishment, and was relaunched on 26 October 1721. Colchester served until 1742, when she was broken up.
Notes
References
Lavery, Brian (2003) The Ship of the Line - Volume 1: The development of the battlefleet 1650-1850. Conway Maritime Press. .
Ships of the line of the Royal Navy
1700s ships | wiki |
The Argasidae are the family of soft ticks, one of the three families of ticks. The family contains 193 species, although the composition of the genera is less certain, and more study is needed before the genera can become stable. The currently accepted genera are Antricola, Argas, Nothoaspis, Ornithodoros, and Otobius. The Argasidae are very common in South Asia, along with 96 other species of ticks, making South Asia the region with the highest biodiversity of ticks worldwide. Soft ticks are resistant to desiccation and can live for several years in arid conditions.
Physical characteristics
Soft ticks lack the hard scutum present in the hard ticks (Ixodidae). The gnathosoma (or capitulum, the mouthparts-bearing structure) is located on the underside of the animal's body and is not readily visible, while in the Ixodidae, the gnathosoma projects forward from the body. The lateral edges of the body are rounded.
See also
Ticks of domestic animals
References
External links
Ticks
Acari families
Taxa named by Carl Ludwig Koch | wiki |
Wolves (Rise Against-album)
Wolves (Big Sean-dal)
Wolves (Selena Gomez és Marshmello-dal) | wiki |
A9 är en motorväg i Schweiz som går mellan Vallorbe och Gondo.
Se även
Motorväg
Motorvägar i Schweiz
Motorvägar i Schweiz | wiki |
Non-progressive congenital ataxia (NPCA) is a non-progressive form of cerebellar ataxia which can occur with or without cerebellar hypoplasia.
Cause
NPCA is a syndrome and can have diverse causes. It has a genetic basis and inheritance is considered to be autosomal recessive. However, autosomal dominant variety has also been reported. There may be familial balanced translocation t(8;20)(p22;q13) involved.
Diagnosis
Neuroimaging like MRI is important. However, there was considerable intrafamilial variability regarding neuroimaging, with some individuals showing normal MRI findings. Early individual prognosis of such autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxias is not possible from early developmental milestones, neurological signs, or neuroimaging.
Management
References
Systemic atrophies primarily affecting the central nervous system
Congenital disorders of nervous system | wiki |
Certain words in the English language represent animal sounds: the noises and vocalizations of particular animals, especially noises used by animals for communication. The words can be used as verbs or interjections in addition to nouns, and many of them are also specifically onomatopoeic.
List of animal sounds
See also
Animal communication
Animal epithet
Animal language
Bioacoustics
Cat organ & piganino
Cross-linguistic onomatopoeias
Field recording
List of animal names
List of onomatopoeias
"Old MacDonald Had a Farm"
"The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)"
References
External links
List of animal sounds to download, listen and use for free.
Multilingual list of animal sounds Derek Abbott, University of Adelaide
Linguistics lists
Zoosemiotics | wiki |
Dana Taylor may refer to:
Dana Taylor (Desperate Housewives), a character on US TV series Desperate Housewives
Dana Taylor, Playboy's Playmate of the month July 2017 | wiki |
United World Wrestling (UWW) is the international governing body for the sport of amateur wrestling; its duties include overseeing wrestling at the Olympics. It presides over international competitions for various forms of wrestling, including Greco-Roman wrestling, Freestyle wrestling, Grappling, for men and women, as well as others. The flagship event of UWW is the Wrestling World Championships. It was formerly known as the FILA (), having assumed its current name in September 2014.
Disciplines
As of 2016, UWW sets rules and regulations and holds international competitions in the following wrestling styles:
Olympic styles
Greco-Roman wrestling
Freestyle wrestling (Men's & Women's)
Associated styles
Grappling (Gi and no-Gi)
Beach wrestling (recognized by the FILA Congress in 2004)
Amateur pankration (recognized by the FILA Congress in 2010)
Traditional wrestling
African wrestling
Alysh belt wrestling (recognized by the FILA Congress in 2008)
Pahlavani wrestling
Adaptations to the international regulations set by UWW are usually made by each national federation for all national and regional competitions.
Events
Wrestling Championships held:
Presidents
Einar Råberg (1921–1924)
Alfréd Brüll (1924–1930)
Viktor Smeds (1930–1952)
Roger Coulon (1952–1971)
Milan Ercegan (1971–2002)
Raphaël Martinetti (2002–2013)
Nenad Lalović (2013–present)
Events, activities, and honors
UWW is the body responsible for supervising Olympic wrestling, and so competitions for freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling take place every Summer Olympiad.
Besides the Summer Olympics, there are also various international competition such as the Commonwealth Games, the Pan-American Games, etc. that have wrestling as an official sport. Also, the Continental Championships and Continental Cups usually take place annual and are regulated by each Continental Committee. Then, there are World Championships that usually take place among the various nations every year (for the senior age category, every year except the year the Summer Olympics are held), and many international tournaments that take place between countries and among wrestlers of the same country (such as the United States Nationals in freestyle and Greco-Roman).
These tournaments encompass a wide variety of age categories and also both genders, but can also take place separately for each gender or for each age category (schoolboys or schoolgirls, cadets, juniors, and seniors).
UWW also sponsors training for athletes in the various wrestling styles at training centers, currently located in Finland, France, Italy, Japan, Spain, Turkey, and the United States. The International Wrestling Hall of Fame, located in Stillwater, Oklahoma awards individuals with honors in Greco-Roman wrestling, freestyle wrestling, women's wrestling, and officiating.
The UWW also sponsors the Cerro Pelado International in Cuba.
Organization and governance
UWW is now based in Corsier-sur-Vevey, outside of Lausanne, Switzerland. The official languages are English and French. UWW is governed by a congress made up of representatives from each of the 176 national wrestling federations (the nation's governing body for wrestling). National federations that at least govern the two Olympic wrestling styles are admitted as affiliate members. Those national federations that exclusively govern traditional wrestling and other styles can be admitted as associated members. Up to three representatives from each federation may attend the conference, and only one may vote. The congress meets at least every two years, usually during the Olympic Games or during the World Championships that meet between Olympic Games. The UWW Congress in turn elects members of the UWW Bureau and the UWW President.
The bureau serves as the directing and administrating body of UWW. The UWW Bureau is composed of the president, four vice presidents, the Secretary General, 12 other elected members (with two seats reserved for women), the presidents of the five Continental Committees, and an Honorary President who advises but has no vote (currently, Milan Ercegan). Honorary members are also in turn elected to the bureau but do not vote. The President, the Vice presidents, and the Secretary General make up the Executive Committee. Each of the members represents himself or herself personally and has an individual vote in the Congress. No two members represent the same nationality (exceptions may be made for the president, the two female members, the Continental Committee presidents, and the Honorary President).
The UWW President manages the day-to-day affairs of the organization. The president represents UWW at international meetings, before the International Olympic Committee, and before the general public. The current interim President of UWW is Nenad Lalovic from Serbia who has served in that role since 2013. Bureau members and the President serve for six-year terms and can be reelected. Usually one third of the Bureau members are up for reelection every two years.
A Secretary General is chosen by the bureau for six years and is the secondary director of UWW behind the President, serves as secretary of both the Bureau and the Congress, and maintains healthy communication between the national federations, the Continental Committees, the Commissions, and all the departments of UWW. The current Secretary General is Michel Dusson from France.
There are also auxiliary bodies of UWW. One group of auxiliary bodies is the Continental Committee, made up of each of the national federations on each continent (currently Africa, Asia, the Americas, Europe, and Oceania). The Continental Committees are directed by an executive bureau composed of a president, vice president, and three other members who all serve for a term of four years. Continental Committees meet at least every two years in the year following the Summer Olympics, in which there is usually the Continental Championship.
Other auxiliary bodies include commissions, which are made of a president, vice president, secretary, and four other members who all serve for four years. Commissions include those dealing with Technical issues; Officiating; Medical Safety and Anti Doping; Promotion; and for Athletes. The members of the commissions are nominated and financially supported by the national federations that they originate from and are generally specialists in the field that the commission supervises.
Controversies
Biased refereeing
Pelle Svensson, a former two-time world champion (Greco-Roman 100 kg class) and member of board of FILA from 1990 to 2007, has described FILA as an inherently corrupt organization. During the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Svensson served as chairman of the disciplinary committee of FILA. As he was watching the final in the men's Greco-Roman wrestling 84 kg class between Alexei Michine from Russia and Ara Abrahamian from Sweden, Svensson witnessed how the Russian team leader Mikhail Mamiashvili was giving signs to the referee. When Svensson approached him and informed him that this was not allowed according to the rules, Mamiashvili responded by saying: "you should know that this may lead to your death". Svensson later found proof that the Romanian referee was bribed (according to Svensson the referee had received over one million Swedish krona).
Svensson also spoke out in support of the allegations of corruption during the semifinals in the men's Greco-Roman wrestling 84 kg at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, when (again) Ara Abrahamian lost against Andrea Minguzzi from Italy after a controversial ruling by the referee. It was later reported that the referee of the match, Jean-Marc Petoud from Switzerland, is a first cousin of the current President of FILA Raphaël Martinetti. Abrahamian, who was stripped of his bronze medal in the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics after dropping the medal in protest, has received a level of vindication through the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). His protest revolved around a second round bout with Italian Andrea Minguzzi, where a penalty wasn't assessed until after the round had concluded. Abrahamian's coach was denied a chance to review the call via video, and FILA also refused an official protest from the coach. Minguzzi later took gold in the event.
CAS ruled in favor of Abrahamian that in future Olympic matches FILA must have an appeals process that affirms the Olympic Charter in addition to FILA's own rules concerning fair play:
"FILA is required by the Olympic Charter and its own internal rules, to provide a procedure in its rules for an appeal jury (or some equivalent) to hear promptly claims by athletes or others affected that in a competition the relevant officials have not complied with FILA rules and procedures. Article 22 of its Wrestling Rules may provide such a procedure.If so, FILA should clarify that mechanism. In any event, FILA did not follow Article 22 properly, if at all, or provide any other appropriate appeal mechanism in this case. The Athlete is also entitled to invoke the disciplinary process contemplated by Article 36 of the Constitution."''In their ruling, the CAS judges specifically noted the absence of FILA officials at the Abrahamian hearing:"On 21 August 2008, FILA corresponded with the CAS and indicated it was unavailable to attend the hearing at the proposed time and date. In order to allow the attendance of FILA’s officials at the hearing, the Panel offered a different time that would be suitable to all parties. FILA repeated that it would not attend the hearing."''
Inclusion in the Olympics
Because of growing costs, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) has been under pressure to reduce the number of events and the number of athletes in each summer game. The IOC has adopted a system where "core sports" would continue indefinitely in future Olympics, but "non-core" sports would be selected for inclusion on an Olympic game-by-game basis. Wrestling was one of the 26 core sports. However, following the 2012 London Olympics, the IOC's Executive Committee conducted a study of the 26 core sports in terms of their success at the London Olympics as well as worldwide grassroots support. The study sought to trim one core sport so that starting with the 2020 Olympics, only 25 core sports would continue. On 12 February 2013, the IOC Executive Board voted to recommend that wrestling be dropped as a core sport.
FILA responded with a statement the same day:
FILA was greatly astonished by today's recommendation of the IOC Executive Board not to maintain wrestling among the 25 core sports for the 2020 Olympic Games. FILA will take all necessary measures to convince the IOC Executive Board and IOC members of the aberration of such decision against one of the founding sports of the ancient and modern Olympic Games.
On 15 February, FILA held an emergency meeting and its President, Raphaël Martinetti, asked for a vote of confidence. When only 50% of his Board voted to support him, he resigned as FILA President. Although wrestlers would be able to continue to compete in the World Games, United States wrestlers expressed grave disappointment at the possibility that they could be excluded from future Olympics.
Subsequently, wrestling had to compete with seven other non-core sports – baseball/softball, squash, karate, sport climbing, wakeboarding, wushu and roller sports – for a place in the 2020 Games. On 8 September 2013 the IOC voted to restore wrestling as an Olympic sport for 2020.
Biased Visa Enforcement
In March 2019, the UWW recommended that its national federations end discussions or relations with the Wrestling Federation of India in the wake of visa denials to Pakistani Shooting sportspersons. In October 2022, the Spanish Embassy in New Delhi arbitrarily denied visas to 21 female and male Indian wrestlers, preventing them from participating in the U23 World Championships in Pontevedra, Spain. Denials included the U20 Gold Medallist Antim Panghal. As of October 17, 2022, the UWW has not made any statements or recommendations about the situation.
Hall of fame
The UWW International Wrestling Hall of Fame is located in the National Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum. It contains a Hall of Honors and the Hall of Fame.
See also
List of World Champions in Men's Freestyle Wrestling
FILA Wrestling World Cup
FILA Wrestling World Championships
World Wrestling Clubs Cup
World Beach Wrestling Championships
List of World Championships medalists in wrestling (freestyle)
List of World Championships medalists in wrestling (Greco-Roman)
List of World Championships medalists in wrestling (women)
List of World and Olympic Champions in Greco-Roman wrestling
List of World and Olympic Champions in men's freestyle wrestling
References
External links
International Wrestling Hall of Fame
Amateur wrestling
Wrestling
Sports organizations established in 1912 | wiki |
An intern is one who works in a temporary position with an emphasis on on-the-job training rather than merely employment.
Intern or internship may also refer to:
Internship (medicine), training for a physician who has completed medical school
Intern (computer science), an immutable copy of a string
Film and television
The Interns (film), a 1962 drama film starring Michael Callan and Cliff Robertson
The New Interns, the 1964 sequel film, starring Michael Callan and Dean Jones
The Interns (TV series), a 1970 American drama series, spin-off of the 1960s films, starring Broderick Crawford
The Intern (2000 film) about the world of fashion magazines, starring Dominique Swain, Joan Rivers, Peggy Lipton, and Kathy Griffin
Scrubs: Interns, a 2009 webisode series, based upon and airing the same day as their eight season Scrubs episodes
Interns (TV series), or Интерны (Interny), a 2010–2016 Russian television medical sitcom
The Internship, 2013 film, starring Vince Vaughn and Owen Wilson as recently-laid-off salesmen
The Intern (2015 film), starring Robert De Niro, Anne Hathaway, and Rene Russo
Music
The Interns (band), a British rock group
The Viceroys, Jamaican vocal group also known as The Interns
See also
Internment | wiki |
The Two-Gun Man – film del 1911 prodotto dalla Essanay
Treat 'Em Rough (The Two-Gun Man) – film del 1919 diretto da Lynn Reynolds
The Two-Gun Man – film del 1926 diretto da David Kirkland | wiki |
A gingerbread man is a biscuit or cookie made of gingerbread, in human shape.
Gingerbread Man may also refer to:
Media
Music
Songs
"Gingerbread Man", a 1968 song by Tommy James and the Shondells
"Gingerbread Man", a 2015 song by Melanie Martinez
"Gingerbread Man", a 2009 song by Gucci Mane featuring OJ da Juiceman
Albums
Gingerbread Man (album), a 1994 album by The Residents
Gingerbread Men (album), a 1966 album by Clark Terry and Bob Brookmeyer
Film
Gingerbread Man, a character voiced by Conrad Vernon in the Shrek films
The Gingerbread Man, a 1998 film by Robert Altman
The Ginger Bread Boy, a 1934 cartoon short based on the fairytale
The Gingerdead Man, a 2006 comedy-horror film
Theatre
The Gingerbread Man, a 1906 musical play by Frederick Ranken and Alfred Baldwin Sloane
The Gingerbread Man (musical), a two-act musical play written by David Wood
The Gingerbread Lady, a 1970 play
Literature
"The Gingerbread Man", a fairy tale
"The Gingerbread Girl", a 2007 novella by Stephen King
The Ginger Man, a 1955 novel by J.P. Donleavy
Other
The Gingerbread Man (TV series), a stop motion-animated television series adapted from David Wood's musical
Other
Gingerbreadman map, a chaotic mathematical 2D map
Runner's diarrhea, also known as the gingerbread man
See also
Gingerbread (disambiguation) | wiki |
Silenced may refer to:
Films
Silenced, a 2014 documentary by James Spione about three whistleblowers and the war on terror
Silenced (film), a 2011 South Korean drama film
Literature
Silenced: China's Great Wall of Censorship, a 2006 book by Oystein Alme and Morten Vågen
Music
Silenced (album), a 2005 album by The Black Dog
"Silenced", a song by Mudvayne from The End of All Things to Come
See also
Silence (disambiguation)
Silent (disambiguation) | wiki |
Drinking water is water that is used in drink or food preparation; potable water is water that is safe to be used as drinking water. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, age, health-related issues, and environmental conditions. Recent work showed that the most important driver of water turnover which is closely linked to water requirements is energy expenditure. For those who work in a hot climate, up to a day may be required. Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, even though only a small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Other typical uses for tap water include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation. Its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Water may also be unacceptable due to levels of toxins or suspended solids.
Globally, by 2015, 89% of people had access to water from a source that is suitable for drinkingcalled improved water source. In sub-Saharan Africa, access to potable water ranged from 40% to 80% of the population. Nearly 4.2 billion people worldwide had access to tap water, while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps. The World Health Organization considers access to safe drinking-water a basic human right.
About 1 to 2 billion people lack safe drinking water. Water can carry vectors of disease. More people die from unsafe water than from war, then-U.N. secretary-general Ban Ki-moon said in 2010. Third world countries are most affected by lack of water, flooding, and water quality. Up to 80 percent of illnesses in developing countries are the direct result of inadequate water and sanitation. According to a report by UNICEF and UNESCO, Finland has the best drinking water quality in the world.
Water resources
Water covers approximately 70% of the Earth's surface, where approximately 97.2% of it is saline, only 2.8% fresh. Potable water is available in almost all populated areas of the Earth, although it may be expensive and the supply may not always be sustainable. Sources where water may be obtained include springs, hyporheic zones and aquifers, and:
Precipitation which includes rain, hail, snow, fog, etc.
Surface water such as rivers, streams, glaciers
Biological sources such as plants
Desalinated seawater
Water supply network
Atmospheric water generators
Threats for the availability of water resources include: water scarcity, water pollution, water conflict, insufficient well-depth, droughts and overpumping, and the effects of climate change.
Consumption
Requirements for drinking
The amount of drinking water required per day is variable. It depends on physical activity, age, health, and environmental conditions. In the United States, the Adequate Intake for total water, based on median intakes, is per day for human males older than 18, and per day for human females older than 18 which includes about 80% from beverages and 20% from food. The European Food Safety Authority recommends of total water per day for adult women and per day for adult men. The common advice to drink 8 glasses () of plain water per day is not based on science, and an individual's thirst provides a better guide for how much water they require rather than a specific, fixed quantity. Americans age 21 and older, on average, drink of drinking water a day and 95% drink less than per day. Physical exercise and heat exposure cause loss of water and therefore may induce thirst and greater water intake. Physically active individuals in hot climates may have total daily water needs of or more.
The drinking water contribution to mineral nutrients intake is also unclear. Inorganic minerals generally enter surface water and ground water via storm water runoff or through the Earth's crust. Treatment processes also lead to the presence of some minerals. Examples include calcium, zinc, manganese, phosphate, fluoride and sodium compounds. Water generated from the biochemical metabolism of nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some arthropods and desert animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake. There are a variety of trace elements present in virtually all potable water, some of which play a role in metabolism. For example, sodium, potassium and chloride are common chemicals found in small quantities in most waters, and these elements play a role in body metabolism. Other elements such as fluoride, while beneficial in low concentrations, can cause dental problems and other issues when present at high levels.
Fluid balance is key. Profuse sweating can increase the need for electrolyte (salt) replacement. Water intoxication (which results in hyponatremia), the process of consuming too much water too quickly, can be fatal. Water makes up about 60% of the body weight in men and 55% of weight in women. A baby is composed of about 70% to 80% water while the elderly are composed of around 45%.
Household usage
In the United States, the typical water consumption per capita, at home, is of water per day. Of this, only 1% of the water provided by public water suppliers is for drinking and cooking. Uses include (in decreasing order) toilets, washing machines, showers, baths, faucets, and leaks.
Animals
The qualitative and quantitative aspects of drinking water requirements on domesticated animals are studied and described within the context of animal husbandry. However, relatively few studies have been focused on the drinking behavior of wild animals.
Water supply
The most efficient and convenient way to transport and deliver potable water is through pipes. Plumbing can require significant capital investment. Some systems suffer high operating costs. The cost to replace the deteriorating water and sanitation infrastructure of industrialized countries may be as high as $200 billion a year. Leakage of untreated and treated water from pipes reduces access to water. Leakage rates of 50% are not uncommon in urban systems.
Springs are often used as sources for bottled waters. Tap water, delivered by domestic water systems refers to water piped to homes and delivered to a tap or spigot. For these water sources to be consumed safely, they must receive adequate treatment and meet drinking water regulations.
Because of the high initial investments, many less wealthy nations cannot afford to develop or sustain appropriate infrastructure, and as a consequence people in these areas may spend a correspondingly higher fraction of their income on water. 2003 statistics from El Salvador, for example, indicate that the poorest 20% of households spend more than 10% of their total income on water. In the United Kingdom, authorities define spending of more than 3% of one's income on water as a hardship.
Water quality
According to the World Health Organization's 2017 report, safe drinking-water is water that "does not represent any significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption, including different sensitivities that may occur between life stages".
Parameters for drinking water quality typically fall within three categories: physical, chemical, microbiological.
Physical and chemical parameters include heavy metals, trace organic compounds, total suspended solids, and turbidity. Chemical parameters tend to pose more of a chronic health risk through buildup of heavy metals although some components like nitrates/nitrites and arsenic can have a more immediate impact. Physical parameters affect the aesthetics and taste of the drinking water and may complicate the removal of microbial pathogens.
Microbiological parameters include coliform bacteria, E. coli, and specific pathogenic species of bacteria (such as cholera-causing Vibrio cholerae), viruses, and protozoan parasites. Originally, fecal contamination was determined with the presence of coliform bacteria, a convenient marker for a class of harmful fecal pathogens. The presence of fecal coliforms (like E. Coli) serves as an indication of contamination by sewage. Additional contaminants include protozoan oocysts such as Cryptosporidium sp., Giardia lamblia, Legionella, and viruses (enteric). Microbial pathogenic parameters are typically of greatest concern because of their immediate health risk.
Throughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human sewage in particular human fecal pathogens and parasites. In 2006, waterborne diseases were estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water. In parts of the world, the only sources of water are from small streams that are often directly contaminated by sewage.
Pesticides, whether used in agriculture or domestically (e.g. homes, schools, businesses) are potential drinking water contaminants. Pesticides may be present in drinking water in low concentrations, but the toxicity of the chemical and the extent of human exposure are factors that are used to determine the specific health risk.
Perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic compounds used in a large variety of consumer products, such as food packaging, waterproof fabrics, carpeting and cookware. PFAS are known to persist in the environment and are commonly described as persistent organic pollutants. PFAS chemicals have been detected in blood, both humans and animals, worldwide, as well as in food products, water, air and soil. Animal testing studies with PFAS have shown effects on growth and development, and possibly effects on reproduction, thyroid, the immune system and liver. As of 2022 the health impacts of many PFAS compounds are not understood. Scientists are conducting research to determine the extent and severity of impacts from PFAS on human health. PFAS have been widely detected in drinking water worldwide and regulations have been developed, or are under development, in many countries.
Water treatment
Most water requires some treatment before use; even water from deep wells or springs. The extent of treatment depends on the source of the water. Appropriate technology options in water treatment include both community-scale and household-scale point-of-use (POU) designs. Only a few large urban areas such as Christchurch, New Zealand have access to sufficiently pure water of sufficient volume that no treatment of the raw water is required.
In emergency situations when conventional treatment systems have been compromised, waterborne pathogens may be killed or inactivated by boiling but this requires abundant sources of fuel, and can be very onerous on consumers, especially where it is difficult to store boiled water in sterile conditions. Other techniques, such as filtration, chemical disinfection, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation (including solar UV) have been demonstrated in an array of randomized control trials to significantly reduce levels of water-borne disease among users in low-income countries, but these suffer from the same problems as boiling methods.
Another type of water treatment is called desalination and is used mainly in dry areas with access to large bodies of saltwater.
Point of use methods
The ability of point of use (POU) options to reduce disease is a function of both their ability to remove microbial pathogens if properly applied and such social factors as ease of use and cultural appropriateness. Technologies may generate more (or less) health benefit than their lab-based microbial removal performance would suggest.
The current priority of the proponents of POU treatment is to reach large numbers of low-income households on a sustainable basis. Few POU measures have reached significant scale thus far, but efforts to promote and commercially distribute these products to the world's poor have only been under way for a few years.
Solar water disinfection is a low-cost method of purifying water that can often be implemented with locally available materials. Unlike methods that rely on firewood, it has low impact on the environment.
Global access
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and a component of effective policy for health protection." In 1990, only 76 percent of the global population had access to drinking water. By 2015 that number had increased to 91 percent. In 1990, most countries in Latin America, East and South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa were well below 90%. In Sub-Saharan Africa, where the rates are lowest, household access ranges from 40 to 80 percent. Countries that experience violent conflict can have reductions in drinking water access: One study found that a conflict with about 2,500 battle deaths deprives 1.8% of the population of potable water.
By 2015, 5.2 billion people representing 71% of the global population used safely managed drinking water services. As of 2017, 90% of people having access to water from a source that is suitable for drinkingcalled improved water sourceand 71% of the world could access safely managed drinking water that is clean and available on-demand. Estimates suggest that at least 25% of improved sources contain fecal contamination. 1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by feces. This can result in infectious diseases, such as gastroenteritis, cholera, and typhoid, among others. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of safe water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries. In 2017, almost 22 million Americans drank from water systems that were in violation of public health standards, which could contribute to citizens developing water-borne illnesses. Safe drinking water is an environmental health concern. Bottled water is sold for public consumption in most parts of the world.
Improved sources are also monitored based on whether water is available when needed (5.8 billion people), located on premises (5.4 billion), free from contamination (5.4 billion), and within a 30-minute round trip. While improved water sources such as protected piped water are more likely to provide safe and adequate water as they may prevent contact with human excreta, for example, this is not always the case. According to a 2014 study, approximately 25% of improved sources contained fecal contamination.
The population in Australia, New Zealand, North America and Europe have achieved nearly universal basic drinking water services.
As of 2015, American households use an average of 300 gallons of water a day.
Monitoring
The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation is the official United Nations mechanism tasked with monitoring progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) relating to drinking-water and sanitation (MDG 7, Target 7c), which is to: "Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking-water and basic sanitation".
Access to safe drinking water is indicated by safe water sources. These improved drinking water sources include household connection, public standpipe, borehole condition, protected dug well, protected spring, and rain water collection. Sources that do not encourage improved drinking water to the same extent as previously mentioned include: unprotected wells, unprotected springs, rivers or ponds, vender-provided water, bottled water (consequential of limitations in quantity, not quality of water), and tanker truck water. Access to sanitary water comes hand in hand with access to improved sanitation facilities for excreta, such as connection to public sewer, connection to septic system, or a pit latrine with a slab or water seal.
According to this indicator on improved water sources, the MDG was met in 2010, five years ahead of schedule. Over 2 billion more people used improved drinking water sources in 2010 than did in 1990. However, the job is far from finished. 780 million people are still without improved sources of drinking water, and many more people still lack safe drinking water. Estimates suggest that at least 25% of improved sources contain fecal contamination and an estimated 1.8 billion people globally use a source of drinking water that suffers from fecal contamination. The quality of these sources varies over time and often gets worse during the wet season. Continued efforts are needed to reduce urban-rural disparities and inequities associated with poverty; to dramatically increase safe drinking water coverage in countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania; to promote global monitoring of drinking water quality; and to look beyond the MDG target towards universal coverage.
Definitions
A "safely managed drinking water service" is "one located on premises, available when needed and free from contamination".
The terms 'improved water source' and 'unimproved water source' were coined in 2002 as a drinking water monitoring tool by the JMP of UNICEF and WHO. The term, improved water source refers to "piped water on premises (piped household water connection located inside the user’s dwelling, plot or yard), and other improved drinking water sources (public taps or standpipes, tube wells or boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs, and rainwater collection)".
International development
Expanding WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) coverage and monitoring in non-household settings such as schools, healthcare facilities, and work places, is included in Sustainable Development Goal 6.
WaterAid International is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that works on improving the availability of safe drinking water in some the world's poorest countries.
Sanitation and Water for All is a partnership that brings together national governments, donors, UN agencies, NGOs and other development partners. They work to improve sustainable access to sanitation and water supply to meet and go beyond the MDG target. In 2014, 77 countries had already met the MDG sanitation target, 29 were on track and, 79 were not on-track.
Health aspects
Contaminated water is estimated to result in more than half a million deaths per year. Contaminated water with the lack of sanitation was estimated to cause about one percent of disability adjusted life years worldwide in 2010. As contaminated water takes its toll on the health of those exposed, the duration of exposure plays a part in the effects of certain diseases.
Diarrheal diseases
Over 90% of deaths from diarrheal diseases in the developing world today occur in children under five years old. According to the WHO, the most common diseases linked with poor water quality are cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio. Malnutrition, especially protein-energy malnutrition, can decrease the children's resistance to infections, including water-related diarrheal diseases. Between 2000 and 2003, 769,000 children under five years old in sub-Saharan Africa died each year from diarrheal diseases. As a result from poor water quality and bad sanitation, an estimated 829,000 people die each year from diarrhoea. Only thirty-six percent of the population in the sub-Saharan region have access to proper means of sanitation. More than 2,000 children's lives are lost every day. In South Asia, 683,000 children under five years old died each year from diarrheal disease from 2000 to 2003. During the same period, in developed countries, 700 children under five years old died from diarrheal disease. Improved water supply reduces diarrhea morbidity by 25% and improvements in drinking water through proper storage in the home and chlorination reduces diarrhea episodes by 39%.
Groundwater pollution
Some efforts at increasing the availability of safe drinking water have been disastrous. When the 1980s were declared the "International Decade of Water" by the United Nations, the assumption was made that groundwater is inherently safer than water from rivers, ponds, and canals. While instances of cholera, typhoid and diarrhea were reduced, other problems emerged due to polluted groundwater.
Sixty million people are estimated to have been poisoned by well water contaminated by excessive fluoride, which dissolved from granite rocks. The effects are particularly evident in the bone deformations of children. Similar or larger problems are anticipated in other countries including China, Uzbekistan, and Ethiopia. Although helpful for dental health in low dosage, fluoride in large amounts interferes with bone formation.
Half of Bangladesh's 12 million tube wells contain unacceptable levels of arsenic due to the wells not dug deep enough (past 100 meters). The Bangladeshi government had spent less than US$7 million of the 34 million allocated for solving the problem by the World Bank in 1998. Natural arsenic poisoning is a global threat with 140 million people affected in 70 countries globally. These examples illustrate the need to examine each location on a case-by-case basis and not assume what works in one area will work in another.
Regulations
Guidelines for the assessment and improvement of service activities relating to drinking water have been published in the form of drinking water quality standards such as ISO 24510.
For example, the EU sets legislation on water quality. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy, known as the water framework directive, is the primary piece of legislation governing water. This drinking water directive relates specifically to water intended for human consumption. Each member state is responsible for establishing the required policing measures to ensure that the legislation is implemented. For example, in the UK the Water Quality Regulations prescribe maximum values for substances that affect wholesomeness and the Drinking Water Inspectorate polices the water companies.
In the United States, public water systems, defined as systems that serve more than 25 customers or 15 service connections, are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the Safe Drinking Water Act. As of 2019 the EPA has issued 88 standards for microorganisms, chemicals and radionuclides. The Food and Drug Administration regulates bottled water as a food product under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. All public water suppliers in the US must uphold a certain standard of water quality. If the requirements are met, Americans can drink their local tap water.
New Zealand
The Water Services Act 2021 brought Taumata Arowai' into existence as the new regulator of drinking water and waste water treatment in New Zealand. Initial activities including the establishment of a national register of water suppliers and establishing a network of accredited laboratories for drinking water and waste water analysis
Singapore
Singapore is a significant importer of water from neighbouring Malaysia but also has a made great efforts to reclaim as much used water as possible to enure adequate provision for the very crowded city/state. Their reclaimed water is marketed as NEWater. Singapore updated its water quality regulation in 2019 setting standards consistent with WHO recommended standards. Monitoring is undertaken by the Environmental Public Health Department of the Singaporean Government
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom regulation of water supplies is a devolved matter to the Welsh and Scottish Parliaments and the Northern Ireland Assembly.
In England and Wales there are two water industry regulatory authorities.
Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat) is the economic regulator of the water sector; it protects the interests of consumers by promoting effective competition and ensuring that water companies carry out their statutory functions. Ofwat has a management board comprising a Chairman, Chief Executive and Executive and Non-Executive members. There is a staff of about 240.
The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) provides independent assurance that the privatised water industry delivers safe, clean drinking water to consumers. The DWI was established in 1990 and comprises a Chief Inspector of Drinking Water and a team of about 40 people. The current standards of water quality are defined in Statutory Instrument 2016 No. 614 the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2016.
The functions and duties of the bodies are formally defined in the Water Industry Act 1991 (1991 c. 56) as amended by the Water Act 2003 (2003 c. 37) and the Water Act 2014 (2014 c. 21).
In Scotland water quality is the responsibility of independent Drinking Water Quality Regulator (DWQR).
In Northern Ireland the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) regulates drinking water quality of public and private supplies. The current standards of water quality are defined in the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2017.
United States
The Safe Drinking Water Act requires the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set standards for drinking water quality in public water systems (entities that provide water for human consumption to at least 25 people for at least 60 days a year). Enforcement of the standards is mostly carried out by state health agencies. States may set standards that are more stringent than the federal standards.
EPA has set standards for over 90 contaminants organized into six groups: microorganisms, disinfectants, disinfection byproducts, inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals and radionuclides.
EPA also identifies and lists unregulated contaminants which may require regulation. The Contaminant Candidate List is published every five years, and EPA is required to decide whether to regulate at least five or more listed contaminants.
Local drinking water utilities may apply for low interest loans, to make facility improvements, through the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund.
See also
Boil-water advisory
Human right to water and sanitation
List of water supply and sanitation by country
Water filter
Water fluoridation
Water intoxication
Water security
Water quality
References
External links
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy Water – Drinking Water One-stop resource for drinking water
US Environmental Protection Agency – National drinking water program – General info, regulations & technical publications
WHO – Water Sanitation and Health: drinking water quality
Sanitation | wiki |
In cricket, a ten-wicket haul occurs when a bowler takes ten wickets in either a single innings or across both innings of a two-innings match. The phrase ten wickets in a match is also used.
Taking ten wickets in a match at Lord's earns the bowler a place on the Lord's honours boards.
Ten wickets in a single innings
Taking all ten wickets in a single innings is rare. It has happened only three times in Test cricket.
Ten wickets across both innings of a match
Taking ten wickets across both innings of a match is more common, but is still a notable achievement. The bowler to achieve this feat the most in Test cricket was Muttiah Muralitharan, who did so 22 times.
See also
Five-wicket haul
References
Cricket terminology
Cricket records and statistics | wiki |
Awards of the Montenegrin Olympic Committee () are proclaimed since 1999, at the end of each calendar year, to the most successful athletes. Initially declared Young Male Athlete, Young Female Athlete, Men's Team and Woman's Team, awards for the Sportsman of the Year were introduced in 2011. The competition includes results from current Olympic sports.
Criteria for Awards
Awards are given to the athletes and teams according to their results in Olympic sports and Paralympic sports. The most valuable results are those accomplished in these competitions (in this order):
1. Olympic Games
2. World Championship
3. European Championship
4. World Cup
5. European Cup
6. Paralympic Games
If two sportspersons have identical results, award will go to athletes from individual sports instead of team sports. Exception can be taken if athlete from team sport won MVP award on Olympic Games, World Championship or European Championship. Also worldwide popularity of their sports can be taken into account, as well as maximum number of athletes from individual nation that can participate in competitions. If there are none, exceptional results in single year award will not be presented.
Sportsperson of the Year
This award is proclaimed since the introduction of awards in 2011.
Young Male Athlete of the Year
This award is introduced in 1999. So far it was awarded to 14 different athletes from 6 sports.
Young Female Athlete of the Year
This award is introduced in 1999. So far it was awarded to 14 different athletes from 8 sports.
Men's Team of the Year
This award is introduced in 1999. It was awarded to 13 different teams from 6 different sports.
Women's Team of the Year
This award is introduced in 1999. It was awarded to 5 different teams from 3 different sports.
External links
Montenegrin Olympic Committee: List of Awardees
Sport in Montenegro
Montenegrin awards
Lists of sportspeople
Lists of award winners
1999 establishments in Montenegro
Awards established in 1999 | wiki |
Lex non scripta is a Latin expression that means "'law not written'" or "'unwritten law'". It is a term that embraces all the laws which do not come under the definition of written law or "lex scripta" and it is composed, principally, of the law of nature, the law of nations, the common law, and customs.
See also
List of Latin phrases
Unspoken rule
Latin legal terminology | wiki |
A composer is a person who writes music. The term is especially used to indicate composers of Western classical music, or those who are composers by occupation. Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music.
Etymology and definition
The term is descended from Latin, compōnō; literally "one who puts together". The earliest use of the term in a musical context given by the Oxford English Dictionary is from Thomas Morley's 1597 A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music, where he says "Some wil be good descanters [...] and yet wil be but bad composers".
'Composer' is a loose term that generally refers to any person who writes music. More specifically, it is often used to denote people who are composers by occupation, or those who in the tradition of Western classical music. Writers of exclusively or primarily songs may be called composers, but since the 20th century the terms 'songwriter' or 'singer-songwriter' are more often used, particularly in the tradition of popular music. In other contexts, the term 'composer' can refer to a literary writer, or more rarely and generally, someone who combines pieces into a whole.
Across cultures and traditions composers may write and transmit music in a variety of ways. In much popular music, the composer writes a composition, and it is then transmitted via oral tradition. Conversely, in some Western classical traditions music may be composed aurally—i.e. "in the mind of the musician—and subsequently written and passed through written documents.
Role in the Western world
Relationship with performers
In the development of European classical music, the function of composing music initially did not have much greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive enormous attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance.
In the Western world, before the Romantic period of the 19th century, composition almost always went side by side with a combination of either singing, instructing and theorizing.
Even in a conventional Western piece of instrumental music, in which all of the melodies, chords, and basslines are written out in musical notation, the performer has a degree of latitude to add artistic interpretation to the work, by such means as by varying his or her articulation and phrasing, choosing how long to make fermatas (held notes) or pauses, and — in the case of bowed string instruments, woodwinds or brass instruments — deciding whether to use expressive effects such as vibrato or portamento. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed "interpretation". Different performers' interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer.
Although a musical composition often has a single author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write a song, or in musical theatre, where the songs may be written by one person, the orchestration of the accompaniment parts and writing of the overture is done by an orchestrator, and the words may be written by a third person.
A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st centuries, computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples of this range from wind chimes jingling in a breeze, to avant-garde music from the 20th century that uses graphic notation, to text compositions such as Aus den Sieben Tagen, to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music, and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski.
The nature and means of individual variation of the music are varied, depending on the musical culture in the country and the time period it was written. For instance, music composed in the Baroque era, particularly in slow tempos, often was written in bare outline, with the expectation that the performer would add improvised ornaments to the melody line during a performance. Such freedom generally diminished in later eras, correlating with the increased use by composers of more detailed scoring in the form of dynamics, articulation et cetera; composers became uniformly more explicit in how they wished their music to be interpreted, although how strictly and minutely these are dictated varies from one composer to another. Because of this trend of composers becoming increasingly specific and detailed in their instructions to the performer, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composer's written intention came to be highly valued (see, for example, Urtext edition). This musical culture is almost certainly related to the high esteem (bordering on veneration) in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers.
The historically informed performance movement has revived to some extent the possibility of the performer elaborating seriously the music as given in the score, particularly for Baroque music and music from the early Classical period. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to improvise. In genres other than classical music, the performer generally has more freedom; thus for instance when a performer of Western popular music creates a "cover" of an earlier song, there is little expectation of exact rendition of the original; nor is exact faithfulness necessarily highly valued (with the possible exception of "note-for-note" transcriptions of famous guitar solos).
In Western art music, the composer typically orchestrates his or her compositions, but in musical theatre and pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and, instead, compose the song in his or her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by the examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough for the creation of popular and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces and to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers.
History of employment
During the Middle Ages, most composers worked for the Catholic church and composed music for religious services such as plainchant melodies. During the Renaissance music era, composers typically worked for aristocratic employers. While aristocrats typically required composers to produce a significant amount of religious music, such as Masses, composers also penned many non-religious songs on the topic of courtly love: the respectful, reverential love of a great woman from afar. Courtly love songs were very popular during the Renaissance era. During the Baroque music era, many composers were employed by aristocrats or as church employees. During the Classical period, composers began to organize more public concerts for profit, which helped composers to be less dependent on aristocratic or church jobs. This trend continued in the Romantic music era in the 19th century. In the 20th century, composers began to seek employment as professors in universities and conservatories. In the 20th century, composers also earned money from the sales of their works, such as sheet music publications of their songs or pieces or as sound recordings of their works.
Role of women
In 1993, American musicologist Marcia Citron asked "[w]hy is music composed by women so marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?" Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women composers from the received 'canon' of performed musical works." She argues that in the 1800s, women composers typically wrote art songs for performance in small recitals rather than symphonies intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being seen as the most important genre for composers; since women composers did not write many symphonies, they were deemed to be not notable as composers.
According to Abbey Philips, "women musicians have had a very difficult time breaking through and getting the credit they deserve." During the Medieval eras, most of the art music was created for liturgical (religious) purposes and due to the views about the roles of women that were held by religious leaders, few women composed this type of music, with the nun Hildegard von Bingen being among the exceptions. Most university textbooks on the history of music discuss almost exclusively the role of male composers. As well, very few works by women composers are part of the standard repertoire of classical music. In Concise Oxford History of Music, "Clara Shumann is one of the only female composers mentioned", but other notable women composers of the common practice period include Fanny Mendelssohn and Cécile Chaminade, and arguably the most influential teacher of composers during the mid-20th century was Nadia Boulanger. Philips states that "[d]uring the 20th century the women who were composing/playing gained far less attention than their male counterparts."
Women today are being taken more seriously in the realm of concert music, though the statistics of recognition, prizes, employment, and overall opportunities are still biased toward men.
Clustering
Famous composers have a tendency to cluster in specific cities throughout history. Based on over 12,000 prominent composers listed in Grove Music Online and using word count measurement techniques, the most important cities for classical music can be quantitatively identified.
Paris has been the main hub for western classical music in all periods. It was ranked fifth in the 15th and 16th centuries but first in the 17th to 20th centuries inclusive. London was the second most meaningful city: eighth in the 15th century, seventh in the 16th, fifth in the 17th, second in the 18th and 19th centuries, and fourth in the 20th century. Rome topped the rankings in the 15th century, dropped to second in the 16th and 17th centuries, eighth in the 18th century, ninth in the 19th century but back at sixth in the 20th century. Berlin appears in the top ten rankings only in the 18th century and was ranked third most important city in both the 19th and 20th centuries. New York City entered the rankings in the 19th century (in fifth place) and stood at second rank in the 20th century. The patterns are very similar for a sample of 522 top composers.
Modern training
Professional classical composers often have a background in performing classical music during their childhood and teens, either as a singer in a choir, as a player in a youth orchestra, or as a performer on a solo instrument (e.g., piano, pipe organ, or violin). Teens aspiring to be composers can continue their postsecondary studies in a variety of formal training settings, including colleges, conservatories, and universities. Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and in Quebec, Canada provide lessons and amateur orchestral and choral singing experience for composition students. Universities offer a range of composition programs, including bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts degrees. As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as classical summer camps and festivals, which give students the opportunity to get coaching from composers.
Undergraduate
Bachelor's degrees in composition (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M) are four-year programs that include individual composition lessons, amateur orchestra/choral experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well-rounded education. Usually, composition students must complete significant pieces or songs before graduating. Not all composers hold a B.Mus. in composition; composers may also hold a B.Mus. in music performance or music theory.
Masters
Master of Music degrees (M.mus.) in composition consists of private lessons with a composition professor, ensemble experience, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two concerts featuring the composition student's pieces. A Master's degree in music (referred to as an M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a required minimum credential for people who wish to teach composition at a university or conservatory. A composer with an M.Mus. could be an adjunct professor or instructor at a university, but it would be difficult in the 2010s to obtain a tenure track professor position with this degree.
Doctoral
To become a tenure track professor, many universities require a doctoral degree. In composition, the key doctoral degree is the Doctor of Musical Arts, rather than the PhD; the PhD is awarded in music, but typically for subjects such as musicology and music theory.
Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or A.Mus.D) degrees in composition provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours beyond a master's degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree). For this reason, admission is highly selective. Students must submit examples of their compositions. If available, some schools will also accept video or audio recordings of performances of the student's pieces. Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination are required.
Students must prepare significant compositions under the guidance of faculty composition professors. Some schools require DMA composition students to present concerts of their works, which are typically performed by singers or musicians from the school. The completion of advanced coursework and a minimum B average are other typical requirements of a D.M.A program. During a D.M.A. program, a composition student may get experience teaching undergraduate music students.
Other routes
Some composers did not complete composition programs, but focused their studies on the performance of voice or an instrument or on music theory, and developed their compositional skills over the course of a career in another musical occupation.
References
Citations
General and cited sources
Further reading
External links
Musical terminology
Occupations in music
The arts | wiki |
El término Premio LUX puede referirse a:
Premios de Fotografía Profesional LUX, premios otorgados por la Asociación de Fotógrafos Profesionales de España.
Premio LUX del Parlamento Europeo, galardón cinematográfico establecido por el Parlamento Europeo. | wiki |
Starkweather may refer to:
People
Amelia Minerva Starkweather (1840–1926), American educator and author
Charles Starkweather (1938–1959), spree killer in 1957–58
David A. Starkweather (1802–1876), American politician and diplomat
Gary Starkweather (1938–2019), American engineer and inventor
George Anson Starkweather (Michigan businessman) (1826–1907), American merchant, teacher, and politician
George Anson Starkweather (New York politician) (1794–1879), American politician
George Anson Starkweather (Pennsylvania lawyer) (1821–1904), American lawyer, merchant, schoolteacher and public official
Henry H. Starkweather (1826–1876), American politician
John Amsden Starkweather (1925–2001), American clinical psychologist at University of California, San Francisco
John Converse Starkweather (1829–1890), brigadier general in the Civil War and Washington, D.C., lawyer
Mary Ann Starkweather (1819–1897), American philanthropist
Norris Garshom Starkweather (1818–1885), American architect; see Potter Building
Samuel Starkweather (1799–1876), collector of the ports and mayor of Cleveland, Ohio
Other
Starkweather, North Dakota, United States
Starkweather (band), an American hardcore / metal (metalcore) band
Starkweather (film), a 2004 film based on Charles Starkweather
Starkweather (comics), a comic series from Arcana Studio and Archaia Studios Press | wiki |
Plutonium (94Pu) is an artificial element, except for trace quantities resulting from neutron capture by uranium, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. It was synthesized long before being found in nature, the first isotope synthesized being 238Pu in 1940. Twenty plutonium radioisotopes have been characterized. The most stable are plutonium-244 with a half-life of 80.8 million years, plutonium-242 with a half-life of 373,300 years, and plutonium-239 with a half-life of 24,110 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 7,000 years. This element also has eight meta states; all have half-lives of less than one second.
The isotopes of plutonium range in atomic weight from 228.0387 u (228Pu) to 247.074 u (247Pu). The primary decay modes before the most stable isotope, 244Pu, are spontaneous fission and alpha emission; the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products before 244Pu are isotopes of uranium and neptunium (not considering fission products), and the primary decay products after are isotopes of americium.
List of isotopes
|-
| rowspan=2|228Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 134
| rowspan=2|228.03874(3)
| rowspan=2|1.1(+20−5) s
| α (99.9%)
| 224U
| rowspan=2|0+
| rowspan=2|
|-
| β+ (.1%)
| 228Np
|-
| 229Pu
| style="text-align:right" | 94
| style="text-align:right" | 135
| 229.04015(6)
| 120(50) s
| α
| 225U
| 3/2+#
|
|-
| rowspan=2|230Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 136
| rowspan=2|230.039650(16)
| rowspan=2|1.70(17) min
| α
| 226U
| rowspan=2|0+
| rowspan=2|
|-
| β+ (rare)
| 230Np
|-
| rowspan=2|231Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 137
| rowspan=2|231.041101(28)
| rowspan=2|8.6(5) min
| β+
| 231Np
| rowspan=2|3/2+#
| rowspan=2|
|-
| α (rare)
| 227U
|-
| rowspan=2|232Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 138
| rowspan=2|232.041187(19)
| rowspan=2|33.7(5) min
| EC (89%)
| 232Np
| rowspan=2|0+
| rowspan=2|
|-
| α (11%)
| 228U
|-
| rowspan=2|233Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 139
| rowspan=2|233.04300(5)
| rowspan=2|20.9(4) min
| β+ (99.88%)
| 233Np
| rowspan=2|5/2+#
| rowspan=2|
|-
| α (.12%)
| 229U
|-
| rowspan=2|234Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 140
| rowspan=2|234.043317(7)
| rowspan=2|8.8(1) h
| EC (94%)
| 234Np
| rowspan=2|0+
| rowspan=2|
|-
| α (6%)
| 230U
|-
| rowspan=2|235Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 141
| rowspan=2|235.045286(22)
| rowspan=2|25.3(5) min
| β+ (99.99%)
| 235Np
| rowspan=2|(5/2+)
| rowspan=2|
|-
| α (.0027%)
| 231U
|-
| rowspan=4|236Pu
| rowspan=4 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=4 style="text-align:right" | 142
| rowspan=4|236.0460580(24)
| rowspan=4|2.858(8) y
| α
| 232U
| rowspan=4|0+
| rowspan=4|
|-
| SF (1.37×10−7%)
| (various)
|-
| CD (2×10−12%)
| 208Pb28Mg
|-
| β+β+ (rare)
| 236U
|-
| rowspan=2|237Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 143
| rowspan=2|237.0484097(24)
| rowspan=2|45.2(1) d
| EC
| 237Np
| rowspan=2|7/2−
| rowspan=2|
|-
| α (.0042%)
| 233U
|-
| style="text-indent:1em" | 237m1Pu
| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 145.544(10)2 keV
| 180(20) ms
| IT
| 237Pu
| 1/2+
|
|-
| style="text-indent:1em" | 237m2Pu
| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2900(250) keV
| 1.1(1) μs
|
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan=4|238Pu
| rowspan=4 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=4 style="text-align:right" | 144
| rowspan=4|238.0495599(20)
| rowspan=4|87.7(1) y
| α
| 234U
| rowspan=4|0+
| rowspan=4|Trace
|-
| SF (1.9×10−7%)
| (various)
|-
| CD (1.4×10−14%)
| 206Hg32Si
|-
| CD (6×10−15%)
| 180Yb30Mg28Mg
|-
| rowspan=2|239Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 145
| rowspan=2|239.0521634(20)
| rowspan=2|2.411(3)×104 y
| α
| 235U
| rowspan=2|1/2+
| rowspan=2|Trace
|-
| SF (3.1×10−10%)
| (various)
|-
| style="text-indent:1em" | 239m1Pu
| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 391.584(3) keV
| 193(4) ns
|
|
| 7/2−
|
|-
| style="text-indent:1em" | 239m2Pu
| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3100(200) keV
| 7.5(10) μs
|
|
| (5/2+)
|
|-
| rowspan=3|240Pu
| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 146
| rowspan=3|240.0538135(20)
| rowspan=3|6.561(7)×103 y
| α
| 236U
| rowspan=3|0+
| rowspan=3|Trace
|-
| SF (5.7×10−6%)
| (various)
|-
| CD (1.3×10−13%)
| 206Hg34Si
|-
| rowspan=3|241Pu
| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 147
| rowspan=3|241.0568515(20)
| rowspan=3|14.290(6) y
| β− (99.99%)
| 241Am
| rowspan=3|5/2+
| rowspan=3|
|-
| α (.00245%)
| 237U
|-
| SF (2.4×10−14%)
| (various)
|-
| style="text-indent:1em" | 241m1Pu
| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 161.6(1) keV
| 0.88(5) μs
|
|
| 1/2+
|
|-
| style="text-indent:1em" | 241m2Pu
| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2200(200) keV
| 21(3) μs
|
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan=2|242Pu
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 148
| rowspan=2|242.0587426(20)
| rowspan=2|3.75(2)×105 y
| α
| 238U
| rowspan=2|0+
| rowspan=2|
|-
| SF (5.5×10−4%)
| (various)
|-
| 243Pu
| style="text-align:right" | 94
| style="text-align:right" | 149
| 243.062003(3)
| 4.956(3) h
| β−
| 243Am
| 7/2+
|
|-
| style="text-indent:1em" | 243mPu
| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 383.6(4) keV
| 330(30) ns
|
|
| (1/2+)
|
|-
| rowspan=3|244Pu
| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 94
| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 150
| rowspan=3|244.064204(5)
| rowspan=3|8.00(9)×107 y
| α (99.88%)
| 240U
| rowspan=3|0+
| rowspan=3|Trace
|-
| SF (.123%)
| (various)
|-
| β−β− (7.3×10−9%)
| 244Cm
|-
| 245Pu
| style="text-align:right" | 94
| style="text-align:right" | 151
| 245.067747(15)
| 10.5(1) h
| β−
| 245Am
| (9/2−)
|
|-
| 246Pu
| style="text-align:right" | 94
| style="text-align:right" | 152
| 246.070205(16)
| 10.84(2) d
| β−
| 246mAm
| 0+
|
|-
| 247Pu
| style="text-align:right" | 94
| style="text-align:right" | 153
| 247.07407(32)#
| 2.27(23) d
| β−
| 247Am
| 1/2+#
|
Actinides vs fission products
Notable isotopes
Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 87.74 years and emits alpha particles. Pure 238Pu for radioisotope thermoelectric generators that power some spacecraft is produced by neutron capture on neptunium-237 but plutonium from spent nuclear fuel can contain as much as a few percent 238Pu, originating from 237Np, alpha decay of 242Cm, or (n,2n) reactions.
Plutonium-239 is the most important isotope of plutonium, with a half-life of 24,100 years. 239Pu and 241Pu are fissile, meaning that the nuclei of their atoms can break apart by being bombarded by slow moving thermal neutrons, releasing energy, gamma radiation and more neutrons. It can therefore sustain a nuclear chain reaction, leading to applications in nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors. 239Pu is synthesized by irradiating uranium-238 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, then recovered via nuclear reprocessing of the fuel. Further neutron capture produces successively heavier isotopes.
Plutonium-240 has a high rate of spontaneous fission, raising the background neutron radiation of plutonium containing it. Plutonium is graded by proportion of 240Pu: weapons grade (< 7%), fuel grade (7–19%) and reactor grade (> 19%). Lower grades are less suited for nuclear weapons and thermal reactors but can fuel fast reactors.
Plutonium-241 is fissile, but also beta decays with a half-life of 14 years to americium-241.
Plutonium-242 is not fissile, not very fertile (requiring 3 more neutron captures to become fissile), has a low neutron capture cross section, and a longer half-life than any of the lighter isotopes.
Plutonium-244 is the most stable isotope of plutonium, with a half-life of about 80 million years. It is not significantly produced in nuclear reactors because 243Pu has a short half-life, but some is produced in nuclear explosions. Plutonium-244 has been found in interstellar space and is has the longest half-life of any non-primordial radioisotope.
Production and uses
239Pu, a fissile isotope that is the second most used nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors after uranium-235, and the most used fuel in the fission portion of nuclear weapons, is produced from uranium-238 by neutron capture followed by two beta decays.
240Pu, 241Pu, and 242Pu are produced by further neutron capture. The odd-mass isotopes 239Pu and 241Pu have about a 3/4 chance of undergoing fission on capture of a thermal neutron and about a 1/4 chance of retaining the neutron and becoming the next heavier isotope. The even-mass isotopes are fertile material but not fissile and also have a lower overall probability (cross section) of neutron capture; therefore, they tend to accumulate in nuclear fuel used in a thermal reactor, the design of nearly all nuclear power plants today. In plutonium that has been used a second time in thermal reactors in MOX fuel, 240Pu may even be the most common isotope. All plutonium isotopes and other actinides, however, are fissionable with fast neutrons. 240Pu does have a moderate thermal neutron absorption cross section, so that 241Pu production in a thermal reactor becomes a significant fraction as large as 239Pu production.
241Pu has a half-life of 14 years, and has slightly higher thermal neutron cross sections than 239Pu for both fission and absorption. While nuclear fuel is being used in a reactor, a 241Pu nucleus is much more likely to fission or to capture a neutron than to decay. 241Pu accounts for a significant proportion of fissions in thermal reactor fuel that has been used for some time. However, in spent nuclear fuel that does not quickly undergo nuclear reprocessing but instead is cooled for years after use, much or most of the 241Pu will beta decay to americium-241, one of the minor actinides, a strong alpha emitter, and difficult to use in thermal reactors.
242Pu has a particularly low cross section for thermal neutron capture; and it takes three neutron absorptions to become another fissile isotope (either curium-245 or 241Pu) and fission. Even then, there is a chance either of those two fissile isotopes will fail to fission but instead absorb a fourth neutron, becoming curium-246 (on the way to even heavier actinides like californium, which is a neutron emitter by spontaneous fission and difficult to handle) or becoming 242Pu again; so the mean number of neutrons absorbed before fission is even higher than 3. Therefore, 242Pu is particularly unsuited to recycling in a thermal reactor and would be better used in a fast reactor where it can be fissioned directly. However, 242Pu's low cross section means that relatively little of it will be transmuted during one cycle in a thermal reactor. 242Pu's half-life is about 15 times as long as 239Pu's half-life; therefore, it is 1/15 as radioactive and not one of the larger contributors to nuclear waste radioactivity.
242Pu's gamma ray emissions are also weaker than those of the other isotopes.
243Pu has a half-life of only 5 hours, beta decaying to americium-243. Because 243Pu has little opportunity to capture an additional neutron before decay, the nuclear fuel cycle does not produce the long-lived 244Pu in significant quantity.
238Pu is not normally produced in as large quantity by the nuclear fuel cycle, but some is produced from neptunium-237 by neutron capture (this reaction can also be used with purified neptunium to produce 238Pu relatively free of other plutonium isotopes for use in radioisotope thermoelectric generators), by the (n,2n) reaction of fast neutrons on 239Pu, or by alpha decay of curium-242, which is produced by neutron capture from 241Am. It has significant thermal neutron cross section for fission, but is more likely to capture a neutron and become 239Pu.
Manufacture
Plutonium-240, -241 and -242
The fission cross section for 239Pu is 747.9 barns for thermal neutrons, while the activation cross section is 270.7 barns (the ratio approximates to 11 fissions for every 4 neutron captures). The higher plutonium isotopes are created when the uranium fuel is used for a long time. For high burnup used fuel, the concentrations of the higher plutonium isotopes will be higher than the low burnup fuel that is reprocessed to obtain weapons grade plutonium.
Plutonium-239
Plutonium-239 is one of the three fissile materials used for the production of nuclear weapons and in some nuclear reactors as a source of energy. The other fissile materials are uranium-235 and uranium-233. Plutonium-239 is virtually nonexistent in nature. It is made by bombarding uranium-238 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Uranium-238 is present in quantity in most reactor fuel; hence plutonium-239 is continuously made in these reactors. Since plutonium-239 can itself be split by neutrons to release energy, plutonium-239 provides a portion of the energy generation in a nuclear reactor.
Plutonium-238
There are small amounts of 238Pu in the plutonium of usual plutonium-producing reactors. However, isotopic separation would be quite expensive compared to another method: when a 235U atom captures a neutron, it is converted to an excited state of 236U. Some of the excited 236U nuclei undergo fission, but some decay to the ground state of 236U by emitting gamma radiation. Further neutron capture creates 237U, which has a half-life of 7 days and thus quickly decays to 237Np. Since nearly all neptunium is produced in this way or consists of isotopes that decay quickly, one gets nearly pure 237Np by chemical separation of neptunium. After this chemical separation, 237Np is again irradiated by reactor neutrons to be converted to 238Np, which decays to 238Pu with a half-life of 2 days.
Plutonium-240 as an obstacle to nuclear weapons
Plutonium-240 undergoes spontaneous fission as a secondary decay mode at a small but significant rate (%). The presence of 240Pu limits the plutonium's use in a nuclear bomb, because the neutron flux from spontaneous fission initiates the chain reaction prematurely, causing an early release of energy that physically disperses the core before full implosion is reached. This prevents most of the core from participation in the chain reaction and reduces the bomb's power.
Plutonium consisting of more than about 90% 239Pu is called weapons-grade plutonium; plutonium from spent nuclear fuel from commercial power reactors generally contains at least 20% 240Pu and is called reactor-grade plutonium. However, modern nuclear weapons use fusion boosting, which mitigates the predetonation problem; if the pit can generate a nuclear weapon yield of even a fraction of a kiloton, which is enough to start deuterium–tritium fusion, the resulting burst of neutrons will fission enough plutonium to ensure a yield of tens of kilotons.
Contamination due to 240Pu is the reason plutonium weapons must use the implosion method. Theoretically, pure 239Pu could be used in a gun-type nuclear weapon, but achieving this level of purity is prohibitively difficult. Plutonium-240 contamination has proven a mixed blessing to nuclear weapons design. While it created delays and headaches during the Manhattan Project because of the need to develop implosion technology, those same difficulties are currently a barrier to nuclear proliferation. Implosion devices are also inherently more efficient and less prone to accidental detonation than are gun-type weapons.
References
Isotope masses from:
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.
Plutonium
Plutonium | wiki |
Spectrometry may refer to:
Optical spectrometry, a technique for measuring the distribution of light across the optical spectrum, from the ultraviolet spectral region to the visible and infrared
Ion-mobility spectrometry, an analytical technique used to separate and identify ionized molecules in the gas phase based on their ion mobility in a carrier buffer gas
Mass spectrometry, an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles
Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, an analytical technique used to determine the structure and composition of materials by measuring the back-scattering of a beam of high energy ions impinging on a sample
Neutron triple-axis spectrometry, a technique used in inelastic neutron scattering
See also
Spectrometer
Spectrophotometry
Spectroscopy | wiki |
Charles Whitman peut désigner :
Charles Whitman (1941-1966), meurtrier célèbre ;
Charles Otis Whitman (1842-1910), zoologiste américain. | wiki |
Deltomerus gusevi is een keversoort uit de familie van de loopkevers (Carabidae). De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1988 door Belousov & Zamotajlov.
gusevi | wiki |
Treat 'Em Rough – film del 1917 diretto da Louis Chaudet
Treat 'Em Rough (The Two-Gun Man) – film del 1919 diretto da Lynn Reynolds
Treat 'Em Rough – film del 1942 diretto da Ray Taylor | wiki |
Incision may refer to:
Cutting, the separation of an object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force
A type of open wound caused by a clean, sharp-edged object such as a knife, razor, or glass splinter
Surgical incision, a cut made through the skin and soft tissue to facilitate an operation or procedure
River incision, in geomorphology
Incisions (album), by American deathcore band Oceano
Incision (band), a Dutch hard rock band
Incision (G.I. Joe), a fictional character | wiki |
Skibobbing (also called skibiking or snowbiking) is a winter sport involving a bicycle-type frame attached to skis instead of wheels and sometimes a set of foot skis. The use of foot skis is what defines "skibobbing".
Although skibobs are often called ski bikes or snow bikes, they are different, and the sport should also not be confused with snowbiking, which is the sport or recreation of bicycling on snow.
Type-1 skibobs have no suspension. Suspended designs are Type-2 'freestyle' skibobs.
History
Although the original idea for a bicycle with skis was patented as early as 1892, and skibobbing had been a form of transportation in the Alps, it was not until 1954 that the first international race was held. Seven years later, the FISB (Fédération Internationále de Skibob) was formed, which since 1967 has held an annual Skibobbing World Championship.
Originally, skibobbing was one of the very few methods by which could alpine ski, but it soon became a popular sport amongst the physically able, too. The main attractions are said to be the speeds attained (in some skibob giant slalom races, speeds of or more can be reached) and the feeling of jet skiing on snow.
Austrian skibobber Erich Brenter is noted for setting the first world record for downhill skibobbing speed in 1964, at .
Gallery
See also
Jack Jumping
Sit-ski, used in Para-alpine skiing
References
Snow sports
Articles containing video clips | wiki |
Anukul is a 2017 Indian Hindi-language science fiction drama short film directed by Sujoy Ghosh with Parambrata Chatterjee and Saurabh Shukla in the lead roles. It is based on the eponymous short story written by Satyajit Ray.
Plot
Nikunj Chaturvedi, a Hindi Teacher, buys an android from a salesperson of Chowringhee Robot Supply Corp. Before buying it, Nikunj Babu is warned by the salesperson not to hit the android named Anukul.
A few days later, Nikunj Babu's cousin brother Ratan visits Nikunj Babu at his home. He is surprised to see that his brother had bought a robot. Since he had recently been fired from his workplace due to complications with androids, the enraged Ratan proceeds to hit Anukul in the head with a clothing iron, causing Anukul to shut down.
In a different visit to his cousin brother's house, Ratan tells Nikunj Babu (who has recently lost his job due to a much-smarter and more efficient android) that he had become rich by inheriting the wealth from a recently deceased relative. While Nikunj Babu is away, the drunk Ratan again attempts to abuse the android, forcing Anukul to electrocute him with a high voltage electric spark, resulting in his untimely demise. The doctor, who examines Ratan, claims that he died from a heart attack.
A lawyer visits Nikunj Babu at his home from whom Nikunj Babu learns that he has inherited Ratan's whole wealth, as he is the only living next of kin. He is surprised to know that the value of his newly discovered wealth is 11.5 crore. Nikunj Babu and Anukul briefly exchange glances, as the film ends.
Cast
Parambrata Chatterjee as Anukul, a humanoid robot who has human-like thinking.
Saurabh Shukla as Nikunj Chaturvedi, a school teacher and the owner of Anukul.
Kharaj Mukherjee as Ratan, the cousin brother of Nikunj Babu.
Kanchan Mullick as Kanchan Khatmal, the president of Human Servants Association.
Barun Chanda as the unnamed Lawyer
Ekavali Khanna as the CRS salesperson
Dr. Ranjan Raychowdhury as himself
Production
Director Sujoy Ghosh wanted to make Anukul after the success of his 2015 short film Ahalya. He had initially cast Ronodeep Bose for the role of Anukul. But, the actor met with a bike accident and slipped into coma. Ghosh had also thought of casting Abir Chatterjee and Jisshu Sengupta for the role, but that did not go through. So, Ghosh had to shelve the project. After some time, the project was re-opened and Ghosh started to shoot Anukul with a brand new cast. Starring in the short film are Kharaj Mukherjee, Saurabh Shukla and Parambrata Chatterjee.
Reception
The film gained above 100,000 views within 24 hours of its release.
The short film has received positive responses from the critics around India. The Indian Express said, "The short film makes one think about the possibilities that are on the verge of becoming a reality and Ghosh’s haunting tone in some parts of the film leaves you with an eerie feeling. It makes one wonder that if this is the future we’re actively stepping into, then the race for survival is going to turn even more brutal but only for those who are unwilling to welcome it." A notable Indian actor, Amitabh Bacchan, has praised the short film. Hindustan Times said, "Both Saurabh and Parambrata give understated performances, in sync with the mood of the film. And, without saying much, the climax leaves us in a dilemma - should we judge the characters for what they did or should we applaud their presence of mind?".
See also
Ahalya
References
External links
Anukul on YouTube
2017 films
Indian short films
Indian science fiction drama films
2010s Hindi-language films
Films directed by Sujoy Ghosh
Films based on short fiction
2017 science fiction films | wiki |
A quarta temporada de True Blood estreou em 2011.
Episódios
Temporadas de True Blood | wiki |
A sétima temporada de True Blood estreou em 2014.
Episódios
</onlyinclude>
Temporadas de True Blood | wiki |
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