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A snipe is any of about 26 wading bird species in three genera in the family Scolopacidae. They are characterized by a very long, slender bill, eyes placed high on the head, and cryptic/camouflaging plumage. The Gallinago snipes have a nearly worldwide distribution, the Lymnocryptes snipe is restricted to Asia and Europe and the Coenocorypha snipes are found only in the outlying islands of New Zealand. The four species of painted snipe are not closely related to the typical snipes, and are placed in their own family, the Rostratulidae.
Behaviour
Snipes search for invertebrates in the mud with a "sewing-machine" action of their long bills. The sensitivity of the bill is caused by filaments belonging to the fifth pair of nerves, which run almost to the tip and open immediately under the soft cuticle in a series of cells; a similar adaptation is found in sandpipers; this adaptation give this portion of the surface of the premaxillaries a honeycomb-like appearance: with these filaments the bird can sense its food in the mud without seeing it.
Diet
Snipes feed mainly on insect larva. Other invertebrate prey include snails, crustacea, and worms. The snipe's bill allows the very tip to remain closed while the snipe slurps up invertebrates.
Habitat
Snipes can be found in various types of wet marshy settings including bogs, swamps, wet meadows, and along rivers, coast lines, and ponds. Snipes avoid settling in areas with dense vegetation, but rather seek marshy areas with patchy cover to hide from predators.
Hunting
Camouflage may enable snipes to remain undetected by hunters in marshland. The bird is also highly alert and startled easily, rarely staying long in the open. If the snipe flies, hunters have difficulty wing-shooting due to the bird's erratic flight pattern.
The difficulties involved around hunting snipes gave rise to the military term sniper, which originally meant an expert hunter highly skilled in marksmanship and camouflaging, but later evolved to mean a sharpshooter or a shooter who makes distant shots from concealment.
See also
Snipe eel
Snipe hunt
Woodcock
Footnotes
External links
Snipe videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Snipe sonogram at fssbirding.org.uk
Sandpipers
Game birds
Bird common names | wiki |
Janani may refer to:
Janani (1993 film), a 1993 Bengali film
Janani (1999 film), a 1999 Malayalam film
Janani (2006 film), 2006 Indian film
Janani (2021 TV series), a 2021 Indian series
Janani Iyer (born 1987), Indian actress
Janani Luwum (1922–1977), former Archbishop of the Church of Uganda
Janani Janmabhumishcha Swargadapi Gariyasi, national motto of Nepal
"Bande Utkala Janani", state Song of Odisha, India | wiki |
A virtual community is an online social network.
It may also refer to:
Online community, whose members interact with each other primarily via the Internet
Virtual community of practice, a community of practice that is maintained online
The Virtual Community, a 1993 book by Howard Rheingold
Virtual business, which employs electronic means to transact business
Virtual reality, a simulated experience
Virtual scientific community, a group of scientists who share resources over the internet
Virtual team, individuals who work together from different geographic locations
Virtual world, a computer-simulated environment
See also
List of virtual communities
List of virtual communities with more than 1 million users
IBM Virtual Universe Community
Virtual (disambiguation)
Community (disambiguation) | wiki |
General Dickson may refer to:
Alexander Dickson (British Army officer) (1777–1840), British Army major general
Collingwood Dickson (1817–1904), British Army general
David C. Dickson (Mississippi politician) (died 1836), Mississippi Militia brigadier general
Edward Thompson Dickson (1850–1938), British Army major general
Jeremiah Dickson (c. 1775–1848), British Army major general
Tracy Campbell Dickson (1868–1936), U.S. Army brigadier general
See also
General Dixon (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Targhee is a breed of domestic sheep developed in early 20th century by the USDA's Agricultural Research Service. Targhee sheep are a dual-purpose breed, with heavy, medium quality wool and good meat production characteristics. They are hardy, and are especially suited to the ranges of the West where they were developed. Targhee are especially popular in Montana, Wyoming and South Dakota, where their ¾ fine wool and ¼ long wool breeding is favored by western ranchers. This breed is raised primarily for wool.
Characteristics
Mature body weight in the rams is 200 lb (90 kg) to 300 lb (135 kg), with the ewes weighing slightly less at 125 lb (56 kg) to 200 lb (90 kg). Each ewe will average a 10 lb (4.5 kg) to 14 lb (6.3 kg) fleece; it has a fibre diameter of 21 to 25 micrometers and a spinning count of 64 to 58. The staple length of the fleece will be 3 inches (7.5 cm) to 5 inches (11 cm) with a yield of 50% to 55%.
History
Targhee sheep were named after the Targhee National Forest, which surrounds the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station in Idaho. Their ancestors were Rambouillet, Corriedale, and Lincoln sheep. Development of this breed for the Western ranges of the U.S. began as early as 1900. The flock book was closed in 1966, meaning that only the offspring of registered Targhees could be registered).
References
External links
U.S. Targhee Sheep Association
Sheep breeds
Sheep breeds originating in the United States | wiki |
New Bethel Baptist Church may refer to:
New Bethel Baptist Church (Detroit, Michigan)
New Bethel Baptist Church (Oak Ridge, Tennessee)
See also
Bethel Baptist Church (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Jazz Age was a period in the 1920s and 1930s in which jazz music and dance styles gained worldwide popularity. The Jazz Age's cultural repercussions were primarily felt in the United States, the birthplace of jazz. Originating in New Orleans as mainly sourced from the culture of African Americans, jazz played a significant part in wider cultural changes in this period, and its influence on popular culture continued long afterwards. The Jazz Age is often referred to in conjunction with the Roaring Twenties, and in the United States, it overlapped in significant cross-cultural ways with the Prohibition Era. The movement was largely affected by the introduction of radios nationwide. During this time, the Jazz Age was intertwined with the developing youth culture. The movement also helped start the beginning of the European Jazz movement.
Background
The term jazz age was in popular usage prior to 1920. In 1922, American writer F. Scott Fitzgerald further popularized the term with the publication of his short story collection Tales of the Jazz Age.
Jazz music
Jazz is a music genre that originated in the Black-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in blues and ragtime. New Orleans provided a cultural humus in which jazz could germinate because it was a port city with many cultures and beliefs intertwined. In the city, the development of jazz was influenced by Creole music, ragtime, and blues.
Jazz is seen by many as "America's classical music". The earliest Jazz styles, which emerged in New Orleans, Chicago, and New York in the early 1920s, are sometimes referred to as "dixieland jazz." In the 1920s, jazz became recognized as a major form of musical expression. It then emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of Black-American and European-American musical parentage with a performance orientation. From African traditions, jazz derived its rhythm, "blues", and traditions of playing or singing in one's own expressive way. From European traditions, jazz derived its harmony and instruments.
Louis Armstrong brought the improvisational solo to the forefront of a piece. Jazz is generally characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation.
Prohibition
Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages from 1920 to 1933. In the 1920s, the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Well-organized criminal gangs took control of the beer and liquor supply for many cities, unleashing a crime wave that shocked the U.S. This prohibition was taken advantage of by gangsters such as Al Capone, and approximately $60 million () in illegal alcohol was smuggled across the borders of Canada and the United States. The resulting illicit speakeasies that grew from this era became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music that included current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes.
By the late 1920s, a new opposition mobilized across the U.S. Anti-prohibitionists, or "wets," attacked prohibition as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing rural Protestant religious values on urban America. Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933. Some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the latter stages of the Progressive Era.
Speakeasies/records
Formed as a result of the eighteenth amendment, speakeasies were places (often owned by organized criminals) where customers could drink alcohol and relax or speakeasy. Jazz was played in these speakeasies as a countercultural type of music to fit in with the illicit environment and events going on. Jazz artists were therefore hired to play at speakeasies. Al Capone, the famous organized crime leader, gave jazz musicians previously living in poverty a steady and professional income. Thaddeus Russell, in A Renegade History of the United States, states: "The singer Ethel Waters fondly recalled that Capone treated her 'with respect, applause, deference, and paid in full.'" Also from A Renegade History of the United States, "The pianist Earl Hines remembered that 'Scarface [Al Capone] got along well with musicians. He liked to come into a club with his henchmen and have the band play his requests. He was very free with $100 tips." The illegal culture of speakeasies lead to what was known as "black and tan" clubs which had multiracial crowds.
There were many speakeasies, especially in Chicago and New York. New York had, at the height of Prohibition, 32,000 speakeasies. At speakeasies, both payoffs and mechanisms for hiding alcohol were used. Charlie Burns, in recalling his ownership of several speakeasies employed these strategies as a way to preserve his and Jack Kriendler's illegal clubs. This includes forming relationships with local police. Mechanisms that a trusted engineer created include one that when a button was pushed, tongue blocks under shelves of liquor would drop, making the shelves drop back and liquor bottles fall down a chute, break, and drain the alcohol through rocks and sand. An alarm also went off if the button was pushed to alert customers of a raid. Another mechanism used by Burns was a wine cellar with a thick door flush with the wall. It had a small, almost unnoticeable hole for a rod to be pushed in to activate a lock and open the door.
Rum running/bootlegging
As to where speakeasies obtained alcohol, there were rum runners and bootleggers. Rum running, in this case, was the organized smuggling of liquor by land or sea into the U.S. Decent foreign liquor was high-end alcohol during prohibition, and William McCoy had some of the best of it. Bill McCoy was in the rum-running business, and at certain points of time was ranked among the best. To avoid being caught, he sold liquor just outside the territorial waters of the United States. Buyers would come to him to pick up his booze as a precaution for McCoy. McCoy's liquor specialty was selling high-quality whiskey without diluting the alcohol. Bootlegging was making and or smuggling alcohol around the U.S. As selling the alcohol could make plenty of money, there are several major ways this was done. One strategy used by Frankie Yale and the Genna brothers gang (both involved in organized crime) was to give poor Italian Americans alcohol stills to make alcohol for them at $15 per day's work. Another strategy was to buy liquor from rumrunners. Racketeers would also buy closed breweries and distilleries and hire former employees to make alcohol. Another person famous for organized crime named Johnny Torrio partnered with two other mobsters and legitimate brewer Joseph Stenson to make illegal beer in a total of nine breweries. Finally, some racketeers stole industrial grain alcohol and redistilled it to sell in speakeasies.
History
From 1919, Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings. The year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s blues singers. Chicago, meanwhile, was the main center developing the new "Hot Jazz", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.
The same year, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band as featured soloist, leaving in 1925. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded "stiff, stodgy," with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality." The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924). (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it does not convey his use of swing.)
Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, which included instrumentalist's Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), and wife Lil on piano, where he popularized scat singing.
Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers. There was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras, such as Jean Goldkette's orchestra and Paul Whiteman's orchestra. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, premiered by Whiteman's Orchestra. Writer F. Scott Fitzgerald opined that Rhapsody in Blue idealized the youthful zeitgeist of the Jazz Age. By the mid-1920s, Whiteman was the most popular bandleader in the U.S. His success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoate kind of music. Other influential large ensembles included Fletcher Henderson's band, Duke Ellington's band (which opened an influential residency at the Cotton Club in 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines' Band in Chicago (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928). All significantly influenced the development of big band-style swing jazz. By 1930, the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.
Several musicians grew up in musical families, where a family member would often teach how to read and play music. Some musicians, like Pops Foster, learned on homemade instruments.
Urban radio stations played African-American jazz more frequently than suburban stations, due to the concentration of African Americans in urban areas such as New York and Chicago. Younger demographics popularized the black-originated dances such as the Charleston as part of the immense cultural shift the popularity of jazz music generated.
Swing in the 1930s
The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Harry James, Jimmie Lunceford, Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music.
Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders recruit white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.
Radio
The introduction of large-scale radio broadcasts enabled the rapid national spread of jazz in 1932. The radio was described as the "sound factory." Radio made it possible for millions to hear music for free — especially people who never attended expensive, distant big city clubs. These broadcasts originated from clubs in leading centers such as New York, Chicago, Kansas City, and Los Angeles. There were two categories of live music on the radio: concert music and big band dance music. The concert music was known as "potter palm" and was concert music by amateurs, usually volunteers. Big band dance music is played by professionals and was featured from nightclubs, dance halls, and ballrooms.
Musicologist Charles Hamm described three types of jazz music at the time: black music for black audiences, black music for white audiences, and white music for white audiences. Jazz artists like Louis Armstrong originally received very little airtime because most stations preferred to play the music of white American jazz singers. Other jazz vocalists include Bessie Smith and Florence Mills. In urban areas, such as Chicago and New York, African-American jazz was played on the radio more often than in the suburbs. Big-band jazz, like that of James Reese Europe and Fletcher Henderson in New York, attracted large radio audiences.
Elements and influences
Youth
Young people in the 1920s used the influence of jazz to rebel against the traditional culture of previous generations. This youth rebellion of the 1920s included such things as flapper fashions, women who smoked cigarettes in public, a willingness to talk about sex freely, and radio concerts. Dances like the Charleston, developed by African Americans, suddenly became popular among the youth. Traditionalists were aghast at what they considered the breakdown of morality. Some urban middle-class African Americans perceived jazz as "devil's music", and believed the improvised rhythms and sounds were promoting promiscuity.
Role of women
With women's suffrage—the right for women to vote—at its peak with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment on August 18, 1920, and the entrance of the free-spirited flapper, women began to take on a larger role in society and culture. With women now taking part in the work force after the end of the First World War there were now many more possibilities for women in terms of social life and entertainment. Ideas such as equality and open sexuality were very popular during the time and women seemed to capitalize on these ideas during this period. The 1920s saw the emergence of many famous women musicians, including Bessie Smith. Bessie Smith also gained attention because she was not only a great singer but also an African-American woman. She has grown through the ages to be one of the most well respected singers of all time and inspired later performers such as Billie Holiday.
Lovie Austin (1887–1972) was a Chicago-based bandleader, session musician (piano), composer, singer, and arranger during the 1920s classic blues era. She and Lil Hardin Armstrong often are ranked as two of the best female jazz blues piano players of the period.
Piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong was originally a member of King Oliver's band with Louis, and went on to play piano in her husband's band the Hot Five and then his next group called the Hot Seven. It was not until the 1930s and 1940s that many women jazz singers, such as Bessie Smith and Billie Holiday, were recognized as successful artists in the music world. Another famous female vocalist who attained stardom at the tail-end of the Jazz Age was Ella Fitzgerald, one of the more popular female jazz singers in the United States for more than half a century and later dubbed "The First Lady of Song". She worked with all the jazz greats of the era, including Chick Webb, Duke Ellington, Count Basie, and Benny Goodman. These women were persistent in striving to make their names known in the music industry and to lead the way for many more women artists to come.
Influence of middle-class white Americans
The birth of jazz is credited to African Americans. But it was modified to become socially acceptable to middle-class white Americans. Those critical of jazz saw it as music from people with no training or skill. White performers were used as a vehicle for the popularization of jazz music in America. Although jazz was taken over by the white middle-class population, it facilitated the mesh of African American traditions and ideals with white middle-class society.
Beginnings of European jazz
By the 1920s jazz had spread around the world. According to The New York Times in 1922:
As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time. The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.
British jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919. In 1926, Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC. Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous. Very soon, the resulting music craze in the United Kingdom led to a moral panic in which the threat of jazz to society was exemplified by Scottish artist John Bulloch Souter's controversial 1926 painting The Breakdown. The painting has been described as embodying the fears of Western civilization towards jazz music, and the painting was later destroyed by its author to placate critics who insisted the work should be burned.
The European style of jazz entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two. Belgian guitarist Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel-stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s.
Criticism of the movement
During this time period, jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring Twenties. Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote: "... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion." The media too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare off bears, when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.
Classical music
As jazz flourished, American elites who preferred classical music sought to expand the listenership of their favored genre, hoping that jazz would not become mainstream. Controversially, jazz became an influence on composers as diverse as George Gershwin and Herbert Howells.
See also
Flapper
The Great Gatsby
Roaring Twenties
References
Citations
Works cited
Derived from
Further reading
External links
The Jazz Age In America
Roaring Twenties from U S History.com
1920s in American music
1920s in music
1930s in American music
1930s in music
1920s neologisms
Age
Roaring Twenties
Eras of United States history | wiki |
Geronimo's Cadillac may refer to:
Geronimo's Cadillac (album), a 1972 album by Michael Martin Murphey
"Geronimo's Cadillac" (Michael Martin Murphey song)
"Geronimo's Cadillac" (Modern Talking song) (1986) | wiki |
Silver and Gold may refer to:
Chemistry
Electrum, also called white gold, is gold that has silver added to it.
Music Group
Silver & Gold cello and piano duo in CT that plays beautiful music for weddings and other special occasions.
Music
Silver & Gold (Vanessa Williams album), also featuring the song by Burl Ives
Silver & Gold (Neil Young album), also title song
Silver & Gold (Sufjan Stevens album)
"Silver and Gold" (Dolly Parton song)
"Silver and Gold", song from the Sun City album by Artists United Against Apartheid, also recorded by U2
"Silver and Gold", Christmas song by Burl Ives from the Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer soundtrack
Silver and Gold, album and song by ASAP
"Silver and Gold", single by T-Pain
Television
Silver and Gold (TV series), a 2017 Japanese TV series
Video games
Pokémon Silver and Gold, two 1999 video games
See also
Gold and Silver, 1934 Mexican film
Oro y plata (disambiguation) | wiki |
The many-minds interpretation of quantum mechanics extends the many-worlds interpretation by proposing that the distinction between worlds should be made at the level of the mind of an individual observer. The concept was first introduced in 1970 by H. Dieter Zeh as a variant of the Hugh Everett interpretation in connection with quantum decoherence, and later (in 1981) explicitly called a many or multi-consciousness interpretation. The name many-minds interpretation was first used by David Albert and Barry Loewer in 1988.
History
Interpretations of quantum mechanics
The various interpretations of quantum mechanics typically involve explaining the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, or to create a physical picture of the theory. While the mathematical structure has a strong foundation, there is still much debate about the physical and philosophical interpretation of the theory. These interpretations aim to tackle various concepts such as:
Evolution of the state of a quantum system (given by the wavefunction), typically through the use of the Schrödinger equation. This concept is almost universally accepted, and is rarely put up to debate.
The measurement problem, which relates to what we call wavefunction collapse – the collapse of a quantum state into a definite measurement (i.e. a specific eigenstate of the wavefunction). The debate on whether this collapse actually occurs is a central problem in interpreting quantum mechanics.
The standard solution to the measurement problem is the "Orthodox" or "Copenhagen" interpretation, which claims that the wave function collapses as the result of a measurement by an observer or apparatus external to the quantum system. An alternative interpretation, the Many-worlds Interpretation, was first described by Hugh Everett in 1957 (where it was called the relative state interpretation, the name Many-worlds was coined by Bryce Seligman DeWitt starting in the 1960s and finalized in the 70s). His formalism of quantum mechanics denied that a measurement requires a wave collapse, instead suggesting that all that is truly necessary of a measurement is that a quantum connection is formed between the particle, the measuring device, and the observer.
The many-worlds interpretation
In the original relative state formulation, Everett proposed that there is one universal wavefunction that describes the objective reality of the whole universe. He stated that when subsystems interact, the total system becomes a superposition of these subsystems. This includes observers and measurement systems, which become part of one universal state (the wavefunction) that is always described via the Schrödinger Equation (or its relativistic alternative). That is, the states of the subsystems that interacted become "entangled" in such a way that any definition of one must necessarily involve the other. Thus, each subsystem's state can only be described relative to each subsystem with which it interacts (hence the name relative state).
This has some interesting implications. For starters, Everett suggested that the universe is actually indeterminate as a whole. To see this, consider an observer measuring some particle that starts in an undetermined state, as both spin-up and spin-down, for example – a superposition of both possibilities. When an observer measures that particle's spin, however, it always registers as either up or down. The problem of how to understand this sudden shift from "both up and down" to "either up or down" is called the Measurement problem. According to the many-worlds interpretation, the act of measurement forced a “splitting” of the universe into two states, one spin-up and the other spin-down, and the two branches that extend from those two subsequently independent states. One branch measures up. The other measures down. Looking at the instrument informs the observer which branch she's on, but the system itself is indeterminate at this and, by logical extension, presumably any higher level.
The “worlds” in the many worlds theory is then just the complete measurement history up until and during the measurement in question, where splitting happens. These “worlds” each describe a different state of the universal wave function and cannot communicate. There is no collapse of the wavefunction into one state or another, but rather you just find yourself in the world leading up to what measurement you have made and are unaware of the other possibilities that are equally real.
The many-minds interpretation
The many-minds interpretation of quantum theory is many-worlds with the distinction between worlds constructed at the level of the individual observer. Rather than the worlds that branch, it is the observer's mind.
The purpose of this interpretation is to overcome the fundamentally strange concept of observers being in a superposition with themselves. In their 1988 paper, Albert and Loewer argue that it simply makes no sense for one to think of the mind of an observer to be in an indefinite state. Rather, when someone answers the question about which state of a system they have observed, they must answer with complete certainty. If they are in a superposition of states, then this certainty is not possible and we arrive at a contradiction. To overcome this, they then suggest that it is merely the “bodies” of the minds that are in a superposition, and that the minds must have definite states that are never in superposition.
When an observer measures a quantum system and becomes entangled with it, it now constitutes a larger quantum system. In regards to each possibility within the wave function, a mental state of the brain corresponds. And ultimately, only one mind is experienced, leading the others to branch off and become inaccessible, albeit real. In this way, every sentient being is attributed with an infinity of minds, whose prevalence correspond to the amplitude of the wavefunction. As an observer checks a measurement, the probability of realizing a specific measurement directly correlates to the number of minds they have where they see that measurement. It is in this way that the probabilistic nature of quantum measurements are obtained by the Many-minds Interpretation.
Quantum non-locality in the many-minds interpretation
Consider an experiment where we are measuring the polarization of two photons. When the photon is created it has an indeterminate polarization. If a stream of these photons is passed through a polarization filter, 50% of the light is passed through. This corresponds to each photon having a 50% chance of aligning perfectly with the filter and thus passing, or being misaligned (by 90 degrees relative to the polarization filter) and being absorbed. Quantum mechanically, this means the photon is in a superposition of states where it is either passed or absorbed. Now, consider the inclusion of another photon and polarization detector. Now, the photons are created in such a way that they are entangled. That is, when one photon takes on a polarization state, the other photon will always behave as if it has the same polarization. For simplicity, take the second filter to either be perfectly aligned with the first, or to be perfectly misaligned (90 degree difference in angle, such that it is absorbed). If the detectors are aligned, both photons are passed (i.e. we say they agree). If they are misaligned, only the first passes and the second is absorbed (now they disagree). Thus, the entanglement causes perfect correlations between the two measurements – regardless of separation distance, making the interaction non-local. This sort of experiment is further explained in Tim Maudlin's Quantum Non-Locality and Relativity, and can be related to Bell test experiments. Now, consider the analysis of this experiment from the many minds point of view:
No sentient observer
Consider the case where there is no sentient observer, i.e. no mind around to observe the experiment. In this case, the detector will be in an indefinite state. The photon is both passed and absorbed, and will remain in this state. The correlations are withheld in that none of the possible "minds", or wave function states, correspond to non correlated results.
One sentient observer
Now expand the situation to have one sentient being observing the device. Now, they too enter the indefinite state. Their eyes, body, and brain are seeing both spins at the same time. The mind however, stochastically chooses one of the directions, and that is what the mind sees. When this observer goes over to the second detector, their body will see both results. Their mind will choose the result that agrees with the first detector, and the observer will see the expected results. However, the observer's mind seeing one result does not directly affect the distant state – there is just no wave function in which the expected correlations do not exist. The true correlation only happens when they actually go over to the second detector.
Two sentient observers
When two people look at two different detectors that scan entangled particles, both observers will enter an indefinite state, as with one observer. These results need not agree – the second observer's mind does not have to have results that correlate with the first's. When one observer tells the results to the second observer, their two minds cannot communicate and thus will only interact with the other's body, which is still indefinite. When the second observer responds, his body will respond with whatever result agrees with the first observer's mind. This means that both observer's minds will be in a state of the wavefunction that always get the expected results, but individually their results could be different.
Non-locality of the many-minds interpretation
As we have thus seen, any correlations seen in the wavefunction of each observer's minds are only concrete after interaction between the different polarizers. The correlations on the level of individual minds correspond to the appearance of quantum non-locality (or equivalently, violation of Bell's inequality). So the many world is non-local, or it cannot explain EPR-GHZ correlations.
Support
There is currently no empirical evidence for the many-minds interpretation. However, there are theories that do not discredit the many-minds interpretation. In light of Bell's analysis of the consequences of quantum non-locality, empirical evidence is needed to avoid inventing novel fundamental concepts (hidden variables). Two different solutions of the measurement problem then appear conceivable: von Neumann's collapse or Everett's relative state interpretation. In both cases a (suitably modified) psycho-physical parallelism can be re-established.
If neural processes can be described and analyzed then some experiments could potentially be created to test whether affecting neural processes can have an effect on a quantum system. Speculation about the details of this awareness-local physical system coupling on a purely theoretical basis could occur, however experimentally searching for them through neurological and psychological studies would be ideal.
Objections
On the surface many-minds arguably violates Occam's Razor; proponents counter that in fact these solutions minimize entities by simplifying the rules that would be required to describe the universe.
Nothing within quantum theory itself requires each possibility within a wave function to complement a mental state. As all physical states (i.e. brain states) are quantum states, their associated mental states should be also. Nonetheless, it is not what we experience within physical reality. Albert and Loewer argue that the mind must be intrinsically different than the physical reality as described by quantum theory. Thereby, they reject type-identity physicalism in favour of a non-reductive stance. However, Lockwood saves materialism through the notion of supervenience of the mental on the physical.
Nonetheless, the many-minds interpretation does not solve the mindless hulks problem as a problem of supervenience. Mental states do not supervene on brain states as a given brain state is compatible with different configurations of mental states.
Another serious objection is that workers in No Collapse interpretations have produced no more than elementary models based on the definite existence of specific measuring devices. They have assumed, for example, that the Hilbert space of the universe splits naturally into a tensor product structure compatible with the measurement under consideration. They have also assumed, even when describing the behaviour of macroscopic objects, that it is appropriate to employ models in which only a few dimensions of Hilbert space are used to describe all the relevant behaviour.
Furthermore, as the many-minds interpretation is corroborated by our experience of physical reality, a notion of many unseen worlds and its compatibility with other physical theories (i.e. the principle of the conservation of mass) is difficult to reconcile. According to Schrödinger's equation, the mass-energy of the combined observed system and measurement apparatus is the same before and after. However, with every measurement process (i.e. splitting), the total mass-energy would seemingly increase.
Peter J. Lewis argues that the many-minds Interpretation of quantum mechanics has absurd implications for agents facing life-or-death decisions.
In general, the many-minds theory holds that a conscious being who observes the outcome of a random zero-sum experiment will evolve into two successors in different observer states, each of whom observes one of the possible outcomes. Moreover, the theory advises you to favour choices in such situations in proportion to the probability that they will bring good results to your various successors. But in a life-or-death case like getting into the box with Schrödinger's cat, you will only have one successor, since one of the outcomes will ensure your death. So it seems that the many-minds interpretation advises you to get in the box with the cat, since it is certain that your only successor will emerge unharmed. See also quantum suicide and immortality.
Finally, it supposes that there is some physical distinction between a conscious observer and a non-conscious measuring device, so it seems to require eliminating the strong Church–Turing hypothesis or postulating a physical model for consciousness.
See also
Consciousness
Quantum suicide and immortality
Quantum mind
Many-worlds interpretation
Wave function
References
External links
Wikibook on consciousness
Bibliography on the Many-minds interpretation
Consciousness studies
Quantum measurement
Interpretations of quantum mechanics
Quantum mind | wiki |
Alternating caps, also known as studly caps or sticky caps (where "caps" is short for capital letters), is a form of text notation in which the capitalization of letters varies by some pattern, or arbitrarily (often also omitting spaces between words and occasionally some letters), such as "aLtErNaTiNg cApS", "sTuDlY cApS" or "sTiCKycApS".
History
According to the Jargon File, the origin and significance of the practice is obscure. The term "alternating case" has been used as early as the 1970s, in several studies on word identification.
Arbitrary variation found popularity among adolescent users during the BBS and early WWW eras of online culture, as if in parody of the marginally less idiosyncratic capitalization found in common trade and service marks of the time. This method was extensively used since the 1980s in the BBS-world and warez scene (for example in FILE_ID.DIZ and .nfo files) to show "elite" (or elitist) attitude, the often used variant was using small-caps vowels and capitalised consonants ("THiS iS aN eXCePTioNaLLy eLiTe SeNTeNCe.") or reversed capitals ("eXTENDED kEY gENERERATOR pRO").
The iNiQUiTY BBS software based on Renegade had a feature to support two variants of this automatically: either all vowels would be uppercase or all vowels would be lowercase, with the consonants as the other case.
A meme known as "Mocking SpongeBob" popularized using alternating caps to convey a mocking tone starting in May 2017, leading to alternating caps becoming a mainstream method of conveying mockery in text.
Usage and effect
Alternating caps are typically used to display mockery in text messages.
The randomized capitalization leads to the flow of words being broken, making it harder for the text to be read as it disrupts word identification even when the size of the letters is the same as in uppercase or lowercase.
Unlike the use of all-lowercase letters, which suggests efficiency as a motivation, alternating caps requires additional effort to type, either by holding and releasing the shift key with one hand while hunting-and-pecking, by intermittently pressing one shift key or the other while touch typing, or by using an online tool to convert existing text.
See also
Camel case
All caps
Notes
References
Capitalization
Internet culture
Orthography | wiki |
A star is a massive luminous spheroid astronomical object made of plasma that is held together by its own gravity. Stars exhibit great diversity in their properties (such as mass, volume, velocity, stage in stellar evolution, and distance from Earth) and some of the outliers are so disproportionate in comparison with the general population that they are considered extreme. This is a list of such stars.
Records that are regarded as authoritative and unlikely to change at any given point are recorded on a white background, while those that could change with new information and/or discoveries are recorded on a grey background.
Age and distance
Brightness and power
Size and mass
Motion
Star systems
See also
Notes
References
External links
25 Brightest Stars, as Seen from the Earth
The Brightest Stars at An Atlas of the Universe
The Magnitude system
About stellar magnitudes
Extremes
Star extremes | wiki |
La unitat perifèrica de Lacònia (grec Νομός Λακωνίας) és una de les unitat perifèrica de Grècia. Per a la història de la regió del mateix nom, vegeu Lacònia. Correspon a l'antiga prefectura de Lacònia.
Unitats perifèriques del Peloponès
Laconia | wiki |
General Snyder may refer to:
Donald Snyder (general) (born 1936), U.S. Air Force lieutenant general
Howard McCrum Snyder (1881–1970), U.S. Army major general
Oscar P. Snyder (1895–1983), U.S. Army major general
See also
General Schneider (disambiguation) | wiki |
Vintage design refers to an item of another era that holds important and recognizable value. This style can be applied to interior design, decor, clothing and other areas. Vintage design is popular and vintage items have risen in price. Outlets of vintage design have shifted from thrift store to shabby chic stores.
Terminology
There is debate over what determines if an item is vintage. Some rely on the definition of anything old and of value. The most widely accepted definition used by antique and vintage professionals is anything older than 40, (and less than 100,) years old.
The terms vintage, retro, and antique are oftentimes used interchangeably and have some overlay, however the words possess different meanings. Retro refers to a style iconic of a previous era. Vintage generally refers to an item of high-quality materials and/or craftmanship, that is characteristic of a specific time period or artist, and is between 40 and 100 years old.
Lastly, antique refers to an item of the previous era or at least 100 years old. A related term is antiquity, which indicates something of past eras, or simply put, ancient.
The word vintage originated in Late Middle English from Old French and Latin origins.
Popularity
Vintage items spark interest in many. The United States Department of Labor tells us that, "Design and fashion trends play an important part in the production of furniture. The integrated design of the article for both esthetic and functional qualities is also a major part of the process of manufacturing furniture."
The popularity of vintage design and vintage inspired items can be seen through media. In 2004 designer Nicolas Ghesquière created a line for Balenciaga which called back to older collections. Tom Ford's collection for her also uses references to the past. Vintage design can also be seen in ads which promote vintage inspired clothing.
There are several reasons for vintage design's popularity. Some claim the phenomenon is due to the rarity and classic value of the items. Others state the reason to be a mixture of peoples' nostalgia creating a positive emotional appeal toward a past era or their childhood, consumers' environmental concerns, an appreciation of past styles and craftsmanship, and other experience.
Subcategories
Vintage design contains various subcategories reflecting the vast diversity of aesthetics that make up traditional and 20th century design styles.
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau is a style containing curved lines, flowers and other plants, contrasting colors, ornate colors, young women, and intricate details. It was created at the end of the 1800s and gained popularity at the start of the 1910s.
Art Deco
Art Deco was created to intentionally embrace a clean, modern, and man-made look, developed and popular from the 1920s and reaching its peak in the 1930s. This style features mostly geometric shapes, symmetrical patterns, and idealized human figures.
Mid-century modern
Mid-century modern style makes use of straight, clear lines, curved objects, wood tones, thin supporting, and oversized objects. It is meant to call back to the mid-20th century.
Atomic Age
Referring to the period roughly corresponding to 1940–1963, the Atomic Age includes elements of space exploration, scientific discovery, and futurism, creating an idea of an "optimistic, modern world". Atomic Age design became popular and instantly recognizable, with a use of atomic motifs and space age symbols.
International Style
International Style design contains broad block letters in fonts such as Helvetica (see Swiss Style for further information on the typographic style) and sleek, modern lines invoking Mies-ian simplicity and a cosmopolitan aire.
Seventies
The styles of the 1970s are incredibly popular in vintage design, recalling the aesthetics of hippies and other counterculture groups of the era. Use of natural color combinations such as the well-known 'harvest gold, avocado green, and burnt orange' was widespread, as were psychedelic colors and designs such as paisley.
Punk
The punk counterculture style of the late 1970s and 1980s is reused today. It contains harsh lines, clashing colors, juxtaposition, and 'edgy' imagery to create an anti-authoritarian aesthetic.
Postmodernism
Postmodernism as a style incorporates bold colors and abstract geometric motifs with intentionally humorous references to past architectural and design traditions, popular in the 1980s and 1990s. Whereas 'less is more' was a tenet of modernism, postmodern architect Robert Venturi quipped 'less is a bore'. Postmodernism has heavily influenced the vaporwave aesthetic.
See also
Vintage clothing
Cottagecore
Retro style
References
Design
Cultural trends
Antiques
Retro style
Collecting
Nostalgia | wiki |
General Sturgis may refer to:
Samuel D. Sturgis (1822–1889), U.S. Army brevet major general
Samuel D. Sturgis Jr. (1861–1933) (1861–1933), U.S. Army major general
Samuel D. Sturgis III (1897–1964), U.S. Army lieutenant general
See also
Robert Sturges (1891–1970), Royal Marines lieutenant general | wiki |
The Randolph Caldecott Medal, frequently shortened to just the Caldecott, annually recognizes the preceding year's "most distinguished American picture book for children". It is awarded to the illustrator by the Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC), a division of the American Library Association (ALA). The Caldecott and Newbery Medals are considered the most prestigious American children's book awards. Beside the Caldecott Medal, the committee awards a variable number of citations to runners-up they deem worthy, called the Caldecott Honor or Caldecott Honor Books.
The Caldecott Medal was first proposed by Frederic G. Melcher, in 1937. The award was named after English illustrator Randolph Caldecott. Unchanged since its founding, the medal, which is given to every winner, features two of Caldecott's illustrations. The awarding process has changed several times over the years, including in 1971 which began use of the term "Honor" for the runner-ups. There have been between one and five honor books named each year.
To be eligible for a Caldecott, the book must be published in English, in the United States first, and be drawn by an American illustrator. An award committee decides on a winner in January or February, voting using a multi-round point system. The committee judges books on several criteria to meet the Caldecott's goal of recognizing "distinguished illustrations in a picture book and for excellence of pictorial presentation for children."
Winning the award can lead to a substantial rise in books sold. It can also increase the prominence of illustrators. Illustrator and author Marcia Brown is the most recognized Caldecott illustrator having won three medals and having six honor books. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of minority characters and illustrators recognized, however, this is something which has fluctuated over the history of the award.
History
The Caldecott was suggested in 1937 by Frederic G. Melcher, former editor of Publishers Weekly, following the establishment of the Newbery Medal in 1921. The American Library Association adopted Melcher's suggestion of awarding a medal to the illustrator "who had created the most distinguished picture book of the year." According to children's literature expert Leonard S. Marcus, the award helped draw American artists into the field of children's books.
The award has been tweaked over the years, with the most recent changes in 2009. When the award was founded, books could be considered either for the Newbery or the Caldecott, with the same committee judging both awards. The committee noted other books of merit, which were frequently referred to as runner-ups. In 1971, these books were formally named Caldecott Honor books, with this name applied retroactively. In 1977 books became eligible for both awards and, beginning with the 1980 award, separate committees for each award were formed. Until 1958, a previous winner could win again only by unanimous vote of the committee, and in 1963 joint winners were first permitted.
Medal
The award is named for Randolph Caldecott, a nineteenth-century English illustrator. Rene Paul Chambellan designed the Medal in 1937. The obverse scene is derived from Randolph Caldecott's front cover illustration for The Diverting History of John Gilpin (Routledge, 1878, an edition of the 1782 poem by William Cowper), which depicts John Gilpin astride a runaway horse. The reverse is based on "Four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie", one of Caldecott's illustrations for the nursery rhyme "Sing a Song of Sixpence".
Each illustrator receives a bronze copy of the medal, which, despite being awarded by the Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC), lists Children's Librarian's Section, the original awarding group, for historical reasons.
Eligibility and criteria
A picture book, according to the award criteria, provides "a visual experience. A picture book has a collective unity of story-line, theme, or concept, developed through the series of pictures" that constitute the book. The Medal is "for distinguished illustrations in a picture book and for excellence of pictorial presentation for children". Specifically the illustrations are judged on their artistic technique, interpretation of the book's story and theme, the fit between the illustrations and the story and themes, the precision of depiction of elements of the book, like characters and mood, and how well the illustrations serve their targeted audience. Honor books need to fulfill the same criteria. The book must be self-contained, independent of other media for its enjoyment. Components other than illustration, including the book's text or overall design, may be considered as they affect the overall effectiveness of the book's illustrations.
To be eligible for the Caldecott, the artist must be a US citizen or resident, the book must have been published in English, in the United States first, or simultaneously in other countries. Picture books for any audience up to the age of 14 may be considered. In December 2019, children's literature expert Leonard S. Marcus suggested that the Caldecott had achieved its mission in the US and the award should be expanded so children's book illustrations from anywhere in the world be considered.
Selection process
The committee that decides on the Caldecott Award winner comprises fifteen members of ALSC. Seven members are elected by the entire ALSC membership and eight, including the chairperson, are appointed by the ALSC President. Members are chosen based on their experience and to ensure a diversity of libraries (e.g. public and school, small and large) and geographical areas are represented. Publishers send copies of books to the committee; 2009 members each received more than 700. However, a book does not need to be sent to the committee to be considered. Instead, to help identify possible contenders, committee members formally nominate seven books in three rounds over the year, and less formally recommend others.
At ALSC's annual midwinter meeting, held in late January or early February, the committee will discuss the nominations and hold a vote on the winner. When voting, committee members list their first place, second place, and third place selections. Each vote is assigned a point value, with first place votes receiving four points, second place three points, and third place two points. The winner must receive at least eight first place votes and be at least eight points ahead of the second-place finisher. After a winner is selected, the committee can decide whether to award any honor books. They may be chosen from runner-ups to the winner, or be selected in a separate ballot. The winner and honor books are kept secret until they are publicly announced, with the committee calling the winning illustrators the morning of the announcement.
In 2015, K. T. Horning of the University of Wisconsin–Madison's Cooperative Children's Book Center proposed to ALSC that old discussions of the Newbery and Caldecott be made public in the service of researchers and historians. This proposal was met with both support and criticism by former committee members and recognized authors. no change has been made.
Impact and analysis
The Caldecott and Newbery awards have historically been considered the most important children's book awards. Anita Silvey, children's book author, editor, and critic, suggests they might even be the most important book awards, saying that "no other award has the economic significance of the Newbery and Caldecott". According to Silvey, a Caldecott winner can have sales increased from 2,000 to 100,000–200,000. Silvey also credits the Caldecott for helping to establish Bradbury Press and Roaring Brook Press as important publishers. It can also be an important recognition for authors. According to Leonard Marcus, Where the Wild Things Ares recognition brought its author and illustrator, Maurice Sendak, to national prominence.
A 1999 study on the reading levels of Caldecott recipients suggested that most winners were written at the elementary age level, with the average reading level having decreased over time. A 2007 study of Caldecott recipients found that the prevalence and importance of female characters had risen and fallen several times over the history of the Caldecott. It also found that, unlike recipients of the Pura Belpré Award and Coretta Scott King Award, the behaviors of male and female characters remained distinct and adhered to traditional gender norms. A different 2007 study, by one of the same authors, also found an increase in the number of minority characters following a 1965 critique by Nancy Larrick, however the number of minorities had fallen by the 2000s. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of minority characters and illustrators recognized. The Horn Book Magazine editor Martha Parravano has noted how rarely non-fiction books, especially non-fiction books about science, are recognized by the Caldecott.
Recipients
Multiple award winners
Listed below are all illustrators who have won at least two Caldecott Medals or who have won a Medal and multiple honors.
See also
Kate Greenaway Medal, for illustration of a British children's book
Theodor Seuss Geisel Award, for an American book for beginning readers
References
Citations
Further reading
Smith, Irene (1957). A History of the Newbery and Caldecott Medals. New York: Viking Press.
Ebook Central Academic Complete. In the Words of the Winners: The Newbery and Caldecott Medals, 2001–2010. Chicago: American Library Association, 2011.
External links
American children's literary awards
Awards established in 1938
American Library Association awards
1938 establishments in the United States
English-language literary awards
American literary awards | wiki |
Green marketing is the marketing of products that are presumed to be environmentally safe. It incorporates a broad range of activities, including product modification, changes to the production process, sustainable packaging, as well as modifying advertising. Yet defining green marketing is not a simple task where several meanings intersect and contradict each other; an example of this will be the existence of varying social, environmental and retail definitions attached to this term. Other similar terms used are environmental marketing and ecological marketing.
Green, environmental and eco-marketing are part of the new marketing approaches which do not just refocus, adjust or enhance existing marketing thinking and practice, but seek to challenge those approaches and provide a substantially different perspective. In more detail green, environmental and eco-marketing belong to the group of approaches which seek to address the lack of fit between marketing as it is currently practiced and the ecological and social realities of the wider marketing environment.
The legal implications of marketing claims call for caution or overstated claims can lead to regulatory or civil challenges. In the United States, the Federal Trade Commission provides some guidance on environmental marketing claims. The commission is expected to do an overall review of this guidance, and the legal standards it contains, in 2011.
History
The term Green Marketing came into prominence in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
The American Marketing Association (AMA) held the first workshop on “Ecological Marketing” in 1975. The proceedings of this workshop resulted in one of the first books on green marketing entitled "Ecological Marketing".
The Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Reports started with the ice cream seller Ben & Jerry's where the financial report was supplemented by a greater view on the company's environmental impact. In 1987 a document prepared by the World Commission on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as meeting “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own need”, this became known as the Brundtland Report and was another step towards widespread thinking on sustainability in everyday activity. Two tangible milestones for the first wave of green marketing came in the form of published books: Green Marketing by Ken Peattie (1992) in the United Kingdom and Green Marketing: Challenges & Opportunities for the New Marketing Age by Jacquelyn Ottman (1993) in the United States of America.
According to Jacquelyn Ottman, (author of "The New Rules of Green Marketing: Strategies, Tools, and Inspiration for Sustainable Branding" (Greenleaf Publishing and Berrett-Koehler Publishers, February 2011)) from an organizational standpoint, environmental considerations should be integrated into all aspects of marketing — new product development and communications and all points in between. The holistic nature of green also suggests that besides suppliers and retailers new stakeholders be enlisted, including educators, members of the community, regulators, and NGOs. Environmental issues should be balanced with primary customer needs.
The "Green consumerism" movements in the U.S. and other countries have struggled to reach critical mass and influence. However, public opinion polls taken since the late 1980s have shown consistently that a significant percentage of consumers in the U.S. and elsewhere profess a strong willingness to favor environmentally conscious products and companies. One of green marketing's challenges is the lack of standards or public consensus about what constitutes "green," according to Joel Makower, a writer on green marketing. This lack of consensus—by consumers, marketers, activists, regulators, and influential people—has slowed the growth of green products, says Makower, because companies are often reluctant to promote their green attributes, and consumers are often skeptical about claims.
Despite these challenges, green marketing has continued to gain adherents, particularly in light of growing global concern about climate change. This concern has led more companies to advertise their commitment to reduce their climate impacts, and the effect this is having on their products and services.
Greenhouse gas reduction market
The emerging greenhouse gas reduction market can potentially catalyze projects with important local environmental, economic, and quality-of-life benefits. The Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), for example, enables trading between industrial and developing nations, providing a framework that can result in capital flows to environmentally beneficial development activities. Although the United States is not participating in the Kyoto Protocol, several US programs enable similar transactions on a voluntary and regulatory basis.
While international trade in greenhouse gas reductions holds substantial promise as a source of new funding for sustainable development, this market can be largely inaccessible to many smaller-scale projects, remote communities, and least developed localities. To facilitate participation and broaden the benefits, several barriers must be overcome, including: a lack of market awareness among stakeholders and prospective participants; specialized, somewhat complicated participation rules; and the need for simplified participation mechanisms for small projects, without which transaction costs can overwhelm the financial benefits of participation. If the barriers are adequately addressed, greenhouse gas trading can play an important role supporting activities that benefit people’s lives and the environment.
Popularity and effectiveness
Ongoing debate
The popularity of such marketing approach and its effectiveness is hotly debated. Supporters claim that environmental appeals are actually growing in number–the Energy Star label, for example, now appears on 11,000 different companies' models in 38 product categories, from washing machines and light bulbs to skyscrapers and homes. However, despite the growth in the number of green products, green marketing is on the decline as the primary sales pitch for products. Shel Horowitz, a green marketer for over 30 years and primary author of Guerrilla marketing Goes Green states that to market effectively, green businesses need to market to three different audiences, "deep green," "lazy green," and "nongreen", and that each must be approached differently. Each will have different trigger points that will move them to buy, and for the nongreen audience, marketing effectively usually requires emphasizing product superiority rather than care for the planet.
On the other hand, Roper’s Green Gauge shows that a high percentage of consumers (42%) feel that environmental products don’t work as well as conventional ones. This is an unfortunate legacy from the 1970s when shower heads sputtered and natural detergents left clothes dingy. Given the choice, all but the greenest of customers will reach for synthetic detergents over the premium-priced, proverbial "Happy Planet" any day, including Earth Day. New reports, however show a growing trend towards green products.
The demand for green-oriented products has been a boom to the firms that supply them. New markets emerge for recycled building products, packaging, paper goods, and even sweaters and sneakers, as well as, more efficient appliances lighting, heating, and cooling systems in homes and offices. Some green options are more expensive than traditional products and initiatives. This could learn to exploitation which is common enough that it even had produced the term greenwashing. Consumers need to question whether a firm is spending significantly more money and time advertising being green and operating with consideration for the environment than actually spending these resources on environmentally sound practices.
Confusion
One challenge green marketers old and new are likely to face as green products and messages become more common is confusion in the marketplace.
"Consumers do not really understand a lot about these issues, and there's a lot of confusion out there," says Jacquelyn Ottman (founder of J. Ottman Consulting and author of "Green Marketing:
Opportunity for Innovation.") Marketers sometimes take advantage of this confusion, and purposely make false or exaggerated "green" claims. Critics refer to this practice as "green washing".
Greenwashing
Corporations are increasingly recognizing the benefits of green marketing, although there is often a thin line between doing so for its own benefit and for social responsibility reasons. The term “greenwashing” refers to all industries that adopt outwardly green acts with an underlying purpose to increase profits. The primary objective of greenwashing is to provide consumers with the feeling that the organization is taking the necessary steps to responsibly manage its ecological footprint. In reality, the company may be doing very little that is environmentally beneficial
The term greenwashing was first used by environmentalist Jay Westerveld when objecting to hotelier's practice of placing notices in hotel rooms which asked their guests to reuse towels to “save the environment”. Westerveld noted that there was little else to suggest that the hoteliers were interested in reducing their environmental impacts, and that their interest in washing fewer towels seemed to be motivated by a concern to save costs rather than the environment. Since then greenwashing has become a central feature of debates about marketing communications and sustainability, with “awards” for greenwashing established and numerous campaigns, law and advice developed in an attempt to reduce or curb it.
Benefit corporations
In January 2012, Patagonia became the first brand to register for benefit corporation status.
A benefit corporation is an alternative to its standard counterpart as it operates under the legal premise of 1) creating a positive impact socially and environmentally in its materials, 2) uphold corporate social responsibility in terms of considering its workers, its community, and the environment as well as challenge its current boundaries in those areas, and 3) report its activity as a company as well as its achievements in social and environmental areas publicly using a non-partisan third party source.
Statistics
According to market researcher Mintel, about 12% of the U.S. population can be identified as True Greens, consumers who seek out and regularly buy so-called green products. Another 68% can be classified as Light Greens, consumers who buy green sometimes.
"What chief marketing officers are always looking for is touch points with consumers, and this is just a big, big, big touch point that's not being served," says Mintel Research Director David Lockwood. "All the corporate executives that we talk to are extremely convinced that being able to make some sort of strong case about the environment is going to work down to their bottom line."
Adoptability
In 1989, 67 percent of Americans stated that they were willing to pay 5-10 percent more for ecologically compatible products. By 1991, environmentally conscious individuals were willing to pay between 15-20 percent more for green products. Today, more than one-third of Americans say they would pay a little extra for green products
An important challenge facing marketers is to identify which consumers are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products. It is apparent that an enhanced knowledge of the profile of this segment of consumers would be extremely useful.
Everett Rogers, communication scholar and author of “Diffusion of Innovations”, claims that the following five factors can help determine whether a new idea will be adopted or not, including the idealism of the shift towards “green”:
Relative advantage: is the degree to which the new behavior is believed to accrue more beneficial outcomes than current practice.
Observability: is how easy it is to witness the outcomes of the new behavior.
Trialability: is the ease with which the new behavior can be tested by an individual without making a full commitment.
Compatibility: is the degree to which the new behavior is consistent with current practice.
Complexity: is how difficult the new behavior is to implement.
LOHAS
LOHAS stands for Lifestyles of Health and Sustainability, and describes an integrated, rapidly growing market for goods and services that appeal to consumers whose sense of environmental and social responsibility influences their purchase decisions. The Natural Marketing Institute's (short: NMI) estimates the US LOHAS consumer market of products and services to be US$209 billion – sold across all consumer segments.
The five LOHAS segments as defined by NMI include:
LOHAS: Active environmental stewards dedicated to personal and planetary health. These are the heaviest purchasers of green and socially responsible products and the early adopters who influence others heavily.
Naturalites: Motivated primarily by personal health considerations. They tend to purchase more LOHAS consumable products vs. durable items.
Drifters: While their intentions may be good, DRIFTERS follow trends when it is easy and affordable. They are currently quite engaged in green purchasing behaviours.
Conventionals: Pragmatists who embrace LOHAS behaviour when they believe they can make a difference, but are primarily focused on being very careful with their resources and doing the ‘right’ thing because it will save them money.
Unconcerned: Either unaware or unconcerned about the environment and societal issues mainly because they do not have the time or the means – these consumers are largely focused on getting by.
The green marketing mix
A model green marketing mix contains four "P's":
Product: A producer should offer ecological products which not only must not contaminate the environment but should protect it and even liquidate existing environmental damages.
Price: Prices for such products may be a little higher than conventional alternatives. But target groups like for example LOHAS are willing to pay extra for green products.
Place: A distribution logistics is of crucial importance; main focus is on ecological packaging. Marketing local and seasonal products e.g. vegetables from regional farms is more easy to be marketed “green” than products imported.
Promotion: A communication with the market should put stress on environmental aspects, for example that the company possesses a CP certificate or is ISO 14000 certified. This may be publicized to improve a firm's image. Furthermore, the fact that a company spends expenditures on environmental protection should be advertised. Third, sponsoring the natural environment is also very important. And last but not least, ecological products will probably require special sales promotions.
Additional social marketing "P's" that are used in this process are:
Publics: Effective Social Marketing knows its audience, and can appeal to multiple groups of people. "Public" is the external and internal groups involved in the program. External publics include the target audience, secondary audiences, policymakers, and gatekeepers, while the internal publics are those who are involved in some way with either approval or implementation of the program.
Partnership: Most social change issues, including "green" initiatives, are too complex for one person or group to handle. Associating with other groups and initiatives to team up strengthens the chance of efficacy.
Policy: Social marketing programs can do well in motivating individual behavior change, but that is difficult to sustain unless the environment they're in supports that change for the long run. Often, policy change is needed, and media advocacy programs can be an effective complement to a social marketing program.
Purse Strings: How much will this strategic effort cost? Who is funding the effort?
The level of greening—strategic, quasi-strategic, or tactical—dictates what activities should be undertaken by a company. Strategic greening in one area may or may not be leveraged effectively in others. A firm could make substantial changes in production processes but opt not to leverage them by positioning itself as an environmental leader. So although strategic greening is not necessarily strategically integrated into all marketing activities, it is nevertheless strategic in the product area.
Ecolabels
An individual's belief that an environmental claim lacks honesty can have a negative effect on attitude toward a brand. If, on the other side, the consumer grants credibility to the claim, the individual will behave more respectfully toward the environment. The problem in extending that credibility to a brand is that consumers interested in ecological products generally are skeptical of commercial advertisements. This skepticism is due to various factors such as lack of language, the absence of scientific knowledge necessary to interpret advertising meaning, and, in particular, the falsehoods and exaggeration of some advertising techniques. To resolve this problem, independent organizations may choose to guarantee messages on the environmental benefits of brands with environmental labeling systems sponsored by independent organizations. This practice tries to diminish perceived biases in environmental information by promoting standardization of the information with the aim of improving confidence in the evaluation of environmental benefits of products—all of which should positively affect the purchase intention.
Life-cycle assessment
During the late 1980s, new instruments such as life-cycle assessment (LCA) were invented which allowed ecological considerations to be introduced into marketing decisions.
The life cycle assessment model seeks to identify the main types of environmental impact throughout the life cycle of a product. LCA was developed according to ISO 14040. The main goal of the LCA is to define the energy and environmental profile of the finished products. The reasons to use LCA arose from the need to have a precise process accounting and to highlight potential improvements that could be used in order to increase the environmental, energy and economic efficiency and overall effectiveness of the processes. In addition, the purpose was to quantify the environmental advantages deriving from the use of recycled raw material.
Example for LCA
LCA is used for example in the building sector. Buildings today account for the 40% of the world's energy use. The resulting carbon emissions are substantially higher than those of the transportation sector. New buildings using more energy than necessary are being built every day, and millions of today's inefficient buildings will remain standing until at least 2050. It's therefore necessary to start reducing energy use in new and existing buildings in order to reduce the planet's energy-related carbon footprint. Growing interest, space, and attention in the architecture sector are directed to environmental issues according to the principles of green building. Mineral, vegetable, or animal materials such as perlite, vermiculite, rock wool, glass wool, cork, plant fibers (cotton, flax, hemp, coconut), wood fiber, cellulose, and sheep's wool can be used for the production of insulation panels.
Cases
Phillips's "Marathon" CFL lightbulb
Philips Lighting's first shot at marketing a standalone compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulb was Earth Light, at $15 each versus 75 cents for incandescent bulbs. The product had difficulty climbing out of its deep green niche. The company re-launched the product as "Marathon," underscoring its new "super long life" positioning and promise of saving $26 in energy costs over its five-year lifetime. Finally, with the U.S. EPA's Energy Star label to add credibility as well as new sensitivity to rising utility costs and electricity shortages, sales climbed 12 percent in an otherwise flat market.
Electronics sector
The consumer electronics sector provides room for using green marketing to attract new customers. One example of this is HP's promise to cut its global energy use 20 percent by the year 2010. To accomplish this reduction below 2005 levels, The Hewlett-Packard Company announced plans to deliver energy-efficient products and services and institute energy-efficient operating practices in its facilities worldwide.
Products and services
Now companies are offering more eco-friendly alternatives for their customers. Recycled products for example, are one of the most popular alternatives that can benefit the environment. These benefits include sustainable forestry, clean air, energy efficiency, water conservation, and a healthy office. One example, is the E-commerce business and office supply company Shoplet which offers a web tool that allows you to replace similar items in your shopping cart with greener products.
See also
Green banking
Green politics
Social marketing
Sustainable advertising
References
External links
Guides for the use of Environmental Marketing Claims
Discussion of the Evolution of the Definition of the Term Green
Environmentalism
Types of marketing
Environmental communication | wiki |
Notable novelists who specialise or specialised in writing romance novels include:
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
V
W
X-Z
See also
Lists of writers
Notes
References
Romantic novelists | wiki |
George Calvert may refer to:
George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore (1579–1632), Proprietary Governor of Newfoundland and founder of the Province of Maryland
George Henry Calvert (1803–1889), American writer, editor, essayist
George Calvert (planter) (1768–1838), planter in Maryland
George Calvert (bishop) (1900–1976), fourth Bishop of Calgary in the Anglican Church of Canada | wiki |
Evertek may refer to:
Businesses
Evertek Computer Corporation, US Consumer Wholesaler (owner of US trademark "evertek")
EvertekTunisie, Tunisian brand of cell phone - part of Cellcom Tunisie
Evertek, Inc., an Iowa (US) telecommunication company
Evertec, Inc., a Puerto Rican electronic transaction processing company. | wiki |
In astronomy, an epoch or reference epoch is a moment in time used as a reference point for some time-varying astronomical quantity. It is useful for the celestial coordinates or orbital elements of a celestial body, as they are subject to perturbations and vary with time. These time-varying astronomical quantities might include, for example, the mean longitude or mean anomaly of a body, the node of its orbit relative to a reference plane, the direction of the apogee or aphelion of its orbit, or the size of the major axis of its orbit.
The main use of astronomical quantities specified in this way is to calculate other relevant parameters of motion, in order to predict future positions and velocities. The applied tools of the disciplines of celestial mechanics or its subfield orbital mechanics (for predicting orbital paths and positions for bodies in motion under the gravitational effects of other bodies) can be used to generate an ephemeris, a table of values giving the positions and velocities of astronomical objects in the sky at a given time or times.
Astronomical quantities can be specified in any of several ways, for example, as a polynomial function of the time-interval, with an epoch as a temporal point of origin (this is a common current way of using an epoch). Alternatively, the time-varying astronomical quantity can be expressed as a constant, equal to the measure that it had at the epoch, leaving its variation over time to be specified in some other way—for example, by a table, as was common during the 17th and 18th centuries.
The word epoch was often used in a different way in older astronomical literature, e.g. during the 18th century, in connection with astronomical tables. At that time, it was customary to denote as "epochs", not the standard date and time of origin for time-varying astronomical quantities, but rather the values at that date and time of those time-varying quantities themselves. In accordance with that alternative historical usage, an expression such as 'correcting the epochs' would refer to the adjustment, usually by a small amount, of the values of the tabulated astronomical quantities applicable to a fixed standard date and time of reference (and not, as might be expected from current usage, to a change from one date and time of reference to a different date and time).
Epoch versus equinox
Astronomical data are often specified not only in their relation to an epoch or date of reference but also in their relations to other conditions of reference, such as coordinate systems specified by "equinox", or "equinox and equator", or "equinox and ecliptic" – when these are needed for fully specifying astronomical data of the considered type.
Date-references for coordinate systems
When the data are dependent for their values on a particular coordinate system, the date of that coordinate system needs to be specified directly or indirectly.
Celestial coordinate systems most commonly used in astronomy are equatorial coordinates and ecliptic coordinates. These are defined relative to the (moving) vernal equinox position, which itself is determined by the orientations of the Earth's rotation axis and orbit around the Sun. Their orientations vary (though slowly, e.g. due to precession), and there is an infinity of such coordinate systems possible. Thus the coordinate systems most used in astronomy need their own date-reference because the coordinate systems of that type are themselves in motion, e.g. by the precession of the equinoxes, nowadays often resolved into precessional components, separate precessions of the equator and of the ecliptic.
The epoch of the coordinate system need not be the same, and often in practice is not the same, as the epoch for the data themselves.
The difference between reference to an epoch alone, and a reference to a certain equinox with equator or ecliptic, is therefore that the reference to the epoch contributes to specifying the date of the values of astronomical variables themselves; while the reference to an equinox along with equator/ecliptic, of a certain date, addresses the identification of, or changes in, the coordinate system in terms of which those astronomical variables are expressed. (Sometimes the word 'equinox' may be used alone, e.g. where it is obvious from the context to users of the data in which form the considered astronomical variables are expressed, in equatorial form or ecliptic form.)
The equinox with equator/ecliptic of a given date defines which coordinate system is used.
Most standard coordinates in use today refer to 2000 TT (i.e. to 12h (noon) on the Terrestrial Time scale on January 1, 2000, see below), which occurred about 64 seconds sooner than noon UT1 on the same date (see ΔT). Before about 1984, coordinate systems dated to 1950 or 1900 were commonly used.
There is a special meaning of the expression "equinox (and ecliptic/equator) of date". When coordinates are expressed as polynomials in time relative to a reference frame defined in this way, that means the values obtained for the coordinates in respect of any interval t after the stated epoch, are in terms of the coordinate system of the same date as the obtained values themselves, i.e. the date of the coordinate system is equal to (epoch + t).
It can be seen that the date of the coordinate system need not be the same as the epoch of the astronomical quantities themselves. But in that case (apart from the "equinox of date" case described above), two dates will be associated with the data: one date is the epoch for the time-dependent expressions giving the values, and the other date is that of the coordinate system in which the values are expressed.
For example, orbital elements, especially osculating elements for minor planets, are routinely given with reference to two dates: first, relative to a recent epoch for all of the elements: but some of the data are dependent on a chosen coordinate system, and then it is usual to specify the coordinate system of a standard epoch which often is not the same as the epoch of the data. An example is as follows: For minor planet (5145) Pholus, orbital elements have been given including the following data:
Epoch 2010 Jan. 4.0 TT . . . = JDT 2455200.5
M 72.00071 . . . . . . . .(2000.0)
n. 0.01076162 .. . . . Peri . 354.75938
a 20.3181594 . . . . . Node . 119.42656
e. 0.5715321 . . . . . Incl .. 24.66109
where the epoch is expressed in terms of Terrestrial Time, with an equivalent Julian date. Four of the elements are independent of any particular coordinate system: M is mean anomaly (deg), n: mean daily motion (deg/d), a: size of semi-major axis (AU), e: eccentricity (dimensionless). But the argument of perihelion, longitude of the ascending node and the inclination are all coordinate-dependent, and are specified relative to the reference frame of the equinox and ecliptic of another date "2000.0", otherwise known as J2000, i.e. January 1.5, 2000 (12h on January 1) or JD 2451545.0.
Epochs and periods of validity
In the particular set of coordinates exampled above, much of the elements has been omitted as unknown or undetermined; for example, the element n allows an approximate time-dependence of the element M to be calculated, but the other elements and n itself are treated as constant, which represents a temporary approximation (see Osculating elements).
Thus a particular coordinate system (equinox and equator/ecliptic of a particular date, such as J2000.0) could be used forever, but a set of osculating elements for a particular epoch may only be (approximately) valid for a rather limited time, because osculating elements such as those exampled above do not show the effect of future perturbations which will change the values of the elements.
Nevertheless, the period of validity is a different matter in principle and not the result of the use of an epoch to express the data. In other cases, e.g. the case of a complete analytical theory of the motion of some astronomical body, all of the elements will usually be given in the form of polynomials in interval of time from the epoch, and they will also be accompanied by trigonometrical terms of periodical perturbations specified appropriately. In that case, their period of validity may stretch over several centuries or even millennia on either side of the stated epoch.
Some data and some epochs have a long period of use for other reasons. For example, the boundaries of the IAU constellations are specified relative to an equinox from near the beginning of the year 1875. This is a matter of convention, but the convention is defined in terms of the equator and ecliptic as they were in 1875. To find out in which constellation a particular comet stands today, the current position of that comet must be expressed in the coordinate system of 1875 (equinox/equator of 1875). Thus that coordinate system can still be used today, even though most comet predictions made originally for 1875 (epoch = 1875) would no longer, because of the lack of information about their time-dependence and perturbations, be useful today.
Changing the standard equinox and epoch
To calculate the visibility of a celestial object for an observer at a specific time and place on the Earth, the coordinates of the object are needed relative to a coordinate system of current date. If coordinates relative to some other date are used, then that will cause errors in the results. The magnitude of those errors increases with the time difference between the date and time of observation and the date of the coordinate system used, because of the precession of the equinoxes. If the time difference is small, then fairly easy and small corrections for the precession may well suffice. If the time difference gets large, then fuller and more accurate corrections must be applied. For this reason, a star position read from a star atlas or catalog based on a sufficiently old equinox and equator cannot be used without corrections if reasonable accuracy is required.
Additionally, stars move relative to each other through space. Apparent motion across the sky relative to other stars is called proper motion. Most stars have very small proper motions, but a few have proper motions that accumulate to noticeable distances after a few tens of years. So, some stellar positions read from a star atlas or catalog for a sufficiently old epoch require proper motion corrections as well, for reasonable accuracy.
Due to precession and proper motion, star data become less useful as the age of the observations and their epoch, and the equinox and equator to which they are referred, get older. After a while, it is easier or better to switch to newer data, generally referred to a newer epoch and equinox/equator, than to keep applying corrections to the older data.
Specifying an epoch or equinox
Epochs and equinoxes are moments in time, so they can be specified in the same way as moments that indicate things other than epochs and equinoxes. The following standard ways of specifying epochs and equinoxes seem the most popular:
Julian days, e.g., JD 2433282.4235 for January 0.9235, 1950 TT
Besselian years (see below), e.g., 1950.0 or B1950.0 for January 0.9235, 1950 TT
Julian years, e.g., J2000.0 for January 1.5, 2000 TT
All three of these are expressed in TT = Terrestrial Time.
Besselian years, used mostly for star positions, can be encountered in older catalogs but are now becoming obsolete. The Hipparcos catalog summary, for example, defines the "catalog epoch" as "J1991.25" (8.75 Julian years before January 1.5, 2000 TT, e.g., April 2.5625, 1991 TT).
Besselian years
A Besselian year is named after the German mathematician and astronomer Friedrich Bessel (1784–1846). defines the beginning of a Besselian year to be the moment at which the mean longitude of the Sun, including the effect of aberration and measured from the mean equinox of the date, is exactly 280 degrees. This moment falls near the beginning of the corresponding Gregorian year. The definition depended on a particular theory of the orbit of the Earth around the Sun, that of Newcomb (1895), which is now obsolete; for that reason among others, the use of Besselian years has also become or is becoming obsolete.
says that a "Besselian epoch" can be calculated from the Julian date according to
B = 1900.0 + (Julian date − 2415020.31352) / 365.242198781
Lieske's definition is not exactly consistent with the earlier definition in terms of the mean longitude of the Sun. When using Besselian years, specify which definition is being used.
To distinguish between calendar years and Besselian years, it became customary to add ".0" to the Besselian years. Since the switch to Julian years in the mid-1980s, it has become customary to prefix "B" to Besselian years. So, "1950" is the calendar year 1950, and "1950.0" = "B1950.0" is the beginning of Besselian year 1950.
The IAU constellation boundaries are defined in the equatorial coordinate system relative to the equinox of B1875.0.
The Henry Draper Catalog uses the equinox B1900.0.
The classical star atlas Tabulae Caelestes used B1925.0 as its equinox.
According to Meeus, and also according to the formula given above,
B1900.0 = JDE 2415020.3135 = 1900 January 0.8135 TT
B1950.0 = JDE 2433282.4235 = 1950 January 0.9235 TT
Julian years and J2000
A Julian year is an interval with the length of a mean year in the Julian calendar, i.e. 365.25 days. This interval measure does not itself define any epoch: the Gregorian calendar is in general use for dating. But, standard conventional epochs which are not Besselian epochs have been often designated nowadays with a prefix "J", and the calendar date to which they refer is widely known, although not always the same date in the year: thus "J2000" refers to the instant of 12 noon (midday) on January 1, 2000, and J1900 refers to the instant of 12 noon on January 0, 1900, equal to December 31, 1899. It is also usual now to specify on what time scale the time of day is expressed in that epoch-designation, e.g. often Terrestrial Time.
In addition, an epoch optionally prefixed by "J" and designated as a year with decimals (), where is either positive or negative and is quoted to 1 or 2 decimal places, has come to mean a date that is an interval of Julian years of 365.25 days away from the epoch J2000 = JD 2451545.0 (TT), still corresponding (in spite of the use of the prefix "J" or word "Julian") to the Gregorian calendar date of January 1, 2000, at 12h TT (about 64 seconds before noon UTC on the same calendar day). (See also Julian year (astronomy).) Like the Besselian epoch, an arbitrary Julian epoch is therefore related to the Julian date by
The IAU decided at their General Assembly of 1976 that the new standard equinox of J2000.0 should be used starting in 1984. Before that, the equinox of B1950.0 seems to have been the standard.
Different astronomers or groups of astronomers used to define individually, but today standard epochs are generally defined by international agreement through the IAU, so astronomers worldwide can collaborate more effectively. It is inefficient and error-prone if data or observations of one group have to be translated in non-standard ways so that other groups could compare the data with information from other sources. An example of how this works: if a star's position is measured by someone today, they then use a standard transformation to obtain the position expressed in terms of the standard reference frame of J2000, and it is often then this J2000 position which is shared with others.
On the other hand, there has also been an astronomical tradition of retaining observations in just the form in which they were made, so that others can later correct the reductions to standard if that proves desirable, as has sometimes occurred.
The currently-used standard epoch "J2000" is defined by international agreement to be equivalent to:
The Gregorian date January 1, 2000, at 12:00 TT (Terrestrial Time).
The Julian date 2451545.0 TT (Terrestrial Time).
January 1, 2000, 11:59:27.816 TAI (International Atomic Time).
January 1, 2000, 11:58:55.816 UTC (Coordinated Universal Time).
Epoch of the day
Over shorter timescales, there are a variety of practices for defining when each day begins. In ordinary usage, the civil day is reckoned by the midnight epoch, that is, the civil day begins at midnight. But in older astronomical usage, it was usual, until January 1, 1925, to reckon by a noon epoch, 12 hours after the start of the civil day of the same denomination, so that the day began when the mean sun crossed the meridian at noon. This is still reflected in the definition of J2000, which started at noon, Terrestrial Time.
In traditional cultures and in antiquity other epochs were used. In ancient Egypt, days were reckoned from sunrise to sunrise, following a morning epoch. This may be related to the fact that the Egyptians regulated their year by the heliacal rising of the star Sirius, a phenomenon which occurs in the morning just before dawn.
In some cultures following a lunar or lunisolar calendar, in which the beginning of the month is determined by the appearance of the New Moon in the evening, the beginning of the day was reckoned from sunset to sunset, following an evening epoch, e.g. the Jewish and Islamic calendars and in Medieval Western Europe in reckoning the dates of religious festivals, while in others a morning epoch was followed, e.g. the Hindu and Buddhist calendars.
See also
Astrometry
Epoch (reference date)
Ephemeris time
International Celestial Reference System
International Celestial Reference Frame
Time in astronomy
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
What is Terrestrial Time? – U.S. Naval Observatory
International Celestial Reference System, or ICRS – U.S. Naval Observatory
IERS Conventions 2003 (defines ICRS and other related standards) | wiki |
Shortness of breath (SOB), also medically known as dyspnea (in AmE) or dyspnoea (in BrE), is an uncomfortable feeling of not being able to breathe well enough. The American Thoracic Society defines it as "a subjective experience of breathing discomfort that consists of qualitatively distinct sensations that vary in intensity", and recommends evaluating dyspnea by assessing the intensity of its distinct sensations, the degree of distress and discomfort involved, and its burden or impact on the patient's activities of daily living. Distinct sensations include effort/work to breathe, chest tightness or pain, and "air hunger" (the feeling of not enough oxygen). The tripod position is often assumed to be a sign.
Dyspnea is a normal symptom of heavy physical exertion but becomes pathological if it occurs in unexpected situations, when resting or during light exertion. In 85% of cases it is due to asthma, pneumonia, cardiac ischemia, interstitial lung disease, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or psychogenic causes, such as panic disorder and anxiety. The best treatment to relieve or even remove shortness of breath typically depends on the underlying cause.
Definition
Dyspnea, in medical terms, is "shortness of breath".
The American Thoracic Society defines dyspnea as: "A subjective experience of breathing discomfort that consists of qualitatively distinct sensations that vary in intensity." Other definitions also describe it as "difficulty in breathing", "disordered or inadequate breathing", "uncomfortable awareness of breathing", and as the experience of "breathlessness" (which may be either acute or chronic).
Differential diagnosis
While shortness of breath is generally caused by disorders of the cardiac or respiratory system, others such as the neurological, musculoskeletal, endocrine, hematologic, and psychiatric systems may be the cause. DiagnosisPro, an online medical expert system, listed 497 distinct causes in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are acute myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure while common pulmonary causes include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumothorax, pulmonary edema and pneumonia. On a pathophysiological basis the causes can be divided into: (1) an increased awareness of normal breathing such as during an anxiety attack, (2) an increase in the work of breathing and (3) an abnormality in the ventilatory or respiratory system.
The tempo of onset and the duration of dyspnea are useful in knowing the etiology of dyspnea. Acute shortness of breath is usually connected with sudden physiological changes, such as laryngeal edema, bronchospasm, myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, or pneumothorax. Patients with COPD and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) have a mild onset and gradual progression of dyspnea on exertion, punctuated by acute exacerbations of shortness of breath. In contrast, most asthmatics do not have daily symptoms, but have intermittent episodes of dyspnea, cough, and chest tightness that are usually associated with specific triggers, such as an upper respiratory tract infection or exposure to allergens.
Acute coronary syndrome
Acute coronary syndrome frequently presents with retrosternal chest discomfort and difficulty catching the breath. It however may atypically present with shortness of breath alone. Risk factors include old age, smoking, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes. An electrocardiogram and cardiac enzymes are important both for diagnosis and directing treatment. Treatment involves measures to decrease the oxygen requirement of the heart and efforts to increase blood flow.
COVID-19
People that have been infected by COVID-19 may have symptoms such as a fever, dry cough, loss of smell and taste, and in moderate to severe cases, shortness of breath.
Congestive heart failure
Congestive heart failure frequently presents with shortness of breath with exertion, orthopnea, and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea. It affects between 1–2% of the general United States population and occurs in 10% of those over 65 years old. Risk factors for acute decompensation include high dietary salt intake, medication noncompliance, cardiac ischemia, abnormal heart rhythms, kidney failure, pulmonary emboli, hypertension, and infections. Treatment efforts are directed towards decreasing lung congestion.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
People with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), most commonly emphysema or chronic bronchitis, frequently have chronic shortness of breath and a chronic productive cough. An acute exacerbation presents with increased shortness of breath and sputum production. COPD is a risk factor for pneumonia; thus this condition should be ruled out. In an acute exacerbation treatment is with a combination of anticholinergics, beta2-adrenoceptor agonists, steroids and possibly positive pressure ventilation.
Asthma
Asthma is the most common reason for presenting to the emergency room with shortness of breath. It is the most common lung disease in both developing and developed countries affecting about 5% of the population. Other symptoms include wheezing, tightness in the chest, and a non productive cough.
Inhaled corticosteroids are the preferred treatment for children, however these drugs can reduce the growth rate. Acute symptoms are treated with short-acting bronchodilators.
Pneumothorax
Pneumothorax presents typically with pleuritic chest pain of acute onset and shortness of breath not improved with oxygen. Physical findings may include absent breath sounds on one side of the chest, jugular venous distension, and tracheal deviation.
Pneumonia
The symptoms of pneumonia are fever, productive cough, shortness of breath, and pleuritic chest pain. Inspiratory crackles may be heard on exam. A chest x-ray can be useful to differentiate pneumonia from congestive heart failure. As the cause is usually a bacterial infection, antibiotics are typically used for treatment.
Pulmonary embolism
Pulmonary embolism classically presents with an acute onset of shortness of breath. Other presenting symptoms include pleuritic chest pain, cough, hemoptysis, and fever. Risk factors include deep vein thrombosis, recent surgery, cancer, and previous thromboembolism. It must always be considered in those with acute onset of shortness of breath owing to its high risk of mortality. Diagnosis, however, may be difficult and Wells Score is often used to assess the clinical probability. Treatment, depending on severity of symptoms, typically starts with anticoagulants; the presence of ominous signs (low blood pressure) may warrant the use of thrombolytic drugs.
Anemia
Anemia that develops gradually usually presents with exertional dyspnea, fatigue, weakness, and tachycardia. It may lead to heart failure. Anaemia is often a cause of dyspnea. Menstruation, particularly if excessive, can contribute to anaemia and to consequential dyspnea in women. Headaches are also a symptom of dyspnea in patients with anaemia. Some patients report a numb sensation in their head, and others have reported blurred vision caused by hypotension behind the eye due to a lack of oxygen and pressure; these patients have also reported severe head pains, many of which lead to permanent brain damage. Symptoms can include loss of concentration, focus, fatigue, language faculty impairment and memory loss.
Cancer
Shortness of breath is common in people with cancer and may be caused by numerous different factors. In people with advanced cancer, periods of time with severe shortness of breath may occur, along with a more continuous feeling of breathlessness.
Other
Other important or common causes of shortness of breath include cardiac tamponade, anaphylaxis, interstitial lung disease, panic attacks, and pulmonary hypertension. Also, around 2/3 of women experience shortness of breath as a part of a normal pregnancy.
Cardiac tamponade presents with dyspnea, tachycardia, elevated jugular venous pressure, and pulsus paradoxus. The gold standard for diagnosis is ultrasound.
Anaphylaxis typically begins over a few minutes in a person with a previous history of the same. Other symptoms include urticaria, throat swelling, and gastrointestinal upset. The primary treatment is epinephrine.
Interstitial lung disease presents with gradual onset of shortness of breath typically with a history of a predisposing environmental exposure. Shortness of breath is often the only symptom in those with tachydysrhythmias.
Panic attacks typically present with hyperventilation, sweating, and numbness. They are however a diagnosis of exclusion.
Neurological conditions such as spinal cord injury, phrenic nerve injuries, Guillain–Barré syndrome, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis and muscular dystrophy can all cause an individual to experience shortness of breath. Shortness of breath can also occur as a result of vocal cord dysfunction (VCD).
Sarcoidosis is an inflammatory disease of unknown etiology that generally presents with dry cough, fatigue, and shortness of breath, although multiple organ systems may be affected, with involvement of sites such as the eyes, the skin and the joints.
Pathophysiology
Different physiological pathways may lead to shortness of breath including via ASIC chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and lung receptors.
It is thought that three main components contribute to dyspnea: afferent signals, efferent signals, and central information processing. It is believed the central processing in the brain compares the afferent and efferent signals; and dyspnea results when a "mismatch" occurs between the two: such as when the need for ventilation (afferent signaling) is not being met by physical breathing (efferent signaling).
Afferent signals are sensory neuronal signals that ascend to the brain. Afferent neurons significant in dyspnea arise from a large number of sources including the carotid bodies, medulla, lungs, and chest wall. Chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and medulla supply information regarding the blood gas levels of O2, CO2 and H+. In the lungs, juxtacapillary (J) receptors are sensitive to pulmonary interstitial edema, while stretch receptors signal bronchoconstriction. Muscle spindles in the chest wall signal the stretch and tension of the respiratory muscles. Thus, poor ventilation leading to hypercapnia, left heart failure leading to interstitial edema (impairing gas exchange), asthma causing bronchoconstriction (limiting airflow) and muscle fatigue leading to ineffective respiratory muscle action could all contribute to a feeling of dyspnea.
Efferent signals are the motor neuronal signals descending to the respiratory muscles. The most important respiratory muscle is the diaphragm. Other respiratory muscles include the external and internal intercostal muscles, the abdominal muscles and the accessory breathing muscles.
As the brain receives its plentiful supply of afferent information relating to ventilation, it is able to compare it to the current level of respiration as determined by the efferent signals. If the level of respiration is inappropriate for the body's status then dyspnea might occur. There is also a psychological component to dyspnea, as some people may become aware of their breathing in such circumstances but not experience the typical distress of dyspnea.
Diagnosis
The initial approach to evaluation begins by assessment of the airway, breathing, and circulation followed by a medical history and physical examination. Signs and symptoms that represent significant severity include hypotension, hypoxemia, tracheal deviation, altered mental status, unstable dysrhythmia, stridor, intercostal indrawing, cyanosis, tripod positioning, pronounced use of accessory muscles (sternocleidomastoid, scalenes) and absent breath sounds.
A number of scales may be used to quantify the degree of shortness of breath. It may be subjectively rated on a scale from 1 to 10 with descriptors associated with the number (The Modified Borg Scale). The MRC breathlessness scale suggests five grades of dyspnea based on the circumstances and severity in which it arises.
Blood tests
A number of labs may be helpful in determining the cause of shortness of breath. D-dimer, while useful to rule out a pulmonary embolism in those who are at low risk, is not of much value if it is positive, as it may be positive in a number of conditions that lead to shortness of breath. A low level of brain natriuretic peptide is useful in ruling out congestive heart failure; however, a high level, while supportive of the diagnosis, could also be due to advanced age, kidney failure, acute coronary syndrome, or a large pulmonary embolism.
Imaging
A chest x-ray is useful to confirm or rule out a pneumothorax, pulmonary edema, or pneumonia. Spiral computed tomography with intravenous radiocontrast is the imaging study of choice to evaluate for pulmonary embolism.
Treatment
The primary treatment of shortness of breath is directed at its underlying cause. Extra supplemental oxygen is effective in those with hypoxia; however, this has no effect in those with normal blood oxygen saturations.
Physiotherapy
Individuals can benefit from a variety of physical therapy interventions. Persons with neurological/neuromuscular abnormalities may have breathing difficulties due to weak or paralyzed intercostal, abdominal and/or other muscles needed for ventilation. Some physical therapy interventions for this population include active assisted cough techniques, volume augmentation such as breath stacking, education about body position and ventilation patterns and movement strategies to facilitate breathing. Pulmonary rehabilitation may alleviate symptoms in some people, such as those with COPD, but will not cure the underlying disease. Fan therapy to the face has been shown to relieve shortness of breath in patients with a variety of advanced illnesses including cancer. The mechanism of action is thought to be stimulation of the trigeminal nerve.
Palliative medicine
Systemic immediate release opioids are beneficial in emergently reducing the symptom severity of shortness of breath due to both cancer and non cancer causes; long-acting/sustained-release opioids are also used to prevent/continue treatment of dyspnea in palliative setting. There is a lack of evidence to recommend midazolam, nebulised opioids, the use of gas mixtures, or cognitive-behavioral therapy yet.
Non-pharmacological techniques
Non-pharmacological interventions provide key tools for the management of breathlessness. Potentially beneficial approaches include active management of psychosocial issues (anxiety, depression, etc.), and implementation of self-management strategies, such as physical and mental relaxation techniques, pacing techniques, energy conservation techniques, learning exercises to control breathing, and education. The use of a fan may possibly be beneficial. Cognitive behavioural therapy may also be helpful.
Pharmacological treatment
For people with severe, chronic, or uncontrollable breathlessness, non-pharmacological approaches to treating breathlessness may be combined with medication. For people who have cancer that is causing the breathlessness, medications that have been suggested include opioids, benzodiazepines, oxygen, and steroids. Results of recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses found opioids were not necessarily associated with more effectiveness in treatment for patients with advanced cancer.
Ensuring that the balance between side effects and adverse effects from medications and potential improvements from medications needs to be carefully considered before prescribing medication. The use of systematic corticosteriods in palliative care for people with cancer is common, however the effectiveness and potential adverse effects of this approach in adults with cancer has not been well studied.
Epidemiology
Shortness of breath is the primary reason 3.5% of people present to the emergency department in the United States. Of these individuals, approximately 51% are admitted to the hospital and 13% are dead within a year. Some studies have suggested that up to 27% of hospitalized people develop dyspnea, while in dying patients 75% will experience it. Acute shortness of breath is the most common reason people requiring palliative care visit an emergency department. Up to 70% of adults with advanced cancer also experience dyspnoea.
Etymology and pronunciation
English dyspnea comes from Latin dyspnoea, from Greek dyspnoia, from dyspnoos, which literally means "disordered breathing". Its combining forms (dys- + -pnea) are familiar from other medical words, such as dysfunction (dys- + function) and apnea (a- + -pnea). The most common pronunciation in medical English is , with the p expressed and the stress on the /niː/ syllable. But pronunciations with a silent p in pn (as also in pneumo-) are common ( or ), as are those with the stress on the first syllable ( or ).
In English, the various -pnea-suffixed words commonly used in medicine do not follow one clear pattern as to whether the /niː/ syllable or the one preceding it is stressed; the p is usually expressed but is sometimes silent depending on the word. The following collation or list shows the preponderance of how major dictionaries pronounce and transcribe them (less-used variants are omitted):
See also
List of terms of lung size and activity
Bronchospasm
Orthopnea
References
External links
Shortness Of Breath (Dyspnea)StatPearls
Breathing abnormalities | wiki |
A hypertensive urgency is a clinical situation in which blood pressure is very high (e.g., 220/125 mmHg) with minimal or no symptoms, and no signs or symptoms indicating acute organ damage. This contrasts with a hypertensive emergency where severe blood pressure is accompanied by evidence of progressive organ or system damage.
Definition
Hypertensive urgency is defined as severely high blood pressure with no evidence of end organ damage. The term "malignant hypertension" was also included under this category with grade III/IV hypertensive retinopathy. However, in 2018, European Society of Cardiology and the European Society of Hypertension issued a new guideline which put "malignant hypertension" under the category "hypertensive emergency", which emphasize on poor outcome if the condition is not treated urgently.
Treatment
In a hypertensive urgency blood pressure should be lowered carefully to ≤160/≤100 mmHg over a period of hours to days, this can often be done as an outpatient. There is limited evidence regarding the most appropriate rate of blood pressure reduction, although it is recommended that mean arterial pressure should be lowered by no more than 25 to 30 percent over the first few hours. Recommended medications for hypertensive urgencies include: captopril, labetalol, amlodipine, felodipine, isradipine, and prazosin. Sublingual nifedipine is not recommended in hypertensive urgencies. This is because nifedipine can cause rapid decrease of blood pressure which can precipitate cerebral or cardiac ischemic events. There is also lack of evidence on the benefits of nifedipine in controlling hypertension. Acute administration of drugs should be followed by several hours of observation to ensure that blood pressure does not fall too much. Aggressive dosing with intravenous drugs or oral agents which lowers blood pressure too rapidly carries risk; conversely there is no evidence that failure to rapidly lower blood pressure in a hypertensive urgency is associated with any increased short-term risk.
Epidemiology
Not much is known about the epidemiology of hypertensive urgencies. Retrospective analysis of data from 1,290,804 adults admitted to hospital emergency departments in United States from 2005 through 2007 found that severe hypertension with a systolic blood pressure ≥180 mmHg occurred in 13.8% of patients. Based on another study in a US public teaching hospital about 60% of hypertensive crises are due to hypertensive urgencies.
Risk factors for severe hypertension include older age, female sex, obesity, coronary artery disease, somatoform disorder, being prescribed multiple antihypertensive medications, and non-adherence to medication.
References
Hypertension | wiki |
Camp Dearborn is a park in Milford Township, Michigan owned by the city of Dearborn, Michigan. The park has several ponds and lakes as well as access to the Huron River, a half-mile swimming beach, swimming pool, picnic sites, and camping areas. Activities include fishing, paddle boat rentals, hayrides, dances, miniature golf and a 27-hole golf course. Canoe/kayaks can launch into the Huron River while a bike trail connects to downtown and other local parks. Camping is available for tents and RVs on 191 sites (including a section for permanent trailers) and in 118 permanent tents and 30 cabins.
Camp Dearborn opened on May 29, 1948 under leadership of Mayor Orville L. Hubbard. Services in the park are provided by Dearborn city employees.
During the Great Recession of 2008, Dearborn investigated selling off the camp but found that the camp was profitable and that there was no prospect of a reasonably profitable sale due to zoning issues.
References
Dearborn Then and Now - Camp Dearborn, Dearborn Historical Museum, video segment, 2009
Protected areas of Oakland County, Michigan
Huron River (Michigan)
Dearborn, Michigan
Parks in Michigan
Protected areas established in 1948
1948 establishments in Michigan | wiki |
The Las Vegas dace (Rhinichthys deaconi) was a species of cyprinid fish.
It was found only in the Las Vegas Valley in the United States. It was declared extinct in 1986 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Sources
Rhinichthys
Extinct animals of the United States
Cyprinid fish of North America
Fish described in 1984
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot | wiki |
Kiddy Girl-and is a 2009 sequel to the science fiction anime series Kiddy Grade.
Episode list
Kiddy Girl-and | wiki |
Biografia
Vita privata
Dal 1977 William McRaven è sposato, all'età di 22 anni, con Georgeann Brady, da cui ha avuto tre figli.
Onorificenze
Defense Distinguished Service Medal
Defense Superior Service Medal (2)
Legion of Merit (2)
Bronze Star Medal (2)
Altri progetti
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, south, east, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, S, E, and W respectively. Relative to north, the directions east, south, and west are at 90 degree intervals in the clockwise direction.
The ordinal directions (also called the intercardinal directions) are northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW). The intermediate direction of every set of intercardinal and cardinal direction is called a secondary intercardinal direction. These eight shortest points in the compass rose shown to the right are:
West-northwest (WNW)
North-northwest (NNW)
North-northeast (NNE)
East-northeast (ENE)
East-southeast (ESE)
South-southeast (SSE)
South-southwest (SSW)
West-southwest (WSW)
Points between the cardinal directions form the points of the compass. Arbitrary horizontal directions may be indicated by their azimuth angle value.
Determination
Additional points
Degrees of rotation
The directional names are routinely associated with the degrees of rotation in the unit circle, a necessary step for navigational calculations (derived from trigonometry) and for use with Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) receivers. The four cardinal directions correspond to the following degrees of a compass:
North (N): 0° = 360°
East (E): 90°
South (S): 180°
West (W): 270°
Intercardinal directions
The intercardinal (intermediate, or, historically, ordinal) directions are the four intermediate compass directions located halfway between each pair of cardinal directions.
Northeast (NE), 45°, halfway between north and east, is the opposite of southwest.
Southeast (SE), 135°, halfway between south and east, is the opposite of northwest.
Southwest (SW), 225°, halfway between south and west, is the opposite of northeast.
Northwest (NW), 315°, halfway between north and west, is the opposite of southeast.
These eight directional names have been further compounded known as tertiary intercardinal directions, resulting in a total of 32 named points evenly spaced around the compass: north (N), north by east (NbE), north-northeast (NNE), northeast by north (NEbN), northeast (NE), northeast by east (NEbE), east-northeast (ENE), east by north (EbN), east (E), etc.
Usefulness
With the cardinal points thus accurately defined; by convention cartographers draw standard maps with north (N) at the top, and east (E) at the right. In turn, maps provide a systematic means to record where places are, and cardinal directions are the foundation of a structure for telling someone how to find those places. Additionally, in most languages this same cardinal-relative mapping is sometimes used in everyday usage when the speaker uses the cardinal directional term instead of the corresponding body relative directional term, even though a relative directional term already exists in that language.
That being said, in cartography north does not have to be at the top. Most maps in medieval Europe, for example, placed east (E) at the top. A few cartographers prefer south-up maps. Many portable GPS-based navigation computers today can be set to display maps either conventionally (N always up, E always right) or with the current instantaneous direction of travel, called the heading, always up (and whatever direction is +90° from that to the right).
In Canada, New Zealand, and the United States, each direction of travel along a numbered highway is assigned a cardinal direction. This cardinal direction may not necessarily match the road's orientation at every given location (see Wrong-way concurrency).
Beyond geography
Cardinal directions or cardinal points may sometimes be extended to include elevation (altitude, depth): north, south, east, west, up and down, or mathematically the six directions of the x-, y-, and z-axes in three-dimensional space. Topographic maps include elevation, typically via contour lines.
In astronomy, the cardinal points of an astronomical body as seen in the sky are four points defined by the directions toward which the celestial poles lie relative to the center of the disk of the object in the sky.
A line (a great circle on the celestial sphere) from the center of the disk to the North celestial pole will intersect the edge of the body (the "limb") at the North point. The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole. Similarly, a line from the center to the South celestial pole will define the South point by its intersection with the limb. The points at right angles to the North and South points are the East and West points. Going around the disk clockwise from the North point, one encounters in order the West point, the South point, and then the East point. This is opposite to the order on a terrestrial map because one is looking up instead of down.
Similarly, when describing the location of one astronomical object relative to another, "north" means closer to the North celestial pole, "east" means at a higher right ascension, "south" means closer to the South celestial pole, and "west" means at a lower right ascension. If one is looking at two stars that are below the North Star, for example, the one that is "east" will actually be further to the left.
Germanic origin of names
During the Migration Period, the Germanic names for the cardinal directions entered the Romance languages, where they replaced the Latin names borealis (or septentrionalis) with north, australis (or meridionalis) with south, occidentalis with west and orientalis with east. It is possible that some northern people used the Germanic names for the intermediate directions. Medieval Scandinavian orientation would thus have involved a 45 degree rotation of cardinal directions.
north (Proto-Germanic *norþ-) from the proto-Indo-European *nórto-s 'submerged' from the root *ner- 'left, below, to the left of the rising sun' whence comes the Ancient Greek name Nereus.
east (*aus-t-) from the word for dawn. The proto-Indo-European form is *austo-s from the root *aues- 'shine (red)'. See Ēostre.
south (*sunþ-), derived from proto-Indo-European *sú-n-to-s from the root *seu- 'seethe, boil'. Cognate with this root is the word Sun, thus "the region of the Sun".
west (*wes-t-) from a word for "evening". The proto-Indo-European form is *uestos from the root *ues- 'shine (red)', itself a form of *aues-. Cognate with the root are the Latin words vesper and vesta and the Ancient Greek Hestia, Hesperus and Hesperides.
Cultural variations
In many regions of the world, prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named winds with cardinal and intercardinal directions. For example, classical Greek culture characterized these winds as Anemoi.
In pre-modern Europe more generally, between eight and 32 points of the compass – cardinal and intercardinal directions – were given names. These often corresponded to the directional winds of the Mediterranean Sea (for example, southeast was linked to the Sirocco, a wind from the Sahara).
Particular colors are associated in some traditions with the cardinal points. These are typically "natural colors" of human perception rather than optical primary colors.
Many cultures, especially in Asia, include the center as a fifth cardinal point.
Northern Eurasia
Central Asian, Eastern European and North East Asian cultures frequently have traditions associating colors with four or five cardinal points.
Systems with five cardinal points (four directions and the center) include those from pre-modern China, as well as traditional Turkic, Tibetan and Ainu cultures. In Chinese tradition, the five cardinal point system is related to I Ching, the Wu Xing and the five naked-eye planets. In traditional Chinese astrology, the zodiacal belt is divided into the four constellation groups corresponding to the directions.
Each direction is often identified with a color, and (at least in China) with a mythological creature of that color. Geographical or ethnic terms may contain the name of the color instead of the name of the corresponding direction.
Examples
East: Green (青 "qīng" corresponds to both green and blue); Spring; Wood
Qingdao (Tsingtao): "Green Island", a city on the east coast of China
Green Ukraine
South: Red; Summer; Fire
Red River (Asia): south of China
Red Ruthenia
Red Jews: a semi-mythological group of Jews
Red Croatia
Red Sea
West: White; Autumn; Metal
White Sheep Turkmen
Akdeniz, meaning 'White Sea': Mediterranean Sea in Turkish
Balts, Baltic words containing the stem balt- ("white")
White Ruthenia
White Serbia
White Croatia
North: Black; Winter; Water
Heilongjiang: "Black Dragon River" province in Northeast China, also the Amur River
Kara-Khitan Khanate: "Black Khitans" who originated in Northern China
Karadeniz, literally meaning 'Black Sea': Black Sea in Turkish
Black Hungarians
Black Ruthenia
Center: Yellow; Earth
Huangshan: "Yellow Mountain" in central China
Huang He: "Yellow River" in central China
Golden Horde: "Central Army" of the Mongols
Arabic world
Countries where Arabic is used refer to the cardinal directions as Ash Shamal (N), Al Gharb (W), Ash Sharq (E) and Al Janoob (S). Additionally, Al Wusta is used for the center. All five are used for geographic subdivision names (wilayahs, states, regions, governorates, provinces, districts or even towns), and some are the origin of some Southern Iberian place names (such as Algarve, Portugal and Axarquía, Spain).
Native Americans
In Mesoamerica and North America, a number of traditional indigenous cosmologies include four cardinal directions and a center. Some may also include "above" and "below" as directions, and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions. Among the Hopi of the Southwestern United States, the four named cardinal directions are not North, South, East and West but are the four directions associated with the places of sunrise and sunset at the winter and summer solstices. Each direction may be associated with a color, which can vary widely between nations, but which is usually one of the basic colors found in nature and natural pigments, such as black, red, white, and yellow, with occasional appearances of blue, green, or other hues. There can be great variety in color symbolism, even among cultures that are close neighbors geographically.
India
Ten Hindu deities, known as the "Dikpālas", have been recognized in classical Indian scriptures, symbolizing the four cardinal and four intercardinal directions with the additional directions of up and down. Each of the ten directions has its own name in Sanskrit.
Indigenous Australia
Some indigenous Australians have cardinal directions deeply embedded in their culture. For example, the Warlpiri people have a cultural philosophy deeply connected to the four cardinal directions and the Guugu Yimithirr people use cardinal directions rather than relative direction even when indicating the position of an object close to their body. (For more information, see: Cultures without relative directions.)
The precise direction of the cardinal points appears to be important in Aboriginal stone arrangements.
Many aboriginal languages contain words for the usual four cardinal directions, but some contain words for 5 or even 6 cardinal directions.
Unique (non-compound) names of intercardinal directions
In some languages, such as Estonian, Finnish and Breton, the intercardinal directions have names that are not compounds of the names of the cardinal directions (as, for instance, northeast is compounded from north and east). In Estonian, those are kirre (northeast), kagu (southeast), edel (southwest), and loe (northwest), in Finnish koillinen (northeast), kaakko (southeast), lounas (southwest), and luode (northwest). In Japanese, there is the interesting situation that native Japanese words (yamato kotoba, kun readings of kanji) are used for the cardinal directions (such as minami for 南, south), but borrowed Chinese words (on readings of kanji) are used for intercardinal directions (such as tō-nan for 東南, southeast, lit. "east-south"). In the Malay language, adding laut (sea) to either east (timur) or west (barat) results in northeast or northwest, respectively, whereas adding daya to west (giving barat daya) results in southwest. Southeast has a special word: tenggara.
Sanskrit and other Indian languages that borrow from it use the names of the gods associated with each direction: east (Indra), southeast (Agni), south (Yama/Dharma), southwest (Nirrti), west (Varuna), northwest (Vayu), north (Kubera/Heaven) and northeast (Ishana/Shiva). North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka). The directions are named by adding "disha" to the names of each god or entity: e.g. Indradisha (direction of Indra) or Pitrdisha (direction of the forefathers i.e. south).
The cardinal directions of the Hopi language and the Tewa dialect spoken by the Hopi-Tewa are related to the places of sunrise and sunset at the solstices, and correspond approximately to the European intercardinal directions.
Non-compass directional systems
Use of the compass directions is common and deeply embedded in European and Chinese culture (see south-pointing chariot). Some other cultures make greater use of other referents, such as toward the sea or toward the mountains (Hawaii, Bali), or upstream and downstream (most notably in ancient Egypt, also in the Yurok and Karuk languages). Lengo (Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands) has four non-compass directions: landward, seaward, upcoast, and downcoast.
Some languages lack words for body-relative directions such as left/right, and use geographical directions instead.
See also
Azimuth
Classical compass winds – an early source of cardinal directions
Cultural synesthesia
Elevation – the mapping information ignored by the cardinal point system
Geocaching – an international hobby
Geographic Information System (GIS)
Latitude and Longitude
List of cartographers – famous map makers through history
List of international common standards
Magnetic deviation – explanation of the slight misalignment of a compass with the Earth's north and south poles
Orienteering – an international hobby/sport that depends on knowledge of cardinal directions and how to locate them
Relative direction
Uses of trigonometry
References
Orientation (geometry) | wiki |
Phil(l)ip or Phil Morris may refer to:
Companies
Altria, a conglomerate company previously known as Philip Morris Companies Inc., named after the tobacconist
Philip Morris USA, a tobacco company wholly owned by Altria Group
Philip Morris International, a tobacco company that spun off from Altria Group in 2008
Philip Morris (cigarette)
Film and TV
Philip Morris (1893–1949), American actor, known for his role in Home on the Range
Phil Morris (actor) (born 1959), American actor, best known for his role on Seinfeld
Philip Morris (archivist), English media recovery expert, known for recovering Doctor Who episodes
Sportspeople
Philip Morris (English cricketer) (1877–1945), English cricketer
Philip Morris (New Zealand cricketer) (born 1952), New Zealand cricketer
Philip Morris (racing driver) (born 1965), American short track racing racer
Phil Morris (speedway rider) (born 1975), British motorcycle speedway rider and TV game show participant
Others
Philip Morris (tobacconist) (1835–1873), British tobacconist and importer of cigarettes
Phil Morris (health activist) (born 1972), British health activist and cancer survivor
Philip Morris (priest) (born 1950), Archdeacon of Margam
Philip Richard Morris (1836–1902), English painter
Phillip Morris, prisoner, and lover of conman and escape artist Steven Jay Russell
Phillip Morris Napier, American politician in the state of Maine
Naugle v. Philip Morris, a 2009 court case
See also
I Love You Phillip Morris, a 2009 film adaptation of a book inspired by the lives of Morris and Russell
Morris, Philip | wiki |
Zepler doubling is a manoeuvre in chess in which a piece moves along a certain line (rank, file or diagonal), then another friendly piece moves onto that same line, then the first piece moves again in the same direction as before. The term is effectively limited to the field of chess problems.
The first problem to show the idea (shown to the right), by Erich Zepler himself, is a simple and clear demonstration of the manoeuvre. The straightforward doubling 1.Rgb2, threatening 2.Rb8#, fails to 1...Bxd6, so the more roundabout Zepler doubling is required: 1.Rb4 Bg7 (now 1...Bxd6 is no good because of 2.Rg8+) 2.Rgb2 any 3.Rb8#.
Zepler doubling can be contrasted with another doubling manoeuvre, Turton doubling.
References
David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld, "Erich Ernest Zepler" in The Oxford Companion to Chess (Oxford University Press, 1996)
Chess problems
1929 in chess | wiki |
Paracyathus stearnsii est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Caryophylliidae.
Description et caractéristiques
Habitat et répartition
Liens externes
Notes et références
Caryophylliidae | wiki |
The bigeye jumprock (Moxostoma ariommum) is a species of ray-finned fish in the family Catostomidae.
It is found only in the upper Roanoke River drainage in Virginia and North Carolina, United States. It inhabits deep rocky runs and pools with large boulders and rubble. It reaches a maximum length of around 22 cm.
Sources
Moxostoma
Fish described in 1956
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot | wiki |
A cockatrice is a legendary creature resembling a large rooster with a lizard-like tail.
Cockatrice may also refer to:
Cockatrice (Dungeons & Dragons), a small avian magical beast in the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons
HMS Cockatrice, eight ships of the Royal Navy
Cockatrice, a British armoured vehicle mounting a Lagonda flamethrower
Cockatrice, open-source freeware used to play card games such as Magic: The Gathering over a network
See also
Coquatrix, a French surname variant | wiki |
The FBI franchise (also called The FBIs) is an American media franchise composed of three television series that are currently broadcast on CBS. It began with the premiere of FBI in 2018 and has since been expanded with spin-offs FBI: Most Wanted and FBI: International. Dick Wolf created FBI with Craig Turk and FBI: International with Derek Haas, while FBI: Most Wanted was created by René Balcer. All three series are produced by Wolf Entertainment and deal with different aspects of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
Multiple characters have appeared in more than one series of the franchise through occasional crossover appearances and the franchise has also had two crossover events. The franchise is also connected to NBC and Wolf Entertainment's Chicago franchise, and as a result the Law & Order franchise, through an appearance by Tracy Spiridakos in FBI, as her character from Chicago P.D.
Series
FBI
The first series in the FBI Franchise focuses on the inner workings of the New York office criminal division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). This elite unit brings to bear all their talents, intellect, and technical expertise on major cases in order to keep New York and the country safe.
FBI: Most Wanted
Most Wanted centers on the work of the FBI's Fugitive Task Force, a small and unique team designed to track and capture notorious fugitives on the Bureau's Most Wanted List. The series is more about profiling and analyzing fugitives in order to catch them unlike FBI and FBI: International which are more about the crime and the investigation.
FBI: International
International follows the elite operatives in the FBI's International Fly Team which is headquartered in Budapest. They are charged with locating and neutralizing threats against American interests, wherever they may be.
Series overview
Main Cast
Crossovers
External links
FBI - CBS's official website
FBI - Wolf Entertainment site
FBI: Most Wanted - CBS's official Website
FBI: Most Wanted - Wolf Entertainment site
FBI: International - CBS's official website
FBI: International - Wolf Entertainment site
Notes
References
FBI (franchise)
Television series created by Dick Wolf
Television franchises
American police procedural television series | wiki |
A dildo is a sex toy that also comes as a double dildo.
Dildo may also refer to:
Dildo, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Dildo Island, Canada
Dildo Key, Florida, USA
Dildo cactus (disambiguation), several species of long, narrow cactus
See also
DilDog, handle of Christien Rioux, cofounder and scientist for Veracode
Armageddon Dildos, German electro-industrial musical duo | wiki |
The China Open is an annual men's and women's amateur boxing tournament held in Guiyang, China since 2010. It is supported by the International Boxing Association and the Guizhou municipal government.
The tournament began in the city of Guiyang which is a traditional boxing event in the Asian continent. Guiyang is the capital city of Guizhou Province. Is represents all of the thirteen Olympic weight classes, the women boxers can box in the Flyweight class, Lightweight class and Middleweight class in Guiyang. The men competition is scheduled from the 49 kg up to the +91 kg weight classes.
References
External links
Official site
2010 establishments in China
Boxing competitions in China | wiki |
Alafosfalin, also known as alaphosphin, is an phosphonodipeptide with antibacterial and antifungal properties.
References
Dipeptides
Phosphonic acids | wiki |
Jenga is a game of physical skill created by British board game designer and author Leslie Scott and marketed by Hasbro. Players take turns removing one block at a time from a tower constructed of 54 blocks. Each block removed is then placed on top of the tower, creating a progressively more unstable structure.
Rules
Jenga is played with 54 wooden blocks. Each block is three times as long as it is wide, and one fifth as thick as its length – . Blocks have small, random variations from these dimensions so as to create imperfections in the stacking process and make the game more challenging. To begin the game, the blocks are stacked into a solid rectangular tower of 18 layers, with three blocks per layer. The blocks within each layer are oriented in the same direction, with their long sides touching, and are perpendicular to the ones in the layer immediately below. A plastic tray provided with the game can be used to assist in setup.
Starting with the one who built the tower, players take turns removing one block from any level below the highest completed one and placing it horizontally atop the tower, perpendicular to any blocks on which it is to rest. Each player may use only one hand to touch the tower or move a block at any given time, but may switch hands whenever desired. Once a level contains three blocks, it is complete and may not have any more blocks added to it. A block may be touched or nudged to determine whether it is loose enough to remove without disturbing the rest of the tower, but it must be returned to its original position if the player decides to move a different one. A turn ends when the next player in sequence touches the tower or when 10 seconds have elapsed since the placement of a block, whichever occurs first.
The game ends when any portion of the tower collapses, caused by either the removal of a block or its new placement. The last player to complete a turn before the collapse is the winner.
Origins
Jenga was created by Leslie Scott, the co-founder of Oxford Games Ltd, based on a game that evolved within her family in the early 1970s using children's wooden building blocks the family purchased from a sawmill in Takoradi, Ghana. The name jenga is derived from kujenga, a Swahili word which means 'to build'. A British national, Scott was born in Tanganyika, now Tanzania, where she was raised speaking English and Swahili, before moving to live in Ghana, West Africa. Scott launched the game she named and trademarked as "Jenga" at the London Toy Fair in January 1983 and sold it through her own company, Leslie Scott Associates. The blocks of the first sets of Jenga were manufactured for Scott by the Camphill Village Trust in Botton, Yorkshire. The V&A Museum of Childhood has exhibited one of the original sets of Jenga since 1982.
In 1984, Robert Grebler, an entrepreneur from California who was the brother of a close friend of Scott, contacted her and expressed interest in importing and distributing Jenga in Canada. In April 1985, Grebler acquired from Scott the exclusive rights to Jenga for the United States and Canada, and then in October of that year, Scott assigned the worldwide rights in Jenga to Grebler, which he in turn assigned to Pokonobe Associates. Convinced of Jenga's potential, Grebler had invited two cousins to form Pokonobe Associates with him in 1985 to increase distribution of Jenga. Pokonobe then licensed Irwin Toy to sell Jenga in Canada and to be master licensee worldwide. Irwin Toy licensed Jenga to Schaper in the United States and when that company was bought by Hasbro, Jenga was launched under the Milton Bradley banner in 1987. Eventually, Hasbro became licensee in most countries around the world.
By 2019, according to Pokonobe Associates, owners of the Jenga brand, over 80 million Jenga games, equivalent to more than 4.3 billion Jenga blocks, had been sold worldwide.
On November 5, 2020, Jenga was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame.
Tallest tower
The packaging copy of one edition of the Jenga game claims that Robert Grebler may have built the tallest Jenga tower ever at 40 levels. Grebler built the tower in 1985 while playing with an original Jenga set produced by Leslie Scott in the early 1980s.
Official variants
Throw 'n Go Jenga is a variant originally marketed by Hasbro. It consists of blocks that are in various colors plus a six-sided die. It is marketed by Art's Ideas.
Jenga Truth or Dare was a variation of Jenga also marketed by Hasbro. This version looked like regular Jenga except there were three colors of blocks instead of just the natural color of Jenga.
Jenga Xtreme used parallelogram-shaped blocks that could create some interesting leaning towers.
Casino Jenga: Las Vegas Edition employed roulette-style game play, featuring a felt game board, betting chips, and additional rules.
In addition, there have been a number of collector edition Jenga games, featuring the colors and logos of the Boston Red Sox, Las Vegas Raiders, New York Yankees, and John Deere, among others. Hello Kitty Jenga, Transformers Jenga, Tarzan Jenga, Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas Jenga, Donkey Kong Jenga, Bob's Burgers Jenga, National Parks Jenga, Jenga Ocean, The Walking Dead Jenga, Super Mario Jenga, Fortnite Jenga, Godzilla Jenga, Rick and Morty Jenga, and Harry Potter Jenga are some of the licensed variations of Jenga.
Jenga XXL and Jenga Giant are licensed giant Jenga games manufactured and distributed by Art's Ideas. There are Jenga Giant variations which can reach or higher in play, with very similar rules. Jenga XXL starts at over high and can reach or higher in play. Rules are the same as in classic Jenga, except that players may use two hands to move the eighteen-inch-long blocks.
Jenga Pass Challenge includes a handheld platform that the game is played on. Players remove a block while holding the platform, then pass the platform to the next player. This variant includes only half the number of blocks (27), which means the tower starts at nine levels high instead of eighteen.
See also
Rock balancing
56 Leonard Street, nicknamed "the Jenga Building"
Pick-up sticks, physical game of removing sticks from a pile
The Final Straw, a game show with a similar format
References
Citations
Further reading
External links
Jenga GIANT official website
The Jenga Chair in the Bröhan Museum
The Jenga House
Jenga at the V&A Museum of Childhood
Games of physical skill
Party games
Swahili words and phrases
Milton Bradley Company games
Combinatorial game theory
Games and sports introduced in 1983
1980s toys
British inventions | wiki |
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water (salt water) and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor. The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86% of global evaporation.
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. When water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.
Description
Overall process
The water cycle is powered from the energy emitted by the sun. This energy heats water in the ocean and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Some ice and snow sublimates directly into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The water molecule has smaller molecular mass than the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen () and oxygen () and hence is less dense. Due to the significant difference in density, buoyancy drives humid air higher. As altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see Gas laws). The lower temperature causes water vapor to condense into tiny liquid water droplets which are heavier than the air, and which fall unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a large area in the atmosphere become visible as cloud, while condensation near ground level is referred to as fog.
Atmospheric circulation moves water vapor around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow, hail, or sleet, and can accumulate in ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls as rain back into the ocean or onto land, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of this runoff enters rivers, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers; much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge or be taken up by plants and transferred back to the atmosphere as water vapor by transpiration. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.
The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle. The ocean holds "97% of the total water on the planet; 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean, and it is the source of 86% of global evaporation".
Physical processes
The water cycle involves the following processes:
Advection The movement of water through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land. Atmospheric rivers that move large volumes of water vapor over long distances are an example of advection.
Canopy interception The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.
Condensation The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.
Deposition This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
Evaporation The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to approximately of water, of which evaporates from the oceans. 86% of global evaporation occurs over the ocean.
Infiltration The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater. A recent global study using water stable isotopes, however, shows that not all soil moisture is equally available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration.
Percolation Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.
Precipitation Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet. Approximately of water falls as precipitation each year, of it over the oceans. The rain on land contains of water per year and a snowing only . 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean.
Runoff The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Snow melt The runoff produced by melting snow.
Sublimation The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor by passing the liquid state.
Subsurface flow The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Transpiration The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.
Residence times
The residence time of a reservoir within the hydrologic cycle is the average time a water molecule will spend in that reservoir (see adjacent table). It is a measure of the average age of the water in that reservoir.
Groundwater can spend over 10,000 years beneath Earth's surface before leaving. Particularly old groundwater is called fossil water. Water stored in the soil remains there very briefly, because it is spread thinly across the Earth, and is readily lost by evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, or groundwater recharge. After evaporating, the residence time in the atmosphere is about 9 days before condensing and falling to the Earth as precipitation.
The major ice sheets – Antarctica and Greenland – store ice for very long periods. Ice from Antarctica has been reliably dated to 800,000 years before present, though the average residence time is shorter.
In hydrology, residence times can be estimated in two ways. The more common method relies on the principle of conservation of mass (water balance) and assumes the amount of water in a given reservoir is roughly constant. With this method, residence times are estimated by dividing the volume of the reservoir by the rate by which water either enters or exits the reservoir. Conceptually, this is equivalent to timing how long it would take the reservoir to become filled from empty if no water were to leave (or how long it would take the reservoir to empty from full if no water were to enter).
An alternative method to estimate residence times, which is gaining in popularity for dating groundwater, is the use of isotopic techniques. This is done in the subfield of isotope hydrology.
Water in storage
The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 1,386,000,000 km3 of the world's water supply, about 1,338,000,000 km3 is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle. The Earth's ice caps, glaciers, and permanent snowpack stores another 24,064,000 km3 accounting for only 1.7% of the planet's total water volume. However, this quantity of water is 68.7% of all freshwater on the planet.
Changes caused by humans
Water cycle intensification due to climate change
Since the middle of the 20th century, human-caused climate change has resulted in observable changes in the global water cycle. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2021 predicted that these changes will continue to grow significantly at the global and regional level. These findings are a continuation of scientific consensus expressed in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report from 2007 and other special reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which had already stated that the water cycle will continue to "intensify" throughout the 21st century.
Glacial retreat is also an example of a changing water cycle, where the supply of water to glaciers from precipitation cannot keep up with the loss of water from melting and sublimation. Glacial retreat since 1850 due to global warming has been extensive.
Changes due to other human activities
Human activities, other than those that lead to global warming from greenhouse gas emissions, can also alter the water cycle. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report stated that there is "abundant evidence that changes in land use and land cover alter the water cycle globally, regionally and locally, by changing precipitation, evaporation, flooding, groundwater, and the availability of freshwater for a variety of uses".
Examples for such land use changes are converting fields to urban areas or clearing forests. Such changes can affect the ability of soils to soak up surface water. Deforestation can also "directly reduce soil moisture, evaporation and rainfall locally but can also cause regional temperature changes that affect rainfall patterns". Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total amount of water in the hydrosphere because water that was "previously in the ground is now in direct contact with the atmosphere, being available for evaporation".
Related processes
Biogeochemical cycling
While the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle, flow of water over and beneath the Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals. Runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from land to waterbodies. The salinity of the oceans is derived from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. Cultural eutrophication of lakes is primarily due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then transported overland and down rivers. Both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies. The dead zone at the outlet of the Mississippi River is a consequence of nitrates from fertilizer being carried off agricultural fields and funnelled down the river system to the Gulf of Mexico. Runoff also plays a part in the carbon cycle, again through the transport of eroded rock and soil.
Slow loss over geologic time
The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light chemical elements such as Hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind. Planets with hot lower atmospheres could result in humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of hydrogen.
Historical interpretations
Floating land mass
In ancient times, it was widely thought that the land mass floated on a body of water, and that most of the water in rivers has its origin under the earth. Examples of this belief can be found in the works of Homer (circa 800 BCE).
Hebrew Bible
In the ancient Near East, Hebrew scholars observed that even though the rivers ran into the sea, the sea never became full. Some scholars conclude that the water cycle was described completely during this time in this passage: "The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth about continually, and the wind returneth again according to its circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they return again" (Ecclesiastes 1:6-7). Scholars are not in agreement as to the date of Ecclesiastes, though most scholars point to a date during the time of King Solomon, son of David and Bathsheba, "three thousand years ago, there is some agreement that the time period is 962–922 BCE. Furthermore, it was also observed that when the clouds were full, they emptied rain on the earth (Ecclesiastes 11:3). In addition, during 793–740 BCE a Hebrew prophet, Amos, stated that water comes from the sea and is poured out on the earth (Amos 5:8).
In the Biblical Book of Job, dated between 7th and 2nd centuries BCE, there is a description of precipitation in the hydrologic cycle, "For he maketh small the drops of water: they pour down rain according to the vapour thereof; which the clouds do drop and distil upon man abundantly" (Job 36:27-28).
Understanding of precipitation and percolation
In the Adityahridayam (a devotional hymn to the Sun God) of Ramayana, a Hindu epic dated to the 4th century BCE, it is mentioned in the 22nd verse that the Sun heats up water and sends it down as rain. By roughly 500 BCE, Greek scholars were speculating that much of the water in rivers can be attributed to rain. The origin of rain was also known by then. These scholars maintained the belief, however, that water rising up through the earth contributed a great deal to rivers. Examples of this thinking included Anaximander (570 BCE) (who also speculated about the evolution of land animals from fish) and Xenophanes of Colophon (530 BCE). Chinese scholars such as Chi Ni Tzu (320 BCE) and Lu Shih Ch'un Ch'iu (239 BCE) had similar thoughts.
The idea that the water cycle is a closed cycle can be found in the works of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (460 BCE) and Diogenes of Apollonia (460 BCE). Both Plato (390 BCE) and Aristotle (350 BCE) speculated about percolation as part of the water cycle. Aristotle correctly hypothesized that the sun played a role in the Earth's hydraulic cycle in his book Meteorology, writing "By it [the sun's] agency the finest and sweetest water is everyday carried up and is dissolved into vapor and rises to the upper regions, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth.", and believed that clouds were composed of cooled and condensed water vapor.
Up to the time of the Renaissance, it was wrongly assumed that precipitation alone was insufficient to feed rivers, for a complete water cycle, and that underground water pushing upwards from the oceans were the main contributors to river water. Bartholomew of England held this view (1240 CE), as did Leonardo da Vinci (1500 CE) and Athanasius Kircher (1644 CE).
Discovery of the correct theory
The first published thinker to assert that rainfall alone was sufficient for the maintenance of rivers was Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), who is often credited as the "discoverer" of the modern theory of the water cycle. Palissy's theories were not tested scientifically until 1674, in a study commonly attributed to Pierre Perrault. Even then, these beliefs were not accepted in mainstream science until the early nineteenth century.
See also
Biotic pump
References
External links
The Water Cycle, United States Geological Survey
The Water Cycle for Kids, United States Geological Survey
The Water Cycle: Following The Water (NASA Visualization Explorer with videos)
Biogeochemical cycle
Forms of water
Hydrology
Soil physics
Water
Articles containing video clips
Limnology
Oceanography | wiki |
Copper pesticides are copper compounds used as bactericides, algaecides, or fungicides. They can kill bacteria, oomycetes and algae, and prevent fungal spores from germinating. Common forms of fixed copper fungicides include copper sulfate, copper sulfate pentahydrate, copper hydroxide, copper oxychloride sulfate, cuprous oxide, and copper octanoate.
Copper fungicides work by slowly releasing positively charged copper ions Cu+ and Cu2+ in concentrations that interact with nucleic acids, interfere with energy transport, disrupt enzyme activity, and affect the integrity of cell membranes of pathogens. Both ions have fungicidal and bactericidal activity. Following absorption into the fungus or bacterium, the copper ions will link to various chemical groups (imidazole, phosphate, sulfhydryl, and, hydroxyl groups) present in many proteins and disrupt their functions. Copper ions can kill pathogen cells on plant surfaces, but once a pathogen enters host plant tissue, it is no longer susceptible to copper treatments at the prescribed concentrations. The prescribed copper ion concentrations lack post-infection activity. Higher copper ion concentrations harm the host plant.
Application
Copper pesticide is applied as a contact protective foliar spray, so it remains deposited on leaf surfaces. A small concentration of copper ions may be taken up by plants as essential nutrients. Copper foliar sprays are also applied to correct plant copper deficiency. Excess absorbed copper ions can kill sensitive cells in copper sensitive plants. The leaves of stone fruit trees are more sensitive to copper phytotoxicity than apple leaves. Copper tolerant plant families include Cruciferae, Caryophyllaceae, Gramineae, Leguminosae and Asteraceae.
Copper phytotoxicity worsens under slow drying conditions. Adding surfactants with copper fungicides may increase injury to plant foliage. Copper ions release more readily under acidic conditions and copper pesticides, except copper sulfate pentahydrate, should not be used with acid forming products. Copper fungicides can be highly effective if applied prophylactically and with complete coverage of all plant foliar surfaces, including the undersides of leaves where the pathogen typically sporulates.
Copper pesticides must be used in quantities that minimizes long term copper accumulation in the soil. Accumulated copper in soils can inhibit root growth and adversely affect microorganisms and earthworms. Finely ground copper formulations are more active than coarsely ground formulations. Coarsely ground formulations should be avoided to limit long term bioaccumulation and toxicity. Copper occurs in soils in different forms (ionic, complexed and precipitated) depending on characteristics such as soil texture, organic matter and pH.
Effectiveness
A strategy to maximize the effectiveness of copper ions is to reduce the particle size of the active substance (micronization) and copper microencapsulation. These improve relative coverage of treated plant surfaces or extend copper ion releases. Modern copper application dose rates may be as low as 200-400g per treatment per hectare.
Copper pesticides can be effective in preventing bacterial diseases, including Erwinia soft rot, Pseudomonas and Xanthomonas leaf spots, and fungal diseases including Botrytis, Plasmopara viticola, Pseudoperonospora humuli, Venturia inaequalis, Bremia lactucae, Peronospora destructor, Taphrina deformans, Stemphylium vesicarium, Cercospora beticola, Phytophthora infestans, Puccinia triticina, Puccinia striiformis and Alternaria solani. Several bacterial pathogens have developed resistance to some copper ion concentrations. These include Pseudomonas syringae, Erwinia amylovora and Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria.
Copper pesticides may not prevent Sclerotinia blight, some Phytophthora, and Rhizoctonia,
Bordeaux mixture, made by adding copper sulfate and calcium hydroxide to water, was one of the first fungicides used by Pierre-Marie-Alexis Millardet, a French viticulturist during the mid-1800s.
Use in organic farming
In the UK the Soil Association (one of the organic certification authorities) permits farmers to use some copper fungicides on organic land used for the production of certified organic crops only if there is a major threat to crops. The compounds permitted are copper sulfate, copper hydroxide, cuprous oxide, copper oxychloride, copper ammonium carbonate (at a maximum concentration of 25 g/L), and copper octanoate. According to the Soil Association the total copper that can be applied to organic land is 6 kg/ha/year. This limit is designed so that the amount of copper in the soil does not exceed the limits specified in the Soil Association standards for heavy metals.
Notes
Pesticides
Algaecides
Fungicides
Bactericides
Copper(II) compounds | wiki |
DSRC is dedicated short-range communications, a short to medium range wireless protocol.
DSRC may also refer to:
Dakota Southern Railway (reporting mark), a US railroad | wiki |
A chromatid (Greek khrōmat- 'color' + -id) is one half of a duplicated chromosome. Before replication, one chromosome is composed of one DNA molecule. In replication, the DNA molecule is copied, and the two molecules are known as chromatids. During the later stages of cell division these chromatids separate longitudinally to become individual chromosomes.
Chromatid pairs are normally genetically identical, and said to be homozygous. However, if mutations occur, they will present slight differences, in which case they are heterozygous. The pairing of chromatids should not be confused with the ploidy of an organism, which is the number of homologous versions of a chromosome.
Sister chromatids
Chromatids may be sister or non-sister chromatids. A sister chromatid is either one of the two chromatids of the same chromosome joined together by a common centromere. A pair of sister chromatids is called a dyad. Once sister chromatids have separated (during the anaphase of mitosis or the anaphase II of meiosis during sexual reproduction), they are again called chromosomes, each having the same genetic mass as one of the individual chromatids that made up its parent. The DNA sequence of two sister chromatids is completely identical (apart from very rare DNA copying errors).
Sister chromatid exchange (SCE) is the exchange of genetic information between two sister chromatids. SCEs can occur during mitosis or meiosis. SCEs appear to primarily reflect DNA recombinational repair processes responding to DNA damage (see articles Sister chromatids and Sister chromatid exchange).
Non-sister chromatids, on the other hand, refers to either of the two chromatids of paired homologous chromosomes, that is, the pairing of a paternal chromosome and a maternal chromosome. In chromosomal crossovers, non-sister (homologous) chromatids form chiasmata to exchange genetic material during the prophase I of meiosis (See Homologous chromosome pair).
See also
Kinetochore
References
Chromosomes
Molecular genetics
Cell biology
Mitosis
Telomeres | wiki |
Mark Walker may refer to:
Politics and law
Mark L. Walker (born 1941), member of the Illinois House of Representatives
Mark Walker (North Carolina politician) (born 1969), minister and U.S. House of Representatives member for North Carolina's 6th District
Mark W. Walker, member of the Utah House of Representatives
Mark E. Walker (born 1967), United States federal judge in Florida
Other
Mark Walker (British Army officer) (1827–1902), Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross
Mark Walker (entertainer), British cabaret and musical theatre entertainer; regular cast member of 1980s TV show, The Laughter Show
Mark Walker (songwriter) (1846–1924), fisherman and songwriter
Mark Alan Walker, professor of philosophy at New Mexico State University
Mark H. Walker, writer and board wargame designer | wiki |
Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose or other six-carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six-carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid in solution. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, such as muscle cells.
If oxygen is present in the cell, many organisms will bypass fermentation and undergo cellular respiration; however, facultative anaerobic organisms will both ferment and undergo respiration in the presence of oxygen. Sometimes even when oxygen is present and aerobic metabolism is happening in the mitochondria, if pyruvate is building up faster than it can be metabolized, the fermentation will happen anyway.
Lactate dehydrogenase catalyzes the interconversion of pyruvate and lactate with concomitant interconversion of NADH and NAD+.
In homolactic fermentation, one molecule of glucose is ultimately converted to two molecules of lactic acid. Heterolactic fermentation, in contrast, yields carbon dioxide and ethanol in addition to lactic acid, in a process called the phosphoketolase pathway.
History
Several chemists discovered during the 19th century some fundamental concepts of the domain of organic chemistry. One of them for example was the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, who was especially interested in fermentation processes, and he passed this fascination to one of his best students, Justus von Liebig. With a difference of some years, each of them described, together with colleagues, the chemical structure of the lactic acid molecule as we know it today. They had a purely chemical understanding of the fermentation process, which means that you can't see it using a microscope, and that it can only be optimized by chemical catalyzers. In 1857, the French chemist Louis Pasteur first described lactic acid as the product of a microbial fermentation. During this time, he worked at the University of Lille, where a local distillery asked him for advice concerning some fermentation problems. Per chance and with the badly equipped laboratory he had at that time, he was able to discover that in this distillery, two fermentations were taking place, a lactic acid one and an alcoholic one, both induced by microorganisms. He then continued the research on these discoveries in Paris, where he also published his theories that presented a stable contradiction to the purely chemical version represented by Liebig and his followers. Even though Pasteur described some concepts that are still accepted today, Liebig refused to accept them. But even Pasteur himself wrote that he was "driven" to a completely new understanding of this chemical phenomenon. Even if Pasteur didn't find every detail of this process, he still discovered the main mechanism of how the microbial lactic acid fermentation works. He was the first to describe fermentation as a "form of life without air."
Although this chemical process had not been properly described before Pasteur's work, people had been using microbial lactic acid fermentation for food production much earlier. Chemical analysis of archeological finds show that milk fermentation uses predate the historical period; its first applications were probably a part of the Neolithic Revolution. Since milk naturally contains lactic acid bacteria, the discovery of the fermentation process was quite evident, since it happens spontaneously at an adequate temperature. The problem of these first farmers was that fresh milk is nearly indigestible by adults, so they had an interest to discover this mechanism. In fact, lactic acid bacteria contain the needed enzymes to digest lactose, and their populations multiply strongly during the fermentation. Therefore, milk fermented even a short time contains enough enzymes to digest the lactose molecules, after the milk is in the human body, which allows adults to consume it. Even safer was a longer fermentation, which was practiced for cheesemaking. This process was also discovered a very long time ago, which is proven by recipes for cheese production on Cuneiform scripts, the first written documents that exist, and a bit later in Babylonian and Egyptian texts.
What is interesting is the theory of the competitive advantage of fermented milk products. The idea of this theory is that the women of these first settled farmer clans could shorten the time between two children thanks to the additional lactose uptake from milk consumption. This factor may have given them an important advantage to out-compete the hunter-gatherer societies.
With the increasing consumption of milk products these societies developed a lactase persistence by epigenetic inheritance, which means that the milk-digesting enzyme lactase was present in their bodies during the whole lifetime, so they could drink unfermented milk as adults too. This early habituation to lactose consumption in the first settler societies can still be observed today in regional differences of this mutation's concentration. It is estimated that about 65% of world population still lacks it. Since these first societies came from regions around eastern Turkey to central Europe, the gene appears more frequently there and in North America, as it was settled by Europeans. It is because of the dominance of this mutation that Western cultures believe it is unusual to have a lactose intolerance, when it is in fact more common than the mutation. On the contrary, lactose intolerance is much more present in Asian countries.
Milk products and their fermentation have had an important influence on some cultures’ development. This is the case in Mongolia, where people often practice a pastoral form of agriculture. The milk that they produce and consume in these cultures is mainly mare milk and has a long tradition. But not every part or product of the fresh milk has the same meaning. For instance, the fattier part on the top, the "deež", is seen as the most valuable part and is therefore often used to honor guests.
Very important with often a traditional meaning as well are fermentation products of mare milk, like for example the slightly-alcoholic yogurt kumis. Consumption of these peaks during cultural festivities such as the Mongolian lunar new year (in spring). The time of this celebration is called the "white month", which indicates that milk products (called "white food" together with starchy vegetables, in comparison to meat products, called "black food") are a central part of this tradition. The purpose of these festivities is to "close" the past year – clean the house or the yurt, honor the animals for having provided their food, and prepare everything for the coming summer season – to be ready to "open" the new year. Consuming white food in this festive context is a way to connect to the past and to a national identity, which is the great Mongolian empire personified by Genghis Khan. During the time of this empire, the fermented mare milk was the drink to honor and thank warriors and leading persons, it was not meant for everybody. Although it eventually became a drink for normal people, it has kept its honorable meaning. Like many other traditions, this one feels the influence of globalization. Other products, like industrial yogurt, coming mainly from China and western countries, have tended to replace it more and more, mainly in urban areas. However, in rural and poorer regions it is still of great importance.
Biochemistry
Homofermentative process
Homofermentative bacteria convert glucose to two molecules of lactate and use this reaction to perform substrate-level phosphorylation to make two molecules of ATP:
glucose + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 lactate + 2 ATP
Heterofermentative process
Heterofermentative bacteria produce less lactate and less ATP, but produce several other end products:
glucose + ADP + Pi → lactate + ethanol + CO2 + ATP
Examples include Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus bifermentous, and Leuconostoc lactis.
Bifidum pathway
Bifidobacterium bifidum utilizes a lactic acid fermentation pathway that produces more ATP than either homolactic fermentation or heterolactic fermentation:
2 glucose + 5 ADP + 5 Pi → 3 acetate + 2 lactate + 5 ATP
Major genera of lactose-fermenting bacteria
Some major bacterial strains identified as being able to ferment lactose are in the genera Escherichia, Citrobacter, Enterobacter and Klebsiella . All four of these groups fall underneath the family of Enterobacteriaceae. These four genera are able to be separated from each other by using biochemical testing, and simple biological tests are readily available. Apart from whole-sequence genomics, common tests include H2S production, motility and citrate use, indole, methyl red and Voges-Proskauer tests.
Applications
Lactic acid fermentation is used in many areas of the world to produce foods that cannot be produced through other methods. The most commercially important genus of lactic acid-fermenting bacteria is Lactobacillus, though other bacteria and even yeast are sometimes used. Two of the most common applications of lactic acid fermentation are in the production of yogurt and sauerkraut.
Pickles
Fermented fish
In some Asian cuisines, fish is traditionally fermented with rice to produce lactic acid that preserves the fish. Examples of these dishes include burong isda of the Philippines; narezushi of Japan; and pla ra of Thailand. The same process is also used for shrimp in the Philippines in the dish known as balao-balao.
Kimchi
Kimchi also uses lactic acid fermentation.
Sauerkraut
Lactic acid fermentation is also used in the production of sauerkraut. The main type of bacteria used in the production of sauerkraut is of the genus Leuconostoc.
As in yogurt, when the acidity rises due to lactic acid-fermenting organisms, many other pathogenic microorganisms are killed. The bacteria produce lactic acid, as well as simple alcohols and other hydrocarbons. These may then combine to form esters, contributing to the unique flavor of sauerkraut.
Sour beer
Lactic acid is a component in the production of sour beers, including Lambics and Berliner Weisses.
Yogurt
The main method of producing yogurt is through the lactic acid fermentation of milk with harmless bacteria. The primary bacteria used are typically Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus, and United States as well as European law requires all yogurts to contain these two cultures (though others may be added as probiotic cultures). These bacteria produce lactic acid in the milk culture, decreasing its pH and causing it to congeal. The bacteria also produce compounds that give yogurt its distinctive flavor. An additional effect of the lowered pH is the incompatibility of the acidic environment with many other types of harmful bacteria.
For a probiotic yogurt, additional types of bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus are also added to the culture.
In vegetables
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) already exists as part of the natural flora in most vegetables. Lettuce and cabbage were examined to determine the types of lactic acid bacteria that exist in the leaves. Different types of LAB will produce different types of silage fermentation, which is the fermentation of the leafy foliage. Silage fermentation is an anaerobic reaction that reduces sugars to fermentation byproducts like lactic acid.
Physiological
Lactobacillus fermentation and accompanying production of acid provides a protective vaginal microbiome that protects against the proliferation of pathogenic organisms.
Lactate fermentation and muscle cramps
During the 1990s, the lactic acid hypothesis was created to explain why people experienced burning or muscle cramps that occurred during and after intense exercise. The hypothesis proposes that a lack of oxygen in muscle cells results in a switch from cellular respiration to fermentation. Lactic acid created as a byproduct of fermentation of pyruvate from glycolysis accumulates in muscles causing a burning sensation and cramps.
Research from 2006 has suggested that acidosis isn't the main cause of muscle cramps. Instead cramps may be due to a lack of potassium in muscles, leading to contractions under high stress.
Animals, in fact, do not produce lactic acid during fermentation. Despite the common use of the term lactic acid in the literature, the byproduct of fermentation in animal cells is lactate.
Another change to the lactic acid hypothesis is that when sodium lactate is inside of the body, there is a higher period of exhaustion in the host after a period of exercise.
Lactate fermentation is important to muscle cell physiology. When muscle cells are undergoing intense activity, like sprinting, they need energy quickly. There is only enough ATP stored in muscles cells to last a few seconds of sprinting. The cells then default to fermentation, since they are in an anaerobic environment. Through lactate fermentation, muscle cells are able to regenerate NAD+ to continue glycolysis, even under strenuous activity. [5]
The vaginal environment is heavily influenced by lactic acid producing bacteria. Lactobacilli spp. that live in the vaginal canal assist in pH control. If the pH in the vagina becomes too basic, more lactic acid will be produced to lower the pH back to a more acidic level. Lactic acid producing bacteria also act as a protective barrier against possible pathogens such as bacterial vaginosis and vaginitis species, different fungi, and protozoa through the production of hydrogen peroxide, and antibacterial compounds. It is unclear if further use of lactic acid, through fermentation, in the vaginal canal is present [6]
Benefits for the lactose intolerant
In small amounts, lactic acid is good for the human body by providing energy and substrates while it moves through the cycle. In lactose intolerant people, the fermentation of lactose to lactic acid has been shown in small studies to help lactose intolerant people. The process of fermentation limits the amount of lactose available. With the amount of lactose lowered, there is less build up inside of the body, reducing bloating. Success of lactic fermentation was most evident in yogurt cultures. Further studies are being conducted on other milk produces like acidophilous milk.
Notes and references
Fermentation
Metabolic pathways | wiki |
Defile may refer to:
To make dirty or impure
Defile (geography), in geography, a narrow pass or gorge between mountains
Defile (military), to march off in a line
The Defile, a pass between Suess Glacier and Nussbaum Riegel in Victoria Land, Antarctica
Battle of the Defile or Battle of the Pass, 731 battle between the Umayyads and Turks
See also
File (disambiguation)
Contamination
Pollution | wiki |
David Beaty (26 October 1811 – 3 October 1889) discovered oil at his home in Warren, Pennsylvania in 1875. He was reportedly searching for a deposit of natural gas that he could use to heat his home. After this discovery, Warren's economy became almost completely geared toward the production of oil, and later to the refining of oil.
Legacy
Warren still is home to Beaty Middle School, which operates partially on funds still available from David Beaty's estate.
References
1811 births
1889 deaths
People from Warren County, Pennsylvania
People from Beaver County, Pennsylvania
19th-century American businesspeople | wiki |
Cinema
The Gathering – film del 1977 diretto da Randal Kleiser
The Gathering – film del 2002 diretto da Brian Gilbert
Musica
The Gathering – gruppo musicale olandese
The Gathering – album degli Infected Mushroom del 1999
The Gathering – album dei Testament del 1999
The Gathering – album dei Jorn del 2007
The Gathering – album degli Arbouretum del 2011
The Gathering – singolo dei Delain del 2008
Televisione
The Gathering – miniserie televisiva del 2007 diretta da Bill Eagles | wiki |
Pate (otok), otok
pate (bubanj), bubanj | wiki |
Kara Zor-El (Supergirl) also known by her adoptive names of Linda Lee Danvers, Kara Kent, Linda Lang, and Kara Danvers, is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. She was created by Otto Binder and designed by Al Plastino. Danvers first appeared on the story "The Supergirl from Krypton" in Action Comics #252 (May 1959). Kara is the biological cousin of Kal-El, who went on to adopt the name of Clark Kent and the superhero identity Superman. Her father, Zor-El, is the brother of Superman’s father, Jor-El. During the 1980s and the revolution of the Modern Age of Comics, Superman editors believed the character's history had become too convoluted, thus killing Supergirl during the 1985 Crisis on Infinite Earths event and retconning her out of existence.
DC Comics Senior Vice President Dan DiDio re-introduced the character in 2004 along with editor Eddie Berganza and writer Jeph Loeb, with her the Superman/Batman storyline "The Supergirl from Krypton". As the current Supergirl, Kara stars in her own monthly comic book series. With DC's The New 52 relaunch, Kara, like most of the DC Universe, was revamped. DC relaunched the Supergirl comic in August 2016 as part of their DC Rebirth initiative.
In live-action, Supergirl first appeared in the film Supergirl (1984), played by Helen Slater. She later appeared in the television series Smallville, played by Laura Vandervoort, and the Arrowverse series Supergirl, played by Melissa Benoist on the show and also appearing on other Arrowverse series. Sasha Calle will appear as Supergirl in the upcoming DC Extended Universe film The Flash (2023). An upcoming standalone film featuring the character titled Supergirl: Woman of Tomorrow, is in development as an installment of the rebooted DC Universe (DCU) media franchise.
Fictional characters from Chicago
Publication history
Early life
Although Kara Zor-El was the first character to use the name "Supergirl," DC Comics tested three different female versions of Superman prior to her debut.
The first story to feature a female counterpart to Superman was "Lois Lane – Superwoman," which was published in Action Comics #60 (May 1943). In the story, a hospitalized Lois Lane dreams she has gained superpowers thanks to a blood transfusion from the Man of Steel. She begins her own career as "Superwoman", complete with a version of Superman's costume.
In the Superboy #78 story entitled "Claire Kent, Alias Super-Sister", Superboy saves the life of an alien woman named Shar-La, who turns Superboy into a girl, in retaliation for his disparaging thoughts about women drivers which she picked up telepathically. In Smallville, Clark claims to be Claire Kent, an out-of-town relative who is staying with the Kents. When in costume, he appears as Superboy's sister, Super-Sister, and claims the two have exchanged places. Once Superboy has learned his lesson about feeling more respect for women, Shar-La reveals the episode to be a dream which she projected into Superboy's mind.
In Superman #123 (August 1958), Jimmy Olsen uses a magic totem to wish a "Super-Girl" into existence as a companion and aid to Superman; however, the two frequently get in each other's way until she is fatally injured protecting Superman from a Kryptonite meteor. At her insistence, Jimmy wishes the dying girl out of existence. DC used this story to gauge public response to the concept of a completely new super-powered female counterpart to Superman.
The Kara Zor-El version of Supergirl finally appeared in Action Comics #252 (May 1959). Otto Binder wrote and Al Plastino illustrated her début story, in which Kara was born and raised in Argo City (unnamed until later issues), a fragment of Krypton that survived destruction. When the city is doomed by a meteor shower, Kara is sent to Earth by her parents, Zor-El and Alura In-Ze (the latter unnamed until later issues), to be raised by her cousin Kal-El, known as Superman. Supergirl adopted the secret identity of an orphan "Linda Lee", and made Midvale Orphanage her home. Supergirl promised Superman that she would keep her existence on Earth a secret, so that he may use her as a "secret weapon", but that didn't stop Supergirl from exploring her new powers covertly. Action Comics #255 published reader's letters-of-comment to Supergirl's first appearance; she had allegedly generated a sizeable and mostly positive reaction.
Supergirl, from her debut onwards, became a regular backup strip in Action Comics. She joined the Legion of Super-Heroes, like her cousin had done as a teenager, and in Action Comics #279 (July 1961) she was adopted by Fred and Edna Danvers, becoming "Linda Lee Danvers". Supergirl acted for three years as Superman's secret weapon, and her adventures during that time have been compared to contemporary developments in feminist thinking in work such as Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique. She was at last introduced by her super-powered cousin to an unsuspecting world in Action Comics #285 (February 1962).
During her first quarter of a century, Linda Danvers would have many professions, from student to student advisor, to actor, and even TV camera operator. She shared Action Comics with Superman until transferring to the lead in Adventure Comics at the end of the 1960s. In 1972 she finally moved to her own short-lived eponymous magazine, before DC merged its Supergirl, Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen titles into a single anthology title named The Superman Family. In 1982 Supergirl was relaunched into her own magazine.
Death during Crisis on Infinite Earths
In 1985, the maxi-series Crisis on Infinite Earths was conceived as a way to reduce DC continuity to a single universe in which all characters maintained a single history. Despite Supergirl's continued popularity and status as a central member of the "Superman Family", the editors at DC Comics and the creators of the maxi-series decided to kill Supergirl off during the Crisis. According to Marv Wolfman, writer of Crisis on Infinite Earths:
The idea of killing Supergirl was first conceived by DC's vice president/executive editor Dick Giordano, who lobbied for the death to DC's publishers. He later said he has never had any regrets about this, explaining, "Supergirl was created initially to take advantage of the high Superman sales and not much thought was put into her creation. She was created essentially as a female Superman. With time, writers and artists improved upon her execution, but she never did really add anything to the Superman mythos—at least not for me." The poor initial reception of the 1984 film Supergirl was also blamed by some sources.
In 1989, in the tale "Christmas with the Super-Heroes" the soul of Kara appears to Boston "Deadman" Brand, cheers him up, and then disappears from continuity until 2001 (see below).
Several characters unrelated to Superman soon took on the Supergirl persona, including the Matrix (a shapeshifting genetically engineered life-form that 'defaulted' as Supergirl), Linda Danvers (the result of Matrix merging with the dying Linda Danvers and becoming an Earth-bound angel of fire), and Cir-El (Superman's apparent daughter from a possible future).
A heroine resembling the Pre-Crisis Kara would later appear in Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds #5, along with an entire army of Legionnaires gathered from alternate worlds, times, and realities, to battle the Time Trapper.
Two Supergirls meet
Prior to the post-Crisis introduction of Kara Zor-El into mainstream continuity, the pre-Crisis Kara Zor-El made an appearance in Peter David's Supergirl: Many Happy Returns. The then-current Supergirl series, at the time starring Linda Danvers, was in danger of cancellation and Peter David thought a story arc involving Kara Zor-El would be enough to revitalize the series. In an interview with Cliff Biggers of Newsarama, David states:
In the Linda Danvers' Supergirl series issues 49 and 50 (October and November 2000), the original dead Kara appears as Linda's "guardian angel". Then in issues 75 to 80, "Many Happy Returns", a young Kara appears from an earlier time long before the Crisis. The paradox becomes a moral crisis for Linda who tries to take her place as the Crisis sacrifice, living for years in a Silver Age universe where "no one swears, the villains are always easy to defeat, and everything's very, very clean", eventually marrying the Silver Age Superman and having a daughter with him, before she is forced to return to her universe by the Spectre when he reveals that her efforts to replace Kara as the sacrifice will not succeed. This run was illustrated by Ed Benes who had also illustrated Gail Simone's Birds of Prey which had a similar whimsical camaraderie between its female leads.
Linda's inability to ultimately save Kara, coupled with the loss of her daughter, is so devastating that it ends her own career as Supergirl, Linda leaving a note for Superman where she explains that she feels that she has failed to live up to the standards of a true Supergirl and choosing to go somewhere she cannot be found. This story arc is usually cited as one of the best Supergirl stories ever written. The series ended with issue 80.
Revival
After the launch of the Superman/Batman comic book series, executive editor Dan DiDio had been looking for a way to simplify the Supergirl character from her convoluted post-Crisis history; the simplest version, of course, was Superman's cousin. Jeph Loeb and editor Eddie Berganza found an opening to reintroduce the character following the conclusion of the first story arc of Superman/Batman. Loeb states:
The modern version of Kara Zor-El made her debut in Superman/Batman #8 (2004). Kara takes the mantle of Supergirl at the conclusion of the storyline. The Supergirl comic book series would later be relaunched, now starring Kara Zor-El as "The Girl of Steel". The first arc of the new series was written by Jeph Loeb and illustrated by Ian Churchill. Loeb would later describe the appeal of writing for Supergirl:
As the character continued to be reinvented, steps towards regarding the iconic character were some of the most prominent changes. Artist Jamal Igle and editor Matt Idleson moved to transition the character away from red panties under her skirt to biker shorts, feeling such a change was a logical progression and "more respectable."
The New 52
In September 2011, DC Comics began The New 52, in which it canceled all of its monthly superhero titles and relaunched 52 new ones, wiping out most of its past continuity in the process. One of the new titles was a new Supergirl series (Volume 6) that featured a new origin for Kara and was published between 2011 and 2015. Artist Mahmud Asrar designed a new costume for the character which strongly deviated from her classic, "cheerleader" suit, a change which generated criticism from some readers.
DC Rebirth
The 2016 DC Comics title relaunch Rebirth incorporates several elements (such as the costume, the name, the setting, and some characters) from the Supergirl television series. The DC Rebirth initiative undid the New 52's modern recreations, bringing DC's heroes back to their more classic iterations. Supergirl's new series (Volume 7) was titled Supergirl: Rebirth, written by Steven Orlando. The first arc was penciled by Brian Ching, who also redesigned Supergirl's costume in reference to a more classic look. In April 2018, it was announced that the title would be canceled after issue #20, only to be revived in August that year under a new creative team, with new writer Marc Andreyko and artist Kevin Maguire. The series ended with its 42nd issue.
Future State: Kara Zor-El, Superwoman
The Future State comics propose a possible future for Kara Zor-El, now an adult and having taken the alias of Superwoman. She leaves Earth to become a guardian of the Moon, which has become a refugee colony for aliens from the entire universe. The series was written by Marguerite Bennet and penciled by Marguerite Sauvage.
Supergirl: Woman of Tomorrow
Under the Infinite Frontier brand, Kara's next series Woman of Tomorrow debuted in June 2021, written by Tom King and penciled by Brazilian artists Bilquis Evely and Mat Lopes. The arc introduces Supergirl to new character grounds as she begins the story as a young woman, celebrating her 21st birthday and helping a young alien in her quest for revenge. The "mentor-mentee journey on revenge" plot is, according to King, inspired by the original novel and both versions of True Grit.
In this series, the creators paid homage to Linda Danvers, as Kara manifests flame wings and powers after taking a red kryptonite drug to save her space bus crew from a Karpane dragon.
Fictional character biography
Silver Age
In her debut story, Kara Zor-El is the last survivor of Argo City of the planet Krypton. Although Argo, which had survived the explosion of the planet, drifted through space as a self-sustaining environment, the soil of the colony eventually turned into Kryptonite; and though Kara's father Zor-El placed lead sheeting above the ground to protect the citizens from radiation, meteorites pierced the sheeting, and the Kryptonians died of radiation poisoning instead of replacing the metal.
In Supergirl's subsequent backup feature in Action Comics drawn by artist Jim Mooney for ten years until 1968, Supergirl adopts the identity of Linda Lee, an orphan at Midvale Orphanage presided over by headmistress Miss Hart. She disguises herself by hiding her blond hair beneath a brunette wig; Supergirl interacts with humans on a person-to-person basis performing good deeds and saving the world by helping one person at a time, and she also devises clever schemes as "Superman's Secret Weapon," saving him many times and avoiding adoption before Superman can introduce her publicly.
While temporarily powerless due to the scheming of Kandorian scientist Lesla-Lar, who is out to supplant her on Earth, Linda allows herself to be adopted by engineer and rocket scientist Fred Danvers and his wife, Edna. In time, she reveals her secret identity to her adoptive parents on the same day her cousin Superman finally introduces her to the world in the finale of then-DC's longest playing series ever (eight chapters) aptly called "The World's Greatest Heroine".
When frequent dreams about her parents being alive turn out to be real, she builds a machine aided by her engineer father's talent, and brings them both back alive from the "Survival Zone" where they had both teleported during Argo City's final moments. Zor-El and Allura eventually end up living in Kandor, and when the city in the bottle is enlarged, they both go on to live in Rokyn/New Krypton, where they have the sad duty of receiving her mortal remains after "Crisis" for burial.
Graduating from high school in 1965, Linda Lee goes to college on a scholarship and stays in Stanhope College until she graduates in 1971. During this era, she is helped by her pet cat Streaky, her Super-Horse pet Comet, and befriends Lena Thorul, who had first appeared in the Lois Lane series. Kara is also a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes, where she becomes close to Brainiac 5. In addition, Linda has boyfriends from the orphanage (Richard "Dick" Malverne) and from Atlantis (Jerro the merboy).
In 1967, Supergirl meets Batgirl for the first time in World's Finest Comics. Developing a strong friendship, the two characters teamed up many times again, as in Superman Family #171, or Adventure #381.
In 1969, Supergirl left Action Comics and became a featured character in Adventure Comics beginning with issue #381 (June 1969).
During the 1970s, Supergirl's costume changed frequently, as did her career in her civilian life. In her secret identity as Linda Lee Danvers, Kara Zor-El took a variety of jobs including graduate student in acting, television camera operator, and student counselor, and finally became an actress on the TV soap Secret Hearts.
Bronze Age
After long-time Superman family editor Mort Weisinger retired in 1971, the character underwent revitalization under editor Joe Orlando and artist Mike Sekowsky. Wearing a series of new outfits, leaving her adopted foster home with the Danvers family, Linda goes on to San Francisco where she works for KSF-TV as a camera operator and develops a crush on her boss, Geoffrey Anderson. These stories introduced Supergirl's most memorable villain from this period: Lex Luthor's niece Nasthalthia, or Nasty. Nasty had made two appearances towards the end of Linda's college years, then pursued her to KSF-TV, trying to secure proof of her dual identity.
Supergirl starred in her first solo eponymous monthly series beginning in 1972 until October 1974, when her monthly title merged with Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane, and Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen to produce a new title: then-highest DC selling series called The Superman Family, where she eventually became the steady lead story. Linda worked as a student advisor at New Athens Experimental School, before leaving for New York to follow a career in acting with daytime soap Secret Hearts.
In 1982 Supergirl received a second monthly solo series titled The Daring New Adventures of Supergirl, relocating the character to Chicago as Linda became a mature student of Psychology. Industry legend, and former DC Publisher, Carmine Infantino provided the penciled art (Bob Oksner inked). With issue 13 the title was revamped, with a new costume design (sporting a red headband) and the title shortened to just Supergirl. The series ran until sudden cancellation in 1984, only two months before the character's debut in a big-budget Hollywood film starring Helen Slater.
In the Crisis on Infinite Earths (1985), the greatest heroes from Earth-One, Earth-Two, Earth-Four, Earth-S, and Earth-X join forces to defeat the Anti-Monitor. When Superman comes face to face with the Anti-Monitor and is knocked unconscious, Supergirl rushes to save him before he is killed. She is able to fight him off long enough for Dr. Light to carry her cousin to a safe distance, but is killed by the Anti-Monitor. A public memorial service for Supergirl takes place in Chicago, where Batgirl (Barbara Gordon) delivers the eulogy. In her remarks, she states "Kara is a hero. She will not be forgotten." Superman then gives his late cousin burial by taking her corpse to Rokyn/New Krypton to Zor-El and Allura. A Superman issue the next month reveals that Kara had experienced a premonition about her own passing. However, when the universe is rebooted, the timeline is altered. Kara Zor-El and all memory of her is erased from existence.
Echoes
After these events, the soul of Kara Zor-El made another appearance in continuity three years later in a story titled "Should Auld Acquaintance Be Forgot" in Christmas with the Super-Heroes #2 (1989). Within the story, Deadman tries to feel the warmth of Christmas by possessing revelers' bodies. Feeling guilty upon the realization that he has been stealing others' Christmases, he flies off feeling sorry for himself for being denied a reward after a year of helping people. A warmly dressed blonde woman approaches Brand, startling him. Somehow seeing the normally invisible Brand, she converses with him, reminding him,
She reminds Brand that even though he is dead, he is still human, and he should rejoice because it means his spirit is still alive. As the woman leaves, Brand asks her who she is, to which she replies, "My name is Kara. Though I doubt that will mean anything to you." The story, written by Alan Brennert and penciled by Dick Giordano, is dedicated to Otto Binder and Jim Mooney, adding: "We still remember."
Finally, the soul of Kara Zor-El appeared twice during Peter David's run, specifically in issues #49 and #50 when she appears before a defeated and imprisoned then-Supergirl, Linda Danvers from Earth, and comforts her. Linda acknowledges she has been helped three times by her phantom-friend, and when she asks her name she is told by the smiling figure: "I have gone by many names, but the one I am most fond of is: Kara!"
Modern Age
In 2004, Jeph Loeb reintroduced Kara Zor-El into post-Zero Hour (Birthright timeline) continuity during a storyline in the series Superman/Batman. She is the biological cousin of Superman, and although chronologically older than him, the ship in which she traveled to Earth was caught in a large green Kryptonite meteorite which held her in a state of suspended animation for much of the journey, making her have the appearance of a 16-year-old girl. Still, Supergirl sometimes saw Superman as a child, due to last carrying him as a baby. DC Comics relaunched the Supergirl, the first story arc of which was written by Loeb. showcases Supergirl on a journey of self-discovery. Along her journey, she encounters Power Girl (Kara Zor-El's counterpart from another universe), the Teen Titans, the Outsiders, the Justice League of America, and arch-villain Lex Luthor.
During the company-wide crossover series Infinite Crisis (2005), a sequel to Crisis on Infinite Earths, Supergirl is transported to the 31st century, where she is revered as a member of the Superman family and joins the Legion of Super-Heroes. DC Comics renamed the monthly series Legion of Super-Heroes to Supergirl and the Legion of Super-Heroes. Beginning with issue #16. In the limited series 52, which chronicles the events that took place during the missing year after the end of Infinite Crisis, Donna Troy recalls the original Kara Zor-El and her sacrifice to save the universe. Supergirl returns to the 21st century during the course of 52. After briefly filling in for a temporarily depowered Superman as guardian of Metropolis, she assumes the identity of Flamebird to fight crime in the bottle city of Kandor with Power Girl as Nightwing in Greg Rucka's arc Supergirl: Kandor.
In 2007, Supergirl appeared in the miniseries Amazons Attack! That same year, she joined the Teen Titans for five issues.
Conversations with other heroes who maintain secret identities lead Kara to the conclusion that she needs to make a deeper connection with human beings. She accepts Lana Lang's proposal to present her to the Daily Planet staff as "Linda Lang", Lana's teenaged niece.
In the 2008–2009 "New Krypton" story arc, in which Superman discovers and frees the real Kandor and a large number of its citizens, Supergirl is reunited with her father, Zor-El and mother, Alura, though Zor-El is killed by the villain Reactron. When a planet is formed that the Kryptonians call New Krypton, Kara is torn between her life on Earth, and her obligation to her mother, eventually joining the New Krypton Science Guild.
Supergirl subsequently appears in the 2009 miniseries Justice League: Cry for Justice, and the 2009–2010 storyline "Blackest Night". The New Krypton storyline would later be resolved in the "World of New Krypton", "Superman: Last Stand of New Krypton", "War of the Supermen" storylines, resulting in the destruction of New Krypton and seeing Supergirl mourn her people.
Supergirl subsequently appears in the 2010 "Brightest Day" storyline, the follow up to "Blackest Night"., where she joins the Justice League along with Jesse Quick and Jade.
The New 52
In this continuity, Kara's ship lands in Smallville, but hurtles through the Earth and emerges in Siberia.
Kara has no memory of the destruction of Krypton, and believes it is only three days since her spacecraft was launched. She learns the truth about Krypton's destruction from Superman, and later journeys through a wormhole to Argo City, which she finds in orbit around a blue sun. She finds the city in ruins, with no explanation of how it met that fate, and is attacked by a female Worldkiller named Reign before the city plummets into the sun. When Reign and her fellow Worldkiller plan to enslave the Earth, Supergirl returns there to defeat them, and thus adopts Earth as her new home.
After several battles with supervillains, including the Worldkillers, superweapons of Kryptonian design, she accepts Krypton's destruction, but continues to grapple with her grief. Her desire to restore Krypton results in her being manipulated into nearly destroying the Earth by another Kryptonian whom she falls in love with. Upon realizing his manipulation, she kills him by driving Kryptonite through his heart, and succumbs to Kryptonite poisoning.
Following her poisoning, Supergirl departs the Earth to die alone. While adrift in interstellar space, she encounters a planet under attack by monsters, and quickly intervenes to save them, unaware that the entire planet is a trap by Brainiac. She is captured and restrained by Cyborg Superman, but after a struggle, manages to escape both Brainiac and Cyborg Superman. Returning to Earth, she is sent into the past by the Oracle alongside Superman and Superboy, where she ensures that a resurrected H'el cannot save Krypton, and sacrifices the planet and her family to save the universe.
Back on Earth, she encounters the assassin Lobo. Initially eager for a peaceful resolution, seeing a kind of kinship with him in their both being lone survivors of their respective worlds (although not truly aware of Lobo's circumstances), Kara's encounter with the Czarnian would reveal deep mental wounds, resulting in the unleashing of her rage and transformation into a Red Lantern. Driven insane by rage, Kara wanders space, attacking everyone in her way, until captured by several Green Lanterns and brought to Hal Jordan. Immediately recognizing a Kryptonian and unable to remove the power ring without killing her, he brings her to Guy Gardner, the leader of one of the two Red Lantern factions, who manages to restore her sanity.
After some time under Guy Gardner's tutelage and protecting the galaxy as a Red Lantern, Kara is discharged from the Red Lantern Corps. On her way back to Earth, she encounters the leader of the Worldkillers, who are revealed to be parasitic suits of armor. He attempts to assimilate Kara as his host, but she voluntarily subjects herself to Kryptonite poisoning to stop him, and flies into the Sun, killing her and removing him from her body. However, Kara is revealed to be immortal while in the Sun's core and is revived, immediately destroying the Worldkiller. She later helps Guy against Atrocitus and his Red Lantern splinter group.
Convergence and return of the Pre-Crisis version
During the Convergence story arc, the original Kara Zor-El who had sacrificed her life during Crisis on Infinite Earths makes an appearance on the amalgamated planet of Telos. At the end of the saga she volunteers herself to once again fight the Anti-Monitor but this time, with the help of her timeline's Barry Allen, the Pre-Flashpoint Superman (in tow with his pregnant wife, Lois Lane), and a repentant Parallax (Zero Hour Hal Jordan), vows to defeat him for the sake of the multiverse's continued existence. Without it being seen, those left on Telos discover the group was successful and all previous timelines (with the mysterious exception of the pre-Flashpoint/pre-New 52 DC universe) from DC history had been re-established, though the fate of the original Kara Zor-El and her fellows went unmentioned.
A few more details of the battle against the Anti-Monitor are later revealed during the New 52 comic mini-series (leading into DC's Rebirth event). After the defeat of Anti-Monitor, Pre-New 52 Clark and Lois decide to start life anew in the closest universe they can find (mysteriously yet unable to see their old universe even though the rest of the multiverse had been restored) while Pre-Crisis Kara Zor-El, along with her contemporary Barry Allen and Zero Hour Parallax/Hal Jordan, decide to find their place in the universe and go off to do so. Her fate as of that story arc is yet to be revealed.
DC Rebirth
After the events that led to the death of the New 52 version of Superman, 16-year-old Kara lives in National City with her adoptive parents, D.E.O. agents Jeremiah and Eliza Danvers, where she attends high school and works with the agency as led by Cameron Chase. As part of her civilian identity, Kara receives special glasses that darken her blond hair when posing as Kara Danvers. Kara also goes on an internship at Cat Grant's CATCO alongside Ben Rubel, whom she befriends.
In her opening arc "The Reign of the Cyborg Supermen", Kara discovers that the cyborg Zor-El, whom she had battled in her New 52 title, is still active and has rebuilt other Kryptonians (her mother Alura included), planning to take over Earth. Supergirl defeats them but vows to help her father regardless of his actions. After National City discovers Supergirl has kept Zor-El's "living" status a secret, they become mistrustful of her. Director Bones takes advantage of the heroine's unpopularity and, after taking control of the D.E.O., sends villains in an attempt to bring Kara down. She defeats all of them and regains trust from National City with Ben's help.
The Supergirl Who Laughs
Kara is later infected by The Batman Who Laughs toxin, causing her to turn evil and joining other infected as part of Laughs Secret Six before later being cured. She is fired from CatCo by Cat Grant and starts working at S.T.A.R. Labs.
Woman of Tomorrow
Journeying throughout the universe with Krypto, Kara celebrates her 21st birthday alone on a distant planet. Drunk in a bar, she is approached by a little girl named Ruthye and is asked to kill Krem (her father's murderer) in vengeance. Supergirl refuses but, when she is about to leave the planet, Krem attacks and severely wounds both her and Krypto, fleeing in Kara's ship. Kara begins her journey alongside Ruthye and, powerless, saves her space bus crew from a Karpane dragon by taking a red kryptonite drug which causes her to manifest flame wings.
Powers and abilities
A yellow sun gives her the powers akin to that of a goddess. Like all Kryptonians under a yellow sun, the current version of Kara Zor-El possesses virtually unlimited strength, stamina, and invulnerability. She is able to fly and with super speed that she can also use on foot, similar to Superman and The Flash. Also like Superman, Supergirl possesses super senses, super-breath, and freeze breathe, as well as multiple forms of supervision (including X-Ray, Infrared, Telescopic, and Microscopic). Kara also has a bio-electric aura that enhances her near invulnerability and also protects her skin and her costume from dirt and tear; as such, Kara is perpetually clean. The Sun also provides Kara with a longer lifespan than that of a human being, to the point that she is effectively a biological immortal. Kara doesn't require food, water, or sleep to survive. She is also immune to most diseases, mental and physical, and would require a very strong strain to have a chance at affecting her.
In the rare instances that Kara is harmed by someone matching her strength or by the use of one of her weaknesses, she can heal almost instantaneously. Her power surpasses most other beings, though she can be overpowered by those who rival her strength such as Black Adam, Darkseid, Despero, Doomsday, Bizarro, Wonder Woman, and Superman.
In reality, Kara is actually older than her cousin, Clark, and spent time on Krypton before its destruction. As such (unlike Superman), she possesses memories of Kryptonian culture as well as her cousin's parents.
Continued exposure to a yellow Sun will slowly increase abilities. Many characters in the DC Universe have noted that Supergirl appears, at times, to be even more powerful than Superman himself. In answer to this, Superman states that this is because he has spent his entire life subconsciously suppressing his full powers to avoid hurting others, having been absorbing solar radiation since his infancy. Kara, not having such practice or experience, simply uses the full magnitude of her powers.
Martial artistry
Unlike her cousin, Kara was taught to fight in Krypton as part of her tests, and at the Crucible Academy, being adept at various Kryptonian fighting styles like Klurkor and Torquasm Rao. Supergirl also learned the art of Bagua under I-Ching's instructions. She practiced how to manipulate her Chi or Qi to gain better control of her powers due to them becoming overwhelmed after her conflict with the Fatal Five. Superman recommended guardianship with I-Ching to Supergirl first. In addition to training in Krypton, Kara was trained by Batman in advanced martial arts and trained with the Amazons in Themyscira in unarmed and armed combat, Amazonas martial arts, fencing, Shield handling, and other Amazon weapons. She trained with Wonder Woman and Artemis extensively.
Other versions
There are numerous alternate versions of Supergirl. The most notable is Power Girl (real name Kara Zor-L, also known as Karen Starr) who first appeared in All Star Comics #58 (January/February 1976).
Power Girl is the Earth-Two counterpart of Supergirl and the first cousin of Kal-L, Superman of the pre-Crisis Earth-Two. The infant Power Girl's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of Krypton. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth-Two.
She has superhuman strength and the ability to fly and is the first chairwoman of the Justice Society of America. She sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume; and has an aggressive fighting style. Throughout her early appearances in All Star Comics, she is often at odds with Wildcat because his penchant for talking to her as if she were an ordinary human female rather than a superpowered Kryptonian annoys her.
She also fought alongside the Sovereign Seven team, replacing Rampart after his death though that series is not considered to be part of canon in the DC universe.
The 1985 limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths eliminated Earth-Two, causing her origin to change; she became the granddaughter of the Atlantean sorcerer Arion. However, story events culminating in the 2005–2006 Infinite Crisis limited series restored her status as a refugee from the Krypton of the destroyed pre-Crisis Earth-Two universe.
Like the original Kara's Streaky, Power Girl has a cat, featured in a story by Amanda Conner in Wonder Woman #600.
Reception
This version of Supergirl is ranked as the 153rd-greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine.
IGN also ranked this version of Supergirl as the 94th-greatest comic book superhero, stating "for a character born of the Silver Age that saw everything from a Super Baby to a Super Monkey, Kara Zor-El grew into something much more than simply another marketing ploy to slap an 'S' on." In 2013 IGN ranked Supergirl as the 17th-greatest DC comic superhero, stating "she was an early example of a female sidekick developing a large fanbase in her own right", and "Supergirl has been one of DC's most powerful heroes, and a standard to hold other female heroes against."
Appearances
Pre-Crisis
1959 to 1969: Action Comics #252 to #376.
1969 to 1972: Adventure Comics #381 to #424.
1972 to 1974: Supergirl #1 to #10.
1974 to 1982: Her comic merges with Jimmy Olsen's and Lois Lane's to become Superman Family #164 to #222.
1982 to 1984: The Daring New Adventures of Supergirl #1 to #13, Supergirl (vol. 2) #14 to #23.
2015: Convergence
Kara Zor-El appeared in over 750 stories published by DC from 1959 to 1985.
Post-Crisis
2004 to 2005: Superman/Batman #8 to #13 and #19
2005 to 2011: Supergirl (vol. 5) #0 to #67
2006 to 2008: Supergirl and the Legion of Super-Heroes (Legion of Super-Heroes vol. 5) #16 to #37
2007: Action Comics #850
2008: Final Crisis
2011 to 2015: New 52: Supergirl (vol. 6) #1 to #40
2016 to current: Rebirth: Supergirl (vol. 7) #1 to current
Kara Zor-El also appears as a supporting character in several issues of other DC Comics, including Superman, Action Comics, Teen Titans, Amazons Attack, World War III, and Wonder Girl. She has also appeared in many issues of Superman, Action Comics, and Superman New Krypton starting with the World Without Superman event in 2009, and continuing with the World Against Superman event going into 2010.
Collected editions
Listed in chronological order. All ages titles are not in continuity with the original or modern Kara.
In other media
Television
Live-action
Smallville
Prior to the seventh season (2007–2008) of the WB/CW show Smallville where she is introduced into the cast and is portrayed by Laura Vandervoort, a woman claiming to be Kara (portrayed by Adrianne Palicki) is briefly introduced in the season 3 finale. It is later revealed her real name is Lindsey Harrison, and had been given false memories and powers by the artificial intelligence of Clark Kent's (Tom Welling) father Jor-El as part of a series of tests. Vandervoort portrays the real Kara, Clark's cousin whose spaceship had been trapped in stasis until the events of the season 6 finale. Much of season 7 is concerned with Kara's attempts to adjust to life on Earth, especially after learning of Krypton's destruction. Her storyline sees her simultaneously become the object of Lex Luthor's (Michael Rosenbaum) obsessions and Jimmy Olsen's (Aaron Ashmore) affections, suffer a bout of amnesia, discover her father's (Christopher Heyerdahl) sinister motives and become a target of evil android Brainiac (James Marsters). The season finale sees Kara become trapped in the Phantom Zone. Starting with season 8, Vandervoort ceases to feature as a series regular, but reprises the role three more times. In her first guest appearance, "Bloodline," Kara is freed from the Phantom Zone and later departs Clark's hometown of Smallville to search for Kandor, her birthplace, as it is rumored to have survived their home planet's destruction. She appears again in the season 10 episode "Supergirl", in which she formally adopts her superhero moniker. Her off-screen adventures are alluded to thereafter. Vandervoort makes a final appearance in the show's penultimate episode, "Prophecy", in which she helps Green Arrow (Justin Hartley) locate the "Bow of Orion" to use against Darkseid. She is then called to the Fortress of Solitude, where she learns from Jor-El that her job on Earth is done. Using a Legion of Super-Heroes flight ring, she travels to the future to seek her own destiny. The Season Eleven comic book continuation of the show later depicts Kara's continued story in the 31st century, subsequent return to the present and joining the Justice League.
Arrowverse
In September 2014, a 22-episode television series centered around Supergirl was in development at Warner Bros. Television, set to premiere on CBS with a January 2015 air date. Melissa Benoist was cast as the titular character. In May 2016, the series moved to The CW and was later integrated into the Arrowverse, a shared universe consisting of shows including Arrow, The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow. In the series, Kara Zor-El was sent to Earth to protect her cousin Kal-El, following her homeworld Krypton's destruction. However, she is knocked into the Phantom Zone, where she is stranded for 24 years. She eventually crash lands on Earth and is found by her already grown-up cousin Kal, now known to the world as the iconic superhero "Superman". Superman brings Kara into the custody of Jeremiah Danvers, director of the Department of Extranormal Operations (D.E.O.), and his daughter Alex. Growing up, Kara struggles to maintain her Kryptonian abilities as well as balancing her relationship with her adoptive sister. Eventually, the two bond when Kara's powers are exposed. However, Jeremiah decides it's best to isolate her abilities. As an adult, Kara is forced to use her powers again when her sister's plane almost crashes. She is later dubbed "Supergirl" by the media and dons a costume like her cousin. Kara decides to use her abilities to fight alien invaders such as Kara's aunt Astra and her husband Non, Mon-El's rogue parents, the Worldkiller Reign, anti-alien activist Ben Lockwood, and later the shadowy organization Leviathan, with the help of her sister Alex, now an agent of the D.E.O., her best friend and tech-expert Winn Schott, last of the Green Martians J'onn J'onzz / Martian Manhunter, and Kal's best friend Jimmy Olsen. She is later joined by Lex Luthor's sister Lena, Prince of Daxam Mon-El, former Legion of Superheroes member Querl "Brainy" Dox / Brainiac 5, Nia Nal / Dreamer, James' younger sister Kelly, and reporter Willam Dey face against these rival forces. After joining the Arrowverse, which contain annual crossover, Kara assists Barry Allen, Oliver Queen and the Legends of Tomorrow against threats on their designated earth "Earth-1" while Kara’s is designated as "Earth-38". Later, Kara is selected by The Monitor as the Paragon of Hope to participate in the coming crisis and fight against the Anti-Monitor, whose goal is to destroy the multiverse. After doing so, the Paragons are sent to the Vanishing Point where Oliver, now a Spectre, helps them escape. The Paragons appear at the dawn of time in the anti-matter universe where they have their final confrontation with the Anti-Monitor. Eventually, Oliver sacrifices himself to kill the Anti-Monitor, and as a result, a new multiverse is born with Earth-38 and Earth-1 merged into "Earth-Prime". Following the crisis, Kara is forced to deal the after-effects of Crisis which include working with Lex, now owning the D.E.O. while Leviathan continue their covert operations under Gamemnae. The sixth season sees Kara and her allies expose Lex's crimes, but are then forced to deal with Nyxlygsptlnz, a fifth-dimensional imp who tricked the heroes into releasing her from the Phantom Zone. Eventually Nyxlygsptlnz joins forces with Lex Luthor and the two kill William, but Kara's assembled allies are able to defeat the two, culminating in Lex and Nyxlygsptlnz being trapped in the Phantom Zone when one of their own plans backfires. The series concludes with Kara revealing her dual identity so that she can live a full life as one person.
Animation
Supergirl appears with Batgirl and Wonder Girl in Super Best Friends Forever, voiced by Nicole Sullivan.
Supergirl appears as a central protagonist in DC Super Hero Girls, voiced by Anais Fairweather in the 2015 web series and Nicole Sullivan in the 2019 series. This version is a rebellious "cool kid" and student at Super Hero High School. She may be tough but she can easily express her emotions and is very open-minded as well. She can be a cool friend and a helpful one, but she can also be jealous sometimes and she dislikes her cousin's prominence.
Supergirl appears in Justice League Action, voiced by Joanne Spracklen.
Supergirl has a non-speaking appearance in the Young Justice series finale "Death and Rebirth". In a post-credit sequence, she is one of dozens of rogue Kryptonians recovered from the Phantom Zone, being implied to have been sent there two decades by Dru-Zod for reasons unknown. She is last seen being offered as tribute by the Light and recruited to the Female Furies alongside Black Mary.
Film
Live-action
A live action depiction of Supergirl first appears in the eponymous 1984 film starring Helen Slater as Supergirl. The film is a spin-off from the Superman film series starring Christopher Reeve, to which it is connected by Marc McClure's character of Jimmy Olsen.
Kara Zor-El / Linda Danvers / Supergirl exists within the DC Extended Universe, as she was referenced in Man of Steel when Superman discovers an empty pod within the Kryptonian scout spaceship. Zack Snyder confirmed in August 2018 that even though the character does exist, the pod was not intended for her.
In August 2018, a film centered around the character was announced to be in development, with Oren Uziel hired as screenwriter for the project. The studio intends to hire a female director, with Reed Morano—who has expressed interest in the project—being its top choice. Filming was expected to start production in early 2020.
In February 2021, Colombian-American actress Sasha Calle was cast as Supergirl in The Flash (2023), directed by Andy Muschietti. In February 2023, it was confirmed Calle would be portraying the Kara Zor-El version of the character.
A film titled Supergirl: Woman of Tomorrow was announced to be in development at DC Studios in January 2023, as an installment of the DC Universe (DCU). It is based on the 2021 miniseries written by Tom King.
Animation
Summer Glau voices the post-Crisis version of Kara Zor-El in Superman/Batman: Apocalypse, which is based on the Superman/Batman storyline "The Supergirl from Krypton". Despite this, it was confirmed by director Lauren Montgomery that Supergirl's name was removed from the title due to the much slower sales of the previous Wonder Woman animated movie, and the character was not permitted to appear on the cover in her trademark outfit.
Molly Quinn voices Supergirl in Superman: Unbound.
Supergirl appears in Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Cosmic Clash, voiced by Jessica DiCicco.
Supergirl appears in Legion of Super-Heroes, voiced by Meg Donnelly.
Video games
Supergirl appears in DC Universe Online, voiced by Adriene Mishler. In the villain campaign, the players help Doctor Psycho capture Supergirl using Kryptonite. In the hero campaign, the players fight Doctor Psycho to save Supergirl. Under the thrall of Brainiac, she must be defeated in the Fortress of Solitude: Power Core raid.
Supergirl is unlockable in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, voiced by Bridget Hoffman.
Supergirl makes a cameo appearance in the IOS version of Injustice: Gods Among Us as a support card.
Supergirl appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Kari Wahlgren. She is playable in her default variant which is designed after her appearance in The New 52 and in her Classic attire. Her Classic variant is unlocked in a VR Mission while her New 52 variant is unlocked in a Hub Quest in Nok where she requests players to defeat a number of enemies she accidentally releases from their cells.
Supergirl appears as a playable character in Infinite Crisis, voiced by Camilla Luddington.
Supergirl appears as a playable character and the central protagonist in Injustice 2 by NetherRealm Studios, the sequel to Injustice: Gods Among Us, voiced by Laura Bailey. Here her origin is much like in the comics where she is sent along with her cousin Kal-El to Earth by her mother after Krypton is destroyed but on separate pods where hers veers off-course after sustaining significant damage, stranding her in space for many years until she lands on Earth, unaged. When the main storyline starts, she is residing on Black Adam's kingdom of Khandaq, apparently under his and Wonder Woman's protection. When Brainiac who was responsible for Krypton's destruction attacks, she, Wonder Woman, and Black Adam attempt to free Superman and the remaining members of the Regime, while being interrupted in their efforts by new Insurgency recruits Blue Beetle and Firestorm until Batman himself arrives and releases Superman, leading to a temporary alliance between the Regime and Insurgency against the alien warlord. Over the course of the story, she learns the truth about her cousin's tyranny and at the end of the game sides with Batman, Green Lantern and Flash in letting Brainiac live to restore the lost cities but is defeated. In Batman's ending, she laments her cousin's tyranny and sees him leave to be imprisoned in the Phantom Zone and is offered membership by Batman in his Justice League. In Superman's ending, she is imprisoned aboard Brainiac's ship and to her shock discovers her cousin has bonded with it and when she refuses his offer to join him in leading his new legion of imprisoned species. He attempts to coerce her by revealing a brainwashed Batman, who had also been captured, further shocking her.
Supergirl appears as a limited-distribution minifigure for the toys-to-life video game Lego Dimensions, with Kari Wahlgren reprising her role. She has the ability to transform between her classic and Red Lantern forms.
Supergirl appears as a playable character in DC Unchained.
Supergirl appears in the PSP version of Justice League Heroes.
Supergirl appears as a playable character in the DC TV Super-Heroes DLC pack in Lego DC Super-Villains.
See also
Alternative versions of Supergirl
Laurel Gand
References
Supergirl
Superman characters
Characters created by Otto Binder
Comics characters introduced in 1958
Comics characters introduced in 1959
DC Comics aliens
DC Comics American superheroes
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics characters with superhuman senses
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics martial artists
DC Comics female superheroes
DC Comics film characters
DC Comics television characters
DC Comics extraterrestrial superheroes
DC Comics sidekicks
DC Comics orphans
Female characters in television
Fictional characters who can manipulate sound
Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities
Fictional characters with air or wind abilities
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities
Fictional characters with ice or cold abilities
Fictional characters with nuclear or radiation abilities
Fictional characters with slowed ageing
Fictional characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Fictional characters with X-ray vision
Fictional actors
Fictional photographers
Fictional refugees
Fictional reporters
Fictional school counselors
Fictional American secret agents
Fictional waiting staff
Fighting game characters
Kryptonians
Superheroes who are adopted
Time travelers
Vigilante characters in comics
Flamebird | wiki |
"Every Morning" may refer to:
"Every Morning" (Sugar Ray song), 1999
"Every Morning" (Basshunter song), 2009
"Every Morning", a song by Crash Test Dummies from I Don't Care That You Don't Mind
"Every Morning", a song by The Cranberries from Wake Up and Smell the Coffee
"Every Morning", a poem by Suman Pokhrel | wiki |
Anne Savage may refer to:
Anne Savage (artist) (1896–1971), Canadian painter and art teacher
Anne Savage (DJ) (born 1969), English disc jockey
Anne Savage, maiden name of Anne Berkeley, Baroness Berkeley ( 1496–before 1546), lady-in-waiting to Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII of England
See also
Ann Savage (1921–2008), American actress
Anna Savage (disambiguation) | wiki |
King James Only Controversy may refer to:
King James Only Controversy, a book by theologian James White about the controversy over the King-James-Only movement.
The King-James-Only Movement, a controversy within English speaking Protestant evangelicalism between those who espouse only using the King James Version of the Bible, and those who allow the use of other modern translations of the Bible. | wiki |
Founded in 1976 by Michael Foster, Coastal Air Transport is a St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands based airline that provides service to several Caribbean destinations including St. Eustatius, Nevis, Dominica, Anguilla and St. Kitts. Coastal Air operates Cessna 402 and 404 nine passenger airplanes.
Destinations
Dominica-Canefield
Anguilla
Saint Croix
Nevis
Saint Kitts
Sint Eustatius
Sint Maarten
Fleet
the Coastal Air fleet includes:
References
Airlines established in 1976
Airlines of the United States Virgin Islands
1976 establishments in the United States Virgin Islands | wiki |
Olla gitana is a Spanish stew from Andalusia.
See also
Andalusian cuisine
References
Andalusian cuisine
Spanish cuisine
Romani cuisine | wiki |
The Huron League is an MHSAA athletic conference located in southern Michigan.
Members
The following schools are currently members:
Membership timeline
See also
Michigan High School Athletic Association
References
Michigan high school sports conferences
High school sports conferences and leagues in the United States | wiki |
A sense of impending doom is a medical symptom that consists of an intense feeling that something life threatening or tragic is about to occur, despite no apparent danger. Causes can be either psychological or physiological. Psychological causes can include an anxiety disorder, depression, panic disorder, or bipolar disorder. A sense of impending doom often precedes or accompanies a panic attack. Physiological cause could include a pheochromocytoma, heart attack, blood transfusion, or anaphylaxis. A sense of impending doom can also present itself as a postoperative complication encountered after surgery.
See also
Angor animi
References
Anxiety disorders
Emotional issues
Fear | wiki |
The 2019 United Kingdom general election was held on 12 December 2019. These were the target seats for each of the political parties, according to results from the previous election in 2017.
List by party
Conservative
Labour
Liberal Democrat
SNP
Plaid Cymru
Brexit Party
Green Party of England and Wales
Democratic Unionist Party
Ulster Unionist Party
SDLP
Sinn Féin
References
2019 United Kingdom general election
Lists of marginal seats in the United Kingdom by election | wiki |
Nature of the Beast may refer to:
The Nature of the Beast (1995 film), an American mystery thriller film
Nature of the Beast (2007 film), a 2007 American romantic comedy television film
The Nature of the Beast (1919 film), a British silent drama film
Dennis Skinner: Nature of the Beast, a 2017 British documentary film
"Nature of the Beast" (NCIS), an episode of the American police procedural drama NCIS
The Nature of the Beast (album), a 1981 album by April Wine
Nature of the Beast (album), a 1985 album by Maureen Steele
The Nature of the Beast, a 1945 book on animal behavior by Ruth Crosby Noble. | wiki |
The sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy, commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on September 24, 2009, and concluded on May 20, 2010. The season was produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes and head writer Krista Vernoff. Actors Ellen Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl, and Justin Chambers reprised their roles as surgical residents Meredith Grey, Cristina Yang, Izzie Stevens, and Alex Karev, respectively. Heigl was released from her contract in the middle of the season, while T. R. Knight did not appear as George O'Malley, because Knight was released from his contract at the conclusion of season five. Main cast members Patrick Dempsey, Chandra Wilson, James Pickens, Jr., Sara Ramirez, Eric Dane, Chyler Leigh, and Kevin McKidd also returned, while previous recurring-star Jessica Capshaw was promoted to a series-regular, and Kim Raver was given star-billing after the commencement of the season.
The season follows the story of surgical interns, residents and their competent mentors, as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington. A major storyline of the season is the characters adapting to change, as their beloved co-worker Stevens departed following the breakdown of her marriage, O'Malley died in the season premiere—following his being dragged by a bus, and new cardiothoracic surgeon Teddy Altman is given employment at the hospital. Further storylines include Shepherd being promoted to chief of surgery, Seattle Grace Hospital merging with the neighboring Mercy West —introducing several new doctors, and several physicians lives being placed into danger—when a grieving deceased patient's husband embarks on a shooting spree at the hospital, seeking revenge for his wife's death.
The series ended its sixth season with 13.26 million viewers, ranking #17 in terms of ratings, the lowest the series had ever ranked up to then. The season received mixed-to-positive critical feedback, with the season's premiere and finale given heavier critical acclaim, in contrast to the middle. The season was one of the least acclaimed in terms of awards and nominations, being the show's only season not to warrant a Primetime Emmy nomination. Despite the polarizing aspects of ratings and awards, the season managed to receive a spot on Movieline top 10 list. Buena Vista released the season onto a DVD box-set, being made available to regions 1 and 2.
Episodes
The number in the "No. overall" column refers to the episode's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season" column refers to the episode's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions" is the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live. The sixth season's episodes are altogether 1032 minutes in length. Each episode of this season is named after a song.
Cast and characters
Main
Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey
Sandra Oh as Dr. Cristina Yang
Katherine Heigl as Dr. Izzie Stevens
Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev
Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey
James Pickens Jr. as Dr. Richard Webber
Sara Ramirez as Dr. Callie Torres
Eric Dane as Dr. Mark Sloan
Chyler Leigh as Dr. Lexie Grey
Kevin McKidd as Dr. Owen Hunt
Jessica Capshaw as Dr. Arizona Robbins
Kim Raver as Dr. Teddy Altman
Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd
Recurring
Kate Walsh as Dr. Addison Montgomery
Sarah Drew as Dr. April Kepner
Jesse Williams as Dr. Jackson Avery
Jason George as Dr. Ben Warren
Nora Zehetner as Dr. Reed Adamson
Robert Baker as Dr. Charles Percy
Leven Rambin as Sloan Riley
Jeff Perry as Thatcher Grey
Notable guests
Demi Lovato as Hayley
Sara Gilbert as Kim Allen
Marion Ross as Betty
Mandy Moore as Mary Portman
Ryan Devlin as Bill Portman
Nick Purcell as Doug
Michael O'Neill as Gary Clark
Danielle Panabaker as Kelsey
Adrienne Barbeau as Jodie Crawley
Héctor Elizondo as Carlos Torres
Cody Christian as Brad Walker
Mark Saul as Dr. Steve Mostow
Martha Plimpton as Pam Michaelson
Loretta Devine as Adele Webber
Debra Monk as Louise O'Malley
Mitch Pileggi as Larry Jennings
Courtney Ford as Jill Meyer
David Ramsey as Jimmy Thompson
Nicole Cummins as Paramedic Nicole
Frankie Faison as William Bailey
Brandon Scott as Dr. Ryan Spalding
Sarah Utterback as Olivia Harper
Steven W. Bailey as Joe, the Bartender
J. August Richards as Young Richard Webber
Sarah Paulson as Young Ellis Grey
Emily Bergl as Trisha
Amy Madigan as Dr. Katherine Wyatt
Missi Pyle as Jasmine
Production
Development and writing
The season was produced by Touchstone Television ABC Studios, The Mark Gordon Company, Shondaland and was distributed by Buena Vista International, Inc. The executive producers were creator Shonda Rhimes, Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, Joan Rater and James D. Parriott. The regular directors were Shonda Rhimes, Krista Vernoff, Stacy McKee, William Harper, Debora Cahn, Allan Heinberg and Peter Nowalk. At the conclusion of season 5, T. R. Knight was released from his contract, following a disagreement with Rhimes. When asked to make a 'flashback' appearance in season six, Knight declined. Heigl's appearances in the season were sporadic, seeing Stevens depart and return twice. Although she was scheduled to appear in the final 5 episodes of the season, Heigl requested that she be released from her contract 18 months early, and made her final appearance on January 21, 2010. Heigl explained that she wanted to spend more time with her family, and did not think it would be respectful to Grey's Anatomy viewers to have Izzie return and depart yet again. The season's 2-hour opener showed the doctors of Seattle Grace Hospital, grieving the loss of their deceased friend, O'Malley. The special's writer, Vernoff, commented: "It's heartbreaking. I fell in love with George, like many of you did, in season one."
The ninth episode of the season, "New History", saw the arrival of Altman, which ended up forming a love-triangle between her, Hunt, and Yang. Raver commented on this: "She was in Iraq with Owen. She's a cardiac surgeon. She's really good at what she does. There'll be some interesting stuff between Teddy, Owen and Cristina." The episode's writer, Heinberg, offered his insight:
"I Like You So Much Better When You're Naked" saw the departure of Stevens, following the breakdown of her marriage with Karev. Series' writer Joan Rater commented on this: "Izzie getting the clean scan back gives Alex the freedom to leave. Because he never would have left her when she was sick, he's a good guy. And I'm not saying that Alex ever consciously thought, I can’t leave her while she's sick, but now that she's not, now that she seems like she's going to get better, it just comes to him. He deserves more. He's a good guy and he deserves more. But loving Izzie showed him that he can be good, is good. So it was a little gift. And when he tells Izzie he's done, he's not bitter or angry, he's just done." The writing of the 2-part season 6 finale, caused struggle to Rhimes. She elaborated on this:
Casting
The sixth season had 13 roles receiving star-billing, with 12 of them returning from the previous season, 1 of whom previously in a recurring guest capacity. The regulars portray the surgeons from the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital as new rivalries and romantic relationships begin to develop after the hospital's merger with Mercy West. Meredith Grey, a surgical resident and the protagonist of the series, is portrayed by Ellen Pompeo. Fellow third-year residents Cristina Yang, Izzie Stevens and Alex Karev are portrayed by Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl and Justin Chambers, respectively. Attending general surgeon Miranda Bailey was portrayed by Chandra Wilson whose main storylines throughout the season focus on her divorce and the development of new romantic relationships. Seattle Grace Hospital's Chief of Surgery and general surgeon Richard Webber was portrayed by James Pickens, Jr., who returns to alcoholism after being sober for 20 years.
Sara Ramirez acted as bisexual orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres, Eric Dane played womanizer plastic surgeon Mark Sloan, Chyler Leigh portrayed Meredith's half-sister and second-year surgical resident Lexie Grey, Kevin McKidd appeared as trauma surgeon Owen Hunt, and Patrick Dempsey featured as chief of neurosurgery Derek Shepherd. After having previously appeared in a multi-episode arc in a guest-star capacity in the show's fifth season, Jessica Capshaw began receiving star-billing in the season's premiere episode in the role of attending pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins. The ninth episode of the season marked the introduction of the new chief of cardiothoracic surgery Teddy Altman, portrayed by Kim Raver, whose mysterious romantic past with Hunt develops into one of the season's main stories. Starting with the nineteenth episode of the season, Raver began receiving star-billing.
The sixth season introduces several new recurring characters who start to develop progressive and expansive storylines throughout the season. Mercy West surgical residents Reed Adamson, Charles Percy, April Kepner and Jackson Avery were portrayed by Nora Zehetner, Robert Baker, Sarah Drew and Jesse Williams, respectively. Jason George portrayed Miranda Bailey's love-interest, anesthesiologist Ben Warren. Thatcher Grey (Jeff Perry) and Sloan Riley (Leven Rambin) have been part of the season's main story arcs, while numerous episodic characters have made guest appearances: Demi Lovato as Hayley, Sara Gilbert as Kim Allen, Marion Ross as Betty, Mandy Moore as Mary Portman, Ryan Devlin as Bill Portman, Nick Purcell as Doug, Michael O'Neill as Gary Clark, Danielle Panabaker as Kelsey, Adrienne Barbeau as Jodie Crawley, Héctor Elizondo as Mr. Torres, Cody Christian as Brad Walker, Amy Madigan as Dr. Wyatt, and Missi Pyle as Jasmine. Former series-regular Kate Walsh returned to the series as a special guest-star, portraying neonatal surgeon and obstetrician-gynecologist Addison Montgomery.
Reception
Ratings
The sixth season opened up to 17.04 million viewers with a 6.7/17 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. Although the rating was a 1% decrease from season five's opener, it managed to rank first for its time-slot and the entire night, in terms of both ratings and viewership, and served as the season's most viewed episode. "Sympathy for the Parents" was the season's least viewed episode, and up to that point, the series' as well, garnering only 9.87 million viewers. The season's finale garnered 16.13 million viewers, and received a 6.2/18 rating, ranking first for its time-slot and the entire night, in terms of both ratings and viewership. Although the finale was a success for the night, it was a 1% decrease from season five's finale, but served as the season's second most viewed episode. Overall, the season ranked at #17 for the year, and had an average of 13.26 million viewers, a 5% decrease from the previous season's ranking.
Critical response
The season received mixed-to-positive reviews among television critics. Speaking of the premiere, Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV noted that the special foreshadowed a "very dark" season, adding: "The talk between George's mom and one of the surgeons [Torres] proved to be one of the more heart-breaking scenes in an episode that in itself is heartbreaking enough." In contrast, Kelly West of TV Blend was critical of the premiere, writing: "I don’t think based on the first episode that we can say that Grey's is headed in a new direction, nor do I think the writers are making much of an effort to bring the series back to the greatness that was its earlier seasons. That said, this is Grey's Anatomy and with that comes the usual drama, sex, love and whacky medical mysteries thrown in the mix to keep things moving. If that's what you’re looking for, I think you’ll enjoy the season premiere just fine." Capshaw's performance this season was praised, with The TV Addict calling her "immensely likeable". Although "Sympathy for the Parents" was the least viewed episode, TV Fanatic called the episode "touching", praising Chambers' performance. TV Fanatics reaction to the season was fairly mixed, with Steve Marsi saying that Grey's Anatomy was facing an identity crisis after viewing "Give Peace a Chance". He said that: "Still popular but lacking its past magic, it's trying to decide what to become. All we can say is that if it becomes what we saw 12 hours ago, we are all for it. Last week saw the doctors plunging into ER-style chaos with 12 different doctors giving 12 different accounts of one case. Last night, we saw something else equally unusual." He praised Patrick Dempsey's performance, saying: "Again, it was a single case that took up the entire hour, but instead of 12 doctors' version of events, the focus was largely on just one, and the best one: Dr. Derek Shepherd. Patrick Dempsey's McDreamy character may be eye candy, but he's got substance. Last night's episode proved that in spades, and was one of the series' best in some time."
The season's finale Death And All His Friends was highly praised. Marsi gave the episode five stars, and expressed that it may have been the best episode of the series, adding: "The writing and acting were absolutely stellar, and may lead to many Emmy nominations, but even more impressively, despite a killing spree, it remained distinctly Grey's. Some of the back-and-forths between the characters were truly memorable, and some of the developments so heartbreaking that we don't even know where to begin now. Seriously, the Season 6 finale left us laying awake afterward thinking about everything, a feeling we haven't had from Grey's in years and rarely achieved by any program." John Kubicek of BuddyTV also noted that the finale was the best episode, adding: "[It was] two of the best hours of television all year. It was certainly the best Grey's Anatomy has ever been, which is saying a lot since I'd written the show off for the past few years. No show does a big traumatic event like Grey's Anatomy, and the shooter gave the show license for heightened drama with five major characters being shot over the two hours. It was emotional, expertly paced and had me in tears for most of the finale." Entertainment Weekly wrote, "At any rate, now you can at least see where it all began. And while you’re still pondering how Grey's can still be so damn good sometimes,"
Accolades
The season was one of the least acclaimed of the series, in terms of awards and nominations. Despite not being nominated for a Primetime Emmy, the show received two Creative Arts Emmy Awards: Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup For A Series, Miniseries, Movie Or A Special for "How Insensitive" and Outstanding Makeup For A Single-Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic) for "Suicide is Painless". The season also received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series at the GLAAD Media Awards. Wilson was awarded the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Directing in a Dramatic Series for her directing in "Give Peace a Chance". The season also ranked at #10 on Movieline top ten list.
DVD release
References SpecificGeneral'
2009 American television seasons
2010 American television seasons
Grey's Anatomy seasons | wiki |
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army, and as such, few persons are appointed to it. It is considered as a five-star rank (OF-10) in modern-day armed forces in many countries. Promotion to the rank of field marshal in many countries historically required extraordinary military achievement by a general (a wartime victory). However, the rank has also been used as a divisional command rank and also as a brigade command rank. Examples of the different uses of the rank include Austria-Hungary, Pakistan, Prussia/Germany, India and Sri Lanka for an extraordinary achievement; Spain and Mexico for a divisional command (); and France, Portugal and Brazil for a brigade command (, ).
Origins
The origin of the term dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the king's horses (from Old German Marh-scalc = "horse-servant"), from the time of the early Frankish kings; words originally meaning "servant" were sometimes used to mean "subordinate official" or similar. The German Holy Roman Empire and the kingdom of France had officers named Feldmarschall and Maréchal de camp respectively as far back as the 1600s. The exact wording of the titles used by field marshals varies: examples include "marshal" and "field marshal general". The air force equivalent in Commonwealth and many Middle Eastern air forces is marshal of the air force (not to be confused with air marshal). Navies, which usually do not use the nomenclature employed by armies or air forces, use titles such as "fleet admiral," "grand admiral" or "admiral of the fleet" for the equivalent rank. The traditional attribute distinguishing a field marshal is a baton. The baton nowadays is purely ornamental, and as such may be richly decorated. That said, it is not necessary for the insignia to be a baton (Such is the case in Russia post-1991 and the former Soviet Union, which use a jewelled star referred to as a Marshal's star).
Field marshal ranks by country
Afghanistan
Sardar Shah Wali Khan (died 1977) of the Musahiban and uncle of King Mohammad Zahir Shah and President Mohammed Daoud Khan, was a field marshal. Mohammed Fahim became an honorary marshal in 2004.
Abdul Rashid Dostum became an honorary marshal in 2020 (this position is now defunct).
Australia
The first appointment to the rank was Sir William Birdwood, who received the honour in March 1925. Sir Thomas Blamey was the second appointment to the rank, and was the first and so far only Australian-born and Australian Army substantive (not honorary) field marshal. He was promoted to the rank on the insistence of Sir Robert Menzies, the Prime Minister of Australia, in June 1950. His field marshal's baton is on display in the Second World War galleries at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. The third appointment was Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who was promoted to the rank on 1 April 1954.
Brazil
When Brazil became independent from Portugal in 1822, the Portuguese system of ranks was maintained by the Brazilian Army, including the rank of marechal de campo. In the second half of the 19th century, the rank of marechal de campo was replaced, both in Portugal and Brazil, by the rank of general de brigada (brigade general). This last rank still exists today in the Brazilian Army, but corresponds to the present rank of major-general (major-general) in the Portuguese Army.
Today, the rank of Marechal is the maximum rank available but only awarded during wartime. The Brazilian Air Force has the similar rank of air marshal.
Chad
On the 11 August 2020, Chadian president Idris Déby was promoted to the rank of Marshal for his efforts against terrorism in West Africa. He would die the following year.
China
During Imperial rule in China, different dynasties gave different titles to generals. A very similar title is "司馬" (sima) in the Eastern Han dynasty, which literally means "master of horse", and later became a two-character surname too. "司馬" is one of the Three Excellencies in Eastern Han, who is in charge of the country's military affairs. Later, a more common title for a field marshal or a commandant was (元帥 Yuan Shuai) or grand field marshal (大元帥 da yuan shuai). One of the most famous of these generals was Yue Fei from the Song Dynasty. Since the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, it has promoted 10 military commanders to the rank of marshal, all in 1955 and abolished in 1965. Since then, the rank has remained defunct.
Ethiopia
On 8 January 2022, Chief of General staff Birhanu Jula was promoted to the rank of Field marshal (or Field marshal general, depending on source). The rank was introduced to the Ethiopian National Defense Force with this promotion. The rank of Field marshal was last used in Ethiopia during the early 20th century by Emperor Haile Selassie as head of the Imperial Ethiopian Army.
Finland
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was promoted to Field Marshal in 1933. In 1942 he was promoted to Marshal of Finland, which really is not a distinctive military rank but an honour.
France
In the French army of the Ancien Régime, the normal brigade command rank was field marshal (maréchal de camp). In 1793, during the French Revolution, the rank of field marshal was replaced by the rank of brigade general. The rank insignia of field marshal was two stars (one-star being used for a senior colonel rank). The French field marshal rank was below lieutenant-general, which in 1793 became divisional-general. In the title maréchal de camp and the English "field marshal", there is an etymological confusion in the French camp between the English words "camp" and "field". The French rank of field marshal should not be confused with the rank of Marshal of France, which has been the highest rank of the French Army since the higher dignity of Marshal General of France was abolished in 1848 (although in theory it is not an actual rank but a "state dignity").
German-speaking lands
Generalfeldmarschall (general field marshal, field marshal general, or field marshal / , abbreviated to Feldmarschall) was the most senior general officer rank in the armies of several German states, including Saxony, Brandenburg-Prussia, Prussia, the German Empire, and lastly, Germany (from 1918). In the Habsburg monarchy, the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, the rank Feldmarschall was used. The rank was also given to generals in southern German States and Austria by the Holy Roman Emperor during the existence of the Holy Roman Empire up to 1806.
Greece
Stratarches (), meaning Ruler of the Army in Greek, is a title for senior military commanders dating back to classical antiquity, in the sense of "commander-in-chief". In modern Greek usage, it has been used to translate the rank of field marshal. In this sense, the rank was borne by the Kings of Greece since 1939, and has been awarded only once in modern Greek history to a professional officer: Alexandros Papagos in 1949 for his leadership in the Greek victory against Fascist Italy in World War II and against the Communist forces in the Greek Civil War. The rank is not retained by the current (since 1974) Third Hellenic Republic.
India
Field marshal is the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. It is a ceremonial / war time rank. There have been two Indian field marshals to date. Sam Manekshaw was promoted to the rank in 1973 for his role in leading the Indian Army to victory in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. K. M. Cariappa was promoted in 1986, long after he retired, in recognition of his services as the first Indian Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army.
Libya
Khalifa Haftar was the first to receive this rank in Libya from the House of Representatives (Libya) in 2016 after the liberation of oil ports in the Operation Swift Lightning.
Malaysia
Field Marshal of Malaysia is equivalent to general of the army of the United States which is the highest rank in the Malaysian army and are reserved for His Majesty the King of Malaysia though there are several non-royals who hold this rank.
Pakistan
Ayub Khan (1907–1974) was the only field marshal in the history of Pakistan. He was the second president of Pakistan and the first native commander in chief of the army.
Philippines
US Army General Douglas MacArthur was the first and only field marshal in the history of the Philippine Army, a position he held while also acting as the Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines with a rank of major general. President Quezon conferred the rank of field marshal on 24 August 1936 and MacArthur's duty included the supervision of the creation of the Philippines nation-state.
Portugal
In the Portuguese Army, the rank of marechal de campo was created in 1762, as the most junior general officer rank. Hierarchically, it was between the rank of tenente-general (lieutenant-general) and the rank of brigadeiro (brigadier), this last one not being considered a general rank, but a kind of senior colonel.
In Portugal, the ranks of marechal-general (marshal-general) and marechal do Exército (marechal of the Army) or simply marechal also existed. Distinctively from the rank of marechal de campo, the ranks of marechal-general and marechal were the highest in the Portuguese Army, usually being reserved for the commanders-in-chief of the Army. Latter, the rank of marechal-general became reserved for the Monarch, as a mere honorary dignity.
Romania
Mareșal is the highest rank in the Romanian Armed Forces. The rank of mareșal can only be bestowed to a general or admiral (), in time of war for exceptional military merits, by the President of Romania and confirmed by the Supreme Council of National Defense.
Russia/Soviet Union
Imperial Russia had for a long time maintained the rank of Field Marshal. It was active all the way until the Russian Revolutions of 1917. When the Bolsheviks took over, they briefly abandoned military ranks until 1935. When it was restored, an equivalent rank Marshal of the Soviet Union was introduced in place of the Imperial Russian Army Field Marshal. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the rank was replaced by the Marshal of the Russian Federation. However, as of , There has only been one Marshal of the Russian Federation.
Serbia and Yugoslavia
In Serbian, field marshal can be literally translated as . The closest equivalent of a five-star general in Serbia was Vojvoda (Serbia and Yugoslavia), a military rank that has many similarities compared to Generalfeldmarschall, Marshal of France and Field marshal (United Kingdom) but also differs in way of promotion, duration and style. However, the name of this military is etymologically closer to the nobility title of duke. It was the highest rank in the army of the Kingdom of Serbia and Kingdom of Yugoslavia until the Second World War. It was first created with the passing of the law on the Organization of the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia in 1901. The law was passed on the suggestion of Lieutenant Colonel (later Divisional General) Miloš Vasić, who was minister of defense at the time. The rank was awarded only during the war for particular military contributions of top generals. Only four Serbian generals have reached the rank of Vojvoda, most notably Radomir Putnik.
Layer Yugoslav People's Army had the rank of Marshal of Yugoslavia used only by Josip Broz Tito as the supreme commander. This would actually be one rank above the rank of Field marshal and the equivalent of a six-star general, but it was essentially an honorific title with political connotations that became Tito's best-known nickname.
South Africa
South African statesman and prime minister Jan Smuts was appointed a field marshal of the British Army on 24 May 1941.
South Korea
During the 2010s, the South Korean government tried to promote Paik Sun-yup to the rank of field marshal. However, the attempt failed because of his past service in the Manchukuo Imperial Army.
Sri Lanka
Field Marshal is the highest rank in the Sri Lanka Army. It is a ceremonial rank. Sarath Fonseka is the first and only Sri Lankan officer to hold the rank. He was promoted to the position on 22 March 2015.
Sweden
In Sweden, a total of 75 field marshals have been appointed, from 1609 to 1824. Since 1972, the rank has not been used in Sweden, and it had long been decided to only be used in wartime.
The title denoted the commander of the mounted part of the army. During the Thirty Years' War, the field marshal was subordinate to the country's lieutenant general. In the Swedish army, the field marshal had unlimited military and considerable political authority. However, the field marshal was subordinate to the Lord High Constable of Sweden (Riksmärsken) and his closest man was the rikstygmästaren.
Initially, the field marshal was the commander of the cavalry and first became the foremost military rank in Sweden during the early 17th century, especially after Jakob Pontusson de la Gardie received the rank.
Syria
Field Marshal () is the highest rank within the Syrian Army which is a ceremonial and honorary military rank, the only holder to-date is incumbent President Bashar al-Assad who was promoted from Colonel. Its insignia is unique amongst Arab states, as the majority of Arab militaries that has a Field Marshal rank, the insignias has the national coat of arms or a crown above two crossed batons or swords surrounded by yellow leaves below, Syria's Marshal rank adds an extra star to its General insignia ergo three stars above crossed swords below the coat of arms.
Thailand
In the Royal Thai Army the rank of Chom Phon () was created in 1888, together with all other military ranks along western lines, by King Chulalongkorn. Until the first appointment in 1910, the rank was reserved solely for the reigning monarch. Currently the rank is in abeyance.
Turkey
In the Turkish Armed Forces, the corresponding rank is mareşal. Its origins can be traced to the Ottoman Empire and to the military of Persia, where it was called "müşir" and bestowed upon senior commanders upon order of the ruling sultan. The rank of mareşal can only be bestowed by the National Assembly, and only given to a general who leads an army, navy or air force successfully in three battles or at various front lines at the same time, gaining a victory over the enemy. Only two persons have been bestowed the rank: Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, and his Chief of Staff Fevzi Çakmak, both for their successes in the Turkish War of Independence.
Uganda
Field Marshal Idi Amin was the military dictator and third president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. Amin joined the British colonial regiment, the King's African Rifles in 1946, serving in Somalia and Kenya. Eventually, Amin held the rank of major general in the post-colonial Ugandan Army and became its commander before seizing power in the military coup of January 1971, deposing Milton Obote. He later promoted himself to field marshal while he was the head of state.
United Kingdom
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, was promoted to the rank of a field marshal (of multiple armies) in 1813. Nine of his field marshal batons are on display in Apsley House (see Batons of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington).
United States
No branch of the United States Armed Forces has ever used the rank of field marshal. On 14 December 1944, Congress created the rank of "general of the army", a five-star rank equivalent to that of field marshal in other countries. Two days later, George Marshall was promoted to this rank, becoming the first five-star general in American history. It has been suggested that the denomination of "Marshal" for a five-star officer was not adopted because, otherwise, George Marshall would be addressed as "Marshal Marshall", which was considered undignified. Thus, Douglas MacArthur is the only US officer ever to have received the rank of Marshal, which was given to him by the government of the Philippines.
Yemen
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, former President of Yemen and Field Marshal of the Republic of Yemen Armed Forces
Mahdi al-Mashat, Chairman of the Supreme Political Council of Yemen, and Field Marshal
Zaire
On the 17 June 1983, Mobutu Sese Seko promoted himself to the rank of field marshal. The order was signed by General Likulia Bolongo.
Insignia
Variants
Feldmarschall (Austro-Hungarian monarchy)
Stožerni general (Croatia)
Marshal of the Empire (First French Empire)
Stratarches (Greece)
Marshal of Italy
Wonsu (North & South Korea)
Mushir (Ottoman Empire, Middle East & North Africa)
Marshal of Peru
Marshal of Poland
General field marshal (Imperial Russia)
Marshal of the Russian Federation
Marshal of the Soviet Union
Fältmarskalk (Sweden)
Chom phon (Thailand)
See also
Admiralissimo
Generalissimo
Marshal
Grand Marshal
Grand Admiral
Admiral of the Fleet
List of Field Marshals
List of German Field Marshals
General of the Army
Admiral of the Navy
General of the Air Force
References
External links
Military ranks | wiki |
2010 în informatică — 2011 în informatică — 2012 în informatică
2011 în informatică a însemnat o serie de evenimente noi notabile:
Evenimente
Premiul Turing
Judea Pearl
Nașteri
Decese
5 octombrie: Steve Jobs, fondatorul Apple Inc.
Note
Vezi și
Istoria informaticii
Istoria mașinilor de calcul
Istoria Internetului
Informatică
2011
2011 | wiki |
Arthritis mutilans is a rare medical condition involving severe inflammation damaging the joints of the hands and feet, and resulting in deformation and problems with moving the affected areas; it can also affect the spine. As an uncommon arthropathy, arthritis mutilans was originally described as affecting the hands, feet, fingers, and/or toes, but can refer in general to severe derangement of any joint damaged by arthropathy. First described in modern medical literature by Marie and Leri in 1913, in the hands, arthritis mutilans is also known as opera glass hand (la main en lorgnette in French), or chronic absorptive arthritis. Sometimes there is foot involvement in which toes shorten and on which painful calluses develop in a condition known as opera glass foot, or pied en lorgnette.
Signs and symptoms
For a person with arthritis mutilans in the hands, the fingers become shortened by arthritis, and the shortening may become severe enough that the hand looks paw-like, with the first deformity occurring at the interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joints. The excess skin from the shortening of the phalanx bones becomes folded transversely, as if retracted into one another like opera glasses, hence the description la main en lorgnette. As the condition worsens, luxation, phalangeal and metacarpal bone absorption, and skeletal architecture loss in the fingers occurs.
Cause
Arthritis mutilans occurs mainly in people who have pre-existing psoriatic arthritis, but can occur, if less often, in advanced rheumatoid arthritis; it can also occur independently. Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis are interrelated heritable diseases, occurring with greater heritable frequency than rheumatoid arthritis, primary Sjögren syndrome and thyroid disease. Psoriasis affects 2–3% of the Caucasian population, and psoriatic arthritis affects up to 30% of those. Arthritis mutilans presents in about 5–16% of psoriatic arthritis cases, involves osteolysis of the DIP and PIP joints, and can include bone edema, bone erosions, and new bone growth. Most often psoriatic arthritis is seronegative for rheumatoid factor (occurring in only about 13% of cases), and has genetic risk factor overlap with ankylosing spondylitis with HLA-B27, IL-23R77, and IL-1, however, as of 2016, immunopathogenesis is unclear.
Diagnosis
Enthesitis can assist in differentiating arthritis mutilans' parent condition psoriatic arthritis from rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, with evidence in plain radiographs (x-rays) and MRI as periostitis, new bone formation, and bone erosions. Dactylitis, spondylitis and sacroiliitis are common with the parent condition psoriatic arthritis, but are not in rheumatoid arthritis. MRI bone edema scores are high in arthritis mutilans and correlate with radiographic measures of joint damage, although they may not correlate with disease activity. A source of significant pain, bone marrow edema (or lesions, using newer terminology), can be detected on MRI or with ultrasonography by signals of excessive water in bone marrow. Specifically, bone marrow edema can be detected within bone on T1-weighted images as poorly defined areas of low signal, with a high signal on T2-weighted fat-suppressed images. Comparatively, with arthritis mutilans in rheumatoid arthritis, bone marrow edema often involves the subchondral bone layer, while the condition as a subtype of psoriatic arthritis includes a greater extent of marrow edema, expanding to diaphysis.
Treatment
Medication
The bone edema in arthritis mutilans can be treated with TNF inhibitors in the short term: a 2007 study found that the bone edema associated with psoriatic arthritis (of which arthritis mutilans is a subtype) responded to TNF inhibitors with "dramatic" improvement, but the study was not determinative of whether TNF inhibitors would prevent new bone formation, bone fusion, or osteolysis (bone resorption).
Surgical
Although a 2011 research article stated that disagreements between hand surgeons and rheumatologists remain regarding the indications, timing and effectiveness of rheumatoid hand surgery, arthritis mutilans may be successfully treated by iliac-bone graft and arthrodesis of the interphalangeal joints and the metacarpophalangeal joint in each finger.
Outcomes
Arthritis mutilans' parent condition psoriatic arthritis leaves people with a mortality risk 60% higher than the general population, with premature death causes mirroring those of the general population, cardiovascular issues being most common. Life expectancy for people with psoriatic arthritis is estimated to be reduced by approximately 3 years.
References
External links
Rheumatology
Arthritis
Autoimmune diseases | wiki |
Yunnanilus is a genus of small stone loaches that are endemic to southeastern China, especially Guangxi and Yunnan. They are found in rivers, streams and lakes; some species are restricted to caves.
Species
There are currently 35 recognized species in this genus, although other authorities cite fewer species and place a few other species formerly placed here into other genera such as Petruichthys and Micronemacheilus.
Yunnanilus altus Kottelat & X. L. Chu, 1988
Yunnanilus analis J. X. Yang, 1990
Yunnanilus bailianensis J. Yang, 2013
Yunnanilus bajiangensis W. X. Li, 2004
Yunnanilus beipanjiangensis W. X. Li, W. N. Mao & R. F. Sun, 1994
Yunnanilus brevis (Boulenger, 1893)
Yunnanilus caohaiensis R. H. Ding, 1992
Yunnanilus chuanheensis
Yunnanilus chui J. X. Yang, 1991
Yunnanilus cruciatus (Rendahl (de), 1944)
Yunnanilus discoloris W. Zhou & J. C. He, 1989
Yunnanilus elakatis W. X. Cao & S. Q. Zhu, 1989
Yunnanilus forkicaudalis W. X. Li, 1999
Yunnanilus ganheensis L. An, B. S. Liu & W. X. Li, 2009
Yunnanilus jinxiensis Y. Zhu, L. N. Du & X. Y. Chen, 2009
Yunnanilus longibarbatus X. Gan, X. Y. Chen & J. X. Yang, 2007
Yunnanilus longibulla J. X. Yang, 1990
Yunnanilus macrogaster Kottelat & X. L. Chu, 1988
Yunnanilus macrolepis W. X. Li, Tao & W. N. Mao, 2000
Yunnanilus macrositanus W. X. Li, 1999
Yunnanilus nanpanjiangensis W. X. Li, W. N. Mao & Z. M. Lu, 1994
Yunnanilus niger Kottelat & X. L. Chu, 1988
Yunnanilus nigromaculatus (Regan, 1904)
Yunnanilus niulanensis Z. M. Chen, J. Yang & J. X. Yang, 2012
Yunnanilus obtusirostris J. X. Yang, 1995
Yunnanilus pachycephalus Kottelat & X. L. Chu, 1988
Yunnanilus paludosus Kottelat & X. L. Chu, 1988
Yunnanilus parvus Kottelat & X. L. Chu, 1988
Yunnanilus pleurotaenia (Regan, 1904)
Yunnanilus pulcherrimus J. X. Yang, X. Y. Chen & J. H. Lan, 2004
Yunnanilus qujinensis L. N. Du, Y. F. Lu & X. Y. Chen, 2015
Yunnanilus sichuanensis R. H. Ding, 1995
Yunnanilus spanisbripes L. An, B. S. Liu & W. X. Li, 2009
Yunnanilus tigerivinus Li & Duan, 1999
Yunnanilus yangzonghaiensis Cao & Zhu, 1989
References
Fish of Asia
Taxa named by John Treadwell Nichols
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot | wiki |
The eighth season of Criminal Minds premiered on CBS on September 26, 2012. The series was renewed on March 14, 2012.
In Canada, season eight aired one day earlier on CTV than on CBS in the United States.
Cast
On February 15, 2012, Deadline Hollywood reported that Paget Brewster (Emily Prentiss) would leave the show once season seven was over. All other main cast members had secured deals for the season. On June 13, 2012, CBS announced that Jeanne Tripplehorn would join the cast of the show.
Main
Joe Mantegna as Supervisory Special Agent David Rossi (BAU Senior Agent)
Shemar Moore as Supervisory Special Agent Derek Morgan (BAU Agent)
Matthew Gray Gubler as Supervisory Special Agent Dr. Spencer Reid (BAU Agent)
A. J. Cook as Supervisory Special Agent Jennifer "JJ" Jareau (BAU Agent)
Kirsten Vangsness as Technical Analyst Penelope Garcia (BAU Technical Analyst & Co-Communications Liaison)
Jeanne Tripplehorn as Supervisory Special Agent Dr. Alex Blake (BAU Agent)
Thomas Gibson as Supervisory Special Agent Aaron "Hotch" Hotchner (BAU Unit Chief & Co-Communications Liaison)
Recurring
Jayne Atkinson as Supervisory Special Agent Erin Strauss (BAU Section Chief)
Beth Riesgraf as Maeve Donovan
Mekhai Andersen as Henry LaMontagne
Nicholas Brendon as Kevin Lynch
Cade Owens as Jack Hotchner
Bellamy Young as Beth Clemmons
Josh Stewart as William "Will" LaMontagne Jr.
Skipp Sudduth as Stan Gordinski
Mark Hamill as John Curtis / The Replicator
Episodes
Ratings
Home media
References
General references
External links
Criminal Minds
2012 American television seasons
2013 American television seasons | wiki |
AYL peut faire référence à :
;
, l'aile jeunesse du Australian Labor Party.
Ayl peut faire référence à :
Ayl, ville allemande de Rhénanie-Palatinat. | wiki |
Tomato Torrent är en Bittorrentklient med öppen källkod för Mac OS.
Externa länkar
Tomato Torrent
Fildelningsprogram
Macintosh OS X-program | wiki |
may refer to either of the following Japanese emperors:
Emperor Kōtoku (645–654), 36th emperor
Emperor Monmu (697–707), 42nd emperor | wiki |
Aksel Madsen (athlete)
Aksel Madsen (footballer) | wiki |
The limbic system, also known as the paleomammalian cortex, is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the medial temporal lobe of the cerebrum primarily in the forebrain.
Its various components support a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, long-term memory, and olfaction.
The limbic system is involved in lower order emotional processing of input from sensory systems and consists of the amygdaloid nuclear complex (amygdala), mammillary bodies, stria medullaris, central gray and dorsal and ventral nuclei of Gudden. This processed information is often relayed to a collection of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon, including the prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, limbic thalamus, hippocampus including the parahippocampal gyrus and subiculum, nucleus accumbens (limbic striatum), anterior hypothalamus, ventral tegmental area, midbrain raphe nuclei, habenular commissure, entorhinal cortex, and olfactory bulbs.
Structure
The limbic system was originally defined by Paul D. MacLean as a series of cortical structures surrounding the boundary between the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem. The name "limbic" comes from the Latin word for the border, limbus, and these structures were known together as the limbic lobe. Further studies began to associate these areas with emotional and motivational processes and linked them to subcortical components that were then grouped into the limbic system.
Currently, it is not considered an isolated entity responsible for the neurological regulation of emotion, but rather one of the many parts of the brain that regulate visceral autonomic processes. Therefore, the set of anatomical structures considered part of the limbic system is controversial. The following structures are, or have been considered, part of the limbic system:
Cortical areas:
Limbic lobe
Orbitofrontal cortex: a region in the frontal lobe involved in the process of decision-making
Piriform cortex: part of the olfactory system
Entorhinal cortex: related to memory and associative components
Fornix: a white matter structure connecting the hippocampus with other brain structures, particularly the mammillary bodies and septal nuclei
Subcortical areas:
Septal nuclei: a set of structures that lie in front of the lamina terminalis, considered a pleasure zone
Hippocampus and associated structures: play a central role in the consolidation of new memories
Amygdala: located deep within the temporal lobes and related with a number of emotional processes
Nucleus accumbens: involved in reward, pleasure, and addiction
Diencephalic structures:
Hypothalamus: a center for the limbic system, connected with the frontal lobes, septal nuclei, and the brain stem reticular formation via the medial forebrain bundle, with the hippocampus via the fornix, and with the thalamus via the mammillothalamic fasciculus; regulates many autonomic processes
Mammillary bodies: part of the hypothalamus that receives signals from the hippocampus via the fornix and projects them to the thalamus
Anterior nuclei of thalamus: receive input from the mammillary bodies and involved in memory processing
Function
The structures and interacting areas of the limbic system are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex. The limbic system operates by influencing the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system. It is highly interconnected with the nucleus accumbens, which plays a role in sexual arousal and the "high" derived from certain recreational drugs. These responses are heavily modulated by dopaminergic projections from the limbic system. In 1954, Olds and Milner found that rats with metal electrodes implanted into their nucleus accumbens, as well as their septal nuclei, repeatedly pressed a lever activating this region.
The limbic system also interacts with the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are a set of subcortical structures that direct intentional movements. The basal ganglia are located near the thalamus and hypothalamus. They receive input from the cerebral cortex, which sends outputs to the motor centers in the brain stem. A part of the basal ganglia called the striatum controls posture and movement. Recent studies indicate that if there is an inadequate supply of dopamine in the striatum, this can lead to the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
The limbic system is also tightly connected to the prefrontal cortex. Some scientists contend that this connection is related to the pleasure obtained from solving problems. To cure severe emotional disorders, this connection was sometimes surgically severed, a procedure of psychosurgery, called a prefrontal lobotomy (this is actually a misnomer). Patients having undergone this procedure often became passive and lacked all motivation.
The limbic system is often incorrectly classified as a cerebral structure, but simply interacts heavily with the cerebral cortex. These interactions are closely linked to olfaction, emotions, drives, autonomic regulation, memory, and pathologically to encephalopathy, epilepsy, psychotic symptoms, cognitive defects. The functional relevance of the limbic system has proven to serve many different functions such as affects/emotions, memory, sensory processing, time perception, attention, consciousness, instincts, autonomic/vegetative control, and actions/motor behavior. Some of the disorders associated with the limbic system and its interacting components are epilepsy and schizophrenia.
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is involved with various processes relating to cognition and is one of the most well understood and heavily involved limbic interacting structure.
Spatial memory
The first and most widely researched area concerns memory, particularly spatial memory. Spatial memory was found to have many sub-regions in the hippocampus, such as the dentate gyrus (DG) in the dorsal hippocampus, the left hippocampus, and the parahippocampal region. The dorsal hippocampus was found to be an important component for the generation of new neurons, called adult-born granules (GC), in adolescence and adulthood. These new neurons contribute to pattern separation in spatial memory, increasing the firing in cell networks, and overall causing stronger memory formations. This is thought to integrate spatial and episodic memories with the limbic system via a feedback loop that provides emotional context of a particular sensory input.
While the dorsal hippocampus is involved in spatial memory formation, the left hippocampus is a participant in the recall of these spatial memories. Eichenbaum and his team found, when studying the hippocampal lesions in rats, that the left hippocampus is "critical for effectively combining the 'what', 'when', and 'where' qualities of each experience to compose the retrieved memory". This makes the left hippocampus a key component in the retrieval of spatial memory. However, Spreng found that the left hippocampus is a general concentrated region for binding together bits and pieces of memory composed not only by the hippocampus, but also by other areas of the brain to be recalled at a later time. Eichenbaum's research in 2007 also demonstrates that the parahippocampal area of the hippocampus is another specialized region for the retrieval of memories just like the left hippocampus.
Learning
The hippocampus, over the decades, has also been found to have a huge impact in learning. Curlik and Shors examined the effects of neurogenesis in the hippocampus and its effects on learning. This researcher and his team employed many different types of mental and physical training on their subjects, and found that the hippocampus is highly responsive to these latter tasks. Thus, they discovered an upsurge of new neurons and neural circuits in the hippocampus as a result of the training, causing an overall improvement in the learning of the task. This neurogenesis contributes to the creation of adult-born granules cells (GC), cells also described by Eichenbaum in his own research on neurogenesis and its contributions to learning. The creation of these cells exhibited "enhanced excitability" in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the dorsal hippocampus, impacting the hippocampus and its contribution to the learning process.
Hippocampus damage
Damage related to the hippocampal region of the brain has reported vast effects on overall cognitive functioning, particularly memory such as spatial memory. As previously mentioned, spatial memory is a cognitive function greatly intertwined with the hippocampus. While damage to the hippocampus may be a result of a brain injury or other injuries of that sort, researchers particularly investigated the effects that high emotional arousal and certain types of drugs had on the recall ability in this specific memory type. In particular, in a study performed by Parkard, rats were given the task of correctly making their way through a maze. In the first condition, rats were stressed by shock or restraint which caused a high emotional arousal. When completing the maze task, these rats had an impaired effect on their hippocampal-dependent memory when compared to the control group. Then, in a second condition, a group of rats were injected with anxiogenic drugs. Like the former these results reported similar outcomes, in that hippocampal-memory was also impaired. Studies such as these reinforce the impact that the hippocampus has on memory processing, in particular the recall function of spatial memory. Furthermore, impairment to the hippocampus can occur from prolonged exposure to stress hormones such as glucocorticoids (GCs), which target the hippocampus and cause disruption in explicit memory.
In an attempt to curtail life-threatening epileptic seizures, 27-year-old Henry Gustav Molaison underwent bilateral removal of almost all of his hippocampus in 1953. Over the course of fifty years he participated in thousands of tests and research projects that provided specific information on exactly what he had lost. Semantic and episodic events faded within minutes, having never reached his long-term memory, yet emotions, unconnected from the details of causation, were often retained. Dr. Suzanne Corkin, who worked with him for 46 years until his death, described the contribution of this tragic "experiment" in her 2013 book.
Amygdala
Episodic-autobiographical memory (EAM) networks
Another integrative part of the limbic system, the amygdala, which is the deepest part of the limbic system, is involved in many cognitive processes and is largely considered the most primordial and vital part of the limbic system. Like the hippocampus, processes in the amygdala seem to impact memory; however, it is not spatial memory as in the hippocampus but the semantic division of episodic-autobiographical memory (EAM) networks. Markowitsch's amygdala research shows it encodes, stores, and retrieves EAM memories. To delve deeper into these types of processes by the amygdala, Markowitsch and his team provided extensive evidence through investigations that the "amygdala's main function is to charge cues so that mnemonic events of a specific emotional significance can be successfully searched within the appropriate neural nets and re-activated." These cues for emotional events created by the amygdala encompass the EAM networks previously mentioned.
Attentional and emotional processes
Besides memory, the amygdala also seems to be an important brain region involved in attentional and emotional processes. First, to define attention in cognitive terms, attention is the ability to focus on some stimuli while ignoring others. Thus, the amygdala seems to be an important structure in this ability.
Foremost, however, this structure was historically thought to be linked to fear, allowing the individual to take action in response to that fear. However, as time has gone by, researchers such as Pessoa, generalized this concept with help from evidence of EEG recordings, and concluded that the amygdala helps an organism to define a stimulus and therefore respond accordingly. However, when the amygdala was initially thought to be linked to fear, this gave way for research in the amygdala for emotional processes. Kheirbek demonstrated research that the amygdala is involved in emotional processes, in particular the ventral hippocampus. He described the ventral hippocampus as having a role in neurogenesis and the creation of adult-born granule cells (GC). These cells not only were a crucial part of neurogenesis and the strengthening of spatial memory and learning in the hippocampus but also appear to be an essential component to the function of the amygdala. A deficit of these cells, as Pessoa (2009) predicted in his studies, would result in low emotional functioning, leading to high retention rate of mental diseases, such as anxiety disorders.
Social processing
Social processing, specifically the evaluation of faces in social processing, is an area of cognition specific to the amygdala. In a study done by Todorov, fMRI tasks were performed with participants to evaluate whether the amygdala was involved in the general evaluation of faces. After the study, Todorov concluded from his fMRI results that the amygdala did indeed play a key role in the general evaluation of faces. However, in a study performed by researchers Koscik and his team, the trait of trustworthiness was particularly examined in the evaluation of faces. Koscik and his team demonstrated that the amygdala was involved in evaluating the trustworthiness of an individual. They investigated how brain damage to the amygdala played a role in trustworthiness, and found that individuals with damaged amygdalas tended to confuse trust and betrayal, and thus placed trust in those having done them wrong. Furthermore, Rule, along with his colleagues, expanded on the idea of the amygdala in its critique of trustworthiness in others by performing a study in 2009 in which he examined the amygdala's role in evaluating general first impressions and relating them to real-world outcomes. Their study involved first impressions of CEOs. Rule demonstrated that while the amygdala did play a role in the evaluation of trustworthiness, as observed by Koscik in his own research two years later in 2011, the amygdala also played a generalized role in the overall evaluation of first impression of faces. This latter conclusion, along with Todorov's study on the amygdala's role in general evaluations of faces and Koscik's research on trustworthiness and the amygdala, further solidified evidence that the amygdala plays a role in overall social processing.
Klüver–Bucy syndrome
Based on experiments done on monkeys, the destruction of the temporal cortex almost always led to damage of the amygdala. This damage done to the amygdala led the physiologists Kluver and Bucy to pinpoint major changes in the behavior of the monkeys. The monkeys demonstrated the following changes:
The monkeys were not afraid of anything.
The monkeys had extreme curiosity about everything.
The monkeys forgot rapidly.
The monkeys had a tendency to place everything in its mouth.
The monkeys often had a sexual drive so strong that they attempted to copulate with immature animals, animals of the same sex, or even animals of a different species.
This set of behavioral change came to be known as the Klüver–Bucy syndrome.
Evolutionary claims
Paul D. MacLean, as part of his triune brain theory (which is now considered outdated ), hypothesized that the limbic system is older than other parts of the forebrain, and that it developed to manage circuitry attributed to the fight or flight first identified by Hans Selye in his report of the General Adaptation Syndrome in 1936. It may be considered a part of survival adaptation in reptiles as well as mammals (including humans). MacLean postulated that the human brain has evolved three components, that evolved successively, with more recent components developing at the top/front. These components are, respectively:
The archipallium or primitive ("reptilian") brain, comprising the structures of the brain stem – medulla, pons, cerebellum, mesencephalon, the oldest basal nuclei – the globus pallidus and the olfactory bulbs.
The paleopallium or intermediate ("old mammalian") brain, comprising the structures of the limbic system.
The neopallium, also known as the superior or rational ("new mammalian") brain, comprises almost the whole of the hemispheres (made up of a more recent type of cortex, called neocortex) and some subcortical neuronal groups. It corresponds to the brain of the superior mammals, thus including the primates and, as a consequence, the human species. Similar development of the neocortex in mammalian species unrelated to humans and primates has also occurred, for example in cetaceans and elephants; thus the designation of "superior mammals" is not an evolutionary one, as it has occurred independently in different species. The evolution of higher degrees of intelligence is an example of convergent evolution, and is also seen in non-mammals such as birds.
According to Maclean, each of the components, although connected with the others, retained "their peculiar types of intelligence, subjectivity, sense of time and space, memory, mobility and other less specific functions".
However, while the categorization into structures is reasonable, the recent studies of the limbic system of tetrapods, both living and extinct, have challenged several aspects of this hypothesis, notably the accuracy of the terms "reptilian" and "old mammalian". The common ancestors of reptiles and mammals had a well-developed limbic system in which the basic subdivisions and connections of the amygdalar nuclei were established. Further, birds, which evolved from the dinosaurs, which in turn evolved separately but around the same time as the mammals, have a well-developed limbic system. While the anatomic structures of the limbic system are different in birds and mammals, there are functional equivalents.
History
Etymology and history
The term limbic comes from the Latin limbus, for "border" or "edge", or, particularly in medical terminology, a border of an anatomical component. Paul Broca coined the term based on its physical location in the brain, sandwiched between two functionally different components.
The limbic system is a term that was introduced in 1949 by the American physician and neuroscientist, Paul D. MacLean. The French physician Paul Broca first called this part of the brain in 1878. He examined the differentiation between deeply recessed cortical tissue and underlying, subcortical nuclei. However, most of its putative role in emotion was developed only in 1937 when the American physician James Papez described his anatomical model of emotion, the Papez circuit.
The first evidence that the limbic system was responsible for the cortical representation of emotions was discovered in 1939, by Heinrich Kluver and Paul Bucy. Kluver and Bucy, after much research, demonstrated that the bilateral removal of the temporal lobes in monkeys created an extreme behavioral syndrome. After performing a temporal lobectomy, the monkeys showed a decrease in aggression. The animals revealed a reduced threshold to visual stimuli, and were thus unable to recognize objects that were once familiar. MacLean expanded these ideas to include additional structures in a more dispersed "limbic system", more on the lines of the system described above. MacLean developed the theory of the "triune brain" to explain its evolution and to try to reconcile rational human behavior with its more "primal" and "violent" side. He became interested in the brain's control of emotion and behavior. After initial studies of brain activity in epileptic patients, he turned to cats, monkeys, and other models, using electrodes to stimulate different parts of the brain in conscious animals recording their responses.
In the 1950s, he began to trace individual behaviors like aggression and sexual arousal to their physiological sources. He postulated the limbic system as the brain's center of emotions, including the hippocampus and amygdala. Developing observations made by Papez, he hypothesized that the limbic system had evolved in early mammals to control fight-or-flight responses and react to both emotionally pleasurable and painful sensations. The concept is now broadly accepted in neuroscience. Additionally, MacLean said that the idea of the limbic system leads to a recognition that its presence "represents the history of the evolution of mammals and their distinctive family way of life."
In the 1960s, Dr. MacLean enlarged his theory to address the human brain's overall structure and divided its evolution into three parts, an idea that he termed the triune brain. In addition to identifying the limbic system, he hypothesized a supposedly more primitive brain called the R-complex, related to reptiles, which controls basic functions like muscle movement and breathing. According to him, the third part, the neocortex, controls speech and reasoning and is the most recent evolutionary arrival. The concept of the limbic system has since been further expanded and developed by Walle Nauta, Lennart Heimer, and others.
Academic dispute
There is controversy over the use of the term limbic system, with scientists such as Joseph E. LeDoux and Edmund Rolls arguing that the term be considered obsolete and abandoned. Originally, the limbic system was believed to be the emotional center of the brain, with cognition being the business of the neocortex. However, cognition depends on acquisition and retention of memories, in which the hippocampus, a primary limbic interacting structure, is involved: hippocampus damage causes severe cognitive (memory) deficits. More important, the "boundaries" of the limbic system have been repeatedly redefined because of advances in neuroscience. Therefore, while it is true that limbic interacting structures are more closely related to emotion, the limbic system itself is best thought of as a component of a larger emotional processing plant. It is essentially responsible for sifting through and organizing lower order processing, and relaying sensory information to other brain areas for higher order emotional processing.
See also
Amygdala Hijack
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis)
Emotional memory
Fundamentals of Neuroscience at Wikiversity
Paralimbic cortex
Triune brain
References
External links
http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/a/aa042205a.htm
https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system
Mood disorders
Neuroscience of memory
Motivation
History of neuroscience | wiki |
A centrepiece or centerpiece is an important item of a display, usually of a table setting. Centrepieces help set the theme of the decorations and bring extra decorations to the room. A centrepiece also refers to any central or important object in a collection of items.
Traditional types for the very formal dining table include the epergne, with branching arms ending in bowls, and the surtout de table, in English reserved for a long tray, often with mirrors as the surface, on which candles, sculptures and other objects are placed.
Purpose
On the table, a centrepiece is a central object which serves a decorative purpose. However, centrepieces are often not too large, to avoid difficulty with visibility around the table and to allow for the easier serving of dishes.
Other centrepieces are often made from flowers, candles, fruit, or candy.
Centrepieces are a major part of the decoration for a wedding reception, being used widely at wedding receptions with flowers being the most popular form of centrepieces. Weddings, baby showers, engagement parties, anniversary parties and birthdays often have some form of centrepiece.
Formal functions in Europe can sometimes have very elaborate centrepieces, which can span the entire length of the table.
At holiday times, including Valentine's Day, Easter, Halloween, Thanksgiving, and Christmas, homes are often decorated with holiday centrepieces.
References
Serving and dining
Tableware | wiki |
Comparative cognition is the comparative study of the mechanisms and origins of cognition in various species, and is sometimes seen as more general than, or similar to, comparative psychology.
From a biological point of view, work is being done on the brains of fruit flies that should yield techniques precise enough to allow an understanding of the workings of the human brain on a scale appreciative of individual groups of neurons rather than the more regional scale previously used. Similarly, gene activity in the human brain is better understood through examination of the brains of mice by the Seattle-based Allen Institute for Brain Science (see link below), yielding the freely available Allen Brain Atlas. This type of study is related to comparative cognition, but better classified as one of comparative genomics. Increasing emphasis in psychology and ethology on the biological aspects of perception and behavior is bridging the gap between genomics and behavioral analysis.
In order for scientists to better understand cognitive function across a broad range of species they can systematically compare cognitive abilities between closely and distantly related species Through this process they can determine what kinds of selection pressure has led to different cognitive abilities across a broad range of animals. For example, it has been hypothesized that there is convergent evolution of the higher cognitive functions of corvids and apes, possibly due to both being omnivorous, visual animals that live in social groups. The development of comparative cognition has been ongoing for decades, including contributions from many researchers worldwide. Additionally, there are several key species used as model organisms in the study of comparative cognition.
Methodology
The aspects of animals which can reasonably be compared across species depend on the species of comparison, whether that be human to animal comparisons or comparisons between animals of varying species but near identical anatomies without a common ancestor. This comparison of cognitive trends can be observed in species across vast distances which feature similar biological features. Gross anatomical study as well as natural variation have been long considered aspects of comparative cognition.
Neurobiology
Current biological anthropology suggests that similarities in structures in the brain can, to an extent, be compared with certain aspects of behavior as their roots. However, it is difficult to quantify exactly which neuron connections are required for advanced function as opposed to basic reactionary cognitive operations, as identified in small insects or other small-brained organisms. Regardless, circuitry common to a wide quantity of organisms has been identified, suggesting a convergence at least of the evolution of common neural Behavioral plasticity which allow for common functions and trends of inherited behavior. It is possible that this is due to the size of the brain having direct correlation to the degree of function. However, it has been noted by experiments carried out on insects by Martin Giurfa in 2015, namely observing honey bees and fruit flies, which suggests that structures in the brain, regardless of size, can relate to functions and explain behavioral skills far greater than gross size can:"As in larger brains, two basic neural architectural principles of many invertebrate brains are the existence of specialized brain structures and circuits, which refer to specific sensory domains, and of higher-order integration centres, in which information pertaining to these different domains converges and is integrated, thus allowing cross-talking and information transfer. These characteristics may allow positive transfer from a set of stimulus to novel ones, even if these belong to different sensory modalities. This principle appears crucial for certain tasks such as rule learning." To this end, recent years have instead dedicated entirely to mapping signals and pathways of the brain in order to compare across species as opposed to using brain size. Further studies in this field are ongoing, especially as the process of tracking and stimulating neuron development changes.
Key Contributors
Charles Darwin
Darwin initially suggested that humans and animals have similar psychological abilities in his 1871 publication The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, where he stated that animals also present behaviors associated with memory, emotion, and desires. To Darwin, humans and animals shared the same mental cognition to varying degrees based on their place in the evolutionary timeline. This understanding of mental continuity between animals and humans form the basis of comparative cognition.
Conwy Lloyd Morgan
In his 1894 publication An Introduction to Comparative Psychology, Morgan first postulated what would become known as Morgan's Cannon, which states that the behaviors of animals cannot be attributed to complex mechanisms when simpler mechanisms are possible. Morgan's cannon criticized the work of his predecessors for being anecdotal and anthropomorphic, and proposed that certain intellectual animal behavior is more likely to have developed through multiple cycles of trial and error rather than spontaneously through some existing intelligence. Morgan proposed that animals are capable of learning and their observed behavior is not purely the result of instinct or intrinsic mental function.
Edward J. Thorndike
E.J Thorndike measured mental capacity as an organism's ability to form associations between their actions and the consequences of said actions. In his 1898 publication Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of Associative Processes in Animals, Thorndike outlined his famous "puzzle box" experiments. Thorndike placed kittens inside a specialized box which contained a lever or button which, when triggered by the cat, would allow the cat to escape. Initially, the cats placed within the box would instinctively attempt to escape by randomly scratching the sides of the box. On some instances the cat would hit the lever, allowing their release. The next time this cat was placed within the box, it was able to conduct this trial and error routine again, however they were able to find the lever and release themselves more rapidly. Over multiple trials, all other behaviors that did not contribute to the cat's release were abandoned, and the cat was able to trigger the lever without error. Thorndike's observations explored the extent to which animal's were capable of forming associations and learning from previous experiences, and he concluded that the animal cognition is homologous to the human cognition. Thorndike's experiment established the field of comparative cognition and an experimental science and not simply a conceptual thought. The progressive decrease in escape time observed by Thorndike's cats lead to his development of the Law of Effect, which states that actions and behaviors conducted by the organism which result in a benefit to the organism are more likely to be repeated.
Ivan Pavlov
During his studies of digestive secretions in dogs, Pavlov recognized that the animals would begin to salivate as if in response to the presence of food, even when food has yet to be presented. He observed that the dogs has begun to associate the presence of the assistant carrying the food bowls with receiving food, and would salivate regardless of whether the food bowls would be given to them for feeding. He observed that the dogs has begun to associate the presence of the assistant carrying the food bowls with receiving food, and would salivate regardless of whether the food bowls would be given to them for feeding. Through this observation, Pavlov postulated that it may be possible to create novel response arcs, in which a previously neutral stimulus can be associated with an unconditioned stimulus, and will then trigger a similar or identical response as the initial response to the unconditioned stimulus. The development of this response to a previously unknown stimuli became known as classical conditioning, and established that animal behavior is affected by the environmental conditions.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
In his 1938 publication The Behavior of Organisms, B.F. Skinner coined the term operant conditioning to refer to the modification or development of specific voluntary behavior through the use of reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement describes a stimulus which strengthens the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, while punishment describes a stimulus which weakens the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Skinner designed his operant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner box", and used it to test the effects of reinforcement and punishment on voluntary behaviors. B.F. Skinner's observations extended the understanding of the Law of Effect presented by Thorndike to include the conditioning of responses through negative stimuli. Similar to Thorndike's "puzzle-box", Skinner's experiments demonstrated that when a voluntary behavior is met with a benefit, such as food, the behavior is more likely to be repeated. Skinner also demonstrated that when a voluntary behavior is met with a punishments', such as an electric shock, the behavior is less likely to be repeated.
Skinner further expanded his experiments to include negative and positive reinforcements and punishments. Positive reinforcements and punishments' involve the introduction of a positive stimulus or a negative stimulus respectively. Negative reinforcements and punishments involve the removal of negative stimulus or a positive stimulus respectively.
Wolfgang Kohler
Kohler criticized the work of Thorndike and Pavlov for emphasizing the mechanical approach to behavior while ignoring the cognitive approach. He opposed the suggestion that animals learn by simple trial and error, rather they learned through perception and insight. Kohler argued that Thorndike's puzzle-boxes presented no other method of escape except the method presented by the experiment as "correct", and in doing-so the cognitive problem solving abilities of the animal are rendered useless. He suggested that if the subjects were able to observe the apparatus itself, they would be able to deduce methods of escape by perceiving the situation and the environment. Kohler's views were influenced by the observations he made when studying the behaviors of chimpanzees in Tenerife, Spain. Kohler noted that the primates were capable of insight, utilizing various familiar objects from their environment to solve complex problems, such as utilizing tools to reach out of reach items.
Karl Von Frisch
Karl von Frisch studied the "waggle dances" of bee populations. When foraging bees returned to the hive from a food source, they would perform complex, figure eight patterns. Through these observations, von Frisch established that bees were not only capable of recalling spatial memories, but were also able to communicate these memories to other members of the species symbolically. His research also established that other bees were capable of interpreting the information and apply it to their environment and behaviors.
Allen and Beatrix Gardner
The Gardners are famously known for their raising of Washoe the chimpanzee, and their teaching of American sign language to Washoe. Researchers have long questioned whether primates, the evolutionary cousins of humans, could be taught to communicate through human speech. While communication through verbal language is not possible, it was hypothesized that sign language could be utilized. The Gardners designed a specialized method which they referred to as cross-fostering, in which they raised Washoe from infancy in a human cultural and social environment, allowing for a comparative analysis of language acquisition in human children and primates. After 51 months of teaching, the Gardners reported that Washoe has 132 signs. Through the methods of the Gardners, Washoe was able to learn to communicate in American sign language, and demonstrated the ability to create novel signs for new factors introduced to her environment. In one instance, Washoe described a Brazil nut, an object whose name she was not familiar with, by signing "rock" and "berry", and continued to refer to the Brazil nut in this way. Washoe also learned how to communicate new information to her handlers. For example, after being asked what was wrong, Washoe was able to indicate a feeling of sickness by signing "hurt" near her stomach. It was later shown that she had contracted an intestinal flu. In another, Washoe had lost a toy and successfully told her handlers of its location and asked for them to retrieve it for her. The Gardners' studies proved that primates are capable of language acquisition, as well as language development and expression of private information through the use of a language similar to human communication.
Model organisms
Canines
Famously used in Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments, members of the canine family have long been considered a primary model organism for comparative cognition studies. Many other psychologists have utilized canines in their studies. C.L. Morgan referred to his terrier Tony when developing his Cannon, and Thorndike recreated his puzzle-box experiments with dogs as well. Members of this family have been domesticated for much of human history, and in many instances the behaviors of humans have co-evolved alongside these domesticated dogs. It has been hypothesized that this evolutionary relationship between humans and dogs has contributed to the development of complex cognitive behaviors that can be used to study the unique cognitive abilities of canines.
Felines
As another historical companion to humans, felines have co-evolved along with the human species. Use of felines in the study of comparative cognition is most associated with the work of Thorndike and his puzzle-boxes.
Rodents
Rodents such as various species of rats have been used in the experiments of B.F Skinner, as well as others studying comparative cognition, due to the abundance of cognitive similarity between rodents and humans. It has been shown that rodents, specifically rats, and humans present similar memorization and mnemonic processes, as both humans and rodents display primacy and recency effects when tasked with the recollection of numbered items. There is also evidence to support that both rats and humans share similar attentional processes, as they are both able to demonstrate sustained, selective and divided attention.
Corvids
Corvids have received a lot of attention from the comparative cognition community in the twenty-first century, specifically the species of corvids known as New Caledonian crows. Several populations of this species, located on islands in the New Caledonian archipelago have demonstrated the ability to create and utilize tools to manipulate their environment for their benefit. These crows were observed to modify the ribs of palm leaves by nibbling the ends to resemble a hook, and proceeded to use these tool to reach prey and food in previously inaccessible areas, such as small cracks within trees. It has also been observed that this technique of creating tools has been passed onto future generations
See also
Cognitive science
Animal cognition
Animal communication
Evolutionary psychology
References
External links
Trends in Neurosciences Article on Insect Cognition
Nature: Inside the Animal Mind
Article on Empathy in Elephants
APA article on Abstract Thinking in Baboons
APA article on Short Term Memory in Honeybees
University of Alberta's Comparative Cognition and Behavior Page
Comparative Cognition Lab at Cambridge University
The Comparative Cognition Society
Allen Institute for Brain Science
Cognition
Evolutionary biology
Comparisons | wiki |
The Rich and the Rest of Us: A Poverty Manifesto is a 2012 political, non-fiction book written by Tavis Smiley and Cornel West. The book examines poverty in America and how to eliminate it.
References
External links
Books about economic inequality
Books about politics of the United States
Books by Cornel West
2012 non-fiction books
Political books
Black studies publications
Collaborative non-fiction books | wiki |
A side dish, sometimes referred to as a side order, side item, or simply a side, is a food item that accompanies the entrée or main course at a meal.
Common types
Side dishes such as salad, potatoes and bread are commonly used with main courses throughout many countries of the western world. Rice and couscous have grown to be quite popular throughout Europe, especially at formal occasions (with couscous appearing more commonly at dinner parties with Middle Eastern dishes).
When used as an adjective qualifying the name of a dish, the term 'side' usually refers to a smaller portion served as a side dish, rather than a larger, main dish-sized serving. For example, a "side salad" is usually served in a small bowl or salad plate, in contrast to a large dinner-plate-sized entrée salad.
A typical American meal with a meat-based main dish might include one vegetable side dish, sometimes in the form of a salad, and one starch side dish, such as bread, potatoes, rice, pasta, and french fries.
Some common side dishes include:
Asparagus
Baked beans
Baked potatoes
Broccoli
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Coleslaw
Dinner rolls or other breads
French fries or steak fries
Green beans
Greens
Macaroni salad
Macaroni and cheese
Mashed potatoes
Mushrooms
Pasta salad
Potato salad
Salad (often a "side" salad)
Sautéed mushrooms
Squash
Tater tots
Some restaurants offer a limited selection of side dishes which are included with the price of the entrée as a combination meal. In contrast, sometimes side dishes are ordered separately from an a la carte menu. The term may or may not imply that the dish can only be ordered with other food.
French fries are a common side dish served at fast-food restaurants and other American cuisine restaurants. In response to criticism about the high fat and calorie content of French fries, some fast-food chains offer other side dishes, such as salads, as substitutes for the standard French fries with their combination meals.
"On the side"
The related phrase on the side may be synonymous with "side dish" – as in "French fries on the side" – or may refer to a complimentary sauce or condiment served in a separate dish. For example, a diner may request a salad be served with its dressing "on the side".
See also
Banchan, Korean side dishes
In a basket
Platter (dinner)
References
Further reading
External links
Wikibooks Cookbook
Food and drink terminology
Serving and dining | wiki |
A win–win is a game, situation or strategy designed in such a way that all participants can profit from it in one way or another.
Win Win may also refer to:
Win Win (film), a 2011 American comedy-drama film
Win Win (TV series), a Korean Broadcasting System program
Win Win (racewalker), an athlete at the 1985 Southeast Asian Games | wiki |
Mustang:
Ford Mustang — модель автомобиля компании Ford.
Shelby Mustang — модель автомобиля компании Ford.
Fender Mustang — модель электрогитары.
Mustang Wanted — прозвище украинского руфера. См. также
Мустанг (значения) | wiki |
The British one pound (£1) coin is a denomination of sterling coinage. Its obverse bears the Latin engraving ELIZABETH II D G REG () F D () meaning, 'Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen, Defender of the Faith'. It has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the original coin's introduction on 21 April 1983. Four different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the latest design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The design on the reverse side of the current, 12-sided coin features four emblems to represent each of the nations of the United Kingdom — the English rose, the leek for Wales, the Scottish thistle, and the shamrock for Northern Ireland, also two or three oak leaves — emerging from a single 5-branched stem within a crown. In May 2022 the Royal Mint announced that the Kenyan-born artist Michael Armitage is designing a new £1 coin which will be issued in 2023 and will celebrate the "history of the UK in the 21st century".
The original, round £1 coin replaced the Bank of England £1 note, which ceased to be issued at the end of 1984 and was removed from circulation on 11 March 1988, though still redeemable at the Bank's offices, like all English banknotes. One-pound notes continue to be issued in Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, and by the Royal Bank of Scotland, but the pound coin is much more widely used. A new, dodecagonal (12-sided) design of coin was introduced on 28 March 2017 and both new and old versions of the one pound coin circulated together until the older design was withdrawn from circulation on 15 October 2017. After that date, the older coin could only be redeemed at banks, although some retailers announced they would continue to accept it for a limited time, and they remained in use in the Isle of Man.
The main purpose of redesigning the coin was to combat counterfeiting. As of March 2014 there were an estimated 1,553 million of the original nickel-brass coins in circulation, of which the Royal Mint estimated in 2014 that just over 3% were counterfeit. The new coin, in contrast, is bimetallic like the current £2 coin, and features an undisclosed hidden security feature called "iSIS" (Integrated Secure Identification Systems).
The current 12-sided pound coins are legal tender to any amount when offered in repayment of a debt; however, the coin's legal tender status is not normally relevant for everyday transactions.
Design
To date, four different portraits of Elizabeth II have appeared on the obverse. For the first three of these, the inscription was , where 2013 is replaced by the year of minting. The fourth design, unveiled in March 2015, expanded the inscription slightly to . The 12-sided design, introduced in March 2017, reverted to
In summary:
In 1983 and 1984 the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse, in which the Queen wears the "Girls of Great Britain and Ireland" Tiara.
Between 1985 and 1997 the portrait by Raphael Maklouf was used, in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem.
Between 1998 and 2015 the portrait by Ian Rank-Broadley was used, again featuring the tiara, with a signature-mark below the portrait.
In 2015 the portrait by Jody Clark was introduced, in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem, with a signature-mark below the portrait.
In August 2005 the Royal Mint launched a competition to find new reverse designs for all circulating coins apart from the £2 coin. The winner, announced in April 2008, was Matthew Dent, whose designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British coinage from mid-2008. The designs for the 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p and 50p coins depict sections of the Royal Shield that form the whole shield when placed together. The shield in its entirety was featured on the £1 coin. The coin's obverse remained unchanged.
The design of the reverse of the original coin was changed each year from 1983 to 2008 to show, in turn, an emblem representing the UK, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and England, together with an appropriate edge inscription. This edge inscription could frequently be "upside-down" (when obverse is facing upward). From 2008, national-based designs were still minted, but alongside the new standard version and no longer in strict rotation. The inscription ONE POUND appeared on all reverse designs.
In common with non-commemorative £2 coins, the round £1 coin (except 2004–07 and the 2010–11 "capital cities" designs) had a mint mark: a small crosslet found on the milled edge that represents Llantrisant in South Wales, where the Royal Mint has been based since 1968.
The reverse of the new 12-sided, bimetallic pound coin, introduced on 28 March 2017, was chosen by a public design competition. The competition to design the reverse of this coin was opened in September 2014. It was won in March 2015 by 15-year-old David Pearce from Walsall, and unveiled by Chancellor George Osborne during his Budget announcement. The design features a rose, leek, thistle and shamrock bound by a crown.
Status as legal tender
Current £1 coins are legal tender to any amount. However, "legal tender" has a very specific and narrow meaning which relates only to the repayment of debt to a creditor, not to everyday shopping or other transactions. Specifically, coins of particular denominations are said to be "legal tender" when a creditor must by law accept them in redemption of a debt. The term does not mean – as is often thought – that a shopkeeper has to accept a particular type of currency in payment. Shopkeepers are under no obligation to accept any specific type of payment, whether legal tender or not; conversely they have the discretion to accept any payment type they wish.
Mintage figures
Round coin
Mintage figures below represent the number of coins of each date released for circulation. Mint sets have been produced since 1982; where mintages on or after that date indicate 'none', there are examples contained within those sets.
All years except 1998 and 1999 have been issued into circulation, although the number issued has varied enormously – 1983, 1984 and 1985 in particular had large mintages to facilitate the changeover from paper notes, while some years such as 1988 are only rarely seen (although 1988 is more noticeable as it has a unique reverse). Production since 1997 has been reduced, thanks to the introduction of the circulating two pound coin.
The final round coins minted for 2016 and the 2015 Shield of the Royal Arms 5th portrait did not enter circulation, as they were only available through commemorative sets. These were the shield from the Royal Coat of Arms by Matthew Dent, and a design by Gregory Cameron, Bishop of St Asaph, of four heraldic beasts.
12-sided coin
Counterfeiting
During later years of the round pound's use, Royal Mint surveys estimated the proportion of counterfeit £1 coins in circulation. This was estimated at 3.04% in 2013, a rise from 2.74%. The figure previously announced in 2012 was 2.86%, following the prolonged rise from 0.92% in 2002–2003 to 0.98% in 2004, 1.26% in 2005, 1.69% in 2006, 2.06% in 2007, 2.58% in 2008, 2.65% in 2009, 3.07% in 2010 and 3.09% in 2011. Figures were generally reported in the following year; in 2008 (as reported in 2009), the highest levels of counterfeits were in Northern Ireland (3.6%) and South East England and London (2.97%), with the lowest being in North West England. Coin testing companies estimated in 2009 that the actual figure was about twice the Mint's estimate, suggesting that the Mint was underplaying the figures so as not to undermine confidence in the coin. It is illegal to pass on counterfeit currency knowingly; the official advice is to hand it in, with details of where received, to the police, who will retain it and investigate. One article suggested that "given that fake coins are worthless, you will almost certainly be better off not even looking". The recipient also has recourse against the supplier in such cases.
Counterfeits are put into circulation by dishonest people, then circulated inadvertently by others who are unaware; in many cases banks do not check, and circulate counterfeits. In 2011 the BBC television programme Fake Britain withdrew 1,000 £1 coins from each of five major banks and found that each batch contained between 32 and 38 counterfeits; the Mint estimated that about 31 per 1,000 £1 coins were counterfeit. Some of the counterfeits were found by automated machinery, others could be detected only by expert visual inspection.
In July 2010, following speculation that the Royal Mint would have to consider replacing £1 coins with a new design because of the fakes, bookmakers Paddy Power offered odds of 6/4 (bet £4 to win £6, plus the £4 stake back; decimal odds of 2.5), that the £1 coin would be removed from circulation.
Some counterfeits were of poor quality, with obviously visible differences (less sharply defined, lacking intricate details, edge milling and markings visibly wrong). Many better counterfeits can be detected by comparing the orientation of the obverse and reverse—they should match in genuine modern UK coins, but very often did not in counterfeit round £1. The design on the reverse must be correct for the stamped year (e.g., a 1996 coin should have a Celtic cross). It was difficult to manufacture round pounds with properly-produced edges; the milling (grooves) was often incomplete or poor and the inscription (often "DECUS ET TUTAMEN") sometimes poorly produced or in the wrong typeface. A shiny coin with less wear than its date suggests is also suspect, although it may be a genuine coin that has rarely been used.
Counterfeit coins are made by different processes including casting, stamping, electrotyping, and copying with a pantograph or spark erosion. In a 2009 survey, 99% of fake £1 coins found in cash centres were made of a nickel-brass, of which three fifths contained some lead and a fifth were of a very similar alloy to that used by the Royal Mint. The remaining 1% were made of simple copper-zinc brass, or lead or tin, or both. Those made of lead or tin may have a gold-coloured coating; counterfeits made of acrylic plastic containing metal powder to increase weight were occasionally found.
The final 'round pounds' were minted in December 2015; the replacement, a new 12-sided design, was introduced in 2017, the earliest dated as 2016. The coin has a 12-edged shape, similar to the pre-decimal brass threepence coin; it has roughly the same size as the previous £1 coin, and is bi-metallic like most £2 coins. The new design is intended to make counterfeiting more difficult, and also has an undisclosed hidden security feature called "iSIS" (Integrated Secure Identification Systems), thought to be a code embedded in the top layer of metal on the obverse of the coin, visible only under a specific wavelength of ultraviolet light.
Current two-pound coins, being bi-metallic (excluding some rarely tendered commemorative issues), remain harder to counterfeit than the round pound was; such counterfeits would often easily seen to have wrong colours.
Other pound coins that entered circulation
While the round pound was operational, others that entered circulation, although not legal tender in the UK, were some £1 coins of British Crown Dependencies, Gibraltar and UK South Atlantic Overseas Territories. Most coins of these territories, in all denominations, were of the same size and composition as a UK equivalent and most bore the same portraits of the UK monarch. After the UK replaced its round pound coins, none of these territories rushed to do so, except Gibraltar, which continues to use Gibraltarian pound coins as legal tender as well as the new UK pound coins.
Further reading
In an April 1993 The New Yorker article "Real Britannia", Julian Barnes describes the meetings to choose the 1994–1997 reverse designs. This is reprinted in his book Letters from London as "Britannia's New Bra Size".
See also
Banknotes of the pound sterling
Coin counterfeiting
Coins of the pound sterling
Sovereign — gold coin with a (nominal) value of £1
References
Source
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft.
External links
Royal Mint – £1 coin
Royal Mint – the new pound coin
One Pound, Coin Type from United Kingdom – Online Coin Club
Coins of the United Kingdom
Currencies introduced in 1983
One-base-unit coins | wiki |
Sigle
Total Combat Wrestling – federazione italiana di wrestling
Codici
tcw – codice ISO 639-3 della lingua totonaca di Tecpatlán | wiki |
A mental health counselor (MHC), or counselor (counsellor in British English), is a person who works with individuals and groups to promote optimum mental and emotional health. Such persons may help individuals deal with issues associated with addiction and substance abuse; family, parenting, and marital problems; stress management; self-esteem; and aging. The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics distinguishes "Mental Health Counselors" from "Social Workers", "Psychiatrists", and "Psychologists".
Duties
The legal definition of a counselor, and hence the legal scope of practice, varies with jurisdiction. In some jurisdictions across the United States, counselors, marriage and family therapists, and psychologists have virtually identical definitions: evaluating and treating mental and behavioral disorders. In spite of such definitions, many mental health professionals reject the medical model (which assumes that clients are "disordered") in favor of broader viewpoints, such as those that emerged from systems psychology.
Service users
MHCs work with individuals, couples, families, and groups to address and treat emotional and mental disorders and to promote mental health. Most mental health counselors in the U.S. work in outpatient and residential care centers, individual and family services, and local governments. They are trained in a variety of therapeutic techniques used to address issues, including depression, anxiety, addiction and substance abuse, suicidal impulses, stress, problems with self-esteem, and grief. They also help with job and career concerns, educational decisions, issues related to mental and emotional health, and family, parenting, marital, or other relationship problems. Some career concerns include helping employees who have mental health conditions to manage their health condition whilst adhering to organisational demands to demonstrate performance and commitment to their work.
MHCs also continue to play a growing role in the military mental health crisis, helping military personnel and their families deal with issues such as PTSD. MHCs often work closely with other mental health specialists, such as psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, psychiatric nurses, and school counselors. Many mental health counselors look to help their clients have a concise whole body treatment plan that addresses all the needs of the client. In the United States, MHCs diagnose as well as treat mental illness, though the scope of practice for mental health practitioners varies from state to state.
Regulation
United States
Licensing requirements can vary depending on which state a mental health counselor practices in. Across the United States, mental health counseling licensure is required to independently practice, but can be practiced without a license if under close supervision of a licensed practitioner. Licensing titles for mental health counselors vary from state to state: Licensed Mental Health Counselor (LMHC), Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC), Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor (LPCC), and various forms of these titles may list differently per state statues. The title "Mental Health Counselor" (or variation thereof) is often a protected title and thus it may be a violation of state law for persons to hold themselves as such without a proper credential.
A licensed mental health counselor holds a minimum of a master's degree in counseling or another closely related field in mental health care. After obtaining a master's degree, mental health counselors complete two to three years (depending on various state statutes) of clinical work under the supervision of a licensed or certified mental health professional. The qualifications for licensure are similar to those for marriage and family therapists and for clinical social workers. Becoming a counselor and using it in daily life to help others to learn more about themselves is not a reason for someone to pursue a degree within this field. Ethics within this profession require the counselor to remain professional to be able to adequately treat patients. Remaining detached as the witness to a client's thought, feelings, and emotions can be a hard thing to do, but will ultimately reassure a patient that there are no judgement to what they will share. Guiding a patient to understand themselves and their choices is also another aspect of this profession.
See also
List of counseling topics
Mental health professional
Psychotherapist
Nonviolent communication
Social worker
Psychologist
Psychiatrist
Occupational therapist
Expressive therapy
Behavior therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Rational emotive behavior therapy
Dialectical behavioral therapy
References
Citations
General sources
Prepared June 2008 by William J. Weikel. Ph.D., Howard Smith, Ed.D., Artis J. Palmo, Ph.D., and Edward Beck, Ed.D.
External links
American Counseling Association
American Mental Health Counselors Association
Mental health occupations
Counseling | wiki |
Unit of measure most commonly refers to units of measurement in weights and measures.
Unit of measure may also refer to:
Unit of account, a monetary unit of measure in economics
Unit of Measure (album), a 2000 album by Tony Rice | wiki |
Lactate may refer to:
Lactation, the secretion of milk from the mammary glands
Lactate, the conjugate base of lactic acid | wiki |
The Quarterly Publication of Individuals Who Have Chosen to Expatriate, also known as the Quarterly Publication of Individuals, Who Have Chosen to Expatriate, as Required by Section 6039G, is a publication of the United States Internal Revenue Service (IRS) in the Federal Register, listing the names of certain individuals with respect to whom the IRS has received information regarding loss of citizenship during the preceding quarter.
Overview
The practice of publishing the names of ex-citizens is not unique to the United States. South Korea's Ministry of Justice, for example, also publishes the names of people losing South Korean nationality in the government gazette. Prior to the 1990s, however, loss of United States citizenship was not a matter of public record; the State Department considered that routine disclosure of the names of people giving up U.S. citizenship might violate the Privacy Act of 1974 and other laws.
The United States government first released a list of former U.S. citizens in a State Department letter to Congress made public by a 1995 Joint Committee on Taxation report. That report contained the names of 978 people who had relinquished U.S. citizenship between January 1, 1994 and April 25, 1995. This action was in the larger context of widespread media attention to the issue of wealthy individuals who gave up citizenship to avoid United States taxes. As a result, several legislators proposed bills or amendments to end the confidentiality surrounding loss of citizenship, and to publish the names of ex-citizens. The one that eventually passed was an amendment by Sam Gibbons (D-FL) to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996. That amendment added new provisions to the Internal Revenue Code (now at ) to require that the Treasury Department publish the names of persons relinquishing U.S. citizenship within thirty days after the end of each calendar quarter. Publication began in 1996; lists published in 1997 included the names of people losing citizenship after 1995. The list includes only the names of former citizens, not their reasons for giving up citizenship or other information about them. Lawyers familiar with the process state that it takes roughly six months after people give up citizenship for their names to appear in the list.
Congress' motive for requiring this publication was to "shame or embarrass" people who give up U.S. citizenship for tax reasons. However, Michael S. Kirsch of Notre Dame Law School questions the effectiveness of this, given that it may result in the shaming of people who give up U.S. citizenship for other reasons, while having little effect on or even acting as a badge of honor for wealthy individuals who are "particularly individualistic and unconcerned with how they may be perceived by the general population." Gibbons expected that the list would include only "a handful of the wealthiest of the wealthy" motivated solely by taxes; however, the people named in the list turned out to have a wide variety of motivations for emigrating from the U.S. and later giving up citizenship, and few were publicly known to be wealthy. As a Wall Street Journal article described the political environment of the mid-1990s which led to the creation of the list: "Congress got mad at legal aliens who use social services but don't become U.S. citizens. Less noisily, it got mad at Americans who become legal aliens in other countries, use services there, but decide not to remain U.S. citizens for life."
Criteria for inclusion in list
Comparisons with other sources of data on ex-citizens suggest that the lists of ex-citizens published in the Federal Register may not necessarily include all ex-citizens. Media reports from authors who believe that the IRS list is supposed to include all expatriates have suggested this means the Federal Register expatriate list has been "lowballing its numbers." Other sources advance a variety of explanations.
Non-covered expatriates
There are differences of opinion among lawyers over whether mandates that the names of only some or all former citizens must appear in the Quarterly Publication. One opinion is that only those who are subject to the expatriation tax (so-called "covered expatriates") appear in the list. (Under current law, , "covered expatriates" are those with more than $2,000,000 in assets, an average of $124,000—adjusted for inflation—in taxes owed or paid over the preceding five years, or who are unable to certify under penalty of perjury that they have complied with all tax form filing and payment obligations in the preceding five years.) Those with this opinion include David Lesperance and John Gaver. In contrast, Andrew Mitchel, a Connecticut tax lawyer interviewed by The Wall Street Journal for its reports on Americans giving up citizenship, states that the list is required to include all former citizens. Michael Kirsch also states that the list is required to include all former citizens, not just those deemed by Section 877 to be giving up citizenship for tax reasons.
Under (the old expatriation tax statute) as in effect from the 1996 passage of HIPAA until the American Jobs Creation Act of 2004, expatriation tax was imposed only if the IRS determined that "one of the principal purposes" of a U.S. person's abandonment of citizenship or permanent residence status was avoidance of taxation. Nevertheless, according to a 2000 Congressional Research Service memorandum, the IRS did not at that time make the determination of principal purposes before including a person's name in the Quarterly Publication, and so stated that "these lists include expatriates whose motivation may not have been tax avoidance".
Robert Wood of Wood LLP in San Francisco, writing in Forbes, states that the Quarterly Publication does not include "[w]hat is often called consular expatriations, where people don’t file exit tax forms with the IRS". The American Bar Association's Taxation Section believes should be read not to require persons whose loss of citizenship occurred before the passage of the American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 to file the exit tax form (Form 8854), and has urged the issuance of Treasury regulations clarifying this interpretation.
Non-citizen former permanent residents
The Quarterly Publication may be required to include the names not just of former U.S. citizens but of certain former permanent residents ("ex-green card holders") as well. Under , "the Federal agency primarily responsible for administering the immigration laws shall provide to the Secretary the name of each lawful permanent resident of the United States (within the meaning of section 7701 (b)(6)) whose status as such has been revoked or has been administratively or judicially determined to have been abandoned." The Quarterly Publication includes a statement that "for purposes of this listing, long-term residents, as defined in section 877(e)(2), are treated as if they were citizens of the United States who lost citizenship". Andrew Mitchel, a Connecticut tax lawyer, believes that the law requires the IRS to include former long-term green card holders in the Quarterly Publication, but given the number of names which appear, he finds it unlikely that they are actually included.
In 2000, a Government Accountability Office report noted that while the Immigration and Naturalization Service provided data to the IRS in electronic form identifying individuals who gave up permanent residence status, the data did not fulfill the IRS' needs because it did not generally include Taxpayer Identification Numbers nor contain information on the length of time for which each of the former permanent residents had held his or her status, and thus the IRS could not use the information for tracking people who were subject to the expatriation tax. The tax law definition of abandonment of lawful permanent residence does not include people whose green cards expire; they continue to be subject to federal tax as U.S. residents rather than the expatriation tax, and are not regarded by the IRS as having "expatriated" even though they may no longer possess the right to reside in the United States. According to , the only way for an individual to initiate the process of administrative determination of abandonment of lawful residence is to file Form I-407. Additionally, a green card holder who takes a tax treaty-based return position as a non-resident of the U.S. also triggers the expatriation tax.
Reinsurance companies
Three reinsurance companies have been included in the Quarterly Publication: RBC Reinsurance, Ltd. in Q2 2000; ING Re Limited (Ireland) in Q1 2003; and Imagine International Reinsurance Limited in Q2 2003. International tax practitioners were uncertain why companies would appear in the Quarterly Publication, as the expatriation tax provisions and the provisions of establishing the list itself all refer to "individual[s]" losing United States citizenship; although the term "individual" is not defined in the Internal Revenue Code, it is unlikely that it could be interpreted to include entities (unlike the term "person", which explicitly defines to include legal persons). Furthermore, Section 6039G makes no allowance for publication of the names of entities that engage in tax inversions (which are sometimes mistakenly referred to in the popular press as "corporations renouncing their citizenship").
Comparison with other sources of data on ex-citizens
Since 1998, the Federal Bureau of Investigation has also maintained its own list of people who have renounced citizenship under , as this is one of the categories of people prohibited from purchasing firearms under the Gun Control Act of 1968 and who must be entered into the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) under the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act of 1993. The names are not made public, but each month the FBI issues a report on the number of entries added in each category. NICS covers a different population from the Federal Register expatriate list: the former includes only those who renounce U.S. citizenship, while the latter should include those who voluntarily lose citizenship by any means, and possibly certain former permanent residents as well.
In 2012, the FBI added 4,652 records to the NICS "renounced U.S. citizenship" category in 2012, much larger than the number of names published in the Federal Register expatriate lists during the same period. About 2,900 of those were added to NICS in one large batch in October 2012; FBI spokesman Stephen G. Fischer attributed this jump to State Department efforts to clear a backlog of earlier renunciants who had not been provided to the FBI previously. However, in 2013, the number of records of renunciants added to NICS again exceeded the number of names published in the Federal Register expatriate list, with 3,128 renunciants in the former against only 3,000 losing citizenship or permanent residence by any means in the latter.
United States Citizenship and Immigration Services stated, in response to a 2013 Freedom of Information Act request, that an average of 18,196 people per year filed Form I-407 to abandon their LPR status in each of Fiscal Years 2010 through 2012. In 2014 Paperwork Reduction Act filings, USCIS estimated that annually, 9,371 people would file Form I-407 in the following three years. The State Department estimated in 2007 that annually, 2,298 people file Form DS-4079 to relinquish their United States citizenship. Finally, the IRS estimated in 2012 that Notices 97-19 and 98-34, which "provide guidance regarding the federal tax consequences for certain individuals who lose U.S. citizenship" or "cease to be taxed as U.S. lawful permanent residents", apply to 12,350 people annually.
The State Department stated that 1,100 people renounced citizenship at only one particular US consulate post during the first ten months of 2014. There are more than 270 US consular posts. In September 2015, the State Department estimated that there would be 5,986 renunciants and 559 relinquishers during Fiscal Year 2015.
Statistics
"Count of names" refers to the number of entries contained in that quarter's list. This figure may include names which are duplicated in previous lists, as well as erroneous list entries such as a street address in Switzerland which was listed as the name of a person giving up citizenship in the fourth quarter of 2013. "Publication delay" refers to the number of days between the end of the calendar quarter and the day on which the list appeared in the Federal Register. Delays longer than the maximum 30 days required by law are shown in red.
Titles
Since 2022, the title of the publication has been Quarterly Publication of Individuals, Who Have Chosen To Expatriate. Previously, the title was Quarterly Publication of Individuals, Who Have Chosen To Expatriate, as Required by Section 6039G in every edition except:
Before 2022, the publication incorrectly spelled the acronym of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) as "HIPPA" in all but six editions (Q2 1999, Q1 2008, Q2 2008, Q3 2009, Q4 2011, Q3 2015).
See also
Relinquishment of United States nationality
References
Internal Revenue Service
Publications of the United States government
United States nationality law
Personal taxes in the United States
1995 introductions | wiki |
Angle of incidence is a measure of deviation of something from "straight on" and may refer to:
Angle of incidence (aerodynamics), angle between a wing chord and the longitudinal axis, as distinct from angle of attack, which is relative to the airflow
Angle of incidence (optics), describing the approach of a ray to a surface | wiki |
Yellow copper is a colloquial name for various minerals and alloys with high copper content:
Chalcopyrite
Brass | wiki |
Low-carbon technology can refer to:
Low-carbon building
Low Carbon Building Programme
Low Carbon Communities
Low-carbon economy
Low-carbon fuel standard
Low-carbon power
See also
2000-watt society
Carbon neutrality | wiki |
Sweet Sue may refer to:
Sweet Sue (comic strip), a British comic strip by Bill Ritchie
Sweet Sue (play), a 1986 play by A. R. Gurney
"Sweet Sue, Just You", a 1928 jazz song
Sweet Sue, a brand of canned meats owned by Bumble Bee Foods specializing in chicken | wiki |
Ford Tickford Racing may refer to:
Glenn Seton Racing - former Australian racing team
Tickford Racing - current Australian racing team | wiki |
Fanning Springs State Park is a Florida State Park, located on US 19/98 in the town of Fanning Springs. It contains one of the state's 33 first magnitude springs. As of 2008, decreased water emission levels at the springs technically requalify the first magnitude status as "historical first magnitude."
The original occupants of the land were native aborigines, "paleo-Indian people", beginning 14,000 years ago, and several of sites previously occupied by them have been located within the park.
The area has been used for recreation, and in 1993 the state acquired the park. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection took over care of the park in 1997.
The Nature Coast State Trail, which follows abandoned railway lines, has a junction at Fanning Springs near the state park.
References
External links
Fanning Springs State Park at Florida State Parks
Fanning Springs State Park at State Parks
Fanning Springs State Park at Wildernet
State parks of Florida
Parks in Levy County, Florida
Springs of Florida
Bodies of water of Levy County, Florida
1993 establishments in Florida | wiki |
You and Me (Declan Galbraith-album)
You and Me (Joan Franka-dal)
You and Me (La Toya Jackson-dal)
You and Me (Lifehouse-dal)
You and Me (Takasa-dal) | wiki |
Seabranch Preserve State Park is a Florida State Park, located approximately ten miles south of Stuart, off A1A.
Admission and Hours
There is no entrance charge. Florida state parks are open between 8 a.m. and sundown every day of the year (including holidays).
Climate
The park marks end of subtropical climate (Cfa), being the most southern place near the east coast of Florida for tropical monsoon climate (Am), being important in phytogeography.
Gallery
References
External links
Seabranch Preserve State Park at Florida State Parks
Seabranch Preserve State Park at State Parks
State parks of Florida
Parks in Martin County, Florida | wiki |
1976 Emmy Awards may refer to:
28th Primetime Emmy Awards, the 1976 Emmy Awards ceremony honoring primetime programming
3rd Daytime Emmy Awards, the 1976 Emmy Awards ceremony honoring daytime programming
4th International Emmy Awards, the 1976 Emmy Awards ceremony honoring international programming
Emmy Award ceremonies by year | wiki |
Snakeplant or snake plant may refer to:
Dracaena trifasciata, synonym Sansevieria trifasciata, also called mother-in-law's tongue
Nassauvia serpens
Turbina corymbosa | wiki |
Newman School may refer to:
United Kingdom
The John Henry Newman School - Hertfordshire, England
United States
The Newman School - Boston, Massachusetts
Isidore Newman School - New Orleans, Louisiana
See also
Cardinal Newman (disambiguation) for any school named after Cardinal Newman | wiki |
Extremes Meet is a 1928 comedy thriller novel by the British writer Compton Mackenzie. It set in Southeastern Europe, and features the fictional British spy Roger Waterson who subsequently appeared in a sequel The Three Couriers published the following year.
References
Bibliography
Burton, Alan. Historical Dictionary of British Spy Fiction. Rowman & Littlefield, 2016.
1928 British novels
Novels by Compton Mackenzie
British thriller novels
British spy novels
Cassell (publisher) books | wiki |
The "Maximum Battleships", also known as the "Tillman Battleships", were a series of World War I-era design studies for extremely large battleships, prepared in late 1916 and early 1917 upon the order of Senator "Pitchfork" Benjamin Tillman by the Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R) of the United States Navy. The Navy was not interested in the designs and drew them up to win support from the Committee on Naval Affairs, on which Tillman sat. Nevertheless, they helped influence design work on the and first South Dakota classes of battleships. The plans prepared for the senator were preserved by C&R in the first of its "Spring Styles" books, where it kept various warship designs conceptualized between 1911 and 1925.
Context
During the years leading up to World War I, some members of the U.S. Congress were growing frustrated with what they perceived to be chronic overspending by the U.S. Navy on battleships. Senator Tillman had grown impatient with the U.S. Navy's requests for larger battleships every year as well as the Navy's habit of building battleships significantly larger than Congress authorized. He accordingly instructed the Navy to design "maximum battleships", the largest battleships that they could use.
The only limits on the potential size of an American battleship were the dimensions of the locks of the Panama Canal. The locks measure roughly , and so the "maximum battleships" were . The Panamax draft limit during the designing of these battleships was , however the Department of the Navy required that all designs be limited to only in draft.
Designs
Tillman's first request for designs of so-called "maximum battleship" in 1912–1913 led to several estimates for battleships unconstrained by cost. Created by the US Navy Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R), these ships would displace up to and carry 14 inch guns. Although C&R was "appalled," in the words of naval historian Norman Friedman, by the extravagance of these designs, they admitted that far larger warships could transit the Panama Canal's locks, which, due to the US's geography, were often held to be the final limiting factor on the size of a US warship. Such larger designs would be often and seriously proposed within only a few years.
In 1916, Tillman repeated his request, and C&R produced another series of design studies. C&R drew up four blueprints, all ships having varying characteristics despite being built on the same hull:
After the first four design studies were complete, Design IV was chosen for further development and three additional studies. Based upon Design IV, three additional designs were prepared: IV-1, IV-2, and IV-3. At the request of Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, these designs used guns instead of the 50-caliber guns used in the earlier studies. The navy decided that design IV-2 was the most practical (or perhaps the least impractical) and presented it to Congress early in 1917.
Comparisons to other US Navy Battleships
These designs differed from the battleships being built in two significant ways beyond just their size. Firstly, unlike preceding classes, the "maximum battleships" were designed with a continuous flush main deck. Most battleships in this era had a long forecastle deck. Secondly, the Tillman designs all included five casemate guns mounted aft, two on each side and one at the tip of the stern. Similar "stern chasers" had been previously mounted in Nevada, but were omitted from the . These casemates were a return to an older design idea; American battleship designers had abandoned hull-mounted casemates after the . They had transpired to be too "wet" – heavy seas rendered them unusable—and they had been removed from all earlier classes. However, the casemates on the "maximum battleships" would have been higher above the waterline than they had been on earlier designs, so it is possible that their huge size and flush decks would have provided enough freeboard astern to keep the casemates dry.
Fate of the Designed Battleships
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 limited naval armaments, causing the cancellation of the South Dakotas and halting all consideration of the "maximum battleships."
See also
Gavrilo battleship - Russian project (1914 year, 265/34,4/9,15 m, 16x406/45, 24x152/55, 30 knots)
References
Bibliography
Friedman, Norman. Battleship Design and Development, 1905–1945. New York: Mayflower Books, 1978. . OCLC .
External links
An extensive article about the Tillman battleships, including a look at possible designs for "Tillman battlecruisers.". Retrieved 5 May 2012
Tillman battleships entry at Global Security
Design for 80,000-ton battleship prepared by C&R for Senator Tillman, dated 29 December 1916, from U.S. Naval Historical Center. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
"Construction of battleships", includes the 1912 resolution
The Shipscribe article on the Bureau of Ships' "Spring Styles" Book # 1 (1911-1925). This specific webpage publicly preserves, among other things, the "maximum battleship" designs as digital photographs from the first "Spring Styles" US Navy catalog, and describes how they were presented therein. Quoting Shipscribe's About page: "The "Spring Styles" drawings were added on 26 April 2015... following the deletion of the Online Library of Selected Images from the web site of the Naval History and Heritage Command."
World War I battleships of the United States
Battleships
Battleships of the United States Navy
Benjamin Tillman | wiki |
"Spooked" is the second episode of the NBC horror anthology Fear Itself.
Plot
Eric Roberts plays Harry Siegal, a police detective attempting to locate a kidnapped child. Harry finds Rory, the man he believes is responsible and viciously beats a confession out of him. It soon becomes clear that this is not unusual behavior for Harry; he believes his methods are justified in pursuit of a greater good. Rory begs for his life, especially after Harry cuts his throat. Rory eventually gives in, confessing. then faints. Harry locates the boy in a closet. Outside, Rory is being loaded into an ambulance. Harry has no remorse for what he has done to Rory in order to get the confession. Knowing that he will die, Rory warns Harry that he'll never let Harry forget this, before finally dying. Harry is sentenced to 100 hours of community service, is fired from the police force, and loses his pension.
Fifteen years later, Harry is a successful private detective, working with his partner, James (Larry Gilliard Jr.). Harry is approached by a woman named Meredith (Cynthia Watros), who wants Harry to spy on her husband, who she believes is cheating on her. Harry agrees and sets up his equipment in the abandoned building across from Meredith's house, with James monitoring from a surveillance van down the street. As night falls, Harry begins to pick up signs of life in the building: lights coming on, forms moving about, even children watching TV. The problem is that only Harry seems to be able to see these things; James only sees darkness in the house. After another night of the same spooky events—in which Harry claims the house is haunted—James gives up and leaves. Harry goes into the house he has been monitoring, but finds it empty, with 'FOR SALE' signs all over.
In the abandoned building, Harry encounters Rory, who haunts Harry and says he didn't deserve to be killed. Harry has an hallucination: he sees two children watching TV, one of whom shows a gun to his brother, but the gun goes off, killing him. Harry has just relived his childhood, in which he accidentally shot and killed his brother. We then see young Harry and his father burying the boy in their yard, covering up the incident.
An enraged Harry flashes back to the present, and surmises that Meredith must have set this up. He confronts Meredith—who reveals that Rory was her brother; the whole affair was their revenge against Harry. She aims her gun at Harry, who takes it and aims it at her. Meredith begs Harry to kill her. But Harry says that he is truly sorry for his actions over the years, and resolves to start over. James then bursts into the room. Meredith screams "Help me!" and James accidentally shoots Harry. James protests that it was an accident, while Harry dies, finally at peace.
Reception
Horror outlets Dread Central and Bloody Disgusting both panned the episode, both criticizing it as predictable, an opinion shared by the reviewer for Slant. The A. V. Club noted that the episode was better than the prior one, but that while Roberts's acting made the first act of "Spooked" entertaining it all led to "a howler of an ending that was telegraphed from Gilliard’s first appearance on screen." The reviewer for Den of Geek was more favorable, writing that "While still not brilliant (I could see the ending coming from a mile away), this was a big step up in terms of scare level and bloodshed level from last week’s debut nod."
References
External links
2008 American television episodes | wiki |
A straight-four engine (also called an inline-four) is a four-cylinder piston engine where cylinders are arranged in a line along a common crankshaft.
The majority of automotive four-cylinder engines use a straight-four layout (with the exceptions of the flat-four engines produced by Subaru and Porsche) and the layout is also very common in motorcycles and other machinery. Therefore the term "four-cylinder engine" is usually synonymous with straight-four engines. When a straight-four engine is installed at an inclined angle (instead of with the cylinders oriented vertically), it is sometimes called a slant-four.
Between 2005 and 2008, the proportion of new vehicles sold in the United States with four-cylinder engines rose from 30% to 47%. By the 2020 model year, the share for light-duty vehicles had risen to 59%.
Design
A four-stroke straight-four engine always has a cylinder on its power stroke, unlike engines with fewer cylinders where there is no power stroke occurring at certain times. Compared with a V4 engine or a flat-four engine, a straight-four engine only has one cylinder head, which reduces complexity and production cost.
Displacement
Petrol straight-four engines used in modern production cars typically have a displacement of , but larger engines have been used in the past, for example the 1927-1931 Bentley 4½ Litre.
Diesel engines have been produced in larger displacements, such as a 3.2 L turbocharged Mitsubishi engine (used the Pajero/Shogun/Montero SUV) and a 3.0 L Toyota engine. European and Asian trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes typically use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 litres. Larger displacements are found in locomotive, marine and stationary engines.
Displacement can also be very small, as found in kei cars sold in Japan. Several of these engines had four cylinders at a time when regulations dictated a maximum displacement of 550 cc; the maximum size is currently at 660 cc.
Primary and secondary balance
Straight-four engines with the preferred crankshaft configuration have perfect primary balance. This is because the pistons are moving in pairs, and one pair of pistons is always moving up at the same time as the other pair is moving down.
However, straight-four engines have a secondary imbalance. This is caused by the acceleration/deceleration of the pistons during the top half of the crankshaft rotation being greater than that of the pistons in the bottom half of the crankshaft rotation (because the connecting rods are not infinitely long). As a result, two pistons are always accelerating faster in one direction, while the other two are accelerating more slowly in the other direction, which leads to a secondary dynamic imbalance that causes an up-and-down vibration at twice crankshaft speed. This imbalance is common among all piston engines, but the effect is particularly strong on inline-four because of the two pistons always moving together.
The strength of this imbalance is determined by the reciprocating mass, the ratio of connecting rod length to stroke, and the peak piston velocity. Therefore, small displacement engines with light pistons show little effect, and racing engines use long connecting rods. However, the effect grows quadratically with engine speed (rpm).
Pulsations in power delivery
Four-stroke engines with five or more cylinders are able to have at least one cylinder performing its power stroke at any given point in time. However, four-cylinder engines have gaps in the power delivery, since each cylinder completes its power stroke before the next piston starts a new power stroke. This pulsating delivery of power results in more vibrations than engines with more than four cylinders.
Usage of balance shafts
A balance shaft system is sometimes used to reduce the vibrations created by a straight-four engine, most often in engines with larger displacements. The balance shaft system was invented in 1911 and consists of two shafts carrying identical eccentric weights that rotate in opposite directions at twice the crankshaft's speed. This system was patented by Mitsubishi Motors in the 1970s and has since been used under licence by several other companies.
Not all large displacement straight-four engines have used balance shafts, however. Examples of relatively large engines without balance shafts include the 2.4 litre Citroën DS engine, the 2.6 litre Austin-Healey 100 engine, the 3.3 L Ford Model A (1927) engine and the 2.5 L GM Iron Duke engine. Soviet/Russian GAZ Volga and UAZ engines with displacements of up to 2.9 litres were produced without balance shafts from the 1950s to the 1990s, however these were relatively low-revving engines which reduces the need for a balance shaft system.
Usage in production cars
Most modern straight-four engines used in cars have a displacement of . The smallest automotive straight-four engine was used in the 1963–1967 Honda T360 kei truck and has a displacement of , while the largest mass-produced straight-four car engine is the 1999–2019 Mitsubishi 4M41 diesel engine which was used in the Mitsubishi Pajero and has a displacement of .
Significant straight-four car engines include:
1954–1994 Alfa Romeo Twin Cam engine: one of the first mass-produced twin-cam engines. In 1990, it became the first production engine with variable valve timing.
1908–1941 Ford Model T engine: one of the most widely produced engines in the world.
1951–2000 BMC A-Series engine: the first engine to be used in a mass-production transverse-engined front-wheel drive car.
1966–2000 Fiat Twin Cam engine: one of the first mass-produced twin-cam engines, produced from 1959.
1968–1981 Triumph Slant-4 engine: an early multi-valve engine which formed the basis of Saab's first turbocharged engines.
2000–2009 Honda F20C engine: produced the highest specific output for a naturally aspirated engine of its time.
Usage in racing cars
Many early racing cars used straight-four engines, however the Peugeot engine which won the 1913 Indianapolis 500 was a highly influential engine. Designed by Ernest Henry, this engine had double overhead camshafts (DOHC) with four valves per cylinder, a layout that would become the standard until today for racing inline-four engines.
Amongst the engines inspired by the Peugeot design was the Miller engine, which was a successful racing engine through the 1920s and early 1930s. The Miller engine evolved into the Offenhauser engine which had a highly successful spanning from the 1933 until 1981, including five straight victories at the Indianapolis 500 from 1971 to 1976.
Many cars produced for the pre-WWII voiturette Grand Prix motor racing category used inline-four engine designs. 1.5 L supercharged engines found their way into cars such as the Maserati 4CL and various English Racing Automobiles (ERA) models. These were resurrected after the war, and formed the foundation of what was later to become Formula One, although the straight-eight supercharged Alfettas would dominate the early years of F1.
Another engine that played an important role in racing history is the straight-four Ferrari engine designed by Aurelio Lampredi. This engine was originally designed as a 2 L Formula 2 engine for the Ferrari 500, but evolved to 2.5 L to compete in Formula One in the Ferrari 625. For sports car racing, capacity was increased up to 3.4 L for the Ferrari 860 Monza.
The Coventry Climax straight-four engine was also a very successful racing engine, which began life as a 1.5 litre Formula 2 engine. Enlarged to 2.0 litres for Formula One in 1958, it evolved into the large 2,495 cc FPF that won the Formula One championship in Cooper's chassis in 1959 and 1960.
In Formula One, the 1980s were dominated by the 1,500 cc turbocharged cars. The BMW M12/13 engine was notable for the era for its high boost pressures and performance. The cast iron block was based on a standard road car block and powered the F1 cars of Brabham, Arrows and Benetton and won the world championship in 1983. The 1986 version of the engine was said to produce about in qualifying trim.
Usage in motorcycles
Belgian arms manufacturer FN Herstal, which had been making motorcycles since 1901, began producing the first motorcycles with inline-fours in 1905. The FN Four had its engine mounted upright with the crankshaft longitudinal. Other manufacturers that used this layout included Pierce, Henderson, Ace, Cleveland, and Indian in the United States, Nimbus in Denmark, Windhoff in Germany, and Wilkinson in the United Kingdom.
The first across-the-frame 4-cylinder motorcycle was the 1939 racer Gilera 500 Rondine, it also had double-over-head camshafts, forced-inducting supercharger and was liquid-cooled. Modern inline-four motorcycle engines first became popular with Honda's SOHC CB750 introduced in 1969, and others followed in the 1970s. Since then, the inline-four has become one of the most common engine configurations in street bikes. Outside of the cruiser category, the inline-four is the most common configuration because of its relatively high performance-to-cost ratio. All major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers offer motorcycles with inline-four engines, as do MV Agusta and BMW. BMW's earlier inline-four motorcycles were mounted horizontally along the frame, but all current four-cylinder BMW motorcycles have transverse engines. The modern Triumph company has offered inline-four-powered motorcycles, though they were discontinued in favour of triples.
The 2009 Yamaha R1 has an inline-four engine that does not fire at even intervals of 180°. Instead, it uses a crossplane crankshaft that prevents the pistons from simultaneously reaching top dead centre. This results in better secondary balance, which is particularly beneficial in the higher rpm range, and "big-bang firing order" theory says the irregular delivery of torque to the rear tire makes sliding in the corners at racing speeds easier to control.
Inline-four engines are also used in MotoGP by the Suzuki (since 2015) and Yamaha (since 2002) teams. In 2010, when the four-stroke Moto2 class was introduced, the engines for the class were a inline-four engine made by Honda based on the CBR600RR with a maximum power output of . Starting in 2019, the engines were replaced by a Triumph triple engine.
See also
Flat-four engine
V4 engine
References
External links
4 | wiki |
Triblade may refer to:
A bayonet or knife with three cutting edges
A helicopter rotor having three blades
A blade server module of the IBM Roadrunner supercomputer | wiki |
Bulbophyllum epicranthes é uma espécie de orquídea (família Orchidaceae) pertencente ao gênero Bulbophyllum. Foi descrita por Joseph Dalton Hooker em 1890.
Ligações externas
The Bulbophyllum-Checklist
The internet Orchid species Photo Encyclopedia
Plantas descritas em 1890
Bulbophyllum | wiki |
Headline inflation is a measure of the total inflation within an economy, including commodities such as food and energy prices (e.g., oil and gas), which tend to be much more volatile and prone to inflationary spikes. On the other hand, "core inflation" (also non-food-manufacturing or underlying inflation) is calculated from a consumer price index minus the volatile food and energy components. Headline inflation may not present an accurate picture of an economy's inflationary trend since sector-specific inflationary spikes are unlikely to persist.
Uses
The European Central Bank and the Bank of England have mandates that spell out their inflation goals in terms of headline inflation. India also focuses on headline inflation.
In the United States, however, the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) focuses on core inflation—namely the "personal consumption expenditures price index". However, President of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis James B. Bullard explained that the FOMC still takes headline PCE into account, and that since 2008 (in the wake of the financial crisis) the FOMC has included forecasts for both types of inflation in its semiannual "Monetary Policy Report" for the United States Congress. He emphasized that "the Fed's main concern is long-run headline inflation and the prices people actually pay."
See also
2007–08 world food price crisis
Inflationism
Inflation hedge
References
Inflation | wiki |
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