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The Museum of Science and Industry (MSI), since 2024, the Kenneth C. Griffin Museum of Science and Industry, is a science museum located in Chicago, Illinois, in Jackson Park, in the Hyde Park neighborhood between Lake Michigan and The University of Chicago. It is housed in the Palace of Fine Arts from the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. Initially endowed by Sears, Roebuck and Company president and philanthropist Julius Rosenwald and supported by the Commercial Club of Chicago, it opened in 1933 during the Century of Progress Exposition. It was renamed for benefactor and financier Kenneth C. Griffin on May 19, 2024. Among the museum's most notable exhibits are a full-size replica coal mine, German submarine U-505 submarine captured during World War II, a United Airlines Boeing 727, the Pioneer Zephyr (the first streamlined diesel-powered passenger train in the US); the command module of the Apollo 8 spacecraft, and a 3,500-square-foot (330 m2) model railroad. Permanent or special exhibits cover manufacturing, environmental science, chemistry, physics, computers, the brain, mechanics of the human body, and agricultural science, among other subjects. == History == === World's Columbian Exposition and aftermath === The building which now houses the Museum was constructed as the Palace of Fine Arts, built for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition and designed by Charles B. Atwood for D. H. Burnham & Company. During the fair, the palace displayed paintings, prints, drawing, sculpture, and metalwork from around the world. Unlike the other "White City" buildings, which were primarily temporary, it was constructed with a permanent brick substructure under its plaster facade. After the World's Fair, the palace initially housed the Columbian Museum, largely displaying collections left from the fair, which evolved into the Field Museum of Natural History. When the Field Museum moved to a new building five miles north in the Near South Side in 1920, the palace was left vacant. School of the Art Institute of Chicago professor Lorado Taft led a public campaign to restore the building and turn it into another art museum, one devoted to sculpture. The South Park Commissioners (now part of the Chicago Park District) won approval in a referendum to sell $5 million in bonds to pay for restoration costs, hoping to turn the building into a sculpture museum, a technical trade school, and other things. However, after a few years, the building was selected as the site for a new science museum. === Museum formation === At this time, the Commercial Club of Chicago was interested in establishing a science museum in Chicago. Julius Rosenwald, philanthropist and Sears, Roebuck and Company president, energized his fellow club members by pledging to pay $3 million towards the cost of converting the Palace of Fine Arts (Rosenwald eventually contributed more than $5 million to the project). During its conversion into the MSI, the building's exterior was re-cast in limestone to retain its 1893 Beaux Arts look. The interior was replaced with a new one in Art Moderne style designed by Alfred P. Shaw. Rosenwald established the museum organization in 1926 but declined to have his name on the building. For the first two years of development, the museum was often referred to as the "Rosenwald Industrial Museum". In 1928, the name of the museum officially became the Museum of Science and Industry. Rosenwald's vision was to create a museum in the style of the Deutsches Museum of science and technology in Munich, which he had visited in 1911 while in Germany with his family. Sewell Avery, another businessman, had supported the museum within the Commercial Club and was selected as its first president of the board of directors. The museum conducted a nationwide search for the first director. MSI's Board of Directors selected Waldemar Kaempffert, then the science editor of The New York Times, because he shared Rosenwald's vision. He assembled the museum's curatorial staff and directed the organization and construction of the exhibits. In order to prepare the museum, Kaempffert and his staff visited the Deutsches Museum in Munich, the Science Museum in Kensington, and the Technical Museum in Vienna, all of which served as models. Kaempffert was instrumental in developing close ties with the science departments of the University of Chicago, which supplied much of the scholarship for the exhibits. Kaempffert resigned in early 1931 amid growing disputes with the second president of the board of directors; they disagreed over the objectivity and neutrality of the exhibits and Kaempffert's management of the staff. === Opening === The museum underwent renovation work, including the installation of a Ludowici tile roof on the central dome in 1930, before opening to the public in three stages between 1933 and 1940. The first opening ceremony took place during the Century of Progress Exposition. Two of the museum's presidents, a number of curators and other staff members, and exhibits came to MSI from the Century of Progress event. In 1992, the museum began planning a series of renovations as part of the "MSI2000" plan. This included an underground three-level parking deck beneath the front lawn. Construction of the underground parking deck was finished in July 1998. These renovations also eventually incorporated a new subterranean main entrance hall which visitors descend into before re-ascending into the main building, similar to the entryway beneath the Louvre Pyramid in Paris. For the first 5 decades of its operation, general admission to the MSI was free, although certain exhibits (such as the Coal Mine and U-505) required small fees. General entrance fees were first charged in the early 1990s, with general admission rates increasing from $13 in 2008 to $18 in 2015 and $25.95 in 2024. Many "free days"—for Illinois residents only—are offered throughout the year. === Renaming === On October 3, 2019, the museum announced that it intended to change its name to the Kenneth C. Griffin Museum of Science and Industry, after a donation of $125 million from billionaire Kenneth C. Griffin. It is the largest single gift in the museum's history, effectively doubling its endowment. However, president and chief executive officer David Mosena said the formal name change could take some time, due to the legal complexity of the process. He also said part of the gift will go into funding "a state-of-the-art digital gallery and performance space that will be the only experience of its kind in North America." Chevy Humphrey became president and CEO of the private, non-profit museum in January 2021. The new name was officially unveiled on May 19, 2024, alongside an updated logo. Due to Griffin’s conservative political views, the name change drew criticism from some in the community. Specifically, some were upset that Griffin had offloaded many of his Chicago properties and moved his family to Miami due to the city’s politics and crime rates. In 2025, the Driehaus Foundation, which has interests in preserving neo-classical architecture, announced its largest capital grant to date of $10 million to help fund the renovation of the museum's south entrance accessibility and new public amenity spaces. The south portico with platforms and steps down to the Jackson Park lagoon was the building's main entrance during the world's fair when it was built in the 1890s. The south entrance also faces toward the nearby Barack Obama Presidential Center part of the Museum Campus South. == Exhibits == The museum has over 2,000 exhibits, displayed in 75 major halls. Many of the major exhibits are permanent or semi-permanent. Access to the Coal Mine, U-505 on-board tour, and other special exhibits requires an additional fee, while other exhibits require a free timed-entry ticket. In keeping with Rosenwald's vision for the museum, many of the exhibits are interactive. === Entry Hall === ==== Pioneer Zephyr ==== The first diesel-powered, streamlined stainless-steel passenger train, the Pioneer Zephyr, is on permanent display in the Entry Hall (previously the Great Hall, renamed in 2008). The train was previously displayed outdoors, before being relocated indoors during the construction of the museum's underground parking lot in the 1990s. ==== NASCAR Next Gen 2023 Ford Mustang ==== Added to the Entry Hall to coincide with the first NASCAR Chicago Street Race, the Next Gen Ford Mustang is painted by local Chicago artists Paint The City, and showcases modern race-car engineering. It is set to remain at the museum through 2026. === Lower level === ==== U-505 ==== German submarine U-505 is one of just six German submarines captured by the Allies during World War II, and, since its arrival in 1954, the only one on display in the Western Hemisphere. The U-505 exhibit was dedicated as a permanent war memorial by the museum in 1954, and the submarine was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1989. For its first 50 years at the museum, U-505 was displayed outdoors. Starting in 2004, the U-boat was newly restored and moved into its current indoor exhibit, which opened as The New U-505 Experience on June 5, 2005. The submarine itself is located in a large concrete bunker at the end of the multi-floor exhibit alongside various artifacts found aboard, as well as interactive games related to the operation of a submarine. Guided tours of the submarine's interior are offered for an additional fee. Located outside the entrance to the exhibit, there is both a Mold-A-Rama machine and a penny flattening device with U-505 designs. ==== Henry Crown Space Center ==== MSI's Henry Crown Space Center is located in its own connected wing on the building's southeast side. It opened in 1986, and was extensively renovated and reopened in 2024. The Space Center includes the Apollo 8 command module, which flew the first human beings around the Moon; the Mercury-Atlas 7 capsule which flew the second American to orbit the Earth; a NASA lunar module trainer used to test procedures for the Apollo lunar landings, and a SpaceX Dragon 1 cargo spacecraft. Located in the Henry Crown Space Center is the Giant Dome Theater, a domed theater which shows movies on a 5-story wrap-around screen of perforated aluminum (allowing the speakers to be mounted behind the screen and heard throughout the theater). ==== FarmTech ==== The FarmTech exhibit showcases modern agricultural techniques and how farmers use modern technology like GPS systems to improve work on the farm, and includes a tractor and a combine harvester from John Deere. The exhibit also showcases a greenhouse, a mock-up of a kitchen showcasing how much of the food we eat comes from soybeans, and how we use cows, from energy to what we drink. ==== Other ==== The west wing of the museum's lower level includes two transportation exhibits, one displaying models of "Ships Through the Ages" and the other a collection of historic racing cars. The lower level includes a number of single-room exhibits. Black Creativity: Architecture covers the history of Black architects, as part of the museum's wider Black Creativity initiative. Mold-A-Rama™: Molded for the Future showcases several Mold-A-Rama machines and the history and mechanics of injection-molded plastics manufacturing. Colleen Moore's Fairy Castle, an intricate miniature fantasy house with decorations inspired by folklore and fairy tales, is also on display, having been at the museum since 1949. 90 and Beyond opened in 2023 to celebrate MSI's 90th anniversary, and showcases objects from each of the 9 decades in the museum's history. There are multiple exhibits on the lower level aimed at younger children, including the Swiss Jollyball, a kinetic art piece built by a British man from Switzerland using nothing but salvaged junk which showcases a metal ball moving on a track (described by the museum as a "pinball machine", for which it holds a Guinness World Record as the largest); the Idea Factory, a toddler water table play area; and the Eye Spy gallery, a hallway with humorous tableaus behind windows. === First level === ==== Transportation Gallery ==== The Transportation Gallery, located in the east wing of the museum on the first and second levels, contains several permanent exhibits. In the middle of the wing is The Great Train Story, a 3,500-square-foot (330 m2) HO-scale model railroad which recreates an embellished version of the "Empire Builder" rail line from Chicago to Seattle, with sections depicting downtown Chicago, the Chicago suburbs, the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains and the Cascades, and downtown Seattle with a cargo port. In the main level of the gallery is NYC & HRR Locomotive No. 999, known as the Empire State Express, which is alleged by some sources to have been the first steam locomotive in the world to exceed 100 miles per hour (160km/h). It was donated to the museum in 1962, and displayed outside until being moved indoors and restored in 1993. The first level of the Transportation Gallery also includes a replica of Stephenson's Rocket, which was the first steam locomotive to exceed 25 miles per hour; as well as several carriages and cars showcasing historic and modern road vehicles. The second level of the Transportation Gallery consists of the Take Flight exhibit, which features the first Boeing 727 jet plane in commercial service, donated by United Airlines, with one wing removed and holes cut on the fuselage to facilitate visitor access. A formerly-working replica of the Wright Brothers' first airplane, the Wright Flyer, is also on display. Two World War II warplanes are also exhibited, both donated by the British government: a German Ju 87 R-2/Trop. Stuka dive-bomber—one of only two fully-intact Stukas left in the world—and a British Mark 1A Supermarine Spitfire. ==== Science Storms ==== Opened in March 2010, Science Storms is a permanent multi-level exhibit which occupies the Allstate Court on the west side of the museum. On the first level it features a 40-foot (12-meter) water vapor tornado vortex, a rotating sand avalanche disk, a Foucault pendulum suspended from the ceiling, a tsunami wave tank, tethered hot air balloons, a heliostat system with solar panel-powered cars, and a section about light and color; on the second level it features a Tesla coil mounted to the ceiling which fires approximately every 30 minutes, a Wimshurst machine built by James Wimshurst in the late 19th century, a giant Newton's cradle, and sections on fire, chemistry, and magnetism. ==== Coal Mine ==== Located in and beneath the south end of the museum's Central Pavilion, The Coal Mine re-creates a working deep-shaft bituminous coal mine, using original equipment from Old Ben #17, a mine in Johnston City, Illinois which closed in 1923. It is the museum's oldest exhibit, opening with MSI in 1933. Visitors are led through the exhibit by one or more "coal miner" guides, including a ride on a genuine mine train, and learn the history of unions and the science of coal mining and other types of energy production. The experience takes around 30 minutes and requires an additional fee. ==== Griffin Studio & Notes to Neurons ==== Opened in 2024, the Kenneth C. Griffin Studio (or simply Griffin Studio) is an "immersive multimedia experience" with projections, sound, and movement recognition, intended to rotate presentations throughout its life. Its first and current presentation is entitled Notes to Neurons, and examines how music interacts with the human mind and body. ==== Numbers in Nature: A Mirror Maze ==== Numbers in Nature: A Mirror Maze contains interactive stations to learn about patterns in nature, including the Golden Ratio, spirals, fractal branching, and Voronoi patterns. It also contains a mirror maze as a demonstration of geometric patterns. The exhibit requires a free timed entry ticket. ==== The Blue Paradox ==== The Blue Paradox is an immersive exhibit discussing the ocean plastics crisis which opened on July 1, 2023. Before being relocated to MSI, it was originally a pop-up experience in London, and is sponsored by S.C. Johnson. ==== Genetics: Decoding Life ==== Genetics: Decoding Life looks at how genetics affect human and animal development as well as containing a chick hatchery composed of an incubator where baby chickens hatch from their eggs and a chick pen for those that have already hatched, as well as housing genetically modified frogs, mice, and drought resistant plants. The chick hatchery has been part of the museum since 1956. About 20 chicks are hatched a day, around 140 hatch in a week, and up to 8000 hatch in a year. At one time, chicks would be collected by Lincoln Park Zoo to be fed to various animals, including lions, crocodiles, snakes, vultures, owls and tigers. This partnership between the museum and the zoo operated for decades, with about 7000 chicks being sent to the zoo each year. Some of the chicks hatched are of the Java species of chicken, and these are sent to a farm in La Fox, Illinois that works to preserve the rare breed. There have been numerous efforts to shut down the exhibit, as early as 1998 and as recent as 2017. ==== Yesterday's Main Street ==== Yesterday's Main Street is a mock-up of a Chicago street from the early 20th century, complete with a cobblestone roadway, old-fashioned light fixtures, fire hydrants, and several shops, including the precursors to several Chicago-based businesses. Included are: Unlike the other shops, the Nickelodeon Cinema can be entered and is functional, and plays silent films throughout the day. ==== ToyMaker 3000 ==== ToyMaker 3000 is a working assembly line which lets visitors order a "Gravitron" spinning top toy and watch as it is assembled. It is often closed for maintenance. ==== Wanger Family Fab Lab ==== The Wanger Family Fab Lab (or simply "Fab Lab") is a digital fabrication facility with 3D-printers, laser-cutters, and various other tools and technologies used to create "almost anything you can imagine." It is visible through windows, but not accessible to the general public, and is used by museum-sponsored workshops and summer camps. ==== Other ==== Extreme Ice is an exhibit showcasing the effect of climate change on Earth's polar ice caps, including climate survey equipment, interactive screens, and a large ice wall which visitors can touch. Opened in spring 2013, The Art of the Bicycle showcases the history of bicycles, and how modern bikes continue to evolve. Earth Revealed centers around a "Science on a Sphere" holographic projection globe, and has presentations about planetary science, space exploration, and movies about rising sea levels and water use. The Whispering Gallery, which opened in 1938, is a room shaped to reflect sound. === Second level === ==== YOU! The Experience ==== YOU! The Experience is an exhibit about life science and the mechanics of the body, featuring a 13-foot-tall (4.0 m), interactive, 3D heart, various motion-tracking interactive screens, a human-sized hamster wheel, and plastinated human remains showcasing anatomy. ==== Other ==== The Regenstein Hall of Chemistry includes a giant periodic table of the elements with samples of each element as well as cases displaying food and materials science. On display hanging above the Coal Mine exhibit is the Travel Air Type R Mystery Ship, nicknamed "Texaco 13", an airplane which set many world records in flying. Located in the rear of the Take Flight exhibit are a series of flight simulators which allow visitors to fly historic fighter aircraft, and motion simulators which simulate a journey through the sky and/or space. === Former exhibits === An F-104 Starfighter on loan to MSI from the US Air Force since 1978 was sent to the Mid-America Air Museum in Liberal, Kansas, in 1993. In March 1995, Santa Fe Steam Locomotive 2903 was moved from outside the museum to the Illinois Railway Museum. Telefun Town, a hall dedicated to the wonders of telephone communication, sponsored by the company then known as the Bell Telephone Company, no longer exists. One well-known past exhibit was a walk-through model of the human heart, which was removed in 2009 for the construction of YOU! the Experience. Fast Forward... Inventing the Future, an exhibit about "cutting-edge" technologies such as hydroponics, space manufacturing and telerobotics, closed in 2022 to make way for the Griffin Studio and Notes to Neurons. It was intended as a "rotating gallery", with sections being changed throughout its run at the museum to reflect new technological developments. Out of the Vault, an exhibit showcasing various objects from MSI's collections, closed in 2022 to make way for The Blue Paradox. The Spaceport, an exhibit about the fantasy and reality of space exploration with uniforms from Star Trek and models of spacecraft on display, also closed in 2022 to make way for The Blue Paradox. Future Energy Chicago was an exhibit showcasing alternative resources and energy production with a focus on energy use in the future. It officially closed in August 2022. == Special exhibitions == In addition to its three floors of standing exhibits, the museum hosts temporary and traveling exhibitions. Exhibitions typically last for less than 1 year and usually require a separate paid admission fee. Past exhibitions at MSI have included: Titanic: The Exhibition, which was the largest display of relics from the wreck of RMS Titanic. Gunther von Hagens' Body Worlds, a view into the human body through use of plastinated human specimens. Game On, which featured the history and culture of video games. Leonardo da Vinci: Man, Inventor, Genius CSI: The Experience Robots Like Us City of the Future Star Wars: Where Science Meets Imagination The Glass Experience Harry Potter: The Exhibition Robot Revolution, which was sponsored by Google and featured numerous hands-on demonstrations and advice from experts for prospective future robot scientists and engineers Four installments of Smart Home: Green + Wired, featuring the work of green architect Michelle Kaufmann. The Science Behind Pixar (opened May 24, 2018) Wired to Wear, an exhibit covering wearable technology (opened on March 21, 2019) which, following its run as a temporary exhibition, was reworked into a smaller exhibit and relocated to the museum's upper level for several years. Marvel: Universe of Super Heroes (opened March 7, 2021). The Art of the Brick (opened February 10, 2022). Pompeii: The Exhibition (opened February 23, 2023) 007 Science (opened March 7, 2024) Yearly, from late November to early January, the museum hosts its Christmas Around the World and Holidays of Light exhibitions, featuring Christmas trees from different cultures from around the world and displays about various other cultural holiday celebrations. Started in 1942 with just one tree to honor soldiers fighting in World War Two, the tradition spawned into more than 50 trees. == See also == Architecture of Chicago List of museums and cultural institutions in Chicago == References == == Further reading == .Kogan, Herman (1973). A continuing marvel; the story of the Museum of Science and Industry (1st ed.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. ISBN 9780385022590. LCCN 72092405. Pridmore, Jay (1996). Inventive Genius: The History of the Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago. Chicago: The Museum. ISBN 9780963865748. LCCN 96013546. Pridmore, Jay (1997). Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 9780810942899. LCCN 96002829. == External links == Museum website Commercials and news clips at The Museum of Classic Chicago Television High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images at Columbia University	Wikipedia/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_(Chicago)
PECO is a UK-based manufacturer of model railway accessories, especially trackwork, based at Pecorama, Beer in South Devon, England. PECO is the collective name for the Pritchard Patent Product Company Ltd, Peco Publications and Publicity Ltd, and Pecorama. Founded in 1946 by Sydney Pritchard in a small cottage, PECO now distributes its products globally. == Products == The company supplies products for Z gauge, TT:120 scale, N gauge, 00 gauge, H0 gauge, 0 gauge, Gauge 1, and narrow gauge products for N6.5/Nn3, OO9, H0m, O16.5, SM32 and G scale. The primary product ranges are its track systems. Other product lines include PECO Trackside – building kits and scenic items in gauges O, OO, TT and N – and a small range of rolling stock and locomotives, both kits and ready-to-run, for gauges N and OO9. === Track systems === There are two main types of PECO track system: PECO Set-track and PECO Streamline. Set-track consists of a range of rigid curves, straights, crossings and points (turnouts), made to the standard British geometry. It is similar to the track components supplied with train-sets, and is designed for the needs of less-experienced modellers, or those experienced modellers who do not want to spend a lot of time building trackwork. However, where part of a desired layout cannot be built using Set-track parts, Streamline components can be utilised as required. PECO Streamline is for the more experienced modeller. The range includes a wider variety of points and crossings, at different radii. In 00 gauge it is available with a standard flat bottom rail profile and, since 2019 bullhead profile. Historically points and crossings have been available in the Electrofrog range, with live frogs, and their Insulfrog range, with plastic insulated frogs. Since 2019 Electrofrog and Insulfrog are being phased out and replaced with their Unifrog range. Unifrog points have an electrically isolated metal frog, with the option to energise it via a wire connection. Plain track is supplied in 3 foot (914 mm) lengths (2 foot for Z gauge), to be cut to length as required. The track flexes allowing the modeller to use it for straight track or any radius curve, to suit the needs of the model. The Streamline range is supplied with different types of rail, identified by code numbers indicating the height of the rail in thousands-of-an-inch. For 00/H0 track, 'Code 100' rail is the original type, and is designed for older ready-to-run models. 'Code 83' is designed to be compatible with North American track systems. 'Code 75' is designed for 'fine-scale' models, with smaller wheel flanges, to give a more-scale appearance. TT:120 PECO Streamline track is produced with code 55 rail. N gauge Streamline track comes in code 80 and code 55. The 00/H0 track is scaled for H0; this is commercially understandable as the product range is supplied to the smaller UK market (mainly 00) and larger European / US markets (mainly H0). The sleeper length, sleeper spacing and set-track '6 foot way' is not correct for modeling UK track in 00 gauge and this can exaggerate the error in the gauge when running 00 models. To support the track systems, "PECOlectrics" is the company brand name for PECO's range of electronic control systems, point motors and switches. == Wholly owned subsidiaries == PECO as a company owns several other well-known model companies: Ratio Wills Modelscene (formerly 'Merit') Parkside by PECO (formerly 'Parkside & Dundas') Harburn Hobbies, Edinburgh == Publications == Peco Publications & Publicity Ltd publishes the monthly magazines Railway Modeller and Continental Modeller, as well as a large range of booklets explaining wiring, scenics, baseboard construction, outdoor railways, and similar topics. == Pecorama == Pecorama is a tourist attraction, and includes a display of many model railways, a shop, and the Beer Heights Light Railway. It is located in the village of Beer, Devon. == References == == External links == PECO website	Wikipedia/Peco_(model_railways)
Digital Command Control (DCC) is a standard for a system for the digital operation of model railways that permits locomotives on the same electrical section of track to be independently controlled. The DCC protocol is defined by the Digital Command Control Working group of the US National Model Railroad Association (NMRA), which owns the trademark for the DCC logo. == History == A digital command control system was developed (under contract by Lenz Elektronik GmbH of Germany) in the 1980s for two German model railway manufacturers, Märklin and Arnold. The first digital decoders that Lenz produced appeared on the market early 1989 for Arnold (N scale) and mid 1990 for Märklin (Z scale, H0 scale and 1 gauge; Digital=). Märklin and Arnold exited the agreement over patent issues, but Lenz continued to develop the system. In 1992 Stan Ames, who later chaired the NMRA/DCC Working Group, investigated the Märklin/Lenz system as possible candidate for the NMRA/DCC standards. When the NMRA Command Control committee requested submissions from manufacturers for its proposed command control standard in the 1990s, Märklin and Keller Engineering submitted their systems for evaluation. The committee was impressed by the Märklin/Lenz system and had settled on digital early in the process. The NMRA eventually developed their own protocol based on the Lenz system and further extended it. The system was later named Digital Command Control. The first commercial systems built on the NMRA DCC were demonstrated at the 1993 NMRA Convention, when the proposed DCC Standard was announced. The proposed standard was published in the October 1993 issue of Model Railroader magazine prior to its adoption. The DCC protocol is the subject of two standards published by the NMRA: S-9.1 specifies the electrical standard, and S-9.2 specifies the communications standard. Several recommended practices documents are also available. The DCC protocol defines signal levels and timings on the track. DCC does not specify the protocol used between the DCC command station and other components such as additional throttles. A variety of proprietary standards exist, and in general, command stations from one vendor are not compatible with throttles from another vendor. === RailCom === In 2006 Lenz, together with Kühn, Zimo and Tams, started development of an extension to the DCC protocol to allow a feedback channel from decoders to the command station. This feedback channel can typically be used to signal which train occupies a certain section, but as well to inform the command station of the actual speed of an engine. This feedback channel is known under the name RailCom, and was standardized in 2007 as NMRA RP 9.3.1. Quoting "NMRA Standards and Recommended Practices": S-9.3 DCC Bi-Directional Communications Standard S-9.3.1 (discontinued) S-9.3.2 DCC Basic Decoder Transmission - (updated 12/20/2012) UNDER REVISION == System components == The fundamental DCC system consists of a single command station, and at least one of each of the following: a power station, a throttle and a decoder. The command station, power station and throttle are conceptually distinct devices but are often found combined into a single physical "all-in-one" device as an entry-level product. The command station acts as an interface between the throttles and the decoders. Any DCC system will only have one command station. The communication protocol on the throttle network is not specified by any DCC standard and as such, command stations are devices that convert signals from a throttle network to the standardized DCC encoding (but without power amplification). They often include many other features not necessarily part of any DCC standard. Power stations (commonly known as boosters) act as current amplifiers, and provide most or all of the electrical power required by DCC vehicles by amplifying the command signal from the command station. The number of power stations required in a DCC system will depend on the number of vehicles that are intended to receive commands (and thus draw current) from any one command station. Throttles, both virtual and physical, provide an interface for the user to interact with the DCC system. Commands issued by a user via a throttle are sent to the command station to be forwarded to the decoders (or another throttle). The number of throttles required in a DCC system will depend on the number of users interacting with the system. Typically a user will not operate more than one or two throttles at any given time. Decoders are receivers to commands forwarded from the command station. Each decoder is assigned an address and respond only to commands issued to their respective address, hence it can be thought that they 'decode' messages. Some decoders are transceivers, which can transmit data back to the command station to be forwarded to the throttles. Despite their name, decoding addresses is only a portion of a decoder's purpose. Decoders typically contain additional circuitry (e.g. for power regulation, motor control, sound synthesis) because once the decoder receives commands destined for its address, decoders need to perform the command requested of it. Mobile decoders are designed to be installed in a moving vehicle, such as a model locomotive, and control nearly every aspect of the vehicle's behavior, such as direction of travel, speed of travel, lighting effects and sound effects. Accessory or stationary decoders enable basic GPIO to operate any other stationary features, such as turnouts, signals, or any animated scenes. == Communication protocol == The electrical waveform sent to the decoders (typically along the model railway track) serves as both a digital signal and carrier of electric power. The power carried is the peak-to-peak voltage multiplied by the current. The voltage is specified by the NMRA to be based on the modelling scale. The data is encoded via frequency modulation by varying the period of individual square waves. A binary 1 is represented by a 116 μs nominal period (duration), while a 0 is represented by a 200 μs nominal period. These 0 and 1 bits form packets which contain a preamble, the recipient decoder's address, an instruction, and a checksum. As such, the digital signal is encoded entirely in time and is completely independent of the waveform voltage. As there is no long-term polarity in the waveform, direction of travel of a DCC vehicle is independent of the instantaneous polarity between the rails, as it would in conventional DC operation. There is no ground reference in the DCC signal, and as such, either rail may be used as a reference to the other. Additionally, this means that a square wave beginning with a rising edge is interpreted identically as a square wave beginning with a falling edge, because the digital information is carried within the period of the wave. == Layout command control == Layout command control (LCC), previously known as "NMRANet", is a standard introduced in 2015 designed to relieve congestion on the DCC communication bus. Increasing use of stationary decoders to achieve automation or animation has resulted in a large amount of packets causing congestion on the DCC bus. LCC seeks to retain communications related to vehicle control on the DCC bus and move all other communications onto the LCC bus. == Advantages over analog control == The great advantage of digital control is the individual control of locomotives wherever they are on the layout. With analog control, operating more than one locomotive independently requires the track to be wired into separate blocks each having switches to select the controller. Using digital control, locomotives may be controlled wherever they are. Digital locomotive decoders often include inertia simulation, where the locomotive will gradually increase or decrease speeds in a realistic manner. Many decoders will also constantly adjust motor power to maintain constant speed. Most digital controllers allow an operator to set the speed of one locomotive and then select another locomotive to control its speed while the previous locomotive maintains its speed. Recent developments include on-board sound modules for locomotives as small as N scale, made possible by advancements in smartphones, which tend to use small yet high-quality speakers. Wiring requirements are generally reduced compared to a conventional DC powered layout. With digital control of accessories, the wiring is distributed to accessory decoders rather than being individually connected to a central control panel. For portable layouts this can greatly reduce the number of inter-board connections - only the digital signal and any accessory power supplies need cross baseboard joins. == Schematics == == Competing systems == There are two main European alternatives: Selectrix, an open Normen Europäischer Modellbahnen (NEM) standard, and the Märklin Digital proprietary system. The US Rail-Lynx system provides power with a fixed voltage to the rails while commands are sent digitally using infrared light. Other systems include the Digital Command System and Trainmaster Command Control. Several major manufacturers (including Märklin, Fleischmann, Roco, Hornby and Bachmann), have entered the DCC market alongside makers which specialize in it (including Lenz, Digitrax, ESU, ZIMO, Kühn, Tams, NCE, Digikeijs, and CVP Products, Sound Traxx, Train Control Systems and ZTC). Most Selectrix central units are multi protocol units supporting DCC fully or partially (e.g. Rautenhaus, Stärz and MTTM). == See also == Digital model railway control systems List of network buses == References == == Further reading == Wild, Mike (April–May 2007). "Digital Command Control: a beginner's guide". Hornby Magazine. No. 1. Hersham: Ian Allan Publishing. p. 88–92. ISSN 1753-2469. OCLC 226087101. Grainger, Phil (January 2008). "DCC: The Way Ahead". Model Rail. No. 113. Peterborough: EMAP Active. pp. 40–41. ISSN 1369-5118. OCLC 173324502. == External links == NMRA Standards and Recommended Practices page DCC History at the DCCWiki The DCCWiki Wiring for DCC DCC-EX - An open-source DCC centrale software OpenDCC - An open project for building your own decoders, command stations etc.	Wikipedia/Digital_Command_Control
The Carnegie Science Center, soon to be The Daniel G. and Carole L. Kamin Science Center, is one of the four Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is located in the Chateau neighborhood. It is located across the street from Acrisure Stadium. == Overview == The Carnegie Science Center is the most visited museum in Pittsburgh, and is located along the Ohio River on the North Shore. It has four floors of interactive exhibits totaling over 400 exhibits, and attracts nearly 500,000 visitors each year. Among its attractions are the Buhl Planetarium (which features the latest in digital projection technology), the Rangos Giant Theater (promoted as "the biggest screen in Pittsburgh"), a physical home for some of Carnegie Mellon University’s Robot Hall of Fame (in the lobby of the Rangos Giant Cinema), SportsWorks, the Miniature Railroad & Village, and the USS Requin (a World War II submarine). == Updates == According to Nicholas Efran, "The Carnegie Science Center has been a gathering place for kids and families for many years." However, currently there are many new exhibits that staff are "Not able to include because of the smaller size of the building" In June 2018, the museum's new wing opened, allowing the museum to host new and larger exhibits. In August 2021, the Pittsburgh Zoning Board of Adjustment extended the center's use of its 450-space parking lot until 2026, at which point it will need to significantly reduce the space number to 75 spaces to conform to zoning regulations. In October 2021, the center received funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)'s Communities for Immunity initiative because of its support of vaccine confidence in the Pittsburgh community. It used the $10,000 award to contribute to its COVID-19 vaccination awareness programs. In June 2022, § Roboworld closed. Some of the inductees to the Robot Hall of Fame, such as C-3PO and R2-D2 from Star Wars, Maria from Metropolis, as well as HAL 9000 from 2001: A Space Odyssey, were moved to the Rangos Giant Cinema. The big, free-throw-shooting basketball robot was moved to the § SportsWorks facility. Andy Roid, the singing Robothespian that greets visitors, was moved to the Science Center’s main lobby. All other robots from the exhibit went into storage "until the Science Center decides what to do with it". == History == Its predecessor was the Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science, which opened on October 24, 1939. The Buhl Planetarium was the fifth major planetarium in the United States, and was popular for several decades. However, by the 1980s it had begun to show signs of age. An expansion was ruled out, so the institute was relocated to the Chateau neighborhood. However, it became apparent to the Buhl Institute that the relocation efforts would require more staffing than they were able to provide. At this point, the Carnegie Institute (under the leadership of Robert Wilburn) stepped in, showing interest in merging with the Buhl Institute. Both parties agreed to the merger in 1987. On October 5, 1989, construction began on the $40 million building, designed by local architect Tasso Katselas, which was renamed the Carnegie Science Center as a result of the merger. The Henry Buhl Jr. Planetarium and Observatory was reinvented in this new facility. The Center opened in October 1991. On January 23, 2024, the Carnegie Science Center announced that they received a 65 million dollar donation from Daniel G. and Carole L. Kamin. In honor of the donation they announced plans to rename the center to The Daniel G. and Carole L. Kamin Science Center == Roboworld (until 2022) == The Roboworld area was the second-floor attraction at the Carnegie Science Center until June 19, 2022. It was touted as "the world's largest permanent robotics exhibition", with more than 30 interactive displays featuring "all things robotic". Until it closed, the first robot encounter in Roboworld was Andy Roid, the Robothespian, an interactive, animatronic robot that introduced visitors to the concepts of robotic sensing, processing and acting. The area's other exhibits showcased different types of robots and videos about them. Roboworld was also home to famous robots such as R2D2, Hal9000, C-3PO, and Gort. The Robot Hall of Fame featured famous robots from science fiction films, television, and video games, such as R2-D2, C-3PO, Data, the T-800 Terminator, R.O.B., Maschinenmensch, Gort, Robby the Robot, Robot B-9, HAL 9000, and Huey, Dewey, and Louie from Silent Running. == Highmark SportsWorks == Highmark SportsWorks (formerly UPMC SportsWorks) is one of the major, permanent exhibits of the Carnegie Science Center. It is one of larger science and sports exhibitions in the world, with over 30 interactive experiences in which visitors can participate. The main idea of SportsWorks is "to inspire learning and curiosity by uniting the experience of sports for every age level with the laws of science that controls sports." SportsWorks features three themed areas: Physics of Sports (exploring the science of balance, trajectory, center of gravity, momentum, etc.), LifeWorks (featuring information for keeping a healthy lifestyle), and Sports Challenge (demonstrating various physical activities present in many sports). The previous sponsor, UPMC, ended its sponsorship of SportsWorks in 2006. On November 13, 2008, the Carnegie Science Center unveiled plans for a new 12,000-square-foot (1,100 m2) SportsWorks, sponsored by Highmark. It reopened in the Fall of 2009. From October 8, 2007, until May 2008, SportsWorks housed the controversial exhibit BODIES... The Exhibition. At least one employee of the Carnegie Science Center left her job due to the implementation of this exhibit. A committee from Pittsburgh Regional Transit, then known as Port Authority, recommended in 2007 that the site be purchased and that SportsWorks be demolished to allow for construction of tracks for the North Shore Connector, an extension of Pittsburgh's light rail line to the North Side of Pittsburgh. == E-motion cone == The E-motion cone is a white-colored, inverted cone which sits atop the Science Center building. It is referred to as the Weather Cone and was designed by New York architect Shashi Caan and lighting designer Matthew Tanteri. It was installed in 2000 with a computerized lighting system. In 2008 a storm damaged the cone, thus it underwent upgrades to its lighting system with an addition of energy-efficient bulbs. At night, it is lit with different colors, signalling the weather forecast from WTAE-TV for the coming day. == See also == Miniature Railroad & Village Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh List of museums in Pennsylvania Seddon Bennington - director of the museum from 1994 until 2002 List of science centers == External links == Official website == References ==	Wikipedia/Carnegie_Science_Center
Kato Precision Railroad Models (関水金属株式会社, Sekisui Kinzoku Kabushikigaisha) is a Japanese manufacturer of model railroad equipment in N and HO scales. Founded in 1957, the Tokyo-based company manufactures models based on Japanese prototypes (such as the Shinkansen bullet train and Cape gauge trains and locomotives) for the Japanese market, North American prototypes for the North American market and European high-speed trains and Rhaetian Railway trains for the European market. Models for the OO9 market of Ffestiniog Railway engines are also made. The design and distribution of models for the North American market are handled by their U.S. subsidiary, Kato USA, founded in 1986 and located in Schaumburg, Illinois. The Kato (pronounced kah-toe) model railroad companies were founded by Yuji Kato, father of current president Hiroshi Kato, of the parent company Sekisui Kinzoku Co., Ltd. Yuji Kato, the founder of Sekisui Kinzoku Co., Ltd., died on November 21, 2016. == Unitrack == In both N scale and HO scale, Kato also manufactures an integrated roadbed model railroad track brand named Unitrack. What distinguishes Unitrack from other brands of integrated roadbed track is Kato's Unijoiner. This unique track joiner is also used by Tillig in their TT scale integrated roadbed Bedding Track products. == Locomotive features == Kato N-scale locomotive features include: Powerful 5-pole motors Blackened metal wheels and on some models: Operating ditch lights Directional golden white LEDs All-wheel electrical pickup == KATO Digital == A multiple train control system named KATO Digital was introduced in the late 1980s for HO scale model trains. Conceptually it is similar to Digital Command Control (DCC). Although an important milestone for Kato, KATO Digital was not very successful; both the controller units and the decoder modules required for the locomotives were expensive, and locomotives equipped with a KATO Digital decoder could not be used on conventional systems, making it difficult to run one's locomotives on friends' layouts or club layouts. == See also == Tomy, Kato's main competitor in Japan T-TRAK, a modular standard using Kato Unitrack == References == == External links == Official website Kato USA site	Wikipedia/Kato_Precision_Railroad_Models
The stud contact system is an obsolete ground-level power supply system for electric trams. The studs were cylinders with their tops flush with the road surface, and connected to an electrical cable underground. The studs contained a switch mechanism that made an electrical connection with the top of the stud when a car with a strong magnet at its underside passed over it, before automatically disconnencting. Electrical current was collected from the studs by a "skate" or "ski collector" under the tramcar. Stud contact systems were implemented from 1899 to 1921, and were short-lived due to safety issues. For example, one system by Diatto had switches that contained mercury, which often leaked or adhered to the side of the stud cylinder and kept the exposed top electrified. A system by Dolter implemented switches with pivot arms, which tended to get stuck in the electrified position. Similar systems were operated by Thomson-Houston in Monaco from 1898 to 1903, by František Křižík in Prague on the King Charles Bridge from 1903 to 1908,: 109–116 and others such as Griffiths-Bedell, Lorain, and Robrow. Like conduit current collection systems and the modern ground-level power supply systems, stud contact systems were chosen for aesthetic reasons when overhead wire systems would be obtrusive. == Collectors == Most electric railway systems take the power from an external generator. This means the electricity has to be collected while the locomotive is moving. In this context a locomotive refers to any electric vehicle on a railway track or tramway track. Generally electric locomotives collect power through a third rail or an overhead wire. The full circuit is completed by track rails. For main line railways with their protected lines overhead lines and third rails are not a problem. Tramways operate in cities. This means that the third rail system is not really practical. It has been used, protection being offered to other road users by placing it in a central groove. Even so, the ingress of dirt and water can cause problems. An alternative solution is to use studs. All the systems have a switch in the stud and a means to switch on the stud only while it is covered by the moving vehicle. As at least one stud must be covered by the collector at all times a long collector is used. The length has to be slightly greater than the maximum distance between any two studs. This collector is known as a skate or ski collector. This type of electrical power collector needs to move in the vertical plane to allow for natural differences in the height of the power supply studs. It is used on some full size tramway systems where there is a need for overhead wires not to be used, usually in areas of scenic value. == Model railways == The stud contact system is also used on model railway systems (e.g. Märklin) as the center line of studs is less obtrusive than a single central rail. For outdoor model railway systems the use of a stud supply system with a skate/ski collector has certain practical advantages. The system is inherently self-cleaning. While the track may not be perfect, with both rails acting as the return part of the system in parallel electrical pick-up problems are substantially reduced. While the system was generally confined to the larger gauges (O gauge and above) the Märklin company has for many years used a version of the system (known as the Märklin system) for their HO gauge range. Peco Products make studding for their 00/H0 track range. Part nos SL-17 for track and SL-18 for turnouts. Modern use of the system is largely restricted to garden railways where it has the advantage of being compatible with unmodified live steam locomotives. While it is possible to insulate model live steam locomotives so that they can operate on two rail electrified track, it is difficult and trouble prone especially where the model is likely to come into contact with water. == Non-railway applications == While the obvious use is on railway power collection, the system also has applications wherever electrical energy needs to be transferred from a static source to moving user, or vice versa. == Systems == === Brown === The Brown Surface Contact System was manufactured by Lorain. === Diatto === The Diatto stud system was the most common in France, with over 20,000 studs in use. It was invented by an Italian, Alfredo Diatto of Turin and was first installed in Tours in 1899, followed by four of the Paris tramway companies in 1900. === Dolter === For the Dolter system a conductor cable was laid in a trench between the rails. At 9-foot (2.7 m) intervals a box was fitted between the rails that contained a stud (which protruded about 1 inch (25 mm) above the road) and a bell crank. A magnet on a passing tram attracted this crank which then moved to make contact between the conductor cable and stud; once the tram moved away the crank dropped away and the stud was no longer connected to the cable. A long skate was suspended beneath each tramcar which was magnetised by electro-magnets and so both operated the cranks and collected the current that both moved the tram car and powered the electro-magnets. A small battery was carried to charge the electro-magnets should the power be interrupted. The negative return current passed through the rails. The town council of Torquay did not want their seaside resort disfigured by the poles and overhead wires of a conventional electric tramway and so invited the Dolter Electric Traction Company to construct a tramway using their stud-contact system. A horse was killed after it stepped on a live stud during construction of the Torquay Tramways. Each tram car was then fitted with a bell connected to a special contact arm to warn the driver if a stud remained live after it had passed. The conductor of the tram then had to reset the crank using an insulated mallet. During the Board of Trade inspection of the tramway four such studs were detected during about 8 miles (13 km) of tests. There were also frequent problems with trams being stopped when a stud failed to be made live when needed. The network covered 6.79 miles (10.93 km) and opened in stages during 1907 and 1908. On 27 January 1910 a snow storm stopped all the trams as they couldn't make contact with the studs. It was converted to overhead collection in 1911 shortly before it was extended to Paignton where the town council had refused to allow the Dolter system to be used. A short Dolter system also opened in 1907 in Hastings along the seafront to connect two sections of a network that otherwise used overhead collection. It lasted until 1913. For the next eight years the trams that worked along Hastings sea front were fitted with a small motor to enable them to move between the two sections of overhead wire, but in 1921 wires were provided along the section. The Mexborough & Swinton Tramway used the Dolter system from 1907 until 1908 when it was converted to overhead supply. === Griffiths-Bedell stud system === The Griffiths-Bedell stud system of the Lincoln Corporation Tramways. == Users == === United Kingdom === Hastings and District Electric Tramways (Dolter) Lincoln Corporation Tramways (Griffiths-Bedell) Mexborough & Swinton Tramway (Dolter) Torquay Tramways (Dolter) Wolverhampton Corporation Tramways (Lorain) plus some vehicles from the Wolverhampton District Electric Tramways Company which operated on Wolverhampton Corporation tracks === France === Lorient, Brittany, (Diatto) Paris, (Diatto) Tours, (Diatto) Bordeaux == See also == == References == ICS Reference Library volume on Tramway Tracks. Published by ICS in 1906. == External links == Lorient, Brittany (Diatto stud)	Wikipedia/Stud_contact_electrification_on_model_railways
In model railroading, a layout is a diorama containing scale track for operating trains. The size of a layout varies, from small shelf-top designs to ones that fill entire rooms, basements, or whole buildings. Attention to modeling details such as structures and scenery is common. Simple layouts are generally situated on a table, although other methods are used, including using a flush-sided door as a base. More permanent construction methods involve attaching benchwork framing to the walls of the room or building in which the layout is situated. == Track layout == An important aspect of any model railway is the layout of the track itself. Apart from the stations, there are four basic ways of arranging the track, and innumerable variations: Continuous loop. A circle or oval, with trains going round and round. Used in train sets. Point to point. A line with a station at each end, with trains going from one station to the other. Out and back. A pear shaped track, with trains leaving a station, going round a reversing loop, and coming back to the same station. Shunting (US: Switching). Either a station, a motive power depot or a yard where the primary mode of operation is shunting. This includes layouts which are built as a train shunting puzzle such as Timesaver and Inglenook Sidings. Common variations: On a point to point layout, the train can increase the time it takes to get from A to B by going around a continuous loop a few times. Single or double track or more, so more trains can run at the same time. Intermediate stations, to distinguish between express trains which go straight through and local trains which stop briefly. Branch lines, to add an excuse for more stations and different types of trains. Use of multiple levels. Arranging the continuous loop as a figure-of-8, possibly with one track going over the other instead of having tracks crossing on the same level. Folding one loop of a figure-of-8 over the other loop to produce a looped-8, so as to reduce the amount of space needed while keeping a long continuous run. Using one or more fiddle yards (US: staging tracks) to represent the rest of the railway system. A fiddle yard is regarded as off-scene; it may hold multiple complete trains, and may also be subject to direct human intervention (fiddling) to re-arrange trains, Dog-bone arrangement of a continuous loop; the sides of an oval are squeezed together so it looks like a double-track section with a loop at each end where the trains turn around. Rabbit warren; a continuous loop folded over itself several times with multiple levels and many tunnels for trains to pop in and out of - often a small layout with sharp curves and short trains. == Station layout == There are three basic types of station, and sometimes combinations of these types: Terminus or terminal station. As the name implies, all trains stop here, and then go back to where they came from. Through station. Trains can go through this station; express trains don't stop, while local trains do stop briefly before continuing their journey. Junction. The tracks diverge/join here. Other factors which affect the track layout of a station include: For passengers only, or for goods only, or for both passengers and goods. Use of steam engines and/or diesel/electric engines. Use of trains which can be driven from either end, e.g. Diesel Multiple Units. The simplest possible station for passengers consists of just a platform beside the track, with no points (US: switches) or sidings. Both terminal and through stations can be as simple as this; a junction requires at least one point. == References == "Adventurous Model Railway Plans." A. Postlethwaite. ISBN 1-85260-613-4. Basic configurations, page 9. "Basic Model Railroading: Getting Started in the Hobby." Kent J Johnson. ISBN 978-0-89024-334-3, Kalmbach Publishing, 1998. "Railway Modeling." N Simmons, 8th edition, ISBN 1-85260-596-0. Planning the layout Chapter 5. "Track Plans", C. J. Freezer. Peco Publications, 2nd edition. Layout Design Special Interest Group see subpage: Design Primer/Introduction to the wide variety of layouts possible == External links == http://www.plasticoferroviario.it – Hints and tips for model railroaders http://modeltrains.about.com – Online resource for model railroaders http://www.gatewaynmra.org/project.htm – Small model railroad project layouts http://carendt.com/ – Micro/Small Layouts for Model Railroads showing hundreds of examples	Wikipedia/Model_railway_layout
The Brazilian company Indústrias Reunidas Frateschi (known as Frateschi) is a model railroad manufacturer based in Ribeirão Preto, near São Paulo, Brazil. Today Frateschi exports to Argentina, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Uruguay, United States, France, Spain, Switzerland, South Africa, China, Taiwan, New Zealand and Australia. Frateschi is the only model railroad manufacturer in South America. == History == Founded in 1958 as a toy factory by Galileu Frateschi, the company originally produced stuffed animals and wooden furniture. This was followed by the first model railway products such as telephone poles and pylons. In 1967, the toy factory Frateschi has been renamed to "Indústrias Reunidas Frateschi Ltda" to concentrate fully on model trains with its core business focused on Brazilian railways (RFFSA, Fepasa, CPEF, EFS, etc.). In 1993 started a cooperation with Atlas and exported to the United States. The company annually organizes summits to promote the brand and gather model railroaders in cities such as Ribeirao Preto, Campinas and São Carlos. The last one in 2017 (13th edition) was held in Bebedouro - SP. == Products == Frateschi produces only HO scale models. The range includes locomotives, passenger and freight cars, railway tracks, and building kits. === Locomotives === In March 2015 the following models were produced by Frateschi : An interesting note on the FA-1 locomotive painted for the Reading Railroad. Frateschi picked the RDG 305 for the prototype. This locomotive had been wreck repaired and was painted incorrectly. The green stripe with gold pinstripes should only run down on the nose. The shop had incorrectly also had the stripe turn up on the nose somewhat creating a diamond around the company’s diamond logo == References ==	Wikipedia/Frateschi
Model Railroader (MR) is an American magazine about the hobby of model railroading. Founded in 1934 by Al C. Kalmbach, it is published monthly by Firecrown Media of Chattanooga, Tennessee. Commonly found on newsstands and in libraries, it promotes itself as the oldest magazine of its type in the United States, although it is the long-standing competitor to Railroad Model Craftsman, which - originally named The Model Craftsman - predates MR by one year. MR is considered to be a general-interest hobby magazine, appealing to a wide range of hobbyists, rather than specializing in a particular scale, or facet of the hobby (such as prototype operations or scratch building and kitbashing). Model Railroader covers a variety of scales and modeling techniques for engines, rolling stock, right-of-way, structures, and scenery. It reviews products including ready-to-run models as well as kits, tools and supplies. The magazine presents blueprints and photographs of prototype equipment, as well as photographs of models and layouts. A longstanding philosophy of modeling is manifest in its editorial features of layout design and operation, in which the model is viewed as a three-dimensional and temporal compression of the real world, so that, for example, the motive power, freight, trackage and scenery of a real-world railroad are formed into a layout which captures the spirit of not only the equipment and region of the railroad but also its purpose and how it operates. The magazine is published under ISSN 0026-7341. Individual issues use the UPC 074820085486. == History == The Model Railroader began publication in the summer of 1933, with a cover date of January 1934. A press release announcing the magazine appeared in August 1933, but did not receive much interest. The bank refused to loan Kalmbach any money, many felt sorry for him, and a few told him he was crazy. His first wife, Bernice, herself a journalist, encouraged and helped Al put The Model Railroader together. Though they originally saw it as a sideline business to their commercial printing operations, soon they were devoting seven days a week to the venture. The magazine was well received by model railroaders, and the young publisher carried the entire first press run (272 copies) by streetcar to be mailed. By July 1934, paid circulation exceeded 1,000 copies. Growth continued, but the magazine was not an immediate success. The magazine became profitable after three years. It took Kalmbach seven years to pay off the loans used to launch the magazine. World War II introduced paper rationing, which dampened the growth of the Kalmbach Publishing Company. At the end of the war, MR's circulation was 18,000. 1949, MR's circulation had grown to 82,000. 1950, MR's circulation had grown to 104,000, thanks in part to a boom in interest in model railroading. As of 2007, the magazine had a monthly paid circulation of more than 160,000. 2017 the year's final issue garnered a reported circulation figure that fell below 100,000. The magazine, and Kalmbach Publishing (later Kalmbach Media), celebrated its 85th anniversary in 2019. The magazine had to relocate 4 times, the original location was on 545 S. 84th Street (now a car wash) and later relocated to 1027 N. 7th Street (now part of Milwaukee Public Television and Milwaukee Area Technical College), from 1989 to 2024, they moved to 21027 Crossroads Circle in nearby Waukesha and in 2024, Kalmbach recently sold their building to Silgan Containers and the staff moving to nearby Brookfield, Wisconsin. Another thing Model Railroader had was their own model railroad layout, the Milwaukee, Racine and Troy, which was located on the second floor of the Kalmbach Media offices in Waukesha (the original was located on the 3rd floor of the old offices at 1027 N. 7th Street which was in operation from 1975 to 1989). In May 2024, longtime publisher Kalmbach Media divested of Model Railroader and other railroad interest magazines to publisher Firecrown Media. The Milwaukee, Racine and Troy model railroad was demolished when Kalmbach sold their building at 21027 Crossroads Circle and moved to Brookfield, Wisconsin, following the magazine's purchase by Firecrown media. == Features == Typical feature articles in each month's issue include: Layout tours - A layout story with a detailed track plan and behind-the-scenes modeling and construction tips. How-to projects - Tips and techniques for modeling scenery, structures, rolling stock, and electronics. Prototype information - Detailed drawings historical and technical information on how real railroads and lineside industries function. Track plans - Sample designs for model railroads the average hobbyist could build. Regular monthly columns and departments include: News and Products - Quick looks at new products available in the hobby. Railway Post Office - Letters from readers. Step-by-Step - Tackles a different project each month to help you build a better layout. Ask MR - Q&A about prototype railroading and model railroading. Also includes tips by readers. This department was created by merging workshop and Information Desk. DCC Corner - Get to know model train operation using Digital Command Control. Product reviews - A look at new models on the market and how well they perform. Trackside Photos - Inspirational photos featuring the work of fellow hobbyists. Trains of Thought - Every month model railroad expert Tony Koester looks at the philosophical side of model railroading. On Operation - How to reproduce prototype operations on a model railroad. N Scale Insight - From March 2011, former editor Jim Kelly began a column looking at N scale modelling. == Special issues and other media == Model Railroader publishes two annual special issues: Great Model Railroads showcases 10-12 spectacular model railroads, including large, inspirational photographs, detailed track plans, and how-to information. Model Railroad Planning deals with aspects of designing and constructing a model railroad. Typical articles focus on reproducing prototype track arrangements, overcoming modeling obstacles, and researching prototype railroads. Other special issues on various aspects of the hobby are released on an irregular basis. Titles have included 102 Track Plans for Model Railroaders, How to Build Realistic Layouts, and How to Build More Layout in Less Space. A bi-monthly web video show, Modeler's Spotlight Video - Inside Cody's Office, is available to magazine subscribers via MR's website. The show introduces new products, offers modeling tips, and a viewer mail segment (along with the occasional blooper at the end). Many of the blueprints, layout plans, articles on operation and signaling, and methods of construction of bridges, structures and scenery are also collected in books published by Kalmbach Books. These are useful to modelers in general, railroad historians, and are valuable references on the steam and diesel eras. Past MR articles are also collected in PDF form and distributed via the magazine's website and available through their digital archive. Model Railroader staff members participated in the production of the Dream-Plan-Build video series, which was offered by subscription. The DVDs focused on prototype railroading information, layout visits, and modeling techniques. Model Railroader also produced Model Railroader Video Plus (MRVP) which does layout tours, tips and tricks, and shows like: Cody's Workshop with Cody Grivno, Drew's Trackside Adventures with Drew Halverson, Off The Rails with Gerry Leone, Ask MRVP with David Popp (now called Ask Trains), Let's Make a Scene with Kathy Millatt, It's My Railroad with Steve Brown, Rehab My Railroad, History According to Hediger with Jim Hediger, The Hills Line with James McNabb, Tuck's Toy Trains with John Truckenbrod and many more. MRVP made its debut back in 2013 and is available to magazine subscribers as part of trains.com. == Cultural impact == The model train hobbyists the magazine has profiled over the years include a number of celebrities, including Michael Gross and Rod Stewart. Model Railroader also has several other "sister" magazines, also published by Kalmbach, including such titles as Trains magazine, Classic Trains, Garden Railways, and Classic Toy Trains. They are often advertised in Model Railroader, and on occasion, an article will refer to these other magazines. == See also == List of railroad-related periodicals == Notes == == External links == Model Railroader website	Wikipedia/Model_Railroader
In model railroading, a layout is a diorama containing scale track for operating trains. The size of a layout varies, from small shelf-top designs to ones that fill entire rooms, basements, or whole buildings. Attention to modeling details such as structures and scenery is common. Simple layouts are generally situated on a table, although other methods are used, including using a flush-sided door as a base. More permanent construction methods involve attaching benchwork framing to the walls of the room or building in which the layout is situated. == Track layout == An important aspect of any model railway is the layout of the track itself. Apart from the stations, there are four basic ways of arranging the track, and innumerable variations: Continuous loop. A circle or oval, with trains going round and round. Used in train sets. Point to point. A line with a station at each end, with trains going from one station to the other. Out and back. A pear shaped track, with trains leaving a station, going round a reversing loop, and coming back to the same station. Shunting (US: Switching). Either a station, a motive power depot or a yard where the primary mode of operation is shunting. This includes layouts which are built as a train shunting puzzle such as Timesaver and Inglenook Sidings. Common variations: On a point to point layout, the train can increase the time it takes to get from A to B by going around a continuous loop a few times. Single or double track or more, so more trains can run at the same time. Intermediate stations, to distinguish between express trains which go straight through and local trains which stop briefly. Branch lines, to add an excuse for more stations and different types of trains. Use of multiple levels. Arranging the continuous loop as a figure-of-8, possibly with one track going over the other instead of having tracks crossing on the same level. Folding one loop of a figure-of-8 over the other loop to produce a looped-8, so as to reduce the amount of space needed while keeping a long continuous run. Using one or more fiddle yards (US: staging tracks) to represent the rest of the railway system. A fiddle yard is regarded as off-scene; it may hold multiple complete trains, and may also be subject to direct human intervention (fiddling) to re-arrange trains, Dog-bone arrangement of a continuous loop; the sides of an oval are squeezed together so it looks like a double-track section with a loop at each end where the trains turn around. Rabbit warren; a continuous loop folded over itself several times with multiple levels and many tunnels for trains to pop in and out of - often a small layout with sharp curves and short trains. == Station layout == There are three basic types of station, and sometimes combinations of these types: Terminus or terminal station. As the name implies, all trains stop here, and then go back to where they came from. Through station. Trains can go through this station; express trains don't stop, while local trains do stop briefly before continuing their journey. Junction. The tracks diverge/join here. Other factors which affect the track layout of a station include: For passengers only, or for goods only, or for both passengers and goods. Use of steam engines and/or diesel/electric engines. Use of trains which can be driven from either end, e.g. Diesel Multiple Units. The simplest possible station for passengers consists of just a platform beside the track, with no points (US: switches) or sidings. Both terminal and through stations can be as simple as this; a junction requires at least one point. == References == "Adventurous Model Railway Plans." A. Postlethwaite. ISBN 1-85260-613-4. Basic configurations, page 9. "Basic Model Railroading: Getting Started in the Hobby." Kent J Johnson. ISBN 978-0-89024-334-3, Kalmbach Publishing, 1998. "Railway Modeling." N Simmons, 8th edition, ISBN 1-85260-596-0. Planning the layout Chapter 5. "Track Plans", C. J. Freezer. Peco Publications, 2nd edition. Layout Design Special Interest Group see subpage: Design Primer/Introduction to the wide variety of layouts possible == External links == http://www.plasticoferroviario.it – Hints and tips for model railroaders http://modeltrains.about.com – Online resource for model railroaders http://www.gatewaynmra.org/project.htm – Small model railroad project layouts http://carendt.com/ – Micro/Small Layouts for Model Railroads showing hundreds of examples	Wikipedia/Model_railroad_layout
Noch GmbH & Co. KG, from Wangen im Allgäu (written NOCH by the company) is a manufacturer and importer of accessories for model trains, especially for building landscapes. It makes products for all common sizes of model trains. == History == The company was founded in 1911 by Oswald Noch in Glauchau in Saxony, Germany. Because of the political reprisals and the nationalisation of the East German government at the time, the son of the company's founder, Erich Noch, saw no chance to expand his workshop. In 1957, he risked the move to the West. Leaving all of his assets and property behind, he began first in Munich and then in 1961 in Allgäu, to set up a new business. Supported by his family, the company grew very quickly in the 1960s and 1970s. Soon, his son, Peter Noch, took over management of production and father and son together led the company to success. In 1978, the private company was converted to a GmbH & Co. KG (limited partnership company). After the death of the senior manager, Erich Noch, in October 1989, Peter Noch lead the company as the sole business manager. Dr. Rainer Noch, the son of Peter Noch and thus the fourth generation of the Noch family, has worked in the company since 1994. Father and son lead the company together until the death of Peter Noch in September 1997. == Product Range == Noch is the German distributor for Athearn and Kato products. Noch is well known for a large range of materials for building landscapes, ready-made terrain of synthetic materials. Many Noch products are designed for use with Märklin, Fleischmann (model railroads), Kato and Trix trains. Noch offers over 1000 products for the model railway hobby including landscaping materials and accessories. ZITERDES is a Noch line that offers dedicated gamers the tools and terrain pieces to create their Wargaming miniature environments: hybrid scenery; urban ruins with war-torn buildings; gaming table formats for alien war games; gaming forests and catacombs for Dungeons & Dragons miniatures; or a pirate theme. ZITERDES modular gaming tables (MGTs) can be detailed with scenic elements and combined with additional MGTs to develop the battlefield for Warhammer 40,000 alien gaming or wargame miniatures battlefield, for Urban Mammoth example. Another product Noch is known for is plastic model railway figures. == References == Reinold, D.; Rückert, H. (2006). Handbuch für Modellbahn-Sammler [Handbook for model railway collectors] (in German) (DDR-H0 ed.). Hilden.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Riesner, Jens (2011). 100 Jahre NOCH [100 Years NOCH] (in German). Nuremberg.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)	Wikipedia/Noch_(model_railroads)
The Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) is a student organization at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Historically, it has been a wellspring of hacker culture and the oldest such hacking group in North America. Formed in 1946, its HO scale layout specializes in the automated operation of model trains. == History == The first meeting of the Tech Model Railroad Club was organized by John Fitzallen Moore and Walter Marvin in November 1946. Moore and Marvin had membership cards #0 and #1 and served as the first president and vice-president respectively. They then switched roles the following year. Circa 1948, the club obtained official MIT campus space in Room 20E-214, on the third floor of Building 20, a "temporary" World War II-era structure, sometimes called "the Plywood Palace", which had been home to the MIT Radiation Lab during World War II. The club's members, who shared a passion to find out how things worked and then to master them, were among the first hackers. Some of the key early members of the club were Jack Dennis and Peter Samson, who compiled the 1959 Dictionary of the TMRC Language and who are credited with originating the concept "Information wants to be free". The atmosphere was casual; members disliked authority. Members received a key to the room after logging 40 hours of work on the layout. The club was composed of several groups, including those who were interested in building and painting replicas of certain trains with historical and emotional values, those that wanted to do scenery and buildings, those that wanted to run trains on schedules, and those composing the "Signals and Power Subcommittee" who created the circuits that made the trains run. This last group would be among the ones who popularized the term "hacker" among many other slang terms and who eventually moved on to computers and programming. They were initially drawn to the IBM 704, the multimillion-dollar mainframe that was operated in Building 26, but access to and time on the mainframe was restricted to more important people. The group really became intensively involved with computers when Jack Dennis, a former member who had by then joined the MIT Electrical Engineering faculty, introduced them to the TX-0, a $3,000,000 computer on long-term loan from Lincoln Laboratory. At the club itself, a semi-automatic control system based on telephone relays was installed by the mid-1950s. It was called the ARRC (Automatic Railroad Running Computer). It could run a train over the entire set of track, in both directions without manual intervention, throwing switches and powering tracks ahead of the train. A mainframe program was used to compute the path, and all modifications to the layout had to be compatible with this ability. It was sometimes used to clean the tracks with a track scraper car. Sometime around 1964, this was replaced by a second system built around the Number 5 Crossbar telephone switch; the lead designer for this project was Alan Kotok, a prominent member of the design staff at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). Equipment for this effort was donated by the telephone company via the Western Electric College Gift Plan. An extension to the basic control system allowed TMRC engineers to control switches on the layout. There was also a digital clock display with relay switching, and an internal telephone system with external tie-lines, all built from telephone stepping switches and relays. The system of telephones was used for voice communication, for control of the clock, as well as for control of switches and blocks. Additionally, "j trains" (imaginary trains) could be run by plugs in the control system. Around 1970, Digital Equipment Corporation donated two small rackmount PDP-11 minicomputers. One was eventually used to operate the club's major freight yard, and the other was set up to perform user interface tasks, such as the initial assignment of trains to throttles,and to throw turnouts. The computer replaced the keypad unit from an old keypunch machine, which had been originally installed by Richard Greenblatt. == Vocabulary and neologisms == The TMRC spawned a unique vocabulary. Compiled in the TMRC Dictionary, it included terms that later became part of the hacker's Jargon File, such as "foo", "mung", and "frob". Other substitutions include "orifice" for office (as in later Back Orifice), "cruft" for garbage, and "hack", meaning an elaborate college prank carried out by MIT students. This last definition is the basis for the term "hacker". == System layout == By 1962, the TMRC layout was already a complex electromechanical system, controlled by about 1200 relays. There were scram switches located at numerous places around the room that could be pressed to shut down all movement on the tracks if something undesirable was about to occur, such as a train going full speed toward an obstruction. Another feature of the system was a relay-logic digital clock (dubbed the "digital crock") on the dispatch board, which was itself something of a wonder in the days before cheap LEDs and seven-segment displays. When someone hits a scram switch, the clock stops and the time display is replaced with the word "FOO". At TMRC, the scram switches are therefore called "foo switches". The layout is set in the 1950s, when railroads operated steam and diesel-electric engines side by side. This allows visitors to run a wide variety of model rolling stock without looking too anachronistic. In his book Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Steven Levy gives a detailed account of those early years. TMRC's "Signals and Power Subcommittee" liked to work on the layout's relays, switches, and wires, while the "Midnight Requisitioning Committee" obtained parts independently of campus procurement rules. The Signals and Power Subcommittee included most of the early TX-0 and PDP-1 computer hackers, and several people would later join the core of the MIT AI Lab staff. TMRC was even offered its own multi-rack-cabinet PDP-1 by 1965, although it had no space in which to install it and thus was forced to decline the gift. MIT's Building 20, TMRC's home for 50 years, was slowly evacuated in 1996–98 and demolished in 1999 to make room for the Ray and Maria Stata Center. The club was offered a new space in Building N52, the MIT Museum building. Most of the original layout could not be moved and was demolished. Construction of a new layout began immediately and still continues. The vintage telephone crossbar relay-based control system was moved into the new space and operated for two years but, as the new layout grew, the decision was made to replace it with an electronic equivalent. Known as "System 3", this new system comprises around 40 PIC16F877 microcontrollers under the command of a Linux computer. An unusual feature of the new layout is an HO scale model of the Green Building, an 18-story building which is the tallest structure in the academic core of the MIT campus. The model is wired with an array of incandescent window lights, which can be used as a display for playing Tetris, and was a precursor to the project to do this with the actual building. Passersby inside Building N52 can view the model through a window and play a monochromatic version of Tetris via remote control, accompanied by authentic-sounding music, even when the facility is closed. In 2011, an independent group of hackers reified this "holy grail" of hacking by installing and operating a full-sized color version of Tetris on the 295-foot (90 m) tall Green Building tower. == Current activities == As of April 2015, TMRC holds a semi-annual Open House, inviting the MIT community and the general public to visit. At other times, visitors are generally welcome when members are present. == Notable members == John McCarthy Jack Dennis Peter Deutsch Alan Kotok Richard Greenblatt John Fitzallen Moore Peter Samson 'Slug' Russell == See also == Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology == References == == External links == Tech Model Railroad Club, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT, archived from the original on 2018-10-31, retrieved 2018-11-07 Dictionary, TMRC, archived from the original on 2018-01-02, retrieved 2003-05-03 Levy, Steven (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Project Gutenberg. ISBN 978-0-385-19195-1. Retrieved June 18, 2006. Hapgood, Fred (February 1993). Up the Infinite Corridor: MIT and the Technical Imagination. Amazon. ISBN 978-0201082937.	Wikipedia/Tech_Model_Railroad_Club
An automotive facelift, also known as mid-generational refresh, minor model change, minor model update, or life cycle impulse, comprises changes to a vehicle's styling during its production run including, to highly variable degree, new sheetmetal, interior design elements or mechanical changes, allowing a carmaker to freshen a model without a complete redesign. While the life cycle of cars hovers around six to eight years until a full model change, facelifts are generally introduced around three years in their production cycle. A facelift retains the basic styling and platform of the car, with aesthetic alterations, e.g., changes to the front fascia (grille, headlights), taillights, bumpers, instrument panel and center console, and various body or interior trim accessories. Mechanical changes may or may not occur concurrently with the facelift (e.g., changes to the engine, suspension or transmission). == History == In the 1920s, General Motors under the leadership of Alfred P. Sloan at the time had lost market share to Ford, which relied on the Model T as their best-selling model. Sloan is credited of establishing a strategy in which the company introduces annual styling changes to their vehicles in order to regain market share. Ford, on the other hand, refused to remodel the Model T until the 1930s, during which time Ford had lost market share to GM. Since then, the idea of this model change also spread to various industrial products other than automobiles. The strategy has made vehicles owned by consumers artificially out of fashion, thus creating a stimulation for customers to purchase new vehicles. The strategy is also considered as a form of planned obsolescence. == Definitions == The term "facelift", which is also sometimes known as a "minor change", "minor update", or "refresh" by car manufacturers, describes a minimum change to a model which normally also coincides with a model year change. While the word "facelift" is a generic term used across the industry, manufacturers may each have their own phrase to describe a facelifted model. BMW uses the acronym LCI ("Life Cycle Impulse") to denote a facelift. Other marques may directly call a particular car a facelift model, while some simply call it a new model. In automotive parlance, "new" usually refers to a facelifted model, whilst the term "all-new" denotes an entirely new generation with not only a design overhaul, but new underpinnings as well. Holden and Ford Australia implemented a strategy in their automotive design, involving substantial stylistic alterations while retaining the overall generation and platform of the vehicles. Some instances include the fourth generation Holden Commodore, which comprises the VE and VF, as well as the seventh generation Ford Falcon, represented by the FG and FG X. Although these models belong to the same generation, they represented different iterations. Despite essentially being facelifts of one another, these iterations have undergone subtle aesthetic enhancements, commonly referred to as "Series II" revisions. == Examples == A facelift may include a change to the vehicle's name; such was the case when Ford renamed their Five Hundred model to be their Ford Taurus in 2008. The facelifts of the Citroën DS3, DS4 and DS5 even changed the brand under which these models were marketed from Citroën to DS. Models with longer lifespans (10 or more years) may undergo multiple facelifts. Examples include the third-generation Mazda6, which has been on sale since December 2012 and has since gained two major facelifts in 2016 and 2018, both of which included significant interior revisions. == See also == Automotive design == References ==	Wikipedia/Model_change
The strict father model of parenting is one which values strict discipline, particularly by the father, in parenting. The strict mother model also exists. Ideas involved in this model include: That children learn through reward and punishment, as in operant conditioning. Corporal punishment, such as spanking, is favored in this model relative to other models. That children become more self-reliant and more self-disciplined by having strict parents. That the parent, particularly the father, is meant to mete out rewards for good behavior as well as punish bad behavior. This model of child-rearing would involve, for example, allowing children to cry themselves to sleep on the grounds that picking up a child when it should be sleeping on its own improperly fosters dependence on the parents. In his book Dare to Discipline, James Dobson advocates the strict father model. However, some researchers have linked authoritarian childrearing with children who withdraw, lack spontaneity, and have lesser evidence of conscience. The strict father model is discussed by George Lakoff in his books, including Moral Politics, Don't Think of an Elephant, The Political Mind, and Whose Freedom?. In these books, the strict father model is contrasted with the nurturant parent model. Lakoff argues that if the metaphor of nation as family and government as parent is used, then conservative politics correspond to the strict father model. For example, conservatives think that adults should refrain from looking to the government for assistance lest they become dependent. == References == == External links == The Nation as Family. Rockridge Institute. Refer to chapter 4. Two Worldviews - A History, Two Ideal Family Models and The Role of Empathy	Wikipedia/Strict_father_model
A dysfunctional family is a family in which conflict, misbehavior and often child neglect or abuse on the part of individual parents occur continuously and regularly. Children that grow up in such families may think such a situation is normal. Dysfunctional families are primarily a result of two adults, one typically overtly abusive and the other codependent, and may also be affected by substance abuse or other forms of addiction, or sometimes by an untreated mental illness. Parents having grown up in a dysfunctional family may over-correct or emulate their own parents. In some cases, the dominant parent will abuse or neglect their children and the other parent will not object, misleading a child to assume blame. == Examples == Dysfunctional family members have common features and behavior patterns as a result of their experiences within the family structure. This tends to reinforce the dysfunctional behavior, either through enabling or perpetuation. The family unit can be affected by a variety of factors. === Features dysfunctional families possess === ==== Nearly universal ==== Some features are common to most dysfunctional families: Lack of empathy, understanding, and sensitivity towards certain family members, while expressing extreme empathy or appeasement towards one or more members who have real or perceived special needs. In other words, one family member continuously receives far more than they deserve, while another is marginalized. Denial (refusal to acknowledge abusive behavior, possibly believing that the situation is normal or even beneficial; also known as the "elephant in the room".) Inadequate or missing boundaries (e.g. self tolerating inappropriate treatment from others, failing to express what is acceptable and unacceptable treatment, tolerance of physical, emotional or sexual abuse e.g. others physical contact that other person dislikes; breaking important promises without just cause; purposefully violating a boundary another person has expressed.) Extremes in conflict (either too much fighting or insufficient peaceful arguing between family members.) Unequal or unfair treatment of one or more family members due to their birth order, gender (or gender identity), age, sexual orientation, family role (mother, etc.), abilities, race, caste, etc. (may include frequent appeasement of one member at the expense of others, or an uneven/inconsistent enforcement of rules.) ==== Not universal ==== Though not universal among dysfunctional families, and by no means exclusive to them, the following features are typical of dysfunctional families: Abnormally high levels of jealousy or other controlling behaviors. Conflict influenced by marital status: Between separated or divorced parents, usually related to, or arising from their breakup. Conflict between parents who remain married, often for the perceived sake of the children, but whose separation or divorce would in fact remove a detrimental influence on those children (must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, as a breakup may harm children.) Parents who wish to divorce, but cannot due to financial, societal (including religious), or legal reasons. Children afraid to talk (within or outside the family) about what is happening at home, or are otherwise fearful of their parents. Abnormal sexual behavior such as adultery, promiscuity, or incest. Lack of time spent together, especially in recreational activities and social events ("We never do anything as a family.") Parents insist that they treat their children fairly and equitably when that is not the case. Family members (including children) who disown each other, or refuse to be seen together in public (either unilaterally or bilaterally.) Children of parents who are experiencing a substance use disorder or who engage in binge drinking have an increased tendency to adopt substance use disorders later in life. === Specific examples === There are certain times where families can become dysfunctional due to specific situational examples. Some of these include difficulty integrating into a new culture, strain in the relationship between nuclear and extended family members, children in a rebellion phase, and ideological differences in belief systems. === Laundry List === The program Adult Children of Alcoholics includes a "Laundry List", core literature of the program. This list has 14 different statements that relate to being an adult child of a parent with an alcohol addiction. These statements provide commentary on how children have been affected by the trauma of having alcoholic parents. Some highlights of the statements include, "confusing love and pity", "having low self-esteem", and having a "loss of identity". The Laundry List is a helpful tool in group therapy in order to show families that they are not alone in their struggles. Female children whose parents were alcoholics have an increased risk of developing depression. Male children of alcoholics are at a significantly higher risk for developing a substance use disorder. == Parenting == === Unhealthy signs === Unhealthy parenting signs, which could lead to a family becoming dysfunctional include: Unrealistic expectations Ridicule Conditional love Disrespect; especially contempt. Emotional intolerance (family members not allowed to express the "wrong" emotions.) Social dysfunction or isolation (for example, parents unwilling to reach out to other families—especially those with children of the same gender and approximate age, or do nothing to help their "friendless" child.) Stifled speech (children not allowed to dissent or question authority.) Denial of an "inner life" (children are not allowed to develop their own value systems.) Being under- or over-protective Apathy ("I don't care!") Belittling ("You can't do anything right!") Shame ("Shame on you!") Bitterness (regardless of what is said, using a bitter tone of voice.) Hypocrisy ("Do as I say, not as I do.") Lack of forgiveness for minor misdeeds or accidents Judgmental statements or demonization ("You are a liar!") Being overly critical and withholding proper praise. (experts say 80–90% praise, and 10–20% constructive criticism is the most healthy.) Double standards or giving "mixed messages" by having a dual system of values (i.e. one set for the outside world, another when in private, or teaching divergent values to each child.) The absentee parent (seldom available for their child due to work overload, alcohol/drug abuse, gambling, or other addictions.) Unfulfilled projects, activities, and promises affecting children ("We'll do it later.") Giving to one child what rightly belongs to another Gender prejudice (treats one gender of children fairly; the other unfairly.) Discussion and exposure to sexuality: either too much, too soon or too little, too late Faulty discipline based more on emotions or family politics than on established rules (e.g., punishment by "surprise".) Having an unpredictable emotional state due to substance abuse, personality disorder(s), or stress Parents always (or never) take their children's side when others report acts of misbehavior, or teachers report problems at school Scapegoating (knowingly or recklessly blaming one child for the misdeeds of another) "Tunnel vision" diagnosis of children's problems (for example, a parent may think their child is either lazy or has learning disabilities after falling behind in school despite recent absence due to illness.) Older siblings given either no or excessive authority over younger siblings with respect to their age difference and level of maturity. Frequent withholding of consent ("blessing") for culturally common, lawful, and age-appropriate activities a child wants to take part in The "know-it-all" (has no need to obtain child's side of the story when accusing, or listen to child's opinions on matters which greatly impact them.) Regularly forcing children to attend activities for which they are extremely over- or under-qualified (e.g. using a preschool to babysit a typical nine-year-old boy, taking a young child to poker games, etc.) Either being a miser ("scrooge") in totality or selectively allowing children's needs to go unmet (e.g. a father will not buy a bicycle for his son because he wants to save money for retirement or "something important".) Disagreements about nature and nurture (parents, often non-biological, blame common problems on child's heredity, when faulty parenting may be the actual cause.) === Dysfunctional styles === ==== "Children as pawns" ==== One common dysfunctional parental behavior is a parent's manipulation of a child in order to achieve some outcome adverse to the other parent's rights or interests. Examples include verbal manipulation such as spreading gossip about the other parent, communicating with the parent through the child (and in the process exposing the child to the risks of the other parent's displeasure with that communication) rather than doing so directly, trying to obtain information through the child (spying), or causing the child to dislike the other parent, with insufficient or no concern for the damaging effects of the parent's behavior on the child. While many instances of such manipulation occur in shared custody situations that have resulted from separation or divorce, it can also take place in intact families, where it is known as triangulation. ==== List of other dysfunctional styles ==== "Using" (destructively narcissistic parents who rule by fear and conditional love.) Abusing (parents who use physical violence, or emotionally, or sexually abuse their children.) Perfectionist (fixating on order, prestige, power, or perfect appearances, while preventing their child from failing at anything.) Dogmatic or cult-like (harsh and inflexible discipline, with children not allowed, within reason, to dissent, question authority, or develop their own value system.) Inequitable parenting (going to extremes for one child while continually ignoring the needs of another.) Deprivation (control or neglect by withholding love, support, necessities, sympathy, praise, attention, encouragement, supervision, or otherwise putting their children's well-being at risk.) Abuse among siblings (parents fail to intervene when a sibling physically or sexually abuses another sibling.) Abandonment (a parent who willfully separates from their children, not wishing any further contact, and in some cases without locating alternative, long-term parenting arrangements, leaving them as orphans.) Appeasement (parents who reward bad behavior—even by their own standards—and inevitably punish another child's good behavior in order to maintain the peace and avoid temper tantrums. "Peace at any price.") Loyalty manipulation (giving unearned rewards and lavish attention trying to ensure a favored, yet rebellious child will be the one most loyal and well-behaved, while subtly ignoring the wants and needs of their most loyal child currently.) "Helicopter parenting" (parents who micro-manage their children's lives or relationships among siblings—especially minor conflicts.) "The deceivers" (well-regarded parents in the community, likely to be involved in some charitable/non-profit works, who abuse or mistreat one or more of their children.) "Public image manager" (sometimes related to above, children warned to not disclose what fights, abuse, or damage happens at home, or face severe punishment "Don't tell anyone what goes on in this family".) "The paranoid parent" (a parent having persistent and irrational fear accompanied by anger and false accusations that their child is up to no good or others are plotting harm.) "No friends allowed" (parents discourage, prohibit, or interfere with their child from making friends of the same age and gender.) Role reversal (parents who expect their minor children to take care of them instead.) "Not your business" (children continuously told that a particular brother or sister who is often causing problems is none of their concern.) Ultra-egalitarianism (either a much younger child is permitted to do whatever an older child may, or an older child must wait years until a younger child is mature enough.) "The guard dog" (a parent who blindly attacks family members perceived as causing the slightest upset to their esteemed spouse, partner, or child.) "My baby forever" (a parent who will not allow one or more of their young children to grow up and begin taking care of themselves.) "The cheerleader" (one parent "cheers on" the other parent who is simultaneously abusing their child.) "Along for the ride" (a reluctant de facto, step, foster, or adoptive parent who does not truly care about their non-biological child, but must co-exist in the same home for the sake of their spouse or partner) (See also: Cinderella effect). "The politician" (a parent who repeatedly makes or agrees to children's promises while having little to no intention of keeping them.) "It's taboo" (parents rebuff any questions children may have about sexuality, pregnancy, romance, puberty, certain private body areas, nudity, etc.) Identified patient (one child, usually selected by the mother, who is forced into going to therapy while the family's overall dysfunction is kept hidden.) Münchausen syndrome by proxy (a much more extreme situation than above, where the child is intentionally made ill by a parent seeking attention from physicians and other professionals.) == Dynamical == Coalitions are subsystems within families with more rigid boundaries and are thought to be a sign of family dysfunction. The isolated family member (either a parent or child up against the rest of the otherwise united family.) Parent vs. parent (frequent fights amongst adults, whether married, divorced, or separated, conducted away from the children.) The polarized family (a parent and one or more children on each side of the conflict.) Parents vs. kids (intergenerational conflict, generation gap or culture shock dysfunction.) The balkanized family (named after the three-way war in the Balkans where alliances shift back and forth.) Free-for-all (a family that fights in a "free-for-all" style, though may become polarized when range of possible choices is limited.) == Children == Unlike divorce, and to a lesser extent, separation, there is often no record of an "intact" family being dysfunctional. As a result, friends, relatives, and teachers of such children may be completely unaware of the situation. In addition, a child may be unfairly blamed for the family's dysfunction, and placed under even greater stress than those whose parents separate. === The six basic roles === Children growing up in a dysfunctional family have been known to adopt or be assigned one or more of the following six basic roles: The Golden Child (also known as the Hero or Superkid): a child who becomes a high achiever or overachiever outside the family (e.g., in academics or athletics) as a means of escaping the dysfunctional family environment, defining themselves independently of their role in the dysfunctional family, currying favor with parents, or shielding themselves from criticism by family members. The Problem Child, Rebel, or Truth Teller: the child who a) causes most problems related to the family's dysfunction or b) "acts out" in response to preexisting family dysfunction, in the latter case often in an attempt to divert attention paid to another member who exhibits a pattern of similar misbehavior. A variant of the "problem child" role is the Scapegoat, who is unjustifiably assigned the "problem child" role by others within the family or even wrongfully blamed by other family members for those members' own individual or collective dysfunction, often despite being the only emotionally stable member of the family. The Caretaker: the one who takes responsibility for the emotional well-being of the family, often assuming a parental role; the intra-familial counterpart of the "Good Child"/"Superkid." The Lost Child or Passive Kid: the inconspicuous, introverted, quiet one, whose needs are usually ignored or hidden. The Mascot or Family Clown: uses comedy to divert attention away from the increasingly dysfunctional family system. The Mastermind: the opportunist who capitalizes on the other family members' faults to get whatever they want; often the object of appeasement by grown-ups. === Effects on children === Children that are a product of dysfunctional families, either at the time or as they grow older, may exhibit behavior that is inappropriate for their expected stage of development due to psychological distress. Children of dysfunctional families may also behave in a manner that is relatively immature when compared to their peers. Conversely, other children may appear to emotionally "grow up too fast"; or be in a mixed mode (e.g. well-behaved, but unable to care for themselves). Children from dysfunctional environments also have a tendency to demonstrate learned unhealthy attachments due to intergenerational dysfunctional parenting. The effects of a disordered upbringing may induce an array of mental health issues, including depression and anxiety. A disordered family environment unfortunately places these young individuals at a higher risk of engaging in more severe actions of self-harm and problematic conduct. This troubled environment can also subject the youth to a significantly higher risk of becoming addicted to drugs or developing alcoholism, especially if parents or close peers have a history of substance use. Numerous studies have determined that deviant peer associations are generally associated with substance use and that parental use can account for one-half to two-thirds of future instances of chemical dependency. There is also an increased risk of the young individual developing behavioral addictions in the forms of gambling, pornography addictions, or engaging in other future detrimental activities such as compulsive spending. Children who are raised in dysfunctional environments are also at a higher risk of developing an eating disorder, including anorexia nervosa or binge eating disorder as an emotional coping method due to psychological distress. These young individuals may also have difficulty forming and maintaining healthy relationships within their peer group, due to social apprehensions, possible personality disorders, or post-traumatic stress disorders. A child may also demonstrate oppositional defiant characteristics by rebelling against parental authority, and non-family adults, or conversely, upholding their family's values in the face of peer pressure. Children of disordered environments may also demonstrate a lack of self-discipline when their parents are not around, or develop procrastinating tendencies that can have detrimental effects on their educational/occupational obligations. Additionally, children may demonstrate social inadequacies by spending an inordinate amount of time engaging in activities that lack in-person social interaction. This disordered upbringing can also promote the child to project aggressive behaviors on their peers by bullying or harassing others or becoming a victim of bullying. Both of these roles often lead to an elevated risk of the child having low self-esteem issues, increased prevalence of isolation, and difficulties expressing emotions, a common effect related to emotional and physical abuse. A lack of parental structure and positive peer influences can lead young individuals to seek alternative forms of peer alliances, including peer groups that engage in juvenile delinquency and those who perform acts that are knowingly illegal or demonstrate symptoms of an oppositional defiant disorder. This habitual behavior and environmental factors can also lead the troubled youth to a life of crime, or to become involved in gang activity. This lack of socially normative structure and defiant behavior is also notable in cases where sexual abuse was prevalent. Early sexual experiences can lead to sexually inappropriate behavior that could lead to future interest in pedophilia, or facing charges that can result in the individual becoming a sex offender. A 1999 study determined that children who had experienced abusive sexual experiences, "as compared to those without, were more likely to be victims of physical family violence, to have run away, to be substance abusers, and to have family members with drug or alcohol problems" (Kellogg et al, 1999). Additionally, the young individual may be at an elevated risk of becoming poor or homeless, even in cases where the child's environment consisted of an average/above-average socioeconomic standing. Further socialization problems can be demonstrated by children of dysfunctional families, including habitual or sudden academic performance problems. This notion can be more apparent as the child may exhibit a severe lack of organizational skills in their day-to-day lives. These individuals are also at an elevated inability to maintain healthy interpersonal relationships, which often includes distrusting others or even demonstrating paranoid behaviors that can be indicative of childhood trauma-induced psychosis and schizophrenia. There is also a higher probability of the youth engaging in future unstable empathetical relationships, with higher tendencies to engage in more risky behavior, including sex with multiple partners, becoming pregnant, or becoming a parent of illegitimate children. Further dysfunctional behaviors can be perpetuated in other future relationships. An individual that was raised in a dysfunctional home environment may also pass this learned behavior on to their offspring, including their substance use habits, conflict resolution methods, and learned social boundaries. These social inadequacies can result in individuals demonstrating self-protective behaviors, to compensate for the difference in their childhoods, as they may have the inability to practice positive self-care and effective emotional coping strategies. == In popular culture == Films about dysfunctional families Television series about dysfunctional families Animated television series about dysfunctional families == See also == == References == References Cont. 23. Palmer, Nancie. (August 1997). Resilience in Adult Children of Alcoholics:A Nonpathological Approach to Social Work Practice, Health & Social Work, 22 (3) pp. 201–209, https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/22.3.201 24. ACA Worldwide. (2022, April 14). Adult Children of Alcoholics & Dysfunctional Families World Service Organization. Adult Children of Alcoholics & Dysfunctional Families. Retrieved April 19, 2022, from https://adultchildren.org/ == Further reading == Lundy Bancroft, "Why Does He Do That? Inside the Minds of Angry and Controlling Men" 2002 Berkley Books, ISBN 0-399-14844-2 John Bradshaw, Healing the Shame That Binds You John Bradshaw, Homecoming: Reclaiming and Healing Your Inner Child John Bradshaw, Bradshaw On: The Family Stephanie Donaldson-Pressman, The Narcissistic Family. Diagnosis and Treatment Beth Polson and Miller Newton, Not My Kid: A Family's Guide to Kids and Drugs, Arbor Books / Kids of North Jersey Nurses, 1984, ISBN 978-0877956334, Charles L. Whitfield, Healing the Child Within: Discovery and Recovery for Adult Children of Dysfunctional Families == External links ==	Wikipedia/Dysfunctional_family
Role model is a sociological term. Role Model or Role Models may also refer to: == Film and television == "Role Model" (House), a 2005 episode of the TV program House Role Models, a 2008 comedy film Role Models (2017 film), Indian Malayalam-language comedy-drama film == Literature == Role Models, a 2010 memoir by John Waters == Music == Role Model (singer), American singer-songwriter and former rapper === Albums === Role Model (Cex album), 2000 Role Model (Bodyjar album), 2013 === Songs === "Role Model" (song), a 1999 song by Eminem "Role Models" (song), a 2018 song by AJR "Role Model", a 2014 song by Ronnie Radke from the mixtape Watch Me "ROLE MODEL", a 2014 song by Brent Faiyaz from the album Wasteland	Wikipedia/Role_Model_(disambiguation)
A personal network is a set of human contacts known to an individual, with whom that individual would expect to interact at intervals to support a given set of activities. In other words, a personal network is a group of caring, dedicated people who are committed to maintain a relationship with a person in order to support a given set of activities. Having a strong personal network requires being connected to a network of resources for mutual development and growth. Personal networks can be understood by: who knows you what you know about them what they know about you what are you learning together how you work at that Personal networks are intended to be mutually beneficial, extending the concept of teamwork beyond the immediate peer group. The term is usually encountered in the workplace, though it could apply equally to other pursuits outside work. Personal networking is the practice of developing and maintaining a personal network, which is usually undertaken over an extended period. The concept is related to business networking and is often encouraged by large organizations, in the hope of improving productivity, and so a number of tools exist to support the maintenance of networks. Many of these tools are IT-based, and use Web 2.0 technologies. == History of networking and business success == In the second half of the twentieth century, U.S. advocates for workplace equity popularized the term and concept of networking as part of a larger social capital lexicon—which also includes terms such as glass ceiling, role model, mentoring, and gatekeeper—serving to identify and address the problems barring non-dominant groups from professional success. Mainstream business literature subsequently adopted the terms and concepts, promoting them as pathways to success for all career climbers. In 1970 these terms were not in the general American vocabulary; by the mid-1990s they had become part of everyday speech. Before the mid-twentieth century, what we call networking today was framed in the language of family and friendship. These close personal relationships provided a range of opportunities to preferred subsets of people, such as access to job opportunities, information, credit, and partnerships. Family networks and nepotism have proven particularly strong throughout history. However, other common bonds—from ethnicity and religion to school ties and club memberships—can connect subsets of people as well. Of course people whom insiders consider undesirable have been barred from such networks, with important consequences. Those who tap into influential networks can be nurtured toward success. Those who are shut out from networks can lose hope of success. Numerous business heroes of the past—such as Benjamin Franklin, Andrew Carnegie, Henry Ford, and John D. Rockefeller—exploited networks to great effect. The business networks that seemed natural and transparent to these white men were a closed book to women and minorities for much of American history. Drawing on work from the social sciences, these outsider groups had to identify and then harness the mechanisms behind networking's power. A prominent early example of this process was the formation of corporate caucuses by black men at Xerox starting in 1969. Groups of black salesmen met regularly to share information about Xerox's culture and strategies for navigating it most effectively. Through confrontation and collaboration with a relatively accommodating upper management, the caucuses helped open opportunities for high-performing black employees. The popular and business press began using the terms "network" and "networking" in the mid-1970s in the context of businesswomen consciously pursuing this strategy. Authors encouraged female workers to recognize and exploit the informal workplace systems that provided advancement. They urged women to identify mentors, use social contacts, and build peer and authority networks. The push for networking drew on ideas and relationships from the era's feminist movement, and dictionaries of the time explicitly linked business networking to women's efforts to succeed in the workplace. Since the closing decades of the twentieth century, networking has become a pervasive term and concept in American society. People now invoke networking in relation to everything from business to child rearing to science. While ambitious careerists seek networks as an indispensable talisman, companies purposefully encourage networking among their employees to boost performance and gain competitive advantage. At the same time, Americans are forgetting the workplace activism that first illuminated the power of networking. Unfortunately, this loss of historical context can fuel a backlash against outsider groups who still seek to synthesize networks so they can access the same opportunities enjoyed by insiders. == Characteristics of networks == Broadly speaking, all networks have the following characteristics: Purpose – A network can be established for learning, mission, business, idea, and family or personal reasons. Structure – A network is a group of interlinked entities that form a cluster. Most social structures tend to be characterized by dense clusters of strong connections. Style – The place, space, pace and style of interaction of the networks give an understanding of the style of the networks. Namkee Park, Seungyoon Lee and Jang Hyun Kim examined the relations between personal network characteristics and Facebook use. According to their study, personal networks are investigated through several structural characteristics, which can be categorized into three major dimensions according to the level of analysis: Dyadic tie attributes which include the characteristics of ego-alter ties such as duration, multiplexity, and proximity. Ego-alter tie attributes represent various dimensions of relationships between the focal person and their close contacts. First, tie duration refers to the length of time since the tie was originally initiated, which indicates the duration of relationships. Second, multiplexity includes a focal individual's degree of involvement in various types of interactions with network members. The third dimension is the physical proximity between ego and alter. Theories of proximity suggest that physical proximity between people affects their interaction and subsequently, their formation of network ties. The characteristics of alter-alter ties including personal network density. When moving to ties at the alter-alter level, ego-network density, which refers to the extent to which one's alters are connected with each other, is an important dimension of personal networks. Dense personal network structure indicates close interpersonal contacts among alters, and consequently, is considered to promote the sharing of resources. On the other hand, loose connections, or structural holes in ego-networks, have been found to facilitate the flow of information and to provide advantages in searching and obtaining resources (e.g., getting a job). The composition of alter attributes centered on the heterogeneity of alters in one's personal network. The heterogeneity of alters in one's personal network is associated with access to diverse resources and information It is expected, thus, that the heterogeneity attributes may enhance the focal actor's social activities. Each of these characteristics represents unique aspects of individuals' network relationships. == Types of personal networks == Personal networks can be used for two main reasons: social and professional. In 2012, LinkedIn along with TNS conducted a survey of 6,000 social network users to understand the difference between personal social networks and personal professional networks. The "Mindset Divide" of users of these networks was compared as follows: Emotions: Personal social networks: Nostalgia, fun, distraction. Personal professional networks: Achievement, success, aspiration. Use: Personal social networks: Users are in a casual mindset often just passing time. They use social networks to socialize, stay in touch, be entertained and kill time. Personal professional networks: In this purposeful mindset, users invest time to improve themselves and their future. These networks are used to maintain professional identity, make useful contacts, search for opportunities and stay in touch. Content: Personal professional networks: These provide information about career, brand updates and current affairs. Professional development: Personal development networks: These provide access to those who can provide information, knowledge, advice, support, expertise, guidance, and concrete resources to learn and work effectively—thus those who support the continuing professional development. == Personal network management == Personal network management (PNM) is a crucial aspect of personal information management and can be understood as the practice of managing the links and connections for social and professional benefits. Some ways to do this would be: being authentic and consistent paying attention to status updates following wisely contributing seeking to be worth knowing appropriate tagging == Tools for personal network management == Although it is easy to build a network, the real challenge is maintaining and leveraging the connections. Information fragmentation makes it this even more challenging. Information fragmentation refers to the difficulty encountered in ensuring co-operation and keeping track of different personal information assets (e.g. Facebook, Twitter etc.). According to Dan Schawbel, there is a lot of value in a contact management system. It "allows you to keep organized and aware of which contacts you haven't spoken to in a while, and who works at companies that you either want to collaborate with, or work for". In many ways, a contact manager can incorporate new, innovative services to not only help users take a smarter approach to meeting new people but also transmit readily available information from social media profiles directly into that contact profile. == Notes and references ==	Wikipedia/Personal_network
Silent treatment is the refusal to communicate with someone who is trying to communicate and elicit a response. It may range from just sulking to malevolent abusive controlling behaviour. It may be a passive-aggressive form of emotional abuse in which displeasure, disapproval and contempt is exhibited through nonverbal gestures while maintaining verbal silence. Clinical psychologist Harriet Braiker identifies it as a form of manipulative punishment. It may be used as a form of social rejection; according to the social psychologist Kipling Williams, it is the most common form of ostracism. == Origin of term == The term originated from "treatment" through silence, which was fashionable in prisons in the 19th century. In use since the prison reforms of 1835, the silent treatment was used in prisons as an alternative to physical punishment, as it was believed that forbidding prisoners from speaking, calling them by a number rather than their name, and making them cover their faces so they couldn't see each other would encourage reflection on their crimes. == In interpersonal relationships == In a relationship, the silent treatment can be a difficult pattern to break and resolve because if it is ingrained, relationships may gradually deteriorate. The silent treatment is more likely to be used by individuals with low self-esteem and a low tolerance for conflict. In order to avoid conflict, an individual will refuse to acknowledge it and will sometimes use silent treatment as a control mechanism. Enactors of the silent treatment punish their victims by refusing to speak to them or even acknowledge their presence. Through silence, the enactors "loudly" communicate their displeasure, anger, upset and frustration. These feelings can elicit a maladaptive response from victims with high rejection sensitivity levels, which can often lead to violence and more physical displays of aggression. Purposeful silence is a form of attention seeking behavior and can generate desired responses, such as attention, or a feeling of power from creating uncertainty for the victim. Unfortunately, the avoidance of conflict in the form of silent treatment is psychologically exhausting for all involved parties and leads to the irreparable deterioration of meaningful romantic and familial relationships. == Tactical ignoring == Silence and non-responsiveness are not only passive-aggressive forms of manipulation and attention seeking; they can also be used as tools to promote changes in behavior. Tactical ignoring is a strategy where a person gives no outward sign of recognizing a behavior, such as no eye contact, no verbal or physical response, or acknowledgment that a message has been read. However, it is a very active process as the person remains acutely aware of the behavior and monitors the individual to observe what the individual has planned and ensure their safety or the safety of others. It is a technique that is often employed in parent-child relationships and is similar to the silent treatment because tactical ignoring is a behavioral management technique that, when correctly applied, can convey the message that a person's behavior will not lead to their desired outcome. It may also result in the reduction of undesirable behaviors. Tactical ignoring can be one element of a behavior management plan when there are a variety of challenging behaviors being addressed. Because it is a method that involves not responding to an undesirable behavior, it should be complemented by differential reinforcement for an alternative behavior, as seen in functional communication training, a procedure to teach a more appropriate attention-seeking behavior. Planned ignoring can be used for mild and low impact in terms of helping behavioral issues stemming from attention seeking and power struggles. Power struggles are when a child refuses to do something and it is an ongoing battle of insisting the child to comply. == See also == == References == == Further reading == The “silent treatment”. Its incidence and impact. Paper presented at the sixty-ninth Annual Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. Ferguson, M., and .. 1997 Kipling D. Williams Wendelyn J. Shore Jon E. Grahe. The silent treatment: Perceptions of its behaviors and associated feelings – Group Processes Intergroup Relations October 1998 vol. 1 no. 2 117–141 Zadro, L., Richardson, R., & Williams, K. D. (2006, January). The antecedents of interpersonal ostracism: Do individual differences predict propensity to be a target or source of the silent treatment? Presented at the 7th annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Palm Springs, CA. Grahe, J. E., Shore, W. J., & Williams, K. D. (1997, May). Perceptions of the behaviors and feelings associated with the “silent treatment.”Presented at the 69th Annual Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago. Faulkner, S, Williams, K., Sherman, B., & Williams, E. (1997, May). The “silent treatment:” Its incidence and impact. Presented at the 69 th Annual Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.[Summarized in New Scientist, 1998, April, p. 18] == External links == What's up with the Silent Treatment? Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Research: Office silent treatment ‘worse than bullying’ Archived 2016-08-10 at the Wayback Machine The Silent Treatment: Are You Getting the Cold Shoulder? The Silent Marriage: How Passive Aggression Steals Your Happiness (The Complete Guide to Passive Aggression) [Kindle Edition]\|	Wikipedia/Silent_treatment
The nurturant parent model is a parenting style, built upon an underlying value system, that goes in contrast with the strict father model. Each system reflects a contrasting value system in parenthood, i.e. conservative parenting and liberal parenting. The "nurturant parent" is one of the various parenting styles in practice in the world. A nurturing parent gives their children both "roots in the ground" and "wings to fly". The parent accomplishes this by conveying, role-modeling and enforcing boundaries which encourage the child to explore their personal freedom (trying their new wings) while practicing self-discipline as well. The nurturant parent model has a healthy respect for children's inherent intelligence. Thus children are allowed to explore their environment under a careful watch by their parents, who are responsible for protecting the child from serious mistakes, by offering guidance. A child will be picked up if the child cries because the parent wants the child to feel safe and supported. If a child grows up believing their needs are likely to be met, (s)he will grow out confident, ready to face challenges. Meanwhile the nurturant parent also encourages their children to have their roots deeply implanted in stable grounds. This is done by making the child practice appropriate amount of self-discipline and self-connection. They may be asked to do age-appropriate house chores, limit money they spend, take part in discussions of "feelings" and "thoughts" and practice setting healthy boundaries with strangers, friends and adults in general. Other ideas: Discipline is much more than strict, unquestioning obedience Mutual respect and compassion are also rights Mutual respect and compassion are best taught by example The outside world is no more inherently hostile than it is inherently friendly The world commands respect == Research == This model is based on a study conducted by the Boston College Graduate Program in Human Development where researchers were investigating the parenting style preferred by parents of extraordinarily creative children. Most parenting books recommend the authoritative style. The researchers discovered another parenting style which they called "the nurturing parent" that focuses on responsibility, empathy, and creativity. The basic approach these parents used was to: Trust in their children's fairness and good judgment Respect their children's autonomy, thoughts and feelings Support their children's interests and goals Enjoy their children's company Protect their children from doing injury to self or others, not by establishing rules but by communicating values and discussing their children's behavior back with them Modeling the self-control, sensitivity and values they believe their children will need == Further mentions == In his unfinished book, Caring Parents: a Guide to Successful Parenting, clinical social worker Herbert Jay Rosenfield encourages use of the acronym "RECEPEE", for "Reasonable Expectations, Clearly Expressed, Performed Everyday and by Example". "The factors that children need to develop good self-esteem … are primarily 'gifts' from us parents!" writes Rosenfield, who offers another acronym "UCARE": Uniqueness that is positive, achieved through praise, encouragement, and positive feedback Connectiveness to family, to extended family, and to a neighborhood that is safe, healthy and moderate Age-appropriate autonomy: responsibilities and privileges that parallel their age and capabilities Role Examples: parent models with good self-esteem and behavior, whom they can emulate Reverend George Englehardt stated succinctly, in 1991, that "parental responsibility is to provide their children with a safe, loving, nurturing environment". The nurturant parent model is also discussed by George Lakoff in his books, including Moral Politics and Whose Freedom? In these books, the nurturant parent model is contrasted with the strict father model. Lakoff argues that if the metaphor of nation as family and government as parent is used, then progressive politics correspond to the nurturant parent model. For example, progressives want the government to make sure that the citizens are protected and assisted to achieve their potential. This might take the form of tough environmental regulations or healthcare assistance. The model is also consistent with slow parenting in that children are encouraged to explore the world for themselves. They have to learn to face the risks that nature presents. Although slow parenting might go further and reduce the level of protection offered by parents, it would not advocate withholding it entirely. == See also == Slow parenting == References ==	Wikipedia/Nurturant_parent_model
A radio-controlled glider is a type of radio-controlled aircraft that normally does not have any form of propulsion. They are able to sustain continuous flight by exploiting the lift produced by slopes and thermals, controlled remotely from the ground with a transmitter. They can be constructed from a variety of materials, including wood, plastic, polymer foams, and composites, and can vary in wing loading from very light to relatively heavy, depending on their intended use. International radio-controlled glider competitions are regulated by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) although many countries have their own national classes. == Launching methods == === Hand launch === Hand launching is the simplest way to get a model glider into the air. Depending on craft design and the conditions at launch—the pilot or an assistant need only to gently 'throw' it into the wind, at an angle deemed best suited, usually between horizontal and 45 degrees of zenith. In this manner a successful launch is possible with very little effort. This method is usually utilised when slope soaring, where with a little experience, it is possible to simply hold the craft above the head at the correct angle and let go. === Towline launch === In this method another person runs along the ground pulling a 50-to-150-metre (160 to 490 ft) line with the glider attached to the end, while the pilot steers it. It can be performed on any flat piece of terrain, as the glider is given sufficient altitude during the launch. A variation of this method uses a pulley with the line staked to the ground and the line passing around it before going to the glider. The tow man runs with the pulley (still running away from the pilot) which doubles his effective speed. A variation of this is used in F3J competition when two tow men run with the pulley to generate much faster launches (although the models have to be sufficiently strong to handle the loads placed upon them by this method) which allows the model to use the energy to "zoom" (the model is pointed downwards briefly to convert the stored energy in the stretched monofilament line into airspeed, and once the airspeed exceeds the towline speed the line is released, before being rotated into a nose high attitude and the speed being converted back into additional height). === Bungee/Hi-start launch === This launch is a variant of the towline launch performed alone. The running person is replaced by a combined length of elastic cord or rubber tubing and line which is attached to the ground upwind of the pilot, often using a 'corkscrew' dog stake. Variations in rubber diameter, model weight and headwind determine the launch height. === 'Piggyback' launch === A second, powered radio-controlled aircraft lifts the model glider into the air, attached to a special cradle which is, in turn, mounted to either the top or the bottom of the carrier aircraft. Although this method is spectacular, it requires an experienced pilot to steer the carrier aircraft as the addition of the glider can significantly affect the handling of their model. Special care must be also taken by the pilots of both models to avoid a collision after the release of the glider. === Discus launch === This method of launching can be performed only on a special type of glider - a Discus Launch Glider (DLG). To launch the model into the air, the pilot holds the model by the tip of a wing, spins 360°, rotating the model around their body and then releases hold of the model allowing it to launch at high speed and climb to height. Although DLGs are a fairly new type of model glider, they are gaining popularity due to their ease of launching and efficient flight characteristics. DLG models are used in the F3K contest class, as defined by the FAI. === Aerotow launch === As full-size aerotowing using a radio-controlled tug, often used for launching larger scale gliders. === Winch launch === As full-size winch launching but using a small electric motor (usually based on a car starter motor) and a reverse pulley staked to the ground upwind. The launch speed is controlled by the pilot using a foot pedal. A parachute is used (pulled shut by the launch tension) to assist in preventing the winch spool overrunning when the model is released. Variations have included multiple batteries and motors but regulations were put in place in the late 1980s by the FAI to limit the winch power used in FAI class competitions. == Forms of flight == === Slope soaring === Slope soaring refers to unpowered aircraft sustaining flight on the lift produced by wind blowing up the face of a steep slope on hills, mountains, and cliffs. See the Ridge Lift page for more information on the lift mechanism of "frontside" flying. Dynamic soaring, utilizing the leeward or "backside" of a hill, has recently become very popular. ==== Disciplines ==== ===== F3F ===== Another form of slope R/C glider racing is called F3F. The F3F is one of many competition categories for model and full scale aircraft that are defined by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). In F3F racing, the pilot is timed on the course for 10 legs of 100 metres (330 ft) for a total distance of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi). All pilots fly a timed run for each round. The fastest pilot receives 1,000 points for the round and all others are given a percentage which is determined by the ratio of their time to the fast time for the round. At the end of the competition, the pilot with the most points wins. ===== Combat ===== Combat is usually flown with expanded polypropylene (EPP) foam models due to their impact resistance. Each pilot tries to knock the other's aircraft physically out of the air. A "kill" is scored only when the opponents aircraft hits the ground. If a hit occurs and each aircraft recovers and remains airborne, the hits generally do not count. Often this activity includes extreme maneuvers and aerobatics. This particular class of slope glider is extremely popular, as novices can learn to fly with a model that is practically indestructible. There is also a wide appeal in owning an inexpensive glider that is also a stand-off scale model, particularly of favorite World War II fighters, e.g. the Spitfire/Seafire, P-51 Mustang and P-47 Thunderbolt. ===== Ridge racing ===== Ridge racing (or pylon racing where markers are present) is essentially using the slope lift to race along the "lift zone"—generally parallel to the slope. This can be MoM (man-on-man) racing, in which 2 to 4 gliders compete against each other on the same course. Scoring is similar to match racing in the sport of sailing - the first pilot to complete the course receives one point, the second two points and so on. At the end of the competition, the pilot with the fewest points wins. ===== PSS ===== PSS, or Power Scale Soaring, is all about building and flying scale model gliders of full-sized jet-, rocket- or piston-powered aircraft. World War II prop planes such as the P-51, Supermarine Spitfire and Bf 109 are common subjects for PSS planes, however PSS aircraft produced to date have ranged from the early biplanes through to modern jet fighters and even commercial airliners. The challenge with Power Scale Soaring is to build a model as close to scale as possible whilst at the same time ensuring the model has good flying characteristics. Model EPP jet fighter slope soarers have become extremely popular, usually either 1950s and some 1960s designs e.g. the MiG-15, the P-80 Shooting Star, and the F-86 Sabre, and the Northrop F-5 and F-20. More ambitious modellers are experimenting with more recent jet fighters such as the F-16, F-15, MiG-29 and Su-27. ===== Dynamic soaring ===== Dynamic soaring is a relatively new style of flying model gliders whereby the windshear just downwind of certain slopes can be used to create high speeds. It involves gaining altitude, then soaring into a patch of dead air, then back to the lift to gain speed. ===== Slope Aerobatics ===== Slope aerobatics involves flying aerobatic figures and sequences on the slope with gliders that have been optimized for aerobatic flight. These gliders typically using airfoils that allow identical upright and inverted performance, as well as unique fuselage shapes that permit some amount of sustained knife edge flight. Most gliders feature three axes of control (aileron, elevator, and rudder), and often use flaperons to extend the capabilities of the airfoils for maximum aerobatic performance. Some of the most advanced slope aerobatics gliders feature all-moving elevators and rudders capable of 180* rotation, allowing them to perform "flips" around the pitch or yaw axis, respectively. Airframes are constructed of any material, with wood, fiberglass and/or carbon fiber being preferred for gliders intended for precision aerobatics, and EPP (expanded polypropylene) being popular for low altitude aerobatics where interactions with the ground - like wingtip and/or inverted fin drags, or touch-and-goes off of obstacles - are commonly performed and desired. === Thermal soaring === Thermal soaring uses columns of warm, rising air called thermals to provide lift for a glider. Thermal soaring gliders are normally launched with a bungee cord catapult, a winch or towed by a powered model aircraft. A discus launch glider (DLG) is simply launched into the air with a spinning motion much like a discus throw. Thermal soaring is often combined with slope soaring. Thermals from elsewhere can drift in over the hill to combine with the hill lift or they can be formed by the hill itself, if the slope is angled to the sun causing the slope to heat up faster than in the surrounding areas. The resulting warm air will then flow upwards pulling in air from the valley below, causing a wind up the slope. The lift is thus a combination of ridge lift and thermal. This has produced a new term, "slermal", to describe the mixture of both slope lift and thermal activity coming up the hill face. ==== F3J ==== F3J is one of many competition categories for model and full scale aircraft that are defined by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). F3J is a man on man thermal soaring competition undertaken on a flat field site (ideally 1–2 miles from workable slope lift). Models are launched by a monofilament tow line, pulled by two towers who run with the line or a pulley. The method is similar to winch launching without any electrical equipment required. A group typically of from 6 to 10 pilots try to fly for as long as possible within a 10-minute period of time (known as a slot). Within the slot time they have to launch the glider, fly for as long as possible and land as close as they can to a predetermined spot, without overflying the end of the slot time. If the nose of the model comes to rest on the centre of the landing spot then 100 landing points are scored. Landing points are reduced by 1 point every 20 cm from the center of the landing circle. A combination of the flying time (as a percentage of the longest flight within the slot) and precision landing makes up scoring. A maximum of 1000 points is awarded to the winner of each group. Overflying the slot time results in a penalty and the withdrawal of any landing points bonus. The models have evolved into predominantly all composite gliders of 3.4–4 m wingspan with full span flaps and ailerons, sufficiently strong to take a two-man tow in a wind of up to 20 mph. Advances in composite construction have reduced the flying weights of these models to less than 2 kg. Ballast weight is added to increase the flying speed during windy weather. The individual winner of the competition is determined by a fly-off in which the top 10−12 competitors fly after the preliminary rounds. The fly-off task is 15 minutes, making the soaring task more difficult. Typical winning scores at a World Championships are 14:58 minutes of flight times and 98-100 landing points. The top places are separated by the smallest margins, often less than 5 points separate the winner from 5th place. ==== F3B ==== F3B is the original sailplane competition category defined by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Originally called "Thermal Soaring" it is now called "Multitask Soaring." F3B is a flat field, thermal soaring category where the glider is launched with the help of an electric winch. There are three tasks to perform. Thermal duration, where the goal is to keep flying for 10 minutes and land on the spot; distance, flying the maximum number of laps in four minutes; and speed, flying the minimum time to cover four laps of 150 metres (490 ft) each. The three tasks have to be flown with the same plane, changing only weight between tasks. Duration is flown at the minimum weight, typically around 2 kg. Speed is flown up to the maximum of 5 kg but typically around 3–4 kg depending on the wind and lift. Distance can be flown at a wide variety of weights, depending on the thermal conditions available, with heavier weights to fly faster and lighter ones to fly slower. F3B models are called multitask gliders, similar to F3F slope gliders with a lighter composite layup. The design of the F3B model is especially challenging because of the wide range of operating conditions. It must be flown very slowly to achieve the duration time and create high lift to maximize launch altitude off the winch. At the same time it must have very low drag to fly at high speed during the distance and speed tasks. The launch and turning loads require very strong airframes, composite construction has been in use since the first world championship in 1977. Models are typically constructed from carbon fiber, utilizing more exotic high modulus carbon in the wing spars. The empty weight of the airframes have come down substantially since the early 1990s when competitive aircraft weighed 3 kg empty. Many top designs are commercially available from manufacturers such as TUDM, Baudis Model and Samba Model in Europe. ==== F3K ==== F3K is the competition category for discus launched models where the competition is divided in different tasks and combined tasks in a way that the pilot may launch several times within a task, for example adding consecutive flying times as long as the time of the last flight is longer than the previous one. F3K models are among the lightest radio controlled gliders. Typical flying weights are less than 9 ounces, with full trailing edge and tail controls. Construction is typically very light weight carbon fiber, fiberglass and kevlar. Advances in composites and micro radio equipment have enabled these gliders to increase performance dramatically over their historical javelin style hand launched siblings. Weight is kept to a minimum in all parts of the model. Common practices include removing the plastic cases from the radio receivers, using the smallest batteries practical, and flying the models without any paint. Modern aerodynamic design practices have also been applied to reduce the drag and improve the handling characteristics of these gliders. Design tools such as Xfoil, created by Prof Mark Drela at MIT, have been applied to the design of these aircraft, creating much better understanding of low speed aerodynamics and inspiring new design practices, such as thin airfoils. In some cases, the minimum thickness of the wing is limited only by the thickness of the servos that must fit within that wing to control the flaps. == Types == === Flying wings === The flying wing design is particularly popular for slope combat in which pilots try to knock other gliders out of the air. A "kill" is only scored when one plane is grounded and the other flies away, regardless of which plane initiated the hit. Expanded polypropylene foam (EPP) foam has become very popular in the construction of these gliders, primarily due to their damage resistance and low cost. The most common wing span is 4 feet (1.2 meters). Well-built gliders will typically survive head-on collisions with combined speeds exceeding 50 mph (80 km/h) with little to no damage to either plane. === Scale gliders === Scale gliders are models of full-size gliders. Scale gliders are generally larger models (2 m wingspan or greater) and made from composite materials. Scale Gliders are sometimes modified slightly to obtain the best flying characteristics, such as less drag and more aerobatic potential. This is achieved by changing the size of the control surfaces or the wing airfoil. Some scale gliders are very close in appearance to their full scale counterparts, and this makes them a beautiful sight at any flying field. A model often "scaled" because of its clean looks and great aerobatic potential is the MDM-1 Fox. The ASW series (mostly ASW-26 and ASW-28) are also popular scale gliders. === Powered gliders === Powered gliders use electric motors, internal combustion engines or even jet engines to provide propulsion for a glider to get in the air. The power systems are normally only used for short periods to launch thermal soarers, motor runs of 30 seconds are typical with timer or height limiting onboard electronics cutting power automatically during competitions. Electric gliders use propellers which fold inwards when the power source is cut off during flight. This provides the glider with lower air resistance and reduces overall drag which would be present if the propeller was to remain in its open or natural state. == Competition classes == Note === International === International radio-controlled glider competitions are regulated by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). The classes are: F3B Multi-task soaring, model limitations defined by FAI rules. Three separate tasks are flown, they are duration, speed and distance (number of laps) over a closed course. F3F Slope speed (pylon racing), model limitations defined by FAI rules F3H Cross country soaring racing. F3J Thermal soaring duration, no model limitations. 150-metre (490 ft) towline maximum length. Pilots fly against each other in a 10-minute time "slot" followed by a precision landing, distance to a set landing point is measured with a graduated tape, bonus points for landing accuracy are added to the flight time. F3K Handlaunched glider F5B Electric soaring speed (similar to F3B Speed/Distance tasks), wing loading, launch height and maximum battery weight limitations apply. F5J Electric-Launch Thermal Duration Soaring. Electric launch, altitude limited thermal duration similar to F3J. 30 second Launch Window, 0.5 point per meter penalty for each meter of launch altitude at window end up to 200m, 3 point per meter penalty for each meter above 200m. === United Kingdom === British national radio-controlled glider classes are: Mini-glider - Maximum wingspan 60 inches (150 cm), maximum weight 22 ounces (0.62 kg). Two metre - Maximum wingspan 2 metres (6.6 ft), 150-metre (490 ft) towline maximum length. 100S or Standard Class Maximum wingspan 100 inches (250 cm) (thermal soaring). 150-metre (490 ft) towline maximum length. BARCS Open Class - No model limitations, 150-metre (490 ft) towline only. Sixty inch slope - Pylon racing, maximum wingspan 60 inches (150 cm) Slope cross country - No model limitations, pilot walks around a course while controlling the model. PSS and Scale - The model must be a recognisable replica of a full-size powered aircraft or glider. Slope aerobatics - No model limitations. E-slot - Maximum seven-cell battery pack Electroslot E400 Motor must be standard "Speed 400" type. == See also == Controllable slope soaring Gliding Radio-controlled model == References == === Notes === === Bibliography === == External links == The British Association of Radio Control Soarers (BARCS) FAI CIAM - The FAI RC Gliders Discus Launch Gliders DLG Power Scale Soaring Association	Wikipedia/Radio-controlled_glider
Controllable-slope soaring (also known as Walkalong gliding) is a type of slope soaring where a slope is made to follow a walkalong glider (a lightweight toy aircraft), both sustaining and controlling the glider's trajectory by modifying the wind in the vicinity of the airplane. A controllable slope is any object which can be used to affect the air under the airplane: a piece of cardboard, the pilot's hands or even head. The controllable slope is usually manipulated by a person following the glider in flight (please see photo at right). Controllable-slope soaring allows a glider to achieve sustained flight without the need for an onboard aircraft engine or onboard flight control system. == See also == Gliding flight History of human-powered aircraft Orographic lift Ridge lift Soaring Walkalong glider == External links == Method of Flying Toy Airplane and Means Therefor - a patent from the 1950s for a walkalong glider using controllable slope soaring. "Free Flight episode with Walkalong Glider, on season 11, episode 9". Scientific American Frontiers. Chedd-Angier Production Company. 2000–2001. PBS. Archived from the original on 2006-01-01. Principles of flying walkalong gliders using controllable slope soaring (Jersey Shores Middle School students) Controllable slope soaring: suitable aircraft and videos (Google sites)	Wikipedia/Controllable_slope_soaring
The British Model Flying Association (BMFA) is the body elected by the Royal Aero Club to be responsible for all aspects of flying model aircraft in the UK. == History == The BMFA was founded in 1922 as the SMAE (Society of Model Aeronautical Engineers). The change of name took place in 1987 during the AGM of the SMAE voted to adopt a working title, the British Model Flying Association. The SMAE still exists as the parent Limited Company and its title is still used on any legal documents, however, the title BMFA is used in day to day usage by its members. Their Head office is currently based in Chacksfield House, Leicester, UK. == Activities == Over 850 clubs in the UK are affiliated with it, with approximately 36,000 members. It has a regular magazine publication called BMFA News. == Area bodies == The whole of the UK is administered from the Head Office, but locally there are 14 "Area" committees which meet periodically, and these meetings are attended by club delegates who can, through various channels open to the "Areas", propose changes or additions to the running of the sport, these are then voted upon at Council meetings held at the Head Office. If passed, the changes will be incorporated in the guidelines produced by the organisation and published in the "BMFA Handbook". == References == == External links == BMFA Website	Wikipedia/British_Model_Flying_Association
Model Airplane News is a monthly magazine focusing upon the hobby of radio control airplanes. Model Airplane News reviews radio control aircraft from backyard flyers, to giant scale airplanes, and features how-to articles, product reviews, modeling technology, and construction projects. == History and profile == Model Airplane News was launched in 1929 in the United States by Air Age Media Inc. The magazine is based in Wilton, Connecticut. === Editors === Charles Hampson Grant Andy Lennon, former contributing editor == References == == Further reading == "Model Plane World Mark By Hartford Boy Is Recognized". The Hartford Courant. June 19, 1933. Archived from the original on January 31, 2013. Retrieved December 29, 2011. (subscription required) Quote (from Google search summary): "Tyskewicz will defend his record In New York at a national model plane meet to be held June 25 under the auspices of the Universal Model Airplane News." Bushey, Frank B. (January 28, 1945). "Models That Fly". The Hartford Courant. Archived from the original on January 31, 2013. Retrieved December 29, 2011. (subscription required) "Secret Out in '58". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Associated Press. May 13, 1960. Retrieved December 29, 2011. == External links == Official website Digitized Issues at the Internet Archive	Wikipedia/Model_Airplane_News
Paper models, also called card models or papercraft, are models constructed mainly from sheets of heavy paper, paperboard, card stock, or foam. == Details == This may be considered a broad category that contains origami and card modeling. Origami is the process of making a paper model by folding a single piece of paper without using glue or cutting while the variation kirigami does. Card modeling is making scale models from sheets of cardstock on which the parts were printed, usually in full color. These pieces would be cut out, folded, scored, and glued together. Papercraft is the art of combining these model types to build complex creations such as wearable suits of armor, life-size characters, and accurate weapon models. Sometimes the model pieces can be punched out. More frequently the printed parts must be cut out. Edges may be scored to aid folding. The parts are usually glued together with polyvinyl acetate glue ("white glue", "PVA"). In this kind of modeling, the sections are usually pre-painted, so there is no need to paint the model after completion. Some enthusiasts may enhance the model by painting and detailing. Due to the nature of the paper medium, the model may be sealed with varnish or filled with spray foam to last longer. Some enthusiasts also use papercrafts or perdurable to do life-sized props starting by making the craft, covering it with resin and painting them. Some also use photo paper and laminate them by heat, thus preventing the printed side from color wearing out, beyond the improved realistic effect on certain kinds of models (ships, cars, buses, trains, etc.). Paper crafts can be used as references to do props with other materials too. == History == The first paper models appeared in Europe in the 17th century with the earliest commercial models were appearing in French toy catalogs in 1800. Printed card became common in magazines in the early part of the 20th century. The popularity of card modeling boomed during World War II when the paper was one of the few items whose use and production was not heavily regulated. Micromodels, designed and published in England from 1941 were very popular with 100 different models, including architecture, ships, and aircraft. But as plastic model kits became more commonly available, interest in paper decreased. == Availability == The Robert Freidus Collection, held at the V&A Museum of Childhood has over 14000 card models exclusively in the category Architectural Paper Models. Since paper model patterns can be easily printed and assembled, the Internet has become a popular means of exchanging them. Commercial corporations have recently begun using downloadable paper models for their marketing (examples are Yamaha and Canon). The availability of numerous models on the Internet at little or no cost, which can then be downloaded and printed on inexpensive inkjet printers has caused its popularity again to increase worldwide. Home printing also allows models to be scaled up or down easily (for example, in order to make two models from different authors, in different scales, match each other in size), although the paper weight might need to be adjusted in the same ratio. Inexpensive kits are available from dedicated publishers (mostly based in Eastern Europe; examples include Halinski, JSC Models, and Maly Modelarz), a portion of the catalog of which date back to 1950. Experienced hobbyists often scratchbuild models, either by first hand drawing or using software such as Adobe Illustrator and Inkscape. An historical example of highly specialized software is Designer Castles for BBC Micro and Acorn Archimedes platforms, which was developed as a tool for creation of card model castles. CAD and CG software, such as Rhino 3D, 3DS Max, Blender, and specialist software, like Pepakura Designer from Tama Software, Dunreeb Cutout or Ultimate Papercraft 3D, may be employed to convert 3D computer models into two-dimensional printable templates for assembly. === 3D models to paper === The use of 3D models greatly assists in the construction of paper models, with video game models being the most prevalent source. The video game or source in question will have to be loaded into the computer. Various methods of extracting the model exist, including using a model viewer and exporting it into a workable file type, or capturing the model from the emulation directly. The methods of capturing the model are often unique to the subject and the tools available. Readability of file-formats including proprietary ones could mean that a model viewer and exporter is unavailable outside of the developer. Using other tools that capture rendered 3D models and textures is often the only way to obtain them. In this case, the designer may have to arrange the textures and the wireframe model on a 3D program, such as SketchUp, 3DS MAX, Metasequoia, or Blender before exporting it to a papercraft creating program, such as Dunreeb Cutout or Pepakura Designer by Tama Software. From there the model is typically refined to give a proper layout and construction tabs that will affect the overall appearance and difficulty in constructing the model. == Subjects == Because people can create their own patterns, paper models are limited only by their designers' imaginations and ability to manipulate paper into forms. Vehicles of all forms, from cars and cargo trucks to space shuttles, are a frequent subject of paper models, some using photo-realistic textures from their real-life counterparts for extremely fine details. Architecture models can be very simple and crude forms to very detailed models with thousands of pieces to assemble. The most prevalent designs are from video games, due to their popularity and ease of producing paper models. On the Web, enthusiasts can find hundreds of models from different designers across a wide range of subjects. The models include very difficult and ambitious paper projects, such as life-sized and complex creations. Architectural paper models are popular with model railway enthusiasts. Various models are used in tabletop gaming, primarily wargaming. Scale paper models allow for easy production of armies and buildings for use in gaming and that can be scaled up or down readily or produced as desired. Whether they be three-dimensional models or two-dimensional icons, players are able to personalize and modify the models to bear unique unit designations and insignias for gaming. == See also == Net Cardboard modeling Paper Aeroplane Origamic architecture Superquick Leo Monahan Toy theater – Small stage for imitating or testing full-scale productions Omocha-e == References == == External links == === Software for creating paper models === Pepakura Designer Dunreeb Cutout Ultimate Papercraft 3D PaperMaker	Wikipedia/Paper_model
Servos (also RC servos) are small, cheap, mass-produced servomotors or other actuators used for radio control and small-scale robotics. Most servos are rotary actuators although other types are available. Linear actuators are sometimes used, although it is more common to use a rotary actuator with a bellcrank and pushrod. Some types, originally used as sail winches for model yachting, can rotate continuously. == Construction == A typical servo consists of a small electric motor driving a train of reduction gears. A potentiometer is connected to the output shaft. Some simple electronics provide a closed-loop servomechanism. == Operation == The position of the output, measured by the potentiometer, is continually compared to the commanded position from the control (i.e., the radio control). Any difference gives rise to an error signal in the appropriate direction, which drives the electric motor either forwards or backwards, and moving the output shaft to the commanded position. When the servo reaches this position, the error signal reduces and then becomes zero, at which point the servo stops moving. If the servo position changes from that commanded, whether this is because the command changes, or because the servo is mechanically pushed from its set position, the error signal will re-appear and cause the motor to restore the servo output shaft to the position needed. Almost all modern servos are proportional servos, where this commanded position can be anywhere within the range of movement. Early servos, and a precursor device called an escapement, could only move to a limited number of set positions. == Connection == Radio control servos are connected through a standard three-wire connection: two wires for a DC power supply and one for control, carrying a pulse-width modulation (PWM) signal. Each servo has a separate connection and PWM signal from the radio control receiver. This signal is easily generated by simple electronics, or by microcontrollers such as the Arduino. This, together with their low cost, has led to their wide adoption for robotics and physical computing. RC servos use a three-pin 0.1"-spacing jack (female) which mates to standard 0.025" square pins. The most common order is signal, +voltage, ground. The standard voltage is 4.8 V DC, however 6 V and 12 V is also used on a few servos. The control signal is a digital PWM signal with a 50 Hz frame rate. Within each 20 ms timeframe, an active-high digital pulse controls the position. The pulse nominally ranges from 1.0 ms to 2.0 ms with 1.5 ms always being center of range. Pulse widths outside this range can be used for "overtravel" - moving the servo beyond its normal range. There are two general types of PWM. Each PWM defines a value that is used by the servo to determine its expected position. The first type is "absolute" and defines the value by the width of the active-high time pulse with an arbitrarily long period of low time. The second type is "relative" and defines the value by the percentage of time the control is active-high versus low-time. The "absolute" type allows up to eight servos to share one communication channel by multiplexing control signals using relatively simple electronics and is the basis of modern RC servos. The "relative" type is the more traditional usage of PWM whereby a simple low-pass filter converts a "relative" PWM signal into an analog voltage. The two types are both PWM because the servo responds to the width of the pulse. However, in the first case a servo may also be sensitive to pulse order. The servo is controlled by three wires: ground, power, and control. The servo will move based on the pulses sent over the control wire, which set the angle of the actuator arm. The servo expects a pulse every 20 ms in order to gain correct information about the angle. The width of the servo pulse dictates the range of the servo's angular motion. A servo pulse of 1.5 ms width will typically set the servo to its "neutral" position (typically half of the specified full range), a pulse of 1.0 ms will set it to 0°, and a pulse of 2.0 ms to 90° (for a 90° servo). The physical limits and timings of the servo hardware varies between brands and models, but a general servo's full angular motion will travel somewhere in the range of 90° – 180° and the neutral position (45° or 90°) is almost always at 1.5 ms. This is the "standard pulse servo mode" used by all hobby analog servos. A hobby digital servo is controlled by the same "standard pulse servo mode" pulses as an analog servo. Some hobby digital servos can be set to another mode that allows a robot controller to read back the actual position of the servo shaft. Some hobby digital servos can optionally be set to another mode and "programmed", so it has the desired PID controller characteristics when it is later driven by a standard RC receiver. RC servos are usually powered by the receiver, which in turn is powered by battery packs or an electronic speed controller (ESC) with an integrated or a separate battery eliminator circuit (BEC). Common battery packs are either NiCd, NiMH or lithium-ion polymer battery (LiPo) type. Voltage ratings vary, but most receivers are operated at 5 V or 6 V. == Mechanical specification == Manufacturers and distributors of hobby RC servos often use a specific shorthand notation of mechanical properties of the servos. Two figures are typically stated: angular speed of servo shaft rotation and mechanical torque produced on the shaft. Speed is expressed as a time interval that a servo requires in order to rotate the shaft through a 60° angle. Torque is expressed as weight that can be pulled up by the servo if it hangs from a pulley with a certain radius mounted on the shaft. For example, if a servo model is described as "0.2 s / 2 kg", that should be interpreted as "This servo rotates the shaft for 60° in 0.2 seconds, and it is able to pull up a 2 kg weight using a 1 cm radius pulley". That is, that particular servo model rotates the shaft with the angular speed of (2π / 6) / 0.2 s = 5.2 rad/s while producing 2 kg × 9.81 m/s2 = 19.6 N force at 1 cm distance, i.e., it produces 19.6 N × 0.01 m = 0.196 Nm torque. Although not in accordance with either the SI or Imperial unit system, the shorthand notation is in fact quite useful, as 60° shaft rotation commands, 1 cm long shaft cranks, as well as control rod "forces" in kilogram-force range are typical in hobby RC world. == Continuous-rotation servos == Continuous-rotation servos are servos that do not have a limited travel angle, instead they can rotate continuously. They can be thought of as a motor and gearbox with servo input controls. In such servos the input pulse results in a rotational speed, and the typical 1.5 ms center value is the stop position. A smaller value should turn the servo clockwise and a higher one counterclockwise. == Escapements == The earliest form of sequential (although not proportional) actuator for radio control was the escapement. Like the device used in clocks, this escapement controls the release of stored energy from a spring or rubber band. Each signal from the transmitter operates a small solenoid that then allows a two- or four-lobed pawl to rotate. The pawl, like a clock, has two pallets so that the pawl can only rotate by one lobe's position, per signal pulse. This mechanism allows a simple keyed transmitter to give sequential control, i.e. selection between a number of defined positions at the model. A typical four-lobe escapement used for rudder control is arranged so that the first and third positions are "straight ahead", with positions two and four as "left" and "right" rudder. A single pulse from the first straight-ahead position allows it to move to left, or three pulses would select right. A further single pulse returns to straight-ahead. Such a system is difficult to use, as it requires the operator to remember which position the escapement is in, and so whether the next turn requires one or three pulses from the current position. A development of this was the two-lobe pawl, where keying the transmitter continuously (and thus holding the solenoid pallet in place) could be used to select the turn positions with the same keying sequence, no matter what the previous position. Escapements were low-powered, but light-weight. They were thus more popular for model aircraft than model boats. Where a transmitter and receiver had multiple control channels (e.g., a frequency-keyed reed receiver), then multiple escapements could be used together, one for each channel. Even with single channel radios, a sequence of escapements could sometimes be cascaded. Moving one escapement gave pulses that in turn drove a second, slower speed, escapement. Escapements were disappearing from radio control, in favour of servos, by the early 1970s. The Graupner Kinematic escapement could be used for rudder and electric motor control with one channel. Short pulses for the motor; forward - stop - reverse - stop etc. and long pulses for the rudder; straight ahead - turn left - straight ahead - turn right - straight ahead etc. == Centrifugal fly-ball actuator == The fly-ball actuator was introduced to R/C modelling in 1951 by Brayton Paul, and consisted of an electric motor and a centrifugal governor connected to a free-running axis that could, with the motor running, pull a rudder control rod by varying degrees. Used with a keyed radio system, this allowed some control over the rudder position by varying the key push timing. The rudder would be pulled back by a spring when the motor speed decreased. == See also == JST connector == References == == External links == Hobby Servo Basics	Wikipedia/Servo_(radio_control)
Cox model engines are used to power small model airplanes, model cars and model boats. They were in production for more than 60 years between 1945 and 2006. The business is named for founder Leroy M. Cox. He started L.M. Cox Manufacturing Co. Inc, which later became Cox Hobbies Inc., then Cox Products, before being sold to Estes Industries, when it became Cox Models. On February 7, 2009, Estes Industries stopped producing Cox engines and sold all of their remaining inventory – mainly spare parts – to several private buyers from Canada and the US. One of the new owners of the remaining Cox engine and parts inventory has launched a website with an online store. After the bankruptcy of Hobbico in 2019, MECOA (Model Engine Corp of America) purchased Cox Hobbies in its entirety from Estes Corporation. Millions of engines were produced. They became the most common 1/2A Class 0.049 cubic inch engine in the world, and probably still are today. Although the production of the engines ceased some years ago, engines made as far back as the 1950s are still sold "as new" and are in abundance on eBay worldwide. == Cox history == The Cox range of model engines were the brainchild of entrepreneur Leroy (Roy) M. Cox. Cox Manufacturing started out in Cox's garage in 1945 where he made wooden pop guns for kids and employed local housewives to assemble them. Metal was scarce due to the war which is why the toys were made of wood. In 1946 metal became readily available again and competitors quickly moved into the market, making their metal pop guns cheaper, so Cox moved to something else, making metal tether cars for kids. In August 1946 a fire in Cox's garage forced him to move to newer and larger premises at 730 Poinsettia Avenue, Santa Ana, California. In 1947 Cox developed a racing car which used an engine manufactured by Cameron Brothers. The cars sold for $19.95 and generated $200,000 in sales in their first year of production. In 1949 Cox developed their own engine for their racing tether car which included some parts from Mel Anderson's Spitzy engine. This engine was called the "O Forty Five" as it was .045 cubic inch displacement. In 1950 with sales of the car proving to be a success Cox moved on to development of a model plane engine. Cox felt the need for dependable, easy-to-start engines and spent eight months of 1950 in research. His three-man engineering crew (himself, Mark Mier and Bill Fogler) spent seven days a week, day and night, developing the .049 Space Bug contest engine. The result was the Space Bug .049 Contest engine, Cox's first model plane engine which was completed in October 1951. In 1952 the first name change was made to L.M. Cox Manufacturing Company Inc. The Space Bug engine set the scene for all the Cox engines that followed, and went into full production in 1952. This engine was so popular that it caused problems for other model engine manufacturers. In 1953 Cox produced their first ready to fly (RTF) airplane, the TD1, which was powered by the Space Bug engine. In 1953 L.M. Cox Manufacturing was sued by Jim Walker (American Junior Aircraft Co.) for copyright infringement because Cox was using Walker's patented bellcrank system in the TD1 and because Walker believed the Cox Skylon Reel was a copy of his U-Reely control handle. The court case lasted for three years. In 1955 Cox won the court case against Walker. Walker's patent on the bellcrank control system was ruled void and invalid because it was determined that the system had been designed before Walker's patent and by someone else - a man named Oba St. Clair, who was the first man to fly a control line airplane (in the US) back in 1937 and the design was published in 1938. St. Clair had shown his design to Walker, who took it upon himself to patent the design. The court also ruled that the Cox reel was not a copyright infringement. In 1956 Cox developed the Babe Bee 049, designed by William (Bill) Selzer, which had an extruded aluminum crankcase, not cast like the others. This engine sold for just $3.95 and was the final nail in the coffin of many competitors whose engines were selling for substantially more. The Babe Bee was a high quality high precision engine that started easily and was very reliable, unlike some of the competition. In 1957 Cox took over the Flying Circle at Disneyland, which was a major coup for the company. The model planes were flown each day in front of tens of thousands of people and they had a hobby shop right there full of Cox RTF planes. The Cox Flying Circle remained in operation until 1965 when it was closed to make way for expansion of Tomorrowland. In 1960 Cox hired an engineer named Bill Atwood (who had already built his own line of engines), to develop a new .010 cubic inch engine. Atwood was also responsible for the Tee Dee and Medallion line of engines. These engines put Cox on the map as a leading engine in the world for many years to come. In 1963, due to continuing growth, the company moved to larger (225,000 square feet) facilities which were three times larger than the old site. Shortly thereafter Cox got into slot cars and focused attention on gearing up for this fad. In 1965 Cox International was established in Hong Kong to meet the demands of the slot car craze. In 1967 the slot car fad ended, leaving Cox with excess stock that couldn't be sold, resulting in cash flow problems. In 1969 Cox's wife Myrtle died and he had health problems of his own, so he retired and sold the company to Leisure Dynamics Inc. Leisure Dynamics continued to expand the range of Cox model aircraft as well as adding trains, boats, rockets, kites and radio control, boosting sales to 25 million dollars per year. Cox retired with the distinction of being the world's most successful model engine manufacturer. In 1970 William H. Selzer was appointed as President of L.M. Cox Manufacturing Inc. (a subsidiary of Leisure Dynamics). In 1971 Leisure Dynamics broke the company in two, moved the model production to Minnesota, and left the engine production in Santa Ana, California. In 1976 Leisure Dynamics changed the company name to "Cox Hobbies Inc." In 1980 Leisure Dynamics filed for bankruptcy, taking Cox Hobbies Inc. with them. In 1981 Leroy Cox died on September 22, at age 75. In 1983 former Cox engineer and president Bill Selzer (whom Cox had hired in 1952) purchased the company out of bankruptcy. All manufacturing was returned to Santa Ana. The company once again flourished into the 1990s, with new products being added and another move to even bigger facilities. In 1990 Cox Hobbies moved to new facilities at Corona, California. In 1993 the company name was changed again to "Cox Products". The Pee Wee, Babe Bee, and PT 19 Trainer were still in production. In 1995 Cox celebrated 50 years and introduced some new engines and RTF models. In 1996 Cox was sold to Estes Industries / Centuri Corp. and moved to Penrose, Colorado. Things changed considerably from then. Cox, as the hobbyists of the world knew it, was gone. The high reputation Cox engines had declined. One by one each product item was withdrawn from sale as stock ran out. Parts from different engines were mixed and matched, making hybrid engines that performed very poorly compared to the Cox engines from previous years. Estes added new products to the Cox line using the Cox name, but these were electric radio control models. Some of these were known to explode, resulting in a massive product recall by the company. In 2005 an online company calling themselves Cox Hobby Distributors (owned by Estes Industries) appeared selling RC and electric products and some of the "classic" engines and RTF models. However, as each item from the classic era sold out it wasn't replaced. In February 2009, Estes Industries sold all of their remaining classic Cox stock to several private buyers, one of them being a small company from Canada. In June 2009 they launched a website to sell their remaining stock online and also via eBay. In January 2010 Estes-Cox Corporation was purchased by Hobbico, based in Champaign, Illinois. In 2011 Cox International continued to revive the classic Cox brand as well as introducing new engine versions, spare parts and accessories. After the bankruptcy of Hobbico in 2019, MECOA (Model Engine Corp of America) purchased Cox Hobbies in its entirety from Estes Corporation. All molds, machinery, inventory, tooling, and drawings were moved from Penrose, Colorado to MECOA's Irwindale, California facility over the next two years during the COVID outbreak. MECOA had been producing OEM parts for Estes-Cox since the mid 1990's and was negotiating to buy COX from them in 2009, but Hobbico bought both Estes and Cox around the same time. MECOA now owns the COX Registered Trademark == The engines == The Cox .049 Engine is a 2-stroke internal combustion glow plug engine. These engines use an electrically heated glow plug to ignite the fuel/air within the cylinder on start-up. Once running the battery is disconnected and ignition is similar to a diesel engine. The self ignition is due to the heat produced from the compression of the air/fuel mix, and the catalytic reaction between the platinum element in the glow plug and the methanol in the fuel. Fuel intake to the engine is controlled by a simple needle valve and venturi system. Fuel/air mixture intake to the crankcase is controlled via a reed valve or rotary valve depending on the engine design. In a reed valve engine, the valve is drawn open by suction as the piston moves upward on the compression stroke. As the piston moves down on the power stroke, the pressure in the crankcase causes the reed valve to close. The fuel-air mixture in the crankcase is then forced past the piston via the transfer/bypass ports in the cylinder. One characteristic of a reed valve is that the engine will run in either direction; an advantage for a "pusher" model but a disadvantage if the engine is finger started, as it may start in the wrong direction. (The Cox engines employed a starting spring which kept fingers free of the propeller and generally ensured correct rotational direction.) On rotary valve engines, the process is similar except instead of a reed, a rotary valve is used (incorporated in the crankshaft), which opens and closes as the piston moves up and down. The rotary valve is more efficient and adjustable (at design time) as there is a larger and clearer path to the crankcase than in the reed valve setup, but such engines can run in only one direction; pusher configurations require a special propeller, sometimes difficult to find. The fuel used to power the engine is called Model Engine Fuel, a mixture of methanol (70–40%), castor oil (20%) and nitromethane (10–40%). The Cox line of reed valve engines designed prior to 1960 used a rear reed valve induction system. In the late 1950s Cox experimented with rear rotary valve induction (as used in the RR1) before moving forward with front rotary valve induction for their Tee Dee and Medallion lines . === Early engines === 1949 O Forty Five Power Pak (Special Racer Car Engine #PP-45 - manufactured 1949) This engine was the first designed by Cox but included some major parts (i.e. piston and cylinder) of the Spitzy .045 engine designed by Mel Anderson. It employed a twin reed valve which was later used for the Space Bug. The engine was a major engineering achievement for its time, by incorporating reduction gears, fuel tank, flywheel and muffler all into one "Power Pak." The air intake was via one of the axles. 1949 O Sixty Power Pak (Special Racer Car Engine #???? - manufactured 1949) When slightly more power was needed for the Thimble Drome Special car to obtain more speed, a slightly larger version of the .045 was ordered with a bigger bore making the displacement .060 cubic inches. 1952 Space Bug (Cat#349 - manufactured 1952–1958) The Space Bug was the first engine built entirely by Cox. It was designed for control line flying use only and was marketed as a "competition" engine and sold for $6.95. Back then there was no market for radio control, and free flight hadn't been considered by Cox at this time. The piston and cylinder were made from mild steel bar stock and the crankcase and fuel tank were cast aluminum. 1953 Thermal Hopper (Cat#360 - manufactured 1953–1958) The Thermal Hopper is basically a Space Bug without the fuel tank. It has a needle valve and venturi mounted on an aluminum plate instead. These were designed for free flight and could also be used for control line flying. It allowed the user to put a fuel tank of their choosing on. The engine output was recorded at 0.066 bhp @ 17,000 rpm with a torque of 4.5 Oz.in at 10,000 rpm. 1953 Space Bug Jnr. (Cat#370 - manufactured 1953–1958) The Space Bug Junior is a Space Bug with a smaller plastic tank. This cheaper version also only had one intake bypass port and sold for $3.95. 1955 Strato Bug (Cat#380 - manufactured 1955) Basically the same engine as a Space Bug but included a two-piece fuel tank which was cheaper to make than the original Space Bug tank. The tank itself is turned aluminum while the tank back is red, yellow or blue plastic from the Space Bug Junior but is modified to include an aluminum pick-up tube and a larger hole to expose the venturi that is integral to the aluminum tank. The later Babe Bee tank was simply a further developed version of this tank. This engine was only produced during 1955 and sold as a mid-range sport engine for $5.95. As such not many exist today which makes them very rare and collectible selling for over $300US in 2008 and $1000+ in 2012. Beware of fakes! Some unscrupulous sellers have been selling fake Strato Bugs that have a CNC machined tank and a Space Bug Junior back-plate. === Standard Bees === 1956 Babe Bee 049 (Cat#350 - manufactured Nov 1956 – Jan 1996) The classic Babe Bee was the first engine Cox produced with an extruded machined anodized bar stock aluminum crankcase. This crankcase was machine made and was much cheaper and faster to make than the cast aluminum crankcase of the earlier models. This engine was also supplied in thousands of RTF (Ready to Fly) airplanes sold in department stores worldwide. It has an integrated 5cc fuel tank. Max output power was recorded around 0.057 bhp (42 watts) @ 13,500 rpm on 15% nitro. 1957 Pee Wee .020 (Cat#100 - manufactured Feb 1957 – Jan 1996) Buoyed with excitement from the Babe Bee 049, Cox wanted to make a half-size version of the Babe Bee. It was a Pee Wee .020, just like a Babe Bee but half the size. 1958 Golden Bee (Cat#120 - manufactured Oct 1957 – Jan 1980) The original Golden Bee was a Baby Bee that has a larger (8cc), stunt vented fuel tank and has been anodized gold. The larger tank allowed the planes to fly longer while the stunt vents allowed the airplanes to fly inverted without fuel running out or the engine cutting out. The first versions of the Golden Bee had a single bypass intake port and same size backplate venturi opening (0.0625") as the Babe Bee but later versions had a 0.082" venturi opening to 11/64" at the reed valve while the Babe Bee was 9/64". This was the secret to its slightly higher power output. The 1969 and later RC version with throttle sleeve had two bypass #1 cylinder making them slightly more powerful again to make up for power losses due to the exhaust throttle sleeve. 1966 QZ (Cat#450 - manufactured 1966–1996) QZ stands for Quiet Zone. It is a Babe Bee with a muffler, twin bypass port cylinder with no sub piston induction and a high compression (#1702) glow head. An attempt to regain the power loss caused by the muffler. Very similar to the later QRC engine which reportedly worked better. Cox also sold the muffler, cylinder and high comp. glow head components of the QZ as a Muffler Conversion Kit (Cat#495) for $2.98. 1976 QRC (Cat#450-1 - manufactured 1976–1996) The QRC was a modified Babe Bee engine that had a muffler and larger (8cc) fuel tank. In the 1970s noise became an issue and the Cox engineers discovered that when adding a muffler the engine would lose significant power. This problem was alleviated by installing a cylinder with no sub piston induction. The engine was designed for power launching Radio Controlled Gliders and had a red tank with a blue spinner. 1976 RC Bee (Cat#360 - manufactured 1976–1996) This engine was designed for small radio-controlled model planes. It has a plastic clunk tank and an unusual cast crankcase. The Leisure Dynamics team thought that cast crankcases would be cheaper to produce, however, they discovered that there were many manufacturing defects and they were difficult to machine, resulting in a high failure rate, so they returned to the tried and proven machined aluminum bar stock crankcase. 1982 Dragon Fly (Cat#4505 - Manufactured 1982–1996) This engine was designed for the radio controlled model planes. It is basically a Baby Bee with a clunk tank and a muffler throttle. 1989 Texaco (Cat#4506 - manufactured 1989–1996) The engine was designed for the 1/2A Texaco RC duration competition. The engine has an additional fin on the larger glow plug which dissipates heat better allowing the engine to swing a larger propeller. i.e. 7 or 8 inches. This engine has a red 8cc fuel tank and a black crankcase. Original 1989 engines did not come out with 5 fin glow plug. The 5-fin glow plug came later in the 1992 Catalog. This engine also has the smaller 0.062" venturi opening of the Babe-bee to provide a longer engine run. 1995 Texaco Jnr (Cat#4507 - manufactured 1995–1996) The same engine as the Texaco above except that it has a smaller 5cc fuel tank which is also red. First appeared in 1995 Cox Catalog. === High-performance Bees === 1956 RR1 (Cat#390 - manufactured 1956–1965) The RR1 uses a rear rotary valve intake rather than a reed valve in an attempt to achieve more power. The engine came after the Babe Bee and looks very similar with its anodized, machined extruded aluminum crank case and fuel tank. The power improvement was negligible so Cox reverted to the cheaper easier to build Babe Bee. The engine was made for quite a few years and sold for $6.95. A left and right hand rotary valve were made, as were left hand 6×2 glass-filled nylon props for the RR-1. Some versions have a blue tank, others have a clear anodized tank. There were two versions of the tank back as well, to fit the corresponding tank. It has become a collectors item due to its uniqueness and colors and is worth around $300 in 2008. 1959 Space Hopper (Cat#150 - manufactured Nov 1958–1961) The Space Hopper was Cox's first attempt at a beam mount high performance reed valve engine plus the first steps towards their greatest engine, the Tee Dee series. The engine was basically like the Thermal Hopper was to a Space Bug. That is a Babe Bee without a tank, but a venturi and needle valve relying on an external fuel tank. The engine looks similar to the Sportsman engine with a machined aluminum crankcase and rear induction via a reed valve with the needle valve assembly and venturi similar in appearance to the later Tee Dee series. This engine was short lived and made way for the Tee Dee in 1960. Due to their similarities to the Tee Dee that followed some of the parts crossed over from this engine to the Tee Dee. They look very retro and due to their apparent rareness are worth around 200 US dollars in 2008. 1973 Black Widow (Cat#150 - manufactured May 1973 – Jan 1996) During the 70s a couple of Cox engineers were playing around with different colored Babe Bee and Golden Bee parts and came up with an all-black engine with a red spinner. They hopped it up a bit with a dual bypass cylinder from a Super Bee (#1), a black Golden Bee tank and a slightly larger (0.082") venturi intake. The Black Widow was born. These engines were marketed as a High Powered Combat Engine. On later Black Widows the red rubber spinner was replaced by a red anodized aluminum Tee Dee style spinner. In the late 1990s some Black Widows were produced with the a dual bypass slit exhaust cylinder. The slit exhaust was to prevent fires. According to an Aeromodeller engine test done in August 1974 the Black Widow on 25% Nitro output power was 0.08 bhp (60 watts) at 15,000 rpm with a max. torque of 6 oz.in at 9,000 rpm. 1995 Killer Bee 049 (Cat#340 - manufactured 1995–1996) The Killer Bee was an attempt at making a fast reed valve 049 engine from information that had been learned over the years of racing and competition. It had a tapered cylinder with SPI and lighter piston similar to the Tee Dee, a stronger balanced crankshaft and a new reed valve shape. They had a Yellow plastic needle valve. Later in 2002 Estes produced a Killer Bee that had none of these features but looked like the original Killer Bee except for the needle valve. Beware of fakes! Some unscrupulous people are producing fakes and selling them. Check to make sure the engine is the "real deal" before purchasing. 1996 Killer Bee 051 (Cat#360 - manufactured 1996) The Killer Bee 051 existed so that modelers could fly the same plane in two competition classes (i.e. A and 1/2A) simply by changing the engine. This engine has exactly the same performance as the 049. There is a legend that two thin lines (or grooves) in the piston skirt are for positive identification but this is incorrect. The grooves were intentionally designed to bleed off just enough power so that the 4% increase in displacement does not necessitate trim changes to a free flight model when switching the model from an 049 to the 051 to fly in the higher "A" class. The benefit of the grooves as a visual identifier was accidental. 1996 Venom (Cat#140 - manufactured 1996) The Venom was Cox's last attempt at making a really fast 049 mouse racing engine. Again taken from ideas learned from years of competition, this engine put all those ideas into an off the shelf product. It used the Killer Bee crankshaft loosely fitted into the crankcase, and a cylinder with porting very similar Tee Dee cylinder and tapered like the Tee Dee and with a lightened piston like the Tee Dee. The rest of it was like a Black Widow. The problem was that the production engine was not the same as the prototype. A mistake had been made in manufacturing and the piston was lightened too much. This made the engine fast but the piston weak and they would blow the top off the piston after a few runs at high speed. As such only 1000 were made and they never bothered to make any more. Because of the defect and apparent counterfeits in the market, these engines fetch low prices. === Tee Dees === 1961 Tee Dee 049 (Cat#170 - manufactured Nov 1960 – Jan 1996) The Tee Dee is Cox's most famous engine. This engine was dominant in competition for many years. It was designed by Bill Atwood who had been hired by Cox specifically to produce the Tee Dee line of competition engines. The important features of the Tee Dee are as follows: Tapered cylinder and a lightened and tapered piston Result: tighter piston fit at TDC and less piston mass. Two deep bypass ports with two bypass booster grooves, known as "side flutes" on each bypass port, extending slightly above the main bypass groove Result: significantly better air-fuel mixture induction True peripheral venturi Result: more efficient fuel intake, fuel draw and induction Precision balanced and milled crankshaft Result: better fuel intake, better balanced engine The Tee Dee was tested by Aeromodeller Magazine in 1962 and the output power was recorded to be .105 bhp (78 watts) @ 22,000 rpm with a max torque of 5.5 oz.in. at 18,000 rpm on 25% Nitro. (Note: The modern Norvel AME 049 engine which has an aluminum piston running in a ceramic coated cylinder, outputs .14 bhp (100 watts)@ 20,000 rpm). In 1973 the bypass porting, crank shaft timing and venturi were modified slightly and a mesh screen was added to the venturi to keep out dirt. This resulted in a minor performance improvement over the earlier versions. 1961 Tee Dee 051 (Cat#200 - manufactured Oct 1961 – Jan 1996) The 051 was simply a Class A version of the engine, physically the same on the outside only the bore was different and the piston had a small groove in the skirt to bleed off just enough power to exactly equal an 049 so no trim changes would be required to free flight models (this groove also visually differentiates the 051 from the 049 but this was of secondary importance). The 051 also had a RED carb body. 1994 Tee Dee .05 RC (Cat#201 - manufactured 1994) This engine had a proper RC carby and a full sized standard muffler and was designed specifically for RC flying. It had no Sub Piston Induction. Only two production runs of 1000 each were done so there are only 2000 of these in existence, making them the second rarest production engine next to the Venom. Note: Although the box said Tee Dee .05 the engine is actually .051 An .09 RC version also exists (Cat# 211 - manufactured 1994 also). 1961 Tee Dee .010, .020, .09 & .15 Cox also built Tee Dee's in .010 (Cat#130), .020 (Cat#160), .09 (Cat#210) and .15 (Cat#180) size. All these engines were very successful. One of the things Cox wanted Atwood to do was make him a .010 engine. Cox had already tried to halve the size of the Pee Wee .020 but couldn't get it to run for some reason. The suspicion surrounded a problem with the tiny reed valve. Atwood found that the front rotary valve worked well on the .010 size hence the Tee Dee .010 was born. 1961 Tee Dee .15 (Cat#180 - manufactured 1961) The original Tee Dee .15 was actually .1495 cu. in. or 2.45 c.c. displacement. It immediately became the engine to use in FAI FF with vastly higher performance than the Olympic, which had supplanted the European diesels used at the time. Fritz Schneeberger (Switzerland) won the FAI free flight world championships using a Tee Dee .15 in 1961. This engine produced 260W @ 17,000 rpm using 80/20 FAI fuel. They proved fragile however, particularly the thin-wall cylinder, and ball-and-socket connecting rod, and were replaced by beefed-up versions (as noted below). 1961 Special .15 (Cat# 260 - manufactured 1962–1964) Second version of Tee Dee 15 is slightly larger bore with a displacement of 0.1525 cu. in. or 2.499 c.c. with thicker wall cylinder and gudgeon pin conrod instead of a ball socket. This engine produced 340W @ 18,000 rpm using 30% nitro 1964 Special .15 MkII (Cat# 270 - manufactured 1964–1968) Third version of the Tee Dee .15 with a single exhaust port, Schnüerle port transfer system and gold anodized crankcase. It produces 280 Watts @ 19,000 rpm using 80/20 FAI fuel or 350W @ 19,000 rpm on 30% nitromethane === Medallions === 1961 Medallion 049 (Cat#240 - manufactured Nov 1961 – Jan 1996) Also known as the "Poor man's Tee Dee" these were similar to the Tee Dee in appearance but had cheaper parts on them, making them cheaper to buy. The cylinder was a non-tapered twin bypass with no boost ports (like the one used on the Black Widow), the crankshaft was drilled out rather than milled like the Tee Dee, and the carb body was a one-piece unit with a conventional needle valve and spray bar. These engines were marketed as a Sport / Stunt engine as they were much tamer and much less cantankerous than the Tee Dee. These are a great reliable easy to use little engine even today. They can be purchased for under $20US in 2008. R/C versions of this engine were also produced with exhaust throttle. i.e. 1968 Cat#240-1 and the 1988 Cat#2501 with muffler/throttle. 1961 Medallion .09 & .15 The Medallion engine was also produced in (Cat#230).09 and (Cat#220) .15 cubic inch size. There were also R/C versions of these i.e. Cat#230-1 Medallion .09 RC and Cat#220-1 Medallion .15 RC. 1995 Medallion 051 (manufactured 1995) This particular .051 came about when a special order for 300 Medallions was placed on Cox by the National Free Flight Society in the USA. It was a gentleman's agreement done on a handshake and it nearly didn't happen when Cox was sold to Estes. But the determination of the NFFS resulted in the deal happening, however, Estes-Cox only came through with 258 engines. The NFFS engraved each engine with a serial number and kept a record of who purchased each engine. These are probably the rarest of all Cox Engines due to the small size of the production run. These engines have a unique piston and cylinder setup that occurs on no other Cox engine, before or after. The cylinder has a straight bore (0.41 inches), slit exhaust, no sub piston induction. === Product engines === These are all variations of the Baby Bee with different back-plates and other parts designed for different RTF aircraft, cars and boats. There were literally hundreds of different models with subtle differences. Listed below are just a few of the more common ones. 1959 Super Bee (Cat# 350-1) Babe Bee with twin bypass cylinder to give more power for the P40 Warhawk RTF model. Early version had 'P40' stamped on the cylinder. It had a standard Babe Bee tank. 1964 Silver Bee (Cat# 350-6) Similar to the Super Bee but it had a larger 8cc non-vented fuel tank. It did not have P40 stamped on the cylinder but it did have the twin bypass ports. This engine came with the Spitfire RTF airplane. 1961 Series 190-x Product Engine (Cat#190-x - manufactured 1961 to 1971) Babe Bee type engine with "postage stamp" type Delrin backplate and brass needle valve instead of the integral Babe Bee fuel tank. Various shapes were used depending on the model they were fitted to. Each time they made a modification for a new model that was built a new Cat number was produced. (e.g. 190–8) Some had dual bypass port cylinders while others had single, it depended on the airplane. e.g. JU-87D Stuka, P-51 Bendix Racer, P-51 Mustang & Miss America models. 1972 Series 191-x Product Engine (Cat#191-x - manufactured 1972 to 1975) Babe Bee type engine with "horseshoe" type Delrin backplate and brass needle valve. The horseshoe backplate had additional mounting holes drilled in the plate allowed fitting to after market and kit aircraft. Various shapes and colours were produced depending on the model they were fitted to. Some had dual bypass port cylinders while others had single, it depended on the airplane. e.g. Sopwith Camel, Fokker DVII, ME-109, Super Stunter, PT-19 Trainer and others produced in the mid 1970s. 1976 Series 192-x Product Engine (Cat#192-x - manufactured 1976 to 1978) Similar in appearance to the 191 series engine, produced for the 1977 Wings series of air craft. i.e. Hustler, Mantis, F-15 Eagle and F-15 Falcon air planes. 1963 Series 290 / Spook Product Engine (Cat#290) Came on a blister pack as a "Two Ninety" replacement engine. Basically a replacement 190 engine. An aluminum back plate was used for the "Spook" flying wing combat model kit engine (290-1). 2000 Surestart (Cat#191) Another variation of the modern Babe Bee. These were pretty good because they have a choke tube attached to the grey plastic backplate. The choke tube makes the engine even easier to start. They were fitted to the very last RTFs (e.g. PT19 and Hyper Viper) before they went out of production. === Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) engines === Over the years some Cox model engines were sold to other companies for use in their products and sold under the other companies names. Examples of these companies were, Testor Corporation, Sanwa & Kyosho of Japan, Johannes Graupner of Germany, Jerobee Industries trading as JoMac Products, Lite Machine Corporation, Kenbrite Corp. Australia and Tissan Haifa in Israel. Of all of the above-mentioned companies, only Tissan Haifa assembled their own engines called the Banana .049. All the rest used motors manufactured by Cox themselves. The 1989 Cox Banana .049 (Cat#250) engine looked like a standard product engine with plastic backplate. It also had a spring starter and red aluminum spinner, and the fuel intake tube was extended below the plastic backplate. Cox also supplied a specially printed "Banana .049" box insert to fit their standard box. === Other Cox engines === 1959 Sportsman .15 (Cat# 110 - - manufactured 1958–1961) Rear reed valve .15 sized version of the Space Hopper 1959 Olympic .15 (Cat# 140 manufactured 1959–1961) Sportsman with twin ball races - designed for FAI Power FF event 1965 Olympic .15 Drum Valve Prototyped only (50 made by Bill Atwood) They were handed out to various people to try out and as such a few still exist today and appear from time to time for sale at swap meets and on eBay. 1968 Concept II .35 Front Rotary R/C (Cat# 2500 1968) Prototyped only - Bill Atwood - pictured in 1969 Dealer Catalog 1968 Concept II .35 Front Rotary Sport Engine (Cat# 2510 1968) Prototyped only - Bill Atwood - pictured in 1969 Dealer Catalog 1968 Concept II .40 Front Rotary R/C (Cat# 2520 1968) Prototyped only - Bill Atwood - pictured in 1969 Dealer Catalog 1968 Concept II .40 Rear Rotary R/C (Cat# 2530 1968) Prototyped only - Bill Atwood - pictured in 1969 Dealer Catalog 1976 Cox Conquest .15 (Cat# 2800 - manufactured 1976–1978) This engine took over from the Tee Dee .15 as "THE" Cox engine for FAI racing, combat and free flight for many more years until the Russian AAC Engines came along. This engine was patterned on the Australian designed 1973 Taipan 2.5cc Twin Ball Race engine by Gordon Burford. The entire top end of the Cox Conquest and the Taipan TBR are interchangeable. The Taipan TBR was based on the Rossi MkII so the top end is also interchangeable with a Rossi MkII. Also came in R/C version Cat# 2810. As a result of reorganization within Leisure Dynamics who owned Cox and K&B at the time, production of this engine was handed over to K&B and it became known as the K&B Cox Conquest after 1978. Production continued for a number of years when in 1990 the engine and rights were sold to MECOA owned by Randy Linsalato where it continued on as the RJL Cox Conquest for some time. 1976 Cox Conquest .40 - prototyped only Samples do exist and the Conquest .40 was a grown up version of the Conquest .15 however due to reorganization with Leisure Dynamics who owned Cox and K&B at the time it was decided not to commence production as K&B already had a .40 sized engine in the market. MECOA RJL acquired the Conquest .40 tooling at the same time as the .15 and it's still in their possession. 1987 Queen Bee .074 RC(Cat# 3701 manufactured 1987) Rear reed valve RC engine. Uses a standard glow plug. Power output is similar to Tee Dee .051. Came out Mid 1987 and is listed in Cox 1987 Catalog. == Cylinders == There was a wide range of cylinders produced with three different wall thicknesses. Most are interchangeable between all engine types which can create problems when buying a used engine. All early cylinders had a thin wall which was later found to need improvement because they bent easily in a crash or when trying to undo with a Cox wrench. Some people refer to these as Mk1 cylinders. The next type was thickened at the exhaust ports and are also known by some people as Mk2. The third type was thick wall the way down from the cooling fins to the bottom. This one facilitated the exhaust throttle ring and some people refer to this as a Mk3 although Cox never referred to them in this way. Note: The chart does not differentiate between specific modifications and changes made over the years as the company changed hands. Referring to the Cylinder Cross-sections above: depicts a thin wall Tee Dee .049 cylinder with dual booster ports on the bypass port. is a late model thick wall cylinder with slit exhaust and a single bypass booster. is a Black Widow #1 cylinder with no bypass booster with a stepped wall. is a pre-1955 cylinder used on early Space Bug, Space Bug Jr, Thermal Hopper and Strato Bug. Note how the thread diameter for the glow head is much smaller. No engines produced after 1955 used this cylinder. The most powerful cylinder piston combination without a doubt is the number 4 Tee Dee 049 cylinder. This cylinder has a tapered grind and tapered and lightened piston so the piston fit gets tighter as the piston reaches top dead center (TDC). The intake or bypass porting is 2 deep ports with 2 bypass booster ports on each bypass. This setup causes a swirling of the intake fuel air mixture which promotes better combustion. The Tee Dee cylinder was the basis for the design of the Venom and Killer Bee Cylinders. Notes: SPI = Sub Piston Induction 1 The Killer Bee and Venom had a special competition lightweight piston and a heavy duty crank shaft for speeds above 22K rpm. 2 The Tee Dee also had a tapered cylinder and the crank was stronger and ported different from the Medallion crank. == Pistons == The early engines that were produced before 1957 had a light alloy piston rod which is retained in its socket by a slotted steel retaining cup which in turn is held in place by a steel circlip located in a shallow groove in the interior piston wall. This arrangement (known as a three-piece piston) was abandoned as of 1957 in favor of a hardened steel rod that was swaged into a bearing cup formed integrally in the piston interior. The advantage of this latter set-up was that it simplified assembly and the bearing could be re-set to take up play using a suitable "reset" tool to re-swage the cup. The engines that used the early-style three-piece piston are any engines produced prior to 1957, i.e. Space Bug, Space Bug Jnr, Thermal Hopper and Strato Bug. Since the Space Bug, Space Bug Jr and Thermal Hopper were produced up until 1958 you will find versions of these early engines around with the later-style pistons. (and cylinders) The post-1957 piston is coated with copper on the inside and top. This was done to prevent the nitrile hardening process from hardening the ball socket joint area. The outside wall of the piston was then finely machined and polished to produce a chromed appearance. === Piston / Conrod ball socket joint free play === Sometimes, especially with engines that have had a lot of use, the piston / conrod ball socket joint is very loose and will adversely affect performance. A Cox “reset” tool, available for the .010, 020, 049/051 and the 09 series engines, is used to tighten the ball joint back up again. The correct free play is .001 to .003 inches. The .15 engines use a wrist pin so a socket reset tool is not required for these. == Crankshafts == On the Bee engines there were 3 types of crankshaft produced. (and 2 are interchangeable). The normal babe bee & Killer bee crankshafts are interchangeable. A third 'Car' crankshaft will only fit into a car crankcase with wide neck. All Bees with the exception of the Killer Bee and Venom had the same crankshaft that was only good for about 20,000 rpm before the conrod pin would break off. The Killer Bees and Venom had a heavy duty balanced and lightened crankshaft that improved performance and could withstand speeds in excess of 22,000 rpm. A company named Davis Diesel Development in the USA also made a similar crankshaft called a Killer crank for their diesel conversions. They found under the heavier torque loads caused by running diesel fuel, that the pins would break also; hence they produced their own killer crank. The same Killer cranks are now being produced again by Cox International. On the Tee Dees and Medallions the cranks are also interchangeable but quite different. The Tee Dee has a large square hole at the intake end of the crank whereas the Medallion has a smaller round hole. The timing is also different. On the later TD RC versions, the crankshaft is lightened and strengthened similar to the Killer Bee crank. i.e. ground away and hole in conrod pin. == Glow heads == === Cox glow heads === Five main types of Cox glow heads were produced for the Cox 049: #302 Pre 1955 Standard Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - Smaller dia. threads - used on Space Bug, Thermal Hopper, Space Bug Jnr and Strato Bug Only. #302-1 Post 1955 Standard Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - Larger dia. threads - used on all engines produced post 1955 until the #325 head was produced in 1979. #325 Standard Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - Larger dia. threads - used on all post 1956 engines except Tee Dees, QZ, Killer Bees, Venom and Texaco. Replaced 302-1 head in 1979. There are several different exterior appearances to standard glow heads, all noting a slightly different internal shape, compression and glow coil heat. #1702 Hi Compression Head - Trumpet shaped - High Compression - knurled top - 4 fins on early, 3 fins on later (fastest), 2 fins on most recent - used on Tee Dees, Killer Bees, QZ and Venom. differences range from 4 fin heads being high compression dome shaped to high compression trumpet shaped. #315 Texaco Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - 5 fins - used on Texaco Engine only. Supposedly allows greater cooling for engine when swinging larger propellers. There are some minor variations to the above-mentioned heads, including different thickness cooling fins and thicker centre electrodes on later model OEM glow plugs. However, the internal shape and glow plug filament remained the same. === Special glow heads === Along the way there were also some special heads made: #302RH 1953 Racing Head - Hemispherical shape - High Compression - Smaller dia. threads as used on Space Bug, Thermal Hopper, Space Bug Jnr and Strato Bug only. #??? "W" element Standard Head - Hemispherical shape - Low Compression - Larger dia. threads. The concept was borrowed from either Atwood or Holland engines and Cox lost the ensuing patent fight therefore the production run was very short due to the legal situation. #331 & #335 Special 1 fin car head. This head was built for the 1992 Cox GTP Nissan, Stocker and Indy Car engines. The engine used a purpose built heat sink assembly with cooling fins Cat#1972 === Aftermarket glow heads === Standard glow plug head—uses standard conventional glow plug—low compression—standard performance. Still produced by MECOA K&B Manufacturing. Hi Compression Head - Trumpet shaped - High Compression - knurled top. Still produced by MECOA K&B Manufacturing. Turbo glow plug head—medium compression—high performance and several heat ranges available (makes them very good for RC applications) Norvel Freedom Glow Plug—high compression—high performance— (available from NV engines) Galbreath Head with Nelson Plug Combo—high compression—high performance—most popular for small prop/high rpm applications, gives the engine an immediate performance boost by up to 2,500 rpm depending on the engine. Cox International Insert Style glow head—available in both Standard and Texaco style Merlin insert style with clamp ring; very high compression ratio (needs extra head shims); high performance == Reed valves == There were three main types of reed valve produced: Early engines—Space Bug, Thermal Hopper, Strato Bug—circular twin copper reeds Bee Engines prior to 1989—star-shaped single beryllium copper reed held in place by a circlip reed retainer. (see image on left) Later Bees, Killer Bees, Venom (post-1989) —oval-shaped stainless steel reed which is held in place by a plastic reed retainer. (see image on right) Later variants of the star and oval reeds were made of Mylar and Teflon. Some say Mylar is the best while others prefer the stainless steel and then others prefer the Teflon. Claims are that Mylar and Teflon are lighter and make the engine easier to start and go faster, but they do not last as long as the stainless ones. == Propellers == 049 engines run well on a 5×3 to 6×3 prop. A 5.7×3 APC works well. To get any suitable speed for mouse racing a 4-inch pitch prop is required at high revs but to do this plenty of nitro-methane is also required, for example, a 4.75 × 4 prop with 40% Nitro. Texaco engines are designed to use bigger props, e.g. 7×4. == Fuel == The highest performance is achieved with fuel of 30% or more nitro content. At least 20% oil (50/50 castor/synthetic) is recommended. Acceptable performance can be had without nitromethane, although the engine will be very sensitive to needle adjustments making it more difficult to operate. With high nitromethane (nitro) fuel it may be necessary to lower the compression by installing up to six or more additional head gaskets. When using castor oil it is advisable to clean the engine cylinder wall with a Scotch-Brite pad to remove castor oil varnish buildup that will occur, especially after lean running. This buildup of varnish will cause the engine to run inconsistently. To avoid this problem, it is advised to use a synthetic oil or a synthetic and castor oil blend. Synthetic oil contains detergents that will keep the cylinder wall clean; however, these small engines do rely on some castor oil buildup to maintain high compression at higher running temperatures. Using clean fuel and keeping everything clean and free from dust and dirt particles is also very important for consistent running in an engine of such small size as these. Cox fuel formula: == Diesel conversion == Davis Diesel Development manufactures and sells heavy duty Bee cranks (Killer cranks) and diesel conversion heads. These can be purchased direct from their web site or from eBay. The DD cranks are similar to the original Cox Killer Bee crank. Other conversion heads are made by MECOA RJL, and include .049, .074 and .09 engines. These use an O-ring seal rather than a Teflon disk. == Use in radio controlled models == At the time Cox developed the first Cox engines, they were used in control line and free flight model planes as there was no market for throttled radio control engines back then. Radio control, although first developed in the 1890s it was not available for model airplanes until the 1950s and did not become economically viable for small model planes until the mid-1970s and even then was for the modelers who could afford it. It was certainly out of reach of the hands of most children. From the mid-1960s Cox produced throttle control devices for some of their engines; however, these were not as effective as throttles on other brand engines as the Cox throttle worked by restricting exhaust flow. Exhaust throttles were produced for most Bee and all Medallion engines but not Tee Dee. In 1988, Cox produced an engine with a true throttle-able R/C carburetor and that engine was the Queen Bee .074. In 1994, Cox produced the Tee Dee .05 and .09 both of which had a conventional R/C carburetor with adjustable airbleed and a full muffler. In 2010, an after market R/C throttle/choke was developed for the .049 reed valve engines. The throttle attached to the choke tube on Sure Start .049 engines and acted like a cold-start choke on regular engines. The throttle was developed by Saras Associates and was marketed through Cox International. == Cox ready to fly model airplanes == Over the years, as well as producing millions of model engines Cox also produced a similar number of ready to fly (RTF) airplanes, as well as boats, cars, helicopters, and trains. The following is a list of the RTF airplanes produced by Cox between 1953 and 1980: Notes: Part numbers appear to skip and jump, however, cars and boats produced around the same times had numbers similar to the airplanes, therefore causing gaps. (see "Other Cox Toys" below) == Other Cox Toys == Over the years, Cox also produced a range of model cars and boats. The following is a list of cars and boats produced by Cox between 1954 and 1976: == See also == Control line (model aircraft) Cox Models Free flight (model aircraft) Model aircraft == References == == External links == Biography of Leroy M Cox The Cox Engines Museum Model Engine Collectors Journal American Model Engines Encyclopedia Model Engineering and Model IC Engine Projects The Internet Craftmanship Museum - Cox	Wikipedia/Cox_model_engine
Ship models or model ships are scale models of ships. They can range in size from 1/6000 scale wargaming miniatures to large vessels capable of holding people. Ship modeling is a craft as old as shipbuilding itself, stretching back to ancient times when water transport was first developed. == History == === Ancient Mediterranean === Ancient ship and boat models have been discovered throughout the Mediterranean, especially from ancient Greece, Egypt, and Phoenicia. These models provide archaeologists with valuable information regarding seafaring technology and the sociological and economic importance of seafaring. In spite of how helpful ancient boat and ship models are to archaeologists, they are not always easily or correctly interpreted due to artists’ mistakes, ambiguity in the model design, and wear and tear over the centuries. Ships "were among the most technologically complex mechanisms of the ancient world." Ships made far-flung travel and trade more comfortable and economical, and they added a whole new facet to warfare. Thus, ships carried a great deal of significance to the people of the ancient world, and this is expressed partly through the creation of boat and ship models. Ancient boat and ship models are made of a variety of materials and are intended for different purposes. The most common purposes for boat and ship models include burial votives, house hold articles, art, and toys. While archaeologists have found ship and boat models from societies all around the Mediterranean, the three of the most prolific ship model building cultures were the Greeks, Phoenicians, and Egyptians. Archaeologists have determined that Ancient Greek ship models were used as burial or votive offerings and as household articles such as lamps or drinking vessels. The kinds of ships depicted in Ancient Greek models can be classified broadly as small craft, merchant vessels, and warships. Models were cast in different materials, including wood, bronze, lead, and clay. Greek warships were popular subjects to be made in miniature. One particular model, acquired by the Staatliches Museum (engl.: Land museum) in Kassel, Germany, proves to be helpful to archaeologists and historians in understanding what a hemiolia warship was like. Archaeologists have tentatively dated the Kassel model to be from the 6th or 5th centuries BC through iconographic and literary sources. This ship model is made of clay and features a distinctive prow shaped like a boar's head that is described by Herodotus in The History, and depicted on pottery, coins seals and drinking cups. The model is a miniature of a vessel that would have been too small to be a typical warship. The presence of holes bored into 8 thwarts in the ship suggests that the thwarts may have been seats for a pegged-in dummy crew. If the holes bored into the thwarts are indeed meant to accommodate a dummy crew, the crew seating would have been arranged with two men per bench amidships, and one man per bench fore and aft where the ship narrows so that there is only room for one man. Alec Tilley (former Royal Navy and Navy of Oman officer) suggests that a small ship with this type of seating arrangement would have been called a hemiolia, or a one-and-a-halfer. The name indicates that two oarsmen would have been seated on half of the benches and one on the others. Until this ship model was discovered, archaeologists, classicists, and historians had only been able to hypothesize on what the seating arrangement might have been like on a hemiolia based on its name. Not all ancient Greek ship models are of warships. One boat model from a house deposit in Mochlos, Crete, dating to around 3000BC, is thought to be too small to be a war ship. Belgian maritime historian L.Basch postulates that the boat "cannot have been propelled by more than four oarsmen … so it can hardly be other than a fishing boat." As opposed to other Early Bronze Age ship and boat models, this model was not found in a burial context. This model is thought to be a child's toy or a piece of art, instead of a burial offering. The model itself features a projection of the keel beyond the stem-post at both ends. Despite appearances, these projections are not rams. Because the model is depicting a fishing boat, there would be no need for rams. This model in particular has helped archaeologists understand that not all keel projections in depictions of boats during this time are necessarily rams. Instead, keel projections on depictions of Bronze Age ships are explained as cut-waters or as beaching protection. Phoenician ship models also provide archaeologists information regarding the technical aspects of seafaring, and the cultural importance of seafaring for the ancient Phoenicians. However, some models offer tantalizing pieces of information that are, however, difficult to interpret. Item number H-3134 at the Hecht Museum, a dark-brown clay model of a 5th-century BCE oared boat, is one such craft. The vessel has no provenance, save for the reported location of its discovery off the Phoenician coast, but scientists have been able to tentatively confirm the origin and authenticity of this model. The model is of an oared boat manned by three pairs of oarsmen, who are rendered with "hands … raised to their chests, in the last instant of pulling the oar in the water, before lifting it for the recovery." The mystery of this model is the purpose of small holes- three on the starboard side, and four on port- that were made in the sides of the ship with a sharp tool before the clay dried. It is believed that the holes are too small to pass an oar through, and thus would not be used for rowing purposes. This is hard to prove, however, because the poorly preserved state of the model and the amount of fouling that is layered on the model makes it difficult to definitively rule out this possibility. Another theory regarding the purpose of these holes suggests that "ropes for holding oars were threaded through these holes." Ship models are helpful to archaeologists in that they allow archaeologists to make estimates regarding the size the vessel would be in real life. While this technique makes the assumption that artists scaled the models appropriately, it is useful to get some sense of how large these ships and boats may have been in real life. Archaeologists estimate the Phoenician vessel above (H-3134) to be about 6 meters long and the beam about 2 meters. Archaeologists are able to calculate these estimates of size by employing a series of assumptions about the distance between benches, the lateral distance between rowers, and a maximum draft of the vessel. Egyptian ship and boat models are perhaps some of the most well-preserved types of ship models available to archaeologists. Ancient Egyptian ship and boat models were most frequently placed in tombs of prominent people as "magical substitutes for the actual objects which the deceased has used in life and which he expected to use again in the next world." These boats have been categorised into two types: boat models that represent actual vessels used on the Nile, and boat models that represent boats that are considered necessary for religious purposes. The second type of model may or may not have been used in real life, but were purely magical boats. The majority of boats found in tombs are carved from wood. Several boat and ship models were found in the tomb of Tutankhamen, dating back to the Sixth Dynasty, and in the tomb of Meketre (2061–2010 BC). The wide variety of vessels depicted by the models in these two tombs has provided archaeologists new information on the types of boats that were used in Egypt. Moreover, the presence of boat and ship models in the tombs attests to the paramount importance of boats and ships to the Nile-going people of Egypt. The boat models discovered at Meketre's tomb feature several different kinds of boats, including traveling boats, sporting boats, and several papyriform crafts. Two of the papyriform skiffs have a trawling net slung between them. It is uncertain whether or not the net is meant to be depicted as being under the water or being pulled out of the water by the fishermen. In the event that the artist meant for the net to be in the water, it is upside down. Needless to say, the upside down net would not work for catching fish. This ambiguity points up the question of artistic veracity of the craftsmen who make ship models. As is attested by the ambiguity of the holes in the sides of the Phoenician model, and the skiff from Meketre, archaeologists need to be aware of the possibility of artistic error while interpreting ancient ship models. While a mistake involving an inverted trawling net may seem trivial, the lesson is important. It is important for archaeologists to be aware of the possibility that ancient artists may not have been familiar with the finer details of ships and boats. Despite some of the limitations of interpreting ancient Mediterranean ship models, archaeologists have been able to glean a great deal of information from these items. This information has been instrumental in filling in gaps in knowledge about ancient seafaring technology and culture. === Europe === Some of the oldest surviving European ship models have been those of early craft such as galleys, galleons, and possibly carracks, dating from the 12th through the 15th centuries and found occasionally mounted in churches, where they were used in ceremonies to bless ships and those who sailed in them, or as votive offerings for successful voyages or surviving peril at sea, a practice which remained common in Catholic countries until the 19th century. Until the early 18th century, virtually all European small craft and many larger vessels were built without formal plans being drawn. Shipwrights would construct models to show prospective customers how the full size ship would appear and to illustrate advanced building techniques. These were also useful for marine artists, and it is clear that from Dutch Golden Age Painting onwards extensive use of models was made by artists. Ship models constructed for the Royal Navy were referred to as Admiralty models and were principally constructed during the 18th and 19th centuries to depict proposed warship design. Although many of these models did not illustrate the actual timbering or framing, they did show the form of the hull and usually had great detail of the deck furnishings, masts, spars, and general configuration. Some of these grand models were decorated with carvings of great beauty and were evidently constructed by teams of artisans. Admiralty models served to educate civilians who were involved in the financing or some other aspect of the ship, to avoid construction errors that might have evolved as the ship itself took form. During the Napoleonic wars French and English seamen who were taken prisoner were confined, sometimes for many years, and in their boredom sought relief by building ship models from scraps of wood and bone. This evolved into something of an art form and the models were sold to the public, which responded by supplying the prisoners with ivory so that the models would be more decorative. For the most part, the models had carved wooden hulls with rigging made from human hair, horsehair, silk, or whatever other fine material could be obtained. Bone or ivory would be used for masts and spars, and as a thin veneer over the hull. A consequence of Britain's naval supremacy in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was wide public interest in ships and ship models. Numerous fairly crude models were built as children's toys leading to the creation of functional, as opposed to decorative, ship models. Britain also led the world in model ship sailing clubs – in 1838 the Serpentine Sailing Society was started in Hyde Park, followed by the first London Model Yacht Club in 1845. By the 1880s there were three model sailing clubs sharing the Kensington Gardens Round Pond alone. === Modern era === In the early part of the 20th century, amateur ship model kits became available from companies such as Bassett-Lowke in Great Britain and Boucher's in the United States. Early 20th century models comprised a combination of wooden hulls and cast lead for anchors, deadeyes, and rigging blocks. These materials gradually gave way to plastic precast sets. The development of tinplate and improvements in machine tools enabled significant advances in ship modelling from 1900 onwards. Thin, workable sheets of iron could be coated with tin to prevent rusting, then mass-produced as parts of ship model kits. The process was pioneered by French ship model manufacturer Radiguet, which produced a line of zinc boats with pressurised steam engines, wooden decking and brass fittings. The speed of production for tinplate vessels enabled one 1909 manufacturer to produce ship models of speedboats that had competed that year in Monaco. Ship modelling in the United States experienced a boom in the late 1920s when Popular Science magazine published an extended series of articles and plans for famous ships by modeller and former Navy officer E. Armitage McCann. McCann, who, according to Popular Science was the "recognized leader of the ship model building hobby" of his time founded the Ship Model Makers′ Club in 1929, with him as secretary and treasurer and marine artist and fellow ship model builder Gordon Grant as president. The world's leading magazine for this hobby, Model Boat, is published from the UK by MyTime Media and has been in print continuously since 1950. In recent years, widespread internet access has played a major role in promoting ship modelling, offering enthusiasts the opportunity to show off their work and share techniques. Internet sites such as Modelwarships.com, Steelnavy.com, or Model Shipwrights are oriented to plastic model ship builders, while others such as Hyperscale focus largely on aircraft or other subjects can regularly feature plastic ship models as well. == Types of construction == The most common materials used for ship models are: Wood—commonly solid wood, two pieces of wood with a vertical seam or slabs of wood placed one on top of each other. Plastic—including both injected styrene and cast resin models. In larger scales (1/192 and larger), fiberglass is often used for hull shells. Metal—usually cast lead or other alloys. Steel, sheet tin and aluminum brass are used less frequently for hull construction, but are used extensively for adding details. Paper—preprinted paper construction kits are common in Europe, and are available in a variety of scales. === Wooden === Wooden ship model hulls can be constructed in several ways. The simplest is a solid wood hull sawn and carved from a single block of wood. This method requires the greatest skill to achieve accurate results. A variant of this technique, sometimes known as bread and butter construction (the wood is the "bread" and glue the "butter") is a hull built up from thin blocks of wood glued together with either a vertical seam which can be incorporated into deck design, or a horizontal seam. This reduces the amount of carving required, but still requires skill and the use of templates to achieve an accurate hull form. Modelling precision and lightweight design can be achieved by creating a hollow hull. The plank on bulkhead technique inserts a series of shaped bulkheads along the keel to form a shaped stage which will be covered with planks to form the hull of the model. Plank on frame designs build the model just as the full size wooden ship is constructed. The keel is laid down in a manner which keeps it straight and true. The sternpost and stem are erected, deadwood and strengthening pieces inserted, and a series of shaped frames are built and erected along the keel to form the internal framework of the model. The planks are then applied over the frame to form the external covering. A wooden hull can be used for operating models if properly sealed. === Plastic === In the decades since World War Two injection-molded polystyrene plastic model ships have become increasingly popular. Consisting of preformed plastic parts which can be bonded together with plastic cement, these models are much simpler to construct than the more labor-intensive traditional wooden models. The inexpensive plastic kits were initially targeted to the postwar generation who could glue them together and produce passable replicas in a single afternoon. Plastic models are available in both full hull and waterline versions for a wide variety of vessels. A more recent addition has been a variety of kits in cold cure resin marketed by various small companies as part of a cottage industry. These often cover more obscure subjects than mainstream manufacturers. Scales vary as well, with many kits from the early days being "box scale"; that is, scaled to fit into a uniform sized box designed to fit conveniently on hobby shop shelves. Scales have since become more standardized to enable modelers to construct consistent scale collections, but there are still many to choose from. In Europe 1/400 scale remains popular, while in the United States and Japan the most popular scales are 1/700 (making a World War Two aircraft carrier about a foot long) and 1/350 (twice as long as 1/700). Nevertheless, mainstream plastic kit manufacturers continue to produce kits as small as 1/1200 and as large as 1/72, with a few even larger. The early plastic model kit producers such as Airfix, Revell, Frog and Pyro have since been joined by Imai, Tamiya, Hasegawa, Skywave/Pit-Road, Trumpeter, Dragon Models Limited and many others in producing a wide array of model subjects. The plastic model kit market has shifted over the years to a focus on adult hobbyists willing to pay for more elaborate, higher quality kits. Another recent development has been the advent of aftermarket parts to enhance the basic kits. Decals, specialized paints and turned metal replacement gun barrels are available to make plastic models more accurate. The introduction of flat photoetched metal sets, usually stainless steel or brass, also provide much more realistic lifelines, cranes, and other details than are possible with the injection molded plastic kits. These photoetch sets have transformed the hobby, enabling the finescale modeler to reproduce very delicate details with much less effort. === Live steam === Enthusiasts build live steam model ships of many types and in many scales. These range from simple pop pop boats to models of racing hydroplanes. == Scale conversion factors == Instead of using plans made specifically for models, many model shipwrights use the actual blueprints for the original vessel. One can take drawings for the original ship to a blueprint service and have them blown up, or reduced to bring them to the new scale. For instance, if the drawings are in 1/4" scale and you intend to build in 3/16", tell the service to reduce them 25%. You can use the conversion table below to determine the percentage of change. You can easily work directly from the original drawings however, by changing scale each time you make a measurement. The equation for converting a measurement in one scale to that of another scale is D2 = D1 x F where: D1 = Dimension in the "from-scale" D2 = Dimension in the "to-scale" F = Conversion factor between scales Example: A yardarm is 6" long in 3/16" scale. Find its length in 1/8" scale. F = .67 (from table) D2 = 6" X .67 = 4.02 = 4" It is easier to make measurements in the metric system and then multiply them by the scale conversion factor. Scales are expressed in fractional inches, but fractions themselves are harder to work with than metric measurements. For example, a hatch measures 1" wide on the draft. You are building in 3/16" scale. Measuring the hatch in metric, you measure 25 mm. T he conversion factor for 1/4" to 3/16', according to the conversion table is .75. So 25 mm x .75 = 18.75 mm, or about 19 mm. That is the hatch size in 3/16" scale. Conversion is a fairly simple task once you start measuring in metric and converting according to the scale. There is a simple conversion factor that allows you to determine the approximate size of a model by taking the actual measurements of the full-size ship and arriving at a scale factor. It is a rough way of deciding whether you want to build a model that is about two feet long, three feet long, or four feet long. Here is a ship model conversion example using a real ship, the Hancock. This is a frigate appearing in Chappelle's "History of American Sailing Ships". In this example we want to estimate its size as a model. We find that the length is given at 136' 7", which rounds off to 137 feet. To convert feet (of the actual ship) to the number of inches long that the model will be, use the factors in the table on the right. To find the principal dimensions (length, height, and width) of a (square rigged) model in 1/8" scale, then: Find scaled length by dividing 137 by 8 = 17.125" Find 50% of 17.125 and add it to 17.125 (8.56 + 17.125 = 25.685, about 25.5) Typically, the height of this model will be its length less 10% or about 23.1/2" Typically, the beam of this model will be its length divided by 4, or about 6 1/2" Although this technique allows you to judge the approximate length of a proposed model from its true footage, only square riggers will fit the approximate height and beam by the above factors. To approximate these dimensions on other craft, scale the drawings from which you found the length and arrive at her mast heights and beam. == Wargaming == Model ships have been used for war gaming since antiquity, but the introduction of elaborate rules made the practice more popular in the early 20th century. Small miniature ships, often in 1:1200 scale and 1:1250 scale were maneuvered on large playing surfaces to either recreate a historical battle, or in the case of governments, plan for future encounters. These models were basic representations of ship types, with enough detail to make them recognizable. Bassett-Lowke marketed these to the public in England, along with more detailed versions that appealed to collectors. Prior to World War II, the German company Wiking became a leader in the field but the war ended its dominance. Upon the United States' entry into World War II, Charles King Van Riper was commissioned to build identification models at a scale of 1 ft (0.30 m) to 64 ft (20 m). He produced 1:1200 models of freighters for the United States Navy's Submarine Attack Teacher at Groton, Connecticut. == Large scale == Larger ship models have been used in museums to document historical ships, in companies for decoration and public relations. These are typically built by commercial firms, or, in the past, model departments of large shipyards. One famous builder of ship models for the United States Navy was the firm of Gibbs & Cox; a 1/48 scale model of the USS Missouri, which is on display at the Washington Navy Yard museum, required an estimated 77,000 man hours to construct. Commercial ship models are usually built to rigorous standards; for example the US Navy has an exacting set of specifications regarding the use of materials and methods with the aim of ensuring a model "lifespan" of one hundred years. === Radio control === Some hobbyists build and operate scale model ships utilizing radio control equipment. These can range from small models that can be operated in aquariums to vessels capable of navigating large bodies of water. Further expanding the concept is model warship combat, in which scale models fire projectiles at each other in combat. == Engineering models == Model ships are important in the field of engineering, where analytical modeling of a new design needs to be verified. Principals of similitude are used to apply measured data from a scaled model to the full scale design. Models are often tested in special facilities known as model basins. == Manned == Manned models are model ships that can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. They must behave just like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Physical conditions such as wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels and berths must be reproduced realistically. Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port layout) and for training in shiphandling (e.g. maritime pilots, masters and officers). They are usually at 1:25 scale. The aim of training on manned models is to enable seamen to acquire or to develop manoeuvring skills through a better understanding of a ship's behaviour as it sails in restricted water conditions at manoeuvring speed. Manned models are considered by maritime pilots as the next best thing to a full-scale prototype for understanding a ship's behaviour. Those who have trained on both claim that scale models are complementary to computer simulators. While manoeuvres with currents, waves, tugs, anchors, bank effects, etc. are reproduced more accurately on scale models, numerical simulators are more realistic when it comes to the bridge environment. The Port Revel Shiphandling Training Centre is a French maritime pilotage school specializing in training for pilots, masters, and officers on large ships like supertankers, container ships, LNG carriers and cruise ships. The facility uses manned models at a 1:25 scale on a man-made lake designed to simulate natural conditions in harbours, canals, and open seas. It was the first such facility in the world. The centre was originally created in 1967 near Grenoble by Laboratoire Dauphinois d'Hydraulique. == Yachts == Model yachts are operating craft, which may be sail, steam, engine or electric motor powered, typically resembling pleasure power craft, although the hobby also includes the construction and operation of models of working ships such as tugboats and other craft shown in this article as static models. == Model shipwright guilds == Model shipwright guilds tend to concentrate their efforts on highly accurate static models of all types of watercraft and are social groupings intended to allow more experienced ship modellers the opportunity to pass on their knowledge to new members; to allow members of all levels of expertise to exchange new ideas, as well as serving as social function. Some model shipwright guilds are incorporated into government and Naval facilities, achieving a semi-official status as a clearinghouse for information on naval history, ship design and, at times, teaching the craft of ship modeling, through model building, restoration, repair of the facility's models, as well as, museum docent services. The USS Constitution Museum operates a model shipwright guild from the Charlestown Navy Yard adjacent to the berth for the vessel itself, as does the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park by sponsoring the Hyde Street Pier Model Shipwrights and providing work and meeting to them aboard space aboard the ferryboat Eureka tied at the Hyde Street Pier where they are considered working museum volunteers. == Collections == The largest collection of ship models is thought to be the collection at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, which numbers nearly 5,000, most of which are held in the Model Store at the No. 1 Smithery at the Historic Dockyard Chatham, Kent. In private hands two of the largest collections belong to the hobbyists who made them. Philip Warren of England has a collection of 432 ship models built on the scale of 1:300, all of which he constructed himself. Erick Navas of Peru has a collection of 1005 warships, some of which he built from scratch. == See also == Model airplane Model yachting Model warship combat Radio-controlled boat Wooden Ship Models == References == == External links == Media related to Models of ships at Wikimedia Commons	Wikipedia/Model_ship
A radio-controlled helicopter (also RC helicopter) is model aircraft which is distinct from an RC airplane because of the differences in construction, aerodynamics, and flight training. Several basic designs of RC helicopters exist, of which some (such as those with collective pitch control) are more maneuverable than others. The more maneuverable designs are often harder to fly, but benefit from greater aerobatic capabilities. Flight controls allow pilots to control the collective (or throttle, on fixed pitch helicopters), the cyclic controls (pitch and roll), and the tail rotor (yaw). Controlling these in unison enables the helicopter to perform the same maneuvers as full-sized helicopters, such as hovering and backwards flight, and many other maneuvers that full-sized helicopters cannot, such as inverted flight (where collective pitch control provides negative blade pitch to hold heli up inverted, and pitch/yaw controls must be reversed by pilot). The various helicopter controls are affected by means of small servo motors, commonly known as servos. A solid-state gyroscope sensor is typically used on the tail rotor (yaw) control to counter wind- and torque-reaction-induced tail movement. Most newer helicopters have gyro-stabilization on the other 2 axis of rotation (pitch and roll) as well. Such 3-axis gyro is typically called a flybarless controller, so-called because it eliminates the need for a mechanical flybar. The engines typically used to be methanol-powered two-stroke motors, but electric brushless motors combined with a high-performance lithium polymer battery (LiPo) are now more common and provide improved efficiency, performance, and lifespan compared to brushed motors, while decreasing prices bring them within reach of hobbyists. Gasoline and jet turbine engines are also used. Just like full sized helicopters, model helicopter rotors turn at high speeds and can cause severe injuries. Several deaths have occurred, some as recently as 2013. == Types of R/C helicopters == Common power sources of remote control helicopters are glow fuel (also called nitro fuel, nitromethane-methanol), electric batteries, gasoline (petrol) and turbine engines. For the first 40 years, glow fuel helicopters were the most common type produced. However, in the last 10 years, electric powered helicopters have matured to a point where power and flight times are better, but typically not as long as glow fuel helicopters. There have been two main types of systems to control the main rotors, mechanical mixing and electronic cyclic/collective pitch mixing (eCCPM). Most earlier helicopters used mechanical mixing. Today, nearly all R/C helicopter use eCCPM. Practical electric helicopters are a recent development but have rapidly developed and become more common, overtaking glow fuel helicopters in common use. Turbine helicopters are also increasing in popularity, although the high cost puts them out of reach of most people. === Internal Combustion (Nitro, Gas) === The first RC helicopters have been powered by combustion engines (Glow fuel, or nitro, as well as gas, or gasoline as the fuel source). Original helicopter "classes" were based on the engine size. For example, a helicopter with a 0.30 cu in (4.9 cm3) engine was a 30 class and a helicopter with a 0.90 cu in (14.7 cm3) engine was referred to as a 90 class helicopter. The bigger and more powerful the engine, the larger the main rotor blade that it can turn and hence the bigger the aircraft overall. Typical flight time for nitro helicopters is 7–15 minutes depending on the engine size and tuning. === Electric === Two small electric helicopters emerged in the mid-1990s. These were the Kalt Whisper and the Kyosho EP Concept, flying on 7–8 × 1.2 Ah NiCad batteries with brushed motors. However, the 540-sized brushed-motors were on the limit of current draw, often 20–25 amps on the more powerful motors, hence brush and commutator problems were common. Recent advancements in battery technology are making electric flying more feasible in terms of flying time. Lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries are able to provide the high current required for high performance aerobatics while still remaining very light. Typical flight times are 4–12 minutes depending on the flying style and battery capacity. In the past electric helicopters were used mainly indoors due to the small size and lack of fumes. Larger electric helicopters suitable for outdoor flight and advanced aerobatics have become a reality over the last few years and have become very popular. Their quietness has made them very popular for flying sites close to residential areas and in places such as Germany where there are strict noise restrictions. Nitro helicopters have also been converted to electric power by commercial and homemade kits. The smallest remote-controlled production model helicopter made (Guinness World Records 2014) is the Silverlit Nano Falcon XS sold at many toy stores (although this is infrared controlled, not radio), electronics stores and internet stores, costing about $30 (£28). The next smallest is the Nano Falcon, which previously held the record for the smallest rc helicopter. Several models are in contention for the title of the smallest non-production remote-controlled helicopter, including the Pixelito family of micro helicopters, the Proxflyer family, and the Micro flying robot. === Coaxial === A recent innovation is that of coaxial electric helicopters. The system's simple direction control and freedom from torque induced yaw have, in recent years, made it a good candidate on small models for beginner and/or indoor use. Models of this type, as in the case of a full-scale helicopter, eliminate rotational torque and can have extremely quick control response, both of which are very pronounced in a CCPM model. Most cheaper models do not have a swashplate, but instead use a third rotor on the tail to provide pitch control. These helicopters have no roll control and have limited mobility. While a coaxial model is very stable and can be flown indoors even in tight quarters, such a helicopter has limited forward speed, especially outdoors. Most models are fixed-pitch, i.e. the collective pitch of the blades cannot be controlled, plus the cyclic control is only applied to the lower rotor. Compensating for even the slightest breeze causes the model to climb rather than to fly forward even with full application of cyclic. More advanced coaxial constructions with two swash plates and/or pitch control (common for full-scale coaxial helicopters like Kamovs) have been realized as models in individual projects but have not seen the mass market as of 2014. === Multirotor model helicopters === More recently, multirotor designs have become popular in both the RC hobby and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) research. These vehicles use an electronic control system and electronic sensors to stabilize the aircraft. Multirotors are generally more affordable, easier to construct, and simpler to operate than RC helicopters. This made multirotor aircraft an appealing platform for amateur model aircraft projects and aerial photography. === Size classes === Nitro RC helicopters are categorised under the following classes: 30 size : Engine 0.3 cubic inch, Main Blades 550-600mm 50 size : Engine 0.5 cubic inch, Main Blades 600-620mm 60 size : Engine 0.6 cubic inch 90 size : Engine 0.9 cubic inch, Main Blades 690-710mm Modern RC helicopters are generally classed by the length of the main blades (with few exceptions). Common classes are: Micro (under 200mm main blades) Mini (240-420mm blades) - classically called 300–450. 500 (425-500mm) 600 (600mm) 700 (standard competition size) 800 == Radio gear == === Transmitter === RC helicopters generally require between 3 and 7 channels for control (although micro helicopters that utilize a 2-channel infrared control system also exist). Small fixed-pitch helicopters use a 4-channel radio (throttle, elevator, aileron, rudder); while collective-pitch models need a minimum of 5 channels (throttle, collective pitch, elevator, aileron, and rudder). 6th channel is often used for gyro gain. 7th channel commonly used for engine governor control for fuel powered models. Because of the normal interaction of the various control mechanisms, advanced radios include adjustable mixing functions, such as throttle/collective and throttle/rudder. Radio prices vary from $50–$3,000 USD. Early radio controls systems used amplitude modulation (AM) to transmit their signals. In the late '70s, frequency modulation (FM) became more commonplace. === Spread spectrum === Starting with the Spektrum DX6 park flyer transmitter system in 2006, RC flying began the departure from various lower frequencies which were subject to interference and were less reliable than the new spread spectrum protocols. Systems such as Spektrum and JR use the DSM2 and later, DSMX direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) method, where they transmit on a pair of fixed channels chosen when the radio and receiver are turned on. Any subsequent systems would avoid using these channels and continue searching for another unused pair of channels. Systems such as frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) used by Futaba employ frequency hopping on the 2.4 GHz band instead of the various frequencies in the lower MHz ranges. The advantage is that radios are no longer using a fixed frequency during flight, mitigating the risk of interference on that fixed frequency. With either method many radios can be transmitting at once without interfering with each other. The Futaba systems change frequency approximately every two milliseconds, so even if two transmitters are using the same channel they are not doing so for long. The pilot will not notice any abnormal behavior of the model in the 1/500th of a second that they are interfering. This gives one the advantage of turning on a transmitter without regard to channels currently in use by other pilots' radios. One downside to 2.4 GHz is that precautions must be taken during installation since certain materials such as carbon fiber can mask the signal. In some cases, satellite receivers with secondary antennas need to be used to maintain better line-of-sight with the transmitter radio. Another drawback is that a 2.4 GHz standard has yet to evolve so that receivers and transmitters can be mixed regardless of their respective manufacturer. === Controls === Learning to fly a collective pitch RC helicopter takes time and practice. Many modelers join a club so they can be instructed by experienced RC pilots, or follow on-line guides. RC Helicopters usually have at least four controls: roll - cyclic pitch, elevator (fore-aft cyclic pitch), rudder (yaw) and pitch/throttle (collective pitch/power). For simple flight, the radio is usually configured such that pitch is around −1 degree at 0% throttle stick, and somewhere around 10 degrees at 100% throttle stick. It is also necessary to modulate the throttle in conjunction with the pitch so that the model maintains a constant rotor speed. This is beneficial for consistent and smooth flight performance. If aerobatic '3D' performance is desired, then automatic throttle, or idle up, mode of flight is used. In this mode, the collective pitch ranges from its negative limit at 0% throttle stick input, up to its positive limit at 100% throttle stick. The throttle, on the other hand, is modulated automatically to maintain a constant rotor speed and is usually at its lowest value when the throttle stick is centered and the pitch is 0. This mode allows the rotor to produce a thrust upwards (by using negative pitch) which, when the model is inverted, allows sustained inverted flight. Usually a more advanced computer radio is used for this kind of flying, which allows customization of the throttle-collective mix. The cyclic and yaw controls are not by definition different in these two modes, though 3D pilots may configure their models to be much more responsive. == Construction == Construction is typically of plastic, glass-reinforced plastic, aluminium or carbon fiber. Rotor blades are typically made of wood, fiberglass or carbon fiber. Models are typically purchased in kit form from one of about a dozen popular manufacturers and take 5 to 20 hours to completely assemble. These model helicopters contain many moving parts analogous to those on full-size helicopters, from the swashplate to rotor and everything in between. The construction of helicopters has to be more precise than for fixed-wing model aircraft, because helicopters are susceptible to even the smallest of vibrations, which can cause problems when the helicopter is in flight. Additionally, the small size and low weight of R/C helicopters and their components means that control inputs, especially cyclic (pitch and roll) can have a very fast response, and cause a rotation rate much faster than the equivalent input might produce on a full-size aircraft. This quick response can make the model unnecessarily difficult to fly. For this reason, most model helicopters either have a flybar or electronic stabilizing equipment. To reduce mechanical complexity and increase precision of the control of the swashplate some model helicopters use cyclic/collective pitch mixing. == Competition == Aerobatic helicopter flying has historically followed the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale rules, which for helicopters are labelled F3C. These include a predetermined routine of hovering and aerobatics. An advanced form of RC helicopter flying is called 3D. During 3D flying, helicopters perform advanced aerobatics, sometimes in a freestyle form, or in a predetermined set of moves drawn up by the organisers of the competition. There are a number of 3D competitions around the world, two of the best-known being the 3D Masters in the UK and the eXtreme Flight Championship (XFC) in the United States. In 2008, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale introduced the class of F3N as a provisional class for international 3D competition and in 2010 at the CIAM Plenary meeting, F3N gained formal approval for competition effective 1 January 2011. F3N rules are designed to provide a consistent standard of judging throughout the World and give countries the chance to field a Team at a World championship hosted every two years. F3N is conducted in a similar manner as 3D Masters and 3DX with 3 round types made up of Set Manoeuvres, Freestyle Flight and Flight to Music. == Commercial applications == While some companies make use of RC multicopters for low altitude aerial photography, filming, policing, and remote observation or inspection, RC helicopters are not commonly used for commercial purposes. One notable exception is crop spraying with large RC helicopters such as the Yamaha R-MAX. US Federal Aviation Administration regulations from 2006 grounding all commercial RC model and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flights have been upgraded to require formal FAA certification before being permitted to fly at any altitude in the United States. All commercial owners must register with FAA, as well as pass a knowledge test. Non-commercial operators must register only if the models they fly weigh more than 0.55 pounds (250g). == Controlling methods == === Radio control === Most RC helicopters make use of a handheld transmitter with an antenna that sends signals to the helicopter's receiver, usually a radio frequency of 27 MHz, 49 MHz, or 2.4 GHz. Infrared radios are also used by some models. Infrared radios have the disadvantage of potentially being interfered by sunlight or fluorescent lights, making them more suited for indoor RC helicopters. Radio controls generally have two sticks used to control the movement of the helicopter. On a 4-channel transmitter, there are four different modes in which the control sticks can be set: Mode 1 – the left stick controls pitch and yaw movements, while the right stick controls throttle and roll movements. Mode 2 – the left stick controls throttle and yaw movements, while the right stick controls pitch and roll movements. Mode 3 – the left stick controls pitch and roll movements, while the right stick controls throttle and yaw movements. Mode 4 – the left stick controls throttle and roll movements, while the right stick controls pitch and yaw movements. Transmitters may include trims for each axis to correct any undesired movement of the helicopter. Some radio transmitters include a charging cable to charge the helicopter's battery using the transmitter's own batteries. === Phone and tablet control === Some RC Helicopters can be controlled from a smartphone or tablet. Controls are usually via a downloaded application from the helicopter's manufacturer, and often resemble physical stick controls on a transmitter, or utilize the accelerometer built into the mobile device. Infrared controlled helicopters can be controlled with an IR blaster connected to the 3.5 mm audio jack interface on a mobile device. Another communications method used is Wi-Fi. The helicopter's built in computer creates its own wireless network, which the Wi-Fi enabled mobile device connects to and communicates with the helicopter. == Safety == 'Model' helicopters can be dangerous. Safety precautions, proper maintenance, and an understanding of the mechanics and flight characteristics of the models are necessary to prevent accidents. Modelers who fly at sanctioned sites are required to follow safety rules designated by national model aircraft organizations. In the United States, the Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA) publishes and updates safety rules for all model aircraft operations, including fixed and rotary wing models. In 2014, several organizations with interest in unmanned aircraft systems in partnership with the Federal Aviation Administration launched a new educational campaign to promote safe and responsible flying and provide guidance for hobbyists and commercial users. === Deaths === In July 2013, a 41-year-old Swiss man was found dead in Mauensee near his model helicopter. He had "severe head and arm injuries". A September 2013 incident in New York City highlighted the possible dangers of remote controlled model helicopters when a 19-year-old enthusiast, who was very experienced in flying remote controlled helicopters, died after one of his helicopter's blades struck his head. == Miniature helicopters == Miniature helicopters are remotely controlled helicopters with a weight ranging from just a few grams to one hundred grams. Most in production are toys aimed at hobbyists and enthusiasts. In addition, there are many companies making prototypes for military and security applications. Miniature helicopters are popular demonstrations for the latest technologies in miniaturization. Examples of these types of miniaturized models are the E-Flite Blade CX and CX2 and the Picoo Z, a popular consumer model. Along with the Proxflyer, a prototype and basis for many production models. One final example is a one-off prototype and technology demonstration item that was developed by Seiko Epson, and demonstrated at the International Robot Exhibition in Tokyo is the Seiko Epson Micro flying robot. == See also == Radio-controlled aerobatics Radio-controlled model IRCHA == References ==	Wikipedia/Radio-controlled_helicopter
The Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA), based in Muncie, Indiana, United States at 40°10′36.25″N 85°19′32.19″W, is a non-profit organization dedicated to the promotion of model aviation as a recognized sport as well as a recreational activity. It is the largest organization of its kind with a current membership of approximately 195,000 members, with nearly 57,000 of these being youth members under 19 years of age. Founded in 1936, the AMA is the official national body for model aviation in the United States. They sanction more than one thousand model competitions, and an increasing number of non-competitive fly-in events for member aeromodelers throughout the country each year, charter more than 2500 model airplane clubs and offer contest sanctioning, liability insurance and the procurement of flying sites. They also certify official model flying records. All AMA-chartered clubs require their flying members to purchase AMA memberships for said liability insurance. In order to be covered by their insurance, an AMA member does not need to fly at a chartered club's flying site, but members have to follow their "Safety Code" guidelines. AMA's insurance coverage is in excess of one's homeowner's or other insurance. With the burgeoning interest in small park flyer aircraft which are often flown outside of regular club fields, the AMA now provides low-cost membership and coverage for park flyer enthusiasts. AMA organizes the annual National Aeromodeling Championships, the world's largest model airplane competition as well as providing press coverage of major meets across the country via their monthly publication, Model Aviation. Other publications include Park Pilot for those interested in park flyers or who are enrolled in the Academy's park pilot program, as well as starting in March 2010, AMA Today, a bi-monthly e-newsletter sent via e-mail to members. The AMA's Web presence is partly updated through the monthly "AMA Air" news video hosted on YouTube. Given the unique nature of model aviation insofar as it requires both airspace as well as frequency allocation for radio control, the AMA serves as a liaison with the Federal Aviation Administration concerning aeromodeling safety and operation of model aircraft as it relates to full-scale aviation, most recently with the nascent development and beginnings of non-military, commercial and public-use UAV deployment in the National Airspace System over the United States, and how the FAA can equitably regulate such commercial and public use of UAVs, simultaneous with accommodating the needs of recreational and sport flying of radio control model aircraft and their close-cousin, strictly hobbyist-flown FPV unmanned aerial vehicles, with the AMA as a "community-based organizational" advocate for the aeromodeler. The AMA also works with both the Federal Communications Commission and the American Radio Relay League concerning available radio bandwidth for radio-controlled aeromodelling activities, with the ARRL primarily functioning as a partner for the purpose of the use of selected amateur radio frequencies (particularly on the well-established 6-meter band, used throughout the United States and Canada) and developing use on the low-UHF 70 cm amateur band for RC flying, especially for FPV activities, (increasingly using spread spectrum transmission as 2.4 GHz RC does) by amateur radio license-holding aeromodelers, beyond the other existing low-end VHF (72 MHz) and upper-end UHF 2.4 GHz spread spectrum bands' uses for radio control aeromodeling in the two North American nations. As an associate member of the National Aeronautic Association, the AMA is recognized by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, the world governing body of all aviation activity. == Insurance == While many members view AMA insurance as the primary purpose of the organization, the insurance program is low on the list of priorities. When the organization was first formed five years before the United States' involvement began in World War II, there was no insurance program. The first offering of optional liability insurance was first suggested in 1939. $0.50 extra was to provide $500.00 liability protection. By the early 1940s, coverage was raised to $1000.00 worth of protection. By the mid-1940s the insurance program was often referred to as a "gas license" as it was becoming required for operation of gasoline-powered models at most club flying sites and for many contests. The insurance program presently offers US$2.5 million in coverage. Most leases on flying sites not owned by an aeromodeling club require adequate insurance to be carried by all people who will be flying; many clubs — the great majority of which are already "chartered clubs" within the AMA organizational structure in the United States — require AMA membership even for guests flying models at their field. AMA also offers optional site insurance which is considered to be primary coverage and is very low cost. This insurance is subsidized by part of each member's dues. There is also an additional insurance coverage for each sanctioned event. By providing the insurance, AMA makes it far easier for clubs or individuals to acquire access to flying sites. It is now standard policy of the US Army Corps of Engineers (COE) to require AMA insurance or equivalent coverage in order to acquire a lease of COE-managed land for model aircraft operation. == Regional districts within the United States == AMA District I: the six states comprising New England AMA District II: New Jersey and New York AMA District III: Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia AMA District IV: Delaware, the District of Columbia, Maryland, North Carolina and Virginia AMA District V: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, Tennessee and the U.S. Virgin Islands AMA District VI: Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky and Missouri AMA District VII: Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin AMA District VIII: Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas AMA District IX: Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming AMA District X: Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada and Utah AMA District XI: Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon and Washington source: == See also == Model Aeronautics Association of Canada IRCHA == References == == External links == Official website of the Academy of Model Aeronautics Google Maps' Academy of Model Aeronautics Interactive District Map Official web site of the Model Aeronautics Association of Canada	Wikipedia/Academy_of_Model_Aeronautics
Simple Plastic Airplane Design (SPAD) is a type of radio controlled model airplane. The R.C. aircraft is usually, though not always, built with the body consisting of a lightweight plastic material such as PVC gutter downspout or an aluminium rail. The wings are made of an equally light material such as foam or coroplast. The remaining components added to the plane are virtually the same as can be found in any other R.C. aircraft of similar size. This concept of building simple radio controlled airplanes using cheap materials without the time-consuming and painstaking process of working with balsa wood and iron-on plastic coating was popularized by a web site created in the late 1990s, spadtothebone.net.[1] While this web site, and the many original plans and articles still exist, the main gathering place for Spad enthusiasts on the web today resides at rcgroups.[2]. R/C Report magazine author Frank Costa covered Spads from April 2003 to July 2004. SPADs are preferred to other materials because they are cheaper and are easy to work with, painting is not required, the plastic can optionally be decorated with vinyl sheets which are available in any signboard making shop at very cheap price. The hinges for the control surfaces can be made by sheering one of the twinwalls of the plastic sheet and no special hinging device is required. SPAD Modelers use corrugated plastic sheets of various thickness, such as 2 millimeter (like the flying wings [3] or electric gliders for which 2mm sheet are preferred) and 4 millimeter. These sheets are generally used by signboard makers and many times, when these sheets are discarded, the modelers have a choice to use them to build model airplanes. The choice of propulsion can be either internal combustion engine or electric motors as with balsa counterparts. Corrugated plastic planes are simpler alternative to the traditional balsa wood based R.C. aircraft for a variety of situations. Most of the SPAD airplanes do not use balsa which saves considerable cost. They withstand crashes better than balsa counterparts because of their resilience and hence are a good choice for beginners. Good trainer planes and gliders can be made from SPADs. SPAD modelers make equally good advanced planes that can be made with corrugated plastic. They include: RC Airplane Combat, 3D Flying, and are preferred in places where the flyers would normally not risk a more expensive plane and yet want the same flying characteristics of balsa planes. For making a SPAD plane, the modeler (usually a beginner) can copy the dimensions of a well known balsa trainer and makes the SPAD plane using the same dimensions and adapting to the building techniques of a SPAD plane. The plane can also be built from plans or can be scratch built (usually, the modeler draws his/her own plans and makes the plane, though this is mostly attempted by experienced modelers) == References == == External links == spadtothebone.net - Home of the free SPAD plans spadworld.net SPAD forum home RC Groups - SPAD message forum RC Universe SPAD message forum SPAD Québec Ressources francophone pour les SPADs au Québec	Wikipedia/Simple_Plastic_Airplane_Design
The Model State Constitution is "an ideal of the structure and contents of a state constitution that emphasizes brevity and broad functions and responsibilities of government," according to Ann O'M Bowman and Richard Kearney in State and Local Government. The National Municipal League (now the National Civic League) first developed the Model State Constitution in 1921 to advocate constitutional reform based on a "higher-law tradition" (a state constitutional tradition based on basic and enduring principles that reach beyond statutory law) as opposed to "Positive Law Tradition" (a state constitutional tradition based on detailed provisions and procedure). The National Municipal League would revise the Model State Constitution five times with the last revision - the sixth version published in 1963. It does not promote partisan ideals or a particular political ideology but rather a simplistic, more concise, and more readable outline for state fundamental law that seeks to remain flexible to deal with emerging problems. == Articles == The Model State Constitution has twelve basic articles: Bill of rights Power of the state Suffrage and elections Legislative branch Executive branch Judicial branch Finance Local government Public education Civil service Intergovernmental relations Constitutional revision The Constitution of Alaska was partially inspired by the Model state constitution. == See also == Model act (model legislation) == References == == External links == Downloadable PDF of Sixth Edition, 1963 Online Editions at HathiTrust First Edition, 1921 Revised Edition, 1924 Fifth Edition, 1948 Sixth Edition, 1963	Wikipedia/Model_State_Constitution
The Model State Emergency Health Powers Act (MSEHPA) is a public health act originally drafted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to aid the United States' state legislatures in revising their public health laws to control epidemics and respond to bioterrorism. The CDC's draft was revised by the Center for Law and the Public's Health, a collaboration between Georgetown University and Johns Hopkins University. By December 21, 2001, the act was released to state legislatures for review and approval. Critics immediately charged that the MSEHPA failed to protect the general public from abuses arising from the tremendous powers it would grant individual states in an emergency. The MSEHPA provisions also went beyond the scope of addressing bioterrorism while disregarding medical privacy standards. As of August 1, 2011, forty states have passed various forms of MSEHPA legislation. == Draft == The initial public health emergency proposal was drafted by the CDC in 1999. Still in the CDC's draft form, Lawrence O. Gostin, an attorney and professor at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. began reworking the document during the anthrax letter attacks in 2001, using funds provided by the CDC. Gostin's produced a preliminary draft on October 23, before releasing a second draft in December 2001. Gostin stated that it took him three to four weeks to prepare the act. The preliminary draft named the National Governors Association, the National Conference of State Legislatures, the National Association of Attorneys General, the Association of State and Territorial Health Officials, and the National Association of County and City Health Officials as collaborators without Gostin contacting them. The second draft, dated December 21, 2001, made the revised statement on its title page that the law was a "draft for discussion … to assist" those organizations. == Criticism == The Association of American Physicians and Surgeons claimed that the draft used sweeping language to the extent that it "could turn governors into dictators" since the MSEHPA gave governors the authority to declare public health emergencies, and afterward force vaccinations on the general public without their informed consent. The deployment of state National Guards could be used to administer the vaccines or substances. Legal liabilities for drug companies which manufactured the vaccines and/or substances were removed. ACT-UP/San Francisco protested the MSEHPA, stating it was a potential assault on gay men who could be rounded up en masse as vectors of disease, and the leaders of ACT-UP were jailed for three months on anti-terrorism charges for their protest. In 2002, the public strongly criticized a similar but federal version of MSEHPA, folded into Section 304 of the Homeland Security Act. Of concern was Sidney Taurel's seat on the Homeland Security Advisory Council and his influence in creating what was commonly referred to as the Lilly Rider, those HSA provisions which protected Eli Lilly and Company and other drug manufacturers against legal liabilities. The primary difference between HSA provisions and MSEHPA provisions was that traditional state control of public health concerns was removed and replaced by federal health department control. The Department of Homeland Security would declare public health emergencies instead of governors, and be responsible for enacting forced vaccinations without informed consent. The HSA was passed by Congress, but Section 304 was struck from the bill in 2003. Phyllis Schlafly called the MSEHPA "an unprecedented assault on the constitutional rights of the American people." === Defence === Attorneys Jason W. Sapsin, Stephen P. Teret; Scott Burris, Julie Samia Mair, James G. Hodge Jr, Jon S. Vernick and Gostin wrote in an article in the August 2002 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Assn., that "Provided those powers are bounded by legal safeguards, individuals should be required to yield some of their autonomy, liberty, or property to protect the health and security of the community." == Current status == As of 2007, 33 states had introduced 133 legislative bills or resolutions that were based upon or featured provisions related to the articles or sections of the act. Of these, 48 had passed. == References == George J. Annas. "Bioterrorism and Public Health Law" (letter). Journal of the American Medical Association. vol. 288 n. 21. December 4, 2002. 2685-2686. George J. Annas. "Bioterrorism, Public Health, and Civil Liberties." New England Journal of Medicine. vol. 346, no. 17. April 25, 2002. 1337-1341. (Letters responding in vol. 347, no. 1, September 12, 2002.) George J. Annas. "Terrorism and Human Rights" In In the Wake of Terror: Medicine and Morality in a Time of Crisis. Jonathan D. Moreno, editor. Basic Bioethics Series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2003. Joseph Barbera, Anthony Macintyre, Larry Gostin, Tom Inglesby, Tara O'Toole, Craig DeAttey, Kevin Tonat, and Marti Layton. "Large-scale Quarantine Following Biological Terrorism in the United States: Scientific Examination, Logistics, and Legal Leimits and Possible Consequences." Journal of the American Medical Association. vol. 286, no. 21. December 5, 2001. 2711-2717. Ronald Bayer and James Colgrove. "Rights and Dangers: Bioterrorism and the Ideolgies and Public Health." In In the Wake of Terror: Medicine and Morality in a Time of Crisis. Jonathan D. Moreno, editor. Basic Bioethics Series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2003. John M. Colmers and Daniel M. Fox. "The Politics of Emergency Health Powers and the Isolation of Public Health." American Journal of Public Health. vol. 93, no. 3. March 2003. 397-399. Larry Copeland. "CDC Proposes Bioterrorism Laws." USA Today. November 8, 2001. 3A. Janlori Goldman. "Balancing in a Crisis?: Bioterrorism, Public Health, and Privacy." In Lost Liberties: Ashcroft and the Assault on Personal Freedom. Cynthia Brown, editor. New York: The New Press, 2003. Lawrence O. Gostin. "Law and Ethics in a Public Health Emergency." Hastings Center Report. vol. 32, no. 2. March–April 2002. 9-11. Lawrence O. Gostin, Jason W. Sapsin, Stephen P. Teret, Scott Burris, Julie Samia Mair, James G. Hodge, Jr., and Jon S. Vernick. "The Model State Emergency Powers Act: Planning for and Response to Bioterrorism and Naturally Occurring Infectious Diseases." Journal of the American Medical Association. vol. 288, no. 5. August 7, 2002. 622-628. Lawrence O. Gostin and James G. Hodge, Jr. "Protecting the Public's Health in an Era of Bioterrorism." In In the Wake of Terror: Medicine and Morality in a Time of Crisis. Jonathan D. Moreno, editor. Basic Bioethics Series. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2003. Lawrence O. Gostin and James G. Hodge, Jr. "Public Health Emergencies and Legal Reform: Implications for Public Health Policy and Practice." Public Health Reports. vol. 118, no. 5. September–October 2003. 477-479. Lawrence O. Gostin. "Public Health Law in an Age of Terrorism: Rethinking Individual Rights and Common Goods." Health Affairs. vol. 21, no. 6. November–December 2002. 79-83. "Legislation would let governors quarantine entire cities." Knight Ridder News Service. November 7, 2001. Sharon Lerner. "A New Health-Emergency Law Raises Concerns for the Immune Compromised: Round Up the Unusual Suspects". The Village Voice. January 2, 2002. William Martin. "Legal and Public Policy Responses of States to Bioterrorism." American Journal of Public Health. Vol.94, Iss. 7. July 2004. 1093 Thomas May. "Political Authority in a Bioterrorism Emergency." Journal of Law, Medicine, and Bioethics. vol. 31, no. 1. Spring 2004. 159-164. Jane M. Orient. "Bioterrorism and Public Health Law" (letter). Journal of the American Medical Association. vol. 288 n. 21. December 4, 2002. 2686. "Outside Experts: Lawrence O. Gostin." Government Executive. February 2004. 110. == External links == The Center for Law and the Public's Health site Text of the original draft of MSEPHA in PDF format Text of the revised MSEHPA in PDF format Criticism from the conservative Heritage Foundation[unfit] Criticism from doctors	Wikipedia/Model_State_Emergency_Health_Powers_Act
The State Policy Network (SPN) is a nonprofit organization that serves as a network for conservative and libertarian think tanks focusing on state-level policy in the United States. The network serves as a public policy clearinghouse and advises its member think tanks on fundraising, running a nonprofit, and communicating ideas. Founded in 1992, it is headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, with member groups located in all fifty states. == Overview == SPN describes itself as a "professional service organization" for a network of state-level think tanks across the United States. The president of SPN is Tracie Sharp, formerly the executive director of the Cascade Policy Institute, SPN's Oregon affiliate. She has described her organizing philosophy as "the IKEA model", because like a ready-to-assemble furniture retailer, the network offers a catalog of policy projects that state-level groups can build. == History == The State Policy Network was founded in 1992 by Thomas A. Roe, a South Carolina businessman who was a member of the board of trustees of The Heritage Foundation. Roe told U.S. President Ronald Reagan that he thought each of the states needed something like the Heritage Foundation. Reagan's reply was "do something about it," which led Roe to establish the South Carolina Policy Council (SCPC). SCPC adapted Heritage Foundation national policy recommendations, such as school choice and environmental deregulation, to the state legislative level. SPN was an outgrowth of the Madison Group, a collection of state-level think tanks in South Carolina, Colorado, Illinois, and Michigan that had been meeting periodically at the Madison Hotel in Washington, D.C. Roe was chairman of the board of directors of SPN from its founding until his death in 2000. Gary Palmer, co-founder and president of the conservative think tank the Alabama Policy Institute from 1989 until 2014, helped found SPN and served as its president. Initially, SPN's network consisted of fewer than 20 member organizations. Lawrence Reed, the first president of the Mackinac Center for Public Policy, a Michigan-based free market think tank, fostered new state-level regular member organizations through delivery of his think tank training course. By the mid-1990s, SPN had a network of 37 think tanks in 30 states. By 2014, there were 65 member organizations, including at least one in each state. Starting in 1993, the SPN has held an annual meeting in various U.S. cities. These meetings serve as a chance for members to discuss and analyze policy priorities, train and build members, and refine operations, among other topics. == Policy positions == Policy initiatives supported by SPN members have included reductions in state health and welfare programs, state constitutional amendments to limit state government spending, expanded access to charter schools, and school vouchers. Another area of activity has been opposition to public-sector trade unions. Tracie Sharp, SPN's president, has said the organization focuses on issues such as "workplace freedom, education reform, and individual choice in healthcare." The liberal magazine Mother Jones stated that in 2011 SPN and its member organizations were backing a "war on organized labor" by Republican state lawmakers. Legislative actions taken by the GOP included the introduction and enactment of bills reducing or eliminating collective bargaining for teachers and other government workers and reducing the authority of unions to collect dues from government employees. In Iowa, Governor Terry Branstad cited research by the Public Interest Institute, an SPN affiliate in Iowa, when asking to amend laws to limit collective bargaining by public employees. In December 2013, The Guardian, in collaboration with The Texas Observer and the Portland Press Herald, obtained, published and analyzed 40 grant proposals from SPN regular member organizations. The grant proposals sought funding through SPN from the Searle Freedom Trust. According to The Guardian, the proposals documented a coordinated strategy across 34 states, "a blueprint for the conservative agenda in 2014." The reports described the grant proposals in six states as suggesting campaigns designed to cut pay to state government employees; oppose public sector collective bargaining; reduce public sector services in education and healthcare; promote school vouchers; oppose efforts to combat greenhouse gas emissions; reduce or eliminate income and sales taxes; and study a proposed block grant reform to Medicare. == Political influence == In 2006, three former presidents of SPN member organizations were serving as Republicans in the United States House of Representatives: Mike Pence of Indiana, Jeff Flake of Arizona, and Tom Tancredo of Colorado. National Review described them as having "used SPN organizations as political springboards." SPN introduced model legislation for state legislators to implement on the state level to undermine the Affordable Care Act. The organization also pushed for states not to expand Medicaid. == Leadership == Tracie Sharp has served as SPN's president and CEO for over twenty years. In 2025, she announced that she would be stepping down from her role upon the appointment of a successor. In The Wall Street Journal, Kimberley Strassel wrote that during Sharp's tenure, "SPN has in that time become the hub for conservative and libertarian think tanks focused on state-level reform and played a huge role in wins on school choice and tax reform." Lawson Bader, who is the president and CEO of DonorsTrust, serves as the chairman of SPN's board of directors. == Finances == SPN is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. Its independently audited 2013 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 showed $8 million in revenue and $8.4 million in expenditures, of which $1.3 million was used for grants and payments to other organizations. In 2023, SPN had annual revenue of $27.1 million and annual expenses of $25.8 million. In 2013, Sharp told Politico that, like most non-profit organizations, SPN keeps its donors private and voluntary. In 2011, Mother Jones reported that SPN is largely funded by donations from foundations, including the Lovett and Ruth Peters Foundation, the Castle Rock Foundation, and the Bradley Foundation. In 2013, The Guardian reported that SPN received funding from the Koch brothers, Philip Morris, Kraft Foods, and GlaxoSmithKline. Other corporate donors to SPN have included Facebook, Microsoft, AT&T, Time Warner Cable, Verizon, and Comcast. Between 2008 and 2013, SPN received $10 million from Donors Trust, a nonprofit donor-advised fund. In 2011, the approximately $2 million investment from Donors Trust accounted for about 40% of annual revenue. == Activities == SPN provides grant funding to its member organizations for start-up costs and program operating expenses. In 2011, SPN granted $60,000 in start-up funds to the Foundation for Government Accountability, a free market think tank based in Naples, Florida. SPN also provides practical support to its members, who meet each year at SPN conferences. SPN member organizations exchange ideas and provide training and other support for each other. In 2008, a spokesperson for the progressive advocacy group People for the American Way said in 2008 that SPN trained its member organizations to run like business franchises. In a 2013 statement to The New Yorker, SPN president Sharp denied that SPN was a franchise and said that member organizations were free to select their own staff and priorities. SPN is a member of the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), an organization that drafts and shares state-level model legislation for conservative causes, and ALEC is an associate member of SPN. SPN is among the sponsors of ALEC. A 2009 article in an SPN newsletter encouraged SPN members to join ALEC, and many SPN members are also members of ALEC. ALEC is "SPN's sister organisation," according to The Guardian. SPN member think tanks aided the Tea Party movement by supplying rally speakers and intellectual ammunition. == Member organizations == As of 2015, SPN had a membership of 65 think tanks and hundreds of affiliated organizations in all 50 states. Membership in SPN is by invitation only and is limited to independently incorporated 501(c)(3) organizations that are "dedicated to advancing market-oriented public policy solutions." The SPN membership program consists of affiliate and associate organizations. While affiliate members are state-based, associate members are national in scope and are not necessarily focused on a single state. According to Politico, SPN's associate members include a "who's who of conservative organizations," including the Cato Institute, Heritage Foundation, Americans for Prosperity Foundation, FreedomWorks, Americans for Tax Reform, and American Legislative Exchange Council. In 2011, SPN and its regular member organizations received combined total revenues of $83.2 million, according to a 2013 analysis of their federal tax filings by the liberal watchdog group Center for Media and Democracy. === Affiliates === Regular members are described as "full-service think tanks" operating independently within their respective states. Alabama: Alabama Policy Institute Alaska: Alaska Policy Forum Arizona: Goldwater Institute Arkansas: Arkansas Policy Foundation, Opportunity Arkansas California: California Policy Center, Pacific Research Institute Colorado: Independence Institute Connecticut: Yankee Institute for Public Policy Delaware: Caesar Rodney Institute Florida: Foundation for Government Accountability, James Madison Institute Georgia: Georgia Center for Opportunity, Georgia Public Policy Foundation Hawaii: Grassroot Institute Idaho: Idaho Freedom Foundation, Mountain States Policy Center Illinois: Illinois Policy Institute Indiana: Indiana Policy Review Foundation Iowa: Iowans for Tax Relief Foundation Kansas: Kansas Policy Institute Kentucky: Bluegrass Institute for Public Policy Solutions Louisiana: Pelican Institute for Public Policy Maine: Maine Policy Institute Maryland: Maryland Public Policy Institute Massachusetts: Pioneer Institute Michigan: Mackinac Center for Public Policy Minnesota: Center of the American Experiment, Freedom Foundation of Minnesota Mississippi: Empower Mississippi, Mississippi Center for Public Policy Missouri: Show-Me Institute Montana: Frontier Institute Nebraska: Platte Institute for Economic Research Nevada: Nevada Policy New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett Center for Public Policy New Jersey: Garden State Initiative New Mexico: Rio Grande Foundation New York: Empire Center for Public Policy North Carolina: John Locke Foundation North Dakota: Rough Rider Policy Center Ohio: Buckeye Institute Oklahoma: Oklahoma Council of Public Affairs Oregon: Cascade Policy Institute Pennsylvania: Commonwealth Foundation for Public Policy Alternatives Rhode Island: Rhode Island Center for Freedom and Prosperity South Carolina: Palmetto Promise Institute, South Carolina Policy Council South Dakota: Great Plains Public Policy Institute Tennessee: Beacon Center of Tennessee Texas: Texas Public Policy Foundation Utah: Libertas Institute, Sutherland Institute Vermont: Ethan Allen Institute Virginia: Thomas Jefferson Institute, Virginia Institute for Public Policy Washington: Freedom Foundation, Washington Policy Center West Virginia: Cardinal Institute for West Virginia Policy Wisconsin: MacIver Institute for Public Policy, Badger Institute, Wisconsin Institute for Law and Liberty, Institute for Reforming Government Wyoming: Wyoming Liberty Group == Roe Awards == The Roe Award, first presented in 1992, is named after SPN founder Thomas A. Roe. It honors individuals who have successfully promoted free market philosophy while displaying innovation and accomplishment in public policy. The physical statue is an eagle, "a symbol of liberty with courage and conviction necessary for its preservation". == Overton Award == The Overton Award was created in 2003 after the death of Joseph Overton at age 43. Overton is known for the idea, posthumously called the Overton window, about the range of policies politically acceptable to the mainstream at a given time. The award is given to chief operating officers or executive vice presidents of non-profit free market organizations who demonstrate the personal qualities that Overton possessed. These include humility in supporting their peers, leadership that builds a team, and developing strategies that magnify the ideas and influence of their organization. As of 2022, the award had been given five times. == See also == American Legislative Exchange Council Americans for Prosperity Foundation Americans for Tax Reform Cato Institute Foundation for Government Accountability FreedomWorks The Heritage Foundation == References == == External links == Official website "State Policy Network". Internal Revenue Service filings. ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer.	Wikipedia/State_Policy_Network
The Model Business Corporation Act (MBCA) is a model act promulgated and periodically amended by the Corporate Laws Committee of the Business Law Section of the American Bar Association("Committee"). The MBCA has been adopted by 36 states and other jurisdictions. The MBCA provides a modern body of statutory corporate law that is regularly updated by the Committee based on judicial decisions, recent legislative enactments, and other legal and technological developments. It is a statute for business (stock) corporations that covers a number of areas, including formation, governance and director conduct and liability. The MBCA has been influential in shaping standards for United States corporate law. == History == In 1928, the Commissioners on Uniform State Laws promulgated a Uniform Business Corporation Act, which was subsequently adopted by three states, Louisiana, Washington and Kentucky, and partially adopted by a fourth, Idaho. Although uniform state legislation offers benefits in certain areas, such as interstate commerce, i.e. the Uniform Commercial Code, these benefits are less significant in corporation law where the "internal affairs" of a corporation are generally governed by the laws of its state of incorporation. As result of the resistance to the concept of a uniform corporation law, the Uniform Business Corporation Act was withdrawn as a "uniform" act in 1943 and renamed “A Model or State Business Corporation Act”. As a “model" act it was intended to provide states with the opportunity depart from the model in ways that would recognize special local considerations and would allow experimentation with different approaches to the issues, as opposed to the concept of a "uniform" law. The Committee undertook to review and suggest revisions to the Model Business Corporation Act with the goal of producing a model in a simple style, with direct language that would set a pattern which states could follow, not uniformly, but as a style book and a suggestion of content. In 1950, the Committee promulgated its own Model Business Corporation Act. The Uniform Business Corporation Act was withdrawn by the Uniform Laws Commissioners in 1958. After that, the Committee continued to review and periodically revise the MBCA, and, in 1984, it published a complete revision. Since 1984, the Committee has continued to review and periodically revise various provisions of the MBCA. The 1984 version has been amended on numerous occasions since it was adopted by the Committee and was significantly revised in 2016 as part of the Committee’s ongoing efforts to keep it current and relevant. It has been amended regularly since then. == Jurisdictions that have adopted the MBCA == The MBCA has been adopted in the following 36 jurisdictions: Alabama (2016 Revision), Alaska (1969 version), Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, District of Columbia, Florida (2016 Revision), Georgia, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho (2016 Revision), Indiana, Iowa (2016 Revision), Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Montana (2016 Revision), Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico (1969 version), North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia (2016 Revision), Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming. Currently, most MBCA jurisdictions have statutes based upon the 1984 revision of the MBCA, with varying levels of subsequent amendments; the other jurisdictions have statutes based on either the recent 2016 Revision or the 1969 version, as noted in the parentheses. == 2016 Revision == The Committee adopted a major revision in 2016. The following are key features of the current MBCA, with emphasis on changes made since the 2016 Revision. Benefit Corporations. In 2019, the Committee added a new chapter 17 on benefit corporations, which allows shareholders to opt into a legal structure that expressly expands the purpose of the corporation beyond acting primarily in the financial interests of the shareholders. Virtual Shareholders’ Meetings Solely by Remote Participation. In 2020, the Committee adopted amendments to chapters 7 and 10 permitting the conduct of shareholders’ meetings solely by means of remote participation. Electronic Notices. In 2021, the Committee revised sections 1.41 and 16.01 of the MBCA to allow a corporation to provide notices to an email address provided to the corporation by a shareholder, even if the shareholder has not formally consented to receiving notices by email as had previously been required. Forum Selection Bylaws. The current MBCA permits the articles of incorporation or the bylaws of a corporation to specify the forum or forums for litigation involving internal corporate affairs. Venue for Judicial Proceedings. Recognizing that many states have developed specialized “business courts” that may be more appropriate venues for business litigation, the current MBCA enables the legislature to identify in its version of the MBCA the venue for such disputes in the court believed to be best suited to handle this type of cases. UBOC Compatibility. Much of the Current MBCA was designed to make the MBCA more compatible with the Uniform Business Organizations Code (UBOC), including the META, which was promulgated by the Uniform Law Commission and has been adopted by two jurisdictions, both of which are MBCA jurisdictions. Ratification of Defective Corporation Actions. The current MBCA permits the ratification of defective corporate actions, including actions in connection with the issuance of shares, many of which may have been void and incurable under common law. of directors and officers to present a business opportunity to the corporation, a provision favored by private equity investors. It also provides a safe harbor procedure for directors and officers dealing with opportunities that may be “corporate opportunities.” Elimination of Separate Treatment for Public Corporations. The current MBCA eliminates the previous statutory distinction between publicly-held and privately-held corporations, which makes the current MBCA more useful for small and medium-sized businesses. Modernization and Clarification of the 2016 Revision. The current MBCA contains a number of other modernizing changes, including clarification of the scope and operation of qualifications for nomination and election of directors, and the operation of quorum and voting requirements applicable to the board of directors. == See also == US corporate law Delaware General Corporation Law Securities and Exchange Act UK company law == Notes == == References == ABA, Corporate Laws Committee. Model Business Corporation Act Annotated, Model Business Corporation Act with Official Comment and Reporter's Annotations (Fifth Edition, 2020). Kocaoglu, Kagan (March 2008). "A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law". (Georgetown University Law Center Working Paper). SSRN 1103644.	Wikipedia/Model_Business_Corporation_Act
The Model Penal Code (MPC) is a model act designed to stimulate and assist U.S. state legislatures to update and standardize the penal law of the United States. The MPC was a project of the American Law Institute (ALI), and was published in 1962 after a ten-year drafting period. The chief reporter on the project was Herbert Wechsler, and contributors included Sanford Kadish and numerous other noted criminal law scholars, prosecutors, and defense lawyers. The ALI performed an examination of the penal system in the U.S. and the prohibitions, sanctions, excuses, and authority used throughout in order to arrive at a cohesive synthesis to the extent possible, and the best rules for the penal system in the United States. Primary responsibility for criminal law lies with the individual states, which over the years led to great inconsistency among the various state penal codes. The MPC was meant to be a comprehensive criminal code that would allow for similar laws to be passed in different jurisdictions. The MPC itself is not legally-binding law, but since its publication in 1962 more than half of all U.S. states have enacted criminal codes that borrow heavily from it. It has greatly influenced criminal courts even in states that have not directly drawn from it, and judges increasingly use the MPC as a source of the doctrines and principles underlying criminal liability. == Key features == === Element analysis === Under the MPC, crimes are defined in terms of a set of "elements of the offense," each of which must be proven to the finder of fact beyond a reasonable doubt. There are three types of elements: conduct of a certain nature, attendant circumstances at the time of the conduct, or the result of that conduct. The elements are those facts that: are included in the definition of forbidden conduct as provided by the statute, or establish the required culpability, or negate an excuse or justification for such conduct, or negate a defense under the statute of limitation, or establish jurisdiction or venue. All but the last two categories are material elements, and the prosecution must prove that the defendant had the required kind of culpability with respect to that element. === Mens rea or culpability === One of the major innovations of the MPC is its use of standardized mens rea terms (criminal mind, or in MPC terms, culpability) to determine levels of mental states, just as homicide is considered more severe if done intentionally rather than accidentally. These terms are (in descending order) "purposely", "knowingly," "recklessly", and "negligently", with a fifth state of "strict liability", which is highly disfavored. Each material element of every crime has an associated culpability state that the prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt. Purposely. If the element involves the nature of the conduct or the result thereof, it is his conscious object to engage in that conduct or cause the result. If the element involves attendant circumstances, he is aware of the circumstances or believes or hopes that they exist. Knowingly. If the element involves the nature of the conduct or the attendant circumstances, he is aware that his conduct is of that nature or that the circumstances exist. If the element involves a result, he is practically certain that the result will occur. Further, if the element involves knowledge of the existence of a particular fact, it is satisfied if he is aware of a high probability of the existence of that fact, unless he actually believes that it does not exist. Recklessly. A person consciously disregards a substantial and unjustifiable risk that the element exists or will result, such that its disregard involves a gross deviation from the standard of conduct that a law-abiding person would observe. Negligently. A person should be aware of a substantial and unjustifiable risk that the element exists or will result, such that the failure to perceive it involves a gross deviation from the standard of conduct that a reasonable person would observe. If an offense requires a specific kind of culpability, then any more severe culpability will suffice. Thus if an offense is defined in the form, "It is illegal to knowingly do X," then it is illegal to do X knowingly or purposely (a more severe state), but not to do so recklessly or negligently (the two less severe states). Strict liability means that it is illegal to do something, regardless of one's mental state. If a statute provides only a single kind of culpability for a crime, that kind of culpability is assumed to apply to all elements. If no culpability is stated by statute, a minimum of recklessness is assumed to be required. The MPC declines to use the common terms "intentional" or "willful" in its specification of crimes, in part because of the complex interpretive history of these terms. However, it defines that any (non-MPC) statute in the jurisdiction's criminal code that uses the term "intentionally" shall mean "purposely," and any use of "willfully" shall mean "with knowledge." If a law makes an actor absolutely liable for an offense, MPC sections 2.05 and 1.04 state that the actor can only be guilty of what the MPC calls violations (essentially meaning civil infractions), which only carry fines or other monetary penalties, and no jail time. === Unlawful acts explicitly set forth === Another important feature is that under the MPC, any action not explicitly outlawed is legal. This concept follows the saying, "That which is not forbidden is allowed" as opposed to "That which is not allowed is forbidden." Legal scholars contrast the MPC's limits with laws passed by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, which allowed people to be punished for acts not specifically outlawed but similar to acts that were. The MPC provision has a prospective effect in that it applies to those acts which may be committed in the future. This is not the same as a retrospective effect of past acts which are protected by the rule against ex post facto laws. Under the MPC, ignorance of criminal law is not considered a valid defense, unless the legislature intended on making the mistake of law a defense, the law is unknown to the actor and had not been published, or the actor is acting as a result of some official statement about the law. See sections 2.02(9) and 2.04. === Options for enacting jurisdictions === Certain parts of the MPC contain multiple options, inviting states to choose one. A particularly controversial topic was the proper place of the death penalty in the MPC. However, the MPC explicitly states that the "[American Law] Institute took no position on the desirability of the death penalty." Note that no state is obliged to adopt any specific part of the MPC; see below. == Criticism == Advocates of the MPC stress that the law must be clearly defined to prevent arbitrary enforcement, or a chilling effect on a population that does not know what actions are punishable. This is known as the legality principle. However, critics say that the assumption that there are no possible legal systems between the extremes of "forbidden" and "allowed" is the central weakness of the MPC. British law, for example, assumes that a jury can decide what is "reasonable" both in the context of British law and social expectations as well as the specific accusation they are being asked to judge. Behavior may thus be deemed unlawful by a jury in cases where the MPC would require legislative change to produce a conviction. == Use == The MPC is not law in any jurisdiction of the United States; however, it served and continues to serve as a basis for the replacement of existing criminal codes in over two-thirds of the states. Many states adopted portions of the MPC, but only states such as New Jersey, New York, and Oregon have enacted almost all of the provisions. Idaho adopted the model penal code in its entirety in 1971, but the legislature repealed this action two months after it came into effect in 1972. The repeal of the MPC in Idaho came about after intense rejection of the new codification due to the lack of laws regulating morality, areas of the MPC that affected important political groups in the state, and also prosecutors and police who were critical of some areas of the new MPC-based code. The state bar association, judiciary committees in the legislature, and the Supreme Court of Idaho defended the new MPC-based code. Chiefs in the objections were the omission of sodomy, adultery and fornication as crimes, as well as objection by gun owners of the new stricter gun control law. On rare occasions, the courts will turn to the MPC for its commentary on the law and use it to seek guidance in interpreting non-code criminal statutes. It is also used frequently as a tool for comparison. Section 230.3 Abortion (Tentative draft 1959, Official draft 1962) of the MPC was used as a model for abortion law reform legislation enacted in 13 states from 1967 to 1972. It is included as Appendix B of Justice Blackmun's opinion in the January 22, 1973 Doe v. Bolton decision of the United States Supreme Court (Roe v. Wade's lesser-known companion case). It would legalize abortion to preserve the health (whether physical or mental) of the mother, as well as if the pregnancy is due to incest or rape, or if doctors agree that there is a significant risk that the child will be born with a serious mental or physical defect. In October 2009, the ALI voted to disavow the framework for capital punishment that it had included in the MPC, "in light of the current intractable institutional and structural obstacles to ensuring a minimally adequate system for administering capital punishment." A study commissioned by the institute had said that experience had proved that the goal of individualized decisions about who should be executed and the goal of systemic fairness for minorities and others could not be reconciled. == See also == Commonwealth v. O'Malley == Notes == == References ==	Wikipedia/Model_Penal_Code
An art model is a person who poses, often nude, for visual artists as part of the creative process, providing a reference for the human body in a work of art. As an occupation, modeling requires the often strenuous 'physical work' of holding poses for the required length of time, the 'aesthetic work' of performing a variety of interesting poses, and the 'emotional work' of maintaining a socially ambiguous role. While the role of nude models is well-established as a necessary part of artistic practice, public nudity remains transgressive, and models may be vulnerable to stigmatization or exploitation.: 1 Family and friends may pose for artists, in particular for works with costumed figures. Much of the public perception of art models and their role in the production of artworks is based upon mythology, the conflation of art modeling with fashion modeling or erotic performances, and representations of art models in popular media.: 15–18 One of the perennial tropes is that in addition to providing a subject for an artwork, models may be thought of as muses, or sources of inspiration without whom the art would not exist.: 68–79, 102–115 Another popular narrative is the female model as a male artist's mistress, some of whom become wives.: 3 None of these public perceptions include the professional model's own experience of modelling as work,: 44–45 the performance of which has little to do with sexuality.: Ch. 10 Beginning with the Renaissance, drawing the human figure has been considered the most effective way to develop the skills of drawing. In the modern era it became established that it is best to draw from life, rather than from plaster casts or copying two dimensional images such as photographs. In addition, an artist has an emotional: 32 or empathic: 4 connection to drawing another human being that cannot exist with any other subject. What is called the life class became an essential part of the curriculum in art school. In the classroom setting, where the purpose is to learn how to draw or paint the human form in all the different shapes, ages and ethnicities, anyone who can hold a pose may be a model. == Role of the model == Although artists may also rely on friends and family to pose, art models are most often paid professionals with skill and experience. Rarely employed full-time, they must be gig workers or independent contractors if modeling is to be a major source of income. Paid art models are usually anonymous and unacknowledged subjects of the work. Models are most frequently employed by institutions of higher learning or by informal groups of artists that gather to share the expense of a model. Models are also employed privately by professional artists. Although commercial motives dominate over aesthetics in illustration, its artwork commonly employs models. For example, Norman Rockwell employed his friends and neighbors as models for both his commercial and fine-art work. In the second half of the 20th century, the dominance of abstraction in the art world reduced the need for models by professional artists except for the remaining representational artists. However, drawing from life remained part of the training needed for a complete visual arts education at the majority of art schools.: 8–9 In recent years, art modeling has expanded from educational settings to non-traditional art spaces and sometimes bars, blurring the line between art and entertainment.: 9 With the increasing presence of sexual imagery in popular culture, effort is required to maintain the desexualized context of nude modeling in studio classes.: 21–22 === Training and selection === In some countries there are figure model guilds that concern themselves with the competence, conduct and reliability of their members. An example is the Register of Artists' Models (RAM) in the United Kingdom. Some basic training is offered to beginners and membership is by audition – to test competence, not to discriminate on grounds of physical characteristics. RAM also acts as an important employment exchange for models and publishes the 'RAM Guidelines', which are widely referred to by models and employers. A similar organization in the United States, the Bay Area Models Guild in California, was founded in 1946 by Florence Wysinger Allen. Groups also exist in Australia and Sweden. These groups may also attempt to establish minimum rates of pay and working conditions, but only rarely have models been sufficiently organized to go on strike. === Diversity of models and students === Unlike commercial modeling, modeling in an art school classroom is for the purpose of teaching students of art how to draw humans of all physical types, genders, ages, and ethnicities.: 11, 77, 81 Children are generally excluded from modeling nude for classes. The minimum age can vary, but is often 15 to 18. Despite being nonsexual in nature, this may be influenced by the age of consent (i.e. at or slightly below). Younger children are not good candidates for art modeling since they lack the ability to hold still.: 9 Gender roles and stereotypes in society are reflected in different experiences for male and female art models, and different responses when those not in the arts learn that someone is a nude model. However, both male and female models tend to keep their modeling careers distinct from their other social interactions, if for different reasons. Attitudes toward male nudity, issues of homosexuality when male artists work with male models, and some bias in favor of the female form in art may lead to less opportunity for male models. Works of art that include male nudity are much less marketable. In classrooms with predominantly white students, a model of color may be an issue not due to overt racism, but students unfamiliarity with different skin tones and body types. Figure on Diversity is an organization that seeks to diversify the field of figurative representation in art education by leading workshops for models and artists. Founded in Boston in 2018, it has since moved to Florida, but has an increasing presence online. === Working as a model === Posing nude is physically and emotionally challenging, but models find the effort worthwhile and appreciate having a role in the creative arts. ==== Physical work ==== While posing, a model is expected to remain essentially motionless, and return to the same pose after a break.: 47–55 : 111–113 While posing for a class models do not talk, and should not be spoken to by students, maintaining the serious atmosphere of the studio.: 64–67 Poses can range in length from seconds to many hours—with appropriate breaks—but the shortest is usually one minute. Short dynamic poses are used for gesture drawing exercises or warm-ups, with the model taking strenuous or precarious positions that could not be sustained for a longer pose. Sessions proceed through groups of poses increasing in duration. Active, gestural, or challenging standing poses are often scheduled at the beginning of a session when the models' energy level is highest. Specific exercises or lesson plans may require a particular type of pose, but more often the model is expected to do a series of poses with little direction. The more a model knows about the types of exercises used to teach art, the better they become at posing. Occasionally a pose will cause unexpected problems, such as constricting blood flow that could result in a model passing out. While the first time posing may cause anxiety, most continue due to the relatively high pay. The most significant characteristic of the job mentioned by models is the physical exertion required. Poses fall into three basic categories: standing, seated and reclining. Within each of these, there are varying levels of difficulty, so one kind is not always easier than another. Artists and life drawing instructors will often prefer poses in which the body is being exerted, for a more dynamic and aesthetically interesting subject. Common poses such as standing twists, slouched seated poses and especially the classical contrapposto are difficult to sustain accurately for any amount of time, although it is often surprising what a skilled model can do. The model's level of experience and skill may be taken into account in determining the length of the posing session and the difficulty of the poses.: 9–10 Models usually pose on a raised platform called the model stand or dais. When artists are working standing at easels, a model stand is essential to avoid a distorted perspective. If the model is posed standing on the floor, the artist should draw while seated.: 14–15 In sculpture studios this platform may be built to rotate periodically through the session to allow for a 360° view for every artist. Long poses are generally required for painting (hours) and sculpture (perhaps days).: 9–10 ==== Aesthetic work ==== The most creative aspect of modeling is being able to think of an endless variety of new and interesting poses. A typical short-pose session may begin with five or ten gestures, followed by two 5-, two 10-, and five 25-minute poses separated by five-minute breaks.: 42 When modeling for the same group, new poses are expected at each session. Most models learn on the job, but many have experience in the performing arts, athletics, or yoga that provide a basis for posing, such as strength, flexibility, and a well-developed sense of body position. Those that try modeling casually may find it to be rewarding, and then seek to learn more about the job. Some may have previously taken an art class and seen other models, but others rely upon fine-art museums and books for suggestions on how to pose.: 103–104 Experienced models work for many employers, gaining a wider knowledge of methods and practices than most individual artists or art teachers. Many models are visual artists themselves, and come to think of modeling as part of their visual arts practice, or as a creative activity in its own right.: 36 ==== Emotional work ==== In social science terms, an art model is recognized as having a valuable role in the art world as a sub-culture, with norms of behavior and a definition of the situation that ideally support models' being proud of their work. However, stereotypes and prejudices of the larger culture may threaten these norms and definitions.: 8 Pride in being a model comes from identification with fine arts education and creativity as having social value, which is dependent on the quality of teaching, which models experience first-hand in a myriad of settings.: 37 Sexuality is an issue in an art studio where naked models are present, and has become more so with the sexualization of the body in contemporary cultures. The traditional definition of the situation in art studios has been that the nudity of models is functional, not sexual. The norms and behaviors that support this understanding included models being naked only while posing, quickly disrobing/robing and not interacting with others while naked. This understanding is less strict when student artists are also models, either in classes or posing for each other outside of class. The other aspect of sex in the arts is gender, including feminist critiques of the performance of gender in the classroom and representations of gender in figurative works.: 127–131 A common experience for young first-time participants in a figure class, both models and students, is overcoming anxiety for the initial session due to preconceptions regarding public nudity. Occasionally the class is the first time a student has seen someone of the opposite sex entirely nude in real life, but they quickly get used to it. == Types of modeling == The major distinction in types of art modeling is between posing for art classes or other groups versus posing for an individual artist in the creation of a particular work. There is also the distinction between models who pose for an hourly fee versus those that pose for friends, family, or significant others. These types apply to all the media used, figure drawing, figure painting, sculpture and figure photography. === Academic modeling === Job descriptions for modeling posted by art schools list basic requirements of being willing to pose nude or clothed, being able to hold poses for the requested time (from minutes to hours with breaks), and to follow cues from the instructor. These basic requirements hold true at large universities, liberal arts colleges, and schools of art and design. The hourly rate paid by schools for nude modeling may be significantly higher than for clothed modeling. Some colleges have a model coordinator assigned to supervise the selection and scheduling of models for all classes. At many public universities in the United States, "Art Model" is listed in the human resources system as would any part-time temporary job. Sometime modeling jobs are reserved for students. At Indiana University; however, current students at the Eskenazi School of Art, Architecture + Design may not pose nude, but only clothed, while students in other departments may be nude. At other institutions students cannot be models, even if they are not art students, to avoid any possibility of conflict of interest. In some institutions, guidelines for the conduct of all participants in a nude model session may be specified in a handbook, and are observed to maintain decorum and emphasize the serious intent of figure studies. Admission to and visibility of the area where a nude model is posing is tightly controlled. Disrobing is done discreetly, and the model wears a robe when not posing. Models may not be accompanied by non-class members. It is generally prohibited for anyone (including the instructor) to touch a model. Very close examinations are only made with the permission of the model. Some institutions allow only the instructor to speak directly with a model. Experienced models avoid any sexually suggestive poses. Art instructors and institutions may consider the incident of a male model gaining an erection while posing cause for termination, or grounds for not hiring him again. Guidelines at St. Olaf College discourages students making comments on a model's appearance. Photography is generally forbidden. Any of these policies may vary in different parts of the world. In Europe and South America attitudes are more relaxed than in the United States, while in China, Taiwan and Korea attitudes are more conservative.: 39 A figure class held in Singapore is conducted as it would be in other parts of the world. === Artist's groups === While otherwise similar to art school modeling, groups variously called "open studios" or "drop-in sessions" lack instruction. They may be sponsored by arts organizations or galleries, or meet in an artist's private studio or home. Generally the attendees are experienced artists who want to continue the practice of life drawing, and find an informal group easier and more economical, paying a fee for each session or a series.: 18–19 In many locations there may be few opportunities for figure drawing, and also few that are willing to model. Those that do so seek an additional source of income, but also find validation in being able to hold poses and contributing to the artistic process. However, they are more likely to avoid letting it be known that they model, given the negative associations toward nudity. The Philbrook Museum of Art in Tulsa, Oklahoma has been holding a weekly session for as long as anyone can remember. Otherwise a typical open session, a professor at the University of Tulsa offers instruction once each month. The models for these sessions tend to be middle age or older, and the artists are generally experienced drawing nude models with only the occasional new participant. === Modeling for individual artists === In non-academic settings, models may pose as requested by artists within the limits of the law and their own comfort, including work that requires physical contact with other models, the artist, or the public. French artist Yves Klein applied paint to models' bodies which were then pressed into or dragged across canvas both as performance art and as painting technique. In 2010 at the Museum of Modern Art, a retrospective of the work of Marina Abramović included two nude models, male and female, standing in a narrow doorway through which visitors passed, replicating a work performed by the artist and a partner in 1977. Models who work for individual artists in a private studio tend to observe art school norms in order to maintain the definition of modeling as serious artistic work. However, there are no longer strict rules, so a more informal working relationship may be established over time. This may include not undressing in another room, or not wearing a robe during breaks. In addition, silence is no longer necessary if the artist is comfortable working and conversing with the model. A more collegial relationship may develop where artist and model feel that they are collaborating. However, in a private studio environment, with an artist on a deadline or with commission guidelines, stricter work standards may apply regarding punctuality and holding longer, more demanding poses, but also higher rates of pay. However, private studio work is rare outside of major cities.: 49–54 Chuck Close apologized in 2017 when several women accused him of making inappropriate comments when they came to his studio to pose, but initially denied any wrongdoing. Following his death in 2021, it was revealed that Close suffered from a form of dementia, which could account for his behavior. ==== Family members, wives and life partners ==== Through history, artists use family members as models, both nude and otherwise, in creating their works. The Dutch Golden Age painter Jan de Bray specialized in the portrait historié, "portraits" of historical figures using contemporary figures as models, including himself and his family, as in two versions of The Banquet of Cleopatra (1652 and 1669). Rose Beuret was the subject of several portrait sculptures by Auguste Rodin and his companion for 53 years, but his wife only in the final year of her life. Camille Doncieux, first wife of Claude Monet also posed for paintings by Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Édouard Manet. Hortense Fiquet, companion and later wife of Cézanne is rarely mentioned in art history. Lucian Freud painted many of his 14 children, sometimes nude; the most controversial being his daughter Annie Freud in 1963 when she was 14. However, she now looks back upon posing for her father as a positive experience. === Clothed modeling === Painting classes, and artists doing historical themed works often require clothed or costumed models who take poses that may be sustained until the work is completed. This creates some demand for clothed models in those schools that continue to teach academic painting methods. Some models may promote their services based upon having interesting or varied costumes. Clothing is required in public venues, such as Dr Sketchy's Anti-Art School, but occurs in more traditional settings as well, such as the fund-raising marathons sponsored by the Bay Area Models Guild.: 39 Usually an individual who is having their own portrait painted or sculpted is called a "sitter" rather than a model; when they are not being paid to pose, it is frequently the case that the artist is being paid to create a likeness. Modern portraits are done from photographs at least in part, although artists prefer to have at least some hours of live sitting at the beginning to better capture the personality, and at the end for final touches. In some cases, the sitter may reject a portrait as unflattering, and destroy it. === Photography === There has been controversy regarding the status of photography as a fine-arts medium that is reflected in the unwillingness of some models to also pose nude for photography as they would for drawing or painting.: 18–25 The experience of nude modeling for an amateur photographer is different from that of posing for figure drawing/painting. Traditional media create a single image that is not a true likeness of the individual model, but photographs require a release in order to protect the model's right to privacy. The hourly rate of pay for models posing for fine-art photography is much higher than for other media, although less than for commercial photography. Photographer Sally Mann published the book Immediate Family, in which 13 of the 65 images are of her children nude. Mary Gordon characterized many of these images as sexualizing children regardless of artistic merit. Mann's response to this criticism has been that the images were spontaneous and natural, having no sexual connotations other than those supplied by the viewer. Less well-known photographers have been charged, but not convicted, for suspected child abuse for similar photographs of their own children. Jock Sturges photographed entire families of naturists, which led to an FBI investigation when a photo-lab employee reported the images; however, no charges were made. The relationship between male photographers and their wives as models is studied in Arthur Ollman's book, The Model Wife. It focuses on the photographers Baron Adolph de Meyer (whose wife was Olga de Meyer), Alfred Stieglitz (whose wife was Georgia O'Keeffe), Edward Weston and model Charis Wilson, Harry Callahan, Emmet Gowin, Lee Friedlander, Masahisa Fukase, Seiichi Furuya, and Nicholas Nixon. Occasionally the distinction of participating in Fine Art may make a young amateur model willing to pose for a well-known photographer, examples being Vanessa Williams and Madonna. A signed print of one of the nude photographs of Madonna taken by Lee Friedlander in 1979 sold at auction in 2012 for $37,000. Although largely a result of her fame, the model does not share in this increased value of the artwork. === Online modeling === During the COVID-19 pandemic, life drawing classes began to appear on online platforms, most frequently on Zoom. This shift to virtual spaces created new, global communities and increased access to artists who were able to join sessions from their homes. Although remote sessions suffer from some difficulties, such as the flattening and distortion of the camera and the lack of direct communications, there has been an expansion of the community willing and able to participate, both as models and artists. Models at the Government College of Art & Craft in India for whom posing for classes is their only income do not have the online option, but have been supported by donations from artists. == Nudity and body image == In recent years, a connection has been made between social issues of body image, sexualization and art modeling with some promoting wider participation in life drawing, including at a younger age, to provide an experience of real nude people as an alternative to social media representations of idealized bodies. The social benefits of life drawing had been suggested by David B. Manzella in the 1970s while director of the Rhode Island School of Design. Nude models were introduced to the young people's classes with the permission of parents. Models often cite acceptance of their bodies as one of the benefits of modeling. While younger women continue to be the typical model, men and older models are welcomed in cities with an active arts community such as Glasgow, Scotland. Figure On Diversity is one initiative which aims to increase representation in studio art and studio art education by creating resources in support of models who hold visible marginalized identities. Sociologist Sarah R. Phillips, in a 2020 follow-up to her 2005 book Modeling Life notes that models who have contacted her during these years generally experience posing nude in a classroom as empowering. == Alternative views == The mainstream view of art modeling is based upon a moderate position regarding the value of figure studies and nudity in art. There are also schools or studios that may be more conservative, or more liberal. Many art programs in Christian institutions consider nudity in any form to be in conflict with their beliefs, and therefore hire only clothed models for art classes. None of the Protestant Evangelical colleges in the United States were found to include nude models in their arts and graphic design programs, citing it as an immodest practice; yet similar institutions in Australia held life drawing classes. At Louisiana State University (LSU), there are rare objections to nudity by religious or conservative students, but the faculty assert that drawing the body is necessary training for art in general and to understand the structure underneath clothing. Models at LSU are full-time students who learn about modeling from other students or artists. Brigham Young University does not allow nude models, describing their policy as self-censorship within the context of the school's honor code. Other institutions view the absence of figure studies as bringing into question the completeness of the art education offered. Some recognize that an appreciation of the beauty of the human body is compatible with a Christian education. Gordon College not only maintains the need for nude figure studies as part of a complete classical art education, but sees the use of models clad in swimwear or other revealing garments as placing the activity in the context of advertisement and sexual exploitation. James Elkins voices an alternative to classical "dispassionate" figure study by stating that the nude is never devoid of erotic meaning, and it is a fiction to pretend otherwise. Even the advocate of classical aesthetics Kenneth Clark recognized that "biological urges" were never absent even in the most chaste nude, nor should they be unless all life is drained from the work. Most models maintain that posing nude need not be any more sexual than any other coed social situation as long as all participants maintain a mature attitude. However, decorum is not always maintained when either a model or the students are not familiar with the often unspoken rules. Models may be apprehensive about posing for incoming freshmen who, having never encountered classroom nudity, respond immaturely. Acceptance of the erotic is apparent in the work and behavior of some artists. For example, Picasso was also famous for having a series of model/muse/mistresses through his life: Marie-Thérèse Walter, Fernande Olivier, Dora Maar, and Françoise Gilot. The painter John Currin, whose work is often erotic, combines images from popular culture and references to his wife, Rachel Feinstein. A feminist view is the male gaze, which asserts that nudes are inherently voyeuristic, with the viewer in the place of the powerful male gazing upon the passive female subject. == History == The role of art models has changed through different eras as the meaning and importance of the human figure in art and society has changed. Nude modeling, nude art and nudity in general have at times been the subject to social disapproval, at least by some elements in society.: 3 When the nude in art was most popular, the models that made these artworks possible might be of low status and poorly paid. The stereotype of the female art model was part of bohemianism in the late 19th and early 20th century Europe. The combination of nakedness and the exchange of money led others to associate nude modeling with prostitution, particularly in the United States.: 6–7 As the 20th century progressed, models gained more recognition and status, including forming the first organizations with some of the functions of labor unions thus becoming a professional occupation. It became possible for individuals to gain notoriety, such as Audrey Munson, who was the model or inspiration for more than 15 statues in New York City in the 1910s. Quentin Crisp began a thirty-year career as a model in 1942.: 20–21 === Ancient and Post-classical === The Greeks, who had the naked body constantly before them in the exercises of the gymnasium, had far less need of professional models than the moderns; but it is scarcely likely that they could have attained the high level reached by their works without constant study from nature. It was probably in Ancient Greece that models were first used. The story told of Zeuxis by Valerius Maximus, who had five of the most beautiful virgins of the city of Crotone offered him as models for his picture of Helen, proves their occasional use. The remark of Eupompus, quoted by Pliny, who advised Lysippos, "Let nature be your model, not an artist", directing his attention to the crowd instead of to his own work, also suggests a use of models which the many portrait statues of Greek and Roman times show to have been not unknown. The names of some of these models of the era are themselves known, such as the beautiful Phryne who modeled for many paintings and sculptures. The nude almost disappeared from Western art during the Middle Ages, largely due to the attitude of the early Christians, although in Kenneth Clark's famous distinction "naked" figures were still required for some subjects, especially the Last Judgment. This changed with the Renaissance and the rediscovery of classical antiquity, when painters initially used their male apprentices (garzoni) as models, for figures of both genders, as is often clear from their drawings. Leon Battista Alberti recommends drawing from the nude in his De pictura of 1435; as remained usual until the end of the century, he seems only to mean using male models.: 49–50 === Early modern === Possibly the first images of nude women done from the life are a number of drawings and prints by Albrecht Dürer from the 1490s, which were ahead of Italian practice.: 51–55 The production of female nudes suddenly became important in Venetian painting in the decade after 1500, with works such as Giorgione's Dresden Venus of c. 1510. Venetian painters made relatively little use of drawings, and it has been thought that these works did not involve much use of live models, but this view has recently been challenged.: 55–56 The first Italian artist to regularly use female models for studies is usually thought to have been Raphael, whose drawings of the female nude clearly do not use teenage boys.: 56–60 Michelangelo's earlier Study of a Kneeling Nude Girl for The Entombment (c. 1500) may or may not have used a female model, but if it did this was not his normal practice. The story of the love between Raphael and his mistress-model Margarita Luti (La Fornarina) is "the archetypal artist-model relationship of Western tradition". There was also a tradition of incorporating donor portraits as minor figures into religious narrative scenes, and several Virgin and Child compositions by court painters are thought to use princesses or other court figures as models for the Virgin Mary; these are sometimes called "disguised portraits".: 3–4, 137 The most notorious of these is the portrayal as the Virgo lactans (or just post-lactans) of Agnès Sorel (died 1450), the mistress of Charles VII of France, in a panel by Jean Fouquet.: 3–4 Raphael's relationship was probably somewhat untypical, although the Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini records his use, in both Rome and Paris, of servant girls as model, mistress and maid. However, when he broke with one he had difficulty in finding another model, and was forced to rehire her just to pose.: 60–61 Lorenzo Lotto records payments to prostitutes to pose in Venice in 1541, perhaps the earliest record of what long remained an option for artists.: 60 Art modeling as an occupation appeared in the late Renaissance when the establishment of schools for the study of the human figure created a regular demand, and since that time the remuneration offered ensured a continual supply. However, academy models were usually only men until the late 19th century, as were the students. The Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture only allowed female models, clothed, from 1759.: 61 In London the students at the female branch of the Royal Academy of Art were not allowed to study the undraped figure until the later 19th century. === Late modern and contemporary === In 19th-century Paris, a number of models earned a place in art history. Victorine Meurent became a painter herself after posing for several works, including two of the most infamous: Manet's Olympia and Le déjeuner sur l'herbe. Joanna Hiffernan was an Irish artists' model and muse who was romantically linked with American painter James Abbott McNeill Whistler and French painter Gustave Courbet. She is the model for Whistler's painting Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl and is rumored to be the model for Courbet's painting L'Origine du monde. Suzanne Valadon, also a painter, modeled for Pierre-Auguste Renoir (most notably in Dance at Bougival), Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, and Edgar Degas. She was the mother of the painter Maurice Utrillo. The second Bal des Quat'z'Arts held in 1893 was a costume ball featuring nude models among the crowd, blurring the distinction between the idealized images in works of art and the real people who posed for them. This was symbolic of other social changes that marked the fin de siècle. Four studio models were convicted of public indecency, which was followed by protests of censorship by students of the École des Beaux-Arts. When Victorian attitudes took hold in England, studies with a live model became more restrictive than they had been in the prior century, limited to advanced classes of students that had already proved their worthiness by copying old master paintings and drawing from plaster casts.: 9 This is in part because many schools were publicly funded, so decisions were under the scrutiny of non-artists.: 12 Modeling was not respectable, and even less so for women. During the same period, the French art atelier system allowed any art student to work from life in a less formal atmosphere, and also admitted women as students. In England, the life class became well established as a central element in art education only with the approach of the 20th century.: 14–16 In the United States, Victorian modesty sometimes required the female model to pose nude with her face draped (Masked Nude by Thomas Eakins, for example).: 84 In 1886, Eakins was dismissed from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Art for removing the loincloth from a male model in a mixed classroom. In the postmodern era, the nude has returned to gain some acceptance in the art world, but not necessarily the art model. Figure drawing is offered in most art schools, but may not be required for a fine art degree. Peter Steinhart says that in trendy galleries, the nude has become passé,: 21 while according to Wendy Steiner there has been a revival in the importance of the figure as a source of beauty in contemporary art. Some established living artists work from models, but more work from photographs, or their imagination. Yet privately held open drawing sessions with a live model remain as popular as ever. == In popular culture == === Films === While there have been a number of films that exploited the artist/model stereotype, a few have more accurately portrayed the working relationship. The Artist and the Model (2012) — Set during WWII, an elderly sculptor is prompted to resume working by the arrival of a beautiful Spanish refugee who is willing to pose. Camille Claudel (1988) — Depicts Auguste Rodin and Camille Claudel working in their studio with models. La Belle Noiseuse (1991) — An aging artist is coaxed out of retirement by an aspiring young artist's suggestion that his girlfriend pose nude for a new painting. Maze (2000) — The film opens with New York painter and sculptor Lyle Maze (Rob Morrow), who has Tourette syndrome, drawing from a model. Later a friend, Callie (Laura Linney), also poses for Maze. The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1969) — One of Miss Brodie's teenage students, Sandy (Pamela Franklin), poses nude for the art instructor Mr. Lloyd (Robert Stephens). Renoir (2012) — Tells the story of Catherine Hessling, the last model of Pierre-Auguste Renoir and the first actress in the films of his son, Jean Renoir. == See also == The Helga Pictures Russell Nesbit == References == == External links == Dr. Sketchy's Anti-Art School LIFE magazine compilation of photos of artist and models Smithsonian Institution: Artists and Their Models == Further reading == Meskimmon, Marsha; Desmarais, Jane; Postle, Martin; Vaughan, William; Vaughan, Martin; West, Shearer; Barringer, Tim (2006). Model and Supermodel: The Artists' Model in British Art and Culture. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-6662-7. Waller, Susan (2006). The Invention of the Model: Artists and Models in Paris, 1830–1870. Burlington: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-3484-3.	Wikipedia/Life_model
The Artist and the Model (French: L'artiste et son modèle, Spanish: El artista y la modelo) is a 2012 French-language Spanish drama film directed by Fernando Trueba and written by Trueba and Jean-Claude Carrière. In 2012, Fernando Trueba was nominated for the Golden Shell and won the Silver Shell for Best Director at the San Sebastián International Film Festival. The year after, the film was nominated for 13 categories in the 27th Goya Awards, including Best Film and Best Director. == Plot == In the summer of 1943 in occupied France, a famous sculptor, tired of life, finds a desire to return to work with the arrival of a young Spanish woman who has escaped from a refugee camp and becomes his muse. == Cast == Jean Rochefort as Marc Cros Aida Folch as Mercè Claudia Cardinale as Léa Götz Otto as Werner Chus Lampreave as María Christian Sinniger as Émile Martin Gamet as Pierre Mateo Deluz as Henri == Reception == === Critical response === The Artist and the Model has an approval rating of 70% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 44 reviews, and an average rating of 6.4/10. Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". === Accolades === == See also == List of Spanish films of 2012 == References == == External links == El artista y la modelo at IMDb Cohen Media Group (US Distributor): http://cohenmedia.net/artist-and-the-model	Wikipedia/The_Artist_and_the_Model
A wardrobe malfunction is a clothing failure that accidentally exposes a person's intimate parts. It is different from deliberate incidents of indecent exposure or public flashing. Justin Timberlake first used the term when apologizing for the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy during the 2004 Grammy Awards, saying that he accidentally revealed Janet Jackson's breast instead of just her brassiere. The phrase "wardrobe malfunction" was in turn used by the media to refer to the incident and entered pop culture. There was a long history of such incidents before the term was coined and it has since become common. == Etymology == The American Dialect Society defines "wardrobe malfunction" as "an unanticipated exposure of bodily parts". The term was also one of the new entrants into the Chambers Dictionary in 2008, along with words like electrosmog, carbon footprint, credit crunch and social networking. The dictionary defines it as "the temporary failure of an item of clothing to do its job in covering a part of the body that it would be advisable to keep covered." === Origins === The term was first used on February 2, 2004, by singers Justin Timberlake and Janet Jackson in a statement attempting to explain the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy, during which Jackson's right breast was exposed. Timberlake apologized for the incident, stating he was "sorry that anyone was offended by the wardrobe malfunction during the halftime performance of the Super Bowl..." The term wardrobe malfunction appeared in numerous stories in major US consumer and business publications, newspapers, and major TV and radio broadcasts. Journalist Eric Alterman described the incident as "the most famous 'wardrobe malfunction' since Lady Godiva." === Related terms === The American Dialect Society had a number of related terms for word of the year nominations in 2004, including Janet moment ("unplanned bodily exposure at a public function"), boobgate ("scandal over Janet Jackson's exposed breast"), nipplegate (like boobgate, "but used earlier in squawk over Jackson's possible nipple ring"), and wardrobe malfunction ("overexposure in a mammary way"). People came up with clever terms to describe an occurrence of accidental nudity, like nipple slip or nip slip. The term has been translated into other languages to describe similar incidents, including garderobedefect (Dutch), incident de garde-robe (French), disfunzione del guardaroba or incidente del guardaroba (Italian), and mal funcionamiento de vestuario (Spanish). == Instances == In April 1957, Italian actress Sophia Loren was being welcomed to Hollywood by Paramount Pictures at a dinner party at Romanoff's restaurant in Beverly Hills. American actress Jayne Mansfield arrived last and went directly to Loren's table. Mansfield had previously engineered several stunts exposing her breasts. On this evening, she was seated between Loren and her dinner companion Clifton Webb. Braless and wearing a deeply plunging neckline, Mansfield at one point stood and purposefully leaned over the table, further exposing her breasts and her left nipple. Photographer Delmar Watson pictured Loren staring at Mansfield's breasts, and Joe Shere also recorded the incident. Shere's picture received international attention, and was published worldwide. After Brigitte Bardot gained international fame in 1953 as the Bikini girl of the French Riviera, paparazzi popularized revealing accidents or staged events with women's swimwear throughout the decade. For one of many instances, a cheesecake photo of rising starlet Daliah Lavi adjusting her bikini after it broke while at a Rio de Janeiro swimming pool was widely circulated by Associated Press in 1959. On February 1, 2004, the halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII was broadcast live from Houston, Texas, on the CBS television network in the United States. During the show, Justin Timberlake mistakenly removed a portion of Janet Jackson's costume, exposing for about half a second her breast adorned with a nipple shield. This was the first recorded usage of the term "wardrobe malfunction". The incident, sometimes referred to as Nipplegate, was news worldwide. MTV's chief executive said that Jackson had planned the stunt and Timberlake was informed of it just moments before he took the stage. The stunt was broadcast live to a total audience of 143.6 million viewers. In July 2012, when Australian model Miranda Kerr at one point leaned over to buckle her son into a car seat, she inadvertently revealed her thong to create a whale tail. The Huffington Post described this episode as a "wardrobe malfunction". The Huffington Post was not the only outlet to describe such an incident as a wardrobe malfunction. In a November 2013 article describing a similar event where English model Abbey Clancy revealed a whale tail while lifting her daughter into a car, the Daily Mirror also described the event as a "wardrobe malfunction". At the 2016 NFL draft combine, American football player Chris Jones ripped his compression shorts in the crotch during the 40-yard dash, and his genitals were seen live on television. On August 16, 2023, during a livestream, American internet personality IShowSpeed jumped up from his seat while playing Five Nights at Freddy's: Security Breach, and accidentally flashed his penis to a live viewership of 25,000 people. He subsequently ended the livestream out of embarrassment. Viewers uploaded the clip onto social media, and the term "IShowMeat", in reference to the slang word meat, meaning penis, began trending on Reddit and X (formerly Twitter). == See also == Dress code Exhibitionism Voyeurism == References ==	Wikipedia/Wardrobe_malfunction
Joseph (French: [ʒozef]), also known as Joseph le nègre (c. 1793 – unknown), was a 19th-century Haitian acrobat and actor who is best known as an art model. Active primarily in Paris, Joseph is remembered for his professional relationship with the French Romantic painter Théodore Géricault for whom he served as a principal model for the painting The Raft of the Medusa (1819). Having left Haiti in the aftermath of the Haitian Revolution, Joseph arrived in Marseille around 1804 and moved to Paris in 1808. He made a living as an acrobat and actor before being hired by Géricault sometime in 1818. After the success of The Raft of the Medusa at the 1819 Paris Salon, Joseph began to model for other contemporary French artists, including Théodore Chassériau, Horace Vernet, and Adolphe Brune. In 1832, Joseph became one of only three male models employed at l'École des Beaux-Arts, Paris. Despite a relatively successful career, Joseph never achieved broader recognition beyond the artistic circles of Paris. Similarly to other people of color living in 19th-century France, his professional life was conditioned by the political and social consequences of French colonialism and marred by racial discrimination. == Early life and work == === Haiti and France (1793–1818) === Joseph's family name has not been recorded, although it is believed that he was born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, present-day Haiti, around 1793. He arrived in France in or around 1804 and first settled in Marseille. By 1808, Joseph had moved to Paris where he was hired as an acrobat and actor for Madame Saqui's troupe. Joseph was one of the many immigrants who had left Haiti in the aftermath of the 1791–1804 Haitian Revolution and the subsequent abolition of slavery in the French colonies (which lasted from 1794 until 1804 when it was legalized again by Napoleon). A 2023 digital exhibition by the J. Paul Getty Museum suggests that he lived in the 9th or 17th arrondissement like many other immigrants and those involved in the arts, including Laure, a Black female model who worked with Édouard Manet. === The Raft of the Medusa (1818–1819) === Joseph gained recognition after serving as a principal model for Géricault's The Raft of the Medusa, an 1818–1819 painting depicting a moment from the aftermath of the wreck of the French naval frigate Méduse, which ran aground off the coast of today's Mauritania on 2 July 1816. Joseph, whom Géricault had first encountered during an acrobatic show, was hired as a model shortly after the artist began working on The Raft of the Medusa in 1818. According to some accounts, only one of the fifteen survivors on the raft, a soldier named Jean Charles, was Black. Several art historians and critics have argued, however, that Géricault included three Black individuals in the composition. All are said to have been modeled after Joseph. Most notably, Joseph served as a model for the man assumed to be Jean Charles, waving a dark red handkerchief in hopes of being noticed by the passing ship. Influenced by an ancient Greek Classical sculpture titled Belvedere Torso and with his back turned toward the viewer, Joseph's silhouette is placed atop the pyramidal grouping of survivors in the composition's right half. During the same time, Géricault completed a study of the model's back. The artist also incorporated a small rendering of Joseph's face in the composition. Looking at the viewer, he is flanked by two White men placed to the right of the wooden mast. Around the same time Géricault painted The Raft of the Medusa, the artist also completed a portrait study of Joseph, dressed in military uniform, in a manner consistent with tête d'étude, or a head study, an established tradition in the French studio practice wherein a portrait of an individual is painted for possible use in large-scale compositions. In doing so, the painter represents the subject "with a directness and immediacy that is often lacking in formal portraiture". Joseph has been described as Géricault's favorite model and the artist is said to have admired him as an individual, a sentiment art historians suggest is reflected in the deeply personal approach to the 1818–1819 portrait. When discussing the study, the British artist and writer Peter Brathwaite emphasizes Géricault's attention to detail in portraying a person of color and suggests that the viewer is invited into the "world of an actual, distinct person". Moreover, it has been suggested that Joseph served as inspiration for a third individual included in The Raft of the Medusa, a man seen seated in the middle of composition directly in front of the mast. === Joseph and abolitionism === Géricault identified as an abolitionist and his decision to include representations of Black people in The Raft of the Medusa has been interpreted as a political statement against slavery and French colonialism. Art historian Albert Alhadef, pointing to "strong antipathy" towards people of color among the general French public during the early 19th century, called the artist's inclusion of Black individuals in the painting an "extraordinary burst of fearless independence". Surviving accounts indicate that the decision was controversial. An Italian art model known as Cadamour, who also posed for The Raft of the Medusa, was allegedly "scandalized" that Géricault had decided to hire a Black model. Art historians Klaus Berger and Diane Chalmers Johnson note that Géricault made the individual modeled on Joseph the "focal point of the drama, the strongest and most perceptive of the survivors, in a sense the 'hero of the scene'". They argue that the artist's choice to do so was not a "last-minute" decision as evidenced by early sketches for the work, including the portrait study, and point to Géricault's concerns regarding the "extreme cruelties" of illegal slave trade in the French colonies. Echoing this sentiment, the Congolese writer and artist Bona Mangangu describes Joseph's Black body as "powerful, in good health, rising above the White bodies, survivors of the raft weakened by disease and fatigue". According to Come Fabre, a curator at the Louvre, Paris where Géricault's painting is on permanent display, the artist "wanted to show the equality of man when facing terror and death". == Later career == === Paris Academy (1830s) === In 1832, Joseph was hired at l'École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, becoming one of only three male models. He held the position until at least 1835. When discussing Joseph's career, scholar Emmelyn Butterfield-Rosen notes that in 19th-century France "body of a life model functioned as a floating signifier, assuming different meanings when inserted into different compositional contexts" and in the case of Joseph, it was almost always conditioned by the cultural connotations Europeans "attached to his skin pigment". In an 1836 study ordered by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, the painter Théodore Chassériau shows Joseph floating against the sky and next to two small hand studies. At the time of its completion, Butterfield-Rosen says, neither the model nor the artist (who was a grandson of a Haitian landowner of mixed race) was made aware that Ingres had planned to use Joseph in a religious composition Christ Expelling Satan from the Holy Mountain and depict him as "the devil cast down from the mountaintop". In a painting by Abel de Pujol completed in 1848 and drawing upon a Biblical subject matter, Joseph is depicted as a eunuch of the Queen of Ethiopia being baptized by Saint Philip. === Late years (1840s–1860s) === Joseph went on to pose for other prominent French artists, including Horace Vernet, Alfred de Dreux, and Adolphe Brune. Surviving records indicate that he was primarily admired for his physique, which contemporary artists perceived as impressive and visually attractive. An article from the French newspaper Le Figaro published in 1858 described Joseph as "the most beautiful model who ran the ateliers of Paris" and said that there was not a single French "artist, painter or sculptor who does not know Joseph". At the same time, Alhadeff suggests that surviving contemporary accounts of Joseph—including a derogatory 1840 passage by the French writer Émile de La Bédollière where the model is portrayed as a "clown who can barely sit still" and reduced to a "familiar caricature"—point to the continued perception of Black people as that of an inferior race. Despite his success in the art circles of Paris, Joseph was not broadly recognized and, similarly to other people of color, continued to face systemic racism in France even after slavery had finally been abolished in 1848. Bona Mangangu further explains that art modeling was considered a "vile profession" ("vil métier") which usually paid an average of three Francs per each session, a relatively small amount. Among the late surviving depictions of Joseph is a painting by Brune, likely painted during the 1840s, which was exhibited at the 1865 academic salon in Paris. In this composition, Joseph is seen with his torso exposed, seated against a natural backdrop and holding a porcelain cup while smiling. According to scholar Jean Nayrolles, Brune's late composition continues to perpetuate racial stereotypes through the subject's "anthropological gaze" ("le regard anthropologique"), associating the Black body with the state of "benevolent" ("bienveillante") nature and sexuality. Toward the end of his life and career, Joseph worked at the studio of the Swiss artist Charles Gleyre with whom he had become friends while living in Paris. His exact death date is unknown, although it is estimated he died sometime in the late 1860s or early 1870s. == Legacy == In 2019, an exhibition titled Posing Modernity: The Black Model from Manet and Matisse to Today at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, which focused on representation of the Black body in French modern art, included paintings of Joseph by Brune and Chassériau, among others. The show was an expanded version of a 2018 exhibition of the same name organized by Denise Murrell at the Wallach Art Gallery at Columbia University in New York. In 2021, French writer Arnaud Beunaiche published Je suis Joseph, a fictionalized biographical account of the model. It premiered as a theatrical play at L'Imaginaire in Douchy-les-Mines in February 2022. In 2023, the Getty Museum in Los Angeles organized a digital exhibition via Google Arts & Culture platform titled Study of the Model Joseph, Nineteenth-Century Paris, and Romanticism and dedicated entirely to Joseph. == See also == Fanny Eaton Laure (art model) Pierre Louis Alexandre == Notes == == Citations ==	Wikipedia/Joseph_(art_model)
Laure was an art model in France known for her work with artist Édouard Manet. She is best known for posing as the black maid offering the white nude figure a bouquet of flowers in Manet's 1863 painting Olympia. == Biography == Little is known about Laure. She has been described as African or Caribbean and her last name is unknown. Art historian Griselda Pollock suggested that she met the artist Édouard Manet while working as a nursemaid in the Tuileries Garden in Paris. Another theory suggests that Jeanne Duval, who was in a relationship with Manet's friend Charles Baudelaire, introduced Manet and Laure. This theory was discussed by Pollock, as well as by Manet archivist Achille Tabarant. Manet's notebook, included in the 2019 exhibition Le Modèle noir, de Géricault à Matisse at the musee d'Orsay in Paris, recorded her address at 11, rue de Vintimille, 3rd floor, in Paris.Laure très belle négresse 11 rue de Vintimille 3e This was less than a ten-minute walk from Manet's apartment in a neighborhood inhabited by avant-garde artists and writers, as well as a "small but highly visible" black population. This residence was close to Duval, who Baudelaire wrote to at 17 rue Sauffroy. == Art modeling == Laure also appeared in Manet's painting Children in the Tuileries Garden (1861-62). In both Olympia and Children in the Tuileries Garden paintings, Laure is wearing the same outfit of a pink dress with a high white collar and a madras headtie. It is not known whether she was painted by other artists during that period. In 1862–63, Manet painted a portrait of Laure, La Négresse, which is also known as Portrait of Laure. This painting's subtitle is "une très belle négresse." == Discussion in art history == Laure has not been widely studied in art history. With a few exceptions, she is presented as "ancillary" or as a part of a larger colonial theme within the painting. == Legacy == Manet's depictions of Laure are referenced in later works. Artists including Frédéric Bazille, Henri Matisse, and Romare Bearden quoted and referenced the Laure figure. Some artists reference Laure specifically, while others merge Laure and Olympia into one character. Laure is a figure portrayed by many black artists who bring her to the forefront as "a subject in her own right, deserving of subjectivity." === Contemporary depictions === Renee Cox frequently references Laure in her works, combining or switching her and Olympia. Her works that reference Laure and Olympia include the 2001 Olympia's Boyz, which combines the characters, and the 2008 Missy at Home, which art historian Tracey Walters views as a reversal of the Olympia and Laure roles. Maud Sulter has depicted Laure in many of her works, including her 1989 Phalia (Portrait of Alice Walker) and her 2002 Portrait d’une négresse (Bonny Greer) and Jeanne Duval: A Melodrama. In Jeanne Duval: A Melodrama, Sulter overlay Laure in Olympia with an 1850s Nadar photograph of an unknown black model, who Sulter suggested might be Duval. Mickalene Thomas frequently references Laure in her work. Her 2012 series Une très belle négresse, which takes its name from the Portrait of Laure subtitle. Elizabeth Colomba's 2018 painting Laure (Portrait of a Negresse) depicts Laure on her way to Manet's studio. Colomba's painting was included in the exhibition Posing Modernity: The Black Model from Manet and Matisse to Today, alongside Manet's paintings of Laure, at the Wallach Art Gallery, Columbia University. This exhibit, curated by Denisse Murrell, placed Laure in the spotlight, which redefined and named black women in art. == Gallery == == See also == Fanny Eaton Joseph (art model) Pierre Louis Alexandre == References ==	Wikipedia/Laure_(art_model)
Harry Morey Callahan (October 22, 1912 – March 15, 1999) was an American photographer and educator. He taught at both the Institute of Design at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, and the Rhode Island School of Design in Providence. Callahan's first solo exhibition was at the Art Institute of Chicago in 1951. He had a retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1976/1977. Callahan was a recipient of the Edward MacDowell Medal and the National Medal of Arts. He represented the United States in the Venice Biennale in 1978. == Early life == Harry Morey Callahan was born in Detroit, Michigan. He worked at Chrysler when he was a young man then left the company to study engineering at Michigan State University. He dropped out, returned to Chrysler and joined its camera club. Callahan began teaching himself photography in 1938. He formed a friendship with Todd Webb who was also to become a photographer. A talk given by Ansel Adams in 1941 inspired him to take his work seriously. In 1941, Callahan and Webb visited Rocky Mountain State Park but didn't return with any photographs. In 1946 he was invited to teach photography at the Institute of Design in Chicago by László Moholy-Nagy. He moved to Rhode Island in 1961 to establish a photography program at the Rhode Island School of Design, eventually inviting close friend and fellow artist Aaron Siskind to join him, teaching there until his retirement in 1977. == Career == Callahan left almost no written records—no diaries, letters, scrapbooks or teaching notes. His technical photographic method was to go out almost every morning, walk through the city he lived in and take numerous pictures. He then spent almost every afternoon making proof prints of that day's best negatives. Yet, for all his photographic activity, Callahan, at his own estimation, produced no more than half a dozen final images a year. He photographed his wife and daughter and the streets, scenes and buildings of cities where he lived, showing a strong sense of line and form, and light and darkness. Even prior to birth, his daughter showed up in photographs of Eleanor's pregnancy. From 1948 to 1953 Eleanor, and sometimes Barbara, were shown out in the landscape as a tiny counterpoint to large expanses of park, skyline or water. He also worked with multiple exposures. Callahan's work was a deeply personal response to his own life. He encouraged his students to turn their cameras on their own lives, leading by example. Callahan photographed his wife over a period of fifteen years, as his prime subject. Eleanor was essential to his art from 1947 to 1960. He photographed her everywhere—at home, in the city streets, in the landscape; alone, with their daughter, in black and white and in color, nude and clothed, distant and close. He tried several technical experiments—double and triple exposure, blurs, large and small format film. Callahan was one of the few innovators of modern American photography noted as much for his work in color as for his work in black and white. In 1955 Edward Steichen included his work in The Family of Man, MoMA's popular international touring exhibition. In 1956, he received the Graham Foundation Award, which allowed him to spend a year in France with his family from 1957 to 1958. He settled in Aix-en-Provence, where he took many photographs. Along with the painter Richard Diebenkorn, he represented the United States in the Venice Biennale in 1978. In 1994, he selected 130 original prints with the help of the gallery owner Peter MacGill, and brought them together under the name of French Archives, to offer them to the Maison Européenne de la Photographie in Paris. Some of these images were taken in Aix-en-Provence and in the South of France, and are the subject of a temporary exhibition at the Granet Museum in Aix-en-Provence in 2019. Callahan left behind 100,000 negatives and over 10,000 proof prints. The Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona maintains his photographic archives. In 2013, Vancouver Art Gallery received a gift of almost 600 Callahan photographs from the Larry and Cookie Rossy Family Foundation. == Personal life == Callahan met his future wife, Eleanor Knapp, on a blind date in 1933. At that time she was a secretary at Chrysler Motors in Detroit and he was a clerk in the parts department. They married three years later. In 1950 their daughter Barbara was born. Callahan died in Atlanta in 1999. His wife Eleanor died on February 28, 2012, in Atlanta at the age of 95. == Publications == Harry Callahan. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1967. OCLC 283359742. With an introductory essay by Paul Sherman. Harry Callahan: Color: 1941–1980. Providence, R.I.: Matrix Publications, 1980. Edited by Robert Tow and Ricker Winsor. ISBN 978-0936554006. With a foreword by Jonathan Williams and an afterword by A. D. Coleman. Water's Edge. Lyme, CN: Callaway, 1980. ISBN 9780935112016. With an introductory poem by A. R. Ammons and an afterword by Callahan. Eleanor. New York City: Callaway, 1984. ISBN 978-0935112115. Harry Callahan: New Color: Photographs 1978-1987. Kansas City, MO: Hallmark Cards, 1988. ISBN 978-0875296241. Edited(?) and with text by Keith F. Davis. Exhibition catalogue. Harry Callahan. Masters of Photography. New York: Aperture, 1999. ISBN 978-0893818210. With an essay by Jonathan Williams. Harry Callahan: Retrospective. Heidelberg, Germany: Kehrer, 2013. ISBN 978-3868283587. With essays by Dirk Luckow, Peter MacGill, Sabine Schnakenberg, and Julian Cox. Exhibition catalogue. Harry Callahan: Photos. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1996. ISBN 978-0821223130. With text by Sarah Greenough. Exhibition catalogue. Seven Collages. Göttingen: Steidl, 2012. ISBN 978-3869301402. With an essay by Julian Cox. Harry Callahan: The Street. London: Black Dog, 2016. Curated and edited by Grant Arnold. ISBN 978-1910433584. Exhibition catalogue. == Awards == 1956: Graham Foundation Award 1993: Edward MacDowell Medal, MacDowell Colony, Peterborough, NH. 1996: National Medal of Arts == Solo exhibitions == Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 1951 Harry Callahan, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1976/1977. A retrospective. == Collections == Callahan's work is held in the following permanent collections: Art Institute of Chicago: 105 works (as of April 2019) George Eastman Museum: 112 works (as of April 2019) Museum of Contemporary Photography: 28 works (as of April 2019) Museum of Modern Art, New York: 243 works (as of April 2019) Philadelphia Museum of Art: 151 works (as of September 2019) == References == == External links == "Harry Callahan", Pace/MacGill Gallery	Wikipedia/Harry_Callahan_(photographer)
A model release, known in similar contexts as a liability waiver, is a legal release typically signed by the subject of a photograph granting permission to publish the photograph in one form or another. The legal rights of the signatories in reference to the material are thereafter subject to the allowances and restrictions stated in the release, and also possibly in exchange for compensation paid to the photographed person. A model release is not needed for most photograph publication because of freedom of speech rights (which vary by country.) A model release is needed for publication where personality rights or privacy rights would otherwise be infringed. No release is required for publication, as news, of a photo taken of an identifiable person when the person is in a public place. In general, no release is required for publication of a photo taken of an identifiable person when the person is in a public space unless the use is for trade or direct commercial use, which is defined as promoting a product, service, or idea. Publication of a photo of an identifiable person, even if taken when the person is in a public place, that implies endorsement, without a model release signed by that person, can result in civil liability for whoever publishes the photograph. No model release is necessary to take a photograph. Rather, the model release applies to potential publication of the photograph. Liability rests solely with the publisher, except under special conditions. The photographer is typically not the publisher of the photograph, but normally licenses the photograph to someone else to publish. It is typical for the photographer to obtain the model release not merely because they are present at the time and can get it, but also because it gives them more opportunity to license the photograph later to a party who wishes to publish it. The topic of model release forms and liability waivers is a legal area related to privacy that is separate from copyright. Also, the need for model releases pertains to public use of the photos: i.e., publishing them commercially. The act of taking a photo of someone in a public setting without a model release, or of viewing or non-commercially showing such a photo in private, generally does not create legal liability, at least in the United States. The legal issues surrounding model releases are complex and vary by jurisdiction. Although the risk to photographers is virtually nil (so long as proper disclosures of the existence of a release, and its content is made to whoever licenses the photo for publication), the business need for having releases rises substantially if the main source of income from the photographer's work lies within industries that would require them (such as advertising). In short, photojournalists almost never need to obtain model releases for images they shoot for (or sell to) news or qualified editorial publications. Photographers who also publish images may need releases to protect themselves, but there is a distinction between making an image available for sale (even via a website), which is not considered publication in a form that would require a release, and the use of the same image to promote a product or service in a way that would require a release. == Types of release == Adult release: This is the form most commonly referred to as a "model release". The language of this release is normally intended for use by models over the age of majority. Minor release: This variant of the model release contains language referring to the model (who is a minor) in the third-person, and required signature by a parent or other legal guardian of the model. A release which is not signed by a parent or guardian may afford no legal protection to the publisher. Group release: This is a modified version of the adult release, which includes additional signature lines to accommodate use by multiple models or subjects in a single image. == See also == Personality rights == References == == External links == Basics of model releases "Basic model release". NY Institute of Photography. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013. == Further reading == Dan Heller (2008). A Digital Photographer's Guide to Model Releases: Making the Best Business Decisions with Your Photos of People, Places and Things. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-22856-2.	Wikipedia/Model_release
Ringling College of Art and Design (RCAD; stylized as Ringling College of Art + Design) is a private art and design school in Sarasota, Florida. It was founded by Ludd M. Spivey as an art school in 1931 as a remote branch of Southern College before their separation in 1933. == History == The origins of the college go back to when the President of Southern College (now called Florida Southern College), Ludd M. Spivey, wanted to get the support of John Ringling for his institution. Spivey learned that Ringling did not have an interest in helping Southern College, was almost broke, and wanted to start his own art school on the grounds of his museum. The two discussed the idea of creating a new and independent art school before reaching the agreement that they would open a school in Sarasota as a branch of Florida Southern College. The School of Fine and Applied Art of the John and Mable Ringling Art Museum was founded on March 31, 1931. It opened on October 2 with 75 registered students. The school, although an extension of Florida Southern, initially functioned as a junior college with business and arts classes. The college would end up breaking off from Southern College in 1933 after Ringling faculty discovered and disliked that money made from the school went to pay salaries at the college's Lakeland campus. Another theory holds that conservative Methodist trustees from Florida Southern were outraged that Ringling students were drawing naked models, so they sought to end the relationship. In any case, the school ended up successfully petitioning for and officially became independent on May 14, 1933 when they received their charter. Under this new charter, the institution became known as the Ringling School of Art. In 1934, the junior college and music courses were eliminated and the decision was made to concentrate solely on art. After World War II, enrollment grew at the school, growing from 250 in 1949 to 450 by 1959, mostly because of the G.I. Bill. The institution qualified for full accreditation as a degree-granting institution by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools in 1979. That year the college became known as the Ringling School of Art and Design. In 1984, the school became accredited by the National Association of Schools of Art. The campus has in the past also included the Longboat Key Center for the Arts, which operated from 1952 to 2017. Most recently, the Sarasota Art Museum, housed in a newly-renovated 1926 Sarasota High School, opened in 2019 as a division of Ringling College of Art and Design, and comprises a separate "Museum Campus" further south than main campus. == Academics == The college currently offers the Bachelor of Fine Arts and Bachelor of Arts degrees. It operates on a semester academic term system. === Library === The Alfred R. Goldstein Library is an informational, educational, and social hub for RCAD's students and faculty. Designed specifically for its creative students, the library's collection includes children's literature, game arts, graphic novels, letterpress, book arts, pop up books, special collections, reference, and online resources. The 46,000-square-foot library houses over 75,000 books and periodicals. The Ringling College Library Association (RCLA) is a nonprofit organization that was created by a small group of community leaders in 1975 in an attempt to aid Ringing College in constructing its first library. The RCLA operates with an annual overhead of 10% and has “made gifts and commitments to the college in excess of $11 million dollars”. With nearly 2,000 members, the RCLA continues to support the Alfred R. Goldstein Library and the RCAD community by providing scholarships to students, programming special events (including the RCLA Town Hall Lecture Series), and encouraging creativity and community togetherness. The library hosts an independent art publishing book fair called Paper Jam. Organized jointly with Letterpress and Book Arts Center and the Brizdle-Schoenberg Special Collections Center and in collaboration with SRQ Zine Fest, the annual event features a wide array of creative books and experimental printed items that highlight local and diverse perspectives. The library originated as a first floor location on the east side of campus. Its new modern facility, completed in January 2017, is centrally located, physically representing the mission of the library as the heart of its college. The $20 million dollar library, designed by Shepley Bulfinch and Sweet Sparkman Architects, is significantly larger than its predecessor. It features furnishings selected by RCAD students, bright colors, a 24-hour lab, a café, ten group study areas, and 4 terraces overlooking Whitaker Bayou. American Libraries, a publication of the American Library Association, featured the Alfred R. Goldstein Library in its yearly Library Design Showcase later in 2017. Alfred Goldstein, the library's namesake, was a local benefactor. Along with his wife Ann, he contributed to many Sarasota organizations and funded the Ann Goldstein Children's Rainforest Garden at the Marie Selby Botanical Gardens. The library naming ceremony took place on February 15, 2016. == Notable alumni == The Ringling Alumni Wall of Honor on the main campus recognizes exceptional RCAD alumni who have received awards and accolades since graduating, and whose creative work has made a positive impact. Twelve alumni are honored each year, one for each major, as well as alumni leaders who support the college with their time and generosity. Distinguished alumni include the following individuals: David Bromstad — designer, television personality Jeff Fowler — filmmaker and animator John Hambrock — graphic designer, cartoonist of The Brilliant Mind of Edison Lee Bret Iwan — voice actor, illustrator Tim Jaeger — painter Andrew Jones — concept artist and digital "painter" John Marshall — cartoonist of the Blondie comic strip Brandon Oldenburg — Academy Award-winning short film director and illustrator Patrick Osborne — Academy Award-winning short film director and animator Tim Rogerson — painter Michelle Phan (never graduated) — make-up demonstrator and entrepreneur - founder of EM cosmetics Nick Pitera — singer-songwriter, musician, animator Mike Zeck — comic book artist Brenna Thummler — illustrator, author of Sheets graphic novel == References == == External links == Official website	Wikipedia/Ringling_College_of_Art_and_Design
Nude psychotherapy was the use of non-sexual social nudity as an intentional means to improve the participant's psychological health. This practice is now largely forgotten, never having achieved mainstream acceptance. The practice traces its origin to the 1930s with psychological studies of the effects of social nudity on the lives of naturists. It developed in the 1960s along with the encounter group movement as a way to challenge preconceptions and promote intimacy and trust, but suffered a decline in the 1980s. In contemporary America, nudity has been incorporated into workshops and therapies for health and wellbeing generally conducted outside the medical and psychological professions. == Origins == In 1932 a Princeton psychologist Howard Warren, who was president of the American Psychological Association, spent a week at a German nudist camp. A year later, he published a paper entitled Social Nudism and the Body Taboo, which was a largely sympathetic consideration of the social and psychological significance of nudism. Warren described nudism in therapeutic terms, pointing out its 'easy camaraderie' and lack of 'self-consciousness' . He noted an 'improvement in general health' among participants. Other psychologists published further papers on the effect of nudity in the 1940s and 1950s. In 1967, a group psychotherapist in California, Paul Bindrim, noticed that towards the end of a long period of group psychotherapy called a "marathon", the participants would be sufficiently open and trusting of each other to feel comfortable enough to be spontaneously naked in each other's company. Bindrim theorized that intentionally introducing nudity in the early stages of a group might accelerate the process of mutual trust and emotional openness. Bindrim corresponded with Abraham Maslow on the subject of nude psychotherapy groups, which Maslow, who was then-president of the American Psychological Association, supported. Maslow supported the idea stating he saw the social taboo on nudity to be a matter of custom rather than of any ethical or moral importance. Maslow warned that he thought discretion, sensitivity and caution would have to be present in any execution of the idea. Maslow later cautioned that the sensation of nudity and sensual pleasure should not be mistaken by participants for the genuine achievement of a psychological "high" and feared it might impede the development of real empathy between individuals. In 1967, Bindrim conducted his first nude workshop in Deer Park, California. There were typically 15 to 25 participants. Bindrim developed his nude encounter marathons into a weekend workshop using nudity and swimming pools, which was recorded in the 1971 documentary film entitled Out of Touch by the National Film Board of Canada and produced by Bindrim. The American Psychological Association's Ethics Committee launched an investigation of Bindrim, reportedly prompted by conservative politicians. However, due to the cultural climate of the late 1960s and the fact that the nudity was consensual, the investigation was later dropped. Bindrim became increasingly sensitive to the public relations obstacle posed by the phrase "nude psychotherapy," causing him to recast his approach and by the late 1970s his promotional materials made only a passing reference to nudity. With the change in psychotherapeutic fashion as the 1970s progressed, the decision was eventually made to remove the emphasis on nudity altogether. == Contemporary == Nudity may be incorporated in many therapeutic practices that include mental health, but these are rarely done within the traditional psychotherapeutic professions. == Notes == == References ==	Wikipedia/Nude_psychotherapy
A simulation is an imitative representation of a process or system that could exist in the real world. In this broad sense, simulation can often be used interchangeably with model. Sometimes a clear distinction between the two terms is made, in which simulations require the use of models; the model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected system or process, whereas the simulation represents the evolution of the model over time. Another way to distinguish between the terms is to define simulation as experimentation with the help of a model. This definition includes time-independent simulations. Often, computers are used to execute the simulation. Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance tuning or optimizing, safety engineering, testing, training, education, and video games. Simulation is also used with scientific modelling of natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their functioning, as in economics. Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be engaged, because it may not be accessible, or it may be dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is being designed but not yet built, or it may simply not exist. Key issues in modeling and simulation include the acquisition of valid sources of information about the relevant selection of key characteristics and behaviors used to build the model, the use of simplifying approximations and assumptions within the model, and fidelity and validity of the simulation outcomes. Procedures and protocols for model verification and validation are an ongoing field of academic study, refinement, research and development in simulations technology or practice, particularly in the work of computer simulation. == Classification and terminology == Historically, simulations used in different fields developed largely independently, but 20th-century studies of systems theory and cybernetics combined with spreading use of computers across all those fields have led to some unification and a more systematic view of the concept. Physical simulation refers to simulation in which physical objects are substituted for the real thing. These physical objects are often chosen because they are smaller or cheaper than the actual object or system. (See also: physical model and scale model.) Alternatively, physical simulation may refer to computer simulations considering selected laws of physics, as in multiphysics simulation. (See also: Physics engine.) Interactive simulation is a special kind of physical simulation, often referred to as a human-in-the-loop simulation, in which physical simulations include human operators, such as in a flight simulator, sailing simulator, or driving simulator. Continuous simulation is a simulation based on continuous-time rather than discrete-time steps, using numerical integration of differential equations. Discrete-event simulation studies systems whose states change their values only at discrete times. For example, a simulation of an epidemic could change the number of infected people at time instants when susceptible individuals get infected or when infected individuals recover. Stochastic simulation is a simulation where some variable or process is subject to random variations and is projected using Monte Carlo techniques using pseudo-random numbers. Thus replicated runs with the same boundary conditions will each produce different results within a specific confidence band. Deterministic simulation is a simulation which is not stochastic: thus the variables are regulated by deterministic algorithms. So replicated runs from the same boundary conditions always produce identical results. Hybrid simulation (or combined simulation) corresponds to a mix between continuous and discrete event simulation and results in integrating numerically the differential equations between two sequential events to reduce the number of discontinuities. A stand-alone simulation is a simulation running on a single workstation by itself. A distributed simulation is one which uses more than one computer simultaneously, to guarantee access from/to different resources (e.g. multi-users operating different systems, or distributed data sets); a classical example is Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS). Parallel simulation speeds up a simulation's execution by concurrently distributing its workload over multiple processors, as in high-performance computing. Interoperable simulation is where multiple models, simulators (often defined as federates) interoperate locally, distributed over a network; a classical example is High-Level Architecture. Modeling and simulation as a service is where simulation is accessed as a service over the web. Modeling, interoperable simulation and serious games is where serious game approaches (e.g. game engines and engagement methods) are integrated with interoperable simulation. Simulation fidelity is used to describe the accuracy of a simulation and how closely it imitates the real-life counterpart. Fidelity is broadly classified as one of three categories: low, medium, and high. Specific descriptions of fidelity levels are subject to interpretation, but the following generalizations can be made: Low – the minimum simulation required for a system to respond to accept inputs and provide outputs Medium – responds automatically to stimuli, with limited accuracy High – nearly indistinguishable or as close as possible to the real system A synthetic environment is a computer simulation that can be included in human-in-the-loop simulations. Simulation in failure analysis refers to simulation in which we create environment/conditions to identify the cause of equipment failure. This can be the best and fastest method to identify the failure cause. == Computer simulation == A computer simulation (or "sim") is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation on a computer so that it can be studied to see how the system works. By changing variables in the simulation, predictions may be made about the behaviour of the system. It is a tool to virtually investigate the behaviour of the system under study. Computer simulation has become a useful part of modeling many natural systems in physics, chemistry and biology, and human systems in economics and social science (e.g., computational sociology) as well as in engineering to gain insight into the operation of those systems. A good example of the usefulness of using computers to simulate can be found in the field of network traffic simulation. In such simulations, the model behaviour will change each simulation according to the set of initial parameters assumed for the environment. Traditionally, the formal modeling of systems has been via a mathematical model, which attempts to find analytical solutions enabling the prediction of the behaviour of the system from a set of parameters and initial conditions. Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitution for, modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible. There are many different types of computer simulation, the common feature they all share is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states would be prohibitive or impossible. Several software packages exist for running computer-based simulation modeling (e.g. Monte Carlo simulation, stochastic modeling, multimethod modeling) that makes all the modeling almost effortless. Modern usage of the term "computer simulation" may encompass virtually any computer-based representation. === Computer science === In computer science, simulation has some specialized meanings: Alan Turing used the term simulation to refer to what happens when a universal machine executes a state transition table (in modern terminology, a computer runs a program) that describes the state transitions, inputs and outputs of a subject discrete-state machine. The computer simulates the subject machine. Accordingly, in theoretical computer science the term simulation is a relation between state transition systems, useful in the study of operational semantics. Less theoretically, an interesting application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using computers. In computer architecture, a type of simulator, typically called an emulator, is often used to execute a program that has to run on some inconvenient type of computer (for example, a newly designed computer that has not yet been built or an obsolete computer that is no longer available), or in a tightly controlled testing environment (see Computer architecture simulator and Platform virtualization). For example, simulators have been used to debug a microprogram or sometimes commercial application programs, before the program is downloaded to the target machine. Since the operation of the computer is simulated, all of the information about the computer's operation is directly available to the programmer, and the speed and execution of the simulation can be varied at will. Simulators may also be used to interpret fault trees, or test VLSI logic designs before they are constructed. Symbolic simulation uses variables to stand for unknown values. In the field of optimization, simulations of physical processes are often used in conjunction with evolutionary computation to optimize control strategies. == Simulation in education and training == Simulation is extensively used for educational purposes. It is used for cases where it is prohibitively expensive or simply too dangerous to allow trainees to use the real equipment in the real world. In such situations they will spend time learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment yet living a lifelike experience (or at least it is the goal). Often the convenience is to permit mistakes during training for a safety-critical system. Simulations in education are somewhat like training simulations. They focus on specific tasks. The term 'microworld' is used to refer to educational simulations which model some abstract concept rather than simulating a realistic object or environment, or in some cases model a real-world environment in a simplistic way so as to help a learner develop an understanding of the key concepts. Normally, a user can create some sort of construction within the microworld that will behave in a way consistent with the concepts being modeled. Seymour Papert was one of the first to advocate the value of microworlds, and the Logo programming environment developed by Papert is one of the most well-known microworlds. Project management simulation is increasingly used to train students and professionals in the art and science of project management. Using simulation for project management training improves learning retention and enhances the learning process. Social simulations may be used in social science classrooms to illustrate social and political processes in anthropology, economics, history, political science, or sociology courses, typically at the high school or university level. These may, for example, take the form of civics simulations, in which participants assume roles in a simulated society, or international relations simulations in which participants engage in negotiations, alliance formation, trade, diplomacy, and the use of force. Such simulations might be based on fictitious political systems, or be based on current or historical events. An example of the latter would be Barnard College's Reacting to the Past series of historical educational games. The National Science Foundation has also supported the creation of reacting games that address science and math education. In social media simulations, participants train communication with critics and other stakeholders in a private environment. In recent years, there has been increasing use of social simulations for staff training in aid and development agencies. The Carana simulation, for example, was first developed by the United Nations Development Programme, and is now used in a very revised form by the World Bank for training staff to deal with fragile and conflict-affected countries. Military uses for simulation often involve aircraft or armoured fighting vehicles, but can also target small arms and other weapon systems training. Specifically, virtual firearms ranges have become the norm in most military training processes and there is a significant amount of data to suggest this is a useful tool for armed professionals. == Virtual simulation == A virtual simulation is a category of simulation that uses simulation equipment to create a simulated world for the user. Virtual simulations allow users to interact with a virtual world. Virtual worlds operate on platforms of integrated software and hardware components. In this manner, the system can accept input from the user (e.g., body tracking, voice/sound recognition, physical controllers) and produce output to the user (e.g., visual display, aural display, haptic display) . Virtual simulations use the aforementioned modes of interaction to produce a sense of immersion for the user. === Virtual simulation input hardware === There is a wide variety of input hardware available to accept user input for virtual simulations. The following list briefly describes several of them: Body tracking: The motion capture method is often used to record the user's movements and translate the captured data into inputs for the virtual simulation. For example, if a user physically turns their head, the motion would be captured by the simulation hardware in some way and translated to a corresponding shift in view within the simulation. Capture suits and/or gloves may be used to capture movements of users body parts. The systems may have sensors incorporated inside them to sense movements of different body parts (e.g., fingers). Alternatively, these systems may have exterior tracking devices or marks that can be detected by external ultrasound, optical receivers or electromagnetic sensors. Internal inertial sensors are also available on some systems. The units may transmit data either wirelessly or through cables. Eye trackers can also be used to detect eye movements so that the system can determine precisely where a user is looking at any given instant. Physical controllers: Physical controllers provide input to the simulation only through direct manipulation by the user. In virtual simulations, tactile feedback from physical controllers is highly desirable in a number of simulation environments. Omnidirectional treadmills can be used to capture the users locomotion as they walk or run. High fidelity instrumentation such as instrument panels in virtual aircraft cockpits provides users with actual controls to raise the level of immersion. For example, pilots can use the actual global positioning system controls from the real device in a simulated cockpit to help them practice procedures with the actual device in the context of the integrated cockpit system. Voice/sound recognition: This form of interaction may be used either to interact with agents within the simulation (e.g., virtual people) or to manipulate objects in the simulation (e.g., information). Voice interaction presumably increases the level of immersion for the user. Users may use headsets with boom microphones, lapel microphones or the room may be equipped with strategically located microphones. ==== Current research into user input systems ==== Research in future input systems holds a great deal of promise for virtual simulations. Systems such as brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) offer the ability to further increase the level of immersion for virtual simulation users. Lee, Keinrath, Scherer, Bischof, Pfurtscheller proved that naïve subjects could be trained to use a BCI to navigate a virtual apartment with relative ease. Using the BCI, the authors found that subjects were able to freely navigate the virtual environment with relatively minimal effort. It is possible that these types of systems will become standard input modalities in future virtual simulation systems. === Virtual simulation output hardware === There is a wide variety of output hardware available to deliver a stimulus to users in virtual simulations. The following list briefly describes several of them: Visual display: Visual displays provide the visual stimulus to the user. Stationary displays can vary from a conventional desktop display to 360-degree wrap-around screens to stereo three-dimensional screens. Conventional desktop displays can vary in size from 15 to 60 inches (380 to 1,520 mm). Wrap around screens is typically used in what is known as a cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE). Stereo three-dimensional screens produce three-dimensional images either with or without special glasses—depending on the design. Head-mounted displays (HMDs) have small displays that are mounted on headgear worn by the user. These systems are connected directly into the virtual simulation to provide the user with a more immersive experience. Weight, update rates and field of view are some of the key variables that differentiate HMDs. Naturally, heavier HMDs are undesirable as they cause fatigue over time. If the update rate is too slow, the system is unable to update the displays fast enough to correspond with a quick head turn by the user. Slower update rates tend to cause simulation sickness and disrupt the sense of immersion. Field of view or the angular extent of the world that is seen at a given moment field of view can vary from system to system and has been found to affect the user's sense of immersion. Aural display: Several different types of audio systems exist to help the user hear and localize sounds spatially. Special software can be used to produce 3D audio effects 3D audio to create the illusion that sound sources are placed within a defined three-dimensional space around the user. Stationary conventional speaker systems may be used to provide dual or multi-channel surround sound. However, external speakers are not as effective as headphones in producing 3D audio effects. Conventional headphones offer a portable alternative to stationary speakers. They also have the added advantages of masking real-world noise and facilitate more effective 3D audio sound effects. Haptic display: These displays provide a sense of touch to the user (haptic technology). This type of output is sometimes referred to as force feedback. Tactile tile displays use different types of actuators such as inflatable bladders, vibrators, low-frequency sub-woofers, pin actuators and/or thermo-actuators to produce sensations for the user. End effector displays can respond to users inputs with resistance and force. These systems are often used in medical applications for remote surgeries that employ robotic instruments. Vestibular display: These displays provide a sense of motion to the user (motion simulator). They often manifest as motion bases for virtual vehicle simulation such as driving simulators or flight simulators. Motion bases are fixed in place but use actuators to move the simulator in ways that can produce the sensations pitching, yawing or rolling. The simulators can also move in such a way as to produce a sense of acceleration on all axes (e.g., the motion base can produce the sensation of falling). == Clinical healthcare simulators == Clinical healthcare simulators are increasingly being developed and deployed to teach therapeutic and diagnostic procedures as well as medical concepts and decision making to personnel in the health professions. Simulators have been developed for training procedures ranging from the basics such as blood draw, to laparoscopic surgery and trauma care. They are also important to help on prototyping new devices for biomedical engineering problems. Currently, simulators are applied to research and develop tools for new therapies, treatments and early diagnosis in medicine. Many medical simulators involve a computer connected to a plastic simulation of the relevant anatomy. Sophisticated simulators of this type employ a life-size mannequin that responds to injected drugs and can be programmed to create simulations of life-threatening emergencies. In other simulations, visual components of the procedure are reproduced by computer graphics techniques, while touch-based components are reproduced by haptic feedback devices combined with physical simulation routines computed in response to the user's actions. Medical simulations of this sort will often use 3D CT or MRI scans of patient data to enhance realism. Some medical simulations are developed to be widely distributed (such as web-enabled simulations and procedural simulations that can be viewed via standard web browsers) and can be interacted with using standard computer interfaces, such as the keyboard and mouse. === Placebo === An important medical application of a simulator—although, perhaps, denoting a slightly different meaning of simulator—is the use of a placebo drug, a formulation that simulates the active drug in trials of drug efficacy. === Improving patient safety === Patient safety is a concern in the medical industry. Patients have been known to suffer injuries and even death due to management error, and lack of using best standards of care and training. According to Building a National Agenda for Simulation-Based Medical Education (Eder-Van Hook, Jackie, 2004), "a health care provider's ability to react prudently in an unexpected situation is one of the most critical factors in creating a positive outcome in medical emergency, regardless of whether it occurs on the battlefield, freeway, or hospital emergency room." Eder-Van Hook (2004) also noted that medical errors kill up to 98,000 with an estimated cost between $37 and $50 million and $17 to $29 billion for preventable adverse events dollars per year. Simulation is being used to study patient safety, as well as train medical professionals. Studying patient safety and safety interventions in healthcare is challenging, because there is a lack of experimental control (i.e., patient complexity, system/process variances) to see if an intervention made a meaningful difference (Groves & Manges, 2017). An example of innovative simulation to study patient safety is from nursing research. Groves et al. (2016) used a high-fidelity simulation to examine nursing safety-oriented behaviors during times such as change-of-shift report. However, the value of simulation interventions to translating to clinical practice are is still debatable. As Nishisaki states, "there is good evidence that simulation training improves provider and team self-efficacy and competence on manikins. There is also good evidence that procedural simulation improves actual operational performance in clinical settings." However, there is a need to have improved evidence to show that crew resource management training through simulation. One of the largest challenges is showing that team simulation improves team operational performance at the bedside. Although evidence that simulation-based training actually improves patient outcome has been slow to accrue, today the ability of simulation to provide hands-on experience that translates to the operating room is no longer in doubt. One of the largest factors that might impact the ability to have training impact the work of practitioners at the bedside is the ability to empower frontline staff (Stewart, Manges, Ward, 2015). Another example of an attempt to improve patient safety through the use of simulations training is patient care to deliver just-in-time service or/and just-in-place. This training consists of 20 minutes of simulated training just before workers report to shift. One study found that just in time training improved the transition to the bedside. The conclusion as reported in Nishisaki (2008) work, was that the simulation training improved resident participation in real cases; but did not sacrifice the quality of service. It could be therefore hypothesized that by increasing the number of highly trained residents through the use of simulation training, that the simulation training does, in fact, increase patient safety. === History of simulation in healthcare === The first medical simulators were simple models of human patients. Since antiquity, these representations in clay and stone were used to demonstrate clinical features of disease states and their effects on humans. Models have been found in many cultures and continents. These models have been used in some cultures (e.g., Chinese culture) as a "diagnostic" instrument, allowing women to consult male physicians while maintaining social laws of modesty. Models are used today to help students learn the anatomy of the musculoskeletal system and organ systems. In 2002, the Society for Simulation in Healthcare (SSH) was formed to become a leader in international interprofessional advances the application of medical simulation in healthcare The need for a "uniform mechanism to educate, evaluate, and certify simulation instructors for the health care profession" was recognized by McGaghie et al. in their critical review of simulation-based medical education research. In 2012 the SSH piloted two new certifications to provide recognition to educators in an effort to meet this need. === Type of models === ==== Active models ==== Active models that attempt to reproduce living anatomy or physiology are recent developments. The famous "Harvey" mannequin was developed at the University of Miami and is able to recreate many of the physical findings of the cardiology examination, including palpation, auscultation, and electrocardiography. ==== Interactive models ==== More recently, interactive models have been developed that respond to actions taken by a student or physician. Until recently, these simulations were two dimensional computer programs that acted more like a textbook than a patient. Computer simulations have the advantage of allowing a student to make judgments, and also to make errors. The process of iterative learning through assessment, evaluation, decision making, and error correction creates a much stronger learning environment than passive instruction. ==== Computer simulators ==== Simulators have been proposed as an ideal tool for assessment of students for clinical skills. For patients, "cybertherapy" can be used for sessions simulating traumatic experiences, from fear of heights to social anxiety. Programmed patients and simulated clinical situations, including mock disaster drills, have been used extensively for education and evaluation. These "lifelike" simulations are expensive, and lack reproducibility. A fully functional "3Di" simulator would be the most specific tool available for teaching and measurement of clinical skills. Gaming platforms have been applied to create these virtual medical environments to create an interactive method for learning and application of information in a clinical context. Immersive disease state simulations allow a doctor or HCP to experience what a disease actually feels like. Using sensors and transducers symptomatic effects can be delivered to a participant allowing them to experience the patients disease state. Such a simulator meets the goals of an objective and standardized examination for clinical competence. This system is superior to examinations that use "standard patients" because it permits the quantitative measurement of competence, as well as reproducing the same objective findings. == Simulation in entertainment == Simulation in entertainment encompasses many large and popular industries such as film, television, video games (including serious games) and rides in theme parks. Although modern simulation is thought to have its roots in training and the military, in the 20th century it also became a conduit for enterprises which were more hedonistic in nature. === History of visual simulation in film and games === ==== Early history (1940s and 1950s) ==== The first simulation game may have been created as early as 1947 by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann. This was a straightforward game that simulated a missile being fired at a target. The curve of the missile and its speed could be adjusted using several knobs. In 1958, a computer game called Tennis for Two was created by Willy Higginbotham which simulated a tennis game between two players who could both play at the same time using hand controls and was displayed on an oscilloscope. This was one of the first electronic video games to use a graphical display. ==== 1970s and early 1980s ==== Computer-generated imagery was used in the film to simulate objects as early as 1972 in A Computer Animated Hand, parts of which were shown on the big screen in the 1976 film Futureworld. This was followed by the "targeting computer" that young Skywalker turns off in the 1977 film Star Wars. The film Tron (1982) was the first film to use computer-generated imagery for more than a couple of minutes. Advances in technology in the 1980s caused 3D simulation to become more widely used and it began to appear in movies and in computer-based games such as Atari's Battlezone (1980) and Acornsoft's Elite (1984), one of the first wire-frame 3D graphics games for home computers. ==== Pre-virtual cinematography era (early 1980s to 1990s) ==== Advances in technology in the 1980s made the computer more affordable and more capable than they were in previous decades, which facilitated the rise of computer such as the Xbox gaming. The first video game consoles released in the 1970s and early 1980s fell prey to the industry crash in 1983, but in 1985, Nintendo released the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) which became one of the best selling consoles in video game history. In the 1990s, computer games became widely popular with the release of such game as The Sims and Command & Conquer and the still increasing power of desktop computers. Today, computer simulation games such as World of Warcraft are played by millions of people around the world. In 1993, the film Jurassic Park became the first popular film to use computer-generated graphics extensively, integrating the simulated dinosaurs almost seamlessly into live action scenes. This event transformed the film industry; in 1995, the film Toy Story was the first film to use only computer-generated images and by the new millennium computer generated graphics were the leading choice for special effects in films. ==== Virtual cinematography (early 2000s–present) ==== The advent of virtual cinematography in the early 2000s has led to an explosion of movies that would have been impossible to shoot without it. Classic examples are the digital look-alikes of Neo, Smith and other characters in the Matrix sequels and the extensive use of physically impossible camera runs in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The terminal in the Pan Am (TV series) no longer existed during the filming of this 2011–2012 aired series, which was no problem as they created it in virtual cinematography using automated viewpoint finding and matching in conjunction with compositing real and simulated footage, which has been the bread and butter of the movie artist in and around film studios since the early 2000s. Computer-generated imagery is "the application of the field of 3D computer graphics to special effects". This technology is used for visual effects because they are high in quality, controllable, and can create effects that would not be feasible using any other technology either because of cost, resources or safety. Computer-generated graphics can be seen in many live-action movies today, especially those of the action genre. Further, computer-generated imagery has almost completely supplanted hand-drawn animation in children's movies which are increasingly computer-generated only. Examples of movies that use computer-generated imagery include Finding Nemo, 300 and Iron Man. === Examples of non-film entertainment simulation === ==== Simulation games ==== Simulation games, as opposed to other genres of video and computer games, represent or simulate an environment accurately. Moreover, they represent the interactions between the playable characters and the environment realistically. These kinds of games are usually more complex in terms of gameplay. Simulation games have become incredibly popular among people of all ages. Popular simulation games include SimCity and Tiger Woods PGA Tour. There are also flight simulator and driving simulator games. ==== Theme park rides ==== Simulators have been used for entertainment since the Link Trainer in the 1930s. The first modern simulator ride to open at a theme park was Disney's Star Tours in 1987 soon followed by Universal's The Funtastic World of Hanna-Barbera in 1990 which was the first ride to be done entirely with computer graphics. Simulator rides are the progeny of military training simulators and commercial simulators, but they are different in a fundamental way. While military training simulators react realistically to the input of the trainee in real time, ride simulators only feel like they move realistically and move according to prerecorded motion scripts. One of the first simulator rides, Star Tours, which cost $32 million, used a hydraulic motion based cabin. The movement was programmed by a joystick. Today's simulator rides, such as The Amazing Adventures of Spider-Man include elements to increase the amount of immersion experienced by the riders such as: 3D imagery, physical effects (spraying water or producing scents), and movement through an environment. == Simulation and manufacturing == Manufacturing simulation represents one of the most important applications of simulation. This technique represents a valuable tool used by engineers when evaluating the effect of capital investment in equipment and physical facilities like factory plants, warehouses, and distribution centers. Simulation can be used to predict the performance of an existing or planned system and to compare alternative solutions for a particular design problem. Another important goal of simulation in manufacturing systems is to quantify system performance. Common measures of system performance include the following: Throughput under average and peak loads System cycle time (how long it takes to produce one part) Use of resource, labor, and machines Bottlenecks and choke points Queuing at work locations Queuing and delays caused by material-handling devices and systems WIP storages needs Staffing requirements Effectiveness of scheduling systems Effectiveness of control systems == More examples of simulation == === Automobiles === An automobile simulator provides an opportunity to reproduce the characteristics of real vehicles in a virtual environment. It replicates the external factors and conditions with which a vehicle interacts enabling a driver to feel as if they are sitting in the cab of their own vehicle. Scenarios and events are replicated with sufficient reality to ensure that drivers become fully immersed in the experience rather than simply viewing it as an educational experience. The simulator provides a constructive experience for the novice driver and enables more complex exercises to be undertaken by the more mature driver. For novice drivers, truck simulators provide an opportunity to begin their career by applying best practice. For mature drivers, simulation provides the ability to enhance good driving or to detect poor practice and to suggest the necessary steps for remedial action. For companies, it provides an opportunity to educate staff in the driving skills that achieve reduced maintenance costs, improved productivity and, most importantly, to ensure the safety of their actions in all possible situations. === Biomechanics === A biomechanics simulator is a simulation platform for creating dynamic mechanical models built from combinations of rigid and deformable bodies, joints, constraints, and various force actuators. It is specialized for creating biomechanical models of human anatomical structures, with the intention to study their function and eventually assist in the design and planning of medical treatment. A biomechanics simulator is used to analyze walking dynamics, study sports performance, simulate surgical procedures, analyze joint loads, design medical devices, and animate human and animal movement. A neuromechanical simulator that combines biomechanical and biologically realistic neural network simulation. It allows the user to test hypotheses on the neural basis of behavior in a physically accurate 3-D virtual environment. === City and urban === A city simulator can be a city-building game but can also be a tool used by urban planners to understand how cities are likely to evolve in response to various policy decisions. AnyLogic is an example of modern, large-scale urban simulators designed for use by urban planners. City simulators are generally agent-based simulations with explicit representations for land use and transportation. UrbanSim and LEAM are examples of large-scale urban simulation models that are used by metropolitan planning agencies and military bases for land use and transportation planning. === Christmas === Several Christmas-themed simulations exist, many of which are centred around Santa Claus. An example of these simulations are websites which claim to allow the user to track Santa Claus. Due to the fact that Santa is a legendary character and not a real, living person, it is impossible to provide actual information on his location, and services such as NORAD Tracks Santa and the Google Santa Tracker (the former of which claims to use radar and other technologies to track Santa) display fake, predetermined location information to users. Another example of these simulations are websites that claim to allow the user to email or send messages to Santa Claus. Websites such as emailSanta.com or Santa's former page on the now-defunct Windows Live Spaces by Microsoft use automated programs or scripts to generate personalized replies claimed to be from Santa himself based on user input. === Classroom of the future === The classroom of the future will probably contain several kinds of simulators, in addition to textual and visual learning tools. This will allow students to enter the clinical years better prepared, and with a higher skill level. The advanced student or postgraduate will have a more concise and comprehensive method of retraining—or of incorporating new clinical procedures into their skill set—and regulatory bodies and medical institutions will find it easier to assess the proficiency and competency of individuals. The classroom of the future will also form the basis of a clinical skills unit for continuing education of medical personnel; and in the same way that the use of periodic flight training assists airline pilots, this technology will assist practitioners throughout their career. The simulator will be more than a "living" textbook, it will become an integral a part of the practice of medicine. The simulator environment will also provide a standard platform for curriculum development in institutions of medical education. === Communication satellites === Modern satellite communications systems (SATCOM) are often large and complex with many interacting parts and elements. In addition, the need for broadband connectivity on a moving vehicle has increased dramatically in the past few years for both commercial and military applications. To accurately predict and deliver high quality of service, SATCOM system designers have to factor in terrain as well as atmospheric and meteorological conditions in their planning. To deal with such complexity, system designers and operators increasingly turn towards computer models of their systems to simulate real-world operating conditions and gain insights into usability and requirements prior to final product sign-off. Modeling improves the understanding of the system by enabling the SATCOM system designer or planner to simulate real-world performance by injecting the models with multiple hypothetical atmospheric and environmental conditions. Simulation is often used in the training of civilian and military personnel. This usually occurs when it is prohibitively expensive or simply too dangerous to allow trainees to use the real equipment in the real world. In such situations, they will spend time learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment yet living a lifelike experience (or at least it is the goal). Often the convenience is to permit mistakes during training for a safety-critical system. === Digital lifecycle === Simulation solutions are being increasingly integrated with computer-aided solutions and processes (computer-aided design or CAD, computer-aided manufacturing or CAM, computer-aided engineering or CAE, etc.). The use of simulation throughout the product lifecycle, especially at the earlier concept and design stages, has the potential of providing substantial benefits. These benefits range from direct cost issues such as reduced prototyping and shorter time-to-market to better performing products and higher margins. However, for some companies, simulation has not provided the expected benefits. The successful use of simulation, early in the lifecycle, has been largely driven by increased integration of simulation tools with the entire set of CAD, CAM and product-lifecycle management solutions. Simulation solutions can now function across the extended enterprise in a multi-CAD environment, and include solutions for managing simulation data and processes and ensuring that simulation results are made part of the product lifecycle history. === Disaster preparedness === Simulation training has become a method for preparing people for disasters. Simulations can replicate emergency situations and track how learners respond thanks to a lifelike experience. Disaster preparedness simulations can involve training on how to handle terrorism attacks, natural disasters, pandemic outbreaks, or other life-threatening emergencies. One organization that has used simulation training for disaster preparedness is CADE (Center for Advancement of Distance Education). CADE has used a video game to prepare emergency workers for multiple types of attacks. As reported by News-Medical.Net, "The video game is the first in a series of simulations to address bioterrorism, pandemic flu, smallpox, and other disasters that emergency personnel must prepare for." Developed by a team from the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), the game allows learners to practice their emergency skills in a safe, controlled environment. The Emergency Simulation Program (ESP) at the British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT), Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada is another example of an organization that uses simulation to train for emergency situations. ESP uses simulation to train on the following situations: forest fire fighting, oil or chemical spill response, earthquake response, law enforcement, municipal firefighting, hazardous material handling, military training, and response to terrorist attack One feature of the simulation system is the implementation of "Dynamic Run-Time Clock," which allows simulations to run a 'simulated' time frame, "'speeding up' or 'slowing down' time as desired" Additionally, the system allows session recordings, picture-icon based navigation, file storage of individual simulations, multimedia components, and launch external applications. At the University of Québec in Chicoutimi, a research team at the outdoor research and expertise laboratory (Laboratoire d'Expertise et de Recherche en Plein Air – LERPA) specializes in using wilderness backcountry accident simulations to verify emergency response coordination. Instructionally, the benefits of emergency training through simulations are that learner performance can be tracked through the system. This allows the developer to make adjustments as necessary or alert the educator on topics that may require additional attention. Other advantages are that the learner can be guided or trained on how to respond appropriately before continuing to the next emergency segment—this is an aspect that may not be available in the live environment. Some emergency training simulators also allow for immediate feedback, while other simulations may provide a summary and instruct the learner to engage in the learning topic again. In a live-emergency situation, emergency responders do not have time to waste. Simulation-training in this environment provides an opportunity for learners to gather as much information as they can and practice their knowledge in a safe environment. They can make mistakes without risk of endangering lives and be given the opportunity to correct their errors to prepare for the real-life emergency. === Economics === Simulations in economics and especially in macroeconomics, judge the desirability of the effects of proposed policy actions, such as fiscal policy changes or monetary policy changes. A mathematical model of the economy, having been fitted to historical economic data, is used as a proxy for the actual economy; proposed values of government spending, taxation, open market operations, etc. are used as inputs to the simulation of the model, and various variables of interest such as the inflation rate, the unemployment rate, the balance of trade deficit, the government budget deficit, etc. are the outputs of the simulation. The simulated values of these variables of interest are compared for different proposed policy inputs to determine which set of outcomes is most desirable. === Engineering, technology, and processes === Simulation is an important feature in engineering systems or any system that involves many processes. For example, in electrical engineering, delay lines may be used to simulate propagation delay and phase shift caused by an actual transmission line. Similarly, dummy loads may be used to simulate impedance without simulating propagation and is used in situations where propagation is unwanted. A simulator may imitate only a few of the operations and functions of the unit it simulates. Contrast with: emulate. Most engineering simulations entail mathematical modeling and computer-assisted investigation. There are many cases, however, where mathematical modeling is not reliable. Simulation of fluid dynamics problems often require both mathematical and physical simulations. In these cases the physical models require dynamic similitude. Physical and chemical simulations have also direct realistic uses, rather than research uses; in chemical engineering, for example, process simulations are used to give the process parameters immediately used for operating chemical plants, such as oil refineries. Simulators are also used for plant operator training. It is called Operator Training Simulator (OTS) and has been widely adopted by many industries from chemical to oil&gas and to the power industry. This created a safe and realistic virtual environment to train board operators and engineers. Mimic is capable of providing high fidelity dynamic models of nearly all chemical plants for operator training and control system testing. === Ergonomics === Ergonomic simulation involves the analysis of virtual products or manual tasks within a virtual environment. In the engineering process, the aim of ergonomics is to develop and to improve the design of products and work environments. Ergonomic simulation utilizes an anthropometric virtual representation of the human, commonly referenced as a mannequin or Digital Human Models (DHMs), to mimic the postures, mechanical loads, and performance of a human operator in a simulated environment such as an airplane, automobile, or manufacturing facility. DHMs are recognized as evolving and valuable tool for performing proactive ergonomics analysis and design. The simulations employ 3D-graphics and physics-based models to animate the virtual humans. Ergonomics software uses inverse kinematics (IK) capability for posing the DHMs. Software tools typically calculate biomechanical properties including individual muscle forces, joint forces and moments. Most of these tools employ standard ergonomic evaluation methods such as the NIOSH lifting equation and Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA). Some simulations also analyze physiological measures including metabolism, energy expenditure, and fatigue limits Cycle time studies, design and process validation, user comfort, reachability, and line of sight are other human-factors that may be examined in ergonomic simulation packages. Modeling and simulation of a task can be performed by manually manipulating the virtual human in the simulated environment. Some ergonomics simulation software permits interactive, real-time simulation and evaluation through actual human input via motion capture technologies. However, motion capture for ergonomics requires expensive equipment and the creation of props to represent the environment or product. Some applications of ergonomic simulation in include analysis of solid waste collection, disaster management tasks, interactive gaming, automotive assembly line, virtual prototyping of rehabilitation aids, and aerospace product design. Ford engineers use ergonomics simulation software to perform virtual product design reviews. Using engineering data, the simulations assist evaluation of assembly ergonomics. The company uses Siemen's Jack and Jill ergonomics simulation software in improving worker safety and efficiency, without the need to build expensive prototypes. === Finance === In finance, computer simulations are often used for scenario planning. Risk-adjusted net present value, for example, is computed from well-defined but not always known (or fixed) inputs. By imitating the performance of the project under evaluation, simulation can provide a distribution of NPV over a range of discount rates and other variables. Simulations are also often used to test a financial theory or the ability of a financial model. Simulations are frequently used in financial training to engage participants in experiencing various historical as well as fictional situations. There are stock market simulations, portfolio simulations, risk management simulations or models and forex simulations. Such simulations are typically based on stochastic asset models. Using these simulations in a training program allows for the application of theory into a something akin to real life. As with other industries, the use of simulations can be technology or case-study driven. === Flight === Flight simulation is mainly used to train pilots outside of the aircraft. In comparison to training in flight, simulation-based training allows for practicing maneuvers or situations that may be impractical (or even dangerous) to perform in the aircraft while keeping the pilot and instructor in a relatively low-risk environment on the ground. For example, electrical system failures, instrument failures, hydraulic system failures, and even flight control failures can be simulated without risk to the crew or equipment. Instructors can also provide students with a higher concentration of training tasks in a given period of time than is usually possible in the aircraft. For example, conducting multiple instrument approaches in the actual aircraft may require significant time spent repositioning the aircraft, while in a simulation, as soon as one approach has been completed, the instructor can immediately reposition the simulated aircraft to a location from which the next approach can be begun. Flight simulation also provides an economic advantage over training in an actual aircraft. Once fuel, maintenance, and insurance costs are taken into account, the operating costs of an FSTD are usually substantially lower than the operating costs of the simulated aircraft. For some large transport category airplanes, the operating costs may be several times lower for the FSTD than the actual aircraft. Another advantage is reduced environmental impact, as simulators don't contribute directly to carbon or noise emissions. There also exist "engineering flight simulators" which are a key element of the aircraft design process. Many benefits that come from a lower number of test flights like cost and safety improvements are described above, but there are some unique advantages. Having a simulator available allows for faster design iteration cycle or using more test equipment than could be fit into a real aircraft. === Marine === Bearing resemblance to flight simulators, a marine simulator is meant for training of ship personnel. The most common marine simulators include: Ship's bridge simulators Engine room simulators Cargo handling simulators Communication / GMDSS simulators ROV simulators Simulators like these are mostly used within maritime colleges, training institutions, and navies. They often consist of a replication of a ships' bridge, with the operating console(s), and a number of screens on which the virtual surroundings are projected. === Military === Military simulations, also known informally as war games, are models in which theories of warfare can be tested and refined without the need for actual hostilities. They exist in many different forms, with varying degrees of realism. In recent times, their scope has widened to include not only military but also political and social factors (for example, the Nationlab series of strategic exercises in Latin America). While many governments make use of simulation, both individually and collaboratively, little is known about the model's specifics outside professional circles. === Network and distributed systems === Network and distributed systems have been extensively simulated in other to understand the impact of new protocols and algorithms before their deployment in the actual systems. The simulation can focus on different levels (physical layer, network layer, application layer), and evaluate different metrics (network bandwidth, resource consumption, service time, dropped packets, system availability). Examples of simulation scenarios of network and distributed systems are: Content delivery networks Smart cities Internet of things === Payment and securities settlement system === Simulation techniques have also been applied to payment and securities settlement systems. Among the main users are central banks who are generally responsible for the oversight of market infrastructure and entitled to contribute to the smooth functioning of the payment systems. Central banks have been using payment system simulations to evaluate things such as the adequacy or sufficiency of liquidity available ( in the form of account balances and intraday credit limits) to participants (mainly banks) to allow efficient settlement of payments. The need for liquidity is also dependent on the availability and the type of netting procedures in the systems, thus some of the studies have a focus on system comparisons. Another application is to evaluate risks related to events such as communication network breakdowns or the inability of participants to send payments (e.g. in case of possible bank failure). This kind of analysis falls under the concepts of stress testing or scenario analysis. A common way to conduct these simulations is to replicate the settlement logics of the real payment or securities settlement systems under analysis and then use real observed payment data. In case of system comparison or system development, naturally, also the other settlement logics need to be implemented. To perform stress testing and scenario analysis, the observed data needs to be altered, e.g. some payments delayed or removed. To analyze the levels of liquidity, initial liquidity levels are varied. System comparisons (benchmarking) or evaluations of new netting algorithms or rules are performed by running simulations with a fixed set of data and varying only the system setups. An inference is usually done by comparing the benchmark simulation results to the results of altered simulation setups by comparing indicators such as unsettled transactions or settlement delays. == Power systems == === Project management === Project management simulation is simulation used for project management training and analysis. It is often used as a training simulation for project managers. In other cases, it is used for what-if analysis and for supporting decision-making in real projects. Frequently the simulation is conducted using software tools. === Robotics === A robotics simulator is used to create embedded applications for a specific (or not) robot without being dependent on the 'real' robot. In some cases, these applications can be transferred to the real robot (or rebuilt) without modifications. Robotics simulators allow reproducing situations that cannot be 'created' in the real world because of cost, time, or the 'uniqueness' of a resource. A simulator also allows fast robot prototyping. Many robot simulators feature physics engines to simulate a robot's dynamics. === Production === Simulation of production systems is used mainly to examine the effect of improvements or investments in a production system. Most often this is done using a static spreadsheet with process times and transportation times. For more sophisticated simulations Discrete Event Simulation (DES) is used with the advantages to simulate dynamics in the production system. A production system is very much dynamic depending on variations in manufacturing processes, assembly times, machine set-ups, breaks, breakdowns and small stoppages. There is much software commonly used for discrete event simulation. They differ in usability and markets but do often share the same foundation. === Sales process === Simulations are useful in modeling the flow of transactions through business processes, such as in the field of sales process engineering, to study and improve the flow of customer orders through various stages of completion (say, from an initial proposal for providing goods/services through order acceptance and installation). Such simulations can help predict the impact of how improvements in methods might impact variability, cost, labor time, and the number of transactions at various stages in the process. A full-featured computerized process simulator can be used to depict such models, as can simpler educational demonstrations using spreadsheet software, pennies being transferred between cups based on the roll of a die, or dipping into a tub of colored beads with a scoop. === Sports === In sports, computer simulations are often done to predict the outcome of events and the performance of individual sportspeople. They attempt to recreate the event through models built from statistics. The increase in technology has allowed anyone with knowledge of programming the ability to run simulations of their models. The simulations are built from a series of mathematical algorithms, or models, and can vary with accuracy. Accuscore, which is licensed by companies such as ESPN, is a well-known simulation program for all major sports. It offers a detailed analysis of games through simulated betting lines, projected point totals and overall probabilities. With the increased interest in fantasy sports simulation models that predict individual player performance have gained popularity. Companies like What If Sports and StatFox specialize in not only using their simulations for predicting game results but how well individual players will do as well. Many people use models to determine whom to start in their fantasy leagues. Another way simulations are helping the sports field is in the use of biomechanics. Models are derived and simulations are run from data received from sensors attached to athletes and video equipment. Sports biomechanics aided by simulation models answer questions regarding training techniques such as the effect of fatigue on throwing performance (height of throw) and biomechanical factors of the upper limbs (reactive strength index; hand contact time). Computer simulations allow their users to take models which before were too complex to run, and give them answers. Simulations have proven to be some of the best insights into both play performance and team predictability. === Space shuttle countdown === Simulation was used at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) to train and certify Space Shuttle engineers during simulated launch countdown operations. The Space Shuttle engineering community would participate in a launch countdown integrated simulation before each Shuttle flight. This simulation is a virtual simulation where real people interact with simulated Space Shuttle vehicle and Ground Support Equipment (GSE) hardware. The Shuttle Final Countdown Phase Simulation, also known as S0044, involved countdown processes that would integrate many of the Space Shuttle vehicle and GSE systems. Some of the Shuttle systems integrated in the simulation are the main propulsion system, RS-25, solid rocket boosters, ground liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, external tank, flight controls, navigation, and avionics. The high-level objectives of the Shuttle Final Countdown Phase Simulation are: To demonstrate firing room final countdown phase operations. To provide training for system engineers in recognizing, reporting and evaluating system problems in a time critical environment. To exercise the launch team's ability to evaluate, prioritize and respond to problems in an integrated manner within a time critical environment. To provide procedures to be used in performing failure/recovery testing of the operations performed in the final countdown phase. The Shuttle Final Countdown Phase Simulation took place at the Kennedy Space Center Launch Control Center firing rooms. The firing room used during the simulation is the same control room where real launch countdown operations are executed. As a result, equipment used for real launch countdown operations is engaged. Command and control computers, application software, engineering plotting and trending tools, launch countdown procedure documents, launch commit criteria documents, hardware requirement documents, and any other items used by the engineering launch countdown teams during real launch countdown operations are used during the simulation. The Space Shuttle vehicle hardware and related GSE hardware is simulated by mathematical models (written in Shuttle Ground Operations Simulator (SGOS) modeling language) that behave and react like real hardware. During the Shuttle Final Countdown Phase Simulation, engineers command and control hardware via real application software executing in the control consoles – just as if they were commanding real vehicle hardware. However, these real software applications do not interface with real Shuttle hardware during simulations. Instead, the applications interface with mathematical model representations of the vehicle and GSE hardware. Consequently, the simulations bypass sensitive and even dangerous mechanisms while providing engineering measurements detailing how the hardware would have reacted. Since these math models interact with the command and control application software, models and simulations are also used to debug and verify the functionality of application software. === Satellite navigation === The only true way to test GNSS receivers (commonly known as Sat-Nav's in the commercial world) is by using an RF Constellation Simulator. A receiver that may, for example, be used on an aircraft, can be tested under dynamic conditions without the need to take it on a real flight. The test conditions can be repeated exactly, and there is full control over all the test parameters. this is not possible in the 'real-world' using the actual signals. For testing receivers that will use the new Galileo (satellite navigation) there is no alternative, as the real signals do not yet exist. === Trains === === Weather === Predicting weather conditions by extrapolating/interpolating previous data is one of the real use of simulation. Most of the weather forecasts use this information published by Weather bureaus. This kind of simulations helps in predicting and forewarning about extreme weather conditions like the path of an active hurricane/cyclone. Numerical weather prediction for forecasting involves complicated numeric computer models to predict weather accurately by taking many parameters into account. == Simulation games == Strategy games—both traditional and modern—may be viewed as simulations of abstracted decision-making for the purpose of training military and political leaders (see History of Go for an example of such a tradition, or Kriegsspiel for a more recent example). Many other video games are simulators of some kind. Such games can simulate various aspects of reality, from business, to government, to construction, to piloting vehicles (see above). == Historical usage == Historically, the word had negative connotations: ...therefore a general custom of simulation (which is this last degree) is a vice, using either of a natural falseness or fearfulness... ...for Distinction Sake, a Deceiving by Words, is commonly called a Lye, and a Deceiving by Actions, Gestures, or Behavior, is called Simulation... However, the connection between simulation and dissembling later faded out and is now only of linguistic interest. == See also == === Fields of study === Computational astrophysics Computational chemistry Computational fluid dynamics Computational physics Futures studies Molecular dynamics System identification === Specific examples & literature === Illustris project Planet Simulator UltraHLE Simulacra and Simulation == References == == External links == Bibliographies containing more references to be found on the website of the journal Simulation & Gaming.	Wikipedia/simulation
The Land Use Evolution and Impact Assessment Model (or LEAM) is a computer model developed at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. LEAM is designed to simulate future land use change as a result of alternative policies and development decisions. In recent years, LEAM has been used in combination with transportation and social cost models to better capture the effects land use has on transportation demand and social costs and vice versa. == History == LEAM was first developed in the LEAMlab of the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in the late 1990s with funding from the National Science Foundation. Its popularity with counties and regional agencies in Illinois led to technology licensing from the university and commercialization. In 2003, LEAMgroup was founded by professors Dr. Brian Deal and Dr. Varkki Pallathucheril. Since then, LEAM and its associated planning and decision support tools have been applied all around the U.S. and abroad. == Approach == LEAM was developed to coordinate complex regional planning activities and aid in regionally-based thinking, decision support, and policy establishment. In LEAM, a region is represented as a 30x30-meter cell grid. A discrete-choice model controls whether land use in each grid cell is transformed from its present state to a new state (residential, commercial, or industrial use) in a particular time step. Several factors, or drivers, go into determining the likelihood of land use change. Drivers of change include factors associated with each cell such as proximity to cities, employment centers, roads, highways; slope; location within wetlands and floodplains; and characteristics of surrounding cells. Whether or not a cell finally changes states is determined by its probability score and the scores of its neighboring cells as well as a factor of chance. LEAM results then serve as inputs to impact assessment models that determine the implications of land use change on human, natural, and cultural systems. Some of these models include: transportation demand, air quality, water quality and quantity, runoff pollution, habitat fragmentation, and utility and infrastructure demand and cost. == See also == UrbanSim == References == B. Deal, 2001. "Ecological Urban Dynamics: The Convergence of Spatial Modeling and Sustainability," The Journal of Building Research and Information 29(5): 381-393. B. Deal, C. Farello, & B. Hannon, 2004. "A Dynamic Model of the Spread of an Infectious Disease: The Case of Fox Rabies in Illinois," in Landscape Simulation Modeling: A Spatially Explicit, Dynamic Approach R. Costanza and A. Voinov, eds. New York: Springer. B. Deal and D. Fournier, 2000. "Ecological Urban Dynamics and Spatial Modeling," Proceedings of the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, Summer Study on Efficiency and Sustainability, Monterey, CA. B. Deal and V. Pallathucheril, 2009. "A Use-Driven Approach to Large-Scale Urban Modelling and Planning Support," in Planning Support Systems Best Practice and New Methods S. Geertman and J.C.H. Stillwell, eds. Springer Science+Business, pp. 29–51. B. Deal and V.G. Pallathucheril, 2009. "Sustainability and Urban Dynamics: Assessing Future Impacts on Ecosystem Services," Sustainability 1: 346-362. B. Deal and V.G. Pallathucheril, 2007. "Developing and Using Scenarios," in Engaging the Future: Forecasts, Scenarios, Plans, and Projects L.D. Hopkins and M.A. Zapata, eds. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. B. Deal and D. Schunk, 2004. "Spatial Dynamic Modeling and Urban Land Use Transformation: A Simulation Approach to Assessing the Costs of Urban Sprawl," The Journal of Ecological Economics 51(1-2): 79-95. B. Deal and Z. Sun, 2006. "A Spatially Explicit Urban Simulation Model: Landuse Evolution and Impact Assessment Model (LEAM)," in Smart Growth and Climate Change: Regional Development, Infrastructure and Adaptation M. Ruth, ed. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, pp. 181–203. L.D. Hopkins, N. Kaza, & V.G. Pallathucheril, 2005. "A Data Model to Represent Plans and Regulations in Urban Simulation Models," in GIS, Spatial Analysis, and Modeling D. Maguire, M. Batty, and M. Goodchild, eds. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press. Z. Sun, B. Deal, and V.G. Pallathucheril, 2009. "The Land-use Evolution and Impact Assessment Model: A Comprehensive Urban Planning Support System," URISA: Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association 21(1): 57-68. == External links == LEAM homepage	Wikipedia/Land_Use_Evolution_and_Impact_Assessment_Model
In economics, inflation is an increase in the average price of goods and services in terms of money.: 579 This increase is measured using a price index, typically a consumer price index (CPI). When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services; consequently, inflation corresponds to a reduction in the purchasing power of money. The opposite of CPI inflation is deflation, a decrease in the general price level of goods and services. The common measure of inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index.: 22–32 Changes in inflation are widely attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services (also known as demand shocks, including changes in fiscal or monetary policy), changes in available supplies such as during energy crises (also known as supply shocks), or changes in inflation expectations, which may be self-fulfilling. Moderate inflation affects economies in both positive and negative ways. The negative effects would include an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money; uncertainty over future inflation, which may discourage investment and savings; and, if inflation were rapid enough, shortages of goods as consumers begin hoarding out of concern that prices will increase in the future. Positive effects include reducing unemployment due to nominal wage rigidity,: 238–255 allowing the central bank greater freedom in carrying out monetary policy, encouraging loans and investment instead of money hoarding, and avoiding the inefficiencies associated with deflation. Today, most economists favour a low and steady rate of inflation. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the probability of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy while avoiding the costs associated with high inflation. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to central banks that control monetary policy, normally through the setting of interest rates and by carrying out open market operations. == Terminology == The term originates from the Latin inflare (to blow into or inflate). Conceptually, inflation refers to the general trend of prices, not changes in any specific price. For example, if people choose to buy more cucumbers than tomatoes, cucumbers consequently become more expensive and tomatoes less expensive. These changes are not related to inflation; they reflect a shift in tastes. Inflation is related to the value of currency itself. When currency was linked with gold, if new gold deposits were found, the price of gold and the value of currency would fall, and consequently, prices of all other goods would become higher. === Classical economics === By the nineteenth century, economists categorised three separate factors that cause a rise or fall in the price of goods: a change in the value or production costs of the good, a change in the price of money which then was usually a fluctuation in the commodity price of the metallic content in the currency, and currency depreciation resulting from an increased supply of currency relative to the quantity of redeemable metal backing the currency. Following the proliferation of private banknote currency printed during the American Civil War, the term "inflation" started to appear as a direct reference to the currency depreciation that occurred as the quantity of redeemable banknotes outstripped the quantity of metal available for their redemption. At that time, the term inflation referred to the devaluation of the currency, and not to a rise in the price of goods. This relationship between the over-supply of banknotes and a resulting depreciation in their value was noted by earlier classical economists such as David Hume and David Ricardo, who would go on to examine and debate what effect a currency devaluation has on the price of goods. === Related concepts === Other economic concepts related to inflation include: deflation – a fall in the general price level; disinflation – a decrease in the rate of inflation; hyperinflation – an out-of-control inflationary spiral; stagflation – a combination of inflation, slow economic growth and high unemployment; reflation – an attempt to raise the general level of prices to counteract deflationary pressures; asset price inflation – a general rise in the prices of financial assets without a corresponding increase in the prices of goods or services; and agflation – an advanced increase in the price for food and industrial agricultural crops when compared with the general rise in prices. More specific forms of inflation refer to sectors whose prices vary semi-independently from the general trend. "House price inflation" applies to changes in the house price index while "energy inflation" is dominated by the costs of oil and gas. == History == === Overview === Inflation has been a feature of history during the entire period when money has been used as a means of payment. One of the earliest documented inflations occurred in Alexander the Great's empire 330 BC. Historically, when commodity money was used, periods of inflation and deflation would alternate depending on the condition of the economy. However, when large, prolonged infusions of gold or silver into an economy occurred, this could lead to long periods of inflation. The adoption of fiat currency by many countries, from the 18th century onwards, made much larger variations in the supply of money possible. Rapid increases in the money supply have taken place a number of times in countries experiencing political crises, producing hyperinflations – episodes of extreme inflation rates much higher than those observed in earlier periods of commodity money. The hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic of Germany is a notable example. The hyperinflation in Venezuela is the highest in the world, with an annual inflation rate of 833,997% as of October 2018. Historically, inflations of varying magnitudes have occurred, interspersed with corresponding deflationary periods, from the price revolution of the 16th century, which was driven by the flood of gold and particularly silver seized and mined by the Spaniards in Latin America, to the largest paper money inflation of all time in Hungary after World War II. However, since the 1980s, inflation has been held low and stable in countries with independent central banks. This has led to a moderation of the business cycle and a reduction in variation in most macroeconomic indicators – an event known as the Great Moderation. === Ancient Europe === Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire in 330 BC was followed by one of the earliest documented inflation periods in the ancient world. Rapid increases in the quantity of money or in the overall money supply have occurred in many different societies throughout history, changing with different forms of money used. For instance, when silver was used as currency, the government could collect silver coins, melt them down, mix them with other, less valuable metals such as copper or lead and reissue them at the same nominal value, a process known as debasement. At the ascent of Nero as Roman emperor in AD 54, the denarius contained more than 90% silver, but by the 270s hardly any silver was left. By diluting the silver with other metals, the government could issue more coins without increasing the amount of silver used to make them. When the cost of each coin is lowered in this way, the government profits from an increase in seigniorage. This practice would increase the money supply but at the same time the relative value of each coin would be lowered. As the relative value of the coins becomes lower, consumers would need to give more coins in exchange for the same goods and services as before. These goods and services would experience a price increase as the value of each coin is reduced. Again at the end of the third century AD during the reign of Diocletian, the Roman Empire experienced rapid inflation. === Ancient China === Song dynasty China introduced the practice of printing paper money to create fiat currency. During the Mongol Yuan dynasty, the government spent a great deal of money fighting costly wars, and reacted by printing more money, leading to inflation. Fearing the inflation that plagued the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty initially rejected the use of paper money, and reverted to using copper coins. === Medieval Egypt === During the Malian king Mansa Musa's hajj to Mecca in 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. When he passed through Cairo, he spent or gave away so much gold that it depressed its price in Egypt for over a decade, reducing its purchasing power. A contemporary Arab historian remarked about Mansa Musa's visit: Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of gold which they brought into Egypt and spent there [...]. === Medieval age and "price revolution" in Western Europe === There is no reliable evidence of inflation in Europe for the thousand years that followed the fall of the Roman Empire, but from the Middle Ages onwards reliable data do exist. Mostly, the medieval inflation episodes were modest, and there was a tendency that inflationary periods were followed by deflationary periods. From the second half of the 15th century to the first half of the 17th, Western Europe experienced a major inflationary cycle referred to as the "price revolution", with prices on average rising perhaps sixfold over 150 years. This is often attributed to the influx of gold and silver from the New World into Habsburg Spain, with wider availability of silver in previously cash-starved Europe causing widespread inflation. European population rebound from the Black Death began before the arrival of New World metal, and may have begun a process of inflation that New World silver compounded later in the 16th century. === After 1700 === A pattern of intermittent inflation and deflation periods persisted for centuries until the Great Depression in the 1930s, which was characterized by major deflation. Since the Great Depression, however, there has been a general tendency for prices to rise every year. In the 1970s and early 1980s, annual inflation in most industrialized countries reached two digits (ten percent or more). The double-digit inflation era was of short duration, however, inflation by the mid-1980s returned to more modest levels. Amid this, general trends there have been spectacular high-inflation episodes in individual countries in interwar Europe, towards the end of the Nationalist Chinese government in 1948–1949, and later in some Latin American countries, in Israel, and in Zimbabwe. Some of these episodes are considered hyperinflation periods, normally designating inflation rates that surpass 50 percent monthly. == Measures == Given that there are many possible measures of the price level, there are many possible measures of price inflation. Most frequently, the term "inflation" refers to a rise in a broad price index representing the overall price level for goods and services in the economy. The consumer price index (CPI), the personal consumption expenditures price index (PCEPI) and the GDP deflator are some examples of broad price indices. However, "inflation" may also be used to describe a rising price level within a narrower set of assets, goods or services within the economy, such as commodities (including food, fuel, metals), tangible assets (such as real estate), services (such as entertainment and health care), or labor. Although the values of capital assets are often casually said to "inflate," this should not be confused with inflation as a defined term; a more accurate description for an increase in the value of a capital asset is appreciation. The FBI (CCI), the producer price index, and employment cost index (ECI) are examples of narrow price indices used to measure price inflation in particular sectors of the economy. Core inflation is a measure of inflation for a subset of consumer prices that excludes food and energy prices, which rise and fall more than other prices in the short term. The Federal Reserve Board pays particular attention to the core inflation rate to get a better estimate of long-term future inflation trends overall. The inflation rate is most widely calculated by determining the movement or change in a price index, typically the consumer price index. The inflation rate is the percentage change of a price index over time. The Retail Prices Index is also a measure of inflation that is commonly used in the United Kingdom. It is broader than the CPI and contains a larger basket of goods and services. Inflation is politically driven, and policy can directly influence the trend of inflation. The RPI is indicative of the experiences of a wide range of household types, particularly low-income households. To illustrate the method of calculation, in January 2007, the U.S. Consumer Price Index was 202.416, and in January 2008 it was 211.080. The formula for calculating the annual percentage rate inflation in the CPI over the course of the year is: ( 211.080 − 202.416 202.416 ) × 100 % = 4.28 % {\displaystyle \left({\frac {211.080-202.416}{202.416}}\right)\times 100\%=4.28\%} The resulting inflation rate for the CPI in this one-year period is 4.28%, meaning the general level of prices for typical U.S. consumers rose by approximately four percent in 2007. Other widely used price indices for calculating price inflation include the following: Producer price indices (PPIs) which measures average changes in prices received by domestic producers for their output. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, profits, and taxes may cause the amount received by the producer to differ from what the consumer paid. There is also typically a delay between an increase in the PPI and any eventual increase in the CPI. Producer price index measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be "passed on" to consumers, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity. In India and the United States, an earlier version of the PPI was called the Wholesale price index. Commodity price indices, which measure the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the "all in" cost of an employee. Core price indices: because food and oil prices can change quickly due to changes in supply and demand conditions in the food and oil markets, it can be difficult to detect the long run trend in price levels when those prices are included. Therefore, most statistical agencies also report a measure of 'core inflation', which removes the most volatile components (such as food and oil) from a broad price index like the CPI. Because core inflation is less affected by short run supply and demand conditions in specific markets, central banks rely on it to better measure the inflationary effect of current monetary policy. Other common measures of inflation are: GDP deflator is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in gross domestic product (GDP). The US Commerce Department publishes a deflator series for US GDP, defined as its nominal GDP measure divided by its real GDP measure. ∴ GDP Deflator = Nominal GDP Real GDP {\displaystyle {\mbox{GDP Deflator}}={\frac {\mbox{Nominal GDP}}{\mbox{Real GDP}}}} Regional inflation The Bureau of Labor Statistics breaks down CPI-U calculations down to different regions of the US. Historical inflation Before collecting consistent econometric data became standard for governments, and for the purpose of comparing absolute, rather than relative standards of living, various economists have calculated imputed inflation figures. Most inflation data before the early 20th century is imputed based on the known costs of goods, rather than compiled at the time. It is also used to adjust for the differences in real standard of living for the presence of technology. Asset price inflation is an undue increase in the prices of real assets, such as real estate. In some cases, the measures are meant to be more humorous or to reflect a single place. This includes: The Christmas Price Index, which calculates the cost of the items mentioned in a song, "The Twelve Days of Christmas". The Big Mac Index, which compares prices across countries. The Jollof index, which calculates the price of food needed to make a Jollof rice, a popular African dish. The Two Dishes One Soup Index, which calculates the price of food needed to cook one soup and two other dishes for a small family in Hong Kong. The Herengracht index, which calculates the price of housing in a fashionable neighborhood of Amsterdam. The Lipstick index, which claimed that when the economy got worse, small luxury sales, such as lipstick, would go up. === Issues in measuring === Measuring inflation in an economy requires objective means of differentiating changes in nominal prices on a common set of goods and services, and distinguishing them from those price shifts resulting from changes in value such as volume, quality, or performance. For example, if the price of a can of corn changes from $0.90 to $1.00 over the course of a year, with no change in quality, then this price difference represents inflation. This single price change would not, however, represent general inflation in an overall economy. Overall inflation is measured as the price change of a large "basket" of representative goods and services. This is the purpose of a price index, which is the combined price of a "basket" of many goods and services. The combined price is the sum of the weighted prices of items in the "basket". A weighted price is calculated by multiplying the unit price of an item by the number of that item the average consumer purchases. Weighted pricing is necessary to measure the effect of individual unit price changes on the economy's overall inflation. The consumer price index, for example, uses data collected by surveying households to determine what proportion of the typical consumer's overall spending is spent on specific goods and services, and weights the average prices of those items accordingly. Those weighted average prices are combined to calculate the overall price. To better relate price changes over time, indexes typically choose a "base year" price and assign it a value of 100. Index prices in subsequent years are then expressed in relation to the base year price. While comparing inflation measures for various periods one has to take into consideration the base effect as well. Inflation measures are often modified over time, either for the relative weight of goods in the basket, or in the way in which goods and services from the present are compared with goods and services from the past. Basket weights are updated regularly, usually every year, to adapt to changes in consumer behavior. Sudden changes in consumer behavior can still introduce a weighting bias in inflation measurement. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic it has been shown that the basket of goods and services was no longer representative of consumption during the crisis, as numerous goods and services could no longer be consumed due to government containment measures ("lock-downs"). Over time, adjustments are also made to the type of goods and services selected to reflect changes in the sorts of goods and services purchased by 'typical consumers'. New products may be introduced, older products disappear, the quality of existing products may change, and consumer preferences can shift. Different segments of the population may naturally consume different "baskets" of goods and services and may even experience different inflation rates. It is argued that companies have put more innovation into bringing down prices for wealthy families than for poor families. Inflation numbers are often seasonally adjusted to differentiate expected cyclical cost shifts. For example, home heating costs are expected to rise in colder months, and seasonal adjustments are often used when measuring inflation to compensate for cyclical energy or fuel demand spikes. Inflation numbers may be averaged or otherwise subjected to statistical techniques to remove statistical noise and volatility of individual prices. When looking at inflation, economic institutions may focus only on certain kinds of prices, or special indices, such as the core inflation index which is used by central banks to formulate monetary policy. Most inflation indices are calculated from weighted averages of selected price changes. This necessarily introduces distortion, and can lead to legitimate disputes about what the true inflation rate is. This problem can be overcome by including all available price changes in the calculation, and then choosing the median value. In some other cases, governments may intentionally report false inflation rates; for instance, during the presidency of Cristina Kirchner (2007–2015) the government of Argentina was criticised for manipulating economic data, such as inflation and GDP figures, for political gain and to reduce payments on its inflation-indexed debt. === Official vs. true vs. perceived inflation === The true inflation is one percentage point lower than the official one, according to research. Therefore, the 2% inflation target is needed to prevent the true inflation being close to zero or even deflation. The reasons are the following: Substitution effect: People buy fewer products with the highest price rises and more of those whose prices have risen less. Therefore, the price of their non-fixed shopping basket rises less than that of a fixed shopping basket. Unobserved quality improvements: Even though statisticians try to take quality improvements into account, they are not able to do it fully. This is why people rather buy current products at the higher prices than old products at their old prices. New goods: The current shopping basket is much better, because it has goods that you previously could not even dream of. Nevertheless, people overestimate the inflation even vs. the measured inflation. This is because they focus more on commonly-bought items than on durable goods, and more on price increases than on price decreases. On the other hand, different people have different shopping baskets and hence face different inflation rates. Cumulative inflation due to the compound effect can impact the perception of inflation. === Inflation expectations === Inflation expectations or expected inflation is the rate of inflation that is anticipated for some time in the foreseeable future. There are two major approaches to modeling the formation of inflation expectations. Adaptive expectations models them as a weighted average of what was expected one period earlier and the actual rate of inflation that most recently occurred. Rational expectations models them as unbiased, in the sense that the expected inflation rate is not systematically above or systematically below the inflation rate that actually occurs. A long-standing survey of inflation expectations is the University of Michigan survey. Inflation expectations affect the economy in several ways. They are more or less built into nominal interest rates, so that a rise (or fall) in the expected inflation rate will typically result in a rise (or fall) in nominal interest rates, giving a smaller effect if any on real interest rates. In addition, higher expected inflation tends to be built into the rate of wage increases, giving a smaller effect if any on the changes in real wages. Moreover, the response of inflationary expectations to monetary policy can influence the division of the effects of policy between inflation and unemployment (see monetary policy credibility). == Causes == === Historical approaches === Theories of the origin and causes of inflation have existed since at least the 16th century. Two competing theories, the quantity theory of money and the real bills doctrine, appeared in various guises during century-long debates on recommended central bank behaviour. In the 20th century, Keynesian, monetarist and new classical (also known as rational expectations) views on inflation dominated post-World War II macroeconomics discussions, which were often heated intellectual debates, until some kind of synthesis of the various theories was reached by the end of the century. ==== Before 1936 ==== The price revolution from ca. 1550–1700 caused several thinkers to present what is now considered to be early formulations of the quantity theory of money (QTM). Other contemporary authors attributed rising price levels to the debasement of national coinages. Later research has shown that also growing output of Central European silver mines and an increase in the velocity of money because of innovations in the payment technology, in particular the increased use of bills of exchange, contributed to the price revolution. An alternative theory, the real bills doctrine (RBD), originated in the 17th and 18th century, receiving its first authoritative exposition in Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations. It asserts that banks should issue their money in exchange for short-term real bills of adequate value. As long as banks only issue a dollar in exchange for assets worth at least a dollar, the issuing bank's assets will naturally move in step with its issuance of money, and the money will hold its value. Should the bank fail to get or maintain assets of adequate value, then the bank's money will lose value, just as any financial security will lose value if its asset backing diminishes. The real bills doctrine (also known as the backing theory) thus asserts that inflation results when money outruns its issuer's assets. The quantity theory of money, in contrast, claims that inflation results when money outruns the economy's production of goods. During the 19th century, three different schools debated these questions: The British Currency School upheld a quantity theory view, believing that the Bank of England's issues of bank notes should vary one-for-one with the bank's gold reserves. In contrast to this, the British Banking School followed the real bills doctrine, recommending that the bank's operations should be governed by the needs of trade: Banks should be able to issue currency against bills of trading, i.e. "real bills" that they buy from merchants. A third group, the Free Banking School, held that competitive private banks would not overissue, even though a monopolist central bank could be believed to do it. The debate between currency, or quantity theory, and banking schools during the 19th century prefigures current questions about the credibility of money in the present. In the 19th century, the banking schools had greater influence in policy in the United States and Great Britain, while the currency schools had more influence "on the continent", that is in non-British countries, particularly in the Latin Monetary Union and the Scandinavian Monetary Union. During the Bullionist Controversy during the Napoleonic Wars, David Ricardo argued that the Bank of England had engaged in over-issue of bank notes, leading to commodity price increases. In the late 19th century, supporters of the quantity theory of money led by Irving Fisher debated with supporters of bimetallism. Later, Knut Wicksell sought to explain price movements as the result of real shocks rather than movements in money supply, resounding statements from the real bills doctrine. In 2019, monetary historians Thomas M. Humphrey and Richard Timberlake published "Gold, the Real Bills Doctrine, and the Fed: Sources of Monetary Disorder 1922–1938". ==== Keynes and the early Keynesians ==== John Maynard Keynes in his 1936 main work The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money emphasized that wages and prices were sticky in the short run, but gradually responded to aggregate demand shocks. These could arise from many different sources, e.g. autonomous movements in investment or fluctuations in private wealth or interest rates. Economic policy could also affect demand, monetary policy by affecting interest rates and fiscal policy either directly through the level of government final consumption expenditure or indirectly by changing disposable income via tax changes. The various sources of variations in aggregate demand will cause cycles in both output and price levels. Initially, a demand change will primarily affect output because of the price stickiness, but eventually prices and wages will adjust to reflect the change in demand. Consequently, movements in real output and prices will be positively, but not strongly, correlated. Keynes' propositions formed the basis of Keynesian economics which came to dominate macroeconomic research and economic policy in the first decades after World War II.: 526 Other Keynesian economists developed and reformed several of Keynes' ideas. Importantly, Alban William Phillips in 1958 published indirect evidence of a negative relation between inflation and unemployment, confirming the Keynesian emphasis on a positive correlation between increases in real output (normally accompanied by a fall in unemployment) and rising prices, i.e. inflation. Phillips' findings were confirmed by other empirical analyses and became known as a Phillips curve. It quickly became central to macroeconomic thinking, apparently offering a stable trade-off between price stability and employment. The curve was interpreted to imply that a country could achieve low unemployment if it were willing to tolerate a higher inflation rate or vice versa.: 173 The Phillips curve model described the U.S. experience well in the 1960s, but failed to describe the stagflation experienced in the 1970s. ==== Monetarism ==== During the 1960s the Keynesian view of inflation and macroeconomic policy altogether were challenged by monetarist theories, led by Milton Friedman.: 528–529 Friedman famously stated that "Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon." He revived the quantity theory of money by Irving Fisher and others, making it into a central tenet of monetarist thinking, arguing that the most significant factor influencing inflation or deflation is how fast the money supply grows or shrinks. The quantity theory of money, simply stated, says that any change in the amount of money in a system will change the price level. This theory begins with the equation of exchange: M V = P Q , {\displaystyle MV=PQ,} where M {\displaystyle M} is the nominal quantity of money; V {\displaystyle V} is the velocity of money in final expenditures; P {\displaystyle P} is the general price level; Q {\displaystyle Q} is an index of the real value of final expenditures. In this formula, the general price level is related to the level of real economic activity (Q), the quantity of money (M) and the velocity of money (V). The formula itself is simply an uncontroversial accounting identity because the velocity of money (V) is defined residually from the equation to be the ratio of final nominal expenditure ( P Q {\displaystyle PQ} ) to the quantity of money (M).: 81–107 Monetarists assumed additionally that the velocity of money is unaffected by monetary policy (at least in the long run), that the real value of output is also exogenous in the long run, its long-run value being determined independently by the productive capacity of the economy, and that money supply is exogenous and can be controlled by the monetary authorities. Under these assumptions, the primary driver of the change in the general price level is changes in the quantity of money.: 81–107 Consequently, monetarists contended that monetary policy, not fiscal policy, was the most potent instrument to influence aggregate demand, real output and eventually inflation. This was contrary to Keynesian thinking which in principle recognized a role for monetary policy, but in practice believed that the effect from interest rate changes to the real economy was slight, making monetary policy an ineffective instrument, preferring fiscal policy.: 528 Conversely, monetarists considered fiscal policy, or government spending and taxation, as ineffective in controlling inflation. Friedman also took issue with the traditional Keynesian view concerning the Phillips curve. He, together with Edmund Phelps, contended that the trade-off between inflation and unemployment implied by the Phillips curve was only temporary, but not permanent. If politicians tried to exploit it, it would eventually disappear because higher inflation would over time be built into the economic expectations of households and firms.: 528–529 This line of thinking led to the concept of potential output (sometimes called the "natural gross domestic product"), a level of GDP where the economy is stable in the sense that inflation will neither decrease nor increase. This level may itself change over time when institutional or natural constraints change. It corresponds to the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment, NAIRU, or the "natural" rate of unemployment (sometimes called the "structural" level of unemployment). If GDP exceeds its potential (and unemployment consequently is below the NAIRU), the theory says that inflation will accelerate as suppliers increase their prices. If GDP falls below its potential level (and unemployment is above the NAIRU), inflation will decelerate as suppliers attempt to fill excess capacity, cutting prices and undermining inflation. ==== Rational expectations theory ==== In the early 1970s, rational expectations theory led by economists like Robert Lucas, Thomas Sargent and Robert Barro transformed macroeconomic thinking radically. They held that economic actors look rationally into the future when trying to maximize their well-being, and do not respond solely to immediate opportunity costs and pressures.: 529–530 In this view, future expectations and strategies are important for inflation as well. One implication was that agents would anticipate the likely behaviour of central banks and base their own actions on these expectations. A central bank having a reputation of being "soft" on inflation will generate high inflation expectations, which again will be self-fulfilling when all agents build expectations of future high inflation into their nominal contracts like wage agreements. On the other hand, if the central bank has a reputation of being "tough" on inflation, then such a policy announcement will be believed and inflationary expectations will come down rapidly, thus allowing inflation itself to come down rapidly with minimal economic disruption. The implication is that credibility becomes very important for central banks in fighting inflation.: 467–469 ==== New Keynesians ==== Events during the 1970s proved Milton Friedman and other critics of the traditional Phillips curve right: The relation between the inflation rate and the unemployment rate broke down. Eventually, a consensus was established that the break-down was due to agents changing their inflation expectations, confirming Friedman's theory. As a consequence, the notion of a natural rate of unemployment (alternatively called the structural rate of unemployment) was accepted by most economists, meaning that there is a specific level of unemployment that is compatible with stable inflation. Stabilization policy must therefore try to steer economic activity so that the actual unemployment rate converges towards that level.: 176–189 The trade-off between the unemployment rate and inflation implied by Phillips thus holds in the short term, but not in the long term. Also the oil crises of the 1970s causing at the same time rising unemployment and rising inflation (i.e. stagflation) led to a broad recognition by economists that supply shocks could independently affect inflation.: 529 During the 1980s a group of researchers named new Keynesians emerged who accepted many originally non-Keynesian concepts like the importance of monetary policy, the existence of a natural level of unemployment and the incorporation of rational expectations formation as a reasonable benchmark. At the same time they believed, like Keynes did, that various market imperfections in different markets like labour markets and financial markets were also important to study to understand both inflation generation and business cycles.: 533–534 During the 1980s and 1990s, there were often heated intellectual debates between new Keynesians and new classicals, but by the 2000s, a synthesis gradually emerged. The result has been called the new Keynesian model,: 535 the "new neoclassical synthesis" or simply the "new consensus" model. === View post-2000 to present === A common view beginning around the year 2000 and holding through to the present time on inflation and its causes can be illustrated by a modern Phillips curve including a role for supply shocks and inflation expectations beside the original role of aggregate demand (determining employment and unemployment fluctuations) in influencing the inflation rate. Consequently, demand shocks, supply shocks and inflation expectations are all potentially important determinants of inflation, confirming the basis of the older triangle model by Robert J. Gordon: Demand shocks may both decrease and increase inflation. So-called demand-pull inflation may be caused by increases in aggregate demand due to increased private and government spending, etc. Conversely, negative demand shocks may be caused by contractionary economic policy. Supply shocks may also lead to both higher or lower inflation, depending on the character of the shock. Cost-push inflation is caused by a drop in aggregate supply (potential output). This may be due to natural disasters, war or increased prices of inputs. For example, a sudden decrease in the supply of oil, leading to increased oil prices, can cause cost-push inflation. Producers for whom oil is a part of their costs could then pass this on to consumers in the form of increased prices. Inflation expectations play a major role in forming actual inflation. High inflation can prompt employees to demand rapid wage increases to keep up with consumer prices. In this way, rising wages in turn can help fuel inflation as firms pass these higher labor costs on to their customers as higher prices, leading to a feedback loop. In the case of collective bargaining, wage growth may be set as a function of inflationary expectations, which will be higher when inflation is high. This can cause a wage-price spiral. In a sense, inflation begets further inflationary expectations, which beget further (built-in) inflation. The important role of rational expectations is recognized by the emphasis on credibility on the part of central banks and other policy-makers. The monetarist assertion that monetary policy alone could successfully control inflation formed part of the new consensus which recognized that both monetary and fiscal policy are important tools for influencing aggregate demand.: 528 Indeed, monetary policy is under normal circumstances considered to be the preferable instrument to contain inflation. At the same time, most central banks have abandoned trying to target money growth as originally advocated by the monetarists. Instead, most central banks in developed countries focus on adjusting interest rates to achieve an explicit inflation target.: 505–509 The reason for central bank reluctance in following money growth targets is that the money stock measures that central banks can control tightly, e.g. the monetary base, are not very closely linked to aggregate demand, whereas conversely money supply measures like M2, which are in some cases more closely correlated with aggregate demand, are difficult to control for the central bank. Also, in many countries the relationship between aggregate demand and all money stock measures have broken down in recent decades, weakening further the case for monetary policy rules focusing on the money supply.: 608 However, while more disputed in the 1970s, surveys of members of the American Economic Association (AEA) since the 1990s have shown that most professional American economists generally agree with the statement "Inflation is caused primarily by too much growth in the money supply", while the same surveys have shown a lack of consensus by AEA members since the 1990s that "In the short run, a reduction in unemployment causes the rate of inflation to increase" has developed despite more agreement with the statement in the 1970s. Housing shortages and climate change have both been cited as significant drivers of inflation in the 21st century. ==== 2021–2022 inflation spike ==== In 2021–2022, most countries experienced a considerable increase in inflation, peaking in 2022 and declining in 2023. The causes are believed to be a mixture of demand and supply shocks, whereas inflation expectations generally seem to remain anchored (as per May 2023). Possible causes on the demand side include expansionary fiscal and monetary policy in the wake of the global COVID-19 pandemic, whereas supply shocks include supply chain problems also caused by the pandemic and exacerbated by energy price rises following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The term sellers' inflation was coined during this period to describe the effect of corporate profits as a possible cause of inflation: Price inelasticity can contribute to inflation when firms consolidate, tending to support monopoly or monopsony conditions anywhere along the supply chain for goods or services. When this occurs, firms can provide greater shareholder value by taking a larger proportion of profits than by investing in providing greater volumes of their outputs. Shortly after initial energy price shocks caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine had subsided, oil companies found that supply chain constrictions, already exacerbated by the ongoing global pandemic, supported price inelasticity, i.e., they began lowering prices to match the price of oil when it fell much more slowly than they had increased their prices when costs rose. The quantity theory of money has long been popular with libertarian-conservative critics of the Federal Reserve. During the COVID pandemic and its immediate aftermath, the M2 money supply increased at the fastest rate in decades, leading some to link the growth to the 2021-2023 inflation surge. Fed chairman Jerome Powell said in December 2021 that the once-strong link between the money supply and inflation "ended about 40 years ago," due to financial innovations and deregulation. Previous Fed chairs Ben Bernanke and Alan Greenspan, had previously concurred with this position. The broadest measure of money supply, M3, increased about 45% from 2010 through 2015, far faster than GDP growth, yet the inflation rate declined during that period — the opposite of what monetarism would have predicted. A lower velocity of money than was historically the case was also cited for a diminished effect of growth in the money supply on inflation. === Heterodox views === Additionally, there are theories about inflation accepted by economists outside of the mainstream. The Austrian School stresses that inflation is not uniform over all assets, goods, and services. Inflation depends on differences in markets and on where newly created money and credit enter the economy. Ludwig von Mises said that inflation should refer to an increase in the quantity of money, that is not offset by a corresponding increase in the need for money, and that price inflation will necessarily follow, always leaving a poorer nation. == Effects of inflation == === General effect === Inflation is the decrease in the purchasing power of a currency. That is, when the general level of prices rise, each monetary unit can buy fewer goods and services in aggregate. The effect of inflation differs on different sectors of the economy, with some sectors being adversely affected while others benefitting. For example, with inflation, those segments in society which own physical assets, such as property, stock etc., benefit from the price/value of their holdings going up, when those who seek to acquire them will need to pay more for them. Their ability to do so will depend on the degree to which their income is fixed. For example, increases in payments to workers and pensioners often lag behind inflation, and for some people income is fixed. Also, individuals or institutions with cash assets will experience a decline in the purchasing power of the cash. Increases in the price level (inflation) erode the real value of money (the functional currency) and other items with an underlying monetary nature. Debtors who have debts with a fixed nominal rate of interest will see a reduction in the "real" interest rate as the inflation rate rises. The real interest on a loan is the nominal rate minus the inflation rate. The formula R = N-I approximates the correct answer as long as both the nominal interest rate and the inflation rate are small. The correct equation is r = n/i where r, n and i are expressed as ratios (e.g. 1.2 for +20%, 0.8 for −20%). As an example, when the inflation rate is 3%, a loan with a nominal interest rate of 5% would have a real interest rate of approximately 2% (in fact, it's 1.94%). Any unexpected increase in the inflation rate would decrease the real interest rate. Banks and other lenders adjust for this inflation risk either by including an inflation risk premium to fixed interest rate loans or lending at an adjustable rate. === Negative === High or unpredictable inflation rates are regarded as harmful to an overall economy. They add inefficiencies in the market and make it difficult for companies to budget or plan long-term. Inflation can act as a drag on productivity as companies are forced to shift resources away from products and services to focus on profit and losses from currency inflation. Uncertainty about the future purchasing power of money discourages investment and saving. Inflation hurts asset prices such as stock performance in the short-run, as it erodes non-energy corporates' profit margins and leads to central banks' policy tightening measures. Inflation can also impose hidden tax increases. For instance, inflated earnings push taxpayers into higher income tax rates unless the tax brackets are indexed to inflation. With high inflation, purchasing power is redistributed from those on fixed nominal incomes, such as some pensioners whose pensions are not indexed to the price level, towards those with variable incomes whose earnings may better keep pace with the inflation. This redistribution of purchasing power will also occur between international trading partners. Where fixed exchange rates are imposed, higher inflation in one economy than another will cause the first economy's exports to become more expensive and affect the balance of trade. There can also be negative effects to trade from an increased instability in currency exchange prices caused by unpredictable inflation. Hoarding People buy durable and/or non-perishable commodities and other goods as stores of wealth, to avoid the losses expected from the declining purchasing power of money, creating shortages of the hoarded goods. Social unrest and revolts Inflation can lead to massive demonstrations and revolutions. For example, inflation and in particular food inflation is considered one of the main reasons that caused the 2010–2011 Tunisian revolution and the 2011 Egyptian revolution, according to many observers including Robert Zoellick, president of the World Bank. Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali was ousted, Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak was also ousted after only 18 days of demonstrations, and protests soon spread in many countries of North Africa and Middle East. Hyperinflation If inflation becomes too high, it can cause people to severely curtail their use of the currency, leading to an acceleration in the inflation rate. High and accelerating inflation grossly interferes with the normal workings of the economy, hurting its ability to supply goods. Hyperinflation can lead people to abandon the use of the country's currency in favour of external currencies (dollarization), as has been reported to have occurred in North Korea. Corruption Due to a high rise of inflation, it has been seen to affect unemployment levels around the world. From 2005 to 2019, it was found that the wellbeing costs of unemployment was 5 times higher than inflation. The trust between the central banks and individuals has become more limited. According to the Global Labor Organization (GLO), a global sample of 1.5 million observations during the 1999 and 2012 found a negative relationship of ECB unemployment between countries of Spain, Ireland, Greece, and Portugal a financial crisis. Lack of trust is shown between the government and political institutions which potentially, this can create bias towards both sides as unemployment rate will still increase. If the rate goes on, predictions of the economic activity may decrease, and investments from around the world will soon slowdown creating an "economy crash" that can affect millions of peoples' living. Allocative efficiency A change in the supply or demand for a good will normally cause its relative price to change, signaling the buyers and sellers that they should re-allocate resources in response to the new market conditions. But when prices are constantly changing due to inflation, price changes due to genuine relative price signals are difficult to distinguish from price changes due to general inflation, so agents are slow to respond to them. The result is a loss of allocative efficiency. Shoe leather cost High inflation increases the opportunity cost of holding cash balances and can induce people to hold a greater portion of their assets in interest paying accounts. However, since cash is still needed to carry out transactions this means that more "trips to the bank" are necessary to make withdrawals, proverbially wearing out the "shoe leather" with each trip. Menu cost With high inflation, firms must change their prices often to keep up with economy-wide changes. But often changing prices is itself a costly activity whether explicitly, as with the need to print new menus, or implicitly, as with the extra time and effort needed to change prices constantly. Tax Inflation serves as a hidden tax on currency holdings. === Positive === Labour-market adjustments Nominal wages are slow to adjust downward. This can lead to prolonged disequilibrium and high unemployment in the labor market. Since inflation allows real wages to fall even if nominal wages are kept constant, moderate inflation enables labor markets to reach equilibrium faster. Room to maneuver The primary tools for controlling the money supply are the ability to set the discount rate, the rate at which banks can borrow from the central bank, and open market operations, which are the central bank's interventions into the bonds market with the aim of affecting the nominal interest rate. If an economy finds itself in a recession with already low, or even zero, nominal interest rates, then the bank cannot cut these rates further (since negative nominal interest rates are impossible) to stimulate the economy – this situation is known as a liquidity trap. Mundell–Tobin effect According to the Mundell–Tobin effect, an increase in inflation leads to an increase in capital investment, which leads to an increase in growth. The Nobel laureate Robert Mundell noted that moderate inflation would induce savers to substitute lending for some money holding as a means to finance future spending. That substitution would cause market clearing real interest rates to fall. The lower real rate of interest would induce more borrowing to finance investment. In a similar vein, Nobel laureate James Tobin noted that such inflation would cause businesses to substitute investment in physical capital (plant, equipment, and inventories) for money balances in their asset portfolios. That substitution would mean choosing the making of investments with lower rates of real return. (The rates of return are lower because the investments with higher rates of return were already being made before.) The two related effects are known as the Mundell–Tobin effect. Unless the economy is already overinvesting according to models of economic growth theory, that extra investment resulting from the effect would be seen as positive. Instability with deflation Economist S.C. Tsiang noted that once substantial deflation is expected, two important effects will appear; both a result of money holding substituting for lending as a vehicle for saving. The first was that continually falling prices and the resulting incentive to hoard money will cause instability resulting from the likely increasing fear, while money hoards grow in value, that the value of those hoards are at risk, as people realize that a movement to trade those money hoards for real goods and assets will quickly drive those prices up. Any movement to spend those hoards "once started would become a tremendous avalanche, which could rampage for a long time before it would spend itself." Thus, a regime of long-term deflation is likely to be interrupted by periodic spikes of rapid inflation and consequent real economic disruptions. The second effect noted by Tsiang is that when savers have substituted money holding for lending on financial markets, the role of those markets in channeling savings into investment is undermined. With nominal interest rates driven to zero, or near zero, from the competition with a high return money asset, there would be no price mechanism in whatever is left of those markets. With financial markets effectively euthanized, the remaining goods and physical asset prices would move in perverse directions. For example, an increased desire to save could not push interest rates further down (and thereby stimulate investment) but would instead cause additional money hoarding, driving consumer prices further down and making investment in consumer goods production thereby less attractive. Moderate inflation, once its expectation is incorporated into nominal interest rates, would give those interest rates room to go both up and down in response to shifting investment opportunities, or savers' preferences, and thus allow financial markets to function in a more normal fashion. === Cost-of-living allowance === The real purchasing power of fixed payments is eroded by inflation unless they are inflation-adjusted to keep their real values constant. In many countries, employment contracts, pension benefits, and government entitlements (such as social security) are tied to a cost-of-living index, typically to the consumer price index. A cost-of-living adjustment (COLA) adjusts salaries based on changes in a cost-of-living index. It does not control inflation, but rather seeks to mitigate the consequences of inflation for those on fixed incomes. Salaries are typically adjusted annually in low inflation economies. During hyperinflation they are adjusted more often. They may also be tied to a cost-of-living index that varies by geographic location if the employee moves. Annual escalation clauses in employment contracts can specify retroactive or future percentage increases in worker pay which are not tied to any index. These negotiated increases in pay are colloquially referred to as cost-of-living adjustments ("COLAs") or cost-of-living increases because of their similarity to increases tied to externally determined indexes. == Controlling Inflation == Monetary policy is the policy enacted by the monetary authorities (most frequently the central bank of a nation) to accomplish their objectives. Among these, keeping inflation at a low and stable level is often a prominent objective, either directly via inflation targeting or indirectly, e.g. via a fixed exchange rate against a low-inflation currency area. === Historical approaches to inflation control === Historically, central banks and governments have followed various policies to achieve low inflation, employing various nominal anchors. Before World War I, the gold standard was prevalent, but was eventually found to be detrimental to economic stability and employment, not least during the Great Depression in the 1930s. For the first decades after World War II, the Bretton Woods system initiated a fixed exchange rate system for most developed countries, tying their currencies to the US dollar, which again was directly convertible to gold. The system disintegrated in the 1970s, however, after which the major currencies started floating against each other. During the 1970s many central banks turned to a money supply target recommended by Milton Friedman and other monetarists, aiming for a stable growth rate of money to control inflation. However, it was found to be impractical because of the unstable relationship between monetary aggregates and other macroeconomic variables, and was eventually abandoned by all major economies. In 1990, New Zealand as the first country ever adopted an official inflation target as the basis of its monetary policy, continually adjusting interest rates to steer the country's inflation rate towards its official target. The strategy was generally considered to work well, and central banks in most developed countries have over the years adapted a similar strategy. As of 2023, the central banks of all G7 member countries can be said to follow an inflation target, including the European Central Bank and the Federal Reserve, who have adopted the main elements of inflation targeting without officially calling themselves inflation targeters. In emerging countries fixed exchange rate regimes are still the most common monetary policy. === Inflation targeting === From its first inception in New Zealand in 1990, direct inflation targeting as a monetary policy strategy has spread to become prevalent among developed countries. The basic idea is that the central bank perpetually adjusts interest rates to steer the country's inflation rate towards its official target. Via the monetary transmission mechanism interest rate changes affect aggregate demand in various ways, causing output and employment to respond. Changes in employment and unemployment rates affect wage setting, leading to larger or smaller wage increases, depending on the direction of the interest rate adjustment. A changed rate of wage increases will transmit into changes in price setting – i.e. a change in the inflation rate. The relation between (un)employment and inflation is known as the Phillips curve. In most OECD countries, the inflation target is usually about 2% to 3% (in developing countries like Armenia, the inflation target is higher, at around 4%). Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy. === Fixed exchange rates === Under a fixed exchange rate currency regime, a country's currency is tied in value to another single currency or to a basket of other currencies. A fixed exchange rate is usually used to stabilize the value of a currency, vis-a-vis the currency it is pegged to. It can also be used as a means to control inflation if the currency area tied to itself maintains low and stable inflation. However, as the value of the reference currency rises and falls, so does the currency pegged to it. This essentially means that the inflation rate in the fixed exchange rate country is determined by the inflation rate of the country the currency is pegged to. In addition, a fixed exchange rate prevents a government from using domestic monetary policy to achieve macroeconomic stability. As of 2023, Denmark is the only OECD country which maintains a fixed exchange rate (against the euro), but it is frequently used as a monetary policy strategy in developing countries. === Gold standard === The gold standard is a monetary system in which a region's common medium of exchange is paper notes (or other monetary token) that are normally freely convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold. The standard specifies how the gold backing would be implemented, including the amount of specie per currency unit. The currency itself has no innate value but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed for the equivalent value of the commodity (specie). A U.S. silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver. Under a gold standard, the long term rate of inflation (or deflation) would be determined by the growth rate of the supply of gold relative to total output. Critics argue that this will cause arbitrary fluctuations in the inflation rate, and that monetary policy would essentially be determined by an intersection of however much new gold was produced by mining and changing demand for gold for practical uses. The gold standard was historically found to make it more difficult to stabilize employment levels and avoid recessions and was eventually abandoned everywhere. === Demurrage currency === Freiwirtschaft economists theorize that demurrage currency could eliminate both inflation and deflation. There tends to be some interest cost that is built into the goods and services that consumers tend to purchase,: 4 so if demurrage currency eliminates interest rates, then prices are less likely to increase. Demurrage would also naturally cause the money supply to decrease, thus causing deflation. If a central bank issues and monitors demurrage currency as Gesell originally proposed, then it could replace all the money that disappears due to demurrage by printing money at a similar rate. The money printing could create just enough inflation to cancel out the natural deflation of demurrage, thus achieving an inflation target of 0%. === Wage and price controls === Another method attempted in the past have been wage and price controls ("incomes policies"). Temporary price controls may be used as a complement to other policies to fight inflation; price controls may make disinflation faster, while reducing the need for unemployment to reduce inflation. If price controls are used during a recession, the kinds of distortions that price controls cause may be lessened. However, economists generally advise against the imposition of price controls. Wage and price controls, in combination with rationing, have been used successfully in wartime environments. However, their use in other contexts is far more mixed. Notable failures of their use include the 1972 imposition of wage and price controls by Richard Nixon. More successful examples include the Prices and Incomes Accord in Australia and the Wassenaar Agreement in the Netherlands. In general, wage and price controls are regarded as a temporary and exceptional measures, only effective when coupled with policies designed to reduce the underlying causes of inflation during the wage and price control regime, for example, winning the war being fought. == See also == == Notes == == References == Abel, Andrew B.; Bernanke, Ben S.; Croushore, Dean (2005). Macroeconomics (5th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-32119963-8. Measurement of inflation is discussed in Ch. 2, pp. 45–50; Money growth & Inflation in Ch. 7, pp. 266–269; Keynesian business cycles and inflation in Ch. 9, pp. 308–348. Barro, Robert J. (1997). Macroeconomics. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 895. ISBN 0-262-02436-5. Blanchard, Olivier (2021). Macroeconomics (Eighth, global ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-134-89789-9. Burda, Michael C.; Wyplosz, Charles (1997). Macroeconomics: a European text. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-877468-0. Hall, Robert E.; Taylor, John B. (1993). Macroeconomics. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 637. ISBN 0-393-96307-1. Mankiw, N. Gregory (2002). Macroeconomics (5th ed.). Worth. ISBN 978-0-71675237-0. Measurement of inflation is discussed in Ch. 2, pp. 22–32; Money growth & Inflation in Ch. 4, pp. 81–107; Keynesian business cycles and inflation in Ch. 9, pp. 238–255. Romer, David (2019). Advanced macroeconomics (Fifth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1-260-18521-8. == Further reading == Auernheimer, Leonardo, "The Honest Government's Guide to the Revenue From the Creation of Money", Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 82, No. 3, May/June 1974, pp. 598–606. Baumol, William J. and Alan S. Blinder, Macroeconomics: Principles and Policy, Tenth edition. Thomson South-Western, 2006. ISBN 0-324-22114-2. Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, "Understanding Inflation and the Implications for Monetary Policy: A Phillips Curve Retrospective" Archived August 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, Conference Series 53, June 9–11, 2008, Chatham, Massachusetts. (Also cf. Phillips curve article). Friedman, Milton, Nobel lecture: Inflation and unemployment 1977. Mishkin, Frederic S., The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets, New York, HarperCollins, 1995. World Bank, 2018. Inflation in Emerging and Developing Economies: Evolution, Drivers and Policies. Edited by Jongrim Ha, M. Ayhan Kose, and Franziska Ohnsorge. == External links == World Bank annual inflation rates for all countries Inflation Calculator General purpose compounded inflation calculator Consumer Price Indexes OECD United States (Bureau of Labor Statistics) World Inflation (1290–2006) (Swedish Riksbank) US-specific Cost of Living Calculator (1913–present) Archived September 5, 2019, at the Wayback Machine (AIER) Inflation Calculator (1913–present) (US BLS) Inflation (historical documents) (FRASER)	Wikipedia/Inflation_rate
The Rocco A. Petrone Launch Control Center (commonly known as just the Launch Control Center or LCC) is a four-story building at NASA's Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, used to manage launches of launch vehicles from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39. Attached to the southeast corner of the Vehicle Assembly Building, the LCC contains offices; telemetry, tracking, and instrumentation equipment; and firing rooms. LCC has conducted launches since the unmanned Apollo 4 (Apollo-Saturn 501) launch on November 9, 1967. LCC's first launch with a human crew was Apollo 8 on December 21, 1968. NASA's Space Shuttle program also used LCC. NASA has renovated the center for Space Launch System (SLS) missions, which began in 2022 with Artemis 1. In February 2022, the center was renamed after former director of launch operations Rocco A. Petrone. == Firing rooms == Launch operations are supervised and controlled from several control rooms known as "firing rooms". The controllers are in control of pre-launch checks, the booster and spacecraft. Once the rocket has cleared the launch tower (usually within the first 10–15 seconds), is when control is switched over to the mission's mission control center (the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas for NASA launches or SpaceX Mission Control Center in Hawthorne, California for SpaceX launches.) Extensive renovation of Firing Room 4 was finished in 2006. Firing Room 4 was leased by SpaceX and serves as their launch control center for Launch Complex 39A until August 2023 when the company moved into its own facility just before the launch of the Crew-7 mission. == Key personnel == === Launch Director (LD) === The Launch Director is the head of the launch team, and is responsible for making the final "go" or "no go" decision for launch after polling the relevant team members. There have been eight different Space Shuttle launch directors between 1981 and 2011. === Flow Director (FD) === The Flow Director is responsible for the preparation of the spacecraft for launch, and remains in the LCC in an advisory capacity. === NASA Test Director (NTD) === The NASA Test Director is responsible for all pre-launch testing, whether involving the flight crew, the orbiter, the external tank/solid rocket booster, or ground support equipment. The NTD is also responsible for the safety of all personnel on the pad after fuelling has occurred. Reports to the Launch Director. === Orbiter Test Conductor (OTC) === The Orbiter Test Conductor is in charge of all pre-flight checkout and testing of the orbiter, and manages the engineers in the firing room who monitor the orbiter's systems. OTC is an employee of a contractor rather than of NASA. === Tank/Booster Test Conductor (TBC) === === Payload Test Conductor (PTC) === The Payload Test Conductor is responsible for the pre-flight test and checkout of payloads carried by the orbiter and manages the engineering and test teams responsible for monitoring and controlling payload ground operations. PTC is a contractor member of the Space Shuttle Team. === Launch Processing System Coordinator (LPS) === The LPS Coordinator monitors and oversees the LPS System; specifically, the desired launch rate, Space Shuttle stacking (assembly), and all safety requirements. This is made possible by the Launch Processing System, or LPS — a highly automated, computer-controlled system that oversees the entire checkout and launch process. === Support Test Manager (STM) === === Safety Console Coordinator (SAFETY) === === Shuttle Project Engineer (SPE) === === Landing and Recovery Director (LRD) === === No Landing and Recovery Director (NLRD) === === Superintendent of Range Operations (SRO) === The Superintendent of Range Operations ensures that all tracking and communications systems are ready to support the launch operation as well as ensuring that downrange airspace and splashdown areas remain clear for launch, and monitors weather near the launch site. === Ground Launch Sequencer Engineer (CGLS) === The Ground Launch Sequencer Engineer is responsible for monitoring the operation of the automated Ground Launch Sequencer system, which controls the countdown from T-9 minutes until launch. After this point through to T-31 seconds, they are in charge of implementing a manual hold if necessary. After T-31 seconds only an automatic cutoff is available. The automatic cutoff recycles the countdown clock to T-20 minutes. Usually this will extend the launch time beyond the launch window causing a scrub and a 24-hour turnaround. == Gallery == == See also == Ground station Launch status check Mission control center Spacecraft naming == References == === Sources === Launch Control Center Archived 2016-10-18 at the Wayback Machine Launch Control Center Archived 2008-06-19 at the Wayback Machine Main page. Launch Team Archived 2015-06-19 at the Wayback Machine == External links == History of the Firing Rooms at the Launch Control Center Floor plan layout of the Firing Rooms at the Launch Control Center New Launch Control Room Ready for STS-121 Liftoff Archived 2021-07-29 at the Wayback Machine KSC Launch Processing System Archived 2020-09-24 at the Wayback Machine	Wikipedia/Launch_Control_Center
A stochastic investment model tries to forecast how returns and prices on different assets or asset classes, (e. g. equities or bonds) vary over time. Stochastic models are not applied for making point estimation rather interval estimation and they use different stochastic processes. Investment models can be classified into single-asset and multi-asset models. They are often used for actuarial work and financial planning to allow optimization in asset allocation or asset-liability-management (ALM). == Single-asset models == === Interest rate models === Interest rate models can be used to price fixed income products. They are usually divided into one-factor models and multi-factor assets. ==== One-factor models ==== Black–Derman–Toy model Black–Karasinski model Cox–Ingersoll–Ross model Ho–Lee model Hull–White model Kalotay–Williams–Fabozzi model Merton model Rendleman–Bartter model Vasicek model ==== Multi-factor models ==== Chen model Longstaff–Schwartz model === Term structure models === LIBOR market model (Brace Gatarek Musiela model) === Stock price models === Binomial model Black–Scholes model (geometric Brownian motion) === Inflation models === == Multi-asset models == ALM.IT (GenRe) model Cairns model FIM-Group model Global CAP:Link model Ibbotson and Sinquefield model Morgan Stanley model Russel–Yasuda Kasai model Smith's jump diffusion model TSM (B & W Deloitte) model Watson Wyatt model Whitten & Thomas model Wilkie investment model Yakoubov, Teeger & Duval model == Further reading == Wilkie, A. D. (1984) "A stochastic investment model for actuarial use", Transactions of the Faculty of Actuaries, 39: 341-403 Østergaard, Søren Duus (1971) "Stochastic Investment Models and Decision Criteria", The Swedish Journal of Economics, 73 (2), 157-183 JSTOR 3439055 Sreedharan, V. P.; Wein, H. H. (1967) "A Stochastic, Multistage, Multiproduct Investment Model", SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics, 15 (2), 347-358 JSTOR 2946287	Wikipedia/Stochastic_asset_model
Monte Carlo methods are used in corporate finance and mathematical finance to value and analyze (complex) instruments, portfolios and investments by simulating the various sources of uncertainty affecting their value, and then determining the distribution of their value over the range of resultant outcomes. This is usually done by help of stochastic asset models. The advantage of Monte Carlo methods over other techniques increases as the dimensions (sources of uncertainty) of the problem increase. Monte Carlo methods were first introduced to finance in 1964 by David B. Hertz through his Harvard Business Review article, discussing their application in Corporate Finance. In 1977, Phelim Boyle pioneered the use of simulation in derivative valuation in his seminal Journal of Financial Economics paper. This article discusses typical financial problems in which Monte Carlo methods are used. It also touches on the use of so-called "quasi-random" methods such as the use of Sobol sequences. == Overview == The Monte Carlo method encompasses any technique of statistical sampling employed to approximate solutions to quantitative problems. Essentially, the Monte Carlo method solves a problem by directly simulating the underlying (physical) process and then calculating the (average) result of the process. This very general approach is valid in areas such as physics, chemistry, computer science etc. In finance, the Monte Carlo method is used to simulate the various sources of uncertainty that affect the value of the instrument, portfolio or investment in question, and to then calculate a representative value given these possible values of the underlying inputs. ("Covering all conceivable real world contingencies in proportion to their likelihood.") In terms of financial theory, this, essentially, is an application of risk neutral valuation; see also risk neutrality. Applications: In Corporate Finance, project finance and real options analysis, Monte Carlo Methods are used by financial analysts who wish to construct "stochastic" or probabilistic financial models as opposed to the traditional static and deterministic models. Here, in order to analyze the characteristics of a project’s net present value (NPV), the cash flow components that are (heavily) impacted by uncertainty are modeled, incorporating any correlation between these, mathematically reflecting their "random characteristics". Then, these results are combined in a histogram of NPV (i.e. the project’s probability distribution), and the average NPV of the potential investment – as well as its volatility and other sensitivities – is observed. This distribution allows, for example, for an estimate of the probability that the project has a net present value greater than zero (or any other value). See further under Corporate finance. In valuing an option on equity, the simulation generates several thousand possible (but random) price paths for the underlying share, with the associated exercise value (i.e. "payoff") of the option for each path. These payoffs are then averaged and discounted to today, and this result is the value of the option today. Note that whereas equity options are more commonly valued using other pricing models such as lattice based models, for path dependent exotic derivatives – such as Asian options – simulation is the valuation method most commonly employed; see Monte Carlo methods for option pricing for discussion as to further – and more complex – option modelling. To value fixed income instruments and interest rate derivatives the underlying source of uncertainty which is simulated is the short rate – the annualized interest rate at which an entity can borrow money for a given period of time; see Short-rate model. For example, for bonds, and bond options, under each possible evolution of interest rates we observe a different yield curve and a different resultant bond price. To determine the bond value, these bond prices are then averaged; to value the bond option, as for equity options, the corresponding exercise values are averaged and present valued. A similar approach is used in valuing swaps, swaptions, and convertible bonds. As for equity, for path dependent interest rate derivatives – such as CMOs – simulation is the primary technique employed; (Note that "to create realistic interest rate simulations" Multi-factor short-rate models are sometimes employed.) Monte Carlo Methods are used for portfolio evaluation. Here, for each sample, the correlated behaviour of the factors impacting the component instruments is simulated over time, the resultant value of each instrument is calculated, and the portfolio value is then observed. As for corporate finance, above, the various portfolio values are then combined in a histogram, and the statistical characteristics of the portfolio are observed, and the portfolio assessed as required. Here analysts may apply Principal component analysis, where through dimensionality reduction, a limited set of factors may be simulated instead of each of the individual sources of uncertainty. A similar approach is used in calculating value at risk,,or "VaR", an estimate of how much a position, "desk", or other area might lose with a given probability (or confidence level) and in a set time period. A typical application of VaR is in investment banking, where the bank holds economic “risk capital” corresponding to the estimated number; see Financial risk management § Banking. VaR is also used in portfolio risk management, where, as above, simulation allows the fund manager to estimate losses at a given horizon and confidence level, and to then hedge as / if appropriate. Post crisis, banks will make various “valuation adjustments” - collectively XVA - when assessing the value of derivative contracts that they have entered into. The purpose of these is twofold: primarily to hedge for possible losses due to the other parties' failures to pay amounts due on the derivative contracts (credit valuation adjustment); but also to determine (and hedge) the amount of capital required under the bank capital adequacy rules. These are calculated under a simulation framework as the risk-neutral expectation value of the possible loss or other impact. See Credit valuation adjustment § Calculation. Structurers use simulation to estimate the likely payout - and possibility of losses - of their bespoke structured note or other structured product, typically comprising several component securities. Monte Carlo Methods are used for personal financial planning. For instance, by simulating the overall market, the chances of a 401(k) allowing for retirement on a target income can be calculated. As appropriate, the worker in question can then take greater risks with the retirement portfolio or start saving more money. Discrete event simulation can be used in evaluating a proposed capital investment's impact on existing operations. Here, a "current state" model is constructed. Once operating correctly, having been tested and validated against historical data, the simulation is altered to reflect the proposed capital investment. This "future state" model is then used to assess the investment, by evaluating the improvement in performance (i.e. return) relative to the cost (via histogram as above); it may also be used in stress testing the design. See Discrete event simulation § Evaluating capital investment decisions. Although Monte Carlo methods provide flexibility, and can handle multiple sources of uncertainty, the use of these techniques is nevertheless not always appropriate. In general, simulation methods are preferred to other valuation techniques only when there are several state variables (i.e. several sources of uncertainty). These techniques are also of limited use in valuing American style derivatives. See below. == Applicability == === Level of complexity === Many problems in mathematical finance entail the computation of a particular integral (for instance the problem of finding the arbitrage-free value of a particular derivative). In many cases these integrals can be valued analytically, and in still more cases they can be valued using numerical integration, or computed using a partial differential equation (PDE). However, when the number of dimensions (or degrees of freedom) in the problem is large, PDEs and numerical integrals become intractable, and in these cases Monte Carlo methods often give better results. For more than three or four state variables, formulae such as Black–Scholes (i.e. analytic solutions) do not exist, while other numerical methods such as the Binomial options pricing model and finite difference methods face several difficulties and are not practical. In these cases, Monte Carlo methods converge to the solution more quickly than numerical methods, require less memory and are easier to program. For simpler situations, however, simulation is not the better solution because it is very time-consuming and computationally intensive. Monte Carlo methods can deal with derivatives which have path dependent payoffs in a fairly straightforward manner. On the other hand, Finite Difference (PDE) solvers struggle with path dependence. === American options === Monte-Carlo methods are harder to use with American options. This is because, in contrast to a partial differential equation, the Monte Carlo method really only estimates the option value assuming a given starting point and time. However, for early exercise, we would also need to know the option value at the intermediate times between the simulation start time and the option expiry time. In the Black–Scholes PDE approach these prices are easily obtained, because the simulation runs backwards from the expiry date. In Monte-Carlo this information is harder to obtain, but it can be done for example using the least squares algorithm of Carriere (see link to original paper) which was made popular a few years later by Longstaff and Schwartz (see link to original paper). == Monte Carlo methods == === Mathematically === The fundamental theorem of arbitrage-free pricing states that the value of a derivative is equal to the discounted expected value of the derivative payoff where the expectation is taken under the risk-neutral measure [1]. An expectation is, in the language of pure mathematics, simply an integral with respect to the measure. Monte Carlo methods are ideally suited to evaluating difficult integrals (see also Monte Carlo method). Thus if we suppose that our risk-neutral probability space is P {\displaystyle \mathbb {P} } and that we have a derivative H that depends on a set of underlying instruments S 1 , . . . , S n {\displaystyle S_{1},...,S_{n}} . Then given a sample ω {\displaystyle \omega } from the probability space the value of the derivative is H ( S 1 ( ω ) , S 2 ( ω ) , … , S n ( ω ) ) =: H ( ω ) {\displaystyle H(S_{1}(\omega ),S_{2}(\omega ),\dots ,S_{n}(\omega ))=:H(\omega )} . Today's value of the derivative is found by taking the expectation over all possible samples and discounting at the risk-free rate. I.e. the derivative has value: H 0 = D F T ∫ ω H ( ω ) d P ( ω ) {\displaystyle H_{0}={DF}_{T}\int _{\omega }H(\omega )\,d\mathbb {P} (\omega )} where D F T {\displaystyle {DF}_{T}} is the discount factor corresponding to the risk-free rate to the final maturity date T years into the future. Now suppose the integral is hard to compute. We can approximate the integral by generating sample paths and then taking an average. Suppose we generate N samples then H 0 ≈ D F T 1 N ∑ ω ∈ sample set H ( ω ) {\displaystyle H_{0}\approx {DF}_{T}{\frac {1}{N}}\sum _{\omega \in {\text{sample set}}}H(\omega )} which is much easier to compute. === Sample paths for standard models === In finance, underlying random variables (such as an underlying stock price) are usually assumed to follow a path that is a function of a Brownian motion 2. For example, in the standard Black–Scholes model, the stock price evolves as d S = μ S d t + σ S d W t . {\displaystyle dS=\mu S\,dt+\sigma S\,dW_{t}.} To sample a path following this distribution from time 0 to T, we chop the time interval into M units of length δ t {\displaystyle \delta t} , and approximate the Brownian motion over the interval d t {\displaystyle dt} by a single normal variable of mean 0 and variance δ t {\displaystyle \delta t} . This leads to a sample path of S ( k δ t ) = S ( 0 ) exp ⁡ ( ∑ i = 1 k [ ( μ − σ 2 2 ) δ t + σ ε i δ t ] ) {\displaystyle S(k\delta t)=S(0)\exp \left(\sum _{i=1}^{k}\left[\left(\mu -{\frac {\sigma ^{2}}{2}}\right)\delta t+\sigma \varepsilon _{i}{\sqrt {\delta t}}\right]\right)} for each k between 1 and M. Here each ε i {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{i}} is a draw from a standard normal distribution. Let us suppose that a derivative H pays the average value of S between 0 and T then a sample path ω {\displaystyle \omega } corresponds to a set { ε 1 , … , ε M } {\displaystyle \{\varepsilon _{1},\dots ,\varepsilon _{M}\}} and H ( ω ) = 1 M ∑ k = 1 M S ( k δ t ) . {\displaystyle H(\omega )={\frac {1}{M}}\sum _{k=1}^{M}S(k\delta t).} We obtain the Monte-Carlo value of this derivative by generating N lots of M normal variables, creating N sample paths and so N values of H, and then taking the average. Commonly the derivative will depend on two or more (possibly correlated) underlyings. The method here can be extended to generate sample paths of several variables, where the normal variables building up the sample paths are appropriately correlated. It follows from the central limit theorem that quadrupling the number of sample paths approximately halves the error in the simulated price (i.e. the error has order ϵ = O ( N − 1 / 2 ) {\displaystyle \epsilon ={\mathcal {O}}\left(N^{-1/2}\right)} convergence in the sense of standard deviation of the solution). In practice Monte Carlo methods are used for European-style derivatives involving at least three variables (more direct methods involving numerical integration can usually be used for those problems with only one or two underlyings. See Monte Carlo option model. === Greeks === Estimates for the "Greeks" of an option i.e. the (mathematical) derivatives of option value with respect to input parameters, can be obtained by numerical differentiation. This can be a time-consuming process (an entire Monte Carlo run must be performed for each "bump" or small change in input parameters). Further, taking numerical derivatives tends to emphasize the error (or noise) in the Monte Carlo value – making it necessary to simulate with a large number of sample paths. Practitioners regard these points as a key problem with using Monte Carlo methods. === Variance reduction === Square root convergence is slow, and so using the naive approach described above requires using a very large number of sample paths (1 million, say, for a typical problem) in order to obtain an accurate result. Remember that an estimator for the price of a derivative is a random variable, and in the framework of a risk-management activity, uncertainty on the price of a portfolio of derivatives and/or on its risks can lead to suboptimal risk-management decisions. This state of affairs can be mitigated by variance reduction techniques. ==== Antithetic paths ==== A simple technique is, for every sample path obtained, to take its antithetic path — that is given a path { ε 1 , … , ε M } {\displaystyle \{\varepsilon _{1},\dots ,\varepsilon _{M}\}} to also take { − ε 1 , … , − ε M } {\displaystyle \{-\varepsilon _{1},\dots ,-\varepsilon _{M}\}} . Since the variables ε i {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{i}} and − ε i {\displaystyle -\varepsilon _{i}} form an antithetic pair, a large value of one is accompanied by a small value of the other. This suggests that an unusually large or small output computed from the first path may be balanced by the value computed from the antithetic path, resulting in a reduction in variance. Not only does this reduce the number of normal samples to be taken to generate N paths, but also, under same conditions, such as negative correlation between two estimates, reduces the variance of the sample paths, improving the accuracy. ==== Control variate method ==== It is also natural to use a control variate. Let us suppose that we wish to obtain the Monte Carlo value of a derivative H, but know the value analytically of a similar derivative I. Then H* = (Value of H according to Monte Carlo) + B*[(Value of I analytically) − (Value of I according to same Monte Carlo paths)] is a better estimate, where B is covar(H,I)/var(H). The intuition behind that technique, when applied to derivatives, is the following: note that the source of the variance of a derivative will be directly dependent on the risks (e.g. delta, vega) of this derivative. This is because any error on, say, the estimator for the forward value of an underlier, will generate a corresponding error depending on the delta of the derivative with respect to this forward value. The simplest example to demonstrate this consists in comparing the error when pricing an at-the-money call and an at-the-money straddle (i.e. call+put), which has a much lower delta. Therefore, a standard way of choosing the derivative I consists in choosing a replicating portfolios of options for H. In practice, one will price H without variance reduction, calculate deltas and vegas, and then use a combination of calls and puts that have the same deltas and vegas as control variate. ==== Importance sampling ==== Importance sampling consists of simulating the Monte Carlo paths using a different probability distribution (also known as a change of measure) that will give more likelihood for the simulated underlier to be located in the area where the derivative's payoff has the most convexity (for example, close to the strike in the case of a simple option). The simulated payoffs are then not simply averaged as in the case of a simple Monte Carlo, but are first multiplied by the likelihood ratio between the modified probability distribution and the original one (which is obtained by analytical formulas specific for the probability distribution). This will ensure that paths whose probability have been arbitrarily enhanced by the change of probability distribution are weighted with a low weight (this is how the variance gets reduced). This technique can be particularly useful when calculating risks on a derivative. When calculating the delta using a Monte Carlo method, the most straightforward way is the black-box technique consisting in doing a Monte Carlo on the original market data and another one on the changed market data, and calculate the risk by doing the difference. Instead, the importance sampling method consists in doing a Monte Carlo in an arbitrary reference market data (ideally one in which the variance is as low as possible), and calculate the prices using the weight-changing technique described above. This results in a risk that will be much more stable than the one obtained through the black-box approach. === Quasi-random (low-discrepancy) methods === Instead of generating sample paths randomly, it is possible to systematically (and in fact completely deterministically, despite the "quasi-random" in the name) select points in a probability spaces so as to optimally "fill up" the space. The selection of points is a low-discrepancy sequence such as a Sobol sequence. Taking averages of derivative payoffs at points in a low-discrepancy sequence is often more efficient than taking averages of payoffs at random points. == Notes == Frequently it is more practical to take expectations under different measures, however these are still fundamentally integrals, and so the same approach can be applied. More general processes, such as Lévy processes, are also sometimes used. These may also be simulated. == See also == Quasi-Monte Carlo methods in finance Monte Carlo method Historical simulation (finance) Stock market simulator Real options valuation == References == === Notes === === Articles === Boyle, P., Broadie, M. and Glasserman, P. Monte Carlo Methods for Security Pricing. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Volume 21, Issues 8-9, Pages 1267-1321 Rubinstein, Samorodnitsky, Shaked. Antithetic Variates, Multivariate Dependence and Simulation of Stochastic Systems. Management Science, Vol. 31, No. 1, Jan 1985, pages 66–67 === Books === Damiano Brigo, Fabio Mercurio (2001). Interest Rate Models - Theory and Practice with Smile, Inflation and Credit (2nd ed. 2006 ed.). Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-22149-4. Daniel J. Duffy & Joerg Kienitz (2009). Monte Carlo Frameworks: Building Customisable High-performance C++ Applications. Wiley. ISBN 978-0470060698. Bruno Dupire (1998). Monte Carlo:methodologies and applications for pricing and risk management. Risk. Paul Glasserman (2003). Monte Carlo methods in financial engineering. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-00451-3. John C. Hull (2000). Options, futures and other derivatives (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-015822-4. Peter Jaeckel (2002). Monte Carlo methods in finance. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-49741-X. Peter E. Kloeden & Eckhard Platen (1992). Numerical Solution of Stochastic Differential Equations. Springer - Verlag. Dessislava Pachamanova and Frank J. Fabozzi (2010). Simulation and Optimization in Finance: Modeling with MATLAB, @Risk, or VBA. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-37189-3. == External links == General Monte Carlo Simulation (Encyclopedia of Quantitative Finance), Peter Jaeckel and Eckhard Plateny Monte Carlo Method, riskglossary.com The Monte Carlo Framework, Examples from Finance, Martin Haugh, Columbia University Monte Carlo techniques applied to finance, Simon Leger Derivative valuation Monte Carlo Simulation, Prof. Don M. Chance, Louisiana State University Option pricing by simulation, Bernt Arne Ødegaard, Norwegian School of Management Applications of Monte Carlo Methods in Finance: Option Pricing, Y. Lai and J. Spanier, Claremont Graduate University Monte Carlo Derivative valuation, contd., Timothy L. Krehbiel, Oklahoma State University–Stillwater Pricing complex options using a simple Monte Carlo Simulation, Peter Fink - reprint at quantnotes.com Least-Squares Monte-Carlo for American options by Carriere, 1996, ideas.repec.org Least-Squares Monte-Carlo for American options by Longstaff and Schwartz, 2001, repositories.cdlib.org Using simulation for option pricing, John Charnes Corporate Finance Real Options with Monte Carlo Simulation, Marco Dias, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro Using simulation to calculate the NPV of a project, investmentscience.com Simulations, Decision Trees and Scenario Analysis in Valuation Prof. Aswath Damodaran, Stern School of Business The Monte Carlo method in Excel Prof. André Farber Solvay Business School Sales Forecasting, vertex42.com Pricing using Monte Carlo simulation, a practical example, Prof. Giancarlo Vercellino Personal finance A Better Way to Size Up Your Nest Egg, Businessweek Online: January 22, 2001 Online Monte Carlo retirement planner with source code, Jim Richmond, 2006 Free spreadsheet-based retirement calculator and Monte Carlo simulator, by Eric C., 2008 Retirement Simulation Financial Planning Using Random Walks, John Norstad, 2005 Vanguard Nest Egg Calculator, Vanguard	Wikipedia/Monte_Carlo_methods_in_finance
Simulation in manufacturing systems is the use of software to make computer models of manufacturing systems, so to analyze them and thereby obtain important information. It has been syndicated as the second most popular management science among manufacturing managers. However, its use has been limited due to the complexity of some software packages, and to the lack of preparation some users have in the fields of probability and statistics. This technique represents a valuable tool used by engineers when evaluating the effect of capital investment in equipment and physical facilities like factory plants, warehouses, and distribution centers. Simulation can be used to predict the performance of an existing or planned system and to compare alternative solutions for a particular design problem. == Objectives == The most important objective of simulation in manufacturing is the understanding of the change to the whole system because of some local changes. It is easy to understand the difference made by changes in the local system but it is very difficult or impossible to assess the impact of this change in the overall system. Simulation gives us some measure of this impact. Measures which can be obtained by a simulation analysis are: Parts produced per unit time Time spent in system by parts Time spent by parts in queue Time spent during transportation from one place to another In time deliveries made Build up of the inventory Inventory in process Percent utilization of machines and workers. Some other benefits include Just-in-time manufacturing, calculation of optimal resources required, validation of the proposed operation logic for controlling the system, and data collected during modelling that may be used elsewhere. The following is an example: In a manufacturing plant one machine processes 100 parts in 10 hours but the parts coming to the machine in 10 hours is 150. So there is a buildup of inventory. This inventory can be reduced by employing another machine occasionally. Thus we understand the reduction in local inventory buildup. But now this machine produces 150 parts in 10 hours which might not be processed by the next machine and thus we have just shifted the in-process inventory from one machine to another without having any impact on overall production Simulation is used to address some issues in manufacturing as follows: In workshop to see the ability of system to meet the requirement, To have optimal inventory to cover for machine failures. == Methods == In the past, manufacturing simulation tools were classified as languages or simulators. Languages were very flexible tools, but rather complicated to use by managers and too time consuming. Simulators were more user friendly but they came with rather rigid templates that didn’t adapt well enough to the rapidly changing manufacturing techniques. Nowadays, there is software available that combines the flexibility and user friendliness of both, but still some authors have reported that the use of this simulation to design and optimize manufacturing processes is relatively low. One of the most used techniques by manufacturing system designers is the discrete event simulation. This type of simulation allows to assess the system’s performance by statistically and probabilistically reproducing the interactions of all its components during a determined period of time. In some cases, manufacturing systems modelling needs a continuous simulation approach. These are the cases where the states of the system change continuously, like, for example, in the movement of liquids in oil refineries or chemical plants. As continuous simulation cannot be modeled by digital computers, it is done by taking small discrete steps. This is a useful feature, since there are many cases where both, continuous and discrete simulation, have to be combined. This is called hybrid simulation, which is needed in many industries, for example, the food industry. A framework to evaluate different manufacturing simulation tools was developed by Benedettini & Tjahjono (2009) using the ISO 9241 definition of usability: “the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specified context of use.” This framework considered effectiveness, efficiency and user satisfaction as the three main performance criterion as follow: The following is a list of popular simulation techniques: Discrete event simulation (DES) System dynamics (SD) Agent-based modelling (ABM) Intelligent simulation: based on an integration of simulation and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques Petri net Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) Virtual simulation: allows the user to model the system in a 3D immersive environment Hybrid techniques: combination of different simulation techniques. == Applications == The following is a list of common applications of simulation in manufacturing: == References ==	Wikipedia/Simulation_in_manufacturing_systems
Unemployment, according to the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), is the proportion of people above a specified age (usually 15) not being in paid employment or self-employment but currently available for work during the reference period. Unemployment is measured by the unemployment rate, which is the number of people who are unemployed as a percentage of the labour force (the total number of people employed added to those unemployed). Unemployment can have many sources, such as the following: the status of the economy, which can be influenced by a recession competition caused by globalization and international trade new technologies and inventions policies of the government regulation and market war, civil disorder, and natural disasters Unemployment and the status of the economy can be influenced by a country through, for example, fiscal policy. Furthermore, the monetary authority of a country, such as the central bank, can influence the availability and cost for money through its monetary policy. In addition to theories of unemployment, a few categorisations of unemployment are used for more precisely modelling the effects of unemployment within the economic system. Some of the main types of unemployment include structural unemployment, frictional unemployment, cyclical unemployment, involuntary unemployment and classical unemployment. Structural unemployment focuses on foundational problems in the economy and inefficiencies inherent in labor markets, including a mismatch between the supply and demand of laborers with necessary skill sets. Structural arguments emphasize causes and solutions related to disruptive technologies and globalization. Discussions of frictional unemployment focus on voluntary decisions to work based on individuals' valuation of their own work and how that compares to current wage rates added to the time and effort required to find a job. Causes and solutions for frictional unemployment often address job entry threshold and wage rates. According to the UN's International Labour Organization (ILO), there were 172 million people worldwide (or 5% of the reported global workforce) without work in 2018. Because of the difficulty in measuring the unemployment rate by, for example, using surveys (as in the United States) or through registered unemployed citizens (as in some European countries), statistical figures such as the employment-to-population ratio might be more suitable for evaluating the status of the workforce and the economy if they were based on people who are registered, for example, as taxpayers. == Definitions, types, and theories == The state of being without any work yet looking for work is called unemployment. Economists distinguish between various overlapping types of and theories of unemployment, including cyclical or Keynesian unemployment, frictional unemployment, structural unemployment and classical unemployment definition. Some additional types of unemployment that are occasionally mentioned are seasonal unemployment, hardcore unemployment, and hidden unemployment. Though there have been several definitions of "voluntary" and "involuntary unemployment" in the economics literature, a simple distinction is often applied. Voluntary unemployment is attributed to the individual's decisions, but involuntary unemployment exists because of the socio-economic environment (including the market structure, government intervention, and the level of aggregate demand) in which individuals operate. In these terms, much or most of frictional unemployment is voluntary since it reflects individual search behavior. Voluntary unemployment includes workers who reject low-wage jobs, but involuntary unemployment includes workers fired because of an economic crisis, industrial decline, company bankruptcy, or organizational restructuring. On the other hand, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, and classical unemployment are largely involuntary in nature. However, the existence of structural unemployment may reflect choices made by the unemployed in the past, and classical (natural) unemployment may result from the legislative and economic choices made by labour unions or political parties. The clearest cases of involuntary unemployment are those with fewer job vacancies than unemployed workers even when wages are allowed to adjust and so even if all vacancies were to be filled, some unemployed workers would still remain. That happens with cyclical unemployment, as macroeconomic forces cause microeconomic unemployment, which can boomerang back and exacerbate those macroeconomic forces. === Real wage unemployment === Classical, natural, or real-wage unemployment, occurs when real wages for a job are set above the market-clearing level, causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies. On the other hand, most economists argue that as wages fall below a livable wage, many choose to drop out of the labour market and no longer seek employment. That is especially true in countries in which low-income families are supported through public welfare systems. In such cases, wages would have to be high enough to motivate people to choose employment over what they receive through public welfare. Wages below a livable wage are likely to result in lower labor market participation in the above-stated scenario. In addition, consumption of goods and services is the primary driver of increased demand for labor. Higher wages lead to workers having more income available to consume goods and services. Therefore, higher wages increase general consumption and as a result demand for labor increases and unemployment decreases. Many economists have argued that unemployment increases with increased governmental regulation. For example, minimum wage laws raise the cost of some low-skill laborers above market equilibrium, resulting in increased unemployment as people who wish to work at the going rate cannot (as the new and higher enforced wage is now greater than the value of their labour). Laws restricting layoffs may make businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring becomes more risky. However, that argument overly simplifies the relationship between wage rates and unemployment by ignoring numerous factors that contribute to unemployment. Some, such as Murray Rothbard, suggest that even social taboos can prevent wages from falling to the market-clearing level. In Out of Work: Unemployment and Government in the Twentieth-Century America, economists Richard Vedder and Lowell Gallaway argue that the empirical record of wages rates, productivity, and unemployment in America validates classical unemployment theory. Their data shows a strong correlation between adjusted real wage and unemployment in the United States from 1900 to 1990. However, they maintain that their data does not take into account exogenous events. === Cyclical unemployment === Cyclical, deficient-demand, or Keynesian unemployment occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the economy to provide jobs for everyone who wants to work. Demand for most goods and services falls, less production is needed and consequently, fewer workers are needed, wages are sticky and do not fall to meet the equilibrium level, and unemployment results. Its name is derived from the frequent ups and downs in the business cycle, but unemployment can also be persistent, such as during the Great Depression. With cyclical unemployment, the number of unemployed workers exceeds the number of job vacancies and so even if all open jobs were filled, some workers would still remain unemployed. Some associate cyclical unemployment with frictional unemployment because the factors that cause the friction are partially caused by cyclical variables. For example, a surprise decrease in the money supply may suddenly inhibit aggregate demand and thus inhibit labor demand. Keynesian economists, on the other hand, see the lack of supply of jobs as potentially resolvable by government intervention. One suggested intervention involves deficit spending to boost employment and goods demand. Another intervention involves an expansionary monetary policy to increase the supply of money, which should reduce interest rates, which, in turn, should lead to an increase in non-governmental spending. === Unemployment under "full employment" === In demands based theory, it is possible to abolish cyclical unemployment by increasing the aggregate demand for products and workers. However, the economy eventually hits an "inflation barrier" that is imposed by the four other kinds of unemployment to the extent that they exist. Historical experience suggests that low unemployment affects inflation in the short term but not the long term. In the long term, the velocity of money supply measures such as the MZM ("money zero maturity", representing cash and equivalent demand deposits) velocity is far more predictive of inflation than low unemployment. Some demand theory economists see the inflation barrier as corresponding to the natural rate of unemployment. The "natural" rate of unemployment is defined as the rate of unemployment that exists when the labour market is in equilibrium, and there is pressure for neither rising inflation rates nor falling inflation rates. An alternative technical term for that rate is the NAIRU, the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment. Whatever its name, demand theory holds that if the unemployment rate gets "too low", inflation will accelerate in the absence of wage and price controls (incomes policies). One of the major problems with the NAIRU theory is that no one knows exactly what the NAIRU is, and it clearly changes over time. The margin of error can be quite high relative to the actual unemployment rate, making it hard to use the NAIRU in policy-making. Another, normative, definition of full employment might be called the ideal unemployment rate. It would exclude all types of unemployment that represent forms of inefficiency. This type of "full employment" unemployment would correspond to only frictional unemployment (excluding that part encouraging the McJobs management strategy) and so would be very low. However, it would be impossible to attain this full-employment target using only demand-side Keynesian stimulus without getting below the NAIRU and causing accelerating inflation (absent incomes policies). Training programs aimed at fighting structural unemployment would help here. To the extent that hidden unemployment exists, it implies that official unemployment statistics provide a poor guide to what unemployment rate coincides with "full employment". === Structural unemployment === Structural unemployment occurs when a labour market is unable to provide jobs for everyone who wants one because there is a mismatch between the skills of the unemployed workers and the skills needed for the available jobs. Structural unemployment is hard to separate empirically from frictional unemployment except that it lasts longer. As with frictional unemployment, simple demand-side stimulus will not work to abolish this type of unemployment easily. Structural unemployment may also be encouraged to rise by persistent cyclical unemployment: if an economy suffers from longlasting low aggregate demand, it means that many of the unemployed become disheartened, and their skills (including job-searching skills) become "rusty" and obsolete. Problems with debt may lead to homelessness and a fall into the vicious cycle of poverty, which means that people affected in this way may not fit the job vacancies that are created when the economy recovers. The implication is that sustained high demand may lower structural unemployment. This theory of persistence in structural unemployment has been referred to as an example of path dependence or "hysteresis". Much technological unemployment, caused by the replacement of workers by machines might be counted as structural unemployment. Alternatively, technological unemployment might refer to the way in which steady increases in labour productivity mean that fewer workers are needed to produce the same level of output every year. The fact that aggregate demand can be raised to deal with the problem suggests that the problem is instead one of cyclical unemployment. As indicated by Okun's law, the demand side must grow sufficiently quickly to absorb not only the growing labour force but also the workers who are made redundant by the increased labour productivity. Seasonal unemployment may be seen as a kind of structural unemployment since it is linked to certain kinds of jobs (construction and migratory farm work). The most-cited official unemployment measures erase this kind of unemployment from the statistics using "seasonal adjustment" techniques. That results in substantial and permanent structural unemployment. === Frictional unemployment === Frictional unemployment is the time period between jobs in which a worker searches for or transitions from one job to another. It is sometimes called search unemployment and can be voluntary, based on the circumstances of the unemployed individual. Frictional unemployment exists because both jobs and workers are heterogeneous, and a mismatch can result between the characteristics of supply and demand. Such a mismatch can be related to skills, payment, work-time, location, seasonal industries, attitude, taste, and a multitude of other factors. New entrants (such as graduating students) and re-entrants (such as former homemakers) can also suffer a spell of frictional unemployment. Workers and employers accept a certain level of imperfection, risk or compromise, but usually not right away. They will invest some time and effort to find a better match. That is, in fact, beneficial to the economy since it results in a better allocation of resources. However, if the search takes too long and mismatches are too frequent, the economy suffers since some work will not get done. Therefore, governments will seek ways to reduce unnecessary frictional unemployment by multiple means including providing education, advice, training, and assistance such as daycare centers. The frictions in the labour market are sometimes illustrated graphically with a Beveridge curve, a downward-sloping, convex curve that shows a correlation between the unemployment rate on one axis and the vacancy rate on the other. Changes in the supply of or demand for labour cause movements along the curve. An increase or decrease in labour market frictions will shift the curve outwards or inwards. === Hidden unemployment === Official statistics often underestimate unemployment rates because of hidden, or covered, unemployment. That is the unemployment of potential workers that are not reflected in official unemployment statistics because of how the statistics are collected. In many countries, only those who have no work but are actively looking for work and/or qualifying for social security benefits are counted as unemployed. Those who have given up looking for work and sometimes those who are on government "retraining" programs are not officially counted among the unemployed even though they are not employed. The statistic also does not count the "underemployed", those working fewer hours than they would prefer or in a job that fails to make good use of their capabilities. In addition, those who are of working age but are currently in full-time education are usually not considered unemployed in government statistics. Traditional unemployed native societies who survive by gathering, hunting, herding, and farming in wilderness areas may or may not be counted in unemployment statistics. === Long-term unemployment === Long-term unemployment (LTU) is defined in European Union statistics as unemployment lasting for longer than one year (while unemployment lasting over two years is defined as very long-term unemployment). The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), which reports current long-term unemployment rate at 1.9 percent, defines this as unemployment lasting 27 weeks or longer. Long-term unemployment is a component of structural unemployment, which results in long-term unemployment existing in every social group, industry, occupation, and all levels of education. In 2015 the European Commission published recommendations on how to reduce long-term unemployment. These advised governments to: encourage long-term unemployed people to register with an employment service; provide each registered long-term unemployed person with an individual in-depth assessment to identify their needs and potential within 18 months; offer a tailor-made job integration agreement (JIA) to all registered long-term unemployed within 18 months. These might include measures such as mentoring, help with job search, further education and training, support for housing, transport, child and care services and rehabilitation. Each person would have a single point of contact to access this support, which would be implemented in partnership with employers. In 2017–2019 it implemented the Long-Term Unemployment project to research solutions implemented by EU member states and produce a toolkit to guide government action. Progress was evaluated in 2019. === Marxian theory of unemployment === It is in the very nature of the capitalist mode of production to overwork some workers while keeping the rest as a reserve army of unemployed paupers. Marxists share the Keynesian viewpoint of the relationship between economic demand and employment, but with the caveat that the market system's propensity to slash wages and reduce labor participation on an enterprise level causes a requisite decrease in aggregate demand in the economy as a whole, causing crises of unemployment and periods of low economic activity before the capital accumulation (investment) phase of economic growth can continue. According to Karl Marx, unemployment is inherent within the unstable capitalist system and periodic crises of mass unemployment are to be expected. He theorized that unemployment was inevitable and even a necessary part of the capitalist system, with recovery and regrowth also part of the process. The function of the proletariat within the capitalist system is to provide a "reserve army of labour" that creates downward pressure on wages. This is accomplished by dividing the proletariat into surplus labour (employees) and under-employment (unemployed). This reserve army of labour fight among themselves for scarce jobs at lower and lower wages. At first glance, unemployment seems inefficient since unemployed workers do not increase profits, but unemployment is profitable within the global capitalist system because unemployment lowers wages which are costs from the perspective of the owners. From this perspective low wages benefit the system by reducing economic rents. Yet, it does not benefit workers; according to Karl Marx, the workers (proletariat) work to benefit the bourgeoisie through their production of capital. Capitalist systems unfairly manipulate the market for labour by perpetuating unemployment which lowers laborers' demands for fair wages. Workers are pitted against one another at the service of increasing profits for owners. As a result of the capitalist mode of production, Marx argued that workers experienced alienation and estrangement through their economic identity. According to Marx, the only way to permanently eliminate unemployment would be to abolish capitalism and the system of forced competition for wages and then shift to a socialist or communist economic system. For contemporary Marxists, the existence of persistent unemployment is proof of the inability of capitalism to ensure full employment. == Measurement == There are also different ways national statistical agencies measure unemployment. The differences may limit the validity of international comparisons of unemployment data. To some degree, the differences remain despite national statistical agencies increasingly adopting the definition of unemployment of the International Labour Organization. To facilitate international comparisons, some organizations, such as the OECD, Eurostat, and International Labor Comparisons Program, adjust data on unemployment for comparability across countries. Though many people care about the number of unemployed individuals, economists typically focus on the unemployment rate, which corrects for the normal increase in the number of people employed caused by increases in population and increases in the labour force relative to the population. The unemployment rate is expressed as a percentage and calculated as follows: Unemployment rate = Unemployed workers Total labor force × 100 {\displaystyle {\text{Unemployment rate}}={\frac {\text{Unemployed workers}}{\text{Total labor force}}}\times 100} As defined by the International Labour Organization, "unemployed workers" are those who are currently not working but are willing and able to work for pay, currently available to work, and have actively searched for work. Individuals who are actively seeking job placement must make the effort to be in contact with an employer, have job interviews, contact job placement agencies, send out resumes, submit applications, respond to advertisements, or some other means of active job searching within the prior four weeks. Simply looking at advertisements and not responding will not count as actively seeking job placement. Since not all unemployment may be "open" and counted by government agencies, official statistics on unemployment may not be accurate. In the United States, for example, the unemployment rate does not take into consideration part-time workers, or those individuals who are not actively looking for employment, due to attending college or having tried to find a job and given up. According to the OECD, Eurostat, and the US Bureau of Labor Statistics the unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour force. "An unemployed person is defined by Eurostat, according to the guidelines of the International Labour Organization, as: someone aged 15 to 74 (in Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Iceland, Norway: 16 to 74 years); without work during the reference week; available to start work within the next two weeks (or has already found a job to start within the next three months); actively having sought employment at some time during the last four weeks." The labour force, or workforce, includes both employed (employees and self-employed) and unemployed people but not the economically inactive, such as pre-school children, school children, students and pensioners. The unemployment rate of an individual country is usually calculated and reported on a monthly, quarterly, and yearly basis by the National Agency of Statistics. Organisations like the OECD report statistics for all of its member states. Certain countries provide unemployment compensation for a certain period of time for unemployed citizens who are registered as unemployed at the government employment agency. Furthermore, pension receivables or claims could depend on the registration at the government employment agency. In many countries like in Germany, the unemployment rate is based on the number of people who are registered as unemployed. Other countries like the United States use a labour force survey to calculate the unemployment rate. The ILO describes four different methods to calculate the unemployment rate: Labour Force Sample Surveys are the most preferred method of unemployment rate calculation since they give the most comprehensive results and enables calculation of unemployment by different group categories such as race and gender. This method is the most internationally comparable. Official Estimates are determined by a combination of information from one or more of the other three methods. The use of this method has been declining in favor of labour surveys. Social Insurance Statistics, such as unemployment benefits, are computed based on the number of persons insured representing the total labour force and the number of persons who are insured that are collecting benefits. This method has been heavily criticized because of the expiration of benefits before the person finds work. Employment Office Statistics are the least effective since they include only a monthly tally of unemployed persons who enter employment offices. This method also includes those who are not unemployed by the ILO definition. The primary measure of unemployment, U3, allows for comparisons between countries. Unemployment differs from country to country and across different time periods. For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States had lower unemployment levels than many countries in the European Union, which had significant internal variation, with countries like the United Kingdom and Denmark outperforming Italy and France. However, large economic events like the Great Depression can lead to similar unemployment rates across the globe. In 2013, the ILO adopted a resolution to introduce new indicators to measure the unemployment rate. LU1: Unemployment rate: [persons in unemployment / labour force] × 100 LU2: Combined rate of time-related underemployment and unemployment: [(persons in time-related underemployment + persons in unemployment) / labour force] x 100 LU3: Combined rate of unemployment and potential labour force: [(persons in unemployment + potential labour force) / (extended labour force)] × 100 LU4: Composite measure of labour underutilization: [(persons in time-related underemployment + persons in unemployment + potential labour force) / (extended labour force)] × 100 === European Union (Eurostat) === Eurostat, the statistical office of the European Union, defines unemployed as those persons between age 15 and 74 who are not working, have looked for work in the last four weeks, and are ready to start work within two weeks; this definition conforms to ILO standards. Both the actual count and the unemployment rate are reported. Statistical data are available by member state for the European Union as a whole (EU28) as well as for the eurozone (EA19). Eurostat also includes a long-term unemployment rate, which is defined as part of the unemployed who have been unemployed for more than one year. The main source used is the European Union Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS). It collects data on all member states each quarter. For monthly calculations, national surveys or national registers from employment offices are used in conjunction with quarterly EU-LFS data. The exact calculation for individual countries, resulting in harmonized monthly data, depends on the availability of the data. === United States Bureau of Labor statistics === The Bureau of Labor Statistics measures employment and unemployment (of those over 17 years of age) by using two different labor force surveys conducted by the United States Census Bureau (within the United States Department of Commerce) and/or the Bureau of Labor Statistics (within the United States Department of Labor) that gather employment statistics monthly. The Current Population Survey (CPS), or "Household Survey", conducts a survey based on a sample of 60,000 households. The survey measures the unemployment rate based on the ILO definition. The Current Employment Statistics survey (CES), or "Payroll Survey", conducts a survey based on a sample of 160,000 businesses and government agencies, which represent 400,000 individual employers. Since the survey measures only civilian nonagricultural employment, it does not calculate an unemployment rate, and it differs from the ILO unemployment rate definition. Both sources have different classification criteria and usually produce differing results. Additional data are also available from the government, such as the unemployment insurance weekly claims report available from the Office of Workforce Security, within the U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration. The Bureau of Labor Statistics provides up-to-date numbers via a PDF linked here. The BLS also provides a readable concise current Employment Situation Summary, updated monthly. The Bureau of Labor Statistics also calculates six alternate measures of unemployment, U1 to U6, which measure different aspects of unemployment: U1: Percentage of labor force unemployed 15 weeks or longer. U2: Percentage of labor force who lost jobs or completed temporary work. U3: Official unemployment rate, per the ILO definition, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively looked for work within the past four weeks. U4: U3 + "discouraged workers", or those who have stopped looking for work because current economic conditions make them believe that no work is available for them. U5: U4 + other "marginally attached workers," or "loosely attached workers", or those who "would like" and are able to work but have not looked for work recently. U6: U5 + Part-time workers who want to work full-time, but cannot for economic reasons (underemployment). Note: "Marginally attached workers" are added to the total labour force for unemployment rate calculation for U4, U5, and U6. The BLS revised the CPS in 1994 and among the changes the measure representing the official unemployment rate was renamed U3 instead of U5. In 2013, Representative Hunter proposed that the Bureau of Labor Statistics use the U5 rate instead of the current U3 rate. Statistics for the US economy as a whole hide variations among groups. For example, in January 2008, the US unemployment rates were 4.4% for adult men, 4.2% for adult women, 4.4% for Caucasians, 6.3% for Hispanics or Latinos (all races), 9.2% for African Americans, 3.2% for Asian Americans, and 18.0% for teenagers. Also, the US unemployment rate would be at least 2% higher if prisoners and jail inmates were counted. The unemployment rate is included in a number of major economic indices including the US Conference Board's Index of Leading Indicators a macroeconomic measure of the state of the economy. === Alternatives === ==== Limitations of definition ==== Some critics believe that current methods of measuring unemployment are inaccurate in terms of the impact of unemployment on people as these methods do not take into account the 1.5% of the available working population incarcerated in US prisons (who may or may not be working while they are incarcerated); those who have lost their jobs and have become discouraged over time from actively looking for work; those who are self-employed or wish to become self-employed, such as tradesmen or building contractors or information technology consultants; those who have retired before the official retirement age but would still like to work (involuntary early retirees); those on disability pensions who do not possess full health but still wish to work in occupations suitable for their medical conditions; or those who work for payment for as little as one hour per week but would like to work full time. The last people are "involuntary part-time" workers, those who are underemployed, such as a computer programmer who is working in a retail store until he can find a permanent job, involuntary stay-at-home mothers who would prefer to work, and graduate and professional school students who are unable to find worthwhile jobs after they graduated with their bachelor's degrees. Internationally, some nations' unemployment rates are sometimes muted or appear less severe because of the number of self-employed individuals working in agriculture. Small independent farmers are often considered self-employed and so cannot be unemployed. That can impact non-industrialized economies, such as the United States and Europe in the early 19th century, since overall unemployment was approximately 3% because so many individuals were self-employed, independent farmers; however, non-agricultural unemployment was as high as 80%. Many economies industrialize and so experience increasing numbers of non-agricultural workers. For example, the United States' non-agricultural labour force increased from 20% in 1800 to 50% in 1850 and 97% in 2000. The shift away from self-employment increases the percentage of the population that is included in unemployment rates. When unemployment rates between countries or time periods are compared, it is best to consider differences in their levels of industrialization and self-employment. Additionally, the measures of employment and unemployment may be "too high". In some countries, the availability of unemployment benefits can inflate statistics by giving an incentive to register as unemployed. People who do not seek work may choose to declare themselves unemployed to get benefits; people with undeclared paid occupations may try to get unemployment benefits in addition to the money that they earn from their work. However, in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, Japan, and the European Union, unemployment is measured using a sample survey (akin to a Gallup poll). According to the BLS, a number of Eastern European nations have instituted labour force surveys as well. The sample survey has its own problems because the total number of workers in the economy is calculated based on a sample, rather than a census. It is possible to be neither employed nor unemployed by ILO definitions by being outside of the "labour force". Such people have no job and are not looking for one. Many of them go to school or are retired. Family responsibilities keep others out of the labour force. Still others have a physical or mental disability that prevents them from participating in the labour force. Some people simply elect not to work and prefer to be dependent on others for sustenance. Typically, employment and the labour force include only work that is done for monetary gain. Hence, a homemaker is neither part of the labour force nor unemployed. Also, full-time students and prisoners are considered to be neither part of the labour force nor unemployed. The number of prisoners can be important. In 1999, economists Lawrence F. Katz and Alan B. Krueger estimated that increased incarceration lowered measured unemployment in the United States by 0.17% between 1985 and the late 1990s. In particular, as of 2005, roughly 0.7% of the US population is incarcerated (1.5% of the available working population). Additionally, children, the elderly, and some individuals with disabilities are typically not counted as part of the labour force and so are not included in the unemployment statistics. However, some elderly and many disabled individuals are active in the labour market. In the early stages of an economic boom, unemployment often rises. That is because people join the labour market (give up studying, start a job hunt, etc.) as a result of the improving job market, but until they have actually found a position, they are counted as unemployed. Similarly, during a recession, the increase in the unemployment rate is moderated by people leaving the labour force or being otherwise discounted from the labour force, such as with the self-employed. For the fourth quarter of 2004, according to OECD (Employment Outlook 2005 ISBN 92-64-01045-9), normalized unemployment for men aged 25 to 54 was 4.6% in the US and 7.4% in France. At the same time and for the same population, the employment rate (number of workers divided by population) was 86.3% in the US and 86.7% in France. That example shows that the unemployment rate was 60% higher in France than in the US, but more people in that demographic were working in France than in the US, which is counterintuitive if it is expected that the unemployment rate reflects the health of the labour market. Those deficiencies make many labour market economists prefer to look at a range of economic statistics such as labour market participation rate, the percentage of people between 15 and 64 who are currently employed or searching for employment, the total number of full-time jobs in an economy, the number of people seeking work as a raw number and not a percentage, and the total number of person-hours worked in a month compared to the total number of person-hours people would like to work. In particular, the National Bureau of Economic Research does not use the unemployment rate but prefers various employment rates to date recessions. Moreover, some articles in prestigious magazines such as The Economist have argued that alternative ways to measure economic misery are needed. ==== Labor force participation rate ==== The labor force participation rate is the ratio between the labor force and the overall size of their cohort (national population of the same age range). In the West, during the latter half of the 20th century, the labor force participation rate increased significantly because of an increase in the number of women entering the workplace. In the United States, there have been four significant stages of women's participation in the labour force: increases in the 20th century and decreases in the 21st century. Male labor force participation decreased from 1953 to 2013. Since October 2013, men have been increasingly joining the labour force. From the late 19th century to the 1920s, very few women worked outside the home. They were young single women who typically withdrew from the labor force at marriage unless family needed two incomes. Such women worked primarily in the textile manufacturing industry or as domestic workers. That profession empowered women and allowed them to earn a living wage. At times, they were a financial help to their families. Between 1930 and 1950, female labor force participation increased primarily because of the increased demand for office workers, women's participation in the high school movement, and electrification, which reduced the time that was spent on household chores. From the 1950s to the early 1970s, most women were secondary earners working mainly as secretaries, teachers, nurses, and librarians (pink-collar jobs). From the mid-1970s to the late 1990s, there was a period of revolution of women in the labor force brought on by various factors, many of which arose from the second-wave feminism movement. Women more accurately planned for their future in the work force by investing in more applicable majors in college that prepared them to enter and compete in the labor market. In the United States, the female labor force participation rate rose from approximately 33% in 1948 to a peak of 60.3% in 2000. As of April 2015, the female labor force participation is at 56.6%, the male labor force participation rate is at 69.4%, and the total is 62.8%. A common theory in modern economics claims that the rise of women participating in the US labor force in the 1950s to the 1990s was caused by the introduction of a new contraceptive technology, birth control pills, as well as the adjustment of age of majority laws. The use of birth control gave women the flexibility of opting to invest and to advance their career while they maintained a relationship. By having control over the timing of their fertility, they were not running a risk of thwarting their career choices. However, only 40% of the population actually used the birth control pill. That implies that other factors may have contributed to women choosing to invest in advancing their careers. One factor may be that an increasing number of men delayed the age of marriage, which allowed women to marry later in life without them worrying about the quality of older men. Other factors include the changing nature of work, with machines replacing physical labor, thus eliminating many traditional male occupations, and the rise of the service sector in which many jobs are gender neutral. Another factor that may have contributed to the trend was the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. Such legislation diminished sexual discrimination and encouraged more women to enter the labor market by receiving fair remuneration to help raising families and children. At the turn of the 21st century, the labor force participation began to reverse its long period of increase. Reasons for the change include a rising share of older workers, an increase in school enrollment rates among young workers, and a decrease in female labor force participation. The labor force participation rate can decrease when the rate of growth of the population outweighs that of the employed and the unemployed together. The labor force participation rate is a key component in long-term economic growth, almost as important as productivity. A historic shift began around the end of the Great Recession as women began leaving the labor force in the United States and other developed countries. The female labor force participation rate in the United States has steadily decreased since 2009, and as of April 2015, the female labor force participation rate has gone back down to 1988 levels of 56.6%. Participation rates are defined as follows: The labor force participation rate explains how an increase in the unemployment rate can occur simultaneously with an increase in employment. If a large number of new workers enter the labor force but only a small fraction become employed, then the increase in the number of unemployed workers can outpace the growth in employment. ==== Unemployment-to-population ratio ==== The unemployment-to-population ratio calculates the share of unemployed for the whole population. This is in contrast to the unemployment rate, which calculates the percentage of unemployed persons in relation to the active population. Particularly, many young people between 15 and 24 are studying full-time and so are neither working nor looking for a job. That means that they are not part of the labor force, which is used as the denominator when the unemployment rate is calculated. The youth unemployment ratios in the European Union range from 5.2 (Austria) to 10.6 percent (Spain). They are considerably lower than the standard youth unemployment rates, ranging from 7.9 (Germany) to 57.9 percent (Greece). == Effects == High and the persistent unemployment, in which economic inequality increases, has a negative effect on subsequent long-run economic growth. Unemployment can harm growth because it is a waste of resources; generates redistributive pressures and subsequent distortions; drives people to poverty; constrains liquidity limiting labor mobility; and erodes self-esteem promoting social dislocation, unrest, and conflict. The 2013 winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics, Robert J. Shiller, said that rising inequality in the United States and elsewhere is the most important problem. === Costs === ==== Individual ==== Unemployed individuals are unable to earn money to meet financial obligations. Failure to pay mortgage payments or to pay rent may lead to homelessness through foreclosure or eviction. Across the United States the growing ranks of people made homeless in the foreclosure crisis are generating tent cities. Unemployment increases susceptibility to cardiovascular disease, somatization, anxiety disorders, depression, and suicide. In addition, unemployed people have higher rates of medication use, poor diet, physician visits, tobacco smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, drug use, and lower rates of exercise. According to a study published in Social Indicator Research, even those who tend to be optimistic find it difficult to look on the bright side of things when unemployed. Using interviews and data from German participants aged 16 to 94, including individuals coping with the stresses of real life and not just a volunteering student population, the researchers determined that even optimists struggled with being unemployed. In 1979, M. Harvey Brenner found that for every 10% increase in the number of unemployed, there is an increase of 1.2% in total mortality, a 1.7% increase in cardiovascular disease, 1.3% more cirrhosis cases, 1.7% more suicides, 4.0% more arrests, and 0.8% more assaults reported to the police. A study by Christopher Ruhm in 2000 on the effect of recessions on health found that several measures of health actually improve during recessions. As for the impact of an economic downturn on crime, during the Great Depression, the crime rate did not decrease. The unemployed in the US often use welfare programs such as food stamps or accumulating debt because unemployment insurance in the US generally does not replace most of the income that was received on the job, and one cannot receive such aid indefinitely. Not everyone suffers equally from unemployment. In a prospective study of 9,570 individuals over four years, highly conscientious people suffered more than twice as much if they became unemployed. The authors suggested that may because of conscientious people making different attributions about why they became unemployed or through experiencing stronger reactions following failure. There is also the possibility of reverse causality from poor health to unemployment. Some researchers hold that many of the low-income jobs are not really a better option than unemployment with a welfare state, with its unemployment insurance benefits. However, since it is difficult or impossible to get unemployment insurance benefits without having worked in the past, those jobs and unemployment are more complementary than they are substitutes. (They are often held short-term, either by students or by those trying to gain experience; turnover in most low-paying jobs is high.) Another cost for the unemployed is that the combination of unemployment, lack of financial resources, and social responsibilities may push unemployed workers to take jobs that do not fit their skills or allow them to use their talents. Unemployment can cause underemployment, and fear of job loss can spur psychological anxiety. As well as anxiety, it can cause depression, lack of confidence, and huge amounts of stress, which is increased when the unemployed are faced with health issues, poverty, and lack of relational support. Another personal cost of unemployment is its impact on relationships. A 2008 study from Covizzi, which examined the relationship between unemployment and divorce, found that the rate of divorce is greater for couples when one partner is unemployed. However, a more recent study has found that some couples often stick together in "unhappy" or "unhealthy" marriages when they are unemployed to buffer financial costs. A 2014 study by Van der Meer found that the stigma that comes from being unemployed affects personal well-being, especially for men, who often feel as though their masculine identities are threatened by unemployment. ==== Gender and age ==== Unemployment can also bring personal costs in relation to gender. One study found that women are more likely to experience unemployment than men and that they are less likely to move from temporary positions to permanent positions. Another study on gender and unemployment found that men, however, are more likely to experience greater stress, depression, and adverse effects from unemployment, largely stemming from the perceived threat to their role as breadwinner. The study found that men expect themselves to be viewed as "less manly" after a job loss than they actually are and so they engage in compensating behaviors, such as financial risk-taking and increased assertiveness. Unemployment has been linked to extremely adverse effects on men's mental health. Professor Ian Hickie of the University of Sydney said that evidence showed that men have more restricted social networks than women and that men have are heavily work-based. Therefore, the loss of a job for men means the loss of a whole set of social connections as well. That loss can then lead to men becoming socially isolated very quickly. An Australian study on the mental health impacts of graduating during an economic downturn found that the negative mental health outcomes are greater and more scarring for men than women. The effect was particularly pronounced for those with vocational or secondary education. Costs of unemployment also vary depending on age. The young and the old are the two largest age groups currently experiencing unemployment. A 2007 study from Jacob and Kleinert found that young people (ages 18 to 24) who have fewer resources and limited work experiences are more likely to be unemployed. Other researchers have found that today's high school seniors place a lower value on work than those in the past, which is likely because they recognize the limited availability of jobs. At the other end of the age spectrum, studies have found that older individuals have more barriers than younger workers to employment, require stronger social networks to acquire work, and are also less likely to move from temporary to permanent positions. Additionally, some older people see age discrimination as the reason for them not getting hired. ==== Social ==== An economy with high unemployment is not using all of the resources, specifically labour, available to it. Since it is operating below its production possibility frontier, it could have higher output if all of the workforce were usefully employed. However, there is a tradeoff between economic efficiency and unemployment: if all frictionally unemployed accepted the first job that they were offered, they would be likely to be operating at below their skill level, reducing the economy's efficiency. During a long period of unemployment, workers can lose their skills, causing a loss of human capital. Being unemployed can also reduce the life expectancy of workers by about seven years. High unemployment can encourage xenophobia and protectionism since workers fear that foreigners are stealing their jobs. Efforts to preserve existing jobs of domestic and native workers include legal barriers against "outsiders" who want jobs, obstacles to immigration, and/or tariffs and similar trade barriers against foreign competitors. High unemployment can also cause social problems such as crime. If people have less disposable income than before, it is very likely that crime levels within the economy will increase. A 2015 study published in The Lancet, estimates that unemployment causes 45,000 suicides a year globally. ==== Sociopolitical ==== High levels of unemployment can be causes of civil unrest, in some cases leading to revolution, particularly totalitarianism. The fall of the Weimar Republic in 1933 and Adolf Hitler's rise to power, which culminated in World War II and the deaths of tens of millions and the destruction of much of the physical capital of Europe, is attributed to the poor economic conditions in Germany at the time, notably a high unemployment rate of above 20%; see Great Depression in Central Europe for details. However the hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic is not directly blamed for the Nazi rise. Hyperinflation occurred primarily in 1921 to 1923, the year of Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch. Although hyperinflation has been blamed for damaging the credibility of democratic institutions, the Nazis did not assume government until 1933, ten years after the hyperinflation but in the midst of high unemployment. Rising unemployment has traditionally been regarded by the public and the media in any country as a key guarantor of electoral defeat for any government that oversees it. That was very much the consensus in the United Kingdom until 1983, when Thatcher's Conservative government won a landslide in the general election, despite overseeing a rise in unemployment from 1.5 million to 3.2 million since the 1979 election. === Benefits === The primary benefit of unemployment is that people are available for hire, without being headhunted away from their existing employers. That permits both new and old businesses to take on staff. Unemployment is argued to be "beneficial" to the people who are not unemployed in the sense that it averts inflation, which itself has damaging effects, by providing (in Marxian terms) a reserve army of labour, which keeps wages in check. However, the direct connection between full local employment and local inflation has been disputed by some because of the recent increase in international trade that supplies low-priced goods even while local employment rates rise to full employment. Full employment cannot be achieved because workers would shirk if they were not threatened with the possibility of unemployment. The curve for the no-shirking condition (labelled NSC) thus goes to infinity at full employment. The inflation-fighting benefits to the entire economy arising from a presumed optimum level of unemployment have been studied extensively. The Shapiro–Stiglitz model suggests that wages never bid down sufficiently to reach 0% unemployment. That occurs because employers know that when wages decrease, workers will shirk and expend less effort. Employers avoid shirking by preventing wages from decreasing so low that workers give up and become unproductive. The higher wages perpetuate unemployment, but the threat of unemployment reduces shirking. Before current levels of world trade were developed, unemployment was shown to reduce inflation, following the Phillips curve, or to decelerate inflation, following the NAIRU/natural rate of unemployment theory since it is relatively easy to seek a new job without losing a current job. When more jobs are available for fewer workers (lower unemployment), that may allow workers to find the jobs that better fit their tastes, talents and needs. As in the Marxian theory of unemployment, special interests may also benefit. Some employers may expect that employees with no fear of losing their jobs will not work as hard or will demand increased wages and benefit. According to that theory, unemployment may promote general labour productivity and profitability by increasing employers' rationale for their monopsony-like power (and profits). Optimal unemployment has also been defended as an environmental tool to brake the constantly accelerated growth of the GDP to maintain levels that are sustainable in the context of resource constraints and environmental impacts. However, the tool of denying jobs to willing workers seems a blunt instrument for conserving resources and the environment. It reduces the consumption of the unemployed across the board and only in the short term. Full employment of the unemployed workforce, all focused toward the goal of developing more environmentally efficient methods for production and consumption, might provide a more significant and lasting cumulative environmental benefit and reduced resource consumption. Some critics of the "culture of work" such as the anarchist Bob Black see employment as culturally overemphasized in modern countries. Such critics often propose quitting jobs when possible, working less, reassessing the cost of living to that end, creation of jobs that are "fun" as opposed to "work," and creating cultural norms in which work is seen as unhealthy. These people advocate an "anti-work" ethic for life. === Decline in work hours === As a result of productivity, the work week declined considerably during the 19th century By the 1920s, the average workweek in the US was 49 hours, but it was reduced to 40 hours (after which overtime premium was applied) as part of the 1933 National Industrial Recovery Act. During the Great Depression, the enormous productivity gains caused by electrification, mass production, and agricultural mechanization were believed to have ended the need for a large number of previously employed workers. == Remedies == Societies try a number of different measures to get as many people as possible into work, and various societies have experienced close to full employment for extended periods, particularly during the post-World War II economic expansion. The United Kingdom in the 1950s and 1960s averaged 1.6% unemployment, and in Australia, the 1945 White Paper on Full Employment in Australia established a government policy of full employment, which lasted until the 1970s. However, mainstream economic discussions of full employment since the 1970s suggest that attempts to reduce the level of unemployment below the natural rate of unemployment will fail but result only in less output and more inflation. === Demand-side solutions === Increases in the demand for labour move the economy along the demand curve, increasing wages and employment. The demand for labour in an economy is derived from the demand for goods and services. As such, if the demand for goods and services in the economy increases, the demand for labour will increase, increasing employment and wages. There are many ways to stimulate demand for goods and services. Increasing wages to the working class (those more likely to spend the increased funds on goods and services, rather than various types of savings or commodity purchases) is one theory that is proposed. Increased wages are believed to be more effective in boosting demand for goods and services than central banking strategies, which put the increased money supply mostly into the hands of wealthy persons and institutions. Monetarists suggest that increasing money supply in general increases short-term demand. As for the long-term demand, the increased demand is negated by inflation. A rise in fiscal expenditures is another strategy for boosting aggregate demand. Providing aid to the unemployed is a strategy that is used to prevent cutbacks in consumption of goods and services, which can lead to a vicious cycle of further job losses and further decreases in consumption and demand. Many countries aid the unemployed through social welfare programs. Such unemployment benefits include unemployment insurance, unemployment compensation, welfare, and subsidies to aid in retraining. The main goal of such programs is to alleviate short-term hardships and, more importantly, to allow workers more time to search for a job. A direct demand-side solution to unemployment is government-funded employment of the able-bodied poor. This was notably implemented in Britain from the 17th century until 1948 in the institution of the workhouse, which provided jobs for the unemployed with harsh conditions and poor wages to dissuade their use. A modern alternative is a job guarantee in which the government guarantees work at a living wage. Temporary measures can include public works programs such as the Works Progress Administration. Government-funded employment is not widely advocated as a solution to unemployment except in times of crisis. That is attributed to the public sector jobs existence depending directly on the tax receipts from private sector employment. In the US, the unemployment insurance allowance is based solely on previous income (not time worked, family size, etc.) and usually compensates for one third of previous income. To qualify, people must reside in their respective state for at least a year and work. The system was established by the Social Security Act of 1935. Although 90% of citizens are covered by unemployment insurance, less than 40% apply for and receive benefits. However, the number applying for and receiving benefits increases during recessions. For highly-seasonal industries, the system provides income to workers during the off-season, thus encouraging them to stay attached to the industry. According to classical economic theory, markets reach equilibrium where supply equals demand; everyone who wants to sell at the market price can do so. Those who do not want to sell at that price do not; in the labour market, this is classical unemployment. Monetary policy and fiscal policy can both be used to increase short-term growth in the economy, increasing the demand for labour and decreasing unemployment. === Supply-side solutions === However, the labor market is not 100% efficient although it may be more efficient than the bureaucracy. Some argue that minimum wages and union activity keep wages from falling, which means that too many people want to sell their labour at the going price but cannot. That assumes perfect competition exists in the labour market, specifically that no single entity is large enough to affect wage levels and that employees are similar in ability. Advocates of supply-side policies believe those policies can solve the problem by making the labour market more flexible. These include removing the minimum wage and reducing the power of unions. Supply-siders argue that their reforms increase long-term growth by reducing labour costs. The increased supply of goods and services requires more workers, increasing employment. It is argued that supply-side policies, which include cutting taxes on businesses and reducing regulation, create jobs, reduce unemployment, and decrease labor's share of national income. Other supply-side policies include education to make workers more attractive to employers. == History == There are relatively limited historical records on unemployment because it has not always been acknowledged or measured systematically. Industrialization involves economies of scale, which often prevent individuals from having the capital to create their own jobs to be self-employed. An individual who cannot join an enterprise or create a job is unemployed. As individual farmers, ranchers, spinners, doctors and merchants are organized into large enterprises, those who cannot join or compete become unemployed. Recognition of unemployment occurred slowly as economies across the world industrialized and bureaucratized. Before that, traditional self-sufficient native societies had no concept of unemployment. The recognition of the concept of "unemployment" is best exemplified through the well documented historical records in England. For example, in 16th-century, England no distinction was made between vagrants and the jobless; both were simply categorized as "sturdy beggars", who were to be punished and moved on. === 16th century === The closing of the monasteries in the 1530s increased poverty, as the Roman Catholic Church had helped the poor. In addition, there was a significant rise in enclosures during the Tudor period. Also, the population was rising. Those unable to find work had a stark choice: starve or break the law. In 1535, a bill was drawn up calling for the creation of a system of public works to deal with the problem of unemployment, which were to be funded by a tax on income and capital. A law that was passed a year later allowed vagabonds to be whipped and hanged. In 1547, a bill was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law: two years' servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offense and death for the second. During the reign of Henry VIII, as many as 72,000 people are estimated to have been executed. In the 1576 Act, each town was required to provide work for the unemployed. The Poor Relief Act 1601, one of the world's first government-sponsored welfare programs, made a clear distinction between those who were unable to work and those able-bodied people who refused employment. Under the Poor Law systems of England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, a workhouse was a place people unable to support themselves could go to live and work. === Industrial Revolution to late 19th century === Poverty was a highly visible problem in the eighteenth century, both in cities and in the countryside. In France and Britain by the end of the century, an estimated 10 percent of the people depended on charity or begging for their food. By 1776, some 1,912 parish and corporation workhouses had been established in England and Wales and housed almost 100,000 paupers. A description of the miserable living standards of the mill workers in England in 1844 was given by Fredrick Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844. In the preface to the 1892 edition, Engels noted that the extreme poverty he had written about in 1844 had largely disappeared. David Ames Wells also noted that living conditions in England had improved near the end of the 19th century and that unemployment was low. The scarcity and the high price of labor in the US in the 19th century was well documented by contemporary accounts, as in the following: "The laboring classes are comparatively few in number, but this is counterbalanced by, and indeed, may be one of the causes of the eagerness by which they call in the use of machinery in almost every department of industry. Wherever it can be applied as a substitute for manual labor, it is universally and willingly resorted to.... It is this condition of the labor market, and this eager resort to machinery wherever it can be applied, to which, under the guidance of superior education and intelligence, the remarkable prosperity of the United States is due." Scarcity of labor was a factor in the economics of slavery in the United States. As new territories were opened and federal land sales were conducted, land had to be cleared and new homesteads established. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants annually came to the US and found jobs digging canals and building railroads. Almost all work during most of the 19th century was done by hand or with horses, mules, or oxen since there was very little mechanization. The workweek during most of the 19th century was 60 hours. Unemployment at times was between one and two percent. The tight labor market was a factor in productivity gains by allowing workers to maintain or to increase their nominal wages during the secular deflation that caused real wages to rise at various times in the 19th century, especially in its final decades. === 20th century === There were labor shortages during World War I. Ford Motor Co. doubled wages to reduce turnover. After 1925, unemployment gradually began to rise. The 1930s saw the Great Depression impact unemployment across the globe. In Germany and the United States, the unemployment rate reached about 25% in 1932. In some towns and cities in the northeast of England, unemployment reached as high as 70%; the national unemployment level peaked at more than 22% in 1932. Unemployment in Canada reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933. In 1929, the U.S. unemployment rate averaged 3%. In the US, the Works Progress Administration (1935–43) was the largest make-work program. It hired men (and some women) off the relief roles ("dole") typically for unskilled labor. During the New Deal, over three million unemployed young men were taken out of their homes and placed for six months into more than 2600 work camps managed by the Civilian Conservation Corps. Unemployment in the United Kingdom fell later in the 1930s as the Depression eased, and it remained low (in single figures) after World War II. Fredrick Mills found that in the US, 51% of the decline in work hours was due to the fall in production and 49% was from increased productivity. By 1972, unemployment in the United Kingdom had crept back up above 1,000,000, and it was even higher by the end of the decade, with inflation also being high. Although the monetarist economic policies of Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government saw inflation reduced after 1979, unemployment soared in the early 1980s and in 1982, it exceeded 3,000,000, a level that had not been seen for some 50 years. That represented one in eight of the workforce, with unemployment exceeding 20% in some places that had relied on declining industries such as coal mining. However, it was a time of high unemployment in all other major industrialised nations as well. By the spring of 1983, unemployment had risen by 6% in the previous 12 months, compared to 10% in Japan, 23% in the US, and 34% in West Germany (seven years before Reunification). Unemployment in the United Kingdom remained above 3,000,000 until the spring of 1987, when the economy enjoyed a boom. By the end of 1989, unemployment had fallen to 1,600,000. However, inflation had reached 7.8%, and the following year, it reached a nine-year high of 9.5%; leading to increased interest rates. Another recession occurred from 1990 to 1992. Unemployment began to increase, and by the end of 1992, nearly 3,000,000 in the United Kingdom were unemployed, a number that was soon lowered by a strong economic recovery. With inflation down to 1.6% by 1993, unemployment then began to fall rapidly and stood at 1,800,000 by early 1997. === 21st century === The official unemployment rate in the 16 European Union (EU) countries that use the euro rose to 10% in December 2009 as a result of another recession. Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.3% for November 2009. Europe's young workers have been especially hard hit. In November 2009, the unemployment rate in the EU27 for those aged 15–24 was 18.3%. For those under 25, the unemployment rate in Spain was 43.8%. Unemployment has risen in two thirds of European countries since 2010. Into the 21st century, unemployment in the United Kingdom remained low and the economy remaining strong, and several other European economies, such as France and Germany, experienced a minor recession and a substantial rise in unemployment. In 2008, when the recession brought on another increase in the United Kingdom, after 15 years of economic growth and no major rises in unemployment. In early 2009, unemployment passed the 2 million mark, and economists were predicting it would soon reach 3 million. However, the end of the recession was declared in January 2010 and unemployment peaked at nearly 2.7 million in 2011, appearing to ease fears of unemployment reaching 3 million. The unemployment rate of Britain's young black people was 47.4% in 2011. 2013/2014 has seen the employment rate increase from 1,935,836 to 2,173,012 as supported by showing the UK is creating more job opportunities and forecasts the rate of increase in 2014/2015 will be another 7.2%. The Great Recession has been called a "mancession" because of the disproportionate number of men who lost their jobs as compared to women. The gender gap became wide in the United States in 2009, when 10.5% of men in the labor force were unemployed, compared with 8% of women. Three quarters of the jobs that were lost in the recession in the US were held by men. A 26 April 2005 Asia Times article noted, "In regional giant South Africa, some 300,000 textile workers have lost their jobs in the past two years due to the influx of Chinese goods". The increasing US trade deficit with China cost 2.4 million American jobs between 2001–2008, according to a study by the Economic Policy Institute (EPI). From 2000 to 2007, the United States lost a total of 3.2 million manufacturing jobs. 12.1% of US military veterans who had served after the September 11 attacks in 2001 were unemployed as of 2011; 29.1% of male veterans aged 18–24 were unemployed. As of September 2016, the total veteran unemployment rate was 4.3 percent. By September 2017, that figure had dropped to 3 percent. About 25,000,000 people in the world's 30 richest countries lost their jobs between the end of 2007 and the end of 2010, as the economic downturn pushed most countries into recession. In April 2010, the US unemployment rate was 9.9%, but the government's broader U-6 unemployment rate was 17.1%. In April 2012, the unemployment rate was 4.6% in Japan. In a 2012 story, the Financial Post reported, "Nearly 75 million youth are unemployed around the world, an increase of more than 4 million since 2007. In the European Union, where a debt crisis followed the financial crisis, the youth unemployment rate rose to 18% last year from 12.5% in 2007, the ILO report shows." In March 2018, according to US Unemployment Rate Statistics, the unemployment rate was 4.1%, below the 4.5–5.0% norm. In 2021, the labor force participation rate for non-white women and women with children declined significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic, with approximately 20 million women leaving the workforce. Men were not nearly as impacted, leading some to describe the phenomenon as a "she-cession". == See also == == Notes == == References == Farmer, Roger E. A. (2001). "Unemployment". Macroeconomics (Second ed.). Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing. pp. 173–192. ISBN 978-0-324-14964-7. Kalecki, Michał (1943). "Political aspects of full employment" (PDF). The Political Quarterly. 14 (4): 322–331. doi:10.1111/j.1467-923X.1943.tb01016.x. McGaughey, Ewan (September 2022). "Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy". Industrial Law Journal. 51 (3): 511–559. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3044448. S2CID 219336439. SSRN 3044448. Reich, Robert B. (2010). Aftershock: The Next Economy and America's Future (1st ed.). Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-59281-1. Romer, David (2011). "Unemployment". Advanced Macroeconomics (Fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 456–512. ISBN 978-0-07-351137-5. Simonazzi, Annamaria; Vianello, Fernando (2001). "Financial Liberalization, the European Single Currency and the Problem of Unemployment". In Franzini, M.; Pizzuti, F. R. (eds.). Globalization, Institutions and Social Cohesion. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-67741-3. === Historical: Europe and Japan === Beveridge, William H. (1944). Full Employment in a Free Society (1st ed.). Allen & Unwin., in Great Britain. Broadberry, Stephen N.; Ritschl, Albrecht (1995). "Real Wages, Productivity, and Unemployment in Britain and Germany during the 1920s". Explorations in Economic History. 32 (3): 327–349. doi:10.1006/exeh.1995.1014. Dimsdale, Nicholas H., Nicholas Horsewood, and Arthur Van Riel. "Unemployment in interwar Germany: an analysis of the labor market, 1927-1936." Journal of Economic History (2006): 778-808. online Heimberger, Philipp; Kapeller, Jakob; Schütz, Bernhard (2017). "The NAIRU determinants: What's structural about unemployment in Europe?". Journal of Policy Modeling. 39 (5): 883–908. doi:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2017.04.003. Kato, Michiya. "Unemployment and Public Works Policy in Interwar Britain and Japan: An International Comparison." (2010): 69-101. online Kaufman, Roger T. "Patterns of Unemployment in North America, Western Europe and Japan." Unemployment in Western countries (Palgrave Macmillan, 1980). 3-35. Nickell, Stephen, Luca Nunziata, and Wolfgang Ochel. "Unemployment in the OECD since the 1960s. What do we know?." Economic Journal 115.500 (2005): 1-27 online. Stachura, P.D. (1986). Unemployment and the Great Depression in Weimar Germany. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-1-349-18355-5. Retrieved 3 June 2023. Topp, Niels-Henrik. "Unemployment and Economic Policy in Denmark in the 1930s." Scandinavian Economic History Review 56.1 (2008): 71-90. Webb, Sidney (1912). How the Government Can Prevent Unemployment. The National Committee for the Prevention of Destitution. (First ed.). Letchworth, Herts.: Garden City Press Ltd., in Great Britain === Historical: United States === Jensen, Richard J. "The causes and cures of unemployment in the Great Depression." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 19.4 (1989): 553-583 online. Keyssar, Alexander (1986). Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23016-2. Margo, Robert A. (1993). "Employment and Unemployment in the 1930s". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 7 (2): 41–59. doi:10.1257/jep.7.2.41. Stricker, Frank. American Unemployment: Past, Present, and Future (University of Illinois Press, 2020) online review Sundstrom, William A. (1992). "Last Hired, First Fired? Unemployment and Urban Black Workers During the Great Depression". The Journal of Economic History. 52 (2): 415–429. doi:10.1017/S0022050700010834. JSTOR 2123118. Hatton, T. J.; Thomas, M. (2010). "Labour markets in the interwar period and economic recovery in the UK and the USA". Oxford Review of Economic Policy. 26 (3): 463–485. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grq023. == External links == Media related to Unemployment at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to unemployment at Wikiquote The dictionary definition of unemployment at Wiktionary Economic Policy Institute Current unemployment figures, CEIC Data Current unemployment rates by country OECD Unemployment statistics Unemployment statistics by Lebanese-economy-forum, World Bank data JobCity is Right Platform for Govt Jobs Archived 3 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine Thermal maps of the world's unemployment percentage rates – by country, 2007–2010	Wikipedia/Unemployment_rate
Network traffic simulation is a process used in telecommunications engineering to measure the efficiency of a communications network. == Overview == Telecommunications systems are complex real-world systems, containing many different components which interact, in complex interrelationships. The analysis of such systems can become extremely difficult: modelling techniques tend to analyse each component rather than the relationships between components. Simulation is an approach which can be used to model large, complex stochastic systems for forecasting or performance measurement purposes. It is the most common quantitative modelling technique used. The selection of simulation as a modelling tool is usually because it is less restrictive. Other modelling techniques may impose material mathematical restrictions on the process, and also require multiple intrinsic assumptions to be made. Network traffic simulation usually follows the following four steps: Modelling the system as a dynamic stochastic (i.e. random) process Generation of the realizations of this stochastic process Measurement of Simulation data Analysis of output data == Simulation methods == There are generally two kinds of simulations used to model telecommunications networks, viz. discrete and continuous simulations. Discrete simulations are also known as discrete event simulations, and are event-based dynamic stochastic systems. In other words, the system contains a number of states, and is modelled using a set of variables. If the value of a variable changes, this represents an event, and is reflected in a change in the system’s state. As the system is dynamic, it is constantly changing, and because it is stochastic, there is an element of randomness in the system. Representation of discrete simulations is performed using state equations that contain all the variables influencing the system. Continuous simulations also contain state variables; these however change continuously with time. Continuous simulations are usually modelled using differential equations that track the state of the system with reference to time. == Advantages of simulation == Normal analytical techniques make use of extensive mathematical models which require assumptions and restrictions to be placed on the model. This can result in an avoidable inaccuracy in the output data. Simulations avoid placing restrictions on the system and also take random processes into account; in fact in some cases simulation is the only practical modelling technique applicable; Analysts can study the relationships between components in detail and can simulate the projected consequences of multiple design options before having to implement the outcome in the real-world. It is possible to easily compare alternative designs so as to select the optimal system. The actual process of developing the simulation can itself provide valuable insights into the inner workings of the network which can in turn be used at a later stage. == Disadvantages of simulation == Accurate simulation model development requires extensive resources. The simulation results are only as good as the model and as such are still only estimates / projected outcomes. Optimisation can only be performed involving a few alternatives as the model is usually developed using a limited number of variables. Simulations cost a lot of money to build and are very expensive to make == Statistical issues in simulation modelling == === Input data === Simulation models are generated from a set of data taken from a stochastic system. It is necessary to check that the data is statistically valid by fitting a statistical distribution and then testing the significance of such a fit. Further, as with any modelling process, the input data’s accuracy must be checked and any outliers must be removed. === Output data === When a simulation has been completed, the data needs to be analysed. The simulation's output data will only produce a likely estimate of real-world events. Methods to increase the accuracy of output data include: repeatedly performing simulations and comparing results, dividing events into batches and processing them individually, and checking that the results of simulations conducted in adjacent time periods “connect” to produce a coherent holistic view of the system. === Random numbers === As most systems involve stochastic processes, simulations frequently make use of random number generators to create input data which approximates the random nature of real-world events. Computer generated [random numbers] are usually not random in the strictest sense, as they are calculated using a set of equations. Such numbers are known as pseudo-random numbers. When making use of pseudo-random numbers the analyst must make certain that the true randomness of the numbers is checked. If the numbers are found not to behave in a sufficiently random fashion, another generation technique must be found. Random numbers for the simulation are created by a random number generator. == See also == Channel model Network simulation Network simulator Mobility models Traffic generation model Simulation language Queueing theory == References ==	Wikipedia/Network_traffic_simulation
Practice is the act of rehearsing a behavior repeatedly, to help learn and eventually master a skill. The word derives from the Greek "πρακτική" (praktike), feminine of "πρακτικός" (praktikos), "fit for or concerned with action, practical", and that from the verb "πράσσω" (prasso), "to achieve, bring about, effect, accomplish". In British English, practice is the noun and practise is the verb, but in American English it is now common for practice to be used both as a noun and a verb (see American and British English spelling differences; this article follows American conventions). Sessions scheduled for the purpose of rehearsing and performance improvement are called practices. They are engaged in by sports teams, bands, individuals, etc., as in, "He went to football practice every day after school". Lo == Common types == Some common ways practice is applied: To learn how to play a musical instrument (musical technique) To improve athletic or team performance To prepare for a public performance within the performing arts To improve reading, writing, interpersonal communication, typing, grammar, and spelling To enhance or refine a newly acquired skill To maintain skill To learn martial arts; kata and sparring are common forms of practice To master tasks associated with one's occupation (e.g. a cashier using a POS system) How well one improves with practice depends on several factors, such as the frequency it is engaged in, and the type of feedback that is available for improvement. If feedback is not appropriate (either from an instructor or from self-reference to an information source), then the practice tends to be ineffective or even detrimental to learning. If a student does not practice often enough, reinforcement fades, and he or she is likely to forget what was learned. Therefore, practice is often scheduled, to ensure enough of it is performed to reach one's training objectives. How much practice is required depends upon the nature of the activity, and upon each individual. Some people improve on a particular activity faster than others. Practice in an instructional setting may be effective if repeated only 1 time (for some simple verbal information) or 3 times (for concepts), or it may be practiced many times before evaluation (a dance movement). == Deliberate practice == Psychologist K. Anders Ericsson, a professor of Psychology at Florida State University, was a pioneer in researching deliberate practice and what it means. According to Ericsson: People believe that because expert performance is qualitatively different from a normal performance the expert performer must be endowed with characteristics qualitatively different from those of normal adults. [...] We agree that expert performance is qualitatively different from normal performance and even that expert performers have characteristics and abilities that are qualitatively different from or at least outside the range of those of normal adults. However, we deny that these differences are immutable, that is, due to innate talent. Only a few exceptions, most notably height, are genetically prescribed. Instead, we argue that the differences between expert performers and normal adults reflect a life-long period of deliberate effort to improve performance in a specific domain. One of Ericsson's core findings was that how expert one becomes at a skill has more to do with how one practices than with merely performing a skill a large number of times. An expert breaks down the skills that are required to be expert and focuses on improving those skill chunks during practice or day-to-day activities, often paired with immediate coaching feedback. Another important feature of deliberate practice lies in continually practicing a skill at more challenging levels with the intention of mastering it. Deliberate practice is also discussed in the books Talent is Overrated by Geoff Colvin, The Talent Code by Daniel Coyle, Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance, by Angela Duckworth, Outliers: The Story of Success, by Malcolm Gladwell, and Deliberate Practice for Psychotherapists, by Tony Rousmaniere. Ericsson also believes that some anatomical characteristics were believed to be fixed traits in the past. Genes rarely dictate what traits will be. However, his study has proven that the characteristics have the ability to change and adapt in response to intense practice over multiple years. Ericsson's statements on practice also support the 10 year rule. Ericsson believes that elite performance is the product of maximal effort over at least a decade. The maximal effort is described as using deliberate practice in order to improve performance. Duckworth describes how deliberate practice affects education, motivation, and learning outcomes. In a presentation she gave at the American Educational Research Conference in 2014, she spoke about the importance of grit – of students' focusing on material with which they struggle. In her view, grit allows a student to persevere and succeed in the face of adversity. Duckworth says that if a student can apply grit in their academic work, their effort will increase. Duckworth says that effort is equally important as talent in achieving academic goals. In a study she conducted at the National Spelling Bee in Washington, D.C, she found that the students who used the grit tactic tended to advance to the finals. Two recent articles in Current Directions in Psychological Science criticize deliberate practice and argue that, while it is necessary for reaching high levels of performance, it is not sufficient, with other factors such as talent being important as well. More recently, a meta-analysis found the correlation coefficient between deliberate practice and performance was 0.40, the size of which is large compared to other predictor variables (e.g. obesity, excessive drinking, smoking, intelligence, adherence to effective medication). In addition, Malcolm Gladwell's point-of-view about deliberate practice is different from Ericsson's view. Gladwell, staff writer at The New Yorker magazine and author of five books on The New York Times Best Seller list including Outliers: The Story of Success said in a May 2016 Freakonomics podcast interview that, "He's [Ericsson] a hard practice guy, and I'm a soft practice guy." Gladwell claims that talent is important with an intentional dedication to practice and having a support system is vital to produce superior outcomes. It is not all about methodical effort as Ericsson claims. In Malcolm Gladwell's book, one chapter is called "The Matthew Effect." This effect describes how different biases can affect an individual's performance. When someone is practicing a skill, especially with deliberate practice, coaches play an important role in how their practices go. If a coach sets high expectations and encourages their learners, the individual is more likely to take more from practice and perform better. The role of coaches is important during deliberate practice. Coaches can strengthen desired behaviors through encouragement, positive reinforcement, and technical instruction. Fostering a positive learning environment through deliberate practice is key for all individuals involved. It is also important for coaches to lay out their practices with specific skill training, variable practice, and training open and closed skills. These factors lead to an intentional deliberate practice which ultimately leads to better learning and performance. According to the American Psychological Association, the purpose of deliberate practice is to achieve high levels of expert performance. Studies also show that due to deliberate practice, an individual will experience high achievement. This is due to memory, cognition, practice, persistence, and muscle response that all improves through deliberate practice. == Characteristics of deliberate practice == Practice changes the human body physically and psychologically as it increases in skill level. Skills that are learned through deliberate practice are specific and time spent practicing is crucial for the individual. If an individual spent a short amount of time with high intensity during practice, they are not as likely to succeed as an individual with a long-term commitment to the practice and skill. According to Ericsson, a practice session needs to follow these criteria in order to be considered "deliberate": The task should be well defined, with a clear goal, and should be completely understood by the student. The student should be able to do the task by himself. The student should be able to access immediate feedback about his performance, so they can make the changes needed to improve. The student should be able to replicate the tasks or similar tasks repeatedly. The task must be designed by a teacher and must be performed following a clear instruction by the teacher. If the practice session follows all the criteria except for the last one, then, according to Ericsson, should be called "purposeful practice". == Rebuttal to the 10,000 hour rule == Malcolm Gladwell developed the highly popular 10,000 hour rule. This rule states that if an individual spends 10,000 hours of full concentration and intense effort in their certain skill, they will become an expert at it. However, Anders Ericsson's article focuses on how the amount of time does not affect the elite status but how deliberate the practice is. Ericsson states "it is now quite clear that the number of hours of merely engaging in activities, such as playing music, chess and soccer, or engaging in professional work activities has a much lower benefit for improving performance than deliberate practice". == Behavioral versus cognitive theories of deliberate practice == Behavioral theory would argue that deliberate practice is facilitated by feedback from an expert that allows for successful approximation of the target performance. Feedback from an expert allows the learner to minimize errors and frustration that results from trial-and-error attempts. Behavioral theory does not require delivery of rewards for accurate performance; the expert feedback in combination with the accurate performance serve as the consequences that establish and maintain the new performance. In cognitive theory, excellent performance results from practicing complex tasks that produce errors. Such errors provide the learner with rich feedback that results in scaffolding for future performance. Cognitive theory explains how a learner can become an expert (or someone who has mastered a domain). == Motivation == Learning is closely linked to practice and motivation. Sociocultural theory applied to motivation of practice suggests that motivation resides not within the individual, but within the domain of social and cultural contexts united by shared action and activity. Thus, motivation to practice is not simply within the locus of the individual (see Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation), but rather the locus is the activity and its specific contexts of which the individual is a participant. Psychologist K. Anders Ericsson writes about motivation to practice. He creates a theoretical framework for acquisition of expert performance that discusses the issue of a lack of motivation to practice. He writes:Engagement in deliberate practice is not inherently motivating. Performers consider it instrumental in achieving further improvements in performance (the motivational constraint). The lack of inherent reward or enjoyment in practice as distinct from the enjoyment of the result (improvement) is consistent with the fact that individuals in a domain rarely initiate practice spontaneously.The motivational constraint, mentioned above, is important to consider as it is an important premise of Ericsson's theoretical framework for deliberate practice. He finds that because participating in deliberate practice is not motivating that individuals must be engaged and motivated to take part in improvement before deliberate practice can even take place. He talks about the success of children who were simply exposed to an activity for months by their parents in a fun way. These children displayed immense interest in continuing the activity, so the parents then began implanting deliberate practice. This came to be extremely successful, which Ericsson cites as proof that his theory works when put into action. He finds that children must have the passion to improve their skills before deliberate practice begins in order to really be successful. == Deliberate practice in medical education == Deliberate practice is used in medical education. Duvivier et al. reconstructed the concept of deliberate practice into practical principles to describe the process as it relates to clinical skill acquisition. They defined deliberate practice as: repetitive performance of intended cognitive or psychomotor skills. rigorous skills assessment specific information feedback better skills performance They further described the personal skills learners need to exhibit at various stages of skill development in order to be successful in developing their clinical skills. This includes: planning (organize work in a structured way). concentration/dedication (higher attention span) repetition/revision (strong tendency to practice) study style/self reflection (tendency to self-regulate learning) While the study only included medical students, the authors found that repetitious practice may only help the novice learner (year 1) because as expertise is developed, the learner must focus and plan their learning around specific deficiencies. Curriculum must be designed to develop students' ability to plan their learning as they progress in their careers. Finally, the findings in the study also have implications for developing self-regulated behaviors in students. Initially, a medical student may need focused feedback from instructors; however, as they progress, they must develop the ability to self-assess. In an article by Susan Howick, the idea of using mixed method practice in the medical field could be proven to be beneficial for practitioners and researchers. == Deliberate practice in mental health education == Deliberate practice is used in mental health education. More than 20 peer-reviewed empirical studies and two literature reviews have investigated the process and outcomes of deliberate practice in supervision. A 2024 review outlined two principal models of deliberate practice training for mental health professionals. The Better Results model, developed by Scott Miller, Mark Hubble, and Daryl Chow, leverages data from Feedback Informed Treatment to steer deliberate practice efforts. The Sentio Supervision Model, created by the Sentio University Marriage and Family Therapy program in California, combines psychotherapy skill rehearsal with clinical videos and outcome data. == Deliberate practice versus physical preparation == Deliberate practice is not just any form of preparatory activity, but is defined as "highly structured activities that (a) are most relevant for improving performance, (b) are cognitively effortful, and (c) have no immediate rewards." There is a rise in discovering the differences within the details and connection between deliberate practice and physical preparation. Some researchers propose the idea that self regulated learning can help athletes overcome practice constraints. With this, athletes are more inclined to achieve and develop as an athlete. Ericsson wants to pursue a more detail oriented approach on how deliberate practice is measured and how it is different from other types of training. == As maintenance == Skills fade with non-use. The phenomenon is often referred to as being "out of practice". Practice is therefore performed (on a regular basis) to keep skills and abilities honed. It is important to keep learners from reaching a burn out or exhaustion stage while learning and practicing. Spending a fair amount of time at practice is important when learning a new skill but taking time for mental and emotional health is just as important. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Movahedi, Ahmadreza; Sheikh, Mahmood; Bagherzadeh, Fazlolah; Hemayattalab, Rasool; Ashayeri, Hassan (November 2007). "A Practice-Specificity-Based Model of Arousal for Achieving Peak Performance". Journal of Motor Behavior. 39 (6): 457–462. doi:10.3200/JMBR.39.6.457-462. PMID 18055352. S2CID 6056979. Macnamara, Brooke N.; Maitra, Megha (August 2019). "The role of deliberate practice in expert performance: revisiting Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Römer (1993)". Royal Society Open Science. 6 (8): 190327. Bibcode:2019RSOS....690327M. doi:10.1098/rsos.190327. PMC 6731745. PMID 31598236.	Wikipedia/Practice_(learning_method)
Sports science is a discipline that studies how the healthy human body works during exercise, and how sports and physical activity promote health and performance from cellular to whole body perspectives. The study of sports science traditionally incorporates areas of physiology (exercise physiology), psychology (sport psychology), anatomy, biomechanics (sports biomechanics), biochemistry, and kinesiology. Sport scientists and performance consultants are growing in demand and employment numbers, with the ever-increasing focus within the sporting world on achieving the best results possible. Through the scientific study of sports, researchers have developed a greater understanding of how the human body reacts to exercise, training, different environments, and many other stimuli. == Origins of exercise physiology == Sports science can trace its origins back to Ancient Greece. The noted ancient Greek physician Galen (131–201) wrote 87 detailed essays about improving health (proper nutrition), aerobic fitness, and strengthening muscles. New ideas upon the working and functioning of the human body emerged during the Renaissance as anatomists and physicians challenged the previously known theories. These spread with the implementation of the printed word, the result of Gutenberg's printing press in the 15th century. Allied with this was a large increase in academia in general, universities were forming all around the world. Importantly, these new scholars went beyond the simplistic notions of the early Greek physicians, and shed light upon the complexities of the circulatory, and digestive systems. Furthermore, by the middle of the 19th century, early medical schools (such as the Harvard Medical School, formed 1782) began appearing in the United States, whose graduates went on to assume positions of importance in academia and allied medical research. Medical journal publications increased significantly in number during this period. In 1898, three articles on physical activity appeared in the first volume of the American Journal of Physiology. Other articles and reviews subsequently appeared in prestigious journals. The German applied physiology publication, Internationale Zeitschrift fur Physiologie einschliesslich Arbeitphysiologie (1929–1940; now known as the European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology), became a significant journal in the field of research. A number of key figures have made significant contributions to the study of sports science: Austin Flint, Jr., (1836–1915) One of the first American pioneer physicians, studied physiological responses to exercise in his influential medical textbooks. Edward Hitchcock, Jr., (1828–1911) Amherst College Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education, devoted his academic career to the scientific study of physical exercise, training, and the body. Coauthored 1860 text on exercise physiology. George Wells Fitz, M.D. (1860–1934) Created the first departmental major in Anatomy, Physiology, and Physical Training at Harvard University in 1891. August Krogh (1874–1949) Won the 1920 Nobel Prize in physiology for discovering the mechanism that controlled capillary blood flow in resting or active muscle. Per-Olof Åstrand (1922–2015) Professor at the Department of Physiology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm. Wrote a seminal paper which evaluated the physical working capacity of men and women aged 4–33 years. == Study of sports science == A notable amount of research in the field of sports science is completed at universities or dedicated research centers. Higher-education degrees in Sports Science or Human Physiology are also becoming increasingly popular, with many universities now offering both undergraduate, postgraduate and distance learning degrees in the discipline. Opportunities for graduates in these fields include employment as a Physical Education teacher, Dietician or Nutritionist, Performance Analyst, Sports coach, Sports therapist, Fitness center manager, Sports administrator, Strength and Conditioning specialist, or retail manager of a sports store. Graduates may also be well-positioned to undertake further training to become an accredited Physiotherapist, Exercise Physiologist, Research Scientist and Sports Medical Doctor. Sports science may also be useful for providing information on the aging body. Older adults are aware of the benefits of exercise, but many are not performing the exercise needed to maintain these benefits. Sports science provides a means of allowing older people to regain more physical competence without focusing on doing so for the purposes of anti-aging. Sports science can also provide a means of helping older people avoid falls and have the ability to perform daily tasks more independently. In Australia, the majority of sports science research from 1983 to 2003 was done in laboratories and nearly half of the research was done with sub-elite or elite athletes. Over two-thirds of the research was done regarding four sports: rowing, cycling, athletics, and swimming. In America, sports play a big part of the American identity, however, sports science has slowly been replaced with exercise science. Sports science can allow athletes to train and compete more effectively at home and abroad. José Mourinho, a football manager who won UEFA Champions League twice, reflected his studies of sport science as "sometimes it is difficult to understand if it is sport or if it is science". == Academic journals in sports science == Journal of Applied Biomechanics International Journal of Computer Science in Sport Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research Journal of Swimming Research Sports Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport == Reproducibility == A 2018 study criticized the field of exercise and sports science for insufficient replication studies, limited reporting of both null and trivial results, and insufficient research transparency. Statisticians have criticized sports science for common use of magnitude-based inference, a controversial statistical method which has allowed sports scientists to extract apparently significant results from noisy data where ordinary hypothesis testing would have found none. == See also == Computer science in sport Heuristics and sports Kinanthropometry Kinesiology Sports biomechanics Sports medicine == References == == External links == Sport Science International Register British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences. Archived 25 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine. American College of Sports Medicine European College of Sport Science (archived) Exercise & Sports Science Australia National Strength & Conditioning Association	Wikipedia/Sports_science
Force platforms or force plates are measuring instruments that measure the ground reaction forces generated by a body standing on or moving across them, to quantify balance, gait and other parameters of biomechanics. Most common areas of application are medicine and sports. == Operation == The simplest force platform is a plate with a single pedestal, instrumented as a load cell. Better designs have a pair of rectangular plates, although triangular can also work, one over another with load cells or triaxial force transducers between them at the corners. Like single-force platforms, dual-force platforms can be used to assess performance in double leg tests and strength and power asymmetries in unilateral jump and isometric tests. However, they also provide an additional level of intelligence on neuromuscular status by evaluating the force distribution between limbs during double-limb tests, revealing critical information on strength asymmetries and compensatory strategies. The simplest force plates measure only the vertical component of the force in the geometric center of the platform. More advanced models measure the three-dimensional components of the single equivalent force applied to the surface and its point of application, usually called the centre of pressure (CoP), as well as the vertical moment of force. Cylindrical force plates have also been constructed for studying arboreal locomotion, including brachiation. Force platforms may be classified as single-pedestal or multi-pedestal and by the transducer (force and moment transducer) type: strain gauge, piezoelectric sensors, capacitance gauge, piezoresistive, etc., each with its advantages and drawbacks. Single pedestal models, sometimes called load cells, are suitable for forces that are applied over a small area. For studies of movements, such as gait analysis, force platforms with at least three pedestals and usually four are used to permit forces that migrate across the plate. For example, during walking ground reaction forces start at the heel and finish near the big toe. Force platforms should be distinguished from pressure measuring systems that, although they too quantify centre of pressure, do not directly measure the applied force vector. Pressure measuring plates are useful for quantifying the pressure patterns under a foot over time but cannot quantify horizontal or shear components of the applied forces. The measurements from a force platform can be either studied in isolation, or combined with other data, such as limb kinematics to understand the principles of locomotion. If an organism makes a standing jump from a force plate, the data from the plate alone is sufficient to calculate acceleration, work, power output, jump angle, and jump distance using basic physics. Simultaneous video measurements of leg joint angles and force plate output can allow the determination of torque, work and power at each joint using a method called inverse dynamics. == Recent developments in technology == Advancements in technology have allowed force platforms to take on a new role within the kinetics field. Traditional laboratory-grade force plates cost (usually in the thousands) have made them very impractical for the everyday clinician. However, Nintendo introduced the Wii Balance Board (WBB) (Nintendo, Kyoto, Japan) in 2007 and changed the structure of what a force plate can be. By 2010, it was found that the WBB is a valid and reliable instrument to measure the weight distribution, when directly compared to the "gold-standard" laboratory-grade force plate, while costing less than $100. More so, this has been verified in both healthy and clinical populations. This is possible due to the four force transducers found in the corners of the WBB. These studies are conducted using customized software, such as LabVIEW (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) that can be integrated with the board to be able to measure the amount of body sway or the CoP path length during trials for time. The other benefit to having a posturography system, such as the WBB, is that it is portable so clinicians around the world are able to measure body sway quantitatively, instead of relying on the subjective, clinical balance assessments currently in use. According to Digital Trends, Nintendo's Wii and the WiiU successor product have both been discontinued as of March 2016. This exemplifies one of the issues arising from the adoption of inexpensive off-the-shelf consumer products re-purposed for medical measurements. Further issues with such adoption arise from the regulatory and standards bodies around the world. Force platforms used for measuring a patient's balance and mobility performance are classified by the U.S. FDA (United States Food and Drug Administration) as Class I Medical Devices. As such they must be manufactured to certain quality standards as established by ISO (International Standards Organization)ISO 9001 Quality Management Principles or ISO 13485 Medical Device Quality Management Systems. The European Union's MDD (Medical Device Directive) also classifies force platforms used for medical measurements as Class I medical devices and require medical CE certification for importation and use in the European Union for such medical applications. A notable recent standard, ASTM F3109-16 Standard Test Method for Verification of Multi-Axis Force Measuring Platforms presents a framework for manufactures and users to verify the performance of Force platforms across the extents of their working surface. Standards such as these are used by manufactures of medical grade force platforms to ensure that measurements made on a patient population are accurate, repeatable and reliable. In short, inexpensive consumer grade entertainment components may be a poor choice for medical measurements given the lack of continuity of such products and their legal, regulatory and perhaps quality unsuitability for such applications. == Use in sport == Force plates are commonly used in sport to access an athlete's force producing capabilities, strength and imbalance [1]. A practitioner can use a force plate to assess training needs, readiness to train, and also during the return to play process. Typical force plate assessments in sport include the countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), drop jump (DJ), countermovement rebound jump, and isometric mid thigh pull (IMTP). Practitioners often have trouble understanding which metrics to track when using force plates. A leading biomechanist out of the University of Chichester has created a system for easily selecting force plate metrics. This system is called the 'ODSF System' by Dr. Jason Lake. == History == Chronology •1976• Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc. (AMTI) constructed the first commercially available strain gauge force plate for gait analysis at the biomechanics laboratory of the Boston Children's Hospital. •2017• Hawkin Dynamics created the first wireless force platform and mobile app. == See also == Gait analysis Posturography == References ==	Wikipedia/Force_plate
The mechanics of the running blades used by South African former Paralympic runner Oscar Pistorius depend on special carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer prosthetics. Pistorius has double below-the-knee amputations and competed in both non-disabled and T44 amputee athletics events. Pistorius's eligibility to run in international non-disabled events is sanctioned by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). Pistorius began running in 2004 after a rugby knee injury which led to rehabilitation at the University of Pretoria's High Performance Centre with coach Ampie Louw. His first racing blades were fitted by South African prosthetist Francois Vanderwatt. Because he was unable to find suitable running blades in Pretoria, Vanderwatt ordered some to be made by a local engineer at Hanger Orthopedic Group. These quickly broke, and Vanderwatt referred Pistorius to American prosthetist and Paralympic sprinter Brian Frasure to be fitted for carbon-fibre blades by Icelandic company Össur. Pistorius's participation in non-disabled international sprinting competitions in 2007 raised questions about his use of running blades, and the IAAF amended their rules to ban the use of "any technical device that incorporates springs, wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device." After initial studies, Pistorius was ruled ineligible for competitions under these IAAF rules. After further research was presented, the Court of Arbitration (CAS) ruled that his running prostheses were not shown to provide a net competitive advantage over biological legs. In 2012, Pistorius qualified for and competed in both the 2012 Olympic Games and the 2012 Paralympic Games using his running blades, becoming the first amputee sprinter to run in the Olympic Games. == Pistorius's athletics prostheses == The blades are transtibial prostheses, meaning they replace legs and feet that are amputated below the knee. They were developed by medical engineer Van Phillips who incorporated Flex-Foot, Inc. in 1984. In 2000, Van Phillips sold the company to Össur which, as of 2012, still manufactures the blades. They are designed to store kinetic energy like a spring, allowing the wearer to jump and run effectively. Carbon fibre is actually a carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer, and is a strong, light-weight material used in a number of applications, including sporting goods like baseball bats, car parts, helmets, sailboats, bicycles and other equipment where rigidity and high strength-to-weight ratio is important. The polymer used for this equipment is normally epoxy, but other polymers are also used, depending on the application, and other reinforcing fibres may also be included. In the blade manufacturing process, sheets of impregnated material are cut into square sheets and pressed onto a form to produce the final shape. From 30 to 90 sheets may be layered, depending on the expected weight of the athlete, and the mold is then autoclaved to fuse the sheets into a solid plate. This method reduces air bubbles that can cause breaks. Once the result is cooled, it is cut into the shape of the blades. The finished blade is bolted to a carbon fibre socket that is an intimate fit to each of Pistorius' legs. These are custom made and make up the bulk of the total cost, along with the assessment and setting up of the finished prostheses. Each limb costs between $15–18,000 USD. Pistorius has been using the same Össur blades since 2004. He was born without fibulae and with malformed feet, and his legs were amputated about halfway between knee and ankle so he could wear prosthetic legs. He wears socks and pads which are visible above the sockets to reduce chafing and to prevent blisters, and the sockets have straps in the front that can be tightened to make the prosthesis fit more snugly. Pistorius uses custom-made spike pads on the blades. Before development of the pads, his spikes were changed by roughing up the surface and applying over-the-counter spikes by hand, but the results using this method were inconsistent. Research was conducted in Össur's Iceland lab using a pressure-sensitive treadmill and film at 500 fps to measure the blade strike, and produced a spike pad which includes a midsole of two machine-molded pieces of foam of different densities to cushion impact, with a carbon fibre plate on the bottom. The developers attached the pad with contact cement, which can be quickly removed with the application of heat when the spike pad needs to be changed. Because of the curved design, the blades have to be slightly longer than a runner's biological leg and foot would be. The blades replace the hinge of an ankle with elastic compression that bends and releases the blade with every stride, so the uncompressed blade leaves the user standing on tiptoe. They are designed to move forward, so have no heel support in the back. According to Josh McHugh of Wired Magazine, "The Cheetahs seem to bounce of their own accord. It’s impossible to stand still on them, and difficult to move slowly. Once they get going, Cheetahs are extremely hard to control." == How the blades work == In 2007 Pistorius applied to run in non-disabled track meets. He was at first accepted, but questions quickly arose about whether the blades give him an unfair advantage. After initial research showed the blades did provide an advantage, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) changed their rules to ban the use of technical devices that provide an advantage and ruled him ineligible to compete. Pistorius challenged the ruling with additional research and was reinstated by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) in 2008, meaning that he can continue to run in non-disabled meets as long as he uses the equipment that was studied in the research. Pistorius's performance in the early non-disabled races raised questions because of two major concerns: his pattern of running the races and his leg-swing times. Most sprinters spring out of the blocks with their fastest time and slow down as the race progresses, but Pistorius ran a "negative split", starting slowly and building up speed in the last half of the race (though he no longer uses this pattern). His average time was also less in the 400m race when compared to other runners than in the 200m. Controversy about the use of the blades persists, but the research provided considerable information on how they work in application, and other research is expected to follow. Non-disabled sprinters have calves and ankles that return and amplify the energy supplied by their hips and knees, while Pistorius compensates with additional work because he does not have calves and ankles with their associated tendons and muscles. An analysis published by Engineering & Technology magazine estimates that in using the blades, Pistorius must generate twice the power from his gluteal and quadriceps muscles that a normal sprinter would. Other sources also credit core abdominal muscles and a faster arm swing. His trainer estimates that about 85% of his power comes from his hips and the rest from his knees. This results in a gait that waddles slightly, as Pistorius swings his upper body to balance the springing action of the blades. The blades compress under his weight, then release as he moves forward, providing forward thrust from the tips as they return to their molded shape. As they spring off, he swings them slightly out to the side and throws them forward for the next stride. Pistorius is always slow in starting a race because the flexible blades do not provide thrust out of the blocks. Pistorius must begin from an awkward position, swing his leg to the outside and pop straight up from the blocks to begin running, when the preferred method is to push off with horizontal force. For the first 30 meters of a race, he keeps his head down and takes short, quick strides. As he establishes a rhythm, he can raise his head and increase his speed. While some runners jog up and down, losing energy, Pistorius directs energy forward, looking somewhat like he is rolling on wheels. He also compensates for the adjustments ankles make on the turns, breaking the curves into short, straight lines. According to his coach Ampie Louw, Pistorius may be able to use the inward lean to generate force and come out of a turn going faster. == Research == === Brüggemann study === To resolve questions about the blades, Pistorius was asked to take part in a series of scientific tests in November 2007 at the German Sport University Cologne with Professor of Biomechanics Peter Brüggemann and IAAF technical expert Elio Locatelli. After two days of tests, Brüggemann reported that Pistorius used about 25% less energy expenditure than non-disabled athletes once he achieved a given speed. The study also found that he showed major differences in sprint mechanics, with significantly different maximum vertical ground return forces, and that the positive work or returned energy was close to three times higher than that of a human ankle. The energy loss in the blade during stance phase when the foot was on the ground was measured as 9.3%, while that of normal ankle joint was measured at 42.4%, showing a difference of more than 30%. Brüggemann's analysis stated that the blades allowed lower energy consumption at the same speed, and that the energy loss in the blade is significantly less than in a human ankle at maximum speed. In December of that year, Brüggemann stated to Die Welt newspaper that Pistorius "has considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs who were tested by us. It was more than just a few percentage points. I did not expect it to be so clear." The study was published in 2008 in Sports Technology, but later researchers stated that the analysis "did not take enough variables into consideration". Commentators have also argued that the IAAF study did not accurately determine whether Cheetahs confer a net advantage because measuring the net advantage or disadvantage conferred on an athlete using Cheetahs is not possible given current scientific knowledge. Second, the IAAF study may not have measured Pistorius's performance against appropriate controls. IAAF used five non-disabled athletes, who run 400-meter races in similar times to Pistorius, as controls. However, because Pistorius was relatively new to the sport of running, he may not have trained enough to maximize his physical potential and reach his peak performance when the IAAF study was conducted. In March 2007, approximately 9 months before the IAAF study was conducted, Pistorius's coach commented that Pistorius had not trained enough to achieve an upper body commensurate with the upper bodies of most elite sprinters. To obtain the most accurate understanding of how the prostheses affect Pistorius's performance, he should be compared to athletes with similar physical potential. Consequently, the IAAF study may have been flawed because it compared Pistorius, who might have the physical potential to run faster than his current times, against athletes at their peak. === Weyand, et al. study === In 2008 a team of seven researchers conducted tests at Rice University, including Peter Weyand, Hugh Herr, Rodger Kram, Matthew Bundle and Alena Grabowski. The team collected metabolic and mechanical data by indirect calorimetry and ground reaction force measurements on Pistorius's performance during constant-speed, level treadmill running, and found that the energy usage was 3.8% lower than average values for elite non-disabled distance runners, 6.7% lower than for average distance runners and 17% lower than for non-disabled 400m sprint runners. At sprinting speeds of 8.0, 9.0 and 10.0 m/s, Pistorius produced longer foot to ground contact times, shorter leg swing times, and lower average vertical forces than able bodied sprinters. The team concluded that running on the blades appears to be physiologically similar but mechanically different from running with biological legs. The study was published several months later in the Journal of Applied Physiology. Kram also stated that Pistorius's "rate of energy consumption was lower than an average person but comparable to other high-caliber athletes". The lightness and rigidity of the blade compared to muscle and bone may allow blade runners to swing their legs faster than non-disabled runners. In comments on the article, Peter Weyand and biomechanist Matthew Bundle noted that the study found that Pistorius re-positioned his legs 15.7% faster than most world record sprinters, allowing for a 15–30% increase in sprint speed. === Grabowski, et al. study === In 2008 a research team including Alena Grabowski, Rodger Kram and Hugh Herr conducted a follow-up study of single amputees with running blades which was published in Biology Letters. Each of six amputees' affected leg performance was compared against that of their biological leg. The team measured leg swing times and force applied to the running surface on a high-speed treadmill at the Biomechanics Laboratory of the Orthopedic Specialty Hospital, and also studied video of sprint runners from the Olympics and Paralympics. They found no difference in leg swing times at different speeds, and recorded leg swing times similar to that of non-disabled sprinters. They also found that single running blades reduced the foot to ground force production of the tested runners by an average of 9%. Because force production is generally considered the most significant factor in running speed, the researchers concluded that this reduction in force limited the sprinters' top speed. Grabowski also found that amputees typically increased their leg swing times to compensate for the lack of force. === Other discussion === Discussion continues about the relative advantage or disadvantage of using the blades. Researchers and analysts also point out that the research studies are done on level, stationary treadmills, and do not measure performance from starting blocks or on actual curved tracks. They also do not take into account differences in physiology between amputees and non-amputees, who have such factors as musculature, blade height and weight and differences in blood circulation patterns due to the history of their limb loss. == 2012 Paralympics == A controversy over the effects of running blade length arose at the 2012 Paralympic Games, as Brazilian runner Alan Oliveira and USA runner Blake Leeper changed to longer running blades within a few months before the 2012 Paralympic Games. This led to marked improvement in their running times. Pistorius complained after the 200m race that the blades provided artificially lengthened running strides, which would be an infringement of the IPC rules, regardless of that the blades were within the allowable height limits for the athletes concerned. His complaint was supported by single-leg runners including Jerome Singleton and Jack Swift, who called for the T43 double blade and T44 single blade classes to be separated in future events, as single blade runners were unable to adjust the height of the prostheses, and must always match the length of their biological leg with a running blade. The improvement in running time and the wide broadcast of the race results provided a public demonstration of how the blade length affects performance. Pistorius' stride length was actually 9% longer (2.2 m vs 2.0 m), but Oliveira took more strides (99 vs 92). The combination of stride length and stride rate led to a clearly unusual performance with the longer blades. Pistorius's management issued a statement saying that Pistorius is always 1.84 meters tall, regardless of what prostheses he wears, and that the decision to maintain this height for his running blades was an issue of fairness. == See also == Sport of athletics portal == References == == External links == Video of the Rice University motion study. Elena Grawbowski lecture on blade mechanics Video includes the manufacturing process	Wikipedia/The_Mechanics_of_Oscar_Pistorius'_Running_Blades
Applied mechanics is the branch of science concerned with the motion of any substance that can be experienced or perceived by humans without the help of instruments. In short, when mechanics concepts surpass being theoretical and are applied and executed, general mechanics becomes applied mechanics. It is this stark difference that makes applied mechanics an essential understanding for practical everyday life. It has numerous applications in a wide variety of fields and disciplines, including but not limited to structural engineering, astronomy, oceanography, meteorology, hydraulics, mechanical engineering, aerospace engineering, nanotechnology, structural design, earthquake engineering, fluid dynamics, planetary sciences, and other life sciences. Connecting research between numerous disciplines, applied mechanics plays an important role in both science and engineering. Pure mechanics describes the response of bodies (solids and fluids) or systems of bodies to external behavior of a body, in either a beginning state of rest or of motion, subjected to the action of forces. Applied mechanics bridges the gap between physical theory and its application to technology. Composed of two main categories, Applied Mechanics can be split into classical mechanics; the study of the mechanics of macroscopic solids, and fluid mechanics; the study of the mechanics of macroscopic fluids. Each branch of applied mechanics contains subcategories formed through their own subsections as well. Classical mechanics, divided into statics and dynamics, are even further subdivided, with statics' studies split into rigid bodies and rigid structures, and dynamics' studies split into kinematics and kinetics. Like classical mechanics, fluid mechanics is also divided into two sections: statics and dynamics. Within the practical sciences, applied mechanics is useful in formulating new ideas and theories, discovering and interpreting phenomena, and developing experimental and computational tools. In the application of the natural sciences, mechanics was said to be complemented by thermodynamics, the study of heat and more generally energy, and electromechanics, the study of electricity and magnetism. == Overview == Engineering problems are generally tackled with applied mechanics through the application of theories of classical mechanics and fluid mechanics. Because applied mechanics can be applied in engineering disciplines like civil engineering, mechanical engineering, aerospace engineering, materials engineering, and biomedical engineering, it is sometimes referred to as engineering mechanics. Science and engineering are interconnected with respect to applied mechanics, as researches in science are linked to research processes in civil, mechanical, aerospace, materials and biomedical engineering disciplines. In civil engineering, applied mechanics’ concepts can be applied to structural design and a variety of engineering sub-topics like structural, coastal, geotechnical, construction, and earthquake engineering. In mechanical engineering, it can be applied in mechatronics and robotics, design and drafting, nanotechnology, machine elements, structural analysis, friction stir welding, and acoustical engineering. In aerospace engineering, applied mechanics is used in aerodynamics, aerospace structural mechanics and propulsion, aircraft design and flight mechanics. In materials engineering, applied mechanics’ concepts are used in thermoelasticity, elasticity theory, fracture and failure mechanisms, structural design optimisation, fracture and fatigue, active materials and composites, and computational mechanics. Research in applied mechanics can be directly linked to biomedical engineering areas of interest like orthopaedics; biomechanics; human body motion analysis; soft tissue modelling of muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage; biofluid mechanics; and dynamic systems, performance enhancement, and optimal control. == Brief history == The first science with a theoretical foundation based in mathematics was mechanics; the underlying principles of mechanics were first delineated by Isaac Newton in his 1687 book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. One of the earliest works to define applied mechanics as its own discipline was the three volume Handbuch der Mechanik written by German physicist and engineer Franz Josef Gerstner. The first seminal work on applied mechanics to be published in English was A Manual of Applied Mechanics in 1858 by English mechanical engineer William Rankine. August Föppl, a German mechanical engineer and professor, published Vorlesungen über technische Mechanik in 1898 in which he introduced calculus to the study of applied mechanics. Applied mechanics was established as a discipline separate from classical mechanics in the early 1920s with the publication of Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, the creation of the Society of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, and the first meeting of the International Congress of Applied Mechanics. In 1921 Austrian scientist Richard von Mises started the Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (Zeitschrift für Angewante Mathematik und Mechanik) and in 1922 with German scientist Ludwig Prandtl founded the Society of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (Gesellschaft für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik). During a 1922 conference on hydrodynamics and aerodynamics in Innsbruck, Austria, Theodore von Kármán, a Hungarian engineer, and Tullio Levi-Civita, an Italian mathematician, met and decided to organize a conference on applied mechanics. In 1924 the first meeting of the International Congress of Applied Mechanics was held in Delft, the Netherlands attended by more than 200 scientist from around the world. Since this first meeting the congress has been held every four years, except during World War II; the name of the meeting was changed to International Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics in 1960. Due to the unpredictable political landscape in Europe after the First World War and upheaval of World War II many European scientist and engineers emigrated to the United States. Ukrainian engineer Stephan Timoshenko fled the Bolsheviks Red Army in 1918 and eventually emigrated to the U.S. in 1922; over the next twenty-two years he taught applied mechanics at the University of Michigan and Stanford University. Timoshenko authored thirteen textbooks in applied mechanics, many considered the gold standard in their fields; he also founded the Applied Mechanics Division of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1927 and is considered “America’s Father of Engineering Mechanics.” In 1930 Theodore von Kármán left Germany and became the first director of the Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology; von Kármán would later co-found the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 1944. With the leadership of Timoshenko and von Kármán, the influx of talent from Europe, and the rapid growth of the aeronautical and defense industries, applied mechanics became a mature discipline in the U.S. by 1950. == Branches == === Dynamics === Dynamics, the study of the motion and movement of various objects, can be further divided into two branches, kinematics and kinetics. For classical mechanics, kinematics would be the analysis of moving bodies using time, velocities, displacement, and acceleration. Kinetics would be the study of moving bodies through the lens of the effects of forces and masses. In the context of fluid mechanics, fluid dynamics pertains to the flow and describing of the motion of various fluids. === Statics === The study of statics is the study and describing of bodies at rest. Static analysis in classical mechanics can be broken down into two categories, non-deformable bodies and deformable bodies. When studying non-deformable bodies, considerations relating to the forces acting on the rigid structures are analyzed. When studying deformable bodies, the examination of the structure and material strength is observed. In the context of fluid mechanics, the resting state of the pressure unaffected fluid is taken into account. == Relationship to classical mechanics == Applied Mechanics is a result of the practical applications of various engineering/mechanical disciplines; as illustrated in the table below. == Examples == === Newtonian foundation === Being one of the first sciences for which a systematic theoretical framework was developed, mechanics was spearheaded by Sir Isaac Newton's Principia (published in 1687). It is the "divide and rule" strategy developed by Newton that helped to govern motion and split it into dynamics or statics. Depending on the type of force, type of matter, and the external forces, acting on said matter, will dictate the "Divide and Rule" strategy within dynamic and static studies. === Archimedes' principle === Archimedes' principle is a major one that contains many defining propositions pertaining to fluid mechanics. As stated by proposition 7 of Archimedes' principle, a solid that is heavier than the fluid its placed in, will descend to the bottom of the fluid. If the solid is to be weighed within the fluid, the fluid will be measured as lighter than the weight of the amount of fluid that was displaced by said solid. Further developed upon by proposition 5, if the solid is lighter than the fluid it is placed in, the solid will have to be forcibly immersed to be fully covered by the liquid. The weight of the amount of displaced fluids will then be equal to the weight of the solid. == Major topics == This section based on the "AMR Subject Classification Scheme" from the journal Applied Mechanics Reviews. === Foundations and basic methods === Continuum mechanics Finite element method Finite difference method Other computational methods Experimental system analysis === Dynamics and vibration === Dynamics (mechanics) Kinematics Vibrations of solids (basic) Vibrations (structural elements) Vibrations (structures) Wave motion in solids Impact on solids Waves in incompressible fluids Waves in compressible fluids Solid fluid interactions Astronautics (celestial and orbital mechanics) Explosions and ballistics Acoustics === Automatic control === System theory and design Optimal control system System and control applications Robotics Manufacturing === Mechanics of solids === Elasticity Viscoelasticity Plasticity and viscoplasticity Composite material mechanics Cables, rope, beams, etc Plates, shells, membranes, etc Structural stability (buckling, postbuckling) Electromagneto solid mechanics Soil mechanics (basic) Soil mechanics (applied) Rock mechanics Material processing Fracture and damage processes Fracture and damage mechanics Experimental stress analysis Material Testing Structures (basic) Structures (ground) Structures (ocean and coastal) Structures (mobile) Structures (containment) Friction and wear Machine elements Machine design Fastening and joining === Mechanics of fluids === Rheology Hydraulics Incompressible flow Compressible flow Rarefied flow Multiphase flow Wall Layers (incl boundary layers) Internal flow (pipe, channel, and couette) Internal flow (inlets, nozzles, diffusers, and cascades) Free shear layers (mixing layers, jets, wakes, cavities, and plumes)\ Flow stability Turbulence Electromagneto fluid and plasma dynamics Hydromechanics Aerodynamics Machinery fluid dynamics Lubrication Flow measurements and visualization === Thermal sciences === Thermodynamics Heat transfer (one phase convection) Heat transfer (two phase convection) Heat transfer (conduction) Heat transfer (radiation and combined modes) Heat transfer (devices and systems) Thermodynamics of solids Mass transfer (with and without heat transfer) Combustion Prime movers and propulsion systems === Earth sciences === Micromeritics Porous media Geomechanics Earthquake mechanics Hydrology, oceanology, and meteorology === Energy systems and environment === Fossil fuel systems Nuclear systems Geothermal systems Solar energy systems Wind energy systems Ocean energy system Energy distribution and storage Environmental fluid mechanics Hazardous waste containment and disposal === Biosciences === Biomechanics Human factor engineering Rehabilitation engineering Sports mechanics == Applications == Electrical Engineering Civil engineering Mechanical Engineering Nuclear engineering Architectural engineering Chemical engineering Petroleum engineering == Publications == Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics Newsletters of the Applied Mechanics Division Journal of Applied Mechanics Applied Mechanics Reviews Applied Mechanics Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (PMM) Gesellschaft für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik Acta Mechanica Sinica == See also == == References == == Further reading == J.P. Den Hartog, Strength of Materials, Dover, New York, 1949. F.P. Beer, E.R. Johnston, J.T. DeWolf, Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1981. S.P. Timoshenko, History of Strength of Materials, Dover, New York, 1953. J.E. Gordon, The New Science of Strong Materials, Princeton, 1984. H. Petroski, To Engineer Is Human, St. Martins, 1985. T.A. McMahon and J.T. Bonner, On Size and Life, Scientific American Library, W.H. Freeman, 1983. M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Design, Pergamon, 1992. A.H. Cottrell, Mechanical Properties of Matter, Wiley, New York, 1964. S.A. Wainwright, W.D. Biggs, J.D. Organisms, Edward Arnold, 1976. S. Vogel, Comparative Biomechanics, Princeton, 2003. J. Howard, Mechanics of Motor Proteins and the Cytoskeleton, Sinauer Associates, 2001. J.L. Meriam, L.G. Kraige. Engineering Mechanics Volume 2: Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons., New York, 1986. J.L. Meriam, L.G. Kraige. Engineering Mechanics Volume 1: Statics, John Wiley & Sons., New York, 1986. == External links == Video and web lectures Engineering Mechanics Video Lectures and Web Notes Applied Mechanics Video Lectures By Prof.SK. Gupta, Department of Applied Mechanics, IIT Delhi	Wikipedia/Engineering_mechanics
Hadith sciences (Arabic: علم الحديث ʻilm al-ḥadīth "science of hadith") consists of several religious scholarly disciplines used by Muslim scholars in the study and evaluation of the hadith. ("Science" is used in the sense of a field of study, not to be confused with following the principles of observation and experiment, developing falsifiable hypotheses, etc. of modern science.) The hadith are what most Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Islamic prophet Muhammad as transmitted through chains of narrators. Hadith sciences scholars have aim to determine which of these records are authentic, and which may be fabricated. For most Muslims, determining authenticity of hadith is enormously important in Islam because along with the Quran, the Sunnah of the Islamic prophet—his words, actions, and the silent approval—are considered the explanation of the divine revelation (wahy), and the record of them (i.e. hadith) provides the basis of Islamic law (Sharia). In addition, while the number of verses pertaining to law in the Quran is relatively few, hadith, for many, give direction on everything from details of religious obligations (such as Ghusl or Wudu, ablutions for salat prayer), to the correct forms of salutations, and the importance of benevolence to slaves. Thus the "great bulk" of the rules of Islamic law are derived from hadith, along with the Quran as a primary source. There are three primary ways to determine the authenticity (sihha) of a hadith: by attempting to determine whether there are "other identical reports from other transmitters"; determining the reliability of the transmitters of the report; and "the continuity of the chain of transmission" of the hadith. Traditional hadith sciences has been praised by some as "unrivaled, the ultimate in historical criticism", and heavily criticized for failing to filter out a massive amount of hadith "which cannot possibly be authentic". However, both Muslims and western scholars have criticised the hadith. Quranists reject the authority of the hadiths, viewing them as un-Quranic; some further claim that most hadiths are fabrications (pseudepigrapha) created in the 8th and 9th century AD, and which are falsely attributed to Muhammad. Many Western scholars consider that few or no hadith can be confidently considered to be the authentic words of Muhammad, and that traditional attempts to determine the authenticity of hadith are flawed due to the potential for the chain of narrators (particularly the earliest parts) to have been fabricated. == Definition == The science of hadith has been described by one hadith specialist, Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 A.H/ 1505 C.E), as the science of the principles by which the conditions of both the sanad (the chain of narration), and the matn (the text of the hadith), are known. This science is concerned with the sanad and the matn with its objective being distinguishing the sahih, authentic, from other than it. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said the preferred definition is: knowledge of the principles by which the condition of the narrator and the narrated are determined. == History == After the death of Muhammad, his sayings were transmitted orally. According to Islamic tradition, Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph, started the process of collecting all the hadiths together into one unified volume, but gave up the endeavor "for fear the Quran would be neglected by the Muslims" (according to Muhammad Zubayr Siddiqi). The Umayyad caliph, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (aka Umar II, who reigned from 717-720 CE) also started an effort to collect all the hadiths. Teaching and collecting hadiths was part of a plan of his to renew the moral fiber of the Muslim community. He supported teachers of fiqh, sent educators to Bedouin tribes, ordered weekly hadith lectures in the Hejaz, and sent out scholars of hadith to Egypt and North Africa, (according to Muhammad Zubayr Siddiqi). Umar also ordered the great scholar of Madinah, Abu Bakr ibn Hazm to write down all the hadiths of Muhammad and Umar ibn al-Khattab, particularly those narrated by Aisha. He had these hadiths collected in books which were circulated around the Umayyad Empire. Although these books are lost today, commentaries on them by Ibn al-Nadim reveals that they are organized like books of fiqh, such as the Muwatta of Imam Malik, the first large compilation of hadiths. Imam Malik himself probably followed the general plan of the early books of hadith ordered by Umar. Hadith sciences developed in part because forgery "took place on a massive scale", with perhaps the most famous collector of hadith and practitioner of ʻilm al-ḥadīth—Muhammad al-Bukhari—sifting through nearly 600,000, over 16 years before eliminating all but approximately 7400 hadith. Traditional accounts describe "the systematic study of hadith" as being motivated by the altruism of "pious scholars" seeking to correct this problem. Some scholars (Daniel W. Brown, A. Kevin Reinhart) shed doubt on this. Brown believes the theory "fails" to adequately account "for the atmosphere of conflict" of at least early hadith criticism. The "method of choice" of partisans seeking to discredit opposing schools of Islamic law was to discredit the authorities (transmitters) of their opponent's hadith—to "tear apart" their isnads". (To do this required developing biographical evaluations of hadith transmitters—ʿilm al-rijāl and ilm jarh wa ta’dil). Reinhart finds descriptions of famous companions of Muhammad in Ibn Sa'd's Kitāb aṭ-ṭabaqāt al-kabīr "recording hadith and transmitting it, asking each other about precedents, and reproaching those who disregarded this authentic religious knowledge" in suspicious conformity to the "mythology of the pristine early community". As the criteria for judging authenticity grew into the six major collections of ṣaḥīḥ (sound) hadith (Kutub al-Sittah) in the third century, the science of hadith was described as having become a "mature system", or to have entered its "final stage". The classification of Hadith into sahih, sound or authentic; hasan, good; da'if, weak, (another rating is mawḍūʿ, fabricated). was utilized early in hadith scholarship by Ali ibn al-Madini (161–234 AH). Later, al-Madini's student Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) authored a collection, now known as Sahih Bukhari, commonly accepted by Sunni scholars to be the most authentic collection of hadith, followed by that of his student Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Al-Bukhari's methods of testing hadiths and isnads are seen as exemplary of the developing methodology of hadith scholarship. == Evaluating authenticity == An elaborate system was developed by scholars of hadith to determine the authenticity of traditions based on "two premises": that the authenticity of a hadith report is "best measured by the reliability of the transmitters" (known as rāwī pl. ruwāt) of the report; consequently, "carefully scrutinizing" the "individual transmitters" of the hadith (ilm jarh wa ta’dil; ʿilm al-rijāl) and "the continuity of their chains of transmission" is the best way to measure hadith reliability. A basic element of hadith sciences consist of a careful examination of the chain of transmission (sanad سند, also isnād اسناد, or silsila سِلْسِلَة), relaying each hadith from the Prophet to the person who compiles the hadith. The isnād and the commentary are distinct from the matn (متن), which is the main body, or text, of the hadith, These two terms are the primary components of every hadith. According to the person most responsible for elevation of the importance of hadith in Islamic law, Imam Al-Shafi‘i, "In most cases the truthfulness or lack of truthfulness of a tradition can only be known through the truthfulness or lack of truthfulness of the transmitter, except in a few special cases when he relates what cannot possibly be the case, or what is contradicted by better-authenticated information." The first people who received hadith were Muhammad's "Companions" (Sahaba), who are believed to have understood and preserved it. They conveyed it to those after them as they were commanded; then the generation following them, the "Followers" (Tabi‘un), received it and then conveyed it to those after them, and so on. Thus, the Companion would say, “I heard the Prophet say such and such.” The Follower would say, “I heard a Companion say, ‘I heard the Prophet say’” The one after the Follower would say, “I heard a Follower say, ‘I heard a Companion say, ‘I heard the Prophet say’” and so on. === Criteria to be a ṣaḥīḥ hadith === To be 'ṣaḥīḥ ("sound") hadith, an isolated hadith (Mutawatir hadith were exempt from these tests) "must pass five tests": "continuity of transmission"; ʿadāla of transmitters, i.e. transmitters must be of good character; "accuracy (ḍabṭ) of the process of transmission, i.e. narrators must not be prone to carelessness or known to have poor memories"; absence of "irregularities" (shadhūdh), i.e. hadith must not contradict a "more reliable source"; "absence of corrupting defects(ʿilla qādiḥa), i.e. inaccuracies in reporting the actual chain of transmission." === Biographical evaluation === An important discipline within hadith sciences is biographical evaluation, the study of transmitters of hadith, ʿilm al-rijāl, (literally "science of men") mentioned above. These are the narrators who make up the sanad. Ilm ar-rijal is based on certain verses of the Quran. Transmitters are studied and rated for their "general capacity" (ḍābit; itqān) and their moral character (ʿadāla). General capacity is measured by qualities such as memory, linguistic ability. Transmitters that have good memories and linguistic ability "might be considered competent (ḍābit)". ʿadāla transmitters must be "adult Muslims, fully in control of their mental faculties, aware of their moral responsibilities, free from guilt for major sins, and not prone to minor sins". Examples of ratings of transmitters include "trustworthy" or thiqa for ones that possess both ʿadāla and ḍābit. Transmitters that are ʿadāla but show signs of carelessness are rated honest or ṣudūq. The result of this study were "vast biographical dictionaries" to check against the isnads of individual hadith. Not all transmitters were evaluated for these characteristics and rated. Companions of the prophet (ṣaḥāba) were traditionally considered to possess collective moral turpitude or taʿdīl, by virtue of their exposure to the Prophet, so that they all possessed ʿadāla without needing to be evaluated. (This quality was similar to that of Prophetic infallibility (ʿiṣma) but of course lower in level.) The history of the narrators must include four things: Their Isma-ul-Rijjal (biographies) Their kunniyaat (nicknames) Their place of settlement Their date of birth and date of death (to verify whether this person met the people whom he narrated from) === Traditional importance of the sanad === The second criteria after judging the general ability and moral probity of the transmitters, is the "continuity" of the chain of transmission of the hadith. The transmitters must be shown to have received the accounts of the prophet "in an acceptable manner from the preceding authority in the chain". Transmitters must have lived during the same period, they must have had the opportunity to meet, and they must have reached sufficient age at the time of transmission to guarantee their capacity to transmit. Early religious scholars stressed the importance of the sanad. For example, according to an early Quranic exegete, Matr al-Warraq, the verse from the Quran, “Or a remnant of knowledge,” refers to the isnad of a hadith. In addition, Abd Allah ibn al-Mubarak said, “The isnad is from the religion; were it not for the isnad anyone could say anything they wanted.” According to Ibn al-Salah, the sanad originated within the Muslim scholastic community and remains unique to it. Ibn Hazm said that the connected, continuous sanad is particular to the religion of Islam: the sanad was also used by the Jewish community, but they had a break of more than 30 generations between them and Moses, and the Christians limited their use of the sanad to the prohibition of divorce. Ibn Taymiyyah also said that the knowledge of isnad is particular to the followers of Prophet Muhammad. The practice of paying particular attention to the sanad can be traced to the generation following that of the Companions, based upon the statement of Muhammad Ibn Sirin: “They did not previously inquire about the sanad. However, after the turmoil occurred they would say, ‘Name for us your narrators.’ So the people of the Sunnah would have their hadith accepted and the people of innovation would not.” Those who were not given to require a sanad were, in the stronger of two opinions, the Companions of the Prophet, while others, such as al-Qurtubi, include the older of the Followers as well. Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, stating likewise, cited various evidences for this, from them, the Quranic verse, “And you were the best nation brought about to mankind.” The fitnah referred to is the conflicting ideologies of the Kharijites and the Ghulat that had emerged at the time of the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, his assassination and the social unrest of the Kharijites in opposition to the succeeding rulers, Ali and Muawiyah. The death of Uthman was in the year 35 after the migration. === The matn === According to scholar Daniel Brown, in traditional hadith sciences, "the possibility" of criticizing the matn as well as the isnad "was recognized in theory, but the option was seldom systematically exercised". Syrian hadith scholar Salah al-Din al-Idlibi is an expert in the relatively new field of matn criticism. Whereas traditional criticism has focused on verifying the trustworthiness of the people transmitting the hadith, matn criticism studies the contents of the hadith and compares this with the contents of other hadiths and any other available historical evidence with the aim of arriving at an objective historical reality of the event described by the hadith. == Sunni literature for hadith sciences == As in any Islamic discipline, there is a rich history of literature describing the principles and fine points of hadith sciences. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani provides a summation of this development with the following: “Works authored in the terminology of the people of hadith have become plentiful from the Imaams both old and contemporary: From the first of those who authored a work on this subject is the Judge, Abū Muḥammad al-Rāmahurmuzī in his book, ‘al-Muhaddith al-Faasil,’ however, it was not comprehensive. And al-Hakim, Abu Abd Allah an-Naysaburi, however, it was neither refined nor well arranged. And following him, Abu Nu’aym al-Asbahani, who wrote a mustakhraj upon the book of the later, (compiling the same narrations al-Hakim cited using his own sanads.) However, some things remain in need of correction. And then came al-Khatib Abu Bakr al-Bagdadi, authoring works in the various disciplines of hadith studies a book entitled al-Kifaayah and in its etiquettes a book entitled al-Jami’ Li Adab ash-Sheikh wa as-Saami. Scarce is the discipline from the disciplines of the science of hadeeth that he has not written an individual book regarding, as al-Hafith Abu Bakr ibn Nuqtah said: 'Every objective person knows that the scholars of hadeeth coming after al-Khatib are indebted to his works.' After them came others, following al-Khatib, taking their share from this science." al-Qadi ‘Eyaad compiled a concise book naming it al-Ilmaa’. Abu Hafs al-Mayanajiy a work giving it the title Ma Laa yasu al-Muhaddith Jahluhu or That Which a Hadith Scholar is Not Allowed Ignorance Of. There are numerous examples of this which have gained popularity and were expanded upon seeking to make plentiful the knowledge relating to these books and others abridged making easy their understanding. This was prior to the coming of the memorizer and jurist Taqiyy ad-Deen Aboo ‘Amrin ‘Uthmaan ibn al-Salah ‘Abd ar-Rahmaan ash-Shahruzuuree, who settled in Damascus. He gathered, at the time he had become a teacher of hadith at the Ashrafiyyah school, his well known book, editing the various disciplines mentioned in it. He dictated it piecemeal and, as a result, did not succeed in providing it with an appropriate order. He occupied himself with the various works of al-Khatib, gathering his assorted studies, adding to them from other sources the essence of their benefits. So he combined in his book what had been spread throughout books other than it. It is due to this that people have focused their attention upon it, following its example. Innumerable are those who rendered his book into poetry, abridged it, sought to complete what had been left out of it or left out any extraneous information; as well as those who opposed him in some aspect of his work or supported him. == Discussion of validity == The science of hadith has not been without critics. According to Muhammad Husayn Haykal, "despite the great care and precision of the Hadith scholars, much of what they regarded as true was later proved to be spurious." He goes on to quote Al-Nawawi (1233–1277), who stated that "a number of scholars discovered many hadiths" in the two most authentic hadith collection Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim "which do not fulfill the conditions of verification assumed by these men" (i.e. by the hadith collectors Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj). Among the criticisms made (of non-sahih as well as sahih hadith) of is that there was a suspiciously large growth in their number with each generation in the early years of Islam; that large numbers of hadith contradicted each other; and that the genre's status as a primary source of Islamic law motivated the creation of fraudulent hadith. Modern Western scholars in particular have "seriously questioned the historicity and authenticity of the hadith", according to John Esposito, maintaining that "the bulk of traditions attributed to the Prophet Muhammad were actually written much later." According to Esposito, Schacht "found no evidence of legal traditions before 722," from which Schacht concluded that "the Sunna of the Prophet is not the words and deeds of the Prophet, but apocryphal material" dating from later. Henry Preserved Smith and Ignác Goldziher also challenged the reliability of the hadith, Smith stating that "forgery or invention of traditions began very early" and "many traditions, even if well authenticated to external appearance, bear internal evidence of forgery." Goldziher writes that "European critics hold that only a very small part of the ḥadith can be regarded as an actual record of Islam during the time of Mohammed and his immediate followers." In his Mohammedan Studies, Goldziher states: "it is not surprising that, among the hotly debated controversial issues of Islam, whether political or doctrinal, there is not one in which the champions of the various views are unable to cite a number of traditions, all equipped with imposing isnads". Patricia Crone noted that early traditionalists were still developing conventions of examining the chain of narration (isnads) that by later standards were sketchy/deficient, even though they were closer to the historical material. Later though they possessed impeccable chains, but were more likely to be fabricated. Reza Aslan quotes Schacht's maxim: `the more perfect the isnad, the later the tradition`, which he (Aslan) calls "whimsical but accurate". == See also == Categories of Hadith Hadith terminology Introduction to the Science of Hadith Kutub al-Sittah Criticism of hadith == References == === Notes === === Citations === === Sources === Brown, Daniel (1999). Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65394-7. Jonathan A.C. Brown (2009), Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851686630. Jonathan A.C. Brown (2007), The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-9004158399. == External links == A brief introduction to hadith studies Hadith Science Magazine Archived 2010-09-27 at the Wayback Machine	Wikipedia/Science_of_hadith
The historiography of early Philippine settlements is the academic discipline concerned with the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to understand the history of settlements in early Philippine history. By modern definitions, this does not involve a story of "events in the past directly," but rather "the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians." The study of early Philippine settlements is often hampered by the fact that the modern political entity known as the Philippines did not actually exist prior to the arrival of Spanish colonial powers in the late sixteenth century. It is thus important to note that the historiography of early Philippine settlements concerns the writing of the histories of settlements which were not united as one state, but which happened to be located on what is now called the Philippine archipelago. == Comprehensive Reviews of Primary Sources == All a few comprehensive reviews of source materials for the study of Philippine prehistory and early history have been done, with William Henry Scott's 1968 review being one of the earliest systematic critiques. Scott's review has become a seminal academic work on the study of early Philippine history, having been reviewed early on by a panel of that era's most eminent historians and folklorists including Teodoro Agoncillo, Horacio de la Costa, Marcelino Foronda, Mercedes Grau Santamaria, Nicholas Zafra and Gregorio Zaide. Scott's 1968 review was acknowledged by Laura Lee Junker when she conducted her own comprehensive 1998 review of primary sources regarding archaic Philippine polities, and by F. Landa Jocano in his Anthropological analysis of Philippine Prehistory. Scott lists the sources for the study of Philippine prehistory as: archaeology, linguistics and paleogeography, foreign written documents, and quasi-historical genealogical documents. In a later work, he conducts a detailed critique of early written documents and surviving oral or folk traditions connected with the Philippines early historic or protohistoric era. Sources Junker considers particularly relevant to the study of early Philippine settlements include: "Malay texts," "Philippine oral traditions," "Chinese tributary records and geographies," "early Spanish writings," and "archaeological evidence." == Key figures in the Historiography of early Philippine settlements == This section provides an incomplete list of key figures in the historiography of early Philippine settlements, including: early chroniclers from before and immediately after Spanish contact; historians from the Spanish colonial era; "modernist" and "nationalist" historians from the 20th century; and finally contemporary-era critical historians and historiographers. === Early Chroniclers === === Colonial Era Historians === === Writers and Historians from the Nationalist History tradition === === Historians from the Critical Historiography tradition === === Writers from the Folkloristics tradition === === Historians and Writers from the Postmodern, Local/Ethnic History, and Religious History traditions === == See also == History of the Philippines (Before 1521) Paramount rulers in early Philippine history == References ==	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements
Due to Louis Riel's ubiquity as one of the most studied figures in Canadian history, the historiography of Louis Riel naturally leads to several interpretations and understandings of actions and reactions depending on the scholar in question. One of the reasons the rebellion or resistance paradigm is so deeply ingrained in the Canadian historical tradition is because Riel has been studied so much. Still this article's challenge is to discover Riel as a human being and to "appreciate the pathos and tragedy" of his life and of Métis history, not to "create, debunk, or venerate" an icon. == Early studies == The first history, entitled A critical history of the Red River Insurrection, after official documents and non-Catholic sources by the Reverend A. G. Morice, was published in 1935, the main purpose of which was the defence of Bishop Taché. Dissatisfaction with Morice's book on the part of the Métis comité historique of the Union Nationale Métisse led to Auguste-Henri Trémaudan being commissioned to write Histoire de la nation métisse dans l'Ouest canadien published in 1936, which provided a more favorable account of the two resistances and which portrayed Riel as 'a nationalist and a leader of a small group of people oppressed by English Canada'. In 1936 also, George Stanley published The Birth of Western Canada: A History of the Riel Rebellions, which rebellions were not manifestations of the "western battle ground of the traditional hostilities of French Catholic Quebec and English Protestant Ontario" but of the problem of the frontier, of the primitive versus the civilized, of Riel versus the West. In 1945, the French author Marcel Giraud published the massive brilliantly researched Le Métis canadien, son rôle dans l'histoire des prairies de l'Ouest, which "further cemented the idea that the Métis nation was born of conflict and war". However, these mid-century efforts by Stanley, Giraud and other historians had little impact and it was not until after World War II that Riel was progressively transformed into a national hero. It was especially when historians de-emphasized representing him as a French Catholic Canadian that Riel gained prestige among anglophones. Published in 1957, W.L. Morton's Manitoba: A History portrays the Red River Colony as "a microcosm of the struggle for Canada" with "a balance between French-Catholic Métis and British-Protestant settlers". Stanley's Louis Riel published in 1963 is considered to be the benchmark among Riel studies and sets Riel "up to fight a losing battle against the Canadian state." == Regional studies == In the 1960s and 1970s, regional studies increasingly displaced and fragmented the earlier generation of sweeping studies with authors such as Flanagan and Martel arguing, for example, that Riel should be "understood as a messianic prophet struggling against modernity". While revisiting Riel's motivations, these studies left Stanley's more sweeping tenets of conflict between savage and civilized intact such that Riel "remained a figure of resistance". == Contemporary studies == In the 1980s, historians appeared to be less interested in 'great man' aspects of Riel and more interested in Métis history, probing the "Red River myopia", and viewing Riel "as the leader of a much broader social movement across Canada". For example, the 1996 publication of Homeland to Hinterland: The Changing World of the Red River Métis is remarkable for situating Red River Métis between the social and political. Published in 2003, Albert Braz's study The False Traitor was a landmark in investigating dimensions of Riel's life that served to "create an "other" against which Canadian can define themselves". Yet some recent biographies such as Maggie Siggins's liberal-humanistic Riel: A Life of Revolution and J. M. Bumsted's Riel vs. Canada: The Making of a Rebel still paint Riel as Canada's other whereby Riel and the resistance remains fixed in a politico-military framework largely devoid of intellectual and cultural dynamics. For such recent theorists as Adam Gaudry, Darren O'Toole and Chris Andersen, "the resistance is a central element of Métis nationhood". In 1988, Stanley referred to Riel as a "Canadian legend" and “our Hamlet, the personification of the great themes of our human history.” == Mental health and trial studies == In his 2008 paper Non Compos Mentis: A Meta-Historical Survey of the Historiographic Narratives of Louis Riel's 'Insanity, Gregory Betts's analyzes Riel's high treason trial and related mental health issue in the context of Stanley's four proposed Riel critical perspective categories, "Defender of French language and religious rights, Half-breed patriot, Riel, First western Canadian leader, and Prophet and visionary", these four ideological boundaries representing "one of the first meta-historical gestures at elevating Riel histories to a self-conscious awareness of how historians participate in determining the meaning of events". Betts concludes that two constants persist in all interpretations of Louis Riel's insanity, his insanity is morally repugnant and had he been conclusively proven insane, the moral integrity of his life and politics would have suffered. Betts cites Siggins and Stanley to the effect that Riel was not insane. Betts ends his paper's conclusion thus: A harrowing silence intermingled with doubt pervades all those touched by the asylum: regardless of the people they might have been or heroes they might become. Published in 1975, Brown's article The Meaning of Treason in 1885 raises a number of probing questions. Was the charge of treason properly applicable to Riel's crime? Was it legal to lay such a charge against a citizen of the United States? Was the 1352 Statute of Treason's the law in the Northwest Territories at the time of Riel's trial? He concludes that "at law it was a proper charge to lay against Riel", that Riel's U. S. citizenship did not matter since "he was a British subject till his death", and "he was legally chargeable as alien under the doctrine of local allegiance". In 2021, the RCMP Heritage Centre hosted the 55th anniversary of the production of John Coulter's stage play Trial of Louis Riel, in which production announcement and program archives George Goulet is cited in issues he raises about Riel's mistreatment at the hands of his own seriously deficient counsel, improper trial-related correspondence between John A. Macdonald and Justice Minister Alexander Campbell, John A. Macdonald's handling and rejection of jury's unanimous recommendation for mercy, and "Macdonald's blatant attempts of manipulation, deception, and mendacity" within the medical commission's reports prior to execution. == Riel and historical practice == According to Hamon:Linked to national crises, particularly the Resistances (previously called Rebellions) of 1869 and 1885, Riel is probably the most written about person in Canadian history. As a result, he has been presented and re-presented for different interests: Catholic martyr to Protestant violence, a French patriot crushed by English fanatics, a spiritual leader, a deranged lunatic, the father of a nation, and an Indigenous hero. This introduction reflects on the significance of Riel for Canadian historical research and writing over the hundred years of existence of the Canadian Historical Review (CHR). It argues that the CHR has been an important vehicle for the professionalization of historical practice in Canada, and Riel has played an important part in that process. This introductory essay provides context and a discussion of the shifting approaches and interpretations of Riel in the CHR, identifying four phases: Civilizing and un-Civilizing Riel; Americanizing and un-Americanizing Riel; Mystifying and De-Mystifying Riel; and Provincializing Canada. It concludes that the history of Louis Riel is entwined with the emergence of professional history in Canada. == Notes == == Bibliography == Braz, Albert (2003). "The False Traitor: Louis Riel in Canadian Culture". The Canadian Historical Review. 85 (4). University of Toronto Press: 832–834. doi:10.1353/can.2005.0027. S2CID 144956681. Book preview link Barkwell, Lawrence J.; Dorion, Leah; Prefontaine, Darren (2001). Metis Legacy: A Historiography and Annotated Bibliography (PDF). Pemmican Publications Inc. / Gabriel Dumont Institute. ISBN 1-894717-03-1. Betts, Gregory (2008). "Non Compos Mentis: A Meta-Historical Survey of the Historiographic Narratives of Louis Riel's 'Insanity'" (PDF). International Journal of Canadian Studies (38): 15–40. doi:10.7202/040805ar. Beyer, Peter (1981). The religious beliefs of Louis Riel : an analysis using the sociological theory of Niklas Luhmann. School of Theology. Canadian theses on microfiche 52708. Toronto: University of St. Michael's College.\| Beyer, Peter (March 1, 1984). "La vision religieuse de Louis Riel: L'ultramontanisme Canadien-français au service de la nation métisse". Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses. 13 (1) (1st ed.): 87–100. doi:10.1177/000842988401300109. S2CID 151731629. Brown, D.H. (1975). "Meaning of Treason in 1885", 28 (2): 65-80 Saskatchewan History. Brown, J. (Jan 1987). "People of Myth, People of History: A Look at Recent Writings on the Metis". Acadiensis. 17 (1): 150–162. JSTOR 30302797. Brown, J. (2007). Noms et métaphores dans l’historiographie métisse : anciennes catégories et nouvelles perspectives. Recherches amérindiennes au Québec, 37(2-3), 7–14. Bruyneel, Kevin (2010). "Exiled, Executed, Exalted: Louis Riel, "Homo Sacer" and the Production of Canadian Sovereignty". Canadian Journal of Political Science. 43 (3): 711–32. doi:10.1017/S0008423910000612. JSTOR 40983515. S2CID 231894384. Bumsted, J. M. (1987). "The 'Mahdi' of Western Canada: Louis Riel and His Papers". The Beaver. 67 (4): 47–54. Dick, L. (1991). The Seven Oaks Incident and the Construction of a Historical Tradition, 1816 to 1970. Journal of the Canadian Historical Association / Revue de la Société historique du Canada, 2(1), 91–113. Dick, Lyle (2004–2005). "Nationalism and Visual Media in Canada: The Case of Thomas Scott's Execution". Manitoba History (48): 2–18. Flanagan, Thomas (1986). "Louis Riel: Icon of the Left". Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. 1: 219–228. Flanagan, Thomas (1992). Louis Riel (PDF). Historical Booklet No. 50. Ottawa: Canadian Historical Assoc. ISBN 0-88798-180-1. Notable general bibliography. Flanagan, Thomas (2000). Riel and the Rebellion: 1885 Reconsidered (2nd ed.). U of Toronto Press. Gaudry, Adam (2013). "The Métis-ization of Canada: The Process of Claiming Louis Riel, Métissage, and the Métis People as Canada's Mythical Origin". Aboriginal Policy Studies. 2 (2): 64–87. Gaudry, Adam; Welch, Mary Agnes; Gallant, David (September 11, 2019) [January 7, 2009]. "Métis". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Giraud, Marcel (1945), Le Métis canadien, son rôle dans l'histoire des prairies de l'Ouest, Paris, Institut d'ethnographie, 1 296 p.. Reprinted in 2 vols., with introduction by J.E. Foster with Louise Zuk, Saint-Boniface, Man.: Éditions du Blé, 1984. Translated by George Woodcock as, The Metis in the Canadian West, Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1986 (631pp.; 729 pages Goulet, George R. D. (1999). The Trial of Louis Riel: Justice and Mercy Denied: A Critical Legal and Political Analysis. Calgary: Tellwell Publishing. ISBN 0-9685489-0-3. Hamon, M. Max (2019). The Audacity of His Enterprise: Louis Riel and the Métis Nation That Canada Never Was, 1840–1875. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0228000099. Hamon, M. Max (June 2021). "Re-presenting Riel: 100 Years". Canadian Historical Review. 102 (s1): s1–s31M. doi:10.3138/chr-102.s1-000. S2CID 238759993. Max Hamon is the Buchanan post-doctoral Fellow at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.. LeBel, Sylvie (2003). "Le parcours identitaire des Métis du Canada : évolution, dynamisme et mythes". In Langlois, S.; Létourneau, J. (eds.). Aspects de la nouvelle francophonie canadienne. Québec: Presses de l’Université Laval. pp. 75–94. ISBN 2-7637-8083-0. Henderson, Matt (Feb. 29, 2020). "Recasting Riel, Historian claims Métis leader's role, significance has been misinterpreted", Winnipeg Free Press, review of M. Max Hamon's The Audacity of His Enterprise: Louis Riel and the Métis Nation That Canada Never Was. Huel, Raymond (1985). "The Clergyman as Historian: the Rev. A.-G. Morice, O.M.I., and Riel Historiography" (PDF). University of Lethbridge. CCHA Historical Studies. 52: 83–96. Madill, D. (July 1983). Select Annotaded Bibliography on Métis History and Claims (PDF). Treaties and Historical Research Centre, Research Branch, Corporate Policy. Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. 45 pages Miller, James Rodger (1988). "From Riel to the Metis". Canadian Historical Review. 69 (1): 1–20. doi:10.3138/CHR-069-01-01. S2CID 154383622. Miller, James Rodger (2004). "From Riel to the Métis". Reflections on Native-newcomer Relations: Selected Essays. University of Toronto Press. pp. 37–60. Milne, Brad (Autumn 1995). "The Historiography of Métis Land Dispersal, 1870-189". History Department, University of Manitoba. Manitoba History (30). Manitoba Historical Society. Morton, Desmond (May 1998). "Image of Louis Riel in 1998". Canadian Speeches. 12 (2). Morton, W. L. (1957, republished 1976). Manitoba: A History. University of Toronto Press.. Morton, W. L. (1970). "The Historiography of the Great West". Historical Papers / Communications Historiques. 5 (1): 46–59. doi:10.7202/030722ar. Mossmann, Manfred (1985). "The Charismatic Pattern: Canada's Riel Rebellion of 1885 as a Millenarian Protest Movement," Prairie Forum, 10(2): 307–325. Owram, Douglas (September 1982). "The Myth of Louis Riel". Canadian Historical Review. 63 (3): 315–336. doi:10.3138/CHR-063-03-01. Published online April 18, 2008 Owram, Doug, ed. (1994). Canadian History: Confederation to the present. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 2. University of Toronto Press. pp. 18, 168, 191–95, 347–50. ISBN 9780802076762. Nieguth, Tim, ed. (2015). The politics of popular culture: negotiating power, identity, and place. Montreal Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-4471-0. Pannekoek, Frits (Spring 1981). "The Historiography of the Red River Settlement, 1830-1868, Canadian Plains Research Center, Prairie Forum, Vol. VI, No. 1\|pp. 75–85. Payment, Diane Paulette (1999). "Les héritiers et héritières de Louis Riel: un aperçu des relations entre les Métis et les Canadiens français dans l'Ouest canadien". In Waddell, Eric (ed.). Le dialogue avec les cultures minoritaires. Ste-Foy: Les Presses de l’Université Laval. ISBN 2-7637-7634-5. Read, Geoff; Webb, Todd (June 2012). "The Catholic Mahdi of the North West': Louis Riel and the Metis Resistance in Transatlantic and Imperial Context". Canadian Historical Review. 93 (2): 171–195. doi:10.3138/chr.93.2.171. S2CID 159632535. Reid, Jennifer (2008). Louis Riel and the Creation of Modern Canada: Mythic Discourse and the Postcolonial State. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-4415-1. Rivard, É. (2016). Les Bois-Brûlés et le Canada français : une histoire de famille éclatée. Bulletin d'histoire politique, 24(2), 55–74. "Louis Riel and modern culture" (PDF). Société historique de Saint-Boniface, Centre du patrimoine. Teillet, Jean; Wardhaugh, Robert (ed.) Carter, Sarah; Chartrand, David; Duhamel, Karine; Ferguson, Barry; Friesen, Gerald; Kermoal, Nathalie; Machoruk, James; Mailhot, Philippe; St-Onge, Nicole; Teillet, Jean; Tough, Frank J.; Wardhaugh, Robert (2021). "Manitoba and Canada's North-West: Founders and Builders" (PDF). Canadian Issues. Association for Canadian Studies. Trémaudan, Auguste-Henri de (1936). Histoire de la nation métisse dans l'Ouest canadien, Montréal: Editions A. Lévesque. Sprague, D.N. (1988). "Historiographical introduction". In Waddell, Eric (ed.). Canada and the Métis, 1869-1885. pp. 1–17. Stanley, George F.G. (1979). "Louis Riel: Patriot or Rebel?" (PDF). Canadian Historical Association Booklet No. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-06. Thomas, Lewis H. (2016) [1982]. "Riel, Louis (1844-85)". Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. 11. University of Toronto / Université Laval. Retrieved February 11, 2022. Notable general bibliography.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel
Historiography of early Christianity is the study of historical writings about early Christianity, which is the period before the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Historians have used a variety of sources and methods in exploring and describing Christianity during this time. The growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian theology and the Development of the Christian Biblical canon, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the first Ecclesiastical History written by Eusebius of Caesarea around 324 and in the subjects it covers. Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work. Paul Barnett pointed out that "scholars of ancient history have always recognized the 'subjectivity' factor in their available sources" and "have so few sources available compared to their modern counterparts that they will gladly seize whatever scraps of information that are at hand." He noted that modern history and ancient history are two separate disciplines, with differing methods of analysis and interpretation. Since the 19th-century, historians have learned much more about the early Christian community. Ferdinand Christian Baur applied Hegelian philosophy to church history and described a 2nd-century Christian community fabricating the gospels. Adolf Harnack was the leading expert in patristics, or the study of the Church Fathers, whose writings defined early Christian practice and doctrine. Harnack identified dramatic changes within the Christian Church as it adapted itself to the pagan culture of the Roman Empire. He also claimed early dates for the gospels, granting them serious historical value. Early texts such as the Didache (in 2nd-millennium copies) and the Gospel of Thomas (in two manuscripts dated as early as about 200 and 340) have been rediscovered in the last 200 years. The Didache, from the 1st century, provides insight into the Jewish Christians of the Jerusalem church. The Gospel of Thomas apparently reflects the beliefs of 1st-century, proto-gnostic Christians in Syria. In the 20th century, scholars became more likely to see early Christian faith and practice as evolving out of the religious beliefs and practices of Second Temple Judaism and Hellenic beliefs and practices, rather than standing out in sharp contrast to them. Modern historians have come to accept Jesus' Jewish identity and that of the apostolic church (referred to as Jewish Christianity). The relationship of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism is still disputed. H. G. Wells, in his Outline of History, depicted Jesus as a man and Christianity as a religion of no divine distinction. Scholars such as Walter Bauer and Bart Ehrman have emphasized the diversity of early Christianity, with Proto-orthodox Christianity being one thread, against the traditional account of catholic unanimity. == Sources == In its first few centuries, Christians made up a small minority of the population of the Roman Empire. The religion attracted little attention from writers with other religious beliefs, and few artifacts have been found to document Christianity in its earliest days. Most of the surviving documentation was written by Christians. === Historical Jesus === All the sources for the life of Jesus are documents, there is no physical or archeological evidence. Except for a few proponents of the Christ myth theory, it is generally accepted among scholars that Jesus existed. The main sources for biographical information about Jesus are the synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. The synoptic Gospels do not agree on many of the details of Jesus' life, but the two events virtually all scholars agree actually took place were his baptism by John the Baptist and crucifixion under the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate. Besides his baptism and execution, the synoptic Gospels describe Jesus' birth, ministry, miracles and resurrection. === Oral Tradition === Early Christianity relied on the Sacred Oral Tradition of what Jesus had said and done, as reported by his Apostles and Disciples. Apostles who had witnessed Jesus's teachings travelled around the Mediterranean basin, where they established churches and began oral traditions in various places, such as Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesarea, and Ephesus, all cities with sizable Jewish populations. These oral traditions were later written down as the four Gospels. === New Testament === The Gospel of Mark was written during c. 65–70, possibly motivated by the First Jewish-Roman War. The Gospel of Matthew was written c. 80–85 to convince a Jewish audience that Jesus was the expected Messiah (Christ) and greater than Moses. The Gospel of Luke, together with Acts (see Luke-Acts) was c. 85–90, considered the most literate and artistic of the gospels. Finally, the Gospel of John was written, portraying Jesus as the incarnation of the divine Word, who primarily taught about himself as a savior. All four gospels originally circulated anonymously, and they were attributed to Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John in the 2nd century. Various authors wrote further epistles and the Apocalypse of John. Among the writings considered central to the development of Christianity are the Pauline epistles, letters written or more accurately "dictated" by Paul of Tarsus to various churches. All of Paul's extant letters are now regarded as scripture. Some scholars think Paul articulated the first Christian theology: namely that all people inherit Adam's guilt (see Original Sin) and can only be saved from death by the atoning death of the Son of God, Jesus' crucifixion. ==== Defining scripture ==== Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-2nd century, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture. Similarly, in the 3rd century a shift away from direct revelation as a source of authority occurred. "Scripture" still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the Septuagint among Greek speakers. Beyond the Torah (the Law) and some of the earliest prophetic works (the Prophets), there was no universal agreement to a canon, but it was not debated much at first. By the mid-2nd century, tensions arose with the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism, which some theorize led eventually to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging rabbinic movement, though, even as of today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set, see Development of the Hebrew Bible canon for details. Some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty (140–37 BCE). Regardless, throughout the Jewish diaspora newer writings were still collected and the fluid Septuagint collection was the primary source of scripture for Christians. Many works under the names of known apostles, such as the Gospel of Thomas, were accorded scriptural status in at least some Christian circles. Apostolic writings, such as I Clement and the Epistle of Barnabas, were considered scripture even within the orthodoxy through the 5th century. A problem for scholars is that there is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the 2nd century, Christians held onto a strong preference for oral tradition as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as Papias. The acceptance of the Septuagint was generally uncontested (even the Peshitta appears to be influenced). Later Jerome would express his preference for adhering strictly to the Jewish canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day. It was not until the Protestant Reformation that substantial numbers of Christians began to reject those books of the Septuagint which are not found in the Jewish canon, referring to them as biblical apocrypha. In addition, some New Testament books were also disputed, see Antilegomena. ==== Historicity of the canonical Gospels ==== The Historicity of the canonical Gospels refers to the reliability and historic character of the four New Testament gospels as historical documents. These gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John recount the life, ministry, crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. Historians subject the gospels to critical analysis, attempting to differentiate authentic, reliable information from what they judge to be inventions, exaggerations, and alterations. Many prominent mainstream historians consider the synoptic gospels to contain much reliable historical information about the historical existence of Jesus as a Galilean teacher and of the religious movement he founded, but not everything contained in the gospels is considered to be historically reliable. The Gospel of Mark, believed by scholars to be the first Gospel written, narrates the historically authentic baptism of Jesus, his preaching, and the crucifixion of Jesus. Matthew and Luke follow Mark's narrative, with some changes, and add substantial amounts of Jesus' ethical teaching, such as The Golden Rule. Elements whose historical authenticity is disputed include the two accounts of the nativity of Jesus, as well as certain details about the crucifixion and the resurrection. While some Christian scholars maintain that the gospels are inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus, other scholars have concluded that they provide no historical information about his life. The teachings of Jesus in the Gospel of John are very different from those found in the synoptic gospels. Thus, since the 19th century scholars have generally believed that only one of the two traditions could be authentic. Today, prominent, mainstream historians largely tend to discount the historical value of John. Few scholars regard John to be at all comparable to the Synoptics in terms of historical value. E. P. Sanders and other critical scholars conclude that the Gospel of John contains an "advanced theological development, in which meditations of the person and work of Jesus are presented in the first person as if Jesus said them." The scholars of the Jesus Seminar assert that there is little historical value in John and consider nearly every Johannine saying of Jesus to be nonhistorical. Geza Vermes discounts all the teaching in John when reconstructing "the authentic gospel of Jesus." The Gospel of John also differs from the synoptic gospels in respect of its narrative of Jesus' life and ministry; but here there is a lower degree of consensus that the synoptic tradition is to be preferred. In particular John A.T. Robinson has argued that, where the Gospel narrative accounts can be checked for consistency with surviving material evidence, the account in the Gospel of John is commonly the more plausible; and that it is generally easier to reconcile the various synoptic accounts within John's narrative framework, than it is to explain John's narrative within the framework of any of the synoptics. In particular he argues that, where in the Gospel of John, Jesus and his disciples are described as travelling around identifiable locations, then the trips in question can always be plausibly followed on the ground which he claims is not the case for the narrative accounts of any other of the four Gospels. Some scholars today believe that parts of John represent an independent historical tradition from the synoptics, while other parts represent later traditions. The Gospel was probably shaped in part by increasing tensions between synagogue and church, or between those who believed Jesus was the Messiah and those who did not. Nevertheless, John is not entirely without historical value. Critical scholarship in the 19th century distinguished between the 'biographical' approach of the three Synoptic Gospels and the 'theological' approach of John, and accordingly tended to disregard John as a historical source. This distinction is no longer regarded as sustainable in more recent scholarship, which emphasizes that all four gospels are both biographical and theological. According to Barnabas Lindars, "All four Gospels should be regarded primarily as biographies of Jesus, but all four have a definite theological aim." Sanders points out that the author would regard the gospel as theologically true as revealed spiritually even if its content is not historically accurate. The gospel does contain some independent, historically plausible elements. Henry Wansbrough says: "Gone are the days when it was scholarly orthodoxy to maintain that John was the least reliable of the gospels historically." It has become generally accepted that certain sayings in John are as old or older than their synoptic counterparts, that John's knowledge of things around Jerusalem is often superior to the synoptics, and that his presentation of Jesus' agony in the garden and the prior meeting held by the Jewish authorities are possibly more historically accurate than their synoptic parallels. And Marianne Meye Thompson writes: "There are items only in John that are likely to be historical and ought to be given due weight. Jesus' first disciples may once have been followers of the Baptist (cf. Jn. 1:35–42). There is no a priori reason to reject the report of Jesus and his disciples' conducting a ministry of baptism for a time. That Jesus regularly visited Jerusalem, rather than merely at the time of his death, is often accepted as more realistic for a pious, 1st-century Jewish male (and is hinted at in the other Gospels as well: Mark 11:2; Luke 13:34; 22:8–13,53) ... Even John's placement of the Last Supper before Passover has struck some as likely." Sanders, however, cautions that even historically plausible elements in John can hardly be taken as historical evidence, as they may well represent the author's intuition rather than historical recollection. === Fathers of the church === From an early date the title "Father" was applied to bishops as witnesses to the Christian tradition. Only later, from the end of the 4th century, was it used in a more restricted sense of a more or less clearly defined group of ecclesiastical authors of the past whose authority on doctrinal matters carried special weight. According to the commonly accepted teaching, the fathers of the church are those ancient writers, whether bishops or not, who were characterized by orthodoxy of doctrine, holiness of life and the approval of the church. Sometimes Tertullian, Origen and a few others of not unimpeachable orthodoxy are now classified as Fathers of the Church. Post-apostolic, or Ante-Nicene, Fathers defined and defended Christian doctrine. The Apologists became prominent in the 2nd century. This includes such notable figures as Justin Martyr (died 165), Tatian (died c. 185), and Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-211/216). They debated with prevalent philosophers of their day, defending and arguing for Christianity. They focused mainly on monotheism and their harshest words were used for ancient mythologies. Fathers such as Irenaeus advocated the role of the apostolic succession of bishops in preserving apostolic teaching. === Dead Sea Scrolls === The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of about 900 documents, including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1956 in eleven caves in and around the ruins of the ancient settlement of Khirbet Qumran on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea in the West Bank. The texts are of great religious and historical significance, as they include the oldest known surviving copies of Biblical and extra-biblical documents and preserve evidence of great diversity in late Second Temple Judaism. They are written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, mostly on parchment, but with some written on papyrus. These manuscripts generally date between 150 BCE and 70 CE. The scrolls are traditionally identified with the ancient Jewish sect called the Essenes, though some recent interpretations have challenged this association and argue that the scrolls were penned by priests, Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups. The Dead Sea Scrolls are traditionally divided into three groups: "Biblical" manuscripts (copies of texts from the Hebrew Bible), which compose roughly 40% of the identified scrolls; "Apocryphal" or "Pseudepigraphical" manuscripts (known documents from the Second Temple Period like Enoch, Jubilees, Tobit, Sirach, non-canonical psalms, etc., that were not ultimately canonized in the Hebrew Bible), which make up roughly 30% of the identified scrolls; and "Sectarian" manuscripts (previously unknown documents that speak to the rules and beliefs of a particular group or groups within greater Judaism) like the Community Rule, War Scroll, Pesher (Hebrew pesher פשר = "Commentary") on Habakkuk, and the Rule of the Blessing, which represent roughly 30% of the identified scrolls. === Gnostic Gospels === The Gnostic Gospels are gnostic collections of writings about the teachings of Jesus, written from the 2nd – 4th century. These gospels are not part of the standard Biblical canon of any major Christian denomination, and as such are part of what is called the New Testament apocrypha. === Nag Hammadi library === The Nag Hammadi library is a collection of early Christian Gnostic texts discovered near the Upper Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. That year, twelve leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local peasant named Mohammed Ali Samman. The writings in these codices comprised fifty-two mostly Gnostic treatises, but they also include three works belonging to the Corpus Hermeticum and a partial translation/alteration of Plato's Republic. In his "Introduction" to The Nag Hammadi Library in English, James Robinson suggests that these codices may have belonged to a nearby Pachomian monastery, and were buried after Bishop Athanasius condemned the uncritical use of non-canonical books in his Festal Letter of 367 AD. The contents of the codices were written in Coptic language, though the works were probably all translations from Greek. The best-known of these works is probably the Gospel of Thomas, of which the Nag Hammadi codices contain the only complete text. After the discovery it was recognized that fragments of these sayings attributed to Jesus appeared in manuscripts discovered at Oxyrhynchus in 1898, and matching quotations were recognized in other early Christian sources. Subsequently, a 1st or 2nd century date of composition c. 80 for the lost Greek originals of the Gospel of Thomas has been proposed, though this is disputed by many if not the majority of biblical matter researchers. The once buried manuscripts themselves date from the 3rd and 4th centuries. The Nag Hammadi codices are housed in the Coptic Museum in Cairo, Egypt. To read about their significance to modern scholarship into early Christianity, see the Gnosticism article. === Josephus === The works of Josephus provide crucial information about the First Jewish-Roman War and are also important literary source material for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and late Temple Judaism. Josephus includes information about individuals, groups, customs and geographical places. His writings provide a significant, extra-Biblical account of the post-Exilic period of the Maccabees, the Hasmonean dynasty, and the rise of Herod the Great. He makes references to the Sadducees, Jewish High Priests of the time, Pharisees and Essenes, the Herodian Temple, Quirinius' census and the Zealots, and to such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, Agrippa I and Agrippa II, John the Baptist, James the brother of Jesus, and a pair of disputed and undisputed references to Jesus (for more see Josephus on Jesus). He is an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism and the context of early Christianity. === Tacitus === The Annals is among the first-known secular-historic records to mention Jesus which Tacitus does in connection with Nero's persecution of the Christians. The passage contains an early non-Christian reference to the origin of Christianity, the execution of Christ described in the Bible's New Testament gospels, and the presence and persecution of Christians in 1st-century Rome. While a majority of scholars consider the passage authentic, some dispute it. Those supporting authenticity argue it is too critical of Christians to have been added by later Christian scribes. Some who argue against authenticity assert: No early Christian writers refer to Tacitus even when discussing the subject of Nero and Christian persecution. Tertullian, Lactantius, Sulpicius Severus, Eusebius and Augustine of Hippo make no reference to Tacitus when discussing Christian persecution by Nero. (This is wrong, as Tertullian does refer to Tacitus' annals in his Apology ) If authentic, the passage would constitute one of the earliest, if not the earliest (see: Josephus on Jesus) non-Christian references to Jesus. Those critical of the passage's authenticity argue that early Christian writers likely would have sought to establish the historicity of Jesus via secular or non-Christian documents, and that their silence with regard to the Annals in this manner may suggest that the passage did not exist in early manuscripts. Furthermore, because the text derives from a single surviving 11th century monastic copy, skeptics of the passage's authenticity argue that it may be the result of later Christian editing. Supporters of the passage's authenticity, however, counter on the basis of the criterion of embarrassment that the passage's critical remarks on Christianity as a "mischievous superstition" argue against its having been made by later Christian editors who, it is argued, would have cast Christians in a positive and not negative light. Critics counter that the criterion of embarrassment wrongly assumes that a scribal interpolator would not intentionally write details critical of his or her religious group, and that a scribe may have found it advantageous and convincing to supply a less embarrassing fact (e.g., that Christians were regarded by the Romans as subscribing to a "mischievous superstition") in the place of a more embarrassing one (e.g., no early, non-Christian references to a historical Jesus). Pontius Pilate's rank was prefect when he was in Judea. The Tacitus passage mistakenly calls Pilate a procurator, an error also made in translations of a passage by Josephus. (However, Josephus wrote in Greek and never used the Latin term.) After Herod Agrippa's death in AD 44, when Judea reverted to direct Roman rule, Claudius gave procurators control over Judea. This was made possible when he augmented the role of procurators so that they had magisterial power. Tacitus, who rose through the magisterial ranks to become consul and then proconsul had a precise knowledge of significance of the terms involved and knew when Judea began to be administered by procurators. It is therefore problematical that he would use "procurator" instead of "prefect" to describe the governor of Judea prior to the changes that he tells us Claudius brought in. The passage implies that the Christians may have been guilty of setting fire to Rome, another argument against veracity, for Tacitus was attempting to lay the blame of the fire on Nero by aspersion. Another ancient writer, Suetonius, mentions Christians being harmed during this period by Nero, but there is no connection made with the fire. The surviving copies of Tacitus' major works derive from two principal manuscripts, known as the Medicean manuscripts, which are held in the Laurentian Library. The second of them (Plut. 68.2), as the only one containing books xi–xvi of the Annales, is the oldest witness to the passage describing Christians. In this codex, the first 'i' of the Christianos is quite distinct in appearance from the second, looking somewhat smudged, and lacking the long tail of the second 'i'; additionally, there is a large gap between the first 'i' and the subsequent long s. Georg Andresen was one of the first to comment on the appearance of the first 'i' and subsequent gap, suggesting in 1902 that the text had been altered, and an 'e' had originally been in the text, rather than this 'i'. In 1950, at Harald Fuchs request, Dr. Teresa Lodi, the director of the Laurentian Library, examined the features of this item of the manuscript; she concluded that there are still signs of an 'e' being erased, by removal of the upper and lower horizontal portions, and distortion of the remainder into an 'i'. In 2008, Dr. Ida Giovanna Rao, the new head of the Laurentian Library's manuscript office, repeated Lodi's study, and concluded that it is likely that the 'i' is a correction of some earlier character (like an e), the change being made an extremely subtle one. Later the same year, it was discovered that under ultraviolet light, an 'e' is clearly visible in the space, meaning that the passage must originally have referred to chrestianos, a Latin word which could be interpreted as the good, after the Greek word χρηστός (chrestos), meaning 'good, useful'. "I believe that in our passage of Tacitus the original reading Chrestianos is the true one" says Professor Robert Renehan, stating that it was "natural for a Roman to interpret the words [Christus and Christianus] as the similarly-sounding χρηστός". The word Christian/s is in Codex Sinaiticus (in which Christ is abbreviated – see nomina sacra) spelled Chrestian/s in the three places the word is used. Also in Minuscule 81 this spelling is used in Acts of the Apostles 11:26. == Jesus == The historicity of Jesus concerns the historical existence of Jesus of Nazareth. While scholars often draw a distinction between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith, and while scholars further debate what can specifically be known concerning Jesus' character and ministry, essentially all scholars in the relevant fields agree that the mere historical existence of Jesus can be established using documentary and other evidence. The lines of evidence used to establish Jesus' historical existence include the New Testament documents, theoretical source documents that may lie behind the New Testament, statements from the early Church Fathers, brief references in histories produced decades or centuries later by pagan and Jewish sources, gnostic documents, and early Christian creeds. === Historical Jesus === The Historical Jesus is a scholarly reconstruction of the 1st-century figure Jesus of Nazareth using modern historical methods. This reconstruction is based upon historical methods. These include critical analysis of gospel texts as the primary source for his biography, and non-biblical sources for the historical and cultural context in which he lived. Since the 18th century, historians and biblical scholars have undertaken three scholarly quests for the historical Jesus, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during each specific phase. From Albert Schweitzer’s revolutionary work in 1906, to the controversial Jesus Seminar, much has been learned. The purpose of these scholars is to examine the evidence from diverse sources and critically bring it together in order that we can compile a totally up-to-date composite of Jesus. Use of the term the Historical Jesus implies that the figure thus reconstructed will differ from that presented in the teaching of the ecumenical councils ("the dogmatic Christ"). It will also sometimes differ from Jewish, Christian, Muslim or Hindu beliefs. The historical Jesus was a Galilean Jew living in a time of messianic and apocalyptic expectations. He was baptized by John the Baptist, and after John was executed, Jesus began his own preaching in Galilee. He preached the salvation, everlasting life, cleansing from sins, Kingdom of God, using pithy parables with startling imagery and was renowned as a teacher and a healer. Many scholars credit the apocalyptic declarations that the gospels attribute to him, while others portray his Kingdom of God as a moral one, and not apocalyptic in nature. He sent his apostles out to heal and to preach the Kingdom of God. Later, he traveled to Jerusalem in Judea, where he caused a disturbance at the Temple. It was the time of Passover, when political and religious tensions were high in Jerusalem. The Gospels say that the temple guards (believed to be Sadducees) arrested him and turned him over to Pontius Pilate for execution. The movement he had started survived his death and was carried on by his apostles who proclaimed the resurrection of Jesus. It developed into Early Christianity (see also List of events in early Christianity). The quest for the historical Jesus began with the work of Hermann Samuel Reimarus in the 18th century. Two books, both called The Life of Jesus were written by David Strauss, published in German in 1835–36, and Ernest Renan, published in French in 1863. The Historical Jesus is conceptually different than the Christ of Faith. The former is physical, while the latter metaphysical. The Historical Jesus is based on historical evidence. Every time a new scroll is unearthed or new Gospel fragment is found, the Historical Jesus is modified. And because so much has been lost, we can never know him completely. In The Historical Figure of Jesus, E.P. Sanders used Alexander the Great as a paradigm—the available sources tell us much about Alexander’s deeds, but nothing about his thoughts. "The sources for Jesus are better, however, than those that deal with Alexander" and "the superiority of evidence for Jesus is seen when we ask what he thought." Thus, Sanders considers the quest for the Historical Jesus to be much closer to a search for historical details on Alexander than to those historical figures with adequate documentation. Consequently, scholars like Sanders, Geza Vermes, John P. Meier, David Flusser, James H. Charlesworth, Raymond E. Brown, Paula Fredriksen and John Dominic Crossan argue that, although many readers are accustomed to thinking of Jesus solely as a theological figure whose existence is a matter only of religious debate, the four canonical Gospel accounts are based on source documents written within decades after Jesus' lifetime, and therefore provide a basis for the study of the "historical" Jesus. These historians also draw on other historical sources and archaeological evidence to reconstruct the life of Jesus in his historical and cultural context. In contrast, Charles Guignebert, Professor of the History of Christianity, at the Sorbonne, maintained that the "conclusions which are justified by the documentary evidence may be summed up as follows: Jesus was born somewhere in Galilee in the time of the Emperor Augustus, of a humble family, which included half a dozen or more children besides himself." (Emphasis added). He adds elsewhere "there is no reason to suppose he was not executed". Recent research has focused upon the "Jewishness" of the historical Jesus. The re-evaluation of Jesus' family, particularly the role played after his death by his brother James, has led scholars like Hans Küng to suggest that there was an early form of non-Hellenistic "Jewish Christianity" like the Ebionites, that did not accept Jesus' divinity and was persecuted by both Roman and Christian authorities. Küng suggests that these Jewish Christians settled in Arabia, and may have influenced the story of Christ as portrayed in the Qur'an. === Jesus as myth === The existence of Jesus as an actual historical figure has been questioned by few biblical scholars and historians, some of the earliest being Constantin-François Volney and Charles François Dupuis in the 18th century and Bruno Bauer in the 19th century. Each of these proposed that the Jesus character was a fusion of earlier mythologies. The views of scholars who entirely rejected Jesus' historicity were summarized in Will Durant's Caesar and Christ, published in 1944. Their rejections were based on a suggested lack of eyewitnesses, a lack of direct archaeological evidence, the failure of ancient works to mention Jesus, and similarities early Christianity shares with then-contemporary religion and mythology. More recently, arguments for non-historicity have been discussed by George Albert Wells, Earl Doherty (The Jesus Puzzle, 1999), Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy (The Jesus Mysteries) and Robert M. Price. Doherty, for example, maintains that the earliest records of Christian beliefs (the earliest epistles) contain almost no reference to the historical Jesus, which only appears in the Gospel accounts. He suggests that these are best explained if Christianity began as a mythic savior cult, with no specific historical figure in mind. Nevertheless, the historicity of Jesus is accepted by almost all Biblical scholars and classical historians. The New Testament scholar James Dunn describes the mythical Jesus theory as a 'thoroughly dead thesis'. == Founding of the Christian Church == According to Christian tradition, the Christian Church was founded by Jesus. In the Gospel according to Matthew, the resurrected Jesus gathered his Twelve Apostles together, issued the Great Commission, and selected Simon Peter as their leader, proclaiming "I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven". Many modern scholars, including some Catholic ones, flatly deny that Jesus ever even intended to found a Church, much less that he did so. Even those scholars who agree that Jesus founded some kind of Church are divided on whether he founded it on Simon Peter or gave him any sort of primacy. Even those scholars who accept that Peter held some sort of primacy among the apostles are divided on the issue of whether Jesus intended that primacy to be continued by others after Peter's death (apostolic succession). Even those scholars who accept that Jesus intended a continuing Petrine primacy are divided on whether this primacy was uniquely devolved upon the Church of Rome; some, for example, following the lead of Cyprian of Carthage, insist that the Petrine primacy is possessed by every bishop throughout the world who stands in legitimate apostolic succession, whether in communion with Rome or not. Even those scholars who accept that a unique Petrine primacy attached to the See of Rome are divided on exactly how and why that primacy became attached to Rome, by what means or succession it was passed down within the See of Rome, whether Rome itself remained true to that primacy, and exactly what authority the primacy legitimately exercises in the world today. === Catholic Church === The Catholic Church believes itself to be the continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus in his consecration of Simon Peter. In the Catholic view, modern bishops are the successors to the apostles. The See of Rome is traditionally said to be founded by Peter and Paul. While the New Testament says nothing directly about Peter's connection with Rome, indirectly Romans 15:20–22 may indicate that when Paul wrote it, another Apostle was already in Rome, and it is highly probable that the "Babylon" mentioned in 1 Peter 5:13, a letter attributed to Peter, is Rome. The tradition that links Peter with Rome is "early and unrivalled". In the first years of the 2nd century, Ignatius of Antioch implies that Peter and Paul had special authority over the Roman church. Irenaeus of Lyons, also of the 2nd century, believed that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as bishop. Dionysius of Corinth also serves as a witness to the tradition. The traditional narrative starts with Peter being consecrated by Jesus, followed by Peter traveling to Rome sometime after Pentecost, founding a church there, serving as its first bishop and consecrating Linus as bishop, thus starting the line of Popes of whom Leo XIV is the current successor. This narrative is often related in histories of the Catholic Church. Elements of this traditional narrative agree with the surviving historical evidence, which includes the writings of several early church Fathers (among them Pope Clement I) and some archaeological evidence. While some historians of Christianity assert that the Catholic Church can be traced to Jesus's consecration of Peter, others argue that Jesus did not found a church in his lifetime but provided a framework of beliefs. Other historians disagree with the traditional view that the papacy originated with Peter, instead asserting that the papal office developed at an unspecified date before the mid 150s and could possibly have been superimposed by the traditional narrative upon the primitive church. The only part of this narrative that is supported directly by the Scriptures is the consecration of Peter; however, elements of the rest of the narrative are attested to in the writings of Church Fathers such as Ignatius, Irenaeus and Dionysius of Corinth. Largely as a result of a challenge to this narrative initiated by Alfred Loisy, some theologians have challenged the historicity of the traditional narrative, resulting in a less literal interpretation of the Church's "founding" by Jesus and less specific claims about the historical foundations and transmission of the Petrine primacy in the Church's early years. Some historians have also challenged the traditional narrative of Peter's role in the early Roman Church. The New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the Papacy nor that he established Peter as the first Bishop of Rome. The official documents of the Catholic Church do not apply to Peter the title "Bishop of Rome", applying it instead to the "successor of Peter", and presenting the Pope as Peter's successor in his relationship with the whole of the Catholic Church. However, some present the Church as linking Peter's primacy with his being bishop of Rome: Eamon Duffy says the official Catholic Church position is that Jesus had essentially appointed Peter as the first pope, with universal primacy as bishop of Rome. Some historians have challenged the view that Peter was bishop (as the term is now understood) of Rome. While most scholars agree that Peter died in Rome, it is generally accepted that there was a Christian community in Rome before either Peter or Paul arrived there. The Catholic Church draws an analogy between Peter's seeming primacy among the Twelve in New Testament texts such as Matthew 16:17–19, Luke 22:32, and John 21:15–17 and the position of the Pope among the Church's bishops. Two apostolic and patriarchal sees are claimed to have been founded by Peter: those of Antioch and Rome. With the see of Alexandria, see Coptic Pope, viewed as founded by a disciple of Peter, these formed what became known as the three Petrine Sees, endowed with special authority as recognized by the First Council of Nicaea. == Apostolic Age == The apostolic period between the years 30 and 100 produced writings attributed to the direct followers of Jesus Christ. The period is traditionally associated with the apostles, apostolic times and apostolic writings. The New Testament books were connected by the early church to the apostles, though modern scholarship has cast doubt on the authorship of most New Testament books. In the traditional history of the Christian church, the Apostolic Age was the foundation upon which the entire church's history is founded. The Apostolic Age is particularly significant to Restorationism which claims that it represents a purer form of Christianity that should be restored to the church as it exists today. The unique character of the New Testament writings, and their period of origin, is highlighted by the paucity of the literary form in later writing. Once the canon of the New Testament began to take shape, the style ceased to be used on a regular basis. Noncanonical writings persisted, but died out within a historically short period of time. Early patristic literature is dominated by apologetics and makes use of other literary forms borrowed from non-Christian sources. === Peter and Paul === According to 19th-century German theologian F. C. Baur early Christianity was dominated by the conflict between Peter who was law observant and Paul who advocated partial or even complete freedom from the law. Later findings contradicted this theory. The allegedly continuous conflict was not supported by the available evidence. However, theological conflict between Paul and Peter is recorded in the New Testament and was widely discussed in the early church. Marcion and his followers stated that the polemic against false apostles in Galatians was aimed at Peter, James and John, the "Pillars of the Church", as well as the "false" gospels circulating through the churches at the time. Irenaeus and Tertullian argued against Marcionism's elevation of Paul and stated that Peter and Paul were equals among the apostles. Passages from Galatians were used to show that Paul respected Peter's office and acknowledged a shared faith. === Simon Peter === James D. G. Dunn has proposed that Peter was the "bridge-man" between the two other prominent leaders: Paul and James the Just. Paul and James were both heavily identified with their own "brands" of Christianity. Peter showed a desire to hold onto his Jewish identity, in contrast with Paul. He simultaneously showed a flexibility towards the desires of the broader Christian community, in contrast to James. (This balance is illustrated in the Antioch episode related in Galatians 2.) Thus, Peter became a unifying force in the church. The See of Rome is traditionally said to be founded by Peter and Paul, see also Primacy of Simon Peter, who had invested it with apostolic authority. The New Testament says nothing directly about Peter's connection to Rome, but an early Catholic tradition supports such a connection. Most Catholic and Protestant scholars, and many scholars in general, conclude that Peter was indeed martyred in Rome under Nero. A 2009 critical study by Otto Zwierlein has concluded that "there is not a single piece of reliable literary evidence (and no archaeological evidence either) that Peter ever was in Rome." 1 Clement, a document that has been dated anywhere from the 90s to the 120s, is one of the earliest sources adduced in support of Peter's stay in Rome, but questions have been raised about the text's authenticity and whether it has any knowledge about Peter's life beyond what is contained in the New Testament Acts. The Letter to the Romans attributed to St. Ignatius of Antioch implies that Peter and Paul had special authority over the Roman church, telling the Roman Christians: "I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did" (ch. 4). However, the authenticity of this document and its traditional dating to c. 105–110 have also been questioned, and it may date from the final decades of the 2nd century. Later in the 2nd century, Irenaeus of Lyons believed that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop. Tertullian also writes: "But if you are near Italy, you have Rome, where authority is at hand for us too. What a happy church that is, on which the apostles poured out their whole doctrine with their blood; where Peter had a passion like that of the Lord, where Paul was crowned with the death of John (the Baptist, by being beheaded)." Dionysius of Corinth also serves as a late 2nd -century witness to the tradition. He wrote: "You (Pope Soter) have also, by your very admonition, brought together the planting that was made by Peter and Paul at Rome and at Corinth; for both of them alike planted in our Corinth and taught us; and both alike, teaching similarly in Italy, suffered martyrdom at the same time". Later tradition, first found in Saint Jerome, attributes to Peter a 25-year episcopate (or apostolate) in Rome. Paul's Epistle to the Romans 16 (c. 58) attests to a large Christian community already there, although he does not mention Peter. === Paul of Tarsus === Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton and an authority on Gnosticism, argues that Paul was a Gnostic and that the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries written to rebut this. British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contends that the Paul as described in the Book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also points out that there are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts. Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, some have argued that the speeches of Peter and Paul are too much alike, and that especially Paul's are too distinct from his letters to reflect a true Pauline source. Despite these suspicions, historian-attorney Christopher Price concludes that Luke's style in Acts is representative of those ancient historians known for accurately recording speeches in their works. Examination of several of the major speeches in Acts reveals that while the author smoothed out the Greek in some cases, he clearly relied on preexisting material to reconstruct his speeches. He did not believe himself at liberty to invent material, but attempted to accurately record the reality of the speeches in Acts. F. C. Baur (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the Tübingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism. Maccoby theorizes that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributes the origins of Christian anti-Semitism to Paul and claims that Paul's view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects. == Post-apostolic period == Christianity throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries has generally been less studied than in the periods that came before and after it. This is reflected in that it is usually referred to in terms of the adjacent periods with names as such "post-apostolic" (after the period of 1st century formative Christianity) and "ante-Nicene" (before the First Council of Nicaea). However, the 2nd and 3rd centuries are quite important in the development of Christianity. There is a relative lack of material for this period, compared with the later Church Father period. For example, a widely used collection (Ante-Nicene Fathers) includes most 2nd- and 3rd-century writings in nine volumes. This includes the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, Apologists, Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus of Lyons, Origen of Alexandria and the New Testament Apocrypha, among others. In contrast, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (consisting mainly of Augustine, Jerome and Chrysostom) fills twenty-eight volumes. According to Siker the developments of this time are "multidirectional and not easily mapped". While the preceding and following periods were diverse, they possessed unifying characteristics lacking in this period. 1st-century Christianity possessed a basic cohesion based on the Pauline church movement, Jewish character, and self-identification as a messianic movement. The 2nd and 3rd centuries saw a sharp divorce from its early roots. There was an explicit rejection of then-modern Judaism and Jewish culture by the end of the 2nd century, with a growing body of adversus Judaeos literature. Christianity in the 4th and 5th centuries experienced imperial pressure and developed strong episcopal and unifying structure. The ante-Nicene period was without such authority and immensely diverse. Many variations in this time defy neat categorizations, as various forms of Christianity interacted in a complex fashion to form the dynamic character of Christianity in this era. By the early 2nd century, Christians had agreed on a basic list of writings that would serve as their canon, see Development of the New Testament canon, but interpretations of these works differed, often wildly. In part to ensure a greater consistency in their teachings, by the end of the 1st century many Christian communities evolved a more structured hierarchy, with a central bishop, whose opinion held more weight in that city. By 160, most communities had a bishop, who based his authority on the chain of succession from the apostles to himself. Bishops still had a freedom of interpretation. The competing versions of Christianity led many bishops who subscribed to what is now the mainstream version of Christianity to rally more closely together. Bishops would call synods to discuss problems or doctrinal differences in certain regions; the first of these to be documented occurred in Roman Asia in about 160. Some bishops began to take on a more authoritative role for a region; in many cases, the bishop of the church located in the capital city of a province became the central authority for all churches in that province. These more centralized authorities were known as metropolitan churches headed by a Metropolitan bishop. The churches in Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome exerted authority over groups of these metropolitan churches. === Church Fathers === The church fathers are generally divided into the Ante-Nicene Fathers, those who lived and wrote before the Council of Nicaea (325) and the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, those who lived and wrote after 325. In addition, the division of the fathers into Greek and Latin writers is also common. Some of the most prominent Greek Fathers are Justin Martyr, John Chrysostom, and Cyril of Alexandria. Among the Latin Fathers are Tertullian, Cyprian, Jerome, Ambrose of Milan, Gregory the Great and Augustine of Hippo. === Apostolic Fathers === The earliest Church Fathers (within two generations of the Apostles of Christ) are usually called the Apostolic Fathers. Important Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch and Polycarp of Smyrna. In addition, the Didache and Shepherd of Hermas are usually placed among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers although their authors are unknown. == Eusebius of Caesarea == The Church History (Latin: Historia Ecclesiastica or Historia Ecclesiae) of Eusebius of Caesarea was a 4th-century pioneer work giving a chronological account of the development of Early Christianity from the 1st century. It was written in Koine Greek, and survives also in Latin, Syriac and Armenian manuscripts. The result was the first full-length historical narrative written from a Christian point of view. In the early 5th century two advocates in Constantinople, Socrates Scholasticus and Sozomen, and a bishop, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Syria, wrote continuations of Eusebius' church history, establishing the convention of continuators that would determine to a great extent the way history was written for the next thousand years. Eusebius' Chronicle, that attempted to lay out a comparative timeline of pagan and Old Testament history, set the model for the other historiographical genre, the medieval chronicle or universal history. Eusebius made use of many ecclesiastical monuments and documents, acts of the martyrs, letters, extracts from earlier Christian writings, lists of bishops, and similar sources, often quoting the originals at great length so that his work contains materials not elsewhere preserved. For example, he wrote that Matthew composed the Gospel according to the Hebrews and his Church Catalogue suggests that it was the only Jewish gospel. It is therefore of historical value, though it pretends neither to completeness nor to the observance of due proportion in the treatment of the subject-matter. Nor does it present in a connected and systematic way the history of the early Christian Church. It is to no small extent a vindication of the Christian religion, though the author did not primarily intend it as such. Eusebius has been often accused of intentional falsification of the truth; in judging persons or facts he is not entirely unbiased. == Reformation == Some of the new words and phrases introduced by William Tyndale in his translation of the Bible did not sit well with the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church, using words like 'Overseer' rather than 'Bishop' and 'Elder' rather than 'Priest', and (very controversially), 'congregation' rather than 'Church' and 'love' rather than 'charity'. Tyndale contended (citing Erasmus) that the Greek New Testament did not support the traditional Roman Catholic readings. Contention from Roman Catholics came not only from real or perceived errors in translation but a fear of the erosion of their social power if Christians could read the bible in their own language "the Pope's dogma is bloody" Tyndale wrote in his The Obedience of a Christian Man. Tyndale translated "Church" as "congregation" and translated "priest" as "elder." Moynahan explains Tyndale's reasons for this: "This was a direct threat to the Church's ancient- but so Tyndale here made clear, non-scriptural- claim to be the body of Christ on earth. To change these words was to strip the Church hierarchy of its pretensions to be Christ's terrestrial representative, and to award this honour to individual worshipers who made up each congregation." == Modern perspectives == === Historicity of the Acts of the Apostles === The historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles, the primary source for the Apostolic Age, is a major issue for biblical scholars and historians of early Christianity. While some biblical scholars and historians view the book of Acts as being extremely accurate and corroborated by archaeology, others view the work as being inaccurate and in conflict with the Pauline epistles. Acts portrays Paul as more inline with Jewish Christianity, while the Pauline epistles record more conflict, such as the Incident at Antioch. === Orthodoxy and heterodoxy === Traditionally, orthodoxy and heresy have been viewed in relation to the "orthodoxy" as an authentic lineage of tradition. Other forms of Christianity were viewed as deviant streams of thought and therefore "heterodox", or heretical. This view was dominant until the publication of Walter Bauer's Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum ("Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity") in 1934. Bauer endeavored to rethink early Christianity historically, independent from the views of the church. He stated that the 2nd-century church was very diverse and included many "heretical" groups that had an equal claim to apostolic tradition. Bauer interpreted the struggle between the orthodox and heterodox to be the "mainstream" Roman church struggling to attain dominance. He presented Edessa and Egypt as places where the "orthodoxy" of Rome had little influence during the 2nd century. As he saw it, the theological thought of the Orient at the time would later be labeled "heresy". The response by modern scholars has been mixed. Some scholars clearly support Bauer's conclusions and others express concerns about his "attacking [of] orthodox sources with inquisitional zeal and exploiting to a nearly absurd extent the argument from silence." However, modern scholars have critiqued and updated Bauer's model. For example, subsequent analysis of Bauer's geographical model have generally fallen against Bauer such as in Egypt. Perhaps one of the most important discussions among scholars of early Christianity in the past century is to what extent it is appropriate to speak of "orthodoxy" and "heresy". Higher criticism drastically altered the previous perception that heresy was a very rare exception to the orthodoxy. Bauer was particularly influential in the reconsideration of the historical model. During the 1970s, increasing focus on the effect of social, political and economic circumstances on the formation of early Christianity occurred as Bauer's work found a wider audience. Some scholars argue against the increasing focus on heresies. A movement away from presuming the correctness or dominance of the orthodoxy is seen as understandable, in light of modern approaches. However, they feel that instead of an even and neutral approach to historical analysis that the heterodox sects are given an assumption of superiority over the orthodox movement. The current debate is vigorous and broad. While it is difficult to summarize all current views, general statements may be made, remembering that such broad strokes will have exceptions in specific cases. In his Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum (Tübingen 1934; a second edition, edited by Georg Strecker, Tübingen 1964, was translated as Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity 1971), Walter Bauer developed his thesis that in earliest Christianity, orthodoxy and heresy do not stand in relation to one another as primary to secondary, but in many regions heresy is the original manifestation of Christianity. Bauer reassessed as a historian the overwhelmingly dominant view that for the period of Christian origins, ecclesiastical doctrine already represented what is primary, while heresies, on the other hand somehow are a deviation from the genuine (Bauer, "Introduction"). Through studies of historical records Bauer concluded that what came to be known as orthodoxy was just one of numerous forms of Christianity in the early centuries. It was the form of Christianity practiced in Rome that exercised the uniquely dominant influence over the development of orthodoxy and acquired the majority of converts over time. This was largely due to the greater resources available to the Christians in Rome and due to the conversion to Christianity of the Roman Emperor Constantine I. Practitioners of what became orthodoxy then rewrote the history of the conflict making it appear that this view had always been the majority one. Writings in support of other views were systematically destroyed. Bauer's conclusions contradicted nearly 1600 years of writing on church history and thus were met with much skepticism among Christian academics such as Walther Völker (see below). The cultural isolation of Nazi Germany precluded a wider dissemination of Bauer's ideas until after World War II; in the international field of biblical scholarship, Bauer continued to be known solely as the compiler of the monumental Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments (in its English translation A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature or simply the Bauer lexicon), which has become standard. Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei was finally translated into English in 1970 and published in 1971. Bart Ehrman has written widely on issues of New Testament and early Christianity at both an academic and popular level, with over twenty books including three New York Times bestsellers (Misquoting Jesus, God's Problem, and Jesus, Interrupted). Much of his work is on textual criticism and the New Testament. His first book was Didymus the Blind and the Text of the Gospels (1987) followed by several books published by the Oxford University Press, including The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture, and a new edition and translation of The Apostolic Fathers in the Loeb Classical Library series published by Harvard University Press. His most recent book Jesus, Interrupted was published in March 2009 and discusses contradictions in the Bible. In 1999 Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium was released as a study on the historical Jesus. Ehrman argues that the historical Jesus was an apocalyptic preacher, and that his apocalyptic beliefs are recorded in the earliest Christian documents: the Gospel of Mark and the authentic Pauline epistles. The earliest Christians believed Jesus would soon return, and their beliefs are echoed in the earliest Christian writings. Much of Ehrman's writing has concentrated on various aspects of Walter Bauer's thesis that Christianity was always diversified or at odds with itself. Ehrman is often considered a pioneer in connecting the history of the early church to textual variants within biblical manuscripts and in coining such terms as "Proto-orthodox Christianity." Ehrman brought this thesis, and textual criticism in general, through his popular level work Misquoting Jesus. == Notes == == References == == Sources == Arnal, William Edward; Desjardins, Michel Robert, eds. (1997), Whose historical Jesus?, Studies in Christianity and Judaism, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, ISBN 978-0-88920-295-5 Barry, Rev. Msgr. John F (2001). One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief. Nihil obstat, Imprimatur. Gerard F. Baumbach, Ed.D. ISBN 0-8215-2207-8. Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50584-1. Brabazon, James (2000), Albert Schweitzer: a biography, Syracuse University Press Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1988), The International standard Bible Encyclopedia, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8028-3785-1 Brown, Raymond E.; Meier, John P. (1993), Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Christianity, Paulist Press Brown (1997), Introduction to the New Testament, Anchor Bible Bruce, FF (1982), New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable, InterVarsity Press, ISBN 0-87784-691-X Brunt, P.A. (1990), Roman imperial themes, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-814476-2 Chadwick, Henry (1993), The Early Church, Penguin Books Chadwick, Owen (1995), A History of Christianity, New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-13807-5 Chesnut, Glenn F. (1986), The First Christian Histories: Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius Crossan, John Dominic (1998), The essential Jesus, Castle Books Crossan, John Dominic; Watts, Richard G. (1999), Who is Jesus? Answers to your questions about the historical Jesus, Westminster John Knox Press Cullmann, Oscar (1962), Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr (2 ed.), Westminster Press Davies, Philip R. (2002), "The Jewish Scriptural Canon in Cultural Perspective", in McDonald, Lee Martin; Sanders, James A. (eds.), The Canon Debate, Hendrickson Publishers, ISBN 978-1-56563-517-3 Duffy, Eamon (1997). Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07332-1. Dunn, D.G. (2003), Jesus Remembered, Christianity in the Making, Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8028-3931-2 Dunn, J.G.D. (1998), The Christ and the Spirit, Volume I: Christology, Eerdmans / T&T Clark Dupuis, C.F. (1984), The Origin of All Religious Worship, Garland translation of Origine de tous les cultes, published by Chasseriau in 1794. Durant, Will (1972), Caesar and Christ, Simon and Schuster Edmunds, Rev. John (1855), The seven sayings of Christ on the cross, Thomas Hatchford Publishers Ehrman, Bart (2003), Lost Christianities, New York: Oxford University Press Eisenman, Robert (1997), James Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Viking Penguin France, R.T. (1986), The Evidence for Jesus Grudem, Wayne (1994), Systematic Theology, Inter-Varsity Press Guignebert, C. (1956), Jesus, University Books translated by S.H. Hooke Habermas, Gary R. (1996), The historical Jesus: ancient evidence for the life of Christ, College Press, ISBN 978-0-89900-732-8 Harris, Stephen (1985), Understanding the Bible, Mayfield Pub., ISBN 978-0-87484-696-6 Herzog, WR II (2005), Prophet and Teacher, WJK, ISBN 0-664-22528-4 Houlden, James Leslie, Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an enxyclopedia, Volume 2 Kelly, J.N.D. (1996), Oxford Dictionary of the Popes, Oxford University Press Küng, Hans (2004), Islam, Past, Present and Future, One World Press Lindars, Barnabas (1990), John, Sheffield Academic Press MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2010). A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. Mannion, Gerard; Gaillardetz, Richard; Kerkhofs, Jan (2003), Readings in Church Authority: Gifts and Challenges for Contemporary Catholicism, Ashgate Publishing Marshall, Howard (2004), I Believe in the Historical Jesus, Regent College Publishing, ISBN 1-57383-019-4 McKnight, Scot (1996), "Who is Jesus? An Introduction to Jesus Studies", in Wilkins, Michael J.; Moreland, J P (eds.), Jesus Under Fire, Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-21139-5 Meier, John P. (1991), A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, vol. 1, Doubleday Meyer, Marvin; Robinson, James M. (2007), The Nag Hammadi Scriptures: The International Edition, HarperOne, ISBN 978-0-06-052378-7 Moynahan, Brian (2003), William Tyndale. If God Spare my Life, Abacus, ISBN 978-0-349-11532-0 Murphy, Catherine M. (2007), The Historical Jesus for Dummies, For Dummies Pub. Newton, Francis (1999), "The Date of the Midecean Tacitus", The Scriptorium and Library at Monte Cassino, 1058–1105, Cambridge University Press O'Grady, John (1997), The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature Orlandis, Jose (1993). A Short History of the Catholic Church. Scepter Publishers. ISBN 1-85182-125-2. translated by Michael Adams in 1985 from Historia breve del Cristianismo, published 1983 by Ediciones Rialp, S.A. in Madrid. Pagels, Elaine (1989), The Gnostic Gospels, Vintage Publishers Powell, Mark Allan (1998), Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee, Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3 Robinson, James M. (1988), The Nag Hammadi Library in English (3 ed.), Harper-Collins, ISBN 978-0-06-066934-8 Robinson, John A.T. (1977), Redating the New Testament, SCM Press, ISBN 978-0-334-02300-5 Sanders, E.P. (1993), The Historical Figure of Jesus, Penguin Stagg, Evelyn; Stagg, Frank (1978), Woman in the World of Jesus, Westminster Press, ISBN 0-664-24195-6 Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1998), The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide, Fortress Press Thompson, Marianne Maye (2006). "The Gospel according to John". In Stephen C. Barton (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80766-1. Thompson, Marianne Maye (1996), "The Historical Jesus and the Johannine Christ", in Culpepper, R. Alan; Black, C. Clifron (eds.), Exploring the Gospel of John, Westminster John Knox Press Van Roo, William A. (1982), Basics of Roman Catholic theology, Facultatis Theologiae, Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000), Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence, Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans, ISBN 978-0-8028-4368-5 Vermes, Geza (2004), The authentic gospel of Jesus, Penguin Books Volney, Constantin-François (1796), The Ruins, or a Survey of the Revolutions of Empire, Davis translated from Les ruines, ou Méditations sur les révolutions des empires, published by Desenne in 1791. Wansbrough, Henry (2001), The Four Gospels in Synopsis, The Oxford Bible Commentary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-875500-7 Weaver, Walter P. (1999), The historical Jesus in the twentieth century, Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity Press International, ISBN 978-1-56338-280-2	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_early_Christianity
Palaeography (UK) or paleography (US) (ultimately from Ancient Greek: παλαιός, palaiós, 'old', and γράφειν, gráphein, 'to write') is the study and academic discipline of historical writing systems. It encompasses the historicity of manuscripts and texts, subsuming deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, as well as the analysis of historic penmanship, handwriting script, signification, and printed media. It is primarily concerned with the forms, processes and relationships of writing and printing systems as evident in a text, document or manuscript; and analysis of the substantive textual content of documents is a secondary function. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which texts such as manuscripts, books, codices, tracts, and monographs were produced, and the history of scriptoria. This discipline is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating historical texts. However, in the absence of additional evidence, it cannot be used to pinpoint exact dates. The discipline is one of the auxiliary sciences of history, and is considered to have been founded by Jean Mabillon with his 1681 work De re diplomatica, the first textbook to address the subject. The term palaeography was coined by Bernard de Montfaucon with the publication of his work on Greek palaeography, the Palaeographia Graeca, in 1708. == Application == Palaeography is an essential skill for many historians, semioticians and philologists, as it addresses a suite of interrelated lines of inquiry. First, since the style of an alphabet, grapheme or sign system set within a register in each given dialect and language has evolved constantly, it is necessary to know how to decipher its individual substantive, occurrence make-up and constituency. For example, assessing its characters and typology as they existed in various places, times and locations. In addition, for hand-written texts, scribes often use many abbreviations, and annotations so as to functionally aid speed, efficiency and ease of writing and in some registers to importantly save invaluable space of the medium. Hence, the specialist-palaeographer, philologist and semiotician must know how to, in the broadest sense, interpret, comprehend and understand them. Knowledge of individual letterforms, typographic ligatures, signs, typology, fonts, graphemes, hieroglyphics, and signification forms in general, subsuming punctuation, syntagm and proxemics, abbreviations and annotations; enables the palaeographer to read, comprehend and then to understand the text and/or the relationship and hierarchy between texts in suite. The palaeographer, philologist and semiotician must first determine language, then dialect and then the register, function and purpose of the text. That is, one must by necessity become expert in the formation, historicity and evolution of these languages and signification communities, and material communication events. Secondly, the historical usages of various styles of handwriting, common writing customs, and scribal or notarial abbreviations, annotations conventions, annexures, addenda and specifics of printed typology, syntagm and proxemics must be assessed as a collective undertaking. Philological knowledge of the register, language, vocabulary, and grammar generally used at a given time, place and circumstance may assist palaeographers to identify a hierarchy of texts in a suite through discourse analysis, determining the provenance of texts, identifying forgeries, interpolations and recensions with precision; eliciting a professional authenticity in documentation, textual and manuscript evaluation with view to producing a critical edition if required and a critical assessment of a given discourse event as rendered and set in a materiality or medium. Knowledge of writing materials and discourse material production systems is foundational to the study of handwriting and printing events and to the identification of the periods in which a document or manuscript may have been produced. An important goal may be to assign the text a date and a place of origin, or determining which translations of a text are produced from which specific document or manuscript. This is why the palaeographer and attendant semiologists and philologists must take into account the style, substance and formation of the text, document and manuscript and the handwriting style and printed typology, grapheme typos and lexical and signification system(s) employed. === Document dating === Palaeography may be employed to provide information about the date at which a document was written. However, "paleography is a last resort for dating" and, "for book hands, a period of 50 years is the least acceptable spread of time" with it being suggested that "the 'rule of thumb' should probably be to avoid dating a hand more precisely than a range of at least seventy or eighty years". In a 2005 e-mail addendum to his 1996 "The Paleographical Dating of P-46" paper Bruce W. Griffin stated "Until more rigorous methodologies are developed, it is difficult to construct a 95% confidence interval for [New Testament] manuscripts without allowing a century for an assigned date." William Schniedewind went even further in the abstract to his 2005 paper "Problems of Paleographic Dating of Inscriptions" and stated: "The so-called science of paleography often relies on circular reasoning because there is insufficient data to draw precise conclusion about dating. Scholars also tend to oversimplify diachronic development, assuming models of simplicity rather than complexity". == Ancient Near East == == Aramaic palaeography == The Aramaic language was the international trade language of the Ancient Middle East, originating in what is modern-day Syria, between 1000 and 600 BC. It spread from the Mediterranean coast to the borders of India, becoming extremely popular and being adopted by many people, both with or without any previous writing system. The Aramaic script was written in a consonantal form with a direction from right to left. The Aramaic alphabet, a modified form of Phoenician, was the ancestor of the modern Arabic and Hebrew scripts, as well as the Brahmi script, the parent writing system of most modern abugidas in India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia. Initially, the Aramaic script did not differ from the Phoenician, but then the Aramaeans simplified some of the letters, thickened and rounded their lines: a specific feature of its letters is the distinction between ⟨d⟩ and ⟨r⟩. One innovation in Aramaic is the matres lectionis system to indicate certain vowels. Early Phoenician-derived scripts did not have letters for vowels, and so most texts recorded just consonants. Most likely as a consequence of phonetic changes in North Semitic languages, the Aramaeans reused certain letters in the alphabet to represent long vowels. The letter aleph was employed to write /ā/, he for /ō/, yod for /ī/, and vav for /ū/. Aramaic writing and language supplanted Babylonian cuneiform and Akkadian language, even in their homeland in Mesopotamia. The wide diffusion of Aramaic letters led to its writing being used not only in monumental inscriptions, but also on papyrus and potsherds. Aramaic papyri have been found in large numbers in Egypt, especially at Elephantine—among them are official and private documents of the Jewish military settlement in 5 BC. In the Aramaic papyri and potsherds, words are separated usually by a small gap, as in modern writing. At the turn of the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, the heretofore uniform Aramaic letters developed new forms, as a result of dialectal and political fragmentation in several subgroups. The most important of these is the so-called square Hebrew block script, followed by Palmyrene, Nabataean, and the much later Syriac script. Aramaic is usually divided into three main parts: Old Aramaic (in turn subdivided into Ancient, Imperial, Old Eastern and Old Western Aramaic) Middle Aramaic, and Modern Aramaic of the present day. The term Middle Aramaic refers to the form of Aramaic which appears in pointed texts and is reached in the 3rd century AD with the loss of short unstressed vowels in open syllables, and continues until the triumph of Arabic. Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first Aramaean states. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern Syria of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (c. 750 BC) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by Akkadian, then from the 5th century BC by Persian and from the 3rd century BC onwards by Greek, as well as by Hebrew, especially in Palestine. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, Darius I (522–486) made the Aramaic used by the imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the Achaemenid Empire. This so-called "Imperial Aramaic" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from Babylonia. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms—alphabet, orthography, morphology, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and style are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the Proverbs of Ahiqar have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the Near East until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Achaemenids in 331 BC and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the Jewish military colony of Elephantine, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. == Greek palaeography == A history of Greek handwriting must be incomplete owing to the fragmentary nature of evidence. If one rules out the inscriptions on stone or metal, which belong to the science of epigraphy, there is practically a dependence on papyri from Egypt for the period preceding the 4th or 5th century AD, the earliest of which take back our knowledge only to the end of the 4th century BC. This limitation is less serious than might appear, since the few manuscripts not of Egyptian origin which have survived from this period, like the parchments from Avroman or Dura-Europos, the Herculaneum papyri, and a few documents found in Egypt but written elsewhere, reveal a uniformity of style in the various portions of the Greek world; however, differences can be discerned, with it being probable that distinct local styles could be traced were there more material to analyze. Further, during any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called "uncials" but, in the papyrus period, better styled "book-hand") and that of documents ("cursive") and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. The development of any hand is largely influenced by the materials used. To this general rule the Greek script is no exception. Whatever may have been the period at which the use of papyrus or leather as a writing material began in Greece (and papyrus was employed in the 5th century BC), it is highly probable that for some time after the introduction of the alphabet the characters were incised with a sharp tool on stones or metal far oftener than they were written with a pen. In cutting a hard surface, it is easier to form angles than curves; in writing the reverse is the case; hence the development of writing was from angular letters ("capitals") inherited from epigraphic style to rounded ones ("uncials"). But only certain letters were affected by this development, in particular ⟨E⟩ (uncial ⟨ε⟩), ⟨Σ⟩ (⟨c⟩), ⟨Ω⟩ (⟨ω⟩), and to a lesser extent ⟨A⟩ (⟨α⟩). === Ptolemaic period === The earliest Greek papyrus yet discovered is probably that containing the Persae of Timotheus, which dates from the second half of the 4th century BC and its script has a curiously archaic appearance. ⟨E⟩, ⟨Σ⟩, and ⟨Ω⟩ have the capital form, and apart from these test letters the general effect is one of stiffness and angularity. More striking is the hand of the earliest dated papyrus, a contract of 311 BC. Written with more ease and elegance, it shows little trace of any development towards a truly cursive style; the letters are not linked, and though the uncial ⟨c⟩ is used throughout, ⟨E⟩ and ⟨Ω⟩ have the capital forms. A similar impression is made by the few other papyri, chiefly literary, dating from about 300 BC; ⟨E⟩ may be slightly rounded, ⟨Ω⟩ approach the uncial form, and the angular ⟨Σ⟩ occurs as a letter only in the Timotheus papyrus, though it survived longer as a numeral (= 200), but the hands hardly suggest that for at least a century and a half the art of writing on papyrus had been well established. Yet before the middle of the 3rd century BC, one finds both a practised book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive. These facts may be due to accident, the few early papyri happening to represent an archaic style which had survived along with a more advanced one; but it is likely that there was a rapid development at this period, due partly to the opening of Egypt, with its supplies of papyri, and still more to the establishment of the great Alexandrian Library, which systematically copied literary and scientific works, and to the multifarious activities of Hellenistic bureaucracy. From here onward, the two types of script were sufficiently distinct (though each influenced the other) to require separate treatment. Some literary papyri, like the roll containing Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, were written in cursive hands, and, conversely, the book-hand was occasionally used for documents. Since the scribe did not date literary rolls, such papyri are useful in tracing the development of the book-hand. The documents of the mid-3rd century BC show a great variety of cursive hands. There are none from chancelleries of the Hellenistic monarchs, but some letters, notably those of Apollonius, the finance minister of Ptolemy II, to this agent, Zeno, and those of the Palestinian sheikh, Toubias, are in a type of script which cannot be very unlike the Chancery hand of the time, and show the Ptolemaic cursive at its best. These hands have a noble spaciousness and strength, and though the individual letters are by no means uniform in size there is a real unity of style, the general impression being one of breadth and uprightness. ⟨H⟩, with the cross-stroke high, ⟨Π⟩, ⟨Μ⟩, with the middle stroke reduced to a very shallow curve, sometimes approaching a horizontal line, ⟨Υ⟩, and ⟨Τ⟩, with its cross-bar extending much further to the left than to the right of the up-stroke, ⟨Γ⟩ and ⟨Ν⟩, whose last stroke is prolonged upwards above the line, often curving backwards, are all broad; ⟨ε⟩, ⟨c⟩, ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨β⟩, which sometimes takes the form of two almost perpendicular strokes joined only at the top, are usually small; ⟨ω⟩ is rather flat, its second loop reduced to a practically straight line. Partly by the broad flat tops of the larger letters, partly by the insertion of a stroke connecting those (like H, Υ) which are not naturally adapted to linking, the scribes produced the effect of a horizontal line along the top of the writing, from which the letters seem to hang. This feature is indeed a general characteristic of the more formal Ptolemaic script, but it is specially marked in the 3rd century BC. Besides these hand of Chancery type, there are numerous less elaborate examples of cursive, varying according to the writer's skill and degree of education, and many of them strikingly easy and handsome. In some cursiveness is carried very far, the linking of letters reaching the point of illegibility, and the characters sloping to the right. ⟨A⟩ is reduced to a mere acute angle (⟨∠⟩), ⟨T⟩ has the cross-stroke only on the left, ⟨ω⟩ becomes an almost straight line, ⟨H⟩ acquires a shape somewhat like h, and the last stroke of ⟨N⟩ is extended far upwards and at times flattened out until it is little more than a diagonal stroke to the right. The attempt to secure a horizontal line along the top is here abandoned. This style was not due to inexpertness, but to the desire for speed, being used especially in accounts and drafts, and was generally the work of practised writers. How well established the cursive hand had now become is shown in some wax tablets of this period, the writing on which, despite the difference of material, closely resemble the hands of papyri. Documents of the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BC show there is nothing analogous to the Apollonius letters, perhaps partly by the accident of survival. In the more formal types the letters stand rather stiffly upright, often without the linking strokes, and are more uniform in size; in the more cursive they are apt to be packed closely together. These features are more marked in the hands of the 2nd century. The less cursive often show am approximation to the book-hand, the letters growing rounder and less angular than in the 3rd century; in the more cursive linking was carried further, both by the insertion of coupling strokes and by the writing of several letters continuously without raising the pen, so that before the end of the century an almost current hand was evolved. A characteristic letter, which survived into the early Roman period, is ⟨T⟩, with its cross-stroke made in two portions (variants:). In the 1st century, the hand tended, so far as can be inferred from surviving examples, to disintegrate; one can recognise the signs which portend a change of style, irregularity, want of direction, and the loss of the feeling for style. A fortunate accident has preserved two Greek parchments written in Parthia, one dated 88 BC, in a practically unligatured hand, the other, 22/21 BC, in a very cursive script of Ptolemaic type; and though each has non-Egyptian features the general character indicates a uniformity of style in the Hellenistic world. The development of the Ptolemaic book-hand is difficult to trace, as there are few examples, mostly not datable on external grounds. Only for the 3rd century BC have we a secure basis. The hands of that period have an angular appearance; there is little uniformity in the size of individual letters, and though sometimes, notably in the Petrie papyrus containing the Phaedo of Plato, a style of considerable delicacy is attained, the book-hand in general shows less mastery than the contemporary cursive. In the 2nd century, the letters grew rounder and more uniform in size, but in the 1st century there is a certain disintegration perceptible, as in the cursive hand. Probably at no time did the Ptolemaic book-hand acquire such unity of stylistic effect as the cursive. === Roman period === Papyri of the Roman period are far more numerous and show greater variety. The cursive of the 1st century has a rather broken appearance, part of one character being often made separately from the rest and linked to the next letter. A form characteristic of the 1st and 2nd century and surviving after that only as a fraction sign (1⁄8) is ⟨η⟩ in the shape . By the end of the 1st century, there had been developed several excellent types of cursive, which, though differing considerably both in the forms of individual letters and in general appearance, bear a family likeness to one another. Qualities which are specially noticeable are roundness in the shape of letters, continuity of formation, the pen being carried on from character to character, and regularity, the letters not differing strikingly in size and projecting strokes above or below the line being avoided. Sometimes, especially in tax-receipts and in stereotyped formulae, cursiveness is carried to an extreme. In a letter of the prefect, dated in 209, we have a fine example of the Chancery hand, with tall and laterally compressed letters, ⟨ο⟩ very narrow and ⟨α⟩ and ⟨ω⟩ often written high in the line. This style, from at least the latter part of the 2nd century, exercised considerable influence on the local hands, many of which show the same characteristics less pronounced; and its effects may be traced into the early part of the 4th century. Hands of the 3rd century uninfluenced by it show a falling off from the perfection of the 2nd century; stylistic uncertainty and a growing coarseness of execution mark a period of decline and transition. Several different types of book-hand were used in the Roman period. Particularly handsome is a round, upright hand seen, for example, in a British Museum papyrus containing Odyssey III. The cross-stroke of ⟨ε⟩ is high, ⟨Μ⟩ deeply curved and ⟨Α⟩ has the form ⟨α⟩. Uniformity of size is well attained, and a few strokes project, and these but slightly, above or below the line. Another type, well called by palaeographer Schubart the "severe" style, has a more angular appearance and not infrequently slopes to the right; though handsome, it has not the sumptuous appearance of the former. There are various classes of a less pretentious style, in which convenience rather than beauty was the first consideration and no pains were taken to avoid irregularities in the shape and alignment of the letters. Lastly may be mentioned a hand which is of great interest as being the ancestor of the type called (from its later occurrence in vellum codices of the Bible) the biblical hand. This, which can be traced back at least the late 2nd century, has a square, rather heavy appearance; the letters, of uniform size, stand upright, and thick and thin strokes are well distinguished. In the 3rd century the book-hand, like the cursive, appears to have deteriorated in regularity and stylistic accomplishment. In the charred rolls found at Herculaneum are specimens of Greek literary hands from outside Egypt dating to c. 1 AD. A comparison with the Egyptian papyri reveals great similarity in style and shows that conclusions drawn from the henads of Egypt may, with caution, be applied to the development of writing in the Greek world generally. === Byzantine period === The cursive hand of the 4th century shows some uncertainty of character. Side by side with the style founded on the Chancery hand, regular in formation and with tall and narrow letters, which characterised the period of Diocletian, and lasted well into the century, we find many other types mostly marked by a certain looseness and irregularity. A general progress towards a florid and sprawling hand is easily recognisable, but a consistent and deliberate style was hardly evolved before the 5th century, from which unfortunately few dated documents have survived. Byzantine cursive tends to an exuberant hand, in which the long strokes are excessively extended and individual letters often much enlarged. But not a few hands of the 5th and 6th centuries are truly handsome and show considerable technical accomplishment. Both an upright and a sloping type occur and there are many less ornamental hands, but there gradually emerged towards the 7th century two general types, one (especially used in letters and contracts) a current hand, sloping to the right, with long strokes in such characters at ⟨τ⟩, ⟨ρ⟩, ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨η⟩ (which has the h shape), ⟨ι⟩, and ⟨κ⟩, and with much linking of letters, and another (frequent in accounts), which shows, at least in essence, most of the forms of the later minuscule. (cf. below.) This is often upright, though a slope to the right is quite common, and sometimes, especially in one or two documents of the early Arabic period, it has an almost calligraphic effect. In the Byzantine period, the book-hand, which in earlier times had more than once approximated to the contemporary cursive, diverged widely from it. === Vellum and paper manuscripts === The change from papyrus to vellum involved no such modification in the forms of letters as followed that from metal to papyrus. The justification for considering the two materials separately is that after the general adoption of vellum, the Egyptian evidence is first supplemented and later superseded by that of manuscripts from elsewhere, and that during this period the hand most used was one not previously employed for literary purposes. ==== Uncial hand ==== The prevailing type of book-hand during what in papyrology is called the Byzantine period, that is, roughly from AD 300 to 650, is known as the biblical hand. It went back to at least the end of the 2nd century and had had originally no special connection with Christian literature. In both vellum and paper manuscripts from 4th-century Egypt are other forms of script, particularly a sloping, rather inelegant hand derived from the literary hand of the 3rd century, which persisted until at least the 5th century. The three great early codices of the Bible are all written in uncials of the biblical type. In the Vaticanus, placed during the 4th century, the characteristics of the hand are least strongly marked; the letters have the forms characteristic of the type but without the heavy appearance of later manuscripts, and the general impression is one of greater roundness. In the Sinaiticus, which is not much later, the letters are larger and more heavily made; in the 5th-century Alexandrinus, a later development is seen with emphatic distinction of thick and thin strokes. By the 6th century, alike in vellum and in papyrus manuscripts, the heaviness had become very marked, though the hand still retained, in its best examples, a handsome appearance; but after this it steadily deteriorated, becoming ever more mechanical and artificial. The thick strokes grew heavier; the cross strokes of ⟨T⟩ and ⟨Θ⟩ and the base of ⟨Δ⟩ were furnished with drooping spurs. The hand, which is often singularly ugly, passed through various modifications, now sloping, now upright, though it is not certain that these variations were really successive rather than concurrent. A different type of uncials, derived from the Chancery hand and seen in two papyrus examples of the Festal letters despatched annually by the Patriarch of Alexandria, was occasionally used, the best known example being the Codex Marchalianus (6th or 7th century). A combination of this hand with the other type is also known. ==== Minuscule hand ==== The uncial hand lingered on, mainly for liturgical manuscripts, where a large and easily legible script was serviceable, as late as the 12th century, but in ordinary use it had long been superseded by a new type of hand, the minuscule, which originated in the 8th century, as an adaptation to literary purposes of the second of the types of Byzantine cursive mentioned above. A first attempt at a calligraphic use of this hand, seen in one or two manuscripts of the 8th or early 9th century, in which it slopes to the right and has a narrow, angular appearance, did not find favour, but by the end of the 9th century a more ornamental type, from which modern Greek script descended, was already established. It has been suggested that it was evolved in the Monastery of Stoudios at Constantinople. In its earliest examples it is upright and exact but lacks flexibility; accents are small, breathings square in formation, and in general only such ligatures are used as involve no change in the shape of letters. The single forms have a general resemblance (with considerable differences in detail) both to the minuscule cursive of late papyri, and to those used in modern Greek type; uncial forms were avoided. In the course of the 10th century the hand, without losing its beauty and exactness, gained in freedom. Its finest period was from the 9th to the 12th century, after which it rapidly declined. The development was marked by a tendency to the intrusion, in growing quantity, of uncial forms which good scribes could fit into the line without disturbing the unity of style but which, in less expert hands, had a disintegrating effect; to the disproportionate enlargement of single letters, especially at the beginnings and ends of lines; to ligatures, often very fantastic, which quite changed the forms of letters; to the enlargement of accents, breathings at the same time acquiring the modern rounded form. But from the first there were several styles, varying from the formal, regular hands characteristic of service books to the informal style, marked by numerous abbreviations, used in manuscripts intended only for a scholar's private use. The more formal hands were exceedingly conservative, and there are few classes of script more difficult to date than the Greek minuscule of this class. In the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries a sloping hand, less dignified than the upright, formal type, but often very handsome, was especially used for manuscripts of the classics. Hands of the 11th century are marked in general (though there are exceptions) by a certain grace and delicacy, exact but easy; those of the 12th by a broad, bold sweep and an increasing freedom, which readily admits uncial forms, ligatures and enlarged letters but has not lost the sense of style and decorative effect. In the 13th and still more in the 14th centuries there was a steady decline; the less formal hands lost their beauty and exactness, becoming ever more disorderly and chaotic in their effect, while formal style imitated the precision of an earlier period without attaining its freedom and naturalness, and often appears singularly lifeless. In the 15th century, especially in the West, where Greek scribes were in request to produce manuscripts of the classical authors, there was a revival, and several manuscripts of this period, though markedly inferior to those of the 11th and 12th centuries, are by no means without beauty. === Accents, punctuation, and division of words === In the book-hand of early papyri, neither accents nor breathings were employed. Their use was established by the beginning of the Roman period, but was sporadic in papyri, where they were used as an aid to understanding, and therefore more frequently in poetry than prose, and in lyrical oftener than in other verse. In the cursive of papyri they are practically unknown, as are marks of punctuation. Punctuation was effected in early papyri, literary and documentary, by spaces, reinforced in the book-hand by the paragraphos, a horizontal stroke under the beginning of the line. The coronis, a more elaborate form of this, marked the beginning of lyrics or the principal sections of a longer work. Punctuation marks, the comma, the high, low and middle points, were established in the book-hand by the Roman period; in early Ptolemaic papyri, a double point (⟨:⟩) is found. In vellum and paper manuscripts, punctuation marks and accents were regularly used from at least the 8th century, though with some differences from modern practice. At no period down to the invention of printing did Greek scribes consistently separate words. The book-hand of papyri aimed at an unbroken succession of letters, except for distinction of sections; in cursive hands, especially where abbreviations were numerous, some tendency to separate words may be recognised, but in reality it was phrases or groups of letters rather than words which were divided. In the later minuscule word-division is much commoner but never became systematic, accents and breathings serving of themselves to indicate the proper division. == China == == India == The view that the art of writing in India developed gradually, as in other areas of the world, by going through the stages of pictographic, ideographic and transitional phases of the phonetic script, which in turn developed into syllabic and alphabetic scripts was challenged by Falk and others in the early 1990s. In the new paradigm, Indian alphabetic writing, called Brahmi, was discontinuous with earlier, undeciphered, glyphs, and was invented specifically by King Ashoka for application in his royal edicts 250 BC. In the subcontinent, Kharosthi (clearly derived from the Aramaic alphabet) was used at the same time in the northwest, next to Brahmi (at least influenced by Aramaic) elsewhere. In addition, the Greek alphabet were also added to the Indian context after its penetration in the early centuries AD, with the Arabic alphabet following in the 13th century. After a lapse of a few centuries the Kharoṣṭhi script became obsolete; the Greek script in India went through a similar fate and disappeared. But the Brahmi and Arabic scripts endured for a much longer period. Moreover, there was a change and development in the Brahmi script which may be traced in time and space through the Maurya, Kuṣaṇa, Gupta and early medieval periods. The present-day Nāgarī script is derived from Brahmi. The Brahmi is also the ancestral script of most other Indian scripts, in northern and southern South Asia. Legends and inscriptions in Brahmi are engraved upon leather, wood, terracotta, ivory, stone, copper, bronze, silver and gold. Arabic got an important place, particularly in the royalty, during the medieval period and it provides rich material for history writing. The decipherment and subsequent development of Indus glyphs is also a matter for continuing research and discussion. Most of the available inscriptions and manuscripts written in the above scripts—in languages like Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Apabhraṃśa, Tamil and Persian—have been read and exploited for history writing, but numerous inscriptions preserved in different museums still remain undeciphered for lack of competent palaeographic Indologists, as there is a gradual decline in the subcontinent of such disciplines as palaeography, epigraphy and numismatics. The discipline of ancient Indian scripts and the languages they are written needs new scholars who, by adopting traditional palaeographic methods and modern technology, may decipher, study and transcribe the various types of epigraphs and legends still extant today. The language of the earliest written records, that is, the Edicts of Ashoka, is Prakrit. Besides Prakrit, the Ashokan edicts are also written in Greek and Aramaic. Moreover, all the edicts of Ashoka engraved in the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts are in the Prakrit language: thus, originally the language employed in the inscriptions was Prakrit, with Sanskrit adopted at a later stage. Past the period of the Maurya Empire, the use of Prakrit continued in inscriptions for a few more centuries. In north India, Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit by the end of the 3rd century, while this change took place about a century later in south India. Some of the inscriptions though written in Prakrit, were influenced by Sanskrit and vice versa. The epigraphs of the Kushana kings are found in a mixture of Prakrit and Sanskrit, while the Mathura inscriptions of the time of Sodasa, belonging to the first quarter of the 1st century, contain verses in classical Sanskrit. From the 4th century onwards, the Gupta Empire came to power and supported the Sanskrit language and literature. In western India and also in some regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, Prakrit was used till the 4th century, mostly in the Buddhist writings though in a few contemporary records of the Ikshvakus of Nagarjunakonda, Sanskrit was applied. The inscription of Yajna Sri Satakarni (2nd century) from Amaravati is considered to be the earliest so far. The earlier writings (4th century) of Salankayanas of the Telugu region are in Prakrit, while their later records (belonging to the 5th century) are written in Sanskrit. In the Kannada speaking area, inscriptions belonging to later Satavahanas and Chutus were written in Prakrit. From the 4th century onwards, with the rise of the Guptas, Sanskrit became the predominant language of India and continued to be employed in texts and inscriptions of all parts of India along with the regional languages in the subsequent centuries. The copper-plate charters of the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Pandyas documents are written in both Sanskrit and Tamil. Kannada is used in texts dating from about the 5th century and the Halmidi inscription is considered to be the earliest epigraph written in the Kannada language. Inscriptions in Telugu began to appear from the 6th or 7th century. Malayalam made its beginning in writings from the 15th century onwards. === North India === In north India, the Brahmi script was used over a vast area; however, Ashokan inscriptions are also found using Kharoshthi, Aramaic and Greek scripts. With the advent of the Saka-Kshatrapas and the Kushanas as political powers in north India, the writing system underwent a definite change due to the use of new writing tools and techniques. Further development of the Brahmi script and perceivable changes in its evolutionary trend can be discerned during the Gupta period: in fact, the Gupta script is considered to be the successor of the Kushana script in north India. From the 6th to about the 10th century, the inscriptions in north India were written in a script variously named, e.g., Siddhamatrika and Kutila ("Rañjanā script"). From the 8th century, Siddhamatrika developed into the Śāradā script in Kashmir and Punjab, into Proto-Bengali or Gaudi in Bengal and Orissa, and into Nagari in other parts of north India. Nagari script was used widely in northern India from the 10th century onwards. The use of Nandinagari, a variant of Nagari script, is mostly confined to the Karnataka region. In central India, mostly in Madhya Pradesh, the inscriptions of the Vakatakas, and the kings of Sarabhapura and Kosala were written in what are known as "box-headed" and "nail-headed" characters. It may be noted that the early Kadambas of Karnataka also employed "nail-headed" characters in some of their inscriptions. During the 3rd–4th century, the script used in the inscriptions of Ikshvakus of Nagarjunakonda developed a unique style of letter-forms with elongated verticals and artistic flourishes, which did not continue after their rule. === South India === The earliest attested form of writing in South India is represented by inscriptions found in caves, associated with the Chalukya and Chera dynasties. These are written in variants of what is known as the Cave character, and their script differs from the Northern version in being more angular. Most of the modern scripts of South India have evolved from this script, with the exception of Vatteluttu, the exact origins of which are unknown, and Nandinagari, which is a variant of Devanagari that developed due to later Northern influence. In south India from the 7th century of the common era onwards, a number of inscriptions belonging to the dynasties of Pallava, Chola and Pandya are found. These records are written in three different scripts known as Tamil, Vattezhuttu and Grantha scripts, the last variety being used to write Sanskrit inscriptions. In the Kerala region, the Vattezhuttu script developed into a still more cursive script called Kolezhuthu during the 14th and 15th centuries. At the same time, the modern Malayalam script developed out of the Grantha script. The early form of the Telugu-Kannada script is found in the inscriptions of the early Kadambas of Banavasi and the early Chalukyas of Badami in the west, and Salankayana and the early Eastern Chalukyas in the east who ruled the Kannada and Telugu speaking areas respectively, during the 4th to 7th centuries. ==== List of South Indian scripts ==== Brahmi script Chalukya and Chera cultures Grantha script Kannada script Malayalam script Nāgarī script and Nandinagari Tamil script (cf. also Abagada writing system) Telugu script == Latin == Attention should be drawn at the outset to certain fundamental definitions and principles of the science. The original characters of an alphabet are modified by the material and the implements used. When stone and chisel are discarded for papyrus and reed-pen, the hand encounters less resistance and moves more rapidly. This leads to changes in the size and position of the letters, and then to the joining of letters, and, consequently, to altered shapes. We are thus confronted at an early date with quite distinct types. The majuscule style of writing, based on two parallel lines, ADPL, is opposed to the minuscule, based on a system of four lines, with letters of unequal height, adpl. Another classification, according to the care taken in forming the letters, distinguishes between the set book-hand and the cursive script. The difference in this case is determined by the subject matter of the text; the writing used for books (scriptura libraria) is in all periods quite distinct from that used for letters and documents (epistolaris, diplomatica). While the set book-hand, in majuscule or minuscule, shows a tendency to stabilise the forms of the letters, the cursive, often carelessly written, is continually changing in the course of years and according to the preferences of the writers. This being granted, a summary survey of the morphological history of the Latin alphabet shows the zenith of its modifications at once, for its history is divided into two very unequal periods, the first dominated by majuscule and the second by minuscule writing. === Overview === Jean Mabillon, a French Benedictine monk, scholar and antiquary, whose work De re diplomatica was published in 1681, is widely regarded as the founder of the twin disciplines of palaeography and diplomatics. However, the actual term "palaeography" was coined (in Latin) by Bernard de Montfaucon, a Benedictine monk, in the title of his Palaeographia Graeca (1708), which remained a standard work in the specific field of Greek palaeography for more than a century. With their establishment of palaeography, Mabillon and his fellow Benedictines were responding to the Jesuit Daniel Papebroch, who doubted the authenticity of some of the documents which the Benedictines offered as credentials for the authorisation of their monasteries. In the 19th century such scholars as Wilhelm Wattenbach, Leopold Delisle and Ludwig Traube contributed greatly to making palaeography independent from diplomatic. In the 20th century, the "New French School" of palaeographers, especially Jean Mallon, gave a new direction to the study of scripts by stressing the importance of ductus (the shape and order of the strokes used to compose letters) in studying the historical development of scripts. === Majuscule writing === ==== Capital writing ==== The Latin alphabet first appears in the epigraphic type of majuscule writing, known as capitals. These characters form the main stem from which developed all the branches of Latin writing. On the oldest monuments (the inscriptiones bello Hannibalico antiquiores of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum = CIL), it is far from showing the orderly regularity of the later period. Side by side with upright and square characters are angular and sloping forms, sometimes very distorted, which seem to indicate the existence of an early cursive writing from which they would have been borrowed. Certain literary texts clearly allude to such a hand. Later, the characters of the cursive type were progressively eliminated from formal inscriptions, and capital writing reached its perfection in the Augustan Age. Epigraphists divide the numerous inscriptions of this period into two quite distinct classes: tituli, or formal inscriptions engraved on stone in elegant and regular capitals, and acta, or legal texts, documents, etc., generally engraved on bronze in cramped and careless capitals. Palaeography inherits both these types. Reproduced by scribes on papyrus or parchment, the elegant characters of the inscriptions become the square capitals of the manuscripts, and the actuaria, as the writing of the acta is called, becomes the rustic capital. Of the many books written in square capitals, the éditions de luxe of ancient times, only a few fragments have survived, the most famous being pages from manuscripts of Virgil. The finest examples of rustic capitals, the use of which is attested by papyri of the 1st century, are to be found in manuscripts of Virgil and Terence. Neither of these forms of capital writing offers any difficulty in reading, except that no space is left between the words. Their dates are still uncertain, in spite of attempts to determine them by minute observation. The rustic capitals, more practical than the square forms, soon came into general use. This was the standard form of writing, so far as books are concerned, until the 5th century, when it was replaced by a new type, the uncial, which is discussed below. ==== Early cursive writing ==== While the set book-hand, in square or rustic capitals, was used for the copying of books, the writing of everyday life, letters and documents of all kinds, was in a cursive form, the oldest examples of which are provided by the graffiti on walls at Pompeii (CIL, iv), a series of waxen tablets, also discovered at Pompeii (CIL, iv, supplement), a similar series found at Verespatak in Transylvania (CIL, iii) and a number of papyri. From a study of a number of documents which exhibit transitional forms, it appears that this cursive was originally simplified capital writing. The evolution was so rapid, however, that at quite an early date the scriptura epistolaris of the Roman world can no longer be described as capitals. By the 1st century, this kind of writing began to develop the principal characteristics of two new types: the uncial and the minuscule cursive. With the coming into use of writing surfaces which were smooth, or offered little resistance, the unhampered haste of the writer altered the shape, size and position of the letters. In the earliest specimens of writing on wax, plaster or papyrus, there appears a tendency to represent several straight strokes by a single curve. The cursive writing thus foreshadows the specifically uncial forms. The same specimens show great inequality in the height of the letters; the main strokes are prolonged upwards (= ⟨b⟩; = ⟨d⟩) or downwards (= ⟨q⟩; = 's). In this direction, the cursive tends to become a minuscule hand. ==== Uncial writing ==== Although the characteristic forms of the uncial type appear to have their origin in the early cursive, the two hands are nevertheless quite distinct. The uncial is a libraria, closely related to the capital writing, from which it differs only in the rounding off of the angles of certain letters, principally . It represents a compromise between the beauty and legibility of the capitals and the rapidity of the cursive, and is clearly an artificial product. It was certainly in existence by the latter part of the 4th century, for a number of manuscripts of that date are written in perfect uncial hands (Exempla, pl. XX). It presently supplanted the capitals and appears in numerous manuscripts which have survived from the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, when it was at its height. By this time it had become an imitative hand, in which there was generally no room for spontaneous development. It remained noticeably uniform over a long period. It is difficult therefore to date the manuscripts by palaeographical criteria alone. The most that can be done is to classify them by centuries, on the strength of tenuous data. The earliest uncial writing is easily distinguished by its simple and monumental character from the later hands, which become progressively stiff and affected. === List of Latin alphabets === Old Italic script Roman cursive Roman square capitals Rustic capitals === Minuscule cursive writing === ==== Early minuscule cursive ==== In the ancient cursive writing, from the 1st century onward, there are symptoms of transformation in the form of certain letters, the shape and proportions of which correspond more closely to the definition of minuscule writing than to that of majuscule. Rare and irregular at first, they gradually become more numerous and more constant and by degrees supplant the majuscule forms, so that in the history of the Roman cursive there is no precise boundary between the majuscule and minuscule periods. The oldest example of minuscule cursive writing that has been discovered is a letter on papyrus, found in Egypt, dating from the 4th century. This marks a highly important date in the history of Latin writing, for with only one known exception, not yet adequately explained—two fragments of imperial rescripts of the 5th century—the minuscule cursive was consequently the only scriptura epistolaris of the Roman world. The ensuing succession of documents show a continuous improvement in this form of writing, characterised by the boldness of the strokes and by the elimination of the last lingering majuscule forms. The Ravenna deeds of the 5th and 6th centuries exhibit this hand at its perfection. At this period, the minuscule cursive made its appearance as a book hand, first as marginal notes, and later for the complete books themselves. The only difference between the book-hand and that used for documents is that the principal strokes are shorter and the characters thicker. This form of the hand is usually called semi-cursive. ==== National hands ==== The fall of the Empire and the establishment of the barbarians within its former boundaries did not interrupt the use of the Roman minuscule cursive hand, which was adopted by the newcomers. But for gaps of over a century in the chronological series of documents which have been preserved, it would be possible to follow the evolution of the Roman cursive into the so-called "national hands", forms of minuscule writing which flourished after the barbarian invasions in Italy, France, Spain, England and Ireland, and which are still known as Lombardic, Merovingian, Visigothic, Anglo-Saxon and Irish. These names came into use at a time when the various national hands were believed to have been invented by the peoples who used them, but their connotation is merely geographical. Nevertheless, in spite of a close resemblance which betrays their common origin, these hands are specifically different, perhaps because the Roman cursive was developed by each nation in accordance with its artistic tradition. Lombardic writing In Italy, after the close of the Roman and Byzantine periods, the writing is known as Lombardic, a generic term which comprises several local varieties. These may be classified under four principal types: two for the scriptura epistolaris, the old Italian cursive and the papal chancery hand, or littera romana, and two for the libraria, the old Italian book-hand and Lombardic in the narrow sense, sometimes known as Beneventana because it flourished in the principality of Benevento. The oldest preserved documents written in the old Italian cursive show all the essential characteristics of the Roman cursive of the 6th century. In northern Italy, this hand began in the 9th century to be influenced by a minuscule book-hand which developed, as will be seen later, in the time of Charlemagne; under this influence it gradually disappeared, and ceased to exist in the course of the 12th century. In southern Italy, it persisted far on into the later Middle Ages. The papal chancery hand, a variety of Lombardic peculiar to the vicinity of Rome and principally used in papal documents, is distinguished by the formation of the letters a, e, q, t. It is formal in appearance at first, but is gradually simplified, under the influence of the Carolingian minuscule, which finally prevailed in the bulls of Honorius II (1124–1130). The notaries public in Rome continued to use the papal chancery hand until the beginning of the 13th century. The old Italian book-hand is simply a semi-cursive of the type already described as in use in the 6th century. The principal examples are derived from scriptoria in northern Italy, where it was displaced by the Carolingian minuscule during the 9th century. In southern Italy, this hand persisted, developing into a calligraphic form of writing, and in the 10th century took on a very artistic angular appearance. The Exultet rolls provide the finest examples. In the 9th century, it was introduced in Dalmatia by the Benedictine monks and developed there, as in Apulia, on the basis of the archetype, culminating in a rounded Beneventana known as the Bari type. Merovingian The offshoot of the Roman cursive which developed in Gaul under the first dynasty of kings is called Merovingian writing. It is represented by thirty-eight royal diplomas, a number of private charters and the authenticating documents of relics. Though less than a century intervenes between the Ravenna cursive and the oldest extant Merovingian document (AD 625), there is a great difference in appearance between the two writings. The facile flow of the former is replaced by a cramped style, in which the natural slope to the right gives way to an upright hand, and the letters, instead of being fully outlined, are compressed to such an extent that they modify the shape of other letters. Copyists of books used a cursive similar to that found in documents, except that the strokes are thicker, the forms more regular, and the heads and tails shorter. The Merovingian cursive as used in books underwent simplification in some localities, undoubtedly through the influence of the minuscule book-hand of the period. The two principal centres of this reform were Luxeuil and Corbie. Visigothic In Spain, after the Visigothic conquest, the Roman cursive gradually developed special characteristics. Some documents attributed to the 7th century display a transitional hand with straggling and rather uncouth forms. The distinctive features of Visigothic writing, the most noticeable of which is certainly the q-shaped ⟨g⟩, did not appear until later, in the book-hand. The book-hand became set at an early date. In the 8th century it appears as a sort of semi-cursive; the earliest example of certain date is ms lxxxix in the Capitular Library in Verona. From the 9th century the calligraphic forms become broader and more rounded until the 11th century, when they become slender and angular. The Visigothic minuscule appears in a cursive form in documents about the middle of the 9th century, and in the course of time grows more intricate and consequently less legible. It soon came into competition with the Carolingian minuscule, which supplanted it as a result of the presence in Spain of French elements such as Cluniac monks and warriors engaged in the campaign against the Moors. The Irish and Anglo-Saxon hands, which were not directly derived from the Roman minuscule cursive, will be discussed in a separate sub-section below. === Set minuscule writing === One by one, the national minuscule cursive hands were replaced by a set minuscule hand which has already been mentioned and its origins may now be traced from the beginning. ==== Half-uncial writing ==== The early cursive was the medium in which the minuscule forms were gradually evolved from the corresponding majuscule forms. Minuscule writing was therefore cursive in its inception. As the minuscule letters made their appearance in the cursive writing of documents, they were adopted and given calligraphic form by the copyists of literary texts, so that the set minuscule alphabet was constituted gradually, letter by letter, following the development of the minuscule cursive. Just as some documents written in the early cursive show a mixture of majuscule and minuscule forms, so certain literary papyri of the 3rd century, and inscriptions on stone of the 4th century yield examples of a mixed set hand, with minuscule forms side by side with capital and uncial letters. The number of minuscule forms increases steadily in texts written in the mixed hand, and especially in marginal notes, until by the end of the 5th century the majuscule forms have almost entirely disappeared in some manuscripts. This quasi-minuscule writing, known as the "half-uncial" thus derives from a long line of mixed hands which, in a synoptic chart of Latin scripts, would appear close to the oldest librariae, and between them and the epistolaris (cursive), from which its characteristic forms were successively derived. It had a considerable influence on the continental scriptura libraria of the 7th and 8th centuries. ==== Irish and Anglo-Saxon writing ==== The half-uncial hand was introduced in Ireland along with Latin culture in the 5th century by priests and laymen from Gaul, fleeing before the barbarian invasions. It was adopted there to the exclusion of the cursive, and soon took on a distinct character. There are two well established classes of Irish writing as early as the 7th century: a large round half-uncial hand, in which certain majuscule forms frequently appear, and a pointed hand, which becomes more cursive and more genuinely minuscule. The latter developed out of the former. One of the distinguishing marks of manuscripts of Irish origin is to be found in the initial letters, which are ornamented by interlacing, animal forms, or a frame of red dots. The most certain evidence, however, is provided by the system of abbreviations and by the combined square and cuneiform appearance of the minuscule at the height of its development. The two types of Irish writing were introduced in the north of Great Britain by the monks, and were soon adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, being so exactly copied that it is sometimes difficult to determine the origin of an example. Gradually, however, the Anglo-Saxon writing developed a distinct style, and even local types, which were superseded after the Norman conquest by the Carolingian minuscule. Through St Columbanus and his followers, Irish writing spread to the continent, and manuscripts were written in the Irish hand in the monasteries of Bobbio Abbey and St Gall during the 7th and 8th centuries. ==== Pre-Caroline ==== James J. John points out that the disappearance of imperial authority around the end of the 5th century in most of the Latin-speaking half of the Roman Empire does not entail the disappearance of the Latin scripts, but rather introduced conditions that would allow the various provinces of the West gradually to drift apart in their writing habits, a process that began around the 7th century. Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great, d. 604) was influential in the spread of Christianity to Britain and also sent Queens Theodelinde and Brunhilda, as well as Spanish bishops, copies of manuscripts. Furthermore, he sent the Roman monk Augustine of Canterbury to Britain on a missionary journey, on which Augustine may have brought manuscripts. Although Italy's dominance as a centre of manuscript production began to decline, especially after the Gothic War (535–554) and the invasions by the Lombards, its manuscripts—and more important, the scripts in which they were written—were distributed across Europe. From the 6th through the 8th centuries, a number of so-called 'national hands' were developed throughout the Latin-speaking areas of the former Roman Empire. By the late 6th century Irish scribes had begun transforming Roman scripts into Insular minuscule and majuscule scripts. A series of transformations, for book purposes, of the cursive documentary script that had grown out of the later Roman cursive would get under way in France by the mid-7th century. In Spain half-uncial and cursive would both be transformed into a new script, the Visigothic minuscule, no later than the early 8th century. ==== Carolingian minuscule ==== Beginning in the 8th century, as Charlemagne began to consolidate power over a large area of western Europe, scribes developed a minuscule script (Caroline minuscule) that effectively became the standard script for manuscripts from the 9th to the 11th centuries. The origin of this hand is much disputed. This is due to the confusion which prevailed before the Carolingian period in the libraria in France, Italy and Germany as a result of the competition between the cursive and the set hands. In addition to the calligraphic uncial and half-uncial writings, which were imitative forms, little used and consequently without much vitality, and the minuscule cursive, which was the most natural hand, there were innumerable varieties of mixed writing derived from the influence of these hands on each other. In some, the uncial or half-uncial forms were preserved with little or no modification, but the influence of the cursive is shown by the freedom of the strokes; these are known as rustic, semi-cursive or cursive uncial or half-uncial hands. Conversely, the cursive was sometimes affected, in varying degrees, by the set librariae; the cursive of the epistolaris became a semi-cursive when adopted as a libraria. Nor is this all. Apart from these reciprocal influences affecting the movement of the hand across the page, there were morphological influences at work, letters being borrowed from one alphabet for another. This led to compromises of all sorts and of infinite variety between the uncial and half-uncial and the cursive. It will readily be understood that the origin of the Carolingian minuscule, which must be sought in this tangle of pre-Carolingian hands, involves disagreement. The new writing is admittedly much more closely related to the epistolaris than the primitive minuscule; this is shown by certain forms, such as the open ⟨a⟩ (), which recall the cursive, by the joining of certain letters, and by the clubbing of the tall letters b d h l, which resulted from a cursive ductus. Most palaeographers agree in assigning the new hand the place shown in the following table: Controversy turns on the question whether the Carolingian minuscule is the primitive minuscule as modified by the influence of the cursive or a cursive based on the primitive minuscule. Its place of origin is also uncertain: Rome, the Palatine school, Tours, Reims, Metz, Saint-Denis and Corbie have been suggested, but no agreement has been reached. In any case, the appearance of the new hand is a turning point in the history of culture. So far as Latin writing is concerned, it marks the dawn of modern times. ==== Gothic minuscule ==== In the 12th century, Carolingian minuscule underwent a change in its appearance and adopted bold and broken Gothic letter-forms. This style remained predominant, with some regional variants, until the 15th century, when the Renaissance humanistic scripts revived a version of Carolingian minuscule. It then spread from the Italian Renaissance all over Europe. == Rise of modern writing == These humanistic scripts are the base for the antiqua and the handwriting forms in western and southern Europe. In Germany and Austria, the Kurrentschrift was rooted in the cursive handwriting of the later Middle Ages. With the name of the calligrapher Ludwig Sütterlin, this handwriting counterpart to the blackletter typefaces was abolished by Hitler in 1941. After World War II, it was taught as an alternative script in some areas until the 1970s; it is no longer taught. Secretary hand is an informal business hand of the Renaissance. === Developments === There are undeniable points of contact between architecture and palaeography, and in both it is possible to distinguish a Romanesque and a Gothic period . The creative effort which began in the post-Carolingian period culminated at the beginning of the 12th century in a calligraphy and an architecture which, though still somewhat awkward, showed unmistakable signs of power and experience, and at the end of that century and in the first half of the 13th both arts reached their climax and made their boldest flights. The topography of later medieval writing is still being studied; national varieties can, of course, be identified but the problem of distinguishing features becomes complicated as a result of the development of international relations, and the migration of clerks from one end of Europe to the other. During the later centuries of the Middle Ages the Gothic minuscule continued to improve within the restricted circle of de luxe editions and ceremonial documents. In common use, it degenerated into a cursive which became more and more intricate, full of superfluous strokes and complicated by abbreviations. In the first quarter of the 15th century an innovation took place which exercised a decisive influence on the evolution of writing in Europe. The Italian humanists were struck by the eminent legibility of the manuscripts, written in the improved Carolingian minuscule of the 10th and 11th centuries, in which they discovered the works of ancient authors, and carefully imitated the old writing. In Petrarch's compact book hand, the wider leading and reduced compression and round curves are early manifestations of the reaction against the crabbed Gothic secretarial minuscule we know today as "blackletter". Petrarch was one of the few medieval authors to have written at any length on the handwriting of his time; in his essay on the subject, La scrittura he criticized the current scholastic hand, with its laboured strokes (artificiosis litterarum tractibus) and exuberant (luxurians) letter-forms amusing the eye from a distance, but fatiguing on closer exposure, as if written for other purpose than to be read. For Petrarch the gothic hand violated three principles: writing, he said, should be simple (castigata), clear (clara) and orthographically correct. Boccaccio was a great admirer of Petrarch; from Boccaccio's immediate circle this post-Petrarchan "semi-gothic" revised hand spread to literati in Florence, Lombardy and the Veneto. A more thorough reform of handwriting than the Petrarchan compromise was in the offing. The generator of the new style (illustration) was Poggio Bracciolini, a tireless pursuer of ancient manuscripts, who developed the new humanist script in the first decade of the 15th century. The Florentine bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci recalled later in the century that Poggio had been a very fine calligrapher of lettera antica and had transcribed texts to support himself—presumably, as Martin Davies points out— before he went to Rome in 1403 to begin his career in the papal curia. Berthold Ullman identifies the watershed moment in the development of the new humanistic hand as the youthful Poggio's transcription of Cicero's Epistles to Atticus. By the time the Medici library was catalogued in 1418, almost half the manuscripts were noted as in the lettera antica. The new script was embraced and developed by the Florentine humanists and educators Niccolò de' Niccoli and Coluccio Salutati. The papal chancery adopted the new fashion for some purposes, and thus contributed to its diffusion throughout Christendom. The printers played a still more significant part in establishing this form of writing by using it, from the year 1465, as the basis for their types. The humanistic minuscule soon gave rise to a sloping cursive hand, known as the Italian, which was also taken up by printers in search of novelty and thus became the italic type. In consequence, the Italian hand became widely used, and in the 16th century began to compete with the Gothic cursive. In the 17th century, writing masters were divided between the two schools, and there was in addition a whole series of compromises. The Gothic characters gradually disappeared, except a few that survived in Germany. The Italian became universally used, brought to perfection in more recent times by English calligraphers. == See also == == References == == Further reading == === Arabic palaeography === D’Ottone, Arianna (3 November 2023). "In Defence of Arabic Palaeography". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 66 (7): 925–951. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341610. ISSN 0022-4995. === Western palaeography === === Indian palaeography === === Digital palaeography === == External links == French Renaissance Paleography (A scholarly site providing over 100 French manuscripts from 1300 to 1700 with tools for deciphering and transcribing them.) 'Manual of Latin Palaeography' (A comprehensive PDF file containing 82 pages profusely illustrated, January 2024). 'Manual of Greek Palaeography' (A comprehensive PDF file containing 71 pages profusely illustrated, January 2024). Palaeography: reading old handwriting 1500–1800: A practical online tutorial, from the National Archives (UK) A comprehensive survey of all the important aspects of medieval palaeography. (in German) A scholarly maintained web directory on palaeography. Guide to the Paleography Study Collection 1250-1791 Another scholarly maintained web directory on palaeography (200 links with critical comments, in French). Comprehensive bibliography (1,200 detailed references with critical comments in French). Online Tuition in the Palaeography of Scottish Documents 1500–1750 An introduction to Greek and Latin palaeography by Thompson, Edward Maunde – Outdated (published 1912) but good and useful illustrated handbook, available as facsimile. Free palaeographical fonts Self-correcting medieval palaeography exercises (13th and 14th century) 12th to 17th century manuscripts originating from Europe and the Middle East, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries Interactive Album of Mediaeval Palaeography Collection of online exercises for the transcription of a variety of scripts, from 8th to 15th century Walter Burley, Commentarium in Aristotelis De Anima L.III Critical Edition by Mario Tonelotto : an example of critical edition from 4 different manuscripts (transcription from medieval palaeography). ELM, a database of manuscripts written in Latin before 800 Archived 9 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine French paleography with Paleo-en-ligne.fr : free introductory cycle DILE Project. Diálogo de la Lengua. Paleographic transcription and to modern Spanish of the facsimile manuscript in the Biblioteca Nacional de España.	Wikipedia/Palaeography
The Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre is the representation of the events of the Nanjing Massacre as history, in various languages and cultural contexts, in the years since these events took place. This historiography is disparate and sometimes contested, owing to conflicting currents of Chinese and Japanese nationalist sentiment and national interest, as well as the fog of war. Japanese-language historiography on the subject has ranged from nationalist-revisionist accounts which completely deny Imperial Japanese culpability in war crimes, to leftist critics of militarism who prefer to center the narrative on the accounts of Chinese survivors of the events. Although Japanese revisionist accounts, which have sometimes arisen in the context of Japanese domestic politics, have been controversial, particularly in China, the Japanese-language historiographical material regarding the massacre has featured much diverse and sophisticated research. In contrast to the Japanese research that have been ongoing since the late 1950s, Chinese-language research has for a long time been hindered by the limitations on free speech in mainland China, much of the secondary material merely agreed on the government statement of the day, making it difficult to describe the situation as a "debate". While mainly written by non-academic lay authors, revisionist works of the Nanjing Massacre in Japan have been increasingly vocal in the past years and have caused international disputes and stoked nationalist tensions. Despite many failed attempts for a collaboration, Japan and China have been unable to agree upon the death toll of the massacre, and the debate remains a cornerstone of the current instability in the far east Asian geopolitics. == Second Sino-Japanese War == During the war, the Japanese Government kept tight control over the news media. As a result, the Japanese public was not aware of the Nanjing Massacre or other war crimes committed by the Japanese military. The Japanese military was, rather, portrayed as a heroic entity. Japanese officials lied about civilian death figures at the time of the Nanjing Massacre, and some Japanese ultranationalists still deny that the killings occurred. One brief lapse in the Japanese government's control over negative depictions of the war was the fleeting public distribution of Tatsuzō Ishikawa's wartime novel, Living Soldier (Ikiteiru heitai), which depicted the grim and dehumanizing effects of the war. Ishikawa and his publisher tried to satisfy government censors by a deliberate decision to self-censor lines about soldiers "forag[ing] for fresh meat" and "search[ing] for women like dogs chasing a rabbit", while still preserving the overall tone and import of the novel. The novel was published in 1938 but was pulled from circulation within days; Ishikawa was sentenced to a four-month prison term for disturbing "peace and order". Controversy and confusion over the Nanjing massacre occurred even soon after, in 1943 George Orwell wrote in Looking Back on the Spanish War: "Recently I noticed that the very people who swallowed any and every horror story about the Japanese in Nanking in 1937 refused to believe exactly the same stories about Hong Kong in 1942. There was even a tendency to feel that the Nanking atrocities had become, as it were, retrospectively untrue because the British Government now drew attention to them ... There is not the slightest doubt, for instance, about the behaviour of the Japanese in China ... The raping and butchering in Chinese cities, the tortures in the cellars of the Gestapo, the elderly Jewish professors flung into cesspools, the machine-gunning of refugees along the Spanish roads—they all happened, and they did not happen any the less because The Daily Telegraph has suddenly found out about them when it is five years too late." It was not until the Tokyo Trial (tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East) and the Nanjing Trial that the truth of the Nanjing Massacre was first revealed to Japanese civilians. The atrocities revealed during the trials shocked Japanese society at the time. == Postwar == In the 1950s, author Yoshie Hotta wrote a series of pieces of historical fiction about the atrocities in Nanjing. In 1967, Tomio Hora published his seminal account "Nankin Jiken" ("Nanjing Incident") in which he refuted revisionist denial of the massacre. This detailed treatment of the incident was the first meaningful and in-depth description of the massacre in Japanese postwar historiography. Some leftwing Japanese journalists of the decade were inspired by the American war in Vietnam to research the events. International interest in the Nanjing Massacre waned into near obscurity until 1972, the year China and Japan normalized diplomatic relations. Discussion of wartime atrocities developed considerably in this period. The Chinese government's statements about the events were attacked by Japanese diplomats, because they relied on personal testimonies and anecdotal evidence. Also coming under attack were the burial records and photographs presented in the Tokyo War Crime Court, which were said to be fabrications by the Chinese government, artificially manipulated or incorrectly attributed to the Nanjing Massacre. During the 1970s, Japanese journalist Katsuichi Honda traveled to China to explore the wartime conduct of the Imperial Army. Based on his research in China, Honda wrote a series of articles for the Asahi Shimbun on atrocities (such as the Nanjing Massacre) committed by Japanese soldiers during Second Sino-Japanese War, called "Chūgoku no Tabi" (中国の旅, "Travels in China"). The publication of these articles triggered a vehement response from the Japanese right regarding Imperial Japanese war crimes. Japanese nationalist responses answering this publication included the influential articles of Shichihei Yamamoto, "Reply to Katsuichi Honda", and Akira Suzuki, "The Phantom of The Nanjing Massacre". == Japanese history textbooks == In 1965, Japanese-language textbook author Saburō Ienaga sued the Ministry of Education, claiming that the government was unconstitutionally forcing him to alter the contents of his textbook, violating his right to freedom of expression. This case was ultimately decided in the author's favor in 1997. The way in which the subject is taught in Japanese schools became the center of controversy in the Japanese textbook controversies of 1982 and 1986. The Nanjing Massacre "was still absent from elementary school textbooks [but] junior high school textbooks such as those published by Nihon shoseki and Kyōiku Shuppan in 1975, for instance, mentioned that forty-two thousand Chinese civilians, including women and children, were killed during the Massacre". Two other textbooks mentioned the massacre but the four other textbooks in use in Japan did not mention it all. By 1978 the Ministry of Education removed the number killed out of all text books in use. In 1982, the Ministry of Education embarked on a campaign to reframe the presentation of the history of World War II in history textbooks. History textbooks were reworded to describe the Sino-Japanese War as "advancing in and out of China" instead of "aggression" which was deemed to be a more pejorative term. The Nanjing Massacre was characterized as a minor incident which was sparked by the frustration of Japanese soldiers at meeting strong resistance from the Chinese Army. These moves sparked strong protests from other Asian countries. In the 1990s, the stance of the Japanese government began to change as three consecutive prime ministers sought reconciliation with other Asian countries by acknowledging Japan's responsibility for the war. Immediately after taking office in 1993, Hosokawa Morihiro, prime minister of the first non-Liberal Democratic Party government, characterized Japan's expansion through Asia in the 1930s and 1940s as an "aggressive war". Hosokawa's two successors, Hata Tsutomu and Murayama Tomiichi made similar statements. For example, Murayama Tomiichi expressed "deep remorse" for Japan's colonial rule and aggression. During this period, officially endorsed school textbooks were rewritten to reflect this changed perspective on Japan's responsibility for the war. For example, of the seven history books approved in 1997 for use in junior high schools, six cited a figure of 200,000 as the number of people killed by the Japanese military during the capture of Nanjing; four of those books also mentioned the higher Chinese estimate of 300,000 casualties. Besides total denial, another line of Japanese thought insisted that the scale of the Nanjing Massacre had been exaggerated by the Chinese. This view was expounded by Ikuhiko Hata in his book Nanjing Incident. Hata asserted that the number of victims in the Massacre was 38,000–42,000. He argued that only Chinese POWs and civilians, and not Chinese soldiers killed in action on the battlefield, should be counted as victims of the massacre. == 1980s == Chinese interest in the history of the massacre further developed in the 1980s. Research of burial records and documents, as well as interviews, confirmed a figure of 300,000 dead Chinese in the course of the massacre, thus corroborating the findings of the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. In Japan, a variety of new evidence was published, including the private journals of commanding Japanese generals as well as those of many ordinary soldiers. Official military records of a number of the Japanese units involved also became available. In addition, a number of Japanese veterans began openly to admit to having committed or witnessed atrocities in the Nanjing area. Iris Chang mentioned important research was made out of the academic community by freelancers and reporters. She cited the works of Ono Kenji, a chemical factory worker who, from 1988 to 1994, visited 600 households, interviewed 200 persons, photocopied 20 notebooks, and conducted 7 video interviews. Some of his researches were published in Shūkan Kin'yōbi and were saluted as the first work on Nanjing Massacre solely based on Japanese sources. In 1996, he coedited a book on the subject, "living under the constant shadow of possible Japanese retaliation". Masaaki Tanaka's book "Fabrication of Nanjing Massacre" not only denied the Nanjing Massacre but laid the blame for the Sino-Japanese war on the Chinese Government. In September 1986, the Japanese education minister, Fujio Masayuki, dismissed the Nanjing massacre as "just a part of war". The Japanese distributor of The Last Emperor (1987) edited out the stock footage of the Nanjing massacre from the film. == 1990s == As far as Japanese academics are concerned, the controversy over the occurrence of atrocities ended in the early '90s. Both sides accept that atrocities did occur; however, disagreement exists over the actual numbers. The debate is focused on the questions of whether to include archival or anecdotal evidence, what time period to use in defining the massacre, and what geographical area to use in defining the massacre. === Chinese historical studies === In a 1990 paper entitled The Nanking Massacre and the Nanking Population, Sun Zhai-wei of the Jiangsu Academy of Social Sciences estimated the total number of people killed at 377,400, combining Chinese burial records and estimates totaling 150,000 given by Japanese Imperial Army major Ohta Hisao in a confessional report about the Japanese army's disposal efforts of dead bodies. === Denial by Japanese government officials === A number of Japanese cabinet ministers, as well as some high-ranking politicians, have made comments denying the atrocities committed by the Japanese Army in World War II. Among these were General Nagano Shigeto, a World War II veteran and a former chief of staff of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force who was appointed justice minister in spring of 1994. Shigeto told a Japanese newspaper that "the Nanjing Massacre and the rest was a fabrication". In an interview with Playboy magazine, Tokyo Governor Shintaro Ishihara said, "People say that the Japanese made a holocaust but that is not true. It is a story made up by the Chinese. It has tarnished the image of Japan, but it is a lie." Some subsequently resigned after protests from China and South Korea. On November 10, 1990, during a protest by Chinese Americans against the Japanese actions on the island of Tiaoyutai, the Deputy Japanese Consul in Houston asserted that "the Nanjing Massacre never occurred". In response to these and similar incidents, a number of Japanese journalists and historians formed the Nankin Jiken Chōsa Kenkyūkai (Nanjing Incident Research Group). The research group has collected large quantities of archival materials as well as testimonies from both Chinese and Japanese sources. === Apology and condolences by the prime minister and emperor of Japan === On August 15, 1995, the fiftieth anniversary of the Surrender of Japan, the Japanese prime minister Tomiichi Murayama gave the first clear and formal apology for Japanese actions during the war. He apologized for Japan's wrongful aggression and the great suffering that it inflicted in Asia. He offered his "heartfelt" apology to all survivors and to the relatives and friends of the victims. That day, the prime minister and the Japanese Emperor Akihito pronounced statements of mourning at Tokyo's Nippon Budokan. The emperor offered his condolences and expressed the hope that similar atrocities would never be repeated. === Iris Chang === Interest in the West remained muted until the publication of Iris Chang's book, The Rape of Nanking, in 1997. Even though her book was criticized by various historians for flaws in accuracy of its historical research, the book raised consciousness of the incident in a much wider Western audience. == Contemporary debate == Currently, no notable group in Japan, even among right-wing nationalists, denies that killings did occur in Nanjing. The debate has shifted mainly to the death toll, to the extent of rapes and civilian killings (as opposed to POW and suspected guerrillas) and to the appropriateness of using the word "massacre". Massacre denialists insist that burial records from the Red Swastika Society and the Chung Shan Tang (Tsung Shan Tong) were never cross examined at the Tokyo and Nanjing trials, arguing therefore that the estimates derived from these two sets of records should be heavily discounted. Although they admit that personal accounts of Japanese soldiers do suggest the occurrence of rapes, they insist that this anecdotal evidence cannot be used to determine the extent of rapes. Moreover, they characterize personal testimonies from the Chinese side to be propaganda. They also point out that, unlike the burial records that document the number of deaths, there are no documented records of the rapes, and so they argue that the allegation of mass rape is unsubstantiated. Massacre denialists also assert that the majority of those killed were POWs and "suspected guerrillas" whose executions they characterize as legitimate, and so they argue the use of the word "massacre" is inappropriate. However, within the public the debate still continues. Those downplaying the massacre have most recently rallied around a group of academic and journalists associated with the Tsukurukai. Their views are often echoed in publications associated with conservative, right-wing publishers such as Bungei Shunjū and Sankei Shuppan. In response, two Japanese organizations have taken the lead in publishing material detailing the massacre and collecting related documents and accounts. The Study Group on the Nanjing Incident, founded by a group of historians in 1984, has published the most books responding directly to revisionist historians; the Center for Research and Documentation on Japan's War Responsibility, founded in 1993 by Yoshiaki Yoshimi, has published many materials in its own journal. In 2004, the Japanese Minister of Education expressed a desire to overcome "self-torturing" accounts of Japanese history. In 2005, violent riots erupted in China over new history textbooks published by right-wing publisher Fusosha which were approved by the Japanese Ministry of Education. In 2007, a group of Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) lawmakers denounced the Nanjing Massacre as a fabrication, arguing that there was no evidence to prove the allegations of mass killings by Japanese soldiers. They accused Beijing of using the alleged incident as a "political advertisement". That same year, Xia Shuqin won a defamation of character suit against Japanese massacre denialists who argued that she had fabricated testimony relating to the death of seven of her eight family members during the Nanjing Massacre. Only eight at the time, Xia had herself been bayoneted, but survived, while her four-year-old sister escaped detection under the bed quilts. == References == == Sources == Hata, Ikuhiko (1986). Nanjing Incident (南京事件―「虐殺」の構造. Nankin Jiken― Gyakusatsu no kozo). Chuo Koron Shinsho. ISBN 4-12-100795-6. Yamamoto, Shichihei (March 1972). "Reply to Katsuichi Honda". Every Gentlemen. Higashinakano, Syudo. The Truth of the Nanking Operation in 1937. Shogakukan. Higashinakano, S., Susumu, Kobayashi and Fukunaga, S. Analyzing the "Photographic Evidence" of the Nanking Massacre. Shogakukan.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Tanaka, Massaki (1984). Fabrication of Nanjing Massacre. Nihon Kyobun Sha. The Truth about Nanjing (2007) a Japanese-produced documentary denying that any such massacre took place. Suzuki, Akira (April 1972). "The Phantom of The Nanjing Massacre". Every Gentlemen. Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi, ed. (2008). The Nanking Atrocity 1937–38: Complicating the Picture. Yang, DaQing (June 1999). "Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing". American Historical Review. 104 (3): 842–865. doi:10.2307/2650991. JSTOR 2650991. PMID 19291890.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre
The prosopography of ancient Rome is an approach to classical studies and ancient history that focuses on family connections, political alliances, and social networks in ancient Rome. The methodology of Roman prosopography involves defining a group for study—often the social ranking called ordo in Latin, as of senators and equestrians—then collecting and analyzing data. Literary sources provide evidence mainly for the ruling elite. Epigraphy and papyrology are sources that may also document ordinary people, who have been studied in groups such as imperial freedmen, lower-class families, and specific occupations such as wet nurses (nutrices). In German scholarship, Friedrich Münzer's many biographical articles for Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft took a prosopographical approach. Matthias Gelzer, one of the founders of prosopographical methodology in relation to ancient Rome, focused on the social institution of patronage and its effects on the Roman political system. Leading 20th-century scholars who wrote in English on the prosopography of the Roman Republic include T.R.S. Broughton, whose three-volume The Magistrates of the Roman Republic is a standard reference; Ronald Syme, whose Roman Revolution (1939) became the basis for later scholars' work on the late Republic and the transition to the Principate; T.P. Wiseman, who has studied in particular the careers and family lines of Romans from the municipia, towns outside Rome; E. Badian, particularly his 1965 work on the trial of Gaius Norbanus; Lily Ross Taylor; and Erich Gruen. Other scholars, such as P.A. Brunt, have cautioned against an overreliance on prosopography, particularly the tendency to see court trials as "proxy wars" between political factions rather than as judicial proceedings in pursuit of just outcomes: even bitter enemies such as Cicero and Clodius Pulcher are recorded as testifying on behalf of the same party. == See also == Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Prosopographia Imperii Romani == References == == External links == Media related to Prosopography of ancient Rome at Wikimedia Commons	Wikipedia/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome
The historiography of the Crusades is the study of history-writing and the written history, especially as an academic discipline, regarding the military expeditions initially undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, or 13th centuries to the Holy Land. This scope was later extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church. The subject has involved competing and evolving interpretations since the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 until the present day. The religious idealism, use of martial force and pragmatic compromises made by those involved in crusading were controversial, both at the time and subsequently. Crusading was integral to Western European culture, with the ideas that shaped behaviour in the Late Middle Ages retaining currency beyond the 15th century in attitude rather than action. From the 17th century historians began rejecting the religious motivations applied to crusading and instead examined the secular. The building of nation states led to the application of interpretations in support of this and fundamentally discrete from the religious sphere. This presented a challenge in reconciling the idealistic and the materialistic motives of the protagonists. The internationalism of crusading remained an obstacle to those historians wishing to project both the idea of crusading and the Crusades themselves as nationalistic precedents. Enlightenment thinkers considered the crusaders culturally inferior to themselves and Protestants considered them morally so. By the 19th century the development of nationalism, colonial politics, and critical history increased interest in the subject for the purposes of entertainment and moralising. In the early 20th century a focus developed on the part crusades played as drivers of medieval conquest, economics, and the legacy they left. Crusading historiography continues to evolve and covers a wide range of issues. == Terminology == The Oxford English Dictionary defines historiography as firstly The writing of history; written history. and secondly The study of history-writing, especially as an academic discipline. The term "crusade" first referred to a military expedition undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, or 13th centuries to the Holy Land. The conflicts to which the term was applied were later extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans and heretics or for other alleged religious ends. From the first papal decree in 1095, these differed from other Christian religious wars in that they were considered a penitential exercise rewarding the participants with forgiveness for all confessed sins. Pope Urban II was recorded to have said, as translated by Robert Somerville, "whoever for devotion alone not to obtain honour or money, goes to Jerusalem to liberate the Church of God can substitute the journey for all penance". The usage of the term "crusade" can create a misleading impression of coherence, particularly regarding the early Crusades, and the definition is a matter of historiographical debate among contemporary historians. At the time of the First Crusade, iter, "journey", and peregrinatio, "pilgrimage" were used as the descriptions of the campaign. Crusader terminology remained largely indistinguishable from that of Christian pilgrimage during the 12th century. Only at the end of the century was a specific language of crusading adopted in the form of crucesignatus—"one signed by the cross"—for a crusader. This led to the French croisade—the way of the cross. By the mid-13th century the cross became the major descriptor of the crusades with crux transmarina—"the cross overseas"—used for crusades across the Mediterranean Sea, and crux cismarina—"the cross this side of the sea"—for those in Europe. Riley-Smith, a dominant and influential figure in academic crusade studies, defined a 'Crusade' as an expedition undertaken on papal authority. This definition excludes the Spanish Reconquista, even though participants were granted Papal indulgences, which conferred the same privileges. Historian Giles Constable identified four specific areas of focus for contemporary crusade studies; their political or geographical objectives, how they were organised, how far they were an expression of popular support, or the religious reasons behind them. == Chronological and geographical frameworks == The Crusader states established in the Eastern Mediterranean in 1098 persisted in some form for over two centuries, and relied on a constant flow of men and money from the West. Knights either travelled to the Holy Land as individuals, or as one of the military orders, including the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller and the Teutonic Order. The church granted them immunity from lawsuits, forgiveness of debt, and general protection for individual property and family. This meant the crusading experience and ideology was far more pervasive than the 'Crusades', which were major expeditions launched with Papal support. French Catholic lawyer Étienne Pasquier (1529–1615) is thought to be the first historian to attempt the numbering of each crusade in the Holy Land. He suggested there were six. 18th century historians narrowed the chronological and geographical scope to the Levant and the Outremer between 1095 and 1291. Some such as Georg Christoph Muller only counted the five large expeditions that reached the eastern Mediterranean—1096–1099, 1147–1149, 1189–1192, 1217–1229 and 1248–1254. In 1820 Charles Mills counted nine distinct crusades. Numbering conventions are retained, mainly for convenience and tradition, but are somewhat arbitrary systems for what some historians now consider to be seven major and numerous lesser campaigns. The crusades to the Holy Land provided a template for other campaigns conducted in the interest of the Latin Church: The Spanish Christian kingdoms overcame Muslim Al-Andalus in the 12th and 13th century; Between the 12th to 15th century German expansion into the pagan Baltic region; Non-conformity was suppressed, particularly in Languedoc during what has become called the Albigensian Crusade; The assertion of Papal temporal ambitions in Italy and Germany that are now known as political crusades. In addition the 13th and 14th centuries saw unsanctioned, but related popular uprisings to recover Jerusalem known variously as Shepherds' or Children's crusades. == Studies of primary sources == In 1841, German historian Heinrich von Sybel published his History of the Crusades, a critical study of then-current Western sources. This initiated a series of similar works, such as those published by Heinrich Hagenmeyer between 1877 and 1913. As a result, the Western texts edited for the series Recueil des historiens des croisades have now been supplanted by superior editions. Documentary sources include charters, diplomas, letters, privileges, and similar texts. Charters recording legal transactions such as sale or gift of property, or concession of rights are the most common documentary source from the Middle Ages. A sizeable number remain that were issued by crusaders. These include records of fund-raising transactions and pious donations. As such they inform historians on the financing of crusades, the motivations, and states of mind as well as family crusading traditions. They are of fundamental importance in the study of Crusading in the Outremer, Greece, and the Baltic region. Particularly the collections of charters related to military orders and ecclesiastical institutions. Although many letter do not survive, they are referred to in the narrative sources. Correspondence includes diplomatic and private missives, papal bulls proclaiming and regulating crusades including the crusaders' spiritual and temporal privileges and appeals for military assistance. Examples of treaties and contracts such as the 1190 treaty of Adrianople between Frederick Barbarossa and Byzantium during the Third Crusade, the Treaty of Venice and the Treaty of Christburg provide information on the organisation and outcomes of many crusades. In addition, historians utilise sermons, law codes, genealogies, financial records, the rules and customs of military orders, and inscriptions. Crusading narrative sources are widely available in good editions, but other sources are much less accessible. == Medieval Western sources == When the Crusades began, most western primary sources were written in Latin and this remained the case for official documents until the end of the Middle Ages. However, from the late 12th century, individual eyewitness narratives were often captured in vernacular languages, including French, Occitan, English, German, and Dutch. Considerable information on the Crusading movement is recorded in general histories, or those devoted to specific cities and regions, while there are in addition large numbers of chronicles, histories, and biographies specifically devoted to crusading. The First Crusade produced elaborate and engaging narratives written by participants conscious of their involvement in an unprecedented event whose success or failure was derived from divine intervention. The relative failure of subsequent expeditions led to considerable variations in coverage and quality of those relating to later crusades. === Western sources of the First Crusade and the Crusade of 1101 === The description and interpretation of crusading began soon after the taking of Jerusalem in 1099 and the decade of consolidation that followed. New campaigns in the 12th century utilised the images and morality of the first expedition for propaganda purposes. Travelling with different contingents and therefore offering different perspectives, three participating clerics wrote in Latin about the First Crusade and the Crusade of 1101: the anonymous author of Gesta Francorum, Raymond of Aguilers, and Fulcher of Chartres. There is some connectivity, Raymond and Fulcher both appear to refer to Gesta Francorum. Additionally, Peter Tudebode and Historia Belli Sacri reworked Gesta and it was completely rewritten in three versions by French Benedictine monks in the early 12th century: Guibert of Nogent retitled his work Dei Gesta per Francos offering some unique information. Baldric of Dol provided stylistic change and is the source for the accounts given by the Anglo-Norman monk Orderic Vitalis who provides details from oral sources and biographical detail about Norman participants. Robert the Monk from Rheims, was a conservative adapter but widely influential and copied. The original Latin version exists in more than 120 manuscripts, and more than four German translations from the later Middle Ages. Its influence can be seen in the works of Henry of Huntingdon and Gilo of Paris. Other chroniclers wrote accounts early in the century, such as the German Ekkehard of Aura and Genoese Caffaro, both who were in the Outremer by 1101. Ralph of Caen who arrived in 1108, wrote the Gesta Tancredi, extant in a single manuscript and written in idiosyncratic Latin about the exploits of Tancred, Prince of Galilee. Texts such as Gesta Francorum presented a view of crusading written from a French, Benedictine and Papalist perspective which emphasised the importance of military might and attributed success and failure to God's will. The German cleric Albert of Aachen wrote the longest and most detailed account of the First Crusade and of the following twenty years, without travelling to Outremer. One advantage of his work, Historia Iherosolimitana is that it informs on the instigation and preaching of the crusade in the Rhineland, the preacher Peter the Hermit, the People's Crusade and the massacres of the Jews in the Rhineland cities. This work provided the only significant challenge to the Papalist, northern French tradition and gained increasing importance before the end of the century, when the cosmopolitan Jerusalemite William of Tyre expanded on Albert's writing. William's Chronicon was written in Outremer using a wealth of earlier materials and became the standard historical account of the Crusades for several centuries, until being questioned by historians in the 19th century. The challenge presented by the sources is illustrated by two vernacular accounts of the First Crusade: Zimmern Chronicle is now thought to be a 16th century fake. Chanson d'Antioche, although composed at the end of the 12th century contains later additions that cannot be differentiated. The First Crusade is also evidenced in a small collection of letters from participants to the west including the Laodikeia Letter sent by the leaders of the crusade to the pope in the Autumn of 1099, from Anselm IV, archbishop of Milan, and Stephen of Blois === Sources from the Outremer === Fulcher missed the culminating events of the First Crusade because he accompanied Baldwin of Boulogne to Edessa. When Baldwin became king of Jerusalem in 1100, Fulcher joined him and for the next twenty-seven years wrote the best-informed account of the kingdom. Between 1114 and 1122 Walter the Chancellor documented of the wars fought by Antioch against the Turks of northern Syria in Bella Antiochena. Both texts were used by William of Tyre, whose Chronicon deals with the history of the region from Emperor Heraclius until 1184. William was translated into French and continuators' accounts are important for the end of the first kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1187) and the 13th century. These include: Eracles— written in France in Old French, this is an interrelated collection. Chronique d'Ernoul—written in the Outremer The Battle of Hattin and Saladin's conquest are covered by the short but detailed Libellus de expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum expeditione, and two works by Peter of Blois Passio Reginaldi and Conquestio de dilatione vie Ierosolimitane, alongside more general works. Archives were lost with the loss of territory to Saladin in 1187 and the final collapse of Outremer in 1291. The travel tales by pilgrims such as John of Würzburg, Saewulf, and Nikulás of Munkethverá provide details of topography and society, Assizes of Jerusalem give information on the legal system and Lignages d'Outremer provides family histories and relationships although its accuracy is questioned for the early 12th century. Gestes des Chiprois is the only surviving eyewitness account of the end of the Crusader States. It forms the basis of an account by Marino Sanuto the Elder. Other accounts, such as the anonymous De excidio urbis Acconis Thaddeus of Naples's Hystoria de desolacione civitatis Acconensis accuse the Acre garrison of cowardice. Little written evidence survives from the county of Edessa but much more from the kings of Jerusalem, the princes of Antioch, the counts of Tripol and the lordship of Joscelin III of Courtenay. The military orders; the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; and the Abbey of Saint Mary of the Valley of Jehosaphat provide surviving documents and letters that survive. Most are not yet available in full-text versions and the reliance is still on the digest provided by Reinhold Röhricht in his Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani at the end of the 19th century. === Late 12th-century sources === The Second Crusade's failure resulted in fewer sources. Three narratives exists: Odo of Deuil's De Ludovici VII profectione in Orientem, Sugar's Life of Louis VII, and Otto of Freising's Gesta Friderici. William of Tyre was absent from the Levant, but sought information to explain the failure. Historians now consider that, during this period, crusading expanded to include fighting the pagan Slavs in northern Europe, and the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula which is recorded in De expugnatione Lyxbonensi and the work known variously as theTeutonic Source or Lisbon Letter. The papal master-plan against Slavs east of the river Elbe has Helmold of Bosau's account. The Third Crusade is more celebrated because of the involvement of Richard I of England and its relative success. Itinerarium peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi has a contested relationship with the "Latin Continuation" of William of Tyre. Ambroise claimed to be an eyewitness leaving long poem in Old French. Informative Anglo-Norman writers include: Roger of Howden who was with the fleet to Outremer and returned in 1191. Richard of Devizes had a source who journeyed as far as Sicily. Ralph de Diceto had a chaplain on the expedition. Ralph of Coggeshall names his informants. William of Newburgh, was well-informed, but may have used the "Latin Continuation." Only Gesta Philippi Augusti of Rigord provides the French perspective. German chroniclers recorded the journey of Emperor Frederick I until his death including the Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris supposedly by Ansbert. A monk from the Norwegian monastery of Tønsberg records the voyage of a Danish- Norwegian fleet in Historia de profectione Danorum in Hierosolymam. Narratio de primordiis ordinis Theutonici describes the foundation of the German hospital at Acre that became the Teutonic Order. === 13th–15th-century sources === Geoffrey of Villehardouin's Conquête de Constantinople is an authoritative, detailed and firsthand "top-down" account of the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) and Frankish Greece. Robert of Clari's similarly titled work adds a counterpoint from the lower orders but it is partial and unreliable while being occasionally a useful correction. These two works are complemented by the anonymous probably Rhineland Devastatio Constantinopolitana illustrating the disillusionment of poorer crusaders. The triumphal return of crusaders and their loot is covered in three sources: Gunther of Pairis's apologia for his patron Abbot Martin. The Anonymous of Halberstadt's defence of his bishop Conrad of Krosigk. The Anonymous of Soissons's account of relics brought to his church Gesta Innocentii III is an uncritical biography of the pope. Accounts of the Latin settlement in the Empire of Constantinople and Frankish Greece are limited. Villehardouin's account was continued by Henry of Valenciennes. The Chronicle of the Morea is the key source for Frankish central and southern Greece in the 13th and the 14th fourteenth centuries and Assises de Romanie evidence legal systems. Three works document the Albigensian Crusade, from 1209 until 1219, against the Cathars of southern France: Peter of Vaux-de-Cernay, nephew of the bishop of Carcassonne, witnessed many of the events he details in Historia Albigensis. The work presents the view of the crusaders and effectively ends on the death of Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester Song of the Albigensian Crusade or Chanson de la Croisade albigeoise from 1218 and written in vernacular French by William of Tudela who supported the papacy and an anonymous writer who wholeheartedly did not. It is an entertainment but matches Peter's work when describing the same events except in that Simon de Montfort is depicted as a villain. The Chronica of Guillaume de Puylaurens, a southerner and notary for the Inquisition includes brief coverage while covering the period between 1146 and 1272. The largely poor and uneducated participants in popular expeditions such as the 1212 Children's Crusade and the 1251 and 1320 Shepherds’ Crusades did not produce specific records, although there are some sketchy and elliptical narrative sources. Oliver of Paderborn's Historia Damiatana is the most useful account of the Fifth Crusade. There are other good sources such as the letters of James of Vitry and Alberic of Troisfontaines universal chronicle. The latter also informs on the Fourth and Albigensian Crusades. John of Joinville's life of Louis IX of France—Livre de saintes paroles et des bons faiz nostre saint roy Looÿs— is well informed on the crusade to the East in which John was a participant but less so on the crusade to Tunis in which he was not. Guillaume de Machaut's verse history La Prise d’Alixandre is the main source for the 1365 capture of the city of Alexandria in Egypt by Peter I of Cyprus. Chivalric biographies of Louis II, Duke of Bourbon—Chronique du bon Loys de Bourbon and of Jean II Le Maingre—Livre des Fais by Jean Cabaret d'Orville’s and an anonymous author provide information on the 1390 Mahdia Crusade, the 1396 Crusade of Nikopolis and expeditions to Prussia in 1384 and 1385. The chronicler Saxo Grammaticus describes Danish crusades in the Baltic region, but Henry of Livonia is the most important source for the conflict in Livonia. Most narrative sources dealing with the Baltic Crusades were in High or Low German from associates of the Teutonic Order: The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle—Livländische Reimchronik Ältere Hochmeisterchronik, Chronicles of Nicolaus von Jeroschin, Hermann von Wartberge, Wigand von Marburg, and Johann von Posilge, Another Latin narrative is the chronicle of a Teutonic Order priest Peter von Dusburg Additionally, there are unique source types from the military campaigns including records of payments to mercenaries and some 100 different Litauische Wegeberichte describing campaign routes against Lithuania, compiled from scouts and local informants. Other documents for both Prussia and Livonia, some only partly published, exist in the collection of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation or Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz in Berlin. At the end of the fifteenth century, a substantial chronicle on the Teutonic Order and the crusades in the Holy Land was written in Dutch: the Jüngere Hochmeisterchronik or Utrecht Chronicle of the Teutonic Order. === Recovery texts === After the loss of Syria and Palestine to the Mamluks and especially the fall of Acre in 1291, the writing of Latin crusade histories decreased, and a new genre of recovery texts developed. These were treatises or memoranda extolling projects and strategy for the recovery of the Holy Land or de recuperatione Terrae Sanctae. Writers such as Fidenzio of Padua, Marino Sanudo Torsello's Liber secretorum fidelium crucis, Philippe de Mézières, Bertrandon de la Broquière, Ramon Llull, and Pierre Dubois wrote and circulated such works in large numbers but varied widely in practicality and influence. Sanudo's sources included the 13th century Speculum historiale by Dominican friar Vincent of Beauvais. In the 14th and 15th century the increasing threat from the Ottomans and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 prompted renewed interest in the crusades of the high Middle Ages from Renaissance humanists. Humanist historiography used refined rhetoric, idealising the First Crusade as an exemplar in propaganda favouring a European alliance against barbarous enemies. Flavio Biondo explicitly associated the loss of Constantinople with the Council of Clermont in the respected and popular Historiarum decades. Florentine chancellor Benedetto Accolti the Elder's De bello a Christianis contra barbaros gesto pro Christi sepulchro et Iudaea recuperandis on the First Crusade was closely linked with Pope Pius II's preparations for war. The First Crusade was refashioned into a figure of pride and nationalism in works based on Robert of Rheims and William of Tyre such as Historiarum rerum Venetarum decades by Marcus Antonius Coccius Sabellicus and the De rebus gestis Francorum libri by Paolo Emilio which was dedicated to Louis XII. == Reformation-era literature == Attitudes toward the Crusades during the Reformation were shaped by confessional debates and the Ottoman expansion. In his 1566 work, History of the Turks, Protestant martyrologist John Foxe blamed the sins of the Catholic Church for the failure of the Crusades. He also condemned the use of the Crusades against those he considered had maintained the faith, such as the Albigensians and Waldensians. Lutheran scholar Matthew Dresser (1536–1607) extended this view. The crusaders were lauded for their faith but Urban II's motivation was seen as part of his conflict with Emperor Henry IV. On this view, the Crusades were flawed and the idea of restoring the physical Holy Places was "detestable superstition". Étienne Pasquier highlighted the failures of the crusades and the damage that religious conflict had inflicted on France and the church. It lists victims of papal aggression, sale of indulgences, church abuses, corruption, and conflicts at home. In the early 17th century, reformist Catholic theologians like Alberico Gentili and Dutch humanist Hugo Grotius argued only wars fought for secular motives, such as the defence of rightfully held land, could be defined as "just"; those undertaken to convert others were inherently "unjust". They recast the Crusades as being undertaken in defence of Christendom, rather than demonstrations of faith; by avoiding the traditional focus on indulgences provided by the Catholic church, it created a perspective that could be shared by all Christians, both Protestant and Catholic. Divisions caused by the French Wars of Religion meant both Protestant and Catholic scholars like Jacques Bongars and Catholic Pasquier used the Crusades as a symbol of French unity. They presented them as primarily a French experience, rather than an alliance between European Christians, and praised the role of individuals while dismissing the Crusades themselves as immoral. == Age of Enlightenment literature == Enlightenment writers such as David Hume, Voltaire, and Edward Gibbon used crusading as a conceptual tool to critique religion, civilisation, and cultural mores. They argued its only positive impact was ending feudalism and thus promoting rationalism; negatives included depopulation, economic ruin, abuse of papal authority, irresponsibility and barbarism. These opinions were later criticised in the 19th century as being unnecessarily hostile to, and ignorant of, the crusades. Alternatively, Claude Fleury and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz proposed that the crusades were one stage in the improvement of European civilisation; that paradigm was further developed by rationalists. In France the idea that the crusades were an important part of national history and identity continued to evolve. In scholarly literature, the term "holy war" was replaced by the neutral German kreuzzug and French croisade. In 1671 while working for the Elector of Mainz, Leibniz wrote a proposal to Louis XIV for a French conquest of Egypt along the lines of the crusaders' Egypt strategy. The strategic intent was maybe to distract French aggression but the argument was France's role in the crusades aligned to its destiny, it would be for the benefit of Christendom, the Ottomans were decadent, and it would support French colonisation in the Near East. The proposal wasn't accepted, in the words of the French ambassador to Mainz I say nothing about the schemes for a holy war: but you know that they have ceased to be a la mode since Saint Louis. However, the proposal was rediscovered and Leibniz's ideas regained currency in the run up to Napoleon's French campaign in Egypt and Syria at the end of the 18th century. Gibbon followed Thomas Fuller in dismissing the concept that the crusades were a legitimate defence on the grounds that they were disproportionate to the threat presented. Palestine was an objective, not because of reason but because of fanaticism and superstition. William Robertson expanded on Fleury in a new, empirical, objective approach; placing crusading in a narrative on the road to modernity. The cultural consequences of progress, growth in trade and the rise of the Italian cities are elaborated in his work. In this he influenced his student Walter Scott. == 19th-century Western literature == Much of the popular understanding of the Crusades derives from the 19th century novels of Scott and the histories of Joseph-François Michaud. Scott published four Crusades-based novels between 1819 and 1831 viewing the Crusades as incursions of glamorous but uneducated western Europeans into a superior civilisation. Michaud published his influential Histoire des croisades between 1812 and 1822 depicting the Crusades as glorious instruments of French nationalism and proto-imperialism. These incompatible views agreed only on the idea that a crusade was defined by its opposition to Islam. Scott's description of an inferior culture attacking a more sophisticated one mixed with Michaud's proto-colonialist conviction. By the 1950s this established a neo-imperialistic and materialistic orthodoxy that remains the popular perceptions. The Romantics and conservative adherents of the European anciens régimes appropriated crusading imagery for their own political goals, downplaying religion to fit within a modern, secular context and presenting crusades as a counterpoint to liberal ideas of nationalism. Future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Benjamin Disraeli showed a deep interest in crusading, touring the Near East in 1831 and writing a crusade novel in 1847, called both Tancred or The New Crusade. Western historians have traditionally argued that the Muslim world showed little interest in the Crusades until the mid-19th century. Carole Hillenbrand suggests they were a marginal issue compared to the collapse of the Caliphate, while Arab writers often took a Western viewpoint in opposition to the Ottoman Empire, which suppressed Arab nationalism. In 1841, the first of 15 volumes of Recueil des historiens des croisades was published, based on original sources collected by the Maurists prior to the Revolution. Louis-Philippe opened the Salle des Croisades at Versailles in 1843, with over 120 specially commissioned paintings related to the Crusades. == Modern Western historiography == French historians such as Emmanuel Guillaume-Rey, Louis Madelin and René Grousset expanded on the thinking of Michaud, espoused propaganda of the country's Mediterranean colonies, and provided a source of popular models that were criticised and dismantled when empires ceased to hold academic approval. Early modern period and Francisco Franco-era Spain presented a special case where nationalism and national identity could be projected onto the Crusades. The Spanish Catholic Church declared a crusade against Marxism and atheism, and in the following thirty-six years of National Catholicism, the idea of Reconquista as a foundation of historical memory, celebration, and Spanish national identity became entrenched in conservative circles. It lost historiographical hegemony when democracy was restored in 1978, but remains fundamental within conservative sectors of Spanish academia, politics, and the media when analysing the medieval period because of the strong ideological connotations. British historians took a less ideological approach compared with Spain, France, Germany and Italy. Steven Runciman's literary three-volume work A History of the Crusades, published between 1951 and 1954, had the most significant impact on Crusades' historiography since Michaud. One reason is the elegance of the writing; Jonathan Riley-Smith quotes Runciman as saying he was a writer of literature, rather than an historian. As a historian of the Byzantine Empire, his approach reflected the 19th century concept of a clash of civilisations. Historian Thomas F. Madden considers that Runciman single-handedly crafted the current popular concept of the crusades, while many other academics now consider his work dated, sometimes inaccurate and open to challenge. The work is largely based on Ferdinand Chalandon's Histoire de la Premiere Croisade jusqu'a l'election de Godefroi de Bouillon, Gesta Francorum, William of Tyre, Byzantines such as Nicetas Choniates, Gestes des Chiprois and Grousset. In the 1940s, Claude Cahen's La Syrie du Nord a l'epoque des croisades—Northern Syria at the time of the Crusades— established the study of the Outremer as a feature of Near Eastern history removed from the West. By re-examining legal practices and institutions, Israeli Joshua Prawer and French historian Jean Richard reshaped the historiography of the Latin East. A fresh constitutional history supplanted paradigms of the Latin East as a model feudal world. The 1970s Histoire du royaume Latin de Jerusalem revisited the Latin settlements in the East being and the idea of them being proto colonies. In The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages Prawer argued that Frankish settlement was too limited to be permanent and the Franks did not engage with the local culture or environment; it was therefore unlike the state of Israel. This agreed with R.C. Smail's influential 1956 work on crusader warfare. This directly challenged Madelin and Grousset and in turn Ronnie Ellenblum's 1998 Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem modifies Prawar's model with more extensive rural Latin settlement. Instigated by John La Monte of University of Pennsylvania, and later edited by Kenneth Setton, in the mid-20th century, the multi-volume and collaborative Wisconsin Collaborative History of the Crusades attempted to fill gaps in crusade knowledge with a great weight of useful material, maps, nomenclature, bibliographies and glosseries. However, its collaborative approach led to a long gestation between 1955 and 1989, a lack of coherence and contributions to the debates on the crusades that quickly became dated in the light of new research. In a 2001 article—The Historiography of the Crusades—Giles Constable attempted to categorise what is meant by Crusade into four areas of contemporary crusade study. His view was that Traditionalists such as Hans Eberhard Mayer are concerned with where the crusades were aimed, Pluralists such as Riley-Smith concentrate on how the crusades were organised, Popularists including Paul Alphandery and Etienne Delaruelle focus on the popular groundswells of religious fervour and Generalists such as Ernst-Dieter Hehl focus on the phenomenon of Latin holy wars. The definition of the crusade remains contentious. Prior to the late 20th century it was assumed that what was meant by "crusade" and its scope was Christian attempts to recover Jerusalem. From the beginning of the Early Modern Period little reflection was given to the inclusion of other theatres of war. The German historian Carl Erdmann presented a significant challenge, theorising that crusading was a political ideology within Western society rather than a glamourised frontier conflict. In 1965 Hans Eberhard Mayer's Geschichte der Kreuzzuge—History of the Crusades— raised questions of the definition of crusading. Riley-Smith straddled two schools on the actions and motives of early crusaders. By 1977 he was a dominant influential figure in academic crusade studies and proposed a wider definition. The key to definition rested with papal authority. Riley-Smith's view that everyone accepted that the crusades to the East were the most prestigious and provided the scale against which the others were measure is largely accepted. But there is disagreement on whether only those campaigns launched to recover or protect Jerusalem that are proper crusades e.g., Mayer and Jean Flori. or whether all those wars to which popes applied equivalent temporal and spiritual were equally legitimate e.g., Riley-Smith and Norman Housley. These arguments fail to place what only became a coherent paradigm around 1200 into a context of Medieval Christian holy war argued by John Gilchrist e.g. Crusading was the result ecclesiastical initiative, but the church submitted to secular militarism in the early 13th century. For Paul E. Chevedden, the concept of crusading is not embodied exclusively in one form (e.g., the Jerusalem Crusade) but in the totality of crusading forms. This totality can only be grasped in the aggregate, in the many manifestations of crusading, not in a single Crusade. Only by looking at the Crusades in this way do the multiplicity, the diversity, and the heterogeneity of the Crusades cease to appear to be a contradiction of their unity and become instead a necessary expression of that unity itself. Following Chevedden's considerations, Paul Srodecki suggested to view the crusade as an evolutionary chameleon which only in this way could [...] survive within Latin Christendom up to the beginning of the early modern period and, during the Hussite and Turkish wars, continue to form an important ideological, rhetorical and thus both legitimistic and propagandistic instrument of the papacy as well as of the respective secular actors. Accordingly, today, Crusade historians study the Baltic, the Mediterranean, the Near East, even the Atlantic, and crusading's position in, and derivation, from host and victim societies. Chronological horizons have crusades existing into the early modern world e.g. the survival of the Order of St. John on Malta until 1798. In recent decades historians have deployed new approaches borrowed from gender studies and literary theory to examine the validity of narrative sources, developing insight on the experiences and representation of women within the context of the Crusades. == Arabic and Muslim historiography == Many Arabic sources have been lost, remain untranslated or are extant only in manuscript making it difficult to research without a knowledge of the language. The motivations of the authors must be considered as well as acknowledging the Christian concept of crusade was alien to medieval Muslims, who often viewed the crusaders as motivated by avarice. Few Muslim works consider the crusading phenomenon and crusades are often documented in larger narratives of events, mentioned occasionally and lacking detail. Mainly Muslim, mostly Classical, Arabic writing produced several genres during the crusading period, but there are also Arabic works written by Christians and Jews. Some sources from the Jewish communities of the time used Arabic written in Hebrew characters known as Judeo-Arabic such as the Cairo Genizah found in the late 19th century at the Ben Ezra Synagogue, Cairo. The genres include: Universal chronicles—the best known al-Kamil fi at-Tarikh or The Complete History by Ali ibn al-Athir. Local histories were similar, but about particular cities or countries. Ibn al-Qalanisi wrote The Continuation of the History of Damascus in the 12th century and Ibn al-Jawzi The History of Aleppo. Al-Athir also wrote a history of the Zengid dynasty, The Dazzling History of the State of the Atabegs. Jamāl al-Din Muhammad ibn Wasil wrote of the Ayyubid dynasty. Abū Shāma Shihāb al-Dīn al-Maqdisī covered both dynasties. Information on the patriarchs of the Coptic church of Egypt is related in Biographies of the Holy Patriarchs by unknown authors after Severus ibn al-Muqaffa. Biographies and Autobiographies, Religious Texts, Geographical Works and Travel Literature, Popular Folk Literature, Legal Texts and Treaties, Suffixed curses. The Muslim world exhibited little interest in the Crusades as they were not considered significant events until the middle of the 19th century. One explanation is that they were considered a more marginal issue compared to the collapse of the Caliphate through the Mongol invasions and the replacement of Arab rule by the Turkish Ottoman Empire, who suppressed Arab nationalism for the following seven centuries. Carole Hillenbrand argued that Arab historians have often taken a Western viewpoint because they have historically been opposed to Turkish control of their homelands. Arabic-speaking Syrian Christians began translating French histories into Arabic, leading to the replacement of the term "wars of the Ifranj" – Franks – with al-hurub al Salabiyya – "wars of the Cross". The Ottoman Turk Namık Kemal published the first modern Saladin biography in 1872. Kaiser Wilhelm's Jerusalem visit in 1898 prompted further interest, with the Egyptian Sayyid Ali al-Hariri producing the first Arabic history of the Crusades. Modern studies were driven by political purposes in the hope of learning from the Muslim forces' triumph over their enemies. Before Wilhelm's visit, Saladin's Western reputation for chivalry was not reflected in the Muslim world. He had been largely forgotten and eclipsed by more successful figures such as Baybars of Egypt. The visit and anti-imperialist sentiment led to the reinvention of his reputation by nationalist Arabs as a hero of the struggle against the West. Modern Arab states have sought to commemorate Saladin through various measures, often based on the image created of him in the 19th-century west. Historical parallelism and the tradition of drawing inspiration from the Middle Ages have become keystones of political Islam encouraging ideas of a modern jihad and long struggle while secular Arab nationalism highlights the role of Western imperialism. Muslim thinkers, politicians, and historians have drawn parallels between the Crusades and modern political developments such as the establishment of Israel in 1948. Right-wing circles in the Western world have drawn opposing parallels by considering Christianity to be under an Islamic religious and demographic threat that is analogous to the situation at the time of the Crusades. Crusader symbols and anti-Islamic rhetoric is presented as an appropriate response, even if only for propaganda purposes. These symbols and rhetoric are used to provide a religious justification and inspiration for a struggle against a religious enemy. Madden argued that modern tensions are the result of a constructed view of the Crusades created by colonial powers in the 19th century and transmitted into Arab nationalism. For him the crusades are a medieval phenomenon in which the crusaders were engaged in a defensive war on behalf of their co-religionists. == References == == Bibliography == == Further reading ==	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_Crusades
Chinese historiography is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China. == Overview of Chinese history == The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC). Many written examples survive of ceremonial inscriptions, divinations and records of family names, which were carved or painted onto tortoise shell or bones. The uniformly religious context of Shang written records makes avoidance of preservation bias important when interpreting Shang history. The first conscious attempt to record history in China may have been the inscription on the Zhou dynasty bronze Shi Qiang pan.: 168–169 This and thousands of other Chinese bronze inscriptions form our primary sources for the period in which they were interred in elite burials. The oldest surviving history texts of China were compiled in the Book of Documents (Shujing). The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu), the official chronicle of the State of Lu, cover the period from 722 to 481 BC and are among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged as annals. The compilations of both of these works are traditionally ascribed to Confucius. The Zuo zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BC, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 to 468 BC. The anonymous Zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work composed of sporadic materials on the Warring States period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC. The first systematic Chinese historical text, the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), was written by Sima Qian (c. 145 or 135–86 BC) based on work by his father, Sima Tan, during the Han dynasty. It covers the period from the time of the Yellow Emperor until the author's own lifetime. Two instances of systematic book-burning and a palace fire in the preceding centuries narrowed the sources available for this work.: 228 Because of this highly praised and frequently copied work, Sima Qian is often regarded as the father of Chinese historiography. The Twenty-Four Histories, the official histories of the dynasties considered legitimate by imperial Chinese historians, all copied Sima Qian's format. Typically, rulers initiating a new dynasty would employ scholars to compile a final history from the records of the previous one, using a broad variety of sources. Around the turn of the millennium, father–son imperial librarians Liu Xiang and Liu Xin edited and catalogued a large number of early texts, including each individual text listed by name above. Much transmitted literature surviving today is known to be ultimately the version they edited down from a larger volume of material available at the time.: 51 In 190, the imperial capital was again destroyed by arson, causing the loss of significant amounts of historical material.: 244 The Shitong was the first Chinese work about historiography. It was compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710 AD. The book describes the general pattern of the official dynastic histories with regard to the structure, method, arrangement, sequence, caption, and commentary, dating back to the Warring States period. The Zizhi Tongjian was a pioneering reference work of Chinese historiography. Emperor Yingzong of Song ordered Sima Guang and other scholars to begin compiling this universal history of China in 1065, and they presented it to his successor Shenzong in 1084. It contains 294 volumes and about three million characters, and it narrates the history of China from 403 BC to the beginning of the Song dynasty in 959. This style broke the nearly thousand-year tradition of Sima Qian, which employed annals for imperial reigns but biographies or treatises for other topics. The more consistent style of the Zizhi Tongjian was not followed by later official histories. In the mid 13th century, Ouyang Xiu was heavily influenced by the work of Xue Juzheng. This led to the creation of the New History of the Five Dynasties, which covered five dynasties in over 70 chapters. Toward the end of the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century, scholars looked to Japan and the West for models. In the late 1890s, although deeply learned in the traditional forms, Liang Qichao began to publish extensive and influential studies and polemics that converted young readers to a new type of historiography that Liang regarded as more scientific. Liu Yizheng published several specialized history works including History of Chinese Culture. This next generation became professional historians, training and teaching in universities. They included Chang Chi-yun, Gu Jiegang, Fu Sinian, and Tsiang Tingfu, who were PhDs from Columbia University; and Chen Yinke, who conducted his investigations into medieval Chinese history in both Europe and the United States. Other historians, such as Qian Mu, who was trained largely through independent study, were more conservative but remained innovative in their response to world trends. In the 1920s, wide-ranging scholars, such as Guo Moruo, adapted Marxism in order to portray China as a nation among nations, rather than having an exotic and isolated history. The ensuing years saw historians such as Wu Han master both Western theories, including Marxism, and Chinese learning. == Key organizing concepts == === Dynastic cycle === Like the three ages of the Greek poet Hesiod, the oldest Chinese historiography viewed mankind as living in a fallen age of depravity, cut off from the virtues of the past, as Confucius and his disciples revered the sage kings Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun. Unlike Hesiod's system, however, the Duke of Zhou's idea of the Mandate of Heaven as a rationale for dethroning the supposedly divine Zi clan led subsequent historians to see man's fall as a cyclical pattern. In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a morally upright founder, but his successors cannot help but become increasingly corrupt and dissolute. This immorality removes the dynasty's divine favor and is manifested by natural disasters (particularly floods), rebellions, and foreign invasions. Eventually, the dynasty becomes weak enough to be replaced by a new one, whose founder is able to rectify many of society's problems and begin the cycle anew. Over time, many people felt a full correction was not possible, and that the golden age of Yao and Shun could not be attained. This teleological theory implies that there can be only one rightful sovereign under heaven at a time. Thus, despite the fact that Chinese history has had many lengthy and contentious periods of disunity, a great effort was made by official historians to establish a legitimate precursor whose fall allowed a new dynasty to acquire its mandate. Similarly, regardless of the particular merits of individual emperors, founders would be portrayed in more laudatory terms, and the last ruler of a dynasty would always be castigated as depraved and unworthy – even when that was not the case. Such a narrative was employed after the fall of the empire by those compiling the history of the Qing, and by those who justified the attempted restorations of the imperial system by Yuan Shikai and Zhang Xun. === Multi-ethnic history === Traditional Chinese historiography includes states ruled by other peoples (Mongols, Manchus, Tibetans etc.) in the dynastic history of China proper, ignoring their own historical traditions and considering them parts of China. Two historiographic traditions: of unity in East Asia as a historical norm for this region, and of dynasties successively reigning on the Son of Heaven's throne allowed Chinese elites describing historical process in China in simplified categories providing the basis for the concept of modern "unitary China" within the borders of the former Qing Empire, which was also ruled by Chinese emperors. However, deeper analysis reveals that, in fact, there was not a succession of dynasties ruled the same unitary China, but there were different states in certain regions of East Asia, some of which have been termed by later historiographers as the Empire ruled by the Son of the Heaven. As early as the 1930s, the American scholar Owen Lattimore argued that China was the product of the interaction of farming and pastoral societies, rather than simply the expansion of the Han people. Lattimore did not accept the more extreme Sino-Babylonian theories that the essential elements of early Chinese technology and religion had come from Western Asia, but he was among the scholars to argue against the assumption they had all been indigenous. Both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China hold the view that Chinese history should include all the ethnic groups of the lands held by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak, with these ethnicities forming part of the Zhonghua minzu (Chinese nation). This view is in contrast with Han chauvinism promoted by the Qing-era Tongmenghui. This expanded view encompasses internal and external tributary lands, as well as conquest dynasties in the history of a China seen as a coherent multi-ethnic nation since time immemorial, incorporating and accepting the contributions and cultures of non-Han ethnicities. The acceptance of this view by ethnic minorities sometimes depends on their views on present-day issues. The 14th Dalai Lama, long insistent on Tibet's history being separate from that of China, conceded in 2005 that Tibet "is a part of" China's "5,000-year history" as part of a new proposal for Tibetan autonomy. Korean nationalists have virulently reacted against China's application to UNESCO for recognition of the Goguryeo tombs in Chinese territory. The absolute independence of Goguryeo is a central aspect of Korean identity, because, according to Korean legend, Goguryeo was independent of China and Japan, compared to subordinate states such as the Joseon dynasty and the Korean Empire. The legacy of Genghis Khan has been contested between China, Mongolia, and Russia, all three states having significant numbers of ethnic Mongols within their borders and holding territory that was conquered by the Khan. The Jin dynasty tradition of a new dynasty composing the official history for its preceding dynasty/dynasties has been seen to foster an ethnically inclusive interpretation of Chinese history. The compilation of official histories usually involved monumental intellectual labor. The Yuan and Qing dynasties, ruled by the Mongols and Manchus, faithfully carried out this practice, composing the official Chinese-language histories of the Han-ruled Song and Ming dynasties, respectively. Recent Western scholars have reacted against the ethnically inclusive narrative in traditional and Chinese Communist Party (CCP)-sponsored history, by writing revisionist histories of China such as the New Qing History that feature, according to James A. Millward, "a degree of 'partisanship' for the indigenous underdogs of frontier history". Scholarly interest in writing about Chinese minorities from non-Chinese perspectives is growing. So too is the rejection of a unified cultural narrative in early China. Historians engaging with archaeological progress find increasingly demonstrated a rich amalgam of diverse cultures in regions the received literature positions as homogeneous.: 449 === Marxism === Most Chinese history that is published in the People's Republic of China is based on a Marxist interpretation of history. These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo, and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are: Slave society Feudal society Capitalist society Socialist society The world communist society The official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history. Slave society – Xia to Zhou Feudal society (decentralized) – Qin to Sui Feudal society (bureaucratic) – Tang to the First Opium War Feudal society (semi-colonial) – First Opium War to end of Qing dynasty Semi-feudal and Semi-capitalist society – Republican era Socialist society – PRC 1949 to present Because of the strength of the CCP and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history. Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong, historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them. There are several problems associated with imposing Marx's European-based framework on Chinese history. First, slavery existed throughout China's history but never as the primary form of labor. While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal, later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analyzed their European counterparts as being. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term "bureaucratic feudalism". The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with the imperial examination. Some world-systems analysts, such as Janet Abu-Lughod, claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed. The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan. Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools. One held that China followed the set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that "Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West" and assumed that China existed in a "qualitatively different historical world from Western society". That is, there is an argument between those who see "unilinear, monistic world history" and those who conceive of a "two-tracked or multi-tracked world history". Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analyzing the Six Dynasties 220–589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal. His conclusion was that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy. The period established social and political patterns which shaped China's history from that point on. There was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism's ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics. === Modernization === This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society as a traditional society needing to become modern, usually with the implicit assumption of Western society as the model. Such a view was common amongst European and American historians during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now criticized for being a Eurocentric viewpoint, since such a view permits an implicit justification for breaking the society from its static past and bringing it into the modern world under European direction. By the mid-20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that the notion of "changeless China" was untenable. A new concept, popularized by John Fairbank, was the notion of "change within tradition", which argued that China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change existed within certain cultural traditions. This notion has also been subject to the criticism that to say "China has not changed fundamentally" is tautological, since it requires that one look for things that have not changed and then arbitrarily define those as fundamental. Nonetheless, studies seeing China's interaction with Europe as the driving force behind its recent history are still common. Such studies may consider the First Opium War as the starting point for China's modern period. Examples include the works of H.B. Morse, who wrote chronicles of China's international relations such as Trade and Relations of the Chinese Empire. The Chinese convention is to use the word jindai ("modern") to refer to a timeframe for modernity which begins with the Opium wars and continues through the May Fourth period. In the 1950s, several of Fairbank's students argued that Confucianism was incompatible with modernity. Joseph Levenson and Mary C. Wright, and Albert Feuerwerker argued in effect that traditional Chinese values were a barrier to modernity and would have to be abandoned before China could make progress. Wright concluded, "The failure of the T'ung-chih [Tongzhi] Restoration demonstrated with a rare clarity that even in the most favorable circumstances there is no way in which an effective modern state can be grafted onto a Confucian society. Yet in the decades that followed, the political ideas that had been tested and, for all their grandeur, found wanting, were never given a decent burial." In a different view of modernization, the Japanese historian Naito Torajiro argued that China reached modernity during its mid-Imperial period, centuries before Europe. He believed that the reform of the civil service into a meritocratic system and the disappearance of the ancient Chinese nobility from the bureaucracy constituted a modern society. The problem associated with this approach is the subjective meaning of modernity. The Chinese nobility had been in decline since the Qin dynasty, and while the exams were largely meritocratic, performance required time and resources that meant examinees were still typically from the gentry. Moreover, expertise in the Confucian classics did not guarantee competent bureaucrats when it came to managing public works or preparing a budget. Confucian hostility to commerce placed merchants at the bottom of the four occupations, itself an archaism maintained by devotion to classic texts. The social goal continued to be to invest in land and enter the gentry, ideas more like those of the physiocrats than those of Adam Smith. === Hydraulic despotism === With ideas derived from Marx and Max Weber, Karl August Wittfogel argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems. Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals, dikes, and waterways to increase agriculture. Yu the Great, one of China's legendary founders, is known for his control of the floods of the Yellow River. The hydraulic empire produces wealth from its stability; while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers. In Europe abundant rainfall meant less dependence on irrigation. In the Orient natural conditions were such that the bulk of the land could not be cultivated without large-scale irrigation works. As only a centralized administration could organize the building and maintenance of large-scale systems of irrigation, the need for such systems made bureaucratic despotism inevitable in Oriental lands. When Wittfogel published his Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power, critics pointed out that water management was given the high status China accorded to officials concerned with taxes, rituals, or fighting off bandits. The theory also has a strong orientalist bent, regarding all Asian states as generally the same while finding reasons for European polities not fitting the pattern. While Wittfogel's theories were not popular among Marxist historians in China, the economist Chi Ch'ao-ting used them in his influential 1936 book, Key Economic Areas in Chinese History, as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water-Control. The book identified key areas of grain production which, when controlled by a strong political power, permitted that power to dominate the rest of the country and enforce periods of stability. === Convergence === Convergence theory, including Hu Shih and Ray Huang's involution theory, holds that the past 150 years have been a period in which Chinese and Western civilization have been in the process of converging into a world civilization. Such a view is heavily influenced by modernization theory but, in China's case, it is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of Shijie Datong or "Great Unity". It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians, as postmodern Western historians discount overarching narratives, and nationalist Chinese historians feel similar about narratives failing to account for some special or unique characteristics of Chinese culture. === Anti-imperialism === Closely related are colonial and anti-imperialist narratives. These often merge or are part of Marxist critiques from within China or the former Soviet Union, or are postmodern critiques such as Edward Said's Orientalism, which fault traditional scholarship for trying to fit West, South, and East Asia's histories into European categories unsuited to them. With regard to China particularly, T.F. Tsiang and John Fairbank used newly opened archives in the 1930s to write modern history from a Chinese point of view. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yu then edited the influential volume China's Response to the West (1953). This approach was attacked for ascribing the change in China to outside forces. In the 1980s, Paul Cohen, a student of Fairbank's, issued a call for a more "China-Centered history of China". === Republican === The schools of thought on the 1911 Revolution have evolved from the early years of the Republic. The Marxist view saw the events of 1911 as a bourgeois revolution. In the 1920s, the Nationalist Party issued a theory of three political stages based on Sun Yatsen's writings: Military unification – 1923 to 1928 (Northern Expedition) Political tutelage – 1928 to 1947 Constitutional democracy – 1947 onward The most obvious criticism is the near-identical nature of "political tutelage" and of a "constitutional democracy" consisting only of the one-party rule until the 1990s. Against this, Chen Shui-bian proposed his own four-stage theory. === Postmodernism === Postmodern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject narrative history and instead focus on a small subset of Chinese history, particularly the daily lives of ordinary people in particular locations or settings. === Long-term political economy === Zooming out from the dynastic cycle but maintaining focus on power dynamics, the following general periodization, based on the most powerful groups and the ways that power is used, has been proposed for Chinese history:: 45 The aristocratic settlement state (to c. 550 BCE) Centralization of power with military revolution (c. 550 BCE – c. 25 CE) Landowning families competing for central power and integrating the South (c. 25 – c. 755) Imperial examination scholar-officials and commercialization (c. 755 – c. 1550) Commercial interests with global convergence (since c. 1550) == Recent trends == From the beginning of CCP rule in 1949 until the 1980s, Chinese historical scholarship focused largely on the officially sanctioned Marxist theory of class struggle. From the time of Deng Xiaoping (1978–1992) on, there has been a drift towards a Marxist-inspired Chinese nationalist perspective, and consideration of China's contemporary international status has become of paramount importance in historical studies. The current focus tends to be on specifics of civilization in ancient China, and the general paradigm of how China has responded to the dual challenges of interactions with the outside world and modernization in the post-1700 era. Long abandoned as a research focus among most Western scholars due to postmodernism's influence, this remains the primary interest for most historians inside China. The late 20th century and early 21st century have seen numerous studies of Chinese history that challenge traditional paradigms. The field is rapidly evolving, with much new scholarship, often based on the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial. For example, an active topic concerns whether the typical Chinese peasant in 1900 was seeing his life improve. In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous quantities of primary source material that have not yet been analyzed. Scholars are using previously overlooked documentary evidence, such as masses of government and family archives, and economic records such as census tax rolls, price records, and land surveys. In addition, artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to manuals, and children's books are analyzed for clues about day-to-day life. Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by postmodernism, and has questioned modernist narratives of China's backwardness and lack of development. The desire to challenge the preconception that 19th-century China was weak, for instance, has led to a scholarly interest in Qing expansion into Central Asia. Postmodern scholarship largely rejects grand narratives altogether, preferring to publish empirical studies on the socioeconomics, and political or cultural dynamics, of smaller communities within China. As of at least 2023, there has been a surge of historical writing about key leaders of the Nationalist period.: 67 A significant amount of new writing includes texts written for a general (as opposed to only academic) audience.: 67 There has been an increasingly nuanced portrayal of Chiang Kai-shek, particularly in more favorably evaluating his leadership during the Second Sino-Japanese War and highlighting his position as one of the Big Four allied leaders.: 67 Recently released archival sources on the Nationalist era, including the Chiang Kai-shek diaries at Stanford University's Hoover Institution, have contributed to a surge in academic publishing on the period.: 68 === Nationalism === In China, historical scholarship remains largely nationalist and modernist or even traditionalist. The legacies of the modernist school (such as Lo Hsiang-lin) and the traditionalist school (such as Qian Mu (Chien Mu)) remain strong in Chinese circles. The more modernist works focus on imperial systems in China and employ the scientific method to analyze epochs of Chinese dynasties from geographical, genealogical, and cultural artifacts. For example, using radiocarbon dating and geographical records to correlate climates with cycles of calm and calamity in Chinese history. The traditionalist school of scholarship resorts to official imperial records and colloquial historical works, and analyzes the rise and fall of dynasties using Confucian philosophy, albeit modified by an institutional administration perspective. After 1911, writers, historians and scholars in China and abroad generally deprecated the late imperial system and its failures. However, in the 21st century, a highly favorable revisionism has emerged in the popular culture, in both the media and social media. Florian Schneider argues that nationalism in China in the early twenty-first century is largely a product of the digital revolution and that a large fraction of the population participates as readers and commentators who relate ideas to their friends over the internet. == See also == == References == === Citations === === Sources and further reading === Beasley, W. G. and Edwin G. Pulleyblank, eds. Historians of China and Japan. (Oxford UP, 1962). Essays on the historiographical traditions in pre-modern times. Chan, Shelly (2015). "The Case for Diaspora: A Temporal Approach to the Chinese Experience". The Journal of Asian Studies. 74 (1): 107–128. doi:10.1017/S0021911814001703. JSTOR 43553646. Cohen, Paul A. (1984). Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-05811-7. Cohen, Paul (2013). "Reflections on a Watershed Date: The 1949 Divide in Chinese History". In Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. (ed.). Twentieth-Century China: New Approaches. Routledge. pp. 27–36. ISBN 978-1-134-64712-5. Cohen, Paul A. (2003). China Unbound: Evolving Perspectives on the Chinese Past. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-42837-3. Cotton, James (1989). Asian Frontier Nationalism: Owen Lattimore and the American Policy Debate. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International. ISBN 978-0-391-03651-2. Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2006). "The Historiography of Modern China". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. pp. 641–658. doi:10.4324/9780203991459. ISBN 978-0-203-99145-9. Arif Dirlik. Revolution and History: The Origins of Marxist Historiography in China, 1919–1937. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. ISBN 0-520-03541-0. Duara, Prasenjit. Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China. (U of Chicago Press, 1995). Evans, Paul M. John Fairbank and the American Understanding of Modern China (1988) Feuerwerker, Albert. History in Communist China. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1968. Essays on the post-1949 treatment of particular aspects of Chinese history. Farquhar, Judith B.; Hevia, James L. (May 1993). "Culture and Postwar American Historiagraphy of China". Positions: Asia Critique. 1 (2): 486–525. doi:10.1215/10679847-1-2-486. Fogel, Joshua A. Politics and Sinology: The Case of Naito Konan (1866–1934). Harvard University Press, Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1984. ISBN 0-674-68790-6. Naito Konan developed the influential thesis that China developed an early modern society from the 8th to the 12th century. Goodman, David S. G. (September 2006). "Mao and The Da Vinci Code : conspiracy, narrative and history". The Pacific Review. 19 (3): 359–384. doi:10.1080/09512740600875135. S2CID 144521610. Kutcher, Norman (1993). "'The Benign Bachelor': Kenneth Scott Latourette between China and the United States". Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 2 (4): 399–424. doi:10.1163/187656193X00130. Li, Huaiyin. Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing (U of Hawaii Press, 2012), Rowe, William. "Approaches to Modern Chinese Social History," in Olivier Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The Worlds of Social History (University of North Carolina Press 1985), pp. 236–296. Rozman, Gilbert. Soviet Studies of Premodern China: Assessments of Recent Scholarship. (Center For Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1984). ISBN 0892640529. Shambaugh, David L. American Studies of Contemporary China (M.E. Sharpe, 1993) Schneider, Florian. "Mediated Massacre: Digital Nationalism and History Discourse on China's Web." Journal of Asian Studies 77.2 (2018): 429–452. online Schneider, Laurence A. Ku Chieh-Kang and China's New History: Nationalism and the Quest for Alternative Traditions. (U of California Press, 1971). ISBN 0520018044. The first generation of Chinese historians to use Western concepts to write the history of China. Tanaka, Stefan. Japan's Orient: Rendering Pasts into History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. ISBN 0520077318. Tanigawa, Michio (1985). Medieval Chinese Society and the Local "Community". Translated by Joshua A. Fogel. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520053700. See especially Pt One, "Chinese Society And Feudalism: An Investigation Of The Past Literature," a review of Japanese historiography. Unger, Jonathan (2015). Using the Past to Serve the Present: Historiography and Politics in Contemporary China. doi:10.4324/9781315698397. ISBN 9781315698397. Wilkinson, Endymion. Chinese History: A New Manual. (Harvard University Asia Center, Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series New Edition, 2012). ISBN 9780674067158 ISBN 0674067150. Waley-Cohen, J. (2004). "The New Qing History". Radical History Review. 2004 (88): 193–206. doi:10.1215/01636545-2004-88-193. S2CID 144544216. Ng, On-cho; Wang, Q. Edward (2005). Mirroring the Past: The Writing and Use of History in Imperial China. University of Hawaii Press. hdl:10125/23078. ISBN 978-0-8248-4320-5. Yu, Haiyang (2014), "Glorious memories of imperial China and the rise of Chinese populist nationalism", Journal of Contemporary China, 23 (90): 1174–1187, doi:10.1080/10670564.2014.898907, S2CID 145765454 Zurndorfer, Harriet. "A Guide to the 'New' Chinese History: Recent Publications Concerning Chinese Social and Economic Development before 1800," International Review of Social History 33: 148–201. === Primary sources === Cohen, Paul A.; Lu, Hanchao (2016). "Between History and Memory: A Conversation with Paul A. Cohen". The Chinese Historical Review. 23: 70–78. doi:10.1080/1547402X.2016.1168181. S2CID 148069586. Fairbank, John K. Chinabound: A Fifty Year Memoir (1982) == External links == Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Bragg, Melvyn (host); Sterckx, Roel (guest); Barrett, Tim (guest); de Weerd, Hilde (guest); Morris, Thomas(producer) (23 January 2014). Sources of Early Chinese History. In Our Time. BBC Radio 4.	Wikipedia/Chinese_historiography
Marxist historiography, or historical materialist historiography, is an influential school of historiography. The chief tenets of Marxist historiography include the centrality of social class, social relations of production in class-divided societies that struggle against each other, and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes (historical materialism). Marxist historians follow the tenets of the development of class-divided societies, especially modern capitalist ones. Marxist historiography has developed in varied ways across different regional and political contexts. It has had unique trajectories of development in the West, the Soviet Union, and in India, as well as in the pan-Africanist and African-American traditions, adapting to these specific regional and political conditions in different ways. Marxist historiography has made contributions to the history of the working class, and the methodology of a history from below. Marxist historiography is sometimes criticized as deterministic, in that it posits a direction of history, towards an end state of history as classless human society. Marxist historiography within Marxist circles is generally seen as a tool; its aim is to bring those it perceives as oppressed by history to self-consciousness, and to arm them with tactics and strategies from history. For these Marxists, it is both a historical and a liberatory project. Not all Marxist historiography is socialist. Methods from Marxist historiography, such as class analysis, can be divorced from the original political intents of Marxism and its perceived deterministic nature; historians who use Marxist methodology but disagree with the politics of Marxism often describe themselves as Marxian historians, and practitioners of this Marxian historiography often refer to their techniques as Marxian. == Marx and Engels == Friedrich Engels' (1820–1895) most important historical contribution to the development of Marxist historiography was Der Deutsche Bauernkrieg (The Peasant War in Germany, 1850), which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes. Although The German Peasants' War was overdetermined and lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it exemplifies an early Marxist interest in history from below and in class analysis; it also attempts a dialectical analysis. Karl Marx (1818–1883) contributed important works on social and political history, including The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (1852), The Communist Manifesto (1848), The German Ideology (written in 1845, published in 1932), and those chapters of Das Kapital (1867–1894) dealing with the historical emergence of capitalists and proletarians from pre-industrial English society. == Labour and class struggle == The key to understanding Marxist historiography is his view of labour. For Marx "historical reality is none other than objectified labour, and all conditions of labour given by nature, including the organic bodies of people, are merely preconditions and 'disappearing moments' of the labour process." This emphasis on the physical as the determining factor in history represents a break from virtually all previous historians. Until Marx developed his theory of historical materialism, the overarching determining factor in the direction of history was some sort of divine agency. In Marx's view of history "God became a mere projection of human imagination" and more importantly "a tool of oppression". There was no more sense of divine direction to be seen. History moved by the sheer force of human labour, and all theories of divine nature were a concoction of the ruling powers to keep the working people in check. For Marx, "The first historical act is... the production of material life itself." As one might expect, Marxist history not only begins with labour, it ends in production: "history does not end by being resolved into "self-consciousness" as "spirit of the spirit," but that in it at each stage there is found a material result: a sum of productive forces, a historically created relation of individuals to nature and to one another, which is handed down to each generation from its predecessor..." For further, and much more comprehensive, information on this topic, see historical materialism. == Historical materialism == === Introduction === Historical materialism is a methodology to understand human societies and their development throughout history. Marx's theory of history locates historical change in the rise of class societies and the way humans labour together to make their livelihoods. Marx argues that the introduction of new technologies and new ways of doing things to improve production eventually lead to new social classes which in turn result in political crises which can threaten the established order. Marx's view of history is in contrast to the commonplace notion that the rise and fall of kingdoms, empires and states, can broadly be explained by the actions, ambitions and policies of the people at the top of society; kings, queens, emperors, generals, or religious leaders. This view of history is summed up by the 19th-century Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle who wrote "the history of the world is nothing but the biography of great men". An alternative to the "great man" theory is that history is shaped by the motivating force of "great ideas" – the struggle of reason over superstition or the fight for democracy and freedom. The "great man" and "great women" theory of history and the view that history is primarily shaped by ideas has provoked no end of debate but many historians have believed there are more fundamental patterns at play beneath historical events. Marx asserted that the material conditions of a society's mode of production, or in Marxist terms a society's productive forces and relations of production, fundamentally determine society's organization and development including the political commitments, cultural ideas and values that dominate in any society. Marx argues that there is a fundamental conflict between the class of people who create the wealth of society and those who have ownership or control of the means of production, decide how society's wealth and resources are to be used and have a monopoly of political and military power. Historical materialism provides a profound challenge to the view that the historical process has come to a close and that capitalism is the end of history. Since Marx's time, the theory has been modified and expanded. It now has many Marxist and non-Marxist variants. The main modes of production that Marx identified generally include primitive communism, slave society, feudalism, mercantilism, and capitalism. In each of these social stages, people interacted with nature and production in different ways. Any surplus from that production was distributed differently as well. To Marx, ancient societies (e.g. Rome and Greece) were based on a ruling class of citizens and a class of slaves; feudalism was based on nobles and serfs; and capitalism based on the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat). === Description === Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. Historical materialism builds upon the idea of historical progress that became popular in philosophy during the Enlightenment, which asserted that the development of human society has progressed through a series of stages, from hunting and gathering, through pastoralism and cultivation, to commercial society. Historical materialism rests on a foundation of dialectical materialism, in which matter is considered primary and ideas, thought, and consciousness are secondary, i.e. consciousness and human ideas about the universe result from material conditions rather than vice versa. Marxism uses this materialist methodology, referred to by Marx and Engels as the materialist conception of history and later better known as historical materialism, to analyse the underlying causes of societal development and change from the perspective of the collective ways in which humans make their living. Historical materialism springs from a fundamental underlying reality of human existence: that in order for subsequent generations of human beings to survive, it is necessary for them to produce and reproduce the material requirements of everyday life. Marx then extended this premise by asserting the importance of the fact that, in order to carry out production and exchange, people have to enter into very definite social relations, or more specifically, "relations of production". However, production does not get carried out in the abstract, or by entering into arbitrary or random relations chosen at will, but instead are determined by the development of the existing forces of production. How production is accomplished depends on the character of society's productive forces, which refers to the means of production such as the tools, instruments, technology, land, raw materials, and human knowledge and abilities in terms of using these means of production. The relations of production are determined by the level and character of these productive forces present at any given time in history. In all societies, Human beings collectively work on nature but, especially in class societies, do not do the same work. In such societies, there is a division of labour in which people not only carry out different kinds of labour but occupy different social positions on the basis of those differences. The most important such division is that between manual and intellectual labour whereby one class produces a given society's wealth while another is able to monopolize control of the means of production and so both governs that society and lives off of the wealth generated by the labouring classes. Marx's account of the theory is in The German Ideology (1845) and in the preface A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859). All constituent features of a society (social classes, political pyramid and ideologies) are assumed to stem from economic activity, forming what is considered as the base and superstructure. The base and superstructure metaphor describes the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, the "sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society" and forms a society's economic base. The base includes the material forces of production such as the labour, means of production and relations of production, i.e. the social and political arrangements that regulate production and distribution. From this base rises a superstructure of legal and political "forms of social consciousness" that derive from the economic base that conditions both the superstructure and the dominant ideology of a society. Conflicts between the development of material productive forces and the relations of production provokes social revolutions, whereby changes to the economic base leads to the social transformation of the superstructure. This relationship is reflexive, in that the base initially gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. Those newly formed social organizations can then act again upon both parts of the base and superstructure so that rather than being static, the relationship is dialectic, expressed and driven by conflicts and contradictions. Engels clarified: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes." Marx considered recurring class conflicts as the driving force of human history as such conflicts have manifested themselves as distinct transitional stages of development in Western Europe. Accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production: Primitive communism: co-operative tribal societies. Slave society: development of tribal to city-state in which aristocracy is born. Feudalism: aristocrats are the ruling class while merchants evolve into the bourgeoisie. Capitalism: capitalists are the ruling class, who create and employ the proletariat. While historical materialism has been referred to as a materialist theory of history, Marx did not claim to have produced a master-key to history and that the materialist conception of history is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the marche générale, imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself." In a letter to editor of the Russian newspaper paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym (1877), he explained that his ideas are based upon a concrete study of the actual conditions in Europe. === Summary === To summarize, history develops in accordance with the following observations: Social progress is driven by progress in the material, productive forces a society has at its disposal (technology, labour, capital goods and so on) Humans are inevitably involved in productive relations (roughly speaking, economic relationships or institutions), which constitute our most decisive social relations. These relations progress with the development of the productive forces. They are largely determined by the division of labour, which in turn tends to determine social class. Relations of production are both determined by the means and forces of production and set the conditions of their development. For example, capitalism tends to increase the rate at which the forces develop and stresses the accumulation of capital. The relations of production define the mode of production, e.g. the capitalist mode of production is characterized by the polarization of society into capitalists and workers. The superstructure—the cultural and institutional features of a society, its ideological materials—is ultimately an expression of the mode of production on which the society is founded. Every type of state is a powerful institution of the ruling class; the state is an instrument which one class uses to secure its rule and enforce its preferred relations of production and its exploitation onto society. State power is usually only transferred (migrated) from one class to another by social and political agreements. When a given relation of production no longer supports further progress in the productive forces, either further progress is strangled, or 'revolution' must occur. The actual historical process is not predetermined but depends on class struggle, especially the elevation of class consciousness and organization of the working class. == In the West == Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels worked in relative isolation together outside the larger mainstream. However, by the turn of the twentieth century, Marxist thought was perhaps the most prominent opposition to the idealist traditions. R. H. Tawney (1880–1962) was an early historian working in this tradition. The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912) and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the "Storm over the Gentry" in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper and John Cooper. A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) was formed in 1946. It became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who shared a common interest in and contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. While some members of the group (most notably Christopher Hill [1912–2003] and E. P. Thompson [1924–1993]) left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history. E. P. Thompson famously engaged Althusser in The Poverty of Theory, arguing that Althusser's theory overdetermined history, and left no space for historical revolt by the oppressed. Christopher Hill's studies on 17th-century English history were widely acknowledged and recognized as representative of Marxist historians and Marxist historiography in general. His books include Puritanism and Revolution (1958), Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (1965 and revised in 1996), The Century of Revolution (1961), AntiChrist in 17th-century England (1971), The World Turned Upside Down (1972) and many others. E. P. Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work, The Making of the English Working Class, published in 1963. It focused on the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below: I am seeking to rescue the poor stockinger, the Luddite cropper, the "obsolete" hand-loom weaver, the "Utopian" artisan, and even the deluded follower of Joanna Southcott, from the enormous condescension of posterity. Their crafts and traditions may have been dying. Their hostility to the new industrialism may have been backward-looking. Their communitarian ideals may have been fantasies. Their insurrectionary conspiracies may have been foolhardy. But they lived through these times of acute social disturbance, and we did not. Their aspirations were valid in terms of their own experience; and, if they were casualties of history, they remain, condemned in their own lives, as casualties. Thompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined "class". He argued that class was not a structure, but a relationship that changed over time. Thompson's work is commonly considered the most influential work of history in the twentieth century and a crucial catalyst for social history and from social history to gender history and other studies of marginalized peoples. His essay, "Time, Work, Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism" is also hugely influential and argues that industrial capitalism fundamentally altered (and accelerated) humans' relationship to time. He opened the gates for a generation of labour historians, such as David Montgomery (1927–2011) and Herbert Gutman (1928–1985), who made similar studies of the American working classes. Perhaps the best known of the Communist historians was E. B. Hobsbawm (1917–2012). He is credited for establishing many of the basic historical arguments of current historiography and synthesizing huge amounts of modern historical data across time and space – most famously in his trilogy: The Age of Revolutions, The Age of Empires, and The Age of Extremes. Hobsbawm's Bandits is another example of this group's work. C. L. R. James (1901–1989) was also a great pioneer of the 'history from below' approach. Living in Britain when he wrote his most notable work The Black Jacobins (1938), he was an anti-Stalinist Marxist and so outside of the CPGB. The Black Jacobins was the first professional historical account of the greatest and only successful slave revolt in colonial American history, the Haitian Revolution. James's history is still touted as a remarkable work of history nearly a century after publication, an immense work of historical investigation, story-telling, and creativity. Other important British Marxist historians included Raphael Samuel (1934–1996), A. L. Morton (1903–1987), and Brian Pearce (1915–2008). In the United States, Marxist historiography greatly influenced the history of slavery and labour history. Marxist historiography also greatly influenced French historians, including France's most famous and enduring historian Fernand Braudel (1902–1985), as well as Italian historians, most famously the Autonomous Marxist and micro-history fields. == In the Soviet Union == Soviet-era historiography was deeply influenced by Marxism. Marxism maintains that the moving forces of history are determined by material production and the rise of different socioeconomic formations. Applying this perspective to socioeconomic formations such as slavery and feudalism is a major methodological principle of orthodox Marxist historiography. Based on this principle, historiography predicts that there will be an abolition of capitalism by a socialist revolution made by the working class. Soviet historians believed that Marxist–Leninist theory permitted the application of categories of dialectical and historical materialism in the study of historical events. However Soviet historiography was significantly influenced by the strict control by the authorities aimed at propaganda and Soviet power as well, as a result Marxist historiography suffered in the Soviet Union, as the government required overdetermined historical writing. Soviet historians tended to avoid contemporary history (after 1903) where possible, and effort was predominantly directed at pre-modern history (before 1850). As history was considered to be a politicized academic discipline, historians limited their creative output to avoid prosecution. Since the late 1930s, Soviet historiography treated the party line and reality as one and the same. As such, if it was a science, it was a science in service of a specific political and ideological agenda, commonly employing historical negationism. In the 1930s, historical archives were closed and original research was severely restricted. Historians were required to pepper their works with references—appropriate or not—to Stalin and other "Marxist–Leninist classics", and to pass judgment—as prescribed by the Party—on pre-revolution historic Russian figures. Nikita Khrushchev commented that "Historians are dangerous and capable of turning everything upside down. They have to be watched." The Soviet interpretation of Marxism predetermined much of the research done by historians. Research by scholars in the USSR was limited to a large extent due to this predetermination. Some Soviet historians could not offer non-Marxist theoretical explanations that did not fit with the party's official ideology for their interpretation of sources. This was true even when alternate theories had a greater explanatory power in relation to a historian's reading of source material. Marx and Engels' ideas of the importance of class struggle in history, the destiny of the working class, and the role of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the revolutionary party are of major importance in Marxist methodology. Marxist–Leninist historiography has several aspects. It explains the social basis of historical knowledge, determines the social functions of historical knowledge and the means by which these functions are carried out, and emphasizes the need to study concepts in connection with the social and political life of the period in which these concepts were developed. It studies the theoretical and methodological features in every school of historical thought. Marxist–Leninist historiography analyses the source-study basis of a historical work, the nature of the use of sources, and specific research methods. It analyses problems of historical research as the most important sign of the progress and historical knowledge and as the expression of the socioeconomic and political needs of a historical period. The Marxist theory of historical materialism identified means of production as chief determinants of the historical process. They led to the creation of social classes, and class struggle was the motor of history. The sociocultural evolution of societies was considered to progress inevitably from slavery, through feudalism and capitalism to socialism and finally communism. In addition, Leninism argued that a vanguard party was required to lead the working class in the revolution that would overthrow capitalism and replace it with socialism. Soviet historiography interpreted this theory to mean that the creation of the Soviet Union was the most important turning event in human history, since the USSR was considered to be the first socialist society. Furthermore, the Communist Party – considered to be the vanguard of the working class – was given the role of permanent leading force in society, rather than a temporary revolutionary organization. As such, it became the protagonist of history, which could not be wrong. Hence the unlimited powers of the Communist Party leaders were claimed to be as infallible and inevitable as the history itself. It also followed that a worldwide victory of communist countries is inevitable. All research had to be based on those assumptions and could not diverge in its findings. In 1956, Soviet academician Anna Pankratova said that "the problems of Soviet historiography are the problems of our Communist ideology." Soviet historians have also been criticized for a Marxist bias in the interpretation of other historical events, unrelated to the Soviet Union. Thus, for example, they assigned to the rebellions in the Roman Empire the characteristics of the social revolution. Often, the Marxist bias and propaganda demands came into conflict: hence the peasant rebellions against the early Soviet rule, such as the Tambov Rebellion of 1920–21, were simply ignored as inconvenient politically and contradicting the official interpretation of the Marxist theories. Notable histories include the Short Course History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik), published in 1938, which was written to justify the nature of Bolshevik party life under Joseph Stalin. This work crystallised the piatichlenka or five acceptable moments of history in terms of vulgar dialectical materialism: primitive-communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism and socialism. == In China == Most Chinese history that is published in the People's Republic of China (PRC) is based on a Marxist interpretation of history. These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are: Slave society Feudal society Capitalist society Socialist society The world communist society The official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history. Labour society (digital) – Xia to Shang Feudal society (decentralized) – Zhou to Sui Feudal society (bureaucratic) – Tang to the First Opium War Feudal society (semi-colonial) – First Opium War to end of Qing dynasty Capitalist society – Republican era Socialist society – PRC 1949 to present Because of the strength of the Chinese Communist Party and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favour of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history. Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong, historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them. There are several problems associated with imposing Marx's European-based framework on Chinese history. First, slavery existed throughout China's history but never as the primary form of labour. While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal, later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analysed their European counterparts as being. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term "bureaucratic feudalism". The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with the imperial examination. Some world-systems analysts, such as Janet Abu-Lughod, claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed. The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan. Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools. One held that China followed the set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that "Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West" and assumed that China existed in a "qualitatively different historical world from Western society". That is, there is an argument between those who see "unilinear, monistic world history" and those who conceive of a "two-tracked or multi-tracked world history". Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analysing the Six Dynasties 220–589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal. He concluded that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy. The period established social and political patterns which shaped China's history from that point on. There was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism's ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics. == In India == In India Marxist historiography takes the form of Marxian historiography where Marxian techniques of analysis are used but Marxist political intentions and prescriptions are discarded. B. N. Datta and D. D. Kosambi are considered the founding fathers of Marxist historiography in India. D. D. Kosambi, a polymath, viewed Indian History from a Marxist viewpoint. The other Indian scholars of Marxian historiography are R. S. Sharma, Irfan Habib, D. N. Jha, and K. N. Panikkar. Other historians such as Satish Chandra, Romila Thapar, Bipan Chandra, Arjun Dev, and Dineshchandra Sircar, are sometimes referred to as "influenced by the marxian approach to history." The Marxian historiography of India has focused on studies of economic development, land ownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and deindustrialization during the colonial period. One debate in Indian history that relates to a historical materialist schema is on the nature of feudalism in India. D. D. Kosambi in the 1960s outlined the idea of "feudalism from below" and "feudalism from above". Element of his feudalism thesis was rejected by R. S. Sharma in his monograph Indian Feudalism (2005) and various other books. However R. S. Sharma also largely agrees with Kosambi in his various other books. Most Indian Marxian historians argue that the economic origins of communalism are feudal remnants and the economic insecurities caused by slow development in India. The Marxian school of Indian historiography is accused of being too ideologically influenced. B. R. Ambedkar criticized Marxists, as he deemed them to be unaware or ignorant of the specifics of caste issues. Many have alleged that Marxian historians used negationism to whitewash some of the atrocities committed by Muslim rulers in the Indian Subcontinent. Since the late 1990s, Hindu nationalist scholars especially have polemicized against the Marxian tradition in India for neglecting what they believe to be the country's 'illustrious past' based on Vedic-puranic chronology. An example of such works is Arun Shourie's Eminent Historians (1998). == The effects of Marxist historiography == Marxist historiography has had an enormous influence on historiography, and compares with empiricist historiography as one of the basic and foundational historiographic methodologies. Most non-Marxist historians make use of tools developed within Marxist historiography, like dialectical analysis of social formations, class analysis, or the project of broadening the scope of history into social history. Marxist historiography provided the first sustained efforts at social history, and is still highly influential within this area. The contribution of class analysis has also led to the development of gender and race as other analytical tools. Marxism was one of the key influences on the Annales school tradition of French historiography. == See also == Alltagsgeschichte Cleometrics Mode of production Historical materialism Philosophy of history Historical determinism Historicism == References == Perry Anderson, In the tracks of Historical Materialism Paul Blackledge, Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History (2006) Evans, Michael (1975). Karl Marx. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN 978-0415436779. "Deciphering the past" International Socialism 112 (2006) Meek, Ronald L. (1976). Social Science and the Ignoble Savage. Cambridge Studies in the History and Theory of Politics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Seligman, Edwin R. A. (1901). "The Economic Interpretation of History". Political Science Quarterly. 16 (4): 612–640. doi:10.2307/2140420. JSTOR 2140420. Tanigawa, Michio (1985). Medieval Chinese Society and the Local "Community". Translated by Joshua A. Fogel. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520053700.	Wikipedia/Marxist_historiography
The historiography of Scotland refers to the sources, critical methods and interpretive models used by scholars to come to an understanding of the history of Scotland. == Middle Ages and Renaissance == Scottish historiography begins with Chronicles of the Picts and Scots, many of them written by monks in Latin. The first to adopt a critical approach to organising this material was also a monk, Andrew of Wyntoun in the 14th century. His clerical connections gave him access to sources in monasteries across Scotland, England and beyond, and his educated background perhaps fuelled his critical spirit. Nevertheless, he wrote his chronicle in a poetic format and at the behest of patrons. He begins his tale with the creation of angels. Nevertheless, his later volumes (closer to his own time) are still a prime source for modern historians. The critical spirit was taken forward by the Paris-based philosopher and historian John Mair, who weeded out many of the fabulous aspects of the story. Following him, the first Principal of Aberdeen University, Hector Boece further developed the evidence-based and critical approach. Bishop John Lesley, not only a scholar but, as a minister of the Scottish Crown, with unrivaled access to source materials, laid the foundations for modern historiography. == Reformation == The disputes of the Reformation sharpened critical approaches on all sides, while the humanistic concern for ancient sources saw particular attention being devoted to the collection, conservation and organisation of historical evidence. George Buchanan was perhaps the greatest of the Scottish humanists. The importance of history to all sides in religious disputes led to divergence of views, but also further developed techniques of analysis during the 17th Century. This was also a time of an increasing demand by governments for data - statistical, administrative and legal - on their realms. This was another motor for systematic evidence collection and analysis. Many of the Scottish jurists - Lord Stair - contributed to the development of modern Scottish historiography. == Enlightenment == The 18th century saw itself as the Age of Reason and in this climate of Enlightenment. Enlightenment historians tended to react with embarrassment to Scottish history, particularly the feudalism of the Middle Ages and the religious intolerance of the Reformation. Seemingly measured approaches were taken both by those who maintained a distinctly religious approach - such as Principal William Robertson - "The history of Scotland, during the reigns of Queen Mary and of King James VI. (London : 1759)" - and those who sought to escape from that perspective. Among the latter, the greatest was David Hume, in whose work we can see the beginnings of modern historiography. No doubt limited by his own perspective, and by the still limited evidence available, he nonetheless set out a picture of the development of Scottish history which still convinces many today. This century was also the century which saw the beginnings of a local archaeology, though this was still regarded somewhat of a personal eccentricity. The fact that Hume's "History of Great Britain" was very quickly renamed "History of England" is indicative of a change of focus that happened follow the Treaty of Union (1707) with England. Thereafter, a particularly Scottish historiography languished - whether in a romanticised nostalgia for a lost identity, or in continuing religious polemics. Scottish History became a sub-chapter in English history. Even so great an historian as Lord McAuley wrote only a "History of England". == Nineteenth century == In contrast to the Enlightenment, many historians of the early nineteenth century rehabilitated large areas of Scottish history as suitable for serious study. Lawyer and antiquarian Cosmo Innes, who produced works on Scotland in the Middle Ages (1860), and Sketches of Early Scottish History (1861), has been likened to the pioneering history of Georg Heinrich Pertz, one of the first writers to collate the major historical accounts of German history. Patrick Fraser Tytler's nine-volume history of Scotland (1828–43), particularity his sympathetic view of Mary, Queen of Scots, have led to comparisons with Leopold von Ranke, considered the father of modern scientific historical writing. Tytler was co-founder with Scott of the Bannatyne Society in 1823, which helped further the course of historical research in Scotland. Thomas M'Crie's (1797–1875) biographies of John Knox and Andrew Melville, figures generally savaged in the Enlightenment, helped rehabilitate their reputations. W. F. Skene's (1809–92) three part study of Celtic Scotland (1886–91) was the first serious investigation of the region and helped spawn the Scottish Celtic Revival. Issues of race became important, with Pinkerton, James Sibbald (1745–1803) and John Jamieson (1758–1839) subscribing to a theory of Picto-Gothicism, which postulated a Germanic origin for the Picts and the Scots language. Among the most significant intellectual figures associated with Romanticism was Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881), born in Scotland and later a resident of London. He was largely responsible for bringing the works of German Romantics such as Schiller and Goethe to the attention of a British audience. An essayist and historian, he invented the phrase "hero-worship", lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell, Frederick the Great and Napoleon. His The French Revolution: A History (1837) dramatised the plight of the French aristocracy, but stressed the inevitability of history as a force. With French historian Jules Michelet, he is associated with the use of the "historical imagination". In Romantic historiography this led to a tendency to emphasise sentiment and identification, inviting readers to sympathise with historical personages and even to imagine interactions with them. In contrast to many continental Romantic historians, Carlyle remained largely pessimistic about human nature and events. He believed that history was a form of prophesy that could reveal patterns for the future. In the late nineteenth century he became one of a number of Victorian sage writers and social commentators. Romantic writers often reacted against the empiricism of Enlightenment historical writing, putting forward the figure of the "poet-historian" who would mediate between the sources of history and the reader, using insight to create more than chronicles of facts. For this reason, Romantic historians such as Thierry saw Walter Scott, who had spent considerable effort uncovering new documents and sources for his novels, as an authority in historical writing. Scott is now seen primarily as a novelist, but also produced a nine-volume biography of Napoleon, and has been described as "the towering figure of Romantic historiography in Transatlantic and European contexts", having a profound effect on how history, particularly that of Scotland, was understood and written. Historians that acknowledged his influence included Chateaubriand, Macaulay, and Ranke. == Twentieth century == In the 1960s, with the expansion of Higher Education, new Universities were established and with them new departments of history, some specialising in Scottish history. This allowed new attention to be paid to the particular geographic, demographic, governmental, legal and cultural structures of Scotland and to relate these to the wider European context, as well as those of Great Britain and its Empire. The distinctiveness of Scottish historiography now lies in its object of study rather than its approaches - though no doubt earlier historians can be glimpsed looking over their shoulders to events in England. == Prominent historians == John Bannerman G. W. S. Barrow – English historian and academic Steve Boardman – 20th-century Scottish medieval historian Hector Boece – Scottish philosopher and historian (1465–1536) George Buchanan – Scottish historian and humanist scholar (1506–1582) Gilbert Burnet – Scottish theologian and historian, and Bishop of Salisbury Tom Devine – Scottish historianPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets John of Fordun – 14th century Scottish historian Colin Kidd – Scottish historian Michael Lynch – British historian Norman Macdougall – Scottish historian Rosalind Mitchison – British historianPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Richard Oram – Scottish historian Nigel Tranter – Scottish writer Christopher Whatley – Scottish historian Jenny Wormald – Scottish historian (1942–2015) === Historiographer Royal of Scotland === James Fall, 1682 William Robertson, 1763–1793 John Gillies, 1793–1836 George Brodie, 1836–1867 John Hill Burton, 1867–1881 William Forbes Skene, 1881–1893 David Masson, 1893–1908 Peter Hume Brown, 1908–1919 Robert Rait, 1919–1930 Robert Kerr Hannay FRSE, 1930–1940 J. D. Mackie OBE, 1958–1978 Gordon Donaldson, CBE, 1979–1993 Christopher Smout, CBE, born 1933 == See also == Historiography of the United Kingdom == References == == Further reading == Anderson, Robert. "The Development of History Teaching in the Scottish Universities, 1894-1939," Journal of Scottish Historical Studies (2012) 32#1, pp. 50–73. Anderson, Robert. "University History Teaching, National Identity and Unionism in Scotland, 1862-1914," Scottish Historical Review (2012) 91#1, pp. 1–41. Aspinwall, Bernard. "Catholic realities and pastoral strategies: another look at the historiography of Scottish Catholicism, 1878–1920," Innes Review (2008) 59#1, pp. 77–112. Bowie, Karin. "Cultural, British and Global Turns in the History of Early Modern Scotland," Scottish Historical Review (April 2013 Supplement), Vol. 92, pp. 38–48. Brown, I. The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire (1707–1918) (Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0748624813 Brown, Keith M. "Early Modern Scottish History - A Survey," Scottish Historical Review (April 2013 Supplement), Vol. 92, pp. 5–24. Cameron, Ewen A. "The Political Histories of Modern Scotland." Scottish Affairs 85.1 (2013): 1-28. Devine, T. M. and J. Wormald, eds, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0199563691, Dingwall, Helen M. A history of Scottish medicine: themes and influences (Edinburgh UP, 2003). Elton, G.R. Modern Historians on British History 1485-1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945-1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online pp 198-205 Falconer, J. R. D. "Surveying Scotland's Urban Past: The Pre-Modern Burgh," History Compass (2011) 9#1, pp. 34–44. Kidd, C. Subverting Scotland's Past: Scottish Whig Historians and the Creation of an Anglo-British Identity 1689–1830 (Cambridge University Press, 2003), ISBN 0521520193 Linklater, Eric. "The Matter of Scotland." History Today (Jan 1951) 1#1 pp p43-52, online McDermid, Jane. "No Longer Curiously Rare but Only Just within Bounds: women in Scottish history," Women's History Review (2011) 20#3, pp. 389–402. Lee, Jr., Maurice. "Scottish History since 1966," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp. 377 – 400. Macinnes, A.I. et al. "Whither Scottish History?" Scottish Historical Review 73 (1994) 31–88. online MacKenzie, John M. "Irish, Scottish, Welsh and English Worlds? A Four-Nation Approach to the History of the British Empire," History Compass (2008) 6#5, pp. 1244–1263 Morton, Graeme, and Trevor Griffiths. "Closing the Door on Modern Scotland's Gilded Cage," Scottish Historical Review (2013) Supplement, Vol. 92, pp. 49–69; on nationalism Raffe, Alasdair. "1707, 2007, and the Unionist Turn in Scottish History," Historical Journal (2010), 53#4, pp. 1071–1083. Raftery, Deirdre et al. "Social Change and Education in Ireland, Scotland and Wales: Historiography on Nineteenth-century Schooling," History of Education (2007) 36#4, pp. 447–463. Smout, T. C. "Scottish History in the Universities since the 1950s", History Scotland Magazine (2007) 7#5, pp. 45–50.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_Scotland
Sigillography, also known by its Greek-derived name, sphragistics, is the scholarly discipline that studies the wax, lead, clay, and other seals used to authenticate archival documents. It investigates not only aspects of the artistic design and production of seals (both matrices and impressions), but also considers the legal, administrative and social contexts in which they were used. It has links to diplomatics, heraldry, social history, and the history of art, and is regarded as one of the auxiliary sciences of history. A student of seals is known as a sigillographer. == Etymology == The word sigillography derives from the Latin word sigillum, meaning 'seal', and the Greek suffix γραφή, meaning 'description'. It was effectively coined in Italian (as sigillografia) by Anton Stefano Cartari in 1682. It entered English at a much later date: the earliest instances recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary date from 1879 (sigillography) and 1882 (sigillographer). The alternative term, sphragistics, is derived from the Greek word σϕρᾱγίς, meaning 'seal': this word is first recorded in English in 1836. == History == Antiquaries such as Thomas Elmham and John Rous began to record and to discuss the historic use of seals in the 15th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries the consideration of seals became a fairly widespread antiquarian activity. Notable early students and collectors included Robert Glover, John Dee, Sir Robert Cotton and Nicolas-Claude de Peiresc. The first published treatises dedicated to seals included Giorgio Longo's De anulis signatoriis antiquorum (Milan, 1615); Olivier de Wree's Sigilla comitum Flandriae (Bruges, 1639); and Theodorus Hoepingk's De sigillorum prisco et novo jure tractatus (Nuremberg, 1642). Especially influential in shaping the discipline were Jean Mabillon's De re diplomatica (1681) and Johann Michael Heineccius' De veteribus Germanorum aliarumque nationum sigillis (1710). In England, John Anstis compiled a substantial study titled "Aspilogia", but this remained in manuscript: the first work to reach print was a much slighter tract by John Lewis, Dissertation on the Antiquity and Use of Seals in England (1740). In the second half of the 19th century sigillography was further developed by German scholars including Hermann Grotefend and Otto Posse, and French scholars including Louis Douët d'Arcq and Germain Demay. Sigillography is also an important subdiscipline of Byzantine studies, involving the study of Byzantine lead seal impressions and the text and images thereon. Its importance derives from both the scarcity of surviving Byzantine documents themselves, and from the large number (over 40,000) of extant seals. One of the largest compendiums of Byzantine seals can be found in the large volume by Gustave Schlumberger, Sigillographie de l'empire Byzantin, published in 1904. The first international colloquium on Byzantine sigillography was held at Dumbarton Oaks in August 1986. == Popular culture == Sigillography features in the plot of King Ottokar's Sceptre (1939/1947), one of The Adventures of Tintin. Tintin accompanies Professor Alembick, a sigillographer, on a research trip to the fictional Balkan nation of Syldavia, only to become embroiled in a plot to dethrone the King. == See also == Heraldry Emblem == References ==	Wikipedia/Sigillography
The great man theory is an approach to the study of history popularised in the 19th century according to which history can be largely explained by the impact of great men, or heroes: highly influential and unique individuals who, due to their natural attributes, such as superior intellect, heroic courage, extraordinary leadership abilities, or divine inspiration, have a decisive historical effect. The theory is primarily attributed to the Scottish essayist, historian, and philosopher Thomas Carlyle, who gave a series of lectures on heroism in 1840, later published as On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History, in which he states: Universal History, the history of what man has accomplished in this world, is at bottom the History of the Great Men who have worked here. They were the leaders of men, these great ones; the modellers, patterns, and in a wide sense creators, of whatsoever the general mass of men contrived to do or to attain; all things that we see standing accomplished in the world are properly the outer material result, the practical realisation and embodiment, of Thoughts that dwelt in the Great Men sent into the world: the soul of the whole world's history, it may justly be considered, were the history of these.This theory is usually contrasted with "history from below", which emphasizes the life of the masses creating overwhelming waves of smaller events which carry leaders along with them. Another contrasting school is historical materialism. == Overview == Carlyle stated that "The History of the world is but the Biography of great men", reflecting his belief that heroes shape history through both their personal attributes and divine inspiration. In his book Heroes and Hero-Worship, Carlyle saw history as having turned on the decisions, works, ideas, and characters of "heroes", giving detailed analysis of six types: The hero as divinity (such as Odin), prophet (such as Muhammad), poet (such as Shakespeare), priest (such as Martin Luther), man of letters (such as Rousseau), and king (such as Napoleon). Carlyle also argued that the study of great men was "profitable" to one's own heroic side; that by examining the lives led by such heroes, one could not help but uncover something about one's own true nature. As Sidney Hook notes, a common misinterpretation of the theory is that "all factors in history, save great men, were inconsequential", whereas Carlyle is instead claiming that great men are the decisive factor, owing to their unique genius. Hook then goes on to emphasize this uniqueness to illustrate the point: "Genius is not the result of compounding talent. How many battalions are the equivalent of a Napoleon? How many minor poets will give us a Shakespeare? How many run of the mine scientists will do the work of an Einstein?" American scholar Frederick Adams Woods supported the great man theory in his work The Influence of Monarchs: Steps in a New Science of History. Woods investigated 386 rulers in Western Europe from the 12th century until the French Revolution in the late 18th century and their influence on the course of historical events. The Great Man approach to history was most fashionable with professional historians in the 19th century; a popular work of this school is the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911) which contains lengthy and detailed biographies about the great men of history, but very few general or social histories. For example, all information on the post-Roman "Migrations Period" of European History is compiled under the biography of Attila the Hun. This heroic view of history was also strongly endorsed by some philosophers, such as Léon Bloy, Søren Kierkegaard, Oswald Spengler and Max Weber. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, proceeding from providentialist theory, argued that "what is real is reasonable" and World-Historical individuals are World-Spirit's agents. Hegel wrote: "Such are great historical men—whose own particular aims involve those large issues which are the will of the World-Spirit." Thus, according to Hegel, a great man does not create historical reality himself but only uncovers the inevitable future. In Untimely Meditations, Friedrich Nietzsche writes that "the goal of humanity lies in its highest specimens". Although Nietzsche's body of work shows some overlap with Carlyle's line of thought, Nietzsche expressly rejected Carlyle's hero cult in Ecce Homo. === Assumptions === This theory rests on two main assumptions, as pointed out by Villanova University: Every great leader is born already possessing certain traits that will enable them to rise and lead on instinct. The need for them has to be great for these traits to then arise, allowing them to lead. This theory, and history, claims these great leaders as heroes that were able to rise against the odds to defeat rivals while inspiring followers along the way. Theorists say that these leaders were then born with a specific set of traits and attributes that make them ideal candidates for leadership and roles of authority and power. This theory relies then heavily on born rather than made, nature rather than nurture and cultivates the idea that those in power deserve to lead and shouldn't be questioned because they have the unique traits that make them suited for the position. == Responses == === Herbert Spencer's critique === One of the most forceful critics of Carlyle's formulation of the great man theory was Herbert Spencer, who believed that attributing historical events to the decisions of individuals was an unscientific position. He believed that the men Carlyle supposed "great men" are merely products of their social environment: You must admit that the genesis of a great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown. ... Before he can remake his society, his society must make him. === William James' defence === William James, in his 1880 lecture "Great Men, Great Thoughts, and the Environment", published in the Atlantic Monthly, forcefully defended Carlyle and refuted Spencer, condemning what James viewed as an "impudent", "vague", and "dogmatic" argument. James' defence of the great man theory can be summarized as follows: The unique physiological nature of the individual is the deciding factor in making the great man, who, in turn, is the deciding factor in changing his environment in a unique way, without which the new environment would not have come to be, wherein the extent and nature of this change is also dependent on the reception of the environment to this new stimulus. To begin his argument, he first sardonically claims that these inherent physiological qualities have as much to do with "social, political, geographical [and] anthropological conditions" as the "conditions of the crater of Vesuvius has to do with the flickering of this gas by which I write". James argues that genetic anomalies in the brains of these great men are the decisive factor by introducing an original influence into their environment. They might therefore offer original ideas, discoveries, inventions and perspectives which "would not, in the mind of another individual, have engendered just that conclusion ... It flashes out of one brain, and no other, because the instability of that brain is such as to tip and upset itself in just that particular direction." James then argues that these spontaneous variations of genius, i.e. the great men, which are causally independent of their social environment, subsequently influence that environment which in turn will either preserve or destroy the newly encountered variations in a form of evolutionary selection. If the great man is preserved then the environment is changed by his influence in "an entirely original and peculiar way. He acts as a ferment, and changes its constitution, just as the advent of a new zoological species changes the faunal and floral equilibrium of the region in which it appears." Each ferment, each great man, exerts a new influence on their environment which is either embraced or rejected and if embraced will in turn shape the crucible for the selection process of future geniuses. In the words of William James, "If we were to remove these geniuses or alter their idiosyncrasies, what increasing uniformities would the environment exhibit?" James challenges Mr. Spencer or anyone else to provide a reply. According to James, there are two distinct factors driving social evolution: personal agents and the impact of their unique qualities on the overall course of events. He thus concludes: "Both factors are essential to change. The community stagnates without the impulse of the individual. The impulse dies away without the sympathy of the community." === Other responses === Before the 19th century, Blaise Pascal begins his Three Discourses on the Condition of the Great (written it seems for a young duke) by telling the story of a castaway on an island whose inhabitants take him for their missing king. He defends in his parable of the shipwrecked king, that the legitimacy of the greatness of great men is fundamentally custom and chance. A coincidence that gives birth to him in the right place with noble parents and arbitrary custom deciding, for example, on an unequal distribution of wealth in favor of the nobles. Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace features criticism of great-man theories as a recurring theme in the philosophical digressions. According to Tolstoy, the significance of great individuals is imaginary; as a matter of fact they are only "history's slaves," realizing the decree of Providence. Jacob Burckhardt affirmed the historical existence of great men in politics, even excusing the rarity among them to possess "greatness of soul", or magnanimity: "Contemporaries believe that if people will only mind their own business political morality will improve of itself and history will be purged of the crimes of the 'great men.' These optimists forget that the common people too are greedy and envious and when resisted tend to turn to collective violence." Burckhardt predicted that the belittling of great men would lead to a lowering of standards and rise in mediocrity generally. Mark Twain suggests in his essay "The United States of Lyncherdom" that "moral cowardice" is "the commanding feature of the make-up of 9,999 men in the 10,000" and that "from the beginning of the world no revolt against a public infamy or oppression has ever been begun but by the one daring man in the 10,000, the rest timidly waiting, and slowly and reluctantly joining, under the influence of that man and his fellows from the other ten thousands." In 1926, William Fielding Ogburn noted that Great Men history was being challenged by newer interpretations that focused on wider social forces. While not seeking to deny that individuals could have a role or show exceptional qualities, he saw Great Men as inevitable products of productive cultures. He noted for example that if Isaac Newton had not lived, calculus would have still been discovered by Gottfried Leibniz, and suspected that if neither man had lived, it would have been discovered by someone else. Among modern critics of the theory, Sidney Hook is supportive of the idea; he gives credit to those who shape events through their actions, and his book The Hero in History is devoted to the role of the hero and in history and influence of the outstanding persons. In the introduction to a new edition of Heroes and Hero-Worship, David R. Sorensen notes the modern decline in support for Carlyle's theory in particular but also for "heroic distinction" in general. He cites Robert K. Faulkner as an exception, a proponent of Aristotelian magnanimity who in his book The Case for Greatness: Honorable Ambition and Its Critics, criticizes the political bias in discussions on greatness and heroism, stating: "the new liberalism’s antipathy to superior statesmen and to human excellence is peculiarly zealous, parochial, and antiphilosophic." Ian Kershaw wrote in 1998 that "The figure of Hitler, whose personal attributes – distinguished from his political aura and impact – were scarcely noble, elevating or enriching, posed self-evident problems for such a tradition." Some historians like Joachim Fest responded by arguing that Hitler had a "negative greatness". By contrast, Kershaw rejects the Great Men theory and argues that it is more important to study wider political and social factors to explain the history of Nazi Germany. Kershaw argues that Hitler was an unremarkable person, but his importance came from how people viewed him, an example of Max Weber's concept of charismatic leadership. == See also == == Bibliography == Bentley, Eric (1944). A Century of Hero-Worship: A study of the idea of heroism in Carlyle and Nietzsche, with notes on Wagner, Spengler, Stefan George, and D.H. Lawrence (Second, revised and reset ed.). Boston: Beacon Press (published 1957). Harrold, Charles Frederick (1934). "Carlyle and Heroes". Carlyle and German Thought, 1819–1834. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 180–196. Lehman, B. H. (1928). Carlyle's Theory of the Hero: Its Sources, Development, History, and Influence on Carlyle's Work. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. hdl:2027/mdp.39015008382213. == References == == External links == "Twilight of the Idols", by Peter Dizikes, from The New York Times, November 5, 2006. "Do changes in science mean the traditional great-man science biography is going the way of the dodo?"	Wikipedia/Great_Man_theory
The Götaland theory (or Westrogothian School, Swedish Västgötaskolan) is a view which challenges established history and archaeology, and claims that the foundation of Sweden occurred not (as traditionally assumed) in Eastern Sweden, but in the province of Västergötland (Westrogothia). The adherents of this idea use wide-ranging methods, from controversial ones, such as dowsing and asking mediums to contact the dead, to more conventional methods such as etymology, but also claim that the established academic material consists of lies and forgeries. Although well known in Sweden and fervently preached by its adherents, it has never been accepted by scholars. == History == The Götaland theory originated in the early 20th century with claims that the ancient city Ubsola (Uppsala) was situated in the province of Västergötland, specifically in the old lands called Uplanden. Additionally, the theory's supporters also held the view that Västergötland and the region of Lake Vänern was in fact the land of "Sithun", translated into modern day language as Sigtuna, where Odin and his Aesir companions supposedly settled when they came to Scandinavia. An early predecessor of the theory was Pehr Tham (1737–1820), who during the 19th century unsuccessfully tried to promote ideas such as the village Sätuna being the location of Old Sigtuna, and the ancient town of Birka being situated somewhere around Lake Hornborga. He is regarded as a successor of Olof Rudbeckius, a seventeenth-century scholar who claimed that Sweden was the true location of the sunken Atlantis. The early proponents of the Götaland theory proposed ideas about Västergötland, and the Vänern lake region, in particular, being the origin not only of the Geats, but also of the Suiones, the Danes; and furthermore the location of various phenomena in Norse mythology, such as Odin's Sithun (Sigtuna), Valhall, and the ash tree Yggdrasil. These ideas, created in the spirit of Romanticism, were also a reaction to the archaeological research at the time, which arguably neglected some areas of Sweden that were nevertheless rich in archaeological remains. The speculations of the adherents of the Götaland theory movement are largely irrelevant to modern academic discussion, which does not pay much attention to Swedish-Geatish wars or the Yngling kings. Especially, the story of Odin and the Aesir's emigration according to the Ynglinga saga is generally considered as false by the official views and scholars. Other parts of the extensive work of Snorri Sturluson (and other saga writers) may however be considered valid references for finding elements of the ancient history of Scandinavian people and their religious customs and beliefs. == Birka speculations == The town Birka is also known from the Vita Ansgari, in which Ansgar founds a mission in the town. It is commonly referred to being on Björkö island in the lake Mälaren. This location is a World Heritage Site and a popular tourist attraction. According to the Västgöta theory, Birka as a name meant "merchant town," and could refer to any such town in ancient Sweden. == Ubsola speculations == Upsalir, or Ubsola, was the main cult center of pagan (heathen) Ása-faith in ancient Scandinavia and Sweden. The ancient Upsalir was described by Adam of Bremen in the 11th century, and by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century. It is generally considered to correspond to modern-day Uppsala, with its location on Uppsala's old location – Old Uppsala, in east Sweden, the habitat of the ancient tribe called Suiones (Swedes). The Västgöta school however claims that the original site for the temple was located in West Sweden, in the habitat of the ancient Geats (Götar), the tribe which came to name Västergötland. There are however no archeological findings that support the view of Västergötland being the original site of Ubsola, and therefore the views of the Västgöta theory have little or no actual credibility. == The theory's Nazi origin == The Götaland theory was the only notable result of the Nazi infiltration of Swedish archaeology during 1933–1945. Carl-Otto Fast, founder of the Westrogothian School ("Västgötaskolan"), was a known Nazi who some claim collaborated with SS Ahnenerbe, Richard Walther Darré and eugenicists from Hadamar in Germany. Archaeologist Magnus Alkarp, who has studied classified and semi-classified documents from the post-war era, has shown that the Westrogothian School was, among some regional, right-wing separatists movements in Scandinavia, an important part of the Operation Gladio. == Testing the theory == Amateurs have unsuccessfully tried to prove what they consider important aspects of the Götaland theory several times. The barrow at Skalunda was claimed to be the burial site of the hero Beowulf known from the Beowulf epic; after applying the dowsing technique with a pendulum, they claimed that the barrow was indeed the burial site of this Geatish hero. Later, professional archaeologists drilled into the barrow to extract a sample for C14 dating. The barrow was from around 700 C.E., about 150 years too late for being a candidate for Beowulf's burial site. The locality Sätuna at the Lake Hornborga in Västergötland was, according to believers in the theory, the true Sigtuna, where king Olof Skötkonung had his coins made. A protrusion in the ground was pointed out by adherents of the Götaland theory as the king's mint. However, when archaeologists examined it, the protrusion turned out to be the remains of an uncompleted barn from the 1890s. == See also == Lands of Sweden History of Sweden Gothicismus Name of the Goths Consolidation of Sweden == Notes == == References == Alkarp, Magnus (2007). Men däri är också mycken galenskap : Adam av Bremen, arkeologin och Gamla Uppsala = Adamus Bremensis, archaeology and Old Uppsala. In: Kult, guld och makt : ett tvärvetenskapligt symposium i Götene. Gahrn, Lars (1988). Sveariket i källor och historieskrivning. Gothenburg University, doctoral thesis with English summary. Larsson, M. G. (2002). Götarnas riken. Upptäcksfärder till Sveriges enande. Atlantis, Stockholm. ISBN 91-7486-641-9. Strömberg, J.B.L.D. (1998). Svearikets vagga och västgötaskolan. Stockholm. Web edition with an English summary	Wikipedia/Götaland_theory
Historiographical studies of the May Revolution started in the second half of the 19th century in Argentina and have extended to modern day. All historiographical perspectives agree in considering the May Revolution as the turning point that gave birth to the modern nation of Argentina, and that the Revolution was unavoidable in 1810. The main topics of disagreement between Argentine historians are the specific weight of the diverse causes of the May Revolution, who were the leaders of it among the different involved parties, whenever there was popular support for it or not, and whenever the loyalty to the captive Spanish king Ferdinand VII was real or an elaborate masquerade to conceal pro-independence purposes. == Factual concerns == Historians do not face many doubts or unknown details. The most important details were properly recorded at the time, and made available to the public by the Primera Junta as patriotic propaganda. Because of this, the different historical views on the topic differ on interpretations of the meanings, causes and consequences of the events rather than the accuracy of the depiction of the event themselves. The modern historical vision of the revolutionary events do not differ significantly from the contemporary ones. The only factual topics that remain unconfirmed are the quotes and speeches made at the Open Cabildo or the audience with Cisneros, as the quotes kept do not come from transcriptions or recordings but from memories written years later or from oral tradition. Another disputed topic is the existence or not of the Operations plan, a secret document allegedly written by Mariano Moreno and setting harsh way for the Primera Junta to achieve its goals. Supporters of it consider that it is coherent with the actions taken by the Junta, like the execution of Santiago de Liniers, while detractors consider it a literary forgery made by an enemy of the Revolution in order to harm its public image in Europe. It is a topic of discussion which were the reasons to create a Junta with Cisneros, instead of following the results of the open cabildo in the first place. Historian Diego Abad de Santillán considers that the formula responded to Benito Lue y Riega's proposal of keeping the Viceroy in power along with partners or attachments, even though it was defeated at the open cabildo vote. Abad de Santillán argues that this formula made the lobbyists believe they could contain the growing threat of revolution. Félix Luna, on the other hand, considers that it was an effort to avoid further conflicts, by choosing a middle ground solution, conceding something to all involved parties. Cisneros would remain in office, but sharing the power with the criollos. It is also unclear which person or group decided the members of the Primera Junta. Saavedra claims in his memoirs, as do liberal historians like Vicente Fidel López, that it was exclusively a product of the popular initiative. Others, such as historian Félix Luna, feel the proposal shows such a level of balance among the relevant political and ideological parties involved that it can't be considered as merely the result of an improvised popular initiative. The proposed President, Saavedra, made a decisive intervention in the revolution and had prestige among all parties involved. Juan José Paso, Manuel Belgrano, Juan José Castelli, and Mariano Moreno were lawyers influenced by the Age of Enlightenment, and the first three were former supporters of the Carlotist project. Juan Larrea and Domingo Matheu were peninsulars involved in commercial activities of some importance. Both of them were supporters of Martín de Álzaga, as was Moreno. Miguel de Azcuénaga was a military man with contacts in high society, and the priest Manuel Alberti represented the aspirations of the lower clergy. Miguel Angel Scenna points out in his book Las brevas maduras that "such balance could not have been the result of chance, or from influences from outside the local context, but of a compromise of the parties involved". Both authors deny the theory that the composition of the Junta may have been suggested by the British; there was no time for that, and there were no British people in Buenos Aires important enough to influence such matters. Finally, the idea of the junta being chosen by the military is unlikely; despite the presence of Saavedra as president of the junta, it wasn't a military Junta; the majority of its members were civilians. Even more, it included Mariano Moreno, whose enmity with Saavedra dated from the failed mutiny of 1809. == Historiography == The first people who wrote about the Revolution were most of the protagonists themselves of it, writing memories, biographies or diaries. However, their works were motivated by other purposes than historiographic ones, such as to explain the reasons for their actions, clean their public images, or manifest their support or rejection for public figures or ideas of the time. For example, Manuel Moreno wrote the biography of his brother Mariano to use it as propaganda for the Revolution in Europe, and Cornelio Saavedra wrote his autobiography at a moment when his image was highly questioned, to justify himself before his sons. Some points shared between those writings are the mentions to the British Invasions as a clear antecedent, the pride about the nonviolent nature of the Revolution at its first stages, the rejection to the later developments of the Argentine Civil War, and the description of the events as the recovery of the sovereignty delegated to the kKing. The first remarkable historiographical school of interpretation of the history of Argentina was founded by Bartolomé Mitre, in his book Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina. Mitre regarded the May Revolution as an iconic expression of political egalitarianism, the conflict between modern freedoms and oppression represented by the Spanish monarchy, and the attempt to establish a national organization on constitutional principles as opposed to the leadership of the caudillos. Mitre introduced the idea that the nation of Argentina existed prior to 1810, and that it was subjugated up to that point by the Spanish authorities. Meanwhile, Esteban Echeverría epitomized the ideals of May in the concepts of progress and democracy. In the future, these concepts would be the axis around which revisionist history would differ from the canonical history in reference to the events of May. The canonical version claimed progress and justify the abandonment or delay the realization of democratic ideals in order not to risk the economic prosperity of society arguing that even then was not able to properly take advantage of political freedom. This situation was known as the establishment of the "Possible Republic." Mitre and Echeverría were part of the '37 Generation, a group of romantic authors born during the revolution itself and formed in the local context generated after it. Those authors did not work purely in intellectual fields, but took instead active part in the political events of their time, and strongly opposed the governor Juan Manuel de Rosas. They were closer to the unitarians than to the federalists, but were not fully unitarians either: they thought that it wasn't enough to apply directly the new ideas generated in Europe or the United States, but instead to adapt them to the local contexts of the Río de la Plata. They choose the May Revolution as the point to mark the birth of the nation because of their rejection to the Spanish or aboriginal cultures. The last years of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th were marked in Argentina by a growing industrialization process and the arrival of huge numbers of European immigrants. Historiographical studies were increased by the "New Historical school", in order to forge a "national identity", and the May Revolution had great prominence. There were discussions about the level of influence that the many causes of the May Revolution actually had, or whose interventions were the most decisive, but two points shared by all historians were to consider the May Revolution as the birth of Argentina, and to consider it an inevitable consequence of the causes that led to it (meaning, the chance of the May Revolution never taking place is not considered a feasible possibility by historians). There was also a subtle change: the scope of the revolution as a subject of study originally started with the events of May 1810 in Buenos Aires and kept going on for decades. They were later split, and the name "May Revolution" made reference only to events that led to the removal of Cisneros and the creation of the Primera Junta. A new element added by those historians was to consider, either to support or reject the idea, whenever there was an active and strong popular support for the Revolution, instead of explaining it solely around the actions of a limited number of enlightened men. Nevertheless, they kept the previous approaches for the most part. The academic consensus of the end of the 19th century began to be questioned by the time of the World Wars, when liberalism lost its former hegemony and fascism and left-wing ideologies became important. Liberalism attempted to impose an ultimate and unquestionable historical perspective, though Ricardo Levene and the National Academy of History. This school of thought kept most of the viewpoints of Mitre. Left-wing authors opposed it with a revisionist production, based in nationalism and anti-imperialism. However, revisionists would work mainly with the historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas, Justo José de Urquiza, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento or Mitre himself, without working much with the War of Independence, and in fact José de San Martín was equally supported by both genres. Nevertheless, they deemphasized the idea of a conflict between criollos and peninsulars, and described it instead as a conflict between liberalism and absolutism. The fascist author Hugo Wast would describe the Revolution as a military coup carried out by military leaders, and where the population was completely uninvolved. The 150º anniversary of the May Revolution found the liberal and revisionist historiographies opposing each other more strongly. The senator from Corrientes J. Aníbal Dávila promoted the republication of old documents so that "the intentions of the antihistory of Argentina does not confuse the current generations, the masses and the youth with misleading slogans". José María Rosa would react by stating that the Revolution was carried out by the masses and that those were shadowed by other figures by liberal historians seeking to falsify history. The perspectives of Rosa found great acceptance in society and are currently part of the Argentine historic common sense. By the 1970 decade authors like Tulio Halperin Donghi or José Carlos Chiaramonte attempted to provide a less absolute perspective about the May Revolution, by making detailed analysis of the local and international contexts and the possible options that the revolutionaries had at their disposal, with the Revolution being one option among many others. == Disputes == === Revolutionary purposes === The government created on May 25 was pronounced loyal to the deposed Spanish king Ferdinand VII, but historians do not agree on whenever such loyalty was genuine or not. Since Mitre, many historians consider that such loyalty was merely a political deception to gain factual autonomy. The Primera Junta did not pledged allegiance to the Regency Counsel of Spain and the Indies, an agency of the Spanish monarchy still in operation, and in 1810 the possibility that Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated and Ferdinand returned to the throne (which would finally happen on December 11, 1813 with the signing of the Treaty of Valençay) still seemed remote and unlikely. The purpose of the deception would have been to gain time to strengthen the position of the patriotic cause, avoiding the reactions that may have led by a revolution, on the grounds that monarchical authority was still respected and that no revolution took place. The ruse is known as the "Mask of Ferdinand VII" and would have been upheld by the Primera Junta, the Junta Grande, and the First and Second Triumvirates. The Assembly of Year XIII was intended to declare independency, but failed to do so because of other political conflicts between its members; however, it suppressed mentions to Ferdinand VII from official documents. The supreme directors held an ambivalent attitude until the declaration of independence of 1816. For Britain the change was favorable, as it facilitated trade with the cities of the area without seeing it hampered by the monopoly that Spain maintained over their colonies. However, Britain prioritized the war in Europe against France, allied with the Spanish power sector that had not yet been submitted, and could not appear to support American independentist movements or allow military attention of Spain being divided into two different fronts. Consequently, they pushed for independence demonstrations not being made explicit. This pressure was exerted by Lord Strangford, the British ambassador at the court of Rio de Janeiro, expressing support to the Junta, but conditioned "...if the behavior is consistent and that Capital retained on behalf of Mr. Dn. Fernando VII and his legitimate successors." However, the following conflicts between Buenos Aires, Montevideo and Artigas led to internal conflicts in the British front, between Strangford and the Portuguese regent John VI of Portugal. Since Juan Bautista Alberdi, later historians such as Norberto Galasso, Luis Romero or José Carlos Chiaramonte held in doubt the interpretation made by Mitre, and designed a different one. Alberdi thought that "The Argentine revolution is a chapter of the Hispanoamerican revolution, which is such of the Spanish one, and this, as well, of the European revolution." They did not consider it a dispute between independentism and colonialism, but instead a dispute between the new libertarian ideas and absolutism, without the intention to cut the relation with Spain, but to reformulate it. Thus, it would have the characteristics of a civil war instead. Some points that would justify the idea would be the inclusion of Larrea, Matheu and Belgrano in the Junta and the later appearance of José de San Martín: Larrea and Matheu were Spanish, Belgrano studied for many years in Spain, and San Martín had lived so far most of his adult life waging war in Spain against the French. When San Martín talked about the enemies, he called them "royalists" or "Goths", but never "Spanish". According to those historians, the Spanish revolution against absolutism got mixed with the Peninsular War. Charles IV was seen as an absolutist king, and by standing against his father many Spanish got the wrong understanding that Ferdinand VII sympathized with the new enlighten ideas. Thus, the revolutions made in the Americas in the name of Ferdinand VII (such as the May Revolution, the Chuquisaca Revolution or the one in Chile) would have been seeking to replace the absolutist power with others made under the new ideas. Even if Spain was at war with France, the ideals themselves of the French Revolution (liberty, equality and fraternity) were still respected by those people. However, those revolutions pronounced themselves enemies of Napoleon, but did not face any active French military attack, which promoted instead fights between Spanish armies for keeping the old order of maintaining the new one. This situation would have changed with the final defeat of Napoleon and the return of Ferdinand VII to the throne, as he restored absolutism and persecuted the new libertarian ideas within Spain. For the people in South America, the idea of remaining as part of the Spanish Empire, but with a new relation with the mother country, was no longer a feasible option: the only remaining options at this point would have been a return to absolutism, or independentism. ==== Documents ==== Cornelio Saavedra spoke about the issue privately with Juan José Viamonte in a letter from 27 June 1811, addressing topics such as a known display of independentism by Máximo de Zamudio. This letter was subsequently rescued. In it, he explicitly mentioned the situation as a deception to avoid England from declaring war on them. Foreign courts, and very specially the British one, demand nothing, save that we carry on the name of Ferdinand and the hate to Napoleon. Those two axis are why it isn't our declared enemy. Read by yourself the notice that has just been published in the British newspapers recently received (adjunted). In them you can see by yourself it is expressly said that the British court declares not to feel itself compeled by any convention to sustain a part of the Spanish monarchy against the other, for reason of some remaining disagreement among them about the type of government, in which they have to rule their respective systems, under the condition that they recognize their legitimate sovereign, and they oppose the tyranny and the usurpation of the France. Thus, if we did not recognize Ferdinand, Britain would have the right or feel itself obliged to sustain our enemies that do so, and would declare war upon us, same as if we did not despise Napoleon; and what forces does the poor viceroyalty of Buenos Aires have to resist this power in the first steps of its childhood? Or what need does it have to willingly attract for itself this powerful and external enemy when it hasn't ended with the interior ones that keep bothering us to this day? Among those powerful considerations, the free citizen Zamudio wants it to be shouted, independence, independence. What is lost if by written words we say Ferdinand, Ferdinand, and with works we pave the way for the Congress, sole competent tribunal that can and must establish and decide the system or form of government deemed convenient, agreed upon by the deputies that will compose it? On the other hand, the Congress of Tucuman issued a manifest in 1817, more than a year after the declaration of independence. It detailed abuses made by the Spanish, and former chances for separatism that were not used. Of course, once the independence was declared openly, there would not have been any further need for keeping a masquerade of submission. In the specific case of the May Revolution, it says: In the meantime we established our government junta similar to those of Spain. Its establishment was merely provisional and in the name of the captive king Ferdinand. Viceroy Don Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros wrote instructions to the governors to prepare for the civil war and arm some provinces against the others. == Groups involved == The groups who supported or carried out the revolution were not completely homogeneous in their purpose, and several had disparate interests together. The progressive Criollos and young people, represented on the Junta by Moreno, Castelli, Belgrano and Paso, aspired to far-reaching political, economic and social reforms. Moreover, the military and bureaucrats, whose views were carried forward by Saavedra, simply wanted a renewal of office holders, aspiring to remove the Spanish from the exclusive use of power, but inheriting their privileges and powers. The merchants and landlords subordinated the political issues to the economic decisions, particularly with respect to the opening or not of trade with England. Finally, some groups shuffled possibilities to replace the authority of the Regency Council with that of Charlotte of Portugal or the British crown, but such projects have had limited impact. These groups worked together for the common goal of expelling Cisneros from power, but after the Primera Junta was settled they began to express their internal differences. No religious factors were involved in the revolution: all the revolutionaries and royalists agreed to support Catholicism. Still, most church leaders opposed the revolution. In Upper Peru the royalists and religious authorities sought to equate the revolutionaries with heretics, but the revolutionary leaders always promoted conciliatory policies in the religious aspects. For instance, Mariano Moreno translated The Social Contract to Spanish, but left aside the chapters that criticized religion. The priests and monks, however, were divided geographically: the provinces "from below" were loyal to the revolution, while those of Upper Peru preferred to remain loyal to the monarchy. == See also == May Revolution Historiography of Argentina == Bibliography == Gelman, Jorge; Raúl Fradkin (2010). Doscientos años pensando la Revolución de Mayo. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. ISBN 978-950-07-3179-9. == References == == External links == Corrientes interpretativas de la Revolución de Mayo de 1810 (in Spanish)	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution
There are numerous surviving ancient Greek and Latin sources on Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, as well as some Asian texts. The five main surviving accounts are by Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, and Justin. In addition to these five main sources, there is the Metz Epitome, an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from Hyrcania to India. Much is also recounted incidentally by other authors, including Strabo, Athenaeus, Polyaenus, Aelian, and others. Strabo, who gives a summary of Callisthenes, is an important source for Alexander's journey to Siwah. == Contemporary sources == Most primary sources written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander are lost, but a few inscriptions and fragments survive. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life include Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Finally, there is the very influential account of Cleitarchus who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used sources which had just been published. His work was to be the backbone of that of Timagenes, who heavily influenced many historians whose work still survives. None of his works survived, but we do have later works based on these primary sources. == The five main sources == === Arrian === "That Alexander should have committed errors in conduct from impetuosity or from wrath, and that he should have been induced to comport himself like the Persian monarchs to an immoderate degree, I do not think remarkable if we fairly consider both his youth and his uninterrupted career of good fortune. I do not think that even his tracing his origin to a god was a great error on Alexander's part if it was not perhaps merely a device to induce his subjects to show him reverence". (Arrian 7b 29) Indica, written in the 2nd century AD, mainly describes the voyage of Alexander the Great's officer Nearchus from the Indus to the Persian Gulf following Alexander's conquest of much of the Indus Valley. === Plutarch === Life of Alexander (see Parallel Lives) and two orations On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great (see Moralia), by the Greek historian and biographer Plutarch of Chaeronea in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus. Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favorite sculptor, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. Plutarch also admits the impossibility of pure accuracy, noting that his sources are likely unreliable and that the purpose of his work is to give a moralistic and heroic interpretation of Alexander's life, stating: "For it is not Histories that I am writing, but Lives." === Diodorus === Bibliotheca historica (Library of world history), written in Greek by the Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Cleitarchus and Hieronymus of Cardia. It is the oldest surviving Greek source (1st century BC). Diodorus regarded Alexander like Caesar as a key historical figure and chronological marker. === Curtius === Historiae Alexandri Magni, a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, written in the 1st century AD, and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy. === Justin === The Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus by Justin, is highly compressed version of an earlier history by Trogus, with the selections governed by Justin's desire to make moralistic points, rather than with an eye for the history itself. == Letters == Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but no originals survive. A few official letters addressed to the Greek cities survive in copies inscribed in stone and the content of others is sometimes reported in historical sources. These only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are. Several fictitious letters, some perhaps based on actual letters, made their way into the Romance tradition. == Ephemerides of Alexander the Great == The Ephemerides of Alexander were journals describing Alexander's daily activities. Mentioned by ancient writers, but only fragments survive today. Suda writes that one of the works of Strattis of Olynthus was called "On the ephemerides of Alexander" and were five books. == Lost works == Life of Alexander by Aesopus Works of Anaximenes of Lampsacus Works of Aristobulus of Cassandreia Geographical work of Androsthenes of Thasos Deeds of Alexander by Callisthenes (the official historian) Personal Notebooks, or Hypomnemata, by Alexander himself (possibly inauthentic) History of Alexander by Cleitarchus On the empire of the Macedonians by Criton of Pieria Histories (also listed as Macedonica and Hellenica) by Duris of Samos Work of Ephippus of Olynthus Works of Strattis of Olynthus Work of Hagnothemis upon which Plutarch rested the belief that Antipater poisoned Alexander. Work of Hieronymus of Cardia On the education of Alexander and Macedonian history by Marsyas of Pella Work of Medius of Larissa Work of Nearchus, the primary source of Arrian's Indica How Alexander was Educated and geographical works by Onesicritus Work of Ptolemy I Soter Work of Nicobule Work of Antidamas History of Alexander by Timagenes Historiae Philippicae by Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus Nymphis wrote twenty-four books On Alexander, the Diadochoi and the Epigonoi. Work of Philo of Alexandria called "On Alexander". Work of Potamon of Mitylene called "On Alexander of Macedon". Work of Soterichus of Oasis. Work of Nikanor about the life of Alexander. "Σταθμοί τῆς Ἀλεξάνδρου πορείας" (Stages in Alexander's Journey/Stations of the march of Alexander), a work of Baeton (the Bematist of Alexander the Great). Work of Chares of Mytilene. Ten books about the life of Alexander. Jason of Argos wrote four books titled "On Greece". In the third book, he covered the reign of Alexander the Great up until his death. Menaechmus of Sikyon wrote about the reign of Alexander the Great. In 2023, researchers with the help of machine learning managed to read a small part of a book from the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum which was heavily damaged in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. It seems that it is a lost work which contains the names of a number of Macedonian dynasts and generals of Alexander and several mentions of Alexander himself. == Greek epigraphy == Decree of Philippi (ca.335-330 BC) Alexander arbitrates a boundary dispute between local Thracian tribes and the city of Philippi. A dedicatory inscription to Apollo was found at Toumbes Kalamotou, Thessaloniki regional unit; it records a list of priests of Asclepius who had fulfilled their duties from the time when King Alexandros gave Kalindoia and the villages around to Makedones. A dedicatory inscription to Olympian Zeus by Philonides of Crete in which he is mentioned as King Alexandros' hemerodromos (cursor) and bematist of Asia. Lindos Chronicle. King Alexandros having defeated Darius in battle and become lord kurios of Asia, sacrificed to Athena of Lindos. boukephala (ox-heads) and hopla (armour) Antigonus (son of Callas) hetairos from Amphipolis, commemorates his victory in hoplite racing at Heraclean games after the Conquest of Tyrus. == Non-Greco-Roman sources == === Babylonian Chronicles === Alexander Chronicle mentions the battle of Gaugamela and the incident of Bessus, who was pursued by Aliksandar. Alexander and Arabia Chronicle refers to events concerning the last years of the King. === Zoroastrian texts === They say that, once upon a time, the pious Zartosht made the religion, which he had received, current in the world; and till the completion of 300 years, the religion was in purity, and men were without doubts. But afterward, the accursed evil spirit, the wicked one, in order to make men doubtful of this religion, instigated the accursed Alexander, the Rûman, who was dwelling in Egypt, so that he came to the country of Iran with severe cruelty and war and devastation; he also slew the ruler of Iran, and destroyed the metropolis and empire, and made them desolate. === The Bible === Daniel 8:5–8 and 21–22 states that a King of Greece will conquer the Medes and Persians but then die at the height of his power and have his kingdom broken into four kingdoms. This is sometimes taken as a reference to Alexander. Alexander is briefly mentioned in the first Book of the Maccabees. In chapter 1, verses 1–7 are about Alexander and serve as an introduction of the book. This explains how the Greek influence reached the Land of Israel at that time. === The Quran === There is evidence to suggest that orally transmitted legends about Alexander the Great found their way to the Quran. In the story of Dhu al-Qarnayn, "The Two-Horned One" (chapter al-Kahf, verse 83–94), Dhu al-Qarnayn is identified by most Western and traditional Muslim scholars as a reference to Alexander the Great. == References == == Further reading == Zambrini, Andrea (2017). "The Historians of Alexander the Great". In Marincola, John (ed.). A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography. Blackwell Publishing (published 12 September 2017). pp. 193–202. doi:10.1002/9781405185110.ch17. ISBN 978-1405102162. Hammond, Nicholas G. L. (2007) [1983]. The Historians of Alexander the Great: The So-Called Vulgate Authors, Diodorus, Justin, and Curtius. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521036535.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great
The historiography of the British Empire refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to develop a history of the British Empire. Historians and their ideas are the main focus here; specific lands and historical dates and episodes are covered in the article on the British Empire. Scholars have long studied the Empire, looking at the causes for its formation, its relations to the French and other empires, and the kinds of people who became imperialists or anti-imperialists, together with their mindsets. The history of the breakdown of the Empire has attracted scholars of the histories of the United States (which broke away in 1776), the British Raj (dissolved in 1947), and the African colonies (independent in the 1960s). John Darwin (2013) identifies four imperial goals: colonising, civilising, converting, and commerce. Historians have approached imperial history from numerous angles over the last century. In recent decades scholars have expanded the range of topics into new areas in social and cultural history, paying special attention to the impact on the natives and their agency in response. The cultural turn in historiography has recently emphasised issues of language, religion, gender, and identity. Recent debates have considered the relationship between the "metropole" (Great Britain itself, especially London), and the colonial peripheries. The "British world" historians stress the material, emotional, and financial links among the colonizers across the imperial diaspora. The "new imperial historians", by contrast, are more concerned with the Empire's impact on the metropole, including everyday experiences and images. Phillip Buckner says that by the 1990s few historians continued to portray the Empire as benevolent. == Historical framework == Historians agree that the Empire was not planned by anyone. The concept of the British Empire is a construct and was never a legal entity, unlike the Roman or other European empires. There was no imperial constitution, no office of emperor, no uniformity of laws. So when it began, when it ended, and what stages it went through is a matter of opinion, not official orders or laws. The dividing line was Britain's shift in the 1763–93 period from emphasis on western to eastern territories following U.S. independence. The London bureaucracy governing the colonies also changed, policies to white settler colonies changed and slavery was phased out. The beginning of the formation of a colonial Empire has been much studied. Tudor conquest of Ireland began in the 1530s and Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in the 1650s completed the British colonisation of Ireland. The first major history was The Expansion of England (1883), by Sir John Seeley. It was a bestseller for decades, and was widely admired by the imperialistic faction in British politics, and opposed by the anti-imperialists of the Liberal Party. The book points out how and why Britain gained the colonies, the character of the Empire, and the light in which it should be regarded. It was well written and persuasive. Seeley argued that British rule is in India's best interest. He also warned that India had to be protected and vastly increased the responsibilities and dangers to Britain. The book contains the much-quoted statement that "we seem, as it were, to have conquered half the world in a fit of absence of mind". Expansion of England appeared at an opportune time, and did much to make the British regard the colonies as an expansion of the British state as well as of British nationality, and to confirm to them the value of Britain's empire in the East. In his history of the British Empire, written in 1940, A. P. Newton lamented that Seeley "dealt in the main with the great wars of the eighteenth century and this gave the false impression that the British Empire has been founded largely by war and conquest, an idea that was unfortunately planted firmly in the public mind, not only in Great Britain, but also in foreign countries". Historians often point out that in the First British Empire (before the 1780s) there was no single imperial vision, but rather a multiplicity of private operations led by different groups of English businessmen or religious groups. Although protected by the Royal Navy, they were not funded or planned by the government. After the American war, says Bruce Collins, British leaders "focused not on any military lessons to be learned, but upon the regulation and expansion of imperial trade and the readjustment of Britain's constitutional relationship with its colonies." In the Second British Empire, by 1815 historians identify four distinct elements in the colonies. The most politically developed colonies were the self-governing colonies in the Caribbean and those that later formed Canada and Australia. India was in a category by itself, and its immense size and distance required control of the routes to it, and in turn permitted British naval dominance from the Persian Gulf to the South China Sea. The third group was a mixed bag of smaller territories, including isolated ports used as way stations to India, and emerging trade entrepots such as Hong Kong and Singapore, along with a few isolated ports in Africa. The fourth kind of empire was the "informal empire," that is financial dominance exercised through investments, as in Latin America, and including the complex situation in Egypt (it was owned theoretically by the Ottoman Empire, but ruled by Britain). Darwin argues the British Empire was distinguished by the adaptability of its builders: "The hallmark of British imperialism was its extraordinary versatility in method, outlook and object." The British tried to avoid military action in favour of reliance on networks of local elites and businessmen who voluntarily collaborated and in turn gained authority (and military protection) from British recognition. Historians argue that Britain built an informal economic empire through control of trade and finance in Latin America after the independence of Spanish and Portuguese colonies about 1820. By the 1840s, Britain had adopted a highly successful policy of free trade that gave it dominance in the trade of much of the world. After losing its first Empire to the Americans, Britain then turned its attention towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain enjoyed a century of almost unchallenged dominance and expanded its imperial holdings around the globe. Increasing degrees of internal autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies in the 20th century. A resurgence came in the late 19th century, with the Scramble for Africa and major additions in Asia and the Middle East. Leadership in British imperialism was expressed by Joseph Chamberlain and Lord Rosebery, and implemented in Africa by Cecil Rhodes. Other influential spokesmen included Lord Cromer, Lord Curzon, General Kitchner, Lord Milner, and the writer Rudyard Kipling. They all were influenced by Seeley's Expansion of England. The British Empire was the largest Empire that the world has ever seen both in terms of landmass and population. Its power, both military and economic, remained unmatched in 1900. In 1876 Disraeli overcame vehement Liberal opposition and obtained for Queen Victoria the title of "Empress of India" (she was not "Empress of the British Empire.") British historians focused on the diplomatic, military and administrative aspects of the Empire before the 1960s. They saw a benevolent enterprise. Younger generations branched off into a variety of social, economic and cultural themes, and took a much more critical stance. Representative of the old tradition was the Cambridge History of India, a large-scale project published in five volumes between 1922 and 1937 by Cambridge University Press. Some volumes were also part of the simultaneous multivolume The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Production of both works was delayed by the First World War and the ill health of contributors; the India volume II had to be abandoned. Reviewers complained the research methods were too old-fashioned; one critic said it was "history as it was understood by our grandfathers". == Idea of Empire == David Armitage provided an influential study of the emergence of a British imperial ideology from the time of Henry VIII to that of Robert Walpole in the 1720s and 1730s. Using a close reading of English, Scottish and Irish authors from Sir Thomas Smith (1513–77) to David Hume (1711–1776), Armitage argues that the imperial ideology was both a critical agent in the formation of a British state from three kingdoms and an essential bond between the state and the transatlantic colonies. Armitage thus links the concerns of the "New British History" with that of the Atlantic history. Before 1700, Armitage finds that contested English and Scottish versions of state and empire delayed the emergence of a unitary imperial ideology. However political economists Nicholas Barbon and Charles Davenant in the late 17th century emphasized the significance of commerce, especially mercantilism or commerce that was closed to outsiders, to the success of the state. They argued that "trade depended on liberty, and that liberty could therefore be the foundation of empire". To overcome competing versions of "empires of the seas" within Britain, Parliament undertook the regulation of the Irish economy, the Acts of Union 1707 and the formation of a unitary and organic "British" empire of the sea. Walpole's opponents in the 1730s in the "country party" and in the American colonies developed an alternative vision of empire that would be "Protestant, commercial, maritime and free". Walpole did not ensure the promised "liberty" to the colonies because he was intent on subordinating all colonial economic activity to the mercantilist advantages of the metropolis. Anti-imperial critiques emerged from Francis Hutcheson and David Hume, presaging the republicanism that swept the American colonies in the 1770s and led to the creation of a rival power. === Economic policy: Mercantilism === Historians led by Eli Heckscher have identified Mercantilism as the central economic policy for the empire before the shift to free trade in the 1840s. Mercantilism is an economic theory practice, commonly used in Britain, France and other major European nations from the 16th to the 18th century that promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. It involves a national economic policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from the 16th to late-18th centuries. Mercantilism was a cause of frequent European wars and also motivated colonial expansion. High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods, are an almost universal feature of mercantilist policy. Other policies have included: Building overseas colonies; Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations; Monopolizing markets with staple ports; Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments; Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships; Export subsidies; Promoting manufacturing with research or direct subsidies; Limiting wages; Maximizing the use of domestic resources; Restricting domestic consumption with non-tariff barriers to trade. The term "mercantile system" was used by its foremost critic Adam Smith. Mercantilism in its simplest form was bullionism which focused on accumulating gold and silver through clever trades (leaver the trading partner with less of his gold and silver). Mercantilist writers emphasized the circulation of money and rejected hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money supply. In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the Long Parliament government (1640–1660). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the Tudor and Stuart periods, with Robert Walpole being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the Continent, limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the English Civil War, but were often controversial. With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants – and kept others out – by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government used the Royal Navy to protect the colonies and to fight smuggling – which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country (not the colonists). British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. Much of the enforcement against smuggling was handled by the Royal Navy, argued Neil Stout. A wide array of regulations was put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The Navigation Acts expelled foreign merchants from England's domestic trade. The nation aggressively sought colonies and once under British control, regulations were imposed that allowed the colony to only produce raw materials and to only trade with Britain. This led to smuggling by major merchants and political friction with the businessmen of these colonies. Mercantilist policies (such as forbidding trade with other empires and controls over smuggling) were a major irritant leading to the American Revolution. Mercantilism taught that trade was a zero-sum game with one country's gain equivalent to a loss sustained by the trading partner. Whatever the theoretical weaknesses exposed by economists after Adam Smith, it was under mercantilist policies before the 1840s that Britain became the world's dominant trader, and the global hegemon. Mercantilism in Britain ended when Parliament repealed the Navigation Acts and Corn Laws by 1846. Scholars agree that Britain gradually dropped mercantilism after 1815. Free trade, with no tariffs and few restrictions, was the prevailing doctrine from the 1840s to the 1930s. === Defending empire and "pseudo-empire" === John Darwin has explored the way historians have explained the large role of the Royal Navy and the much smaller role of the British Army in the history of the empire. For the 20th century, he explores what he calls a "pseudo-empire," oil producers in the Middle East. The strategic goal of protecting the Suez Canal was a high priority from the 1880s to 1956 and, by then, had expanded to the oil regions. Darwin argues that defence strategy posed issues of how to reconcile the needs of domestic politics with the preservation of a global Empire. Darwin argues that a main function of the British defence system, especially the Royal Navy, was defence of the overseas empire (in addition of course to defence of the homeland). The army, usually in co-operation with local forces, suppressed internal revolts, losing only the American War of Independence (1775–83). Armitage considers the following to be the British creed: Protestantism, oceanic commerce and mastery of the seas provided bastions to protect the freedom of inhabitants of the British Empire. That freedom found its institutional expression in Parliament, the law, property, and rights, all of which were exported throughout the British Atlantic world. Such freedom also allowed the British, uniquely, to combine the classically incompatible ideals of liberty and empire. Lizzie Collingham (2017) stresses the role of expanding the food supply in the building, financing and defending the trade aspect of empire-building. === Thirteen American Colonies and Revolution === The first British Empire centered on the 13 American Colonies, which attracted large numbers of settlers from across Britain. In the 1900s - 1930s period the "Imperial School," including Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer, Charles M. Andrews and Lawrence Gipson took a favourable view of the benefits of empire, emphasizing its successful economic integration. Regarding Columbia University historian Herbert L. Osgood (1855–1918), biographer Gwenda Morgan concludes: Osgood brought a new sophistication to the study of colonial relations posing the question from an institutional perspective, of how the Atlantic was bridged. He was the first American historian to recognize the complexity of imperial structures, the experimental character of the empire, and the contradictions between theory and practice that gave rise, on both sides of the Atlantic, to inconsistencies and misunderstandings ... It was American factors rather than imperial influences that in his view shaped the development of the colonies. Osgood's work still has value for professional historians interested in the nature of the colonies' place in the early British Empire, and their internal political development. Much of the historiography concerns the reasons the Americans revolted in the 1770s and successfully broke away. The "Patriots", an insulting term used by the British that was proudly adopted by the Americans, stressed the constitutional rights of Englishmen, especially "No taxation without representation." Historians since the 1960s have emphasized that the Patriot constitutional argument was made possible by the emergence of a sense of American nationalism that united all 13 colonies. In turn, that nationalism was Rooted in a Republican value system that demanded consent of the governed and opposed aristocratic control. In Britain itself, republicanism was a fringe view since it challenged the aristocratic control of the British political system. There were (almost) no aristocrats or nobles in the 13 colonies, and instead, the colonial political system was based on the winners of free elections, which were open to the majority of white men. In the analysis of the coming of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches. The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context, including revolutions in France and Haiti. It tends to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire. The "new social history" approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages. The ideological approach that centres on republicanism in the United States. Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty, aristocracy or national church but allowed for continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adapted British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choice for courts. == First British Empire and Second British Empire == The concept of a first and second British Empire was developed by historians in the early 20th century, Timothy H. Parsons argued in 2014, "there were several British empires that ended at different times and for different reasons". He focused on the Second. Ashley Jackson argued in 2013 that historians have even extended to a third and fourth empire: The first British Empire was largely destroyed by the loss of the American colonies, followed by a 'swing to the east' and the foundation of a second British Empire based on commercial and territorial expansion in South Asia. The third British Empire was the construction of a 'white' dominion power bloc in the international system based on Britain's relations with its settler offshoots Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa ... The fourth British Empire, meanwhile, is used to denote Britain's rejuvenated imperial focus on Africa and South-East Asia following the Second World War and the independence in 1947–48 of Britain's South Asian dependencies, when the Empire became a vital crutch in Britain's economic recovery. The first Empire was founded in the 17th century, and based on the migration of large numbers of settlers to the American colonies, as well as the development of the sugar plantation colonies in the West Indies. It ended with the British loss of the American War for Independence. The second Empire had already started to emerge. It was originally designed as a chain of trading ports and naval bases. However, it expanded inland into the control of large numbers of natives when the East India Company proved highly successful in taking control of most of India. India became the keystone of the Second Empire, along with colonies later developed across Africa. A few new settler colonies were also built up in Australia and New Zealand, and to a lesser extent in South Africa. Marshall in 1999 shows the consensus of scholars is clear, for since 1900 the concepts of the First British Empire have "held their ground in historians' usage without serious challenge." In 1988 Peter Marshall says that late-18th-century transformations: constituted a fundamental reordering of the Empire which make it appropriate to talk about a first British Empire giving way to a second one ... Historians have long identified certain developments in the late eighteenth century that undermined the fundamentals of the old Empire and were to bring about a new one. These were the American Revolution and the industrial revolution. Historians, however, debate whether 1783 was a sharp line of demarcation between First and Second, or whether there was an overlap (as argued by Vincent T. Harlow) or whether there was a "black hole between 1783 and the later birth of the Second Empire. Historian Denis Judd says the "black hole" is a fallacy and that there was continuity. Judd writes: It is commonplace to suppose that the successful revolt of the American colonies marked the end of the 'First British Empire'. But this is only a half-truth. In 1783 there was still a substantial Empire left." Marshall notes that the exact dating of the two empires varies, with 1783 a typical demarcation point. Thus the story of the American revolt provides a key: The Fall of the First British Empire: Origins of the Wars of American Independence (1982) by American professors Robert W. Tucker and David Hendrickson, stresses the victorious initiative of the Americans. By contrast Cambridge professor Brendan Simms explores Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783 (2007) and explains Britain's defeat in terms of alienating the major powers on the Continent. == Theories of imperialism == Theories about imperialism typically focus on the Second British Empire, with side glances elsewhere. The term "Imperialism" was originally introduced into English in its present sense in the 1870s by Liberal leader William Gladstone to ridicule the imperial policies of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, which he denounced as aggressive and ostentatious and inspired by domestic motives. The term was shortly appropriated by supporters of "imperialism" such as Joseph Chamberlain. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest, and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed. John A. Hobson, a leading English Liberal, developed a highly influential economic exploitation model in Imperialism: A Study (1902) that expanded on his belief that free enterprise capitalism had a negative impact on the majority of the population. In Imperialism he argued that the financing of overseas empires drained money that was needed at home. It was invested abroad because lower wages paid the workers overseas made for higher profits and higher rates of return, compared to domestic wages. So although domestic wages remained higher, they did not grow nearly as fast as they might have otherwise. Exporting capital, he concluded, put a lid on the growth of domestic wages in the domestic standard of living. . By the 1970s, historians such as David K. Fieldhouse and Oren Hale could argue that the, "Hobsonian foundation has been almost completely demolished." The British experience failed to support it. However, European Socialists picked up Hobson's ideas and made it into their own theory of imperialism, most notably in Lenin's Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916). Lenin portrayed Imperialism as the closure of the world market and the end of capitalist free-competition that arose from the need for capitalist economies to constantly expand investment, material resources and manpower in such a way that necessitated colonial expansion. Later Marxist theoreticians echo this conception of imperialism as a structural feature of capitalism, which explained the World War as the battle between imperialists for control of external markets. Lenin's treatise became a standard textbook that flourished until the collapse of communism in 1989–91. As the application of the term "imperialism" has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five axes: the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural, and the temporal. Those changes reflect a growing unease, even squeamishness, with the fact of power, specifically, Western power. The relationships among capitalism, imperialism, exploitation, social reform and economic development has long been debated among historians and political theorists. Much of the debate was pioneered by such theorists as John A. Hobson (1858–1940), Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950), Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), and Norman Angell (1872–1967). While these non-Marxist writers were at their most prolific before World War I, they remained active in the interwar years. Their combined work informed the study of imperialism's impact on Europe, as well as contributed to reflections on the rise of the military-political complex in the United States from the 1950s. Hobson argued that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth, and encourage a peaceful multilateral world order. Conversely, should the state not intervene, rentiers (people who earn income from property or securities) would generate socially negative wealth that fostered imperialism and protectionism. Hobson for years was widely influential in liberal circles, especially the British Liberal Party. Lenin's writings became orthodoxy for all Marxist historians. They had many critics. D. K. Fieldhouse, for example, argues that they used superficial arguments. Fieldhouse says that the "obvious driving force of British expansion since 1870" came from explorers, missionaries, engineers, and empire-minded politicians. They had little interest in financial investments. Hobson's answer was to say that faceless financiers manipulated everyone else, so that "The final determination rests with the financial power." Lenin believed that capitalism was in its last stages and had been taken over by monopolists. They were no longer dynamic and sought to maintain profits by even more intensive exploitation of protected markets. Fieldhouse rejects these arguments as unfounded speculation. === Imperialism of Free Trade === Historians agree that in the 1840s, Britain adopted a free-trade policy, meaning open markets and no tariffs throughout the empire. The debate among historians involves what the implications of free trade actually were. "The Imperialism of Free Trade" is a highly influential 1952 article by John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson. They argued that the New Imperialism of the 1880s", especially the Scramble for Africa, was a continuation of a long-term policy in which informal empire, based on the principles of free trade, was favoured over formal imperial control. The article helped launch the Cambridge School of historiography. Gallagher and Robinson used the British experience to construct a framework for understanding European imperialism that swept away the all-or-nothing thinking of previous historians. They found that European leaders rejected the notion that "imperialism" had to be based upon formal, legal control by one government over a colonial region. Much more important was informal influence in independent areas. According to Wm. Roger Louis, "In their view, historians have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps of the world with regions colored red. The bulk of British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire. Key to their thinking is the idea of empire 'informally if possible and formally if necessary.'" Oron Hale says that Gallagher and Robinson looked at the British involvement in Africa where they, "found few capitalists, less capital, and not much pressure from the alleged traditional promoters of colonial expansion. Cabinet decisions to annex or not to annex were made, usually on the basis of political or geopolitical considerations." Reviewing the debate from the end of the 20th century, historian Martin Lynn argues that Gallagher and Robinson exaggerated the impact. He says that Britain achieved its goal of increasing its economic interests in many areas, "but the broader goal of 'regenerating' societies and thereby creating regions tied as 'tributaries' to British economic interests was not attained." The reasons were: the aim to reshape the world through free trade and its extension overseas owed more to the misplaced optimism of British policy-makers and their partial views of the world than to an understanding of the realities of the mid-19th century globe ... the volumes of trade and investment...the British were able to generate remained limited ... Local economies and local regimes proved adept at restricting the reach of British trade and investment. Local impediments to foreign inroads, the inhabitants' low purchasing power, the resilience of local manufacturing, and the capabilities of local entrepreneurs meant that these areas effectively resisted British economic penetration. The idea that free-trade imperial states use informal controls to secure their expanding economic influence has attracted Marxists trying to avoid the problems of earlier Marxist interpretations of capitalism. The approach is most often applied to American policies. === Free trade versus tariffs === Historians have begun to explore some of the ramifications of British free-trade policy, especially the effect of American and German high tariff policies. Canada adopted a "national policy" of high tariffs in the late 19th century, in sharp distinction to the mother country. The goal was to protect its infant manufacturing industries from low-cost imports from the United States and Britain. The demand increasingly rose in Great Britain to end the free trade policy and impose tariffs to protect its manufacturing from American and German competition. The leading spokesman was Joseph Chamberlain (1836-1914) and he made "tariff reform" (that is, imposing higher tariffs) a central issue in British domestic politics. By the 1930s the British began shifting their policies away from free trade and toward low tariffs inside the British Commonwealth, and higher tariffs for outside products. Economic historians have debated at length the impact of these tariff changes on economic growth. One controversial formulation by Bairoch argues that in the 1870–1914 era: "protectionism = economic growth and expansion of trade; liberalism = stagnation in both". Many studies have supported Bairoch but other economists have challenged his results regarding Canada. === Gentlemanly capitalism === Gentlemanly capitalism is a theory of New Imperialism first put forward by P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins in the 1980s before being fully developed in their 1993 work, British Imperialism. The theory posits that British imperialism was driven by the business interests of the City of London and landed interests. It encourages a shift of emphasis away from seeing provincial manufacturers and geopolitical strategy as important influences, and towards seeing the expansion of empire as emanating from London and the financial sector. == Benevolence, human rights and slavery == Kevin Grant shows that numerous historians in the 21st century have explored relationships between the Empire, international government and human rights. They have focused on British conceptions of imperial world order from the late 19th century to the Cold War. The British intellectuals and political leaders felt that they had a duty to protect and promote the human rights of the natives and to help pull them from the slough of traditionalism and cruelties (such as suttee in India and foot binding in China). The notion of "benevolence" was developed in the 1780–1840 era by idealists whose moralistic prescriptions annoyed efficiency-oriented colonial administrators and profit-oriented merchants. Partly it was a matter of fighting corruption in the Empire, as typified by Edmund Burke's long, but failed, attempt to impeach Warren Hastings for his cruelties in India. The most successful development came in the abolition of slavery led by William Wilberforce and the Evangelicals, and the expansion of Christian missionary work. Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796–1852) spearheaded efforts to create model colonies (such as South Australia, Canada and New Zealand). The 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, initially designed to protect Maori rights, has become the bedrock of Aotearoa–New Zealand biculturalism. In Wakefield's vision, the object of benevolence was to introduce and promote values of industriousness and a productive economy, not to use colonies as a dumping ground for transported criminals. === Promotion and abolition of slavery === English historian Jeremy Black argues that: Slavery and the slave trade are the most difficult and contentious aspect of the imperial legacy, one that captures the full viciousness of power, economic, political, and military, and that leaves a clear and understandable hostility to empire in the Atlantic world, Moreover, within Britain, slavery and the slave trade became and become, ready ways to stigmatize empire, and increasingly so, notably as Britain becomes a multiracial society. One of the most controversial aspects of the Empire is its role in first promoting and then ending slavery. In the 18th century, British merchant ships were the largest element in the "Middle Passage", which transported millions of slaves to the Western Hemisphere. Most of those who survived the journey wound up in the Caribbean, where the Empire had highly profitable sugar colonies, and the living conditions were bad (the plantation owners lived in Britain). Parliament ended the international transportation of slaves in 1807 and used the Royal Navy to enforce that ban. In 1833, it bought out the plantation owners and banned slavery. Historians before the 1940s argued that moralistic reformers such as William Wilberforce were primarily responsible. Historical revisionism arrived when West Indian historian Eric Williams, a Marxist, in Capitalism and Slavery (1944), rejected this moral explanation and argued that abolition was now more profitable, as a century of sugar cane raising had exhausted the soil of the islands, and the plantations had become unprofitable. It was more profitable to sell the slaves to the government than to keep up operations. The 1807 prohibition of the international trade, Williams argued, prevented French expansion on other islands. Meanwhile, British investors turned to Asia, where labor was so plentiful that slavery was unnecessary. Williams went on to argue that slavery played a major role in making Britain prosperous. The high profits from the slave trade, he said, helped finance the Industrial Revolution. Britain enjoyed prosperity because of the capital gained from the unpaid work of slaves. Since the 1970s, numerous historians have challenged Williams from various angles, and Gad Heuman has concluded, "More recent research has rejected this conclusion; it is now clear that the colonies of the British Caribbean profited considerably during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars." In his major attack on the Williams's thesis, Seymour Drescher argues that Britain's abolition of the slave trade in 1807 resulted not from the diminishing value of slavery for Britain but instead from the moral outrage of the British voting public. Critics have also argued that slavery remained profitable in the 1830s because of innovations in agriculture so the profit motive was not central to abolition. Richardson (1998) finds that Williams's claims regarding the Industrial Revolution are exaggerated, as profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain. Richardson further challenges claims (by African scholars) that the slave trade caused widespread depopulation and economic distress in Africa but that it caused the "underdevelopment" of Africa. Admitting the horrible suffering of slaves, he notes that many Africans benefited directly because the first stage of the trade was always firmly in the hands of Africans. European slave ships waited at ports to purchase cargoes of people who were captured in the hinterland by African dealers and tribal leaders. Richardson finds that the "terms of trade" (how much the ship owners paid for the slave cargo) moved heavily in favour of the Africans after about 1750. That is, indigenous elites inside West and Central Africa made large and growing profits from slavery, thus increasing their wealth and power. Economic historian Stanley Engerman finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of British people in Africa, defence costs) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy during any year of the Industrial Revolution. Engerman's 5% figure gives as much as possible in terms of benefit of the doubt to the Williams argument, not solely because it does not take into account the associated costs of the slave trade to Britain, but also because it carries the full-employment assumption from economics and holds the gross value of slave trade profits as a direct contribution to Britain's national income. Historian Richard Pares, in an article written before Williams's book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was occurred after emancipation, not before it. === Whiggish history and the civilising mission === Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800–1859) was the foremost historian of his day, arguing for the "Whig interpretation of history" that saw the history of Britain as an upward progression always leading to more liberty and more progress. Macaulay simultaneously was a leading reformer involved in transforming the educational system of India. He would base it on the English language so that India could join the mother country in a steady upward progress. Macaulay took Burke's emphasis on moral rule and implemented it in actual school reforms, giving the British Empire a profound moral mission to civilize the natives. Yale professor Karuna Mantena has argued that the civilizing mission did not last long, for she says that benevolent reformers were the losers in key debates, such as those following the 1857 rebellion in India, and the scandal of Governor Edward Eyre's brutal repression of the Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica in 1865. The rhetoric continued but it became an alibi for British misrule and racism. No longer was it believed that the natives could truly make progress, instead they had to be ruled by heavy hand, with democratic opportunities postponed indefinitely. As a result: The central tenets of liberal imperialism were challenged as various forms of rebellion, resistance and instability in the colonies precipitated a broad-ranging reassessment ... the equation of 'good government' with the reform of native society, which was at the core of the discourse of liberal empire, would be subject to mounting skepticism." English historian Peter Cain, has challenged Mantena, arguing that the imperialists truly believed that British rule would bring to the subjects the benefits of ‘ordered liberty’. thereby Britain could fulfill its moral duty and achieve its own greatness. Much of the debate took place in Britain itself, and the imperialists worked hard to convince the general population that the civilising mission was well underway. This campaign served to strengthen imperial support at home, and thus, says Cain, to bolster the moral authority of the gentlemanly elites who ran the Empire. === Public health === Mark Harrison argues that the history of public health administration in India dates from the assumption of Crown rule in 1859. Medical experts found that epidemic disease had seriously depleted the fighting capacity of British troops in repressing the rebellion in 1857 and insisted that preventive measures were much more effective than waiting for the next epidemic to break out. Across the Empire it became a high priority for Imperial officials to establish a public health system in each colony. They applied the best practices as developed in Britain, using an elaborate administrative structure in each colony. The system depended on trained local elites and officials to carry out the sanitation improvements, quarantines, inoculations, hospitals, and local treatment centers that were needed. For example, local midwives were trained to provide maternal and infant health care. Propaganda campaigns using posters, rallies, and later films were used to educate the general public. A serious challenge came from the intensified use of multiple transportation routes and the emergence of central hubs such as Hong Kong all of which facilitated this spread of epidemics such as the plague in the 1890s, thus sharply increasing the priority of public health programs. Michael Worboys argues that the 20th-century development and control of tropical diseases had three phases: protection of Europeans in the colonies, improvement in health care of employable natives, and finally the systematic attack on the main diseases of the natives. BELRA, a large-scale program against leprosy, had policies of isolation in newly established leper colonies, separation of healthy children from infected parents, and the development in Britain of chaulmoogra oil therapy and its systematic dissemination. Danald McDonald has argued the most advanced program in public health (apart from the dominions) was established in India, with the Indian Medical Service (IMS). The Raj set up the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine between 1910 and its opening in 1921 as a postgraduate center for tropical medicine on the periphery of the Empire. === Religion: The missionaries === In the 18th century, and even more so in the 19th century, missionaries based in Britain saw the Empire as a fertile field for proselytizing Christianity. Congregations across Britain received regular reports and contributed money. All the main denominations were involved, including the Church of England, the Presbyterians of Scotland, and the Nonconformists. Much of the enthusiasm emerged from the Evangelical revival. The two largest and most influential operations were the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) founded in 1701, and the more evangelical Church Mission Society, founded in 1799, also by the Church of England. Before the American Revolution, Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the 13 Colonies. The Methodists, led by George Whitefield, were the most successful according to Mark Noll. After the revolution an entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the new United States. As historians such as Carl Bridenbaugh have argued, a major problem for colonial officials was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans. Increasingly colonial officials took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After the Americans broke free, British officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all the settler colonies, especially British North America (Canada). Missionary societies funded their own operations that were not supervised or directed by the Colonial Office. Tensions emerged between the missionaries and the colonial officials. The latter feared that missionaries might stir up trouble or encourage the natives to challenge colonial authority. In general, colonial officials were much more comfortable with working with the established local leadership, including the native religions, rather than introducing the divisive force of Christianity. This proved especially troublesome in India, where very few local elites were attracted to Christianity. In Africa, especially, the missionaries made many converts. By the 21st century, there were more Anglicans in Nigeria than in England. Christianity had a powerful effect far beyond the small circle of converts—it provided a model of modernity. The introduction of European medicine was especially important, as well as the introduction of European political practices and ideals such as religious liberty, mass education, mass printing, newspapers, voluntary organizations, colonial reforms, and especially liberal democracy. Increasingly the missionaries realized their wider scope and systematically added secular roles to their spiritual mission. They tried to upgrade education, medical care, and sponsored the long-term modernization of the native personality to inculcate European middle-class values. Alongside their churches they established schools and medical clinics, and sometimes demonstrated improved farming techniques. Christian missionaries played a public role, especially in promoting sanitation and public health. Many were trained as physicians, or took special courses in public health and tropical medicine at Livingstone College, London. Furthermore, Christian missionary activities were studied and copied by local activists and had an influence upon religious politics, on prophetic movements such as those in Xhosa societies, on emerging nationalism in South African and India, the emergence of African independent churches, and sometimes upgrading the status of native women. Historians have begun to analyze the agency of women in overseas missions. At first, missionary societies officially enrolled only men, but women increasingly insisted on playing a variety of roles. Single women typically worked as educators. Wives assisted their missionary husbands in most of his roles. Advocates stopped short of calling for the end of specified gender roles, but they stressed the interconnectedness of the public and private spheres and spoke out against perceptions of women as weak and house-bound. === Education === In the colonies that became dominions, education was left primarily in the hands of local officials. The Imperial government took a strong hand in India, and most of the later colonies. The goal was to speed up modernization and social development through a widespread system of elementary education for all natives, plus high school and eventually university education for selected elites. The students were encouraged to attend university in Britain. === Direct control and bureaucracy === Much of the older historiography, as represented by The Cambridge History of the British Empire, covers the detailed month-to-month operations of the Imperial bureaucracy. More recent scholarship has examined who the bureaucrats and governors were, as well as the role of the colonial experience on their own lives and families. The cultural approach asks how bureaucrats represented themselves and enticed the natives to accept their rule. Wives of senior bureaucrats played an increasingly important role in dealing with the local people, and in sponsoring and promoting charities and civic good will. When they returned to Britain they had an influential voice in shaping upper-class opinion toward colonization. Historian Robert Pearce points out that many colonial wives had a negative reputation, but he depicts Violet Bourdillon (1886–1979) as "the perfect Governor's wife." She charmed both British businessmen and the locals in Nigeria, giving the colonial peoples graciousness and respect; she made the British appear to be not so much rulers, as guides and partners in social, economic and political development. === Indirect control === Some British colonies were ruled directly by the Colonial Office in London, while others were ruled indirectly through local rulers who are supervised behind the scenes by British advisors, with different economic results as shown by Lakshmi Iyer (2010). In much of the Empire, large local populations were ruled in close cooperation with the local hierarchy. Historians have developed categories of control, such as "subsidiary alliances", "paramountcy", "protectorates", "indirect rule", "clientelism", or "collaboration". Local elites were co-opted into leadership positions, and often had the role of minimizing opposition from local independence movements. Fisher has explored the origins and development of the system of indirect rule. The British East India Company starting in the mid-18th century stationed its staff as agents in Indian states which it did not control, especially the Princely States. By the 1840s The system became an efficient way to govern indirectly, by providing local rulers with highly detailed advice that had been approved by central authorities. After 1870, military more and more often took the role; they were recruited and promoted officers on the basis of experience and expertise. The indirect rule system was extended to Many of the colonial holdings in Asia and Africa. Economic historians have explored the economic consequences of indirect rule, as in India and West Africa. In 1890, Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of Britain. Prime minister Salisbury explained his position: The condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilised races, and more suitable for them than direct dominion. It is cheaper, simpler, less wounding to their self-esteem, gives them more career as public officials, and spares of unnecessary contact with white men. Colonel Sir Robert Groves Sandeman (1835–1892) introduced an innovative system of tribal pacification in Balochistan that was in effect from 1877 to 1947. He gave financial allowances to tribal chiefs who enforced control, and used British military force only when necessary. However the Government of India generally opposed his methods and refused to allow it to operate in India's North West Frontier. Historians have long debated its scope and effectiveness in the peaceful spread of Imperial influence. === Environment === Although environmental history was growing rapidly after 1970, it only reached empire studies in the 1990s. Gregory Barton argues that the concept of environmentalism emerged from forestry studies, and emphasizes the British imperial role in that research. He argues that imperial forestry movement in India around 1900 included government reservations, new methods of fire protection, and attention to revenue-producing forest management. The result eased the fight between romantic preservationists and laissez-faire businessmen, thus giving the compromise from which modern environmentalism emerged. In recent years numerous scholars cited by James Beattie have examined the environmental impact of the Empire. Beinart and Hughes argue that the discovery and commercial or scientific use of new plants was an important concern in the 18th and 19th centuries. The efficient use of rivers through dams and irrigation projects was an expensive but important method of raising agricultural productivity. Searching for more efficient ways of using natural resources, the British moved flora, fauna and commodities around the world, sometimes resulting in ecological disruption and radical environmental change. Imperialism also stimulated more modern attitudes toward nature and subsidized botany and agricultural research. Scholars have used the British Empire to examine the utility of the new concept of eco-cultural networks as a lens for examining interconnected, wide-ranging social and environmental processes. == Regions == Between 1696 and 1782, the Board of Trade, in partnership with the various secretaries of state over that time, held responsibility for colonial affairs, particularly in British America. From 1783 through 1801, the British Empire, including British North America, was administered by the Home Office and by the Home Secretary, then from 1801 to 1854 by the War Office (which became the War and Colonial Office) and Secretary of State for War and Colonies (as the Secretary of State for War was renamed). From 1824, the British Empire was divided by the War and Colonial Office into four administrative departments, including NORTH AMERICA, the WEST INDIES, MEDITERRANEAN AND AFRICA, and EASTERN COLONIES, of which North America included: NORTH AMERICA Upper Canada, Lower Canada New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island Bermuda, Newfoundland The Colonial Office and War Office, and the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Secretary of State for War, were separated in 1854. The War Office, from then until the 1867 confederation of the Dominion of Canada, split the military administration of the British colonial and foreign stations into nine districts: North America And North Atlantic; West Indies; Mediterranean; West Coast Of Africa And South Atlantic; South Africa; Egypt And The Sudan; INDIAN OCEAN; Australia; and China. North America And North Atlantic included the following stations (or garrisons): NORTH AMERICA AND NORTH ATLANTIC New Westminster (British Columbia) Newfoundland Quebec Halifax Kingston, Canada West Bermuda India was administered separately by the East India Company until transferred by the Government of India Act 1858 to the India Office, which was closed in 1947 on Indian independence. As British protectorates were not British territory, they were also administered separately by the Foreign Office. === Surveys of the whole empire === In 1914, the six volume The Oxford Survey Of The British Empire gave comprehensive coverage to geography and society of the entire Empire, including the British Isles. Since the 1950s, historians have tended to concentrate on specific countries or regions. By the 1930s, an Empire so vast was a challenge for historians to grasp in its entirety. The American Lawrence H. Gipson (1880–1971) won the Pulitzer Prize for his monumental coverage in 15 volumes of "The British Empire Before the American Revolution", published 1936–70. At about the same time in London, Sir Keith Hancock wrote a Survey of Commonwealth Affairs (2 vol 1937–42) that dramatically widened the scope of coverage beyond politics to the newer fields of economic and social history. In recent decades numerous scholars have tried their hand at one volume surveys including T. O. Lloyd, The British Empire, 1558–1995 (1996); Denis Judd, Empire: The British Imperial Experience From 1765 To The Present (1998); Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1998); Niall Ferguson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (2002); Brendan Simms, Three victories and a defeat: the rise and fall of the first British Empire (2008); Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997 (2008), and Phillip J. Smith, The Rise And Fall Of The British Empire: Mercantilism, Diplomacy and the Colonies (2015). There were also large-scale popular histories, such as those by Winston Churchill, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples (4 vol. 1956–58) and Arthur Bryant, The History of Britain and the British Peoples (3 vols. 1984–90). Obviously from their titles a number of writers have been inspired by the famous The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (6 vols 1776–1781) by Edward Gibbon. Brendon notes that Gibbon's work, "became the essential guide for Britons anxious to plot their own imperial trajectory. They found the key to understanding the British Empire in the ruins of Rome." W. David McIntyre, The commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 1869–1971 (University of Minnesota Press, 1977) provides comprehensive coverage giving London's perspective on political and constitutional relations with each possession. === Ireland === Ireland, in some ways the first acquisition the British Empire, has generated a very large popular and scholarly literature. Marshall says historians continue to debate whether Ireland should be considered part of the British Empire. Recent work by historians pays special attention to continuing Imperial aspects of Irish history, postcolonial approaches, Atlantic history, and the role of migration in forming the Irish diaspora across the Empire and North America. === Australia === Until the late 20th century, historians of Australia used an Imperial framework, arguing that Australia emerged from a transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. It portrayed the first governors as "Lilliputian sovereigns". The historians have traced the arrival of limited self-government, with regional parliaments and responsible ministers, followed by Federation in 1901 and eventually full national autonomy. This was a Whiggish story of successful growth into a modern nation. That interpretation has been largely abandoned by recent scholars. In his survey of the historiography of Australia, Stuart Macintyre shows how historians have emphasized the negative and tragic features between the boasts. Macintyre points out that in current historical writing: The process of settlement is now regarded as a violent invasion of a rich and subtle indigenous culture, the colonists' material practices as destructive of a fragile environment, their aesthetic response to it blinkered and prejudiced, the cultivation of some British forms timid and unresponsive. The first major history was William Charles Wentworth, Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales, and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen's Land: With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration, and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America (1819). Wentworth shows the disastrous effects of the penal regime. Many other historians followed his path, with the six volume History of Australia by Manning Clark (published 1962–87) telling the story of "epic tragedy": in which the explorers, Governors, improvers, and perturbators vainly endeavored to impose their received schemes of redemption on an alien, intractable setting. ==== History wars ==== Since the 1980s some even describe a "history war" taking place in Australia involving scholars and politicians. Debate often concerns recorded history verses oral testimony - unproven in Courts of Law - regarding the treatment of Aboriginal populations. They debate how "British" or "multicultural" Australia has been historically, and how it should be today. The rhetoric has escalated into national politics, often tied to the question of whether the royalty should be discarded and Australia become a republic. Some schools and universities have reduced the amount of Australian history in their curriculum. ==== Debates on the founding ==== Historians have used the founding of Australia to mark the beginning of the Second British Empire. It was planned by the government in London and designed as a replacement for the lost American colonies. The American Loyalist James Matra in 1783 wrote "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales" proposing the establishment of a colony composed of American Loyalists, Chinese and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts). Matra reasoned that the land country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. At the suggestion of Secretary of State Lord Sydney, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers, considering that this would benefit both "Economy to the Publick, & Humanity to the Individual". The government adopted the basics of Matra's plan in 1784, and funded the settlement of convicts. Michael Roe argues that the founding of Australia supports the theory of Vincent T. Harlow in The Founding of the Second British Empire, 17G3-1793, Vol. 2. New Continents and Changing Values (1964) that a goal of the second British empire was to open up new commerce in the Far East and Pacific. However, London emphasized Australia's purpose as a penal colony, and the East India Company was hostile to potential commercial rivals. Nevertheless, says Roe, the founders of Australia showed a keen interest in whaling, sealing, sheep raising, mining and other opportunities for trade. In the long run, he says, commerce was the main stimulus for colonization. === Canada === Canadian historian Carl Berger argues that an influential section of English Canadians embraced an ideology of imperialism as a way to enhance Canada's own power position in the international system, as well as for more traditional reasons of Anglophillia. Berger identified Canadian imperialism as a distinct ideology, rival to anti-imperial Canadian nationalism or pro-American continentalism, the other nationalisms in Canada. For the French Canadians, the chief debate among historians involves the conquest and the incorporation into the British Empire in 1763. One school says it was a disaster that retarded for a century and more the normal development of a middle class society, leaving Quebec locked into a traditionalism controlled by priests and landlords. The other more optimistic school says it was generally advantageous in political and economic terms. For example, it enabled Quebec to avoid the French Revolution that tore France apart in the 1790s. Another example is that it integrated the economy into the larger and faster growing British economy, as opposed to the sluggish French economy. The optimistic school attributes the backwardness of the Quebec economy to deeply ingrained conservatism and aversion to entrepreneurship. === India === In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography in how historians study India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist" approach, with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship. The "Cambridge School", led by Anil Seal, Gordon Johnson, Richard Gordon, and David A. Washbrook, downplays ideology. However, this school of historiography is criticised for western bias or Eurocentrism. The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical events. This school of historiography has received criticism for Elitism. The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's movement as a device of the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends. Again, the Marxists are accused of being "too much" ideologically influenced. The "subaltern school", was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash. It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below", looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist school. More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history to support their demands for "Hindutva" ("Hinduness") in Indian society. This school of thought is still in the process of development. In March 2012, Diana L. Eck in her India: A Sacred Geography (2013) argues that the idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British or the Mughals and it was not just a cluster of regional identities and it wasn't ethnic or racial. Debate continues about the economic impact of British imperialism on India. The issue was actually raised by conservative British politician Edmund Burke who in the 1780s vehemently attacked the East India Company, claiming that Warren Hastings and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray (1998) continues this line of attack, saying the new economy brought by the British in the 18th century was a form of "plunder" and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of Mughal India. Ray accuses the British of depleting the food and money stocks and imposing high taxes that helped cause the terrible famine of 1770, which killed a third of the people of Bengal. Rejecting the Indian nationalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing power by brute force and impoverishing all of India, British historian P. J. Marshall argues that the British were not in full control but instead were players in what was primarily an Indian play and in which their rise to power depended upon excellent cooperation with Indian elites. Marshall admits that much of his interpretation is still rejected by many historians. Marshall argues that recent scholarship has reinterpreted the view that the prosperity of the formerly benign Mughal rule gave way to poverty and anarchy. Marshall argues the British takeover did not make any sharp break with the past. The British largely delegated control to regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century. Marshall notes the British went into partnership with Indian bankers and raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation. Professor Ray agrees that the East India Company inherited an onerous taxation system that took one-third of the produce of Indian cultivators. In the 20th century historians generally agreed that imperial authority in the Raj had been secure in the 1800-1940 era. Various challenges have emerged. Mark Condos and Jon Wilson argue that the Raj was chronically insecure. They argue that the irrational anxiety of officials led to a chaotic administration with minimal social purchase or ideological coherence. The Raj was not a confident state capable of acting as it chose, but rather a psychologically embattled one incapable of acting except in the abstract, the small scale, or short term. === Tropical Africa === The first historical studies appeared in the 1890s, and followed one of four approaches. The territorial narrative was typically written by a veteran soldier or civil servant who gave heavy emphasis to what he had seen. The "apologia" were essays designed to justify British policies. Thirdly, popularizers tried to reach a large audience, and finally compendia appeared designed to combine academic and official credentials. Professional scholarship appeared around 1900, and began with the study of business operations, typically using government documents and unpublished archives. The economic approach was widely practiced in the 1930s, primarily to provide descriptions of the changes underway in the previous half-century. Reginald Coupland, an Oxford professor, studied the Exploitation of East Africa, 1856–1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble (1939). The American historian William L. Langer wrote The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890–1902 (1935), a book is still widely cited. The Second World War diverted most scholars to wartime projects and accounted for a pause in scholarship during the 1940s. By the 1950s, many African students were studying in British universities, and they produced a demand for new scholarship, and started themselves to supply it as well. Oxford University became the main center for African studies, with activity as well at Cambridge, and the London School of Economics. The perspective from British government policy-makers or from international business operations, slowly gave way to a new interest in the activities of the natives, especially in a nationalistic movements and the growing demand for independence. The major breakthrough came from Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, especially with their studies of the impact of free trade on Africa. === South Africa === The historiography of South Africa has been one of the most contentious areas of the British Empire, involving a three-way division of sharply differing interpretations among the British, the Boers, and the black African historians. The first British historians emphasized the benefits of British civilization. Afrikaner historiography began in the 1870s with early laudatory accounts of the trekkers and undisguised anger at the British. After many years of conflict and warfare, the British took control of South Africa and historians began conciliatory effort to bring the two sides together in a shared history. An influential large-scale effort was made by George McCall Theal (1837-1919), who wrote many books as school teacher and as the official historian, such as History and Ethnography of Africa South of the Zambesi (11 vol, 1897–1919). In the 1920s, historians using missionary sources started presenting the Coloured and African viewpoints, as in W. M. Macmillan, Bantu, Boer and Briton: The Making of the South African Native Problem (London, 1929). Modern research standards were introduced by Eric A. Walker (1886–1976), who moved from a professorship at the University of Cape Town to become the Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History at the University of Cambridge, where he trained a generation of graduate students. Afrikaner historiography increasingly defended apartheid. ==== Liberation historiography ==== The dominant approach in recent decades is to emphasize the roots of the liberation movement. Baines argues that the "Soweto uprising" of 1976 inspired a new generation of social historians to start looking for evidence that would allow the writing of history "from below"; often they adopted a Marxist perspective. By the 1990s, historians were exploring comparative race relations in South Africa and the United States from the late 19th century to the late 20th century. James Campbell argues that black American Methodist missionaries to South Africa adopted the same standards of promoting civilization as did the British. == Nationalism and opposition to the Empire == Opposition to imperialism and demands for self-rule emerged across the empire; in all but one case the British authorities suppressed revolts. However, in the 1770s, under the leadership of Benjamin Franklin, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, it came to an armed revolt in the 13 American colonies, the American Revolutionary War. With military and financial help from France and others, the 13 became the first British colonies to secure their independence in the name of American nationalism. There is a large literature on the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which saw a very large scale revolt in India, involving the mutiny of many native troops. It was suppressed by the British Army after much bloodshed. The Indians organised under Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru and finally achieved independence in 1947. They wanted one India but the Muslims were organized by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and created their own nation, Pakistan, in a process that still is heatedly debated by scholars. Independence came in the midst of religious communal violence, chiefly between Hindus and Muslims in border areas. Millions died and millions more were displaced as the conflicting memories and grievances still shape subcontinent tensions, as Jisha Menon argues. Historians of the empire have recently paid close attention to 20th-century native voices in many colonies who demanded independence. The African colonies became independent mostly in a peaceful fashion. Kenya saw severe violence on both sides. Typically the leaders of independence had studied in England in the 1920s and 1930s. For example, the radical nationalist Kwame Nkrumah in 1957 led Ghana to become Britain's second African colony to gain independence (Sudan being the first being granted its independence a year earlier in 1956) and others quickly followed. == Ideas of anti-imperialism == At an intellectual level, anti-imperialism appealed strongly to Marxists and liberals across the world. Both groups were strongly influenced by British writer John A. Hobson in his Imperialism: A Study (1902). Historians Peter Duignan and Lewis H. Gann argue that Hobson had an enormous influence in the early 20th century that caused widespread distrust of imperialism: Hobson's ideas were not entirely original; however his hatred of moneyed men and monopolies, his loathing of secret compacts and public bluster, fused all existing indictments of imperialism into one coherent system....His ideas influenced German nationalist opponents of the British Empire as well as French Anglophobes and Marxists; they colored the thoughts of American liberals and isolationist critics of colonialism. In days to come they were to contribute to American distrust of Western Europe and of the British Empire. Hobson helped make the British averse to the exercise of colonial rule; he provided indigenous nationalists in Asia and Africa with the ammunition to resist rule from Europe. == World War II == British historians of the Second World War have not emphasized the critical role played by the Empire in terms of money, manpower and imports of food and raw materials. The powerful combination meant that Britain did not stand alone against Germany, it stood at the head of a great but fading empire. As Ashley Jackson has argued," The story of the British Empire's war, therefore, is one of Imperial success in contributing toward Allied victory on the one hand, and egregious Imperial failure on the other, as Britain struggled to protect people and defeat them, and failed to win the loyalty of colonial subjects." The contribution in terms of soldiers numbered 2.5 million men from India, over 1 million from Canada, just under 1 million from Australia, 410,000 from South Africa, and 215,000 from New Zealand. In addition, the colonies mobilized over 500,000 uniformed personnel who serve primarily inside Africa. In terms of financing, the British war budget included £2.7 billion borrowed from the Empire's Sterling Area, And eventually paid back. Canada made C$3 billion in gifts and loans on easy terms. In terms of actual engagement with the enemy, there was a great deal in South Asia and Southeast Asia, as recalled by Ashley Jackson: Terror, mass migration, shortages, inflation, blackouts, air raids, massacres, famine, forced labour, urbanization, environmental damage, occupation [by the enemy], resistance, Collaboration – all of these dramatic and often horrific phenomena shaped the war experience of Britain's imperial subjects. == Decline and decolonization == Historians continue to debate when the Empire reached its peak. At one end, the insecurities of the 1880s and 1890s are mentioned, especially the industrial rise of the United States and Germany. The Second Boer War in South Africa, 1899-1902 angered an influential element of Liberal thought in England, and deprived imperialism of much moral support. Most historians agree that by 1918, at the end of the First World War, permanent long-term decline was inevitable. The dominions largely had freed themselves and began their own foreign and military policies. Worldwide investments had been cashed in to pay for the war, and the British economy was in the doldrums after 1918. A new spirit of nationalism appeared in many of the colonies, most dramatically in India. Most historians agree that following the Second World War, Britain lost its superpower status, and it was financially near bankruptcy. With the Suez fiasco of 1956, the profound weaknesses were apparent to all and rapid decolonization was inevitable. The chronology and main features of decolonization of the British Empire have been studied at length. By far the greatest attention has been given to the situation in India in 1947, with far less attention to other colonies in Asia and Africa. Of course most of the scholarly attention focuses on newly independent nations no longer ruled by Britain. From the Imperial perspective, historians are divided on two issues: with respect to India, could London have handled decolonization better in 1947, or was what happened largely fixed in the previous century? Historians also disagree regarding a degree of involvement in the domestic British society and economy. Did Britons much care about decolonization, and did it make much difference to them? Bailkin points out that one view is that the domestic dimension was of minor importance, and most Britons paid little attention. She says that political historians often reach this conclusion. John Darwin has studied the political debates. On the other hand, most social historians argue the contrary. They say the values and beliefs inside Britain about the overseas empire helped shape policy; the decolonization process proved psychologically wrenching to many people living in Britain, particularly migrants, and those with family experience with overseas civil service, business, or missionary activity. Bailkin says that decolonization was often taken personally, and had a major policy impact in terms of the policies of the British welfare state. She shows how some West Indian migrants were repatriated; idealists volunteered to help the new nations; a wave of overseas students came to British universities; and polygamous relationships were invalidated. Meanwhile, she says, the new welfare state was in part shaped by British colonial practices, especially regarding mental health and child care. Social historian Bill Schwarz says that as decolonization moved forward in the 1950s there was an upsurge in racial whiteness and racial segregation – the colour bar – became more pronounced. Thomas Colley finds that informed Britons in the 21st century are in agreement that Britain has very often been at war over the centuries. They also agree that the nation has steadily lost its military prowess due to declines in its economy and disappearance of its empire. == The new imperial history == The focus of attention of historians has shifted over time. Phillip Buckner reports that on a bygone era of graduate education in Britain when the Empire was studied in a tradition that had been established in the late 19th century. By the 1960s the Empire was no longer seen as an unmitigated blessing for its subjects overseas and the emphasis of the newer studies was an attempt to reassess British policy-making from a more critical perspective. Nonetheless, mainstream imperial history still focused on policy-making at the imperial centre with considerable emphasis on relations between Britain and its colonies of settlement overseas and the emergence of modern Commonwealth. Ronald Hyam argues that the historiography of the British Empire reached a state of severe crisis: The early 1980s marked the end of an era ... as imperial and Commonwealth history itself everywhere became fragmented, unfashionable, and increasingly embattled. The old conceptual unities as they had been worked out in the previous half-century now collapsed, particularly under the pressure of the inexorable advance of area studies." Hyam goes on to state that by the 21st century new themes had emerged including "post—colonial theory, globalisation, sex and gender issues, the cultural imperative, and the linguistic turn." === The native leadership === The studies of policy-making in London and the settlement colonies like Canada and Australia are now rare. Newer concerns deal with the natives, and give much more attention to native leaders such as Gandhi. They address topics such as migration, gender, race, sexuality, environmentalism, visualization, and sports. Thus there are entire chapters on economics, religion, colonial knowledge, agency, culture, and identity in the historiographical overview edited by Sarah E. Stockwell, The British Empire: Themes and Perspectives (2008). The new approaches to imperial history are often grouped together under the heading of the "new imperial history". These approaches have been distinguished by two features. Firstly, they have suggested that the British empire was a cultural project as well as a set of political and economic relationships. As a result, these historians have stressed the ways in which empire building shaped the cultures of both colonized peoples and Britons themselves. === Race and gender === In particular they have shown the ways in which British imperialism rested upon ideas about cultural difference and in turn how British colonialism reshaped understandings of race and gender in both the colonies and at home in Britain. Mrinalini Sinha's Colonial Masculinity (1995) showed how supposed British manliness and ideas about the effeminacy of some Indians influenced colonial policy and Indian nationalist thought. Antoinette Burton has been a key figure and her Burdens of History (1995) showed how white British feminists in the Victorian period appropriated imperialist rhetoric to claim a role for themselves in 'saving' native women and thereby strengthened their own claims to equality in Britain. Historians like Sinha, Burton, and Catherine Hall have used this approach to argue that British culture at 'home' was profoundly shaped by the empire during the 19th century. === Linkages binding the Empire together === The second feature that defines the new imperial history is its examination of the links and flows that connected different parts of the empire together. At first scholars looked at the empire's impact on domestic Britain, particularly in terms of everyday experiences. More recently, attention has been paid to the material, emotional, and financial links among the different regions. Both Burton and Sinha stress the ways in which the politics of gender and race linked Britain and India. Sinha suggested that these linkages were part of an "imperial social formation", an uneven but integrative set of arguments, ideas and institutions that connected Britain to its colonies. More recent work by scholars such as Alan Lester and Tony Ballantyne have stressed the importance of the networks that made up the empire. Lester's Imperial Networks (2001) reconstructed some of the debates and policies that linked Britain and South Africa during the 19th century. Ballantyne's Orientalism and Race developed an influential new model for writing about colonialism in highlighting the "webs of empire" that he suggested made up the empire. These webs were made up of the flows of ideas, books, arguments, money, and people that not only moved between London and Britain's colonies, but also moved directly from colony to colony, from places like India to New Zealand. Many historians now focus on these "networks" and "webs" and Alison Games has used this as a model for studying the pattern of early English imperialism as well. === The Oxford History of the British Empire === The major multi-volume multi-author coverage of the history of the British Empire is the Oxford History of the British Empire (1998–2001), five-volume set, plus a companion series. Douglas Peers says the series demonstrates that, "As a field of historical inquiry, imperial history is clearly experiencing a renaissance." Max Beloff, reviewing the first two volumes in History Today, praised them for their readability and was pleased that his worry that they would be too anti-imperialist had not been realised. Saul Dubow in H-Net noted the uneven quality of the chapters in volume III and also the difficulty of such an endeavour give the state of historiography of the British Empire and the impossibility of maintaining a triumphalist tone in the modern era. Dubow also felt that some of the authors had tended "to 'play safe', awed perhaps by the monumental nature of the enterprise". Madhavi Kale of Bryn Mawr College, writing in Social History, also felt that the history took a traditional approach to the historiography of the empire and placed the English, and to a lesser extent the Scottish, Irish and Welsh at the centre of the account, rather than the subject peoples of the empire. Kale summed up her review of volumes III-V of the history by saying it represented "a disturbingly revisionist project that seeks to neutralize ... the massive political and military brutality and repression" of the empire. === Postmodern and postcolonial approaches === A major unexpected development came after 1980 with a flood of fresh and innovative books and articles from scholars trained in non-British perspectives. Many had studied Africa, South Asia, the Caribbean, and the dominions. The new perspective strengthened the field rather than destroying it. Further imaginative approaches, which occasioned sharp debates, came from literary scholars especially Edward Said and Homi K. Bhabha, as well as anthropologists, feminists, and other newcomers. Longtime experts suddenly confronted the strange new scholarship with theoretical perspectives such as post-structuralism and post-modernism. The colonial empire was becoming "postcolonial." Instead of painting the globe red any more, the Empire's history became part of a new global history. New maps were drawn emphasizing the oceans more than the land masses, yielding new perspectives such as Atlantic history. The old consensus among historians held that in India British imperial authority was quite secure from 1858 to World War II. Recently, however, this interpretation has been challenged. For example Mark Condos and Jon Wilson argue that imperial authority in the Raj was chronically insecure. Indeed the anxiety of generations of officials produced a chaotic administration with minimal coherence. Instead of a confident state capable of acting as it chose, these historians find a psychologically embattled one incapable of acting except in the abstract, small scale, or short term. Meanwhile Durba Ghosh offers an alternative approach. == Impact on Britain and British memory == Turning away from most political, economic, and diplomatic themes historians recently have looked at the intellectual and cultural impact of the Empire on Britain itself. Ideologically, Britons promoted the Empire with appeals to the ideals of political and legal liberty. Historians have always commented on the paradox of the dichotomy of freedom and coercion inside the Empire, of modernity and tradition. Sir John Seeley, for example, pondered in 1883: How can the same nation pursue two lines of policy so radically different without bewilderment, be despotic in Asia and democratic in Australia, be in the East at once the greatest Mussulman Power in the World ... and at the same time in the West be the foremost champion of free thought and spiritual religion. Historian Douglas Peers emphasizes that an idealized knowledge of the Empire permeated popular and elite thought in Britain during the 19th century: No history of nineteenth-century Britain can be complete without acknowledging the impact that the empire had in fashioning political culture, informing strategic and diplomatic priorities, shaping social institutions and cultural practices, and determining, at least in part, the rate and direction of economic development. Moreover, British identity was bound up with the empire. Politicians at the time and historians ever since have explored whether the Empire was too expensive for the British budget. Joseph Chamberlain thought so but he had little success at the Imperial Conference of 1902 asking overseas partners to increase their contribution. Canada and Australia spoke of funding a warship—the Canadian Senate voted it down in 1913. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy adjusted its war plans to focus on Germany, economizing on defending against lesser threats in peripheral areas such as the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Public opinion supported military spending out of pride, but the left in Britain leaned toward pacifism and deplored the waste of money. In the Porter–MacKenzie debate the historiographical issue was the impact of the Imperial experience on British society and thinking. Porter argued in 2004 that most Britons were largely indifferent to empire. Imperialism was handled by elites. In the highly heterogeneous British society, "imperialism did not have to have impact greatly on British society and culture." John M. MacKenzie countered that there is a great deal of scattered evidence to show an important impact. His position was supported by Catherine Hall, Antoinette Burton and Jeffrey Richards. In a survey of the British population by YouGov in 2014, respondents "think the British Empire is more something to be proud of (59%) rather than ashamed of (19%).... A third of British people (34%) also say they would like it if Britain still had an empire. Under half (45%) say they would not like the Empire to exist today." == See also == British Empire Economic Conference (1932) Cambridge School of historiography led by John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting Historiography of the United Kingdom Historiography of the causes of World War I Imperial Conference, Covers the meetings of prime ministers in 1887, 1894, 1897, 1902, 1907, 1911, 1921, 1923, 1926, 1930, 1932, in 1937 1887 Colonial Conference Imperial War Cabinet International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) New Imperialism, re 1880–1910 Pageant of Empire Porter–MacKenzie debate what role did colonialism play in shaping British culture The Cambridge History of the British Empire The Oxford History of the British Empire Timeline of imperialism Western imperialism in Asia == Notes == == References == == External links == "Making History", Coverage of leading British historians and institutions from the Institute of Historical Research == Further reading == === Basic bibliography === Bayly, C. A. ed. Atlas of the British Empire (1989). survey by scholars; heavily illustrated Brendon, Piers. "A Moral Audit of the British Empire", History Today (October 2007), Vol. 57, Issue 10, pp. 44–47, online at EBSCO Brendon, Piers. The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781-1997 (2008), wide-ranging survey Bryant, Arthur. The History of Britain and the British Peoples, 3 vols (1984–90), popular. Dalziel, Nigel. The Penguin Historical Atlas of the British Empire (2006), 144 pp. Darwin, John. The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970 (2009) excerpt and text search Darwin, John. Unfinished Empire: The Global Expansion of Britain (2013) Ferguson, Niall. Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (2002); Also published as Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (2002). Howe, Stephen ed., The New Imperial Histories Reader (2009) online review Jackson, Ashley. The British Empire: A Very Short Introduction (2013) excerpt. James, Lawrence. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1998). A one-volume history of the Empire, from the American colonies to the Handover of Hong Kong; also online Knaplund, Paul. The British empire, 1815–1939 (1941), very wide-ranging; online Marshall, P. J. (ed.), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire (1996). online Olson, James S., and Robert S. Shadle; Historical Dictionary of the British Empire (1996) Panton, Kenneth J., ed. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire (2015) 766 pp. Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire (2008), 800 pp. excerpt and text search === Overviews === Belich, James. Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Angloworld, 1780-1930 (Oxford University Press, 2009), 448 pp.; focus on British settlement colonies of Canada, Australia and New Zealand, emphasizing the heavy British investments involved Black, Jeremy. The British Seaborne Empire (2004) Cain, P. J., and A. G. Hopkins. British Imperialism, 1688-2000 (2nd edn 2001) 739 pp.; detailed economic history that presents the new "gentlemanly capitalists" thesis; Colley, Linda. Captives: Britain, Empire, and the World, 1600–1850 (2004), 464 pp. Hyam, Ronald. Britain's Imperial Century, 1815-1914: A Study of Empire and Expansion (1993). Judd, Denis. Empire: The British Imperial Experience, From 1765 to the Present (1996). Levine, Philippa. The British Empire: sunrise to sunset (3rd ed. Routledge, 2020) excerpt Lloyd, T. O. The British Empire, 1558-1995 Oxford University Press, 1996 Muir, Ramsay. A short history of the British commonwealth (2 vol 1920-22; 8th ed. 1954). online Parsons, Timothy H. The British imperial century, 1815–1914: A world history perspective (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019). Royal Institute of International Affairs. The Colonial Problem (1937); broad-based review of current status of European colonies, especially British Empire. online. Robinson, Howard . The Development of the British Empire (1922), 465 pp. edition. Rose, J. Holland, A. P. Newton and E. A. Benians (general editor), The Cambridge History of the British Empire, 9 vols (1929–61); vol 1: "The Old Empire from the Beginnings to 1783" 934pp online edition Volume I Volume II: The Growth of the New Empire 1783-1870 (1968) online Smith, Simon C. British Imperialism 1750-1970 (1998). brief Stockwell, Sarah, ed. The British Empire: Themes and Perspectives (2008), 355 pp. Ward, Stuart. Untied Kingdom: A Global History of the End of Britain (Cambridge University Press, 2023). https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316536322 See scholarly roundtable on this book online from H-DIPLO === Oxford History === Louis, William. Roger (general editor), The Oxford History of the British Empire, 5 vols (1998–99). Vol. 1 "The Origins of Empire" ed. Nicholas Canny online Vol. 2 "The Eighteenth Century" ed. P. J. Marshall online Vol. 3 The Nineteenth Century ed. Andrew Porter (1998). 780 pp. online edition Vol. 4 The Twentieth Century ed. Judith M. Brown (1998). 773 pp. online edition Vol. 5 "Historiography", ed. Robin W. Winks (1999) online ==== Oxford History Companion series ==== Beinart, William, and Lotte Hughes, eds. Environment and Empire (2007) Bickers, Robert, ed. Settlers and Expatriates: Britons over the Seas (2014) Buckner, Phillip, ed. Canada and the British Empire (2010) Etherington, Norman. Missions and Empire (2008) on Protestant missions Harper, Marjory, and Stephen Constantine, eds. Migration and Empire (2010) Kenny, Kevin, ed. Ireland and the British Empire(2006) excerpt and text search Peers, Douglas M. and Nandini Gooptu, eds. India and the British Empire (2012) Schreuder, Deryck and Stuart Ward, eds. Australia's Empire (2010) doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199563739.001.0001 Thompson, Andrew, ed. Britain's Experience of Empire in the Twentieth Century (2012) === Atlases, geography, environment === Bartholomew, John. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world (1868 edition) online 1868 edition; (1877 edition) online 1877 edition, the maps are poorly reproduced Beattie, James (2012). "Recent Themes in the Environmental History of the British Empire". History Compass. 10 (2): 129–139. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2011.00824.x. Dalziel, Nigel. The Penguin Historical Atlas of the British Empire (2006), 144 pp Faunthorpe, John Pincher. Geography of the British colonies and foreign possessions (1874) online edition Lucas, Charles Prestwood. A Historical Geography of the British Colonies: part 2: West Indies (1890) online edition Lucas, Charles Prestwood. A Historical Geography of the British Colonies: part 4: South and East Africa (1900) online edition MacKenzie, John M. The British Empire through buildings: Structure, function and meaning (Manchester UP, 2020) excerpt. Porter, A. N. Atlas of British Overseas Expansion (1994) The Year-book of the Imperial Institute of the United Kingdom, the colonies and India: a statistical record of the resources and trade of the colonial and Indian possessions of the British Empire (2nd. ed. 1893) 880pp; online edition === Political, economic and intellectual studies === Andrews, Kenneth R. Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630 (1984). Armitage, David. The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (2000). Armitage, David (1999). "Greater Britain: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis?" (PDF). American Historical Review. 104 (2): 427–45. doi:10.2307/2650373. JSTOR 2650373. Armitage, David, ed. Theories of Empire, 1450–1800 (1998). Armitage, David, and M. J. Braddick, eds. The British Atlantic World, 1500–1800, (2002) Barker, Sir Ernest, The Ideas and Ideals of the British Empire (1941). Baumgart, W. Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion, 1880-1914 (1982) Bayly, C. A. Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780-1831 (1989). Stern, Philip J. "Early Eighteenth-Century British India: Antimeridian or antemeridiem?." Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 21.2 (2020) pp 1–26, focus on Bayly. Bell, Duncan The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860-1900 (2007) Bell, Duncan (ed.) Victorian Visions of Global Order: Empire and International Relations in Nineteenth Century Political Thought (2007) Bennett, George (ed.), The Concept of Empire: Burke to Attlee, 1774–1947 (1953). Blaut, J. M. The Colonizers' Model of the World 1993 Bowen, H. V. Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756-1833 (2006), 304pp Cain; Hopkins, A. G. (1986). "Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Expansion Overseas I. The Old Colonial System, 1688-1850". Economic History Review. 39 (4): 501–525. doi:10.2307/2596481. JSTOR 2596481. Cain; Hopkins, A. G. (1987). "Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Expansion Overseas II: New Imperialism, 1850-1945". The Economic History Review. 40 (1): 1–26. doi:10.2307/2596293. JSTOR 2596293. Cain; Hopkins, A. G. (1980). "The Political Economy of British Expansion Overseas, 1750-1914". The Economic History Review. 33 (4): 463–490. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1980.tb01171.x. JSTOR 2594798. Collingham, Lizzie. The Taste of Empire: How Britain's Quest for Food Shaped the Modern World (2017). Crooks, Peter, and Timothy H. Parsons, eds. Empires and bureaucracy in world history: from late antiquity to the twentieth century (Cambridge UP, 2016) chapters 1, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17. Darby, Philip. The Three Faces of Imperialism: British and American Approaches to Asia and Africa, 1870-1970 (1987) Doyle, Michael W. Empires (1986). Dumett, Raymond E. Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Imperialism: The New Debate on Empire. (1999). 234 pp. Gallagher, John, and Ronald Robinson. "The Imperialism of Free Trade" The Economic History Review, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1953), pp. 1–15 in JSTOR, online free at Mt. Holyoke highly influential interpretation in its day Gilbert, Helen, and Chris Tiffin, eds. Burden or Benefit?: Imperial Benevolence and Its Legacies (2008) Harlow, V. T. The Founding of the Second British Empire, 1763–1793, 2 vols. (1952–64). Heinlein, Frank. British Government Policy and Decolonisation, 1945-1963: Scrutinising the Official Mind (2002). Herbertson, A. J. The Oxford Survey of the British Empire, (1914) Ingram, Edward. The British Empire as a World Power: Ten Studies (2001) Jackson, Ashley. British Empire and the Second World War (2006) Johnson, Robert. British Imperialism (2003). historiography Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1921). War government of the British dominions. Clarendon Press., First World War Kennedy, Paul, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (1976). Koehn, Nancy F. The Power of Commerce: Economy and Governance in the First British Empire (1994) Knorr, Klaus E., British Colonial Theories 1570–1850 (1944). Louis, William Roger. Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire, 1941-1945 (1978) McIntyre, W. David. The commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 1869–1971 (U of Minnesota Press, 1977); Comprehensive coverage giving London's perspective on political and constitutional relations with each possession.link Marshall, Peter James (2005). The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America C.1750-1783. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927895-4. Mehta, Uday Singh, Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought (1999). Pares, Richard. “The Economic Factors in the History of the Empire.” Economic History Review 7#2 (1937), pp. 119–144. online Porter, Bernard. The Lion's Share: A History of British Imperialism 1850-2011 (4th ed. 2012), Wide-ranging general history; strong on anti-imperialism. online Thornton, A.P. The Imperial Idea and its Enemies (2nd ed. 1985) Tinker, Hugh. A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas, 1830-1920 (1974). Webster, Anthony. Gentlemen Capitalists: British Imperialism in South East Asia, 1770-1890 (1998) === Diplomacy and military policy === Bannister, Jerry, and Liam Riordan, eds. The Loyal Atlantic: Remaking the British Atlantic in the Revolutionary Era (U of Toronto Press, 2012). Bartlett, C. J. British Foreign Policy in the Twentieth Century (1989) Bemis, Samuel Flagg (1935). The Diplomacy of the American Revolution. American Historical Association., a standard history Black, Jeremy. America or Europe? British Foreign Policy, 1739-63 (1998) Black, Jeremy, ed. Knights Errant and True Englishmen: British Foreign Policy, 1660-1800 (2003) essays by scholars Black, Jeremy. George III: America's last king (Yale UP, 2006). Chandler, David, and Ian Beckett, eds. The Oxford History of the British Army (2003). excerpt Colley, Thomas. Always at War: British Public Narratives of War (U of Michigan Press, 2019) online review Cotterell, Arthur. Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415 - 1999 (2009) popular history; excerpt Dilks, David. Retreat from Power: 1906-39 v. 1: Studies in Britain's Foreign Policy of the Twentieth Century (1981); Retreat from Power: After 1939 v. 2 (1981) Haswell, Jock, and John Lewis-Stempel. A Brief History of the British Army (2017). Jackson, Ashley. The British Empire and the Second World War (2007) 624pp; Comprehensive coverage. Jackson, Ashley. "New Research on the British Empire and the Second World War: Part II." Global War Studies 7.2 (2010): 157-184; historiography Jones, J. R. Britain and the World, 1649-1815 (1980) Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902 (2nd ed. 1950) Mulligan, William, and Brendan Simms, eds. The Primacy of Foreign Policy in British History, 1660-2000 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 345 pages Nester, William R. Titan: The Art of British Power in the Age of Revolution and Napoleon (2016) excerpt O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson. The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (2014). Strang, Lord William. Britain in World Affairs: A survey of the Fluctuations in British Power and Influence from Henry VIII to Elizabeth II (1961). Online Popular history by a diplomat. Vickers, Rhiannon. The Evolution of Labour's Foreign Policy, 1900-51 (2003) focus on decolonization Webster, Charles. The Foreign Policy of Palmerston (1951) Wiener, Joel H. ed. Great Britain: Foreign Policy and the Span of Empire, 1689-1971: A Documentary History (1972) 876pp [ primary sources Wyman-McCarthy, Matthew (2018). "British abolitionism and global empire in the late 18th century: A historiographic overview". History Compass. 16 (10): e12480. doi:10.1111/hic3.12480. S2CID 149779622. === Slavery and race === Auerbach, Sascha. Race, Law, and "The Chinese Puzzle" in Imperial Britain (2009). Ballantyne, Tony. Orientalism and Race: Aryanism in the British Empire (2002) Drescher, Seymour. Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (2009) excerpt and text search Dumas, Paula E. Proslavery Britain: Fighting for slavery in an era of abolition (Springer, 2016). Eltis, David, and Stanley L. Engerman. "The importance of slavery and the slave trade to industrializing Britain." Journal of Economic History 60.1 (2000): 123-144. online Green, William A. British slave emancipation, the sugar colonies and the great experiment, 1830-1865 (Oxford, 1981) Guasco, Michael (2014). Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic. University of Pennsylvania Press. Grant, Kevin. A Civilised Savagery: Britain and the New Slaveries in Africa, 1884-1926 (2005). Killingray, David, and Martin Plaut. "Race and Imperialism in the British Empire: A Lateral View." South African Historical Journal (2020): 1-28. doi:10.1080/02582473.2020.1724191 Lake, Marilyn and Reynolds, David. Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men's Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (2008). Look Lai, Walton. Indentured Labor, Caribbean Sugar: Chinese and Indian Migrants to the British West Indies, 1838-1918 1993. Morgan, Philip D. and Sean Hawkins, eds. Black Experience and the Empire(2006), Oxford History Companion series Quinault, Roland. "Gladstone and slavery." The Historical Journal 52.2 (2009): 363-383. doi:10.1017/S0018246X0900750X Robinson, Ronald, John Gallagher, Alice Denny. Africa and the Victorians: The Climax of Imperialism in the Dark Continent (1961) Taylor, Michael. "The British West India interest and its allies, 1823–1833." English Historical Review 133.565 (2018): 1478-1511. doi:10.1093/ehr/cey336, focus on slavery Walker, Eric A., ed. The Cambridge history of the British Empire Volume VIII: South Africa, Rhodesia and the High Commission Territories (1963) online === Social and cultural studies; gender === August, Thomas G. The Selling of the Empire: British and French Imperialist Propaganda, 1890-1940 (1985) Bailyn, Bernard, and Philip D. Morgan (eds.), Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire (1991) Brantlinger, Patrick. Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (1988). Broich, John. "Engineering the Empire: British Water Supply Systems and Colonial Societies, 1850-1900." Journal of British Studies 2007 46(2): 346-365. ISSN 0021-9371 Fulltext: at Ebsco Burton, Antoinette, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865-1915 (U of North Carolina Press, 1994). Chaudhuri, Nupur. "Imperialism and Gender." in Encyclopedia of European Social History, edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 1, 2001), pp. 515-521. online Clayton, Martin. and Bennett Zon. Music and Orientalism in the British Empire, 1780s-1940s (2007) excerpt and text search Constantine, Stephen (2003). "British Emigration to the Empire-commonwealth since 1880: from Overseas Settlement to Diaspora?". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 31 (2): 16–35. doi:10.1080/03086530310001705586. S2CID 162001571. Finn, Margot (2006). "Colonial gifts: Family politics and the exchange of goods in British India, c. 1780-1820" (PDF). Modern Asian Studies. 40 (1): 203–231. doi:10.1017/s0026749x06001739. S2CID 154303105. Hall, Catherine, and Sonya O. Rose. At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (2007) Hall, Catherine. Civilising Subjects: Colony and Metropole in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (2002) Hardwick, Joseph. Prayer, Providence and Empire: Special Worship in the British World, 1783–1919 (Manchester UP, 2021) Hodgkins, Christopher. Reforming Empire: Protestant Colonialism and Conscience in British Literature (U of Missouri Press, 2002) Hyam, Ronald. Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience (1990). Karatani, Rieko. 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Intercultural Voices in Contemporary British Literature: The Implosion of Empire (2001) Sinha, Mrinalini, "Colonial Masculinity: The 'Manly Englishman' and the 'Effeminate Bengali' in the Late Nineteenth Century" (1995) Smith, Michelle J., Clare Bradford, et al. From Colonial to Modern: Transnational Girlhood in Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand Literature, 1840-1940 (2018) excerpt Spurr, David. The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing and Imperial Administration (1993). Trollope, Joanna. Britannia's Daughters: Women of the British Empire (1983). Whitehead, Clive. "The historiography of British imperial education policy, Part I: India." History of Education 34#3 (2005): 315-329. Whitehead, Clive. "The historiography of British Imperial education policy, Part II: Africa and the rest of the colonial empire." History of Education 34#4 (2005): 441-454. Wilson, Kathleen. The Island Race: Englishness, Empire, and Gender in the Eighteenth Century (2003). Wilson, Kathleen, ed. A New Imperial History: Culture Identity, and Modernity in Britain and the Empire, 1660–1840 (2004) Wilson, Kathleen (2011). "Rethinking the Colonial State: Family, Gender, and Governmentality in Eighteenth-Century British Frontiers". American Historical Review. 116 (5): 1294–1322. doi:10.1086/ahr.116.5.1294. Xypolia, Ilia. British Imperialism and Turkish Nationalism in Cyprus, 1923-1939:Divide, Define and Rule. Routledge, 2017 === Regional studies === Bailyn, Bernard. Strangers Within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire (1991) excerpt and text search Bruckner, Phillip. Canada and the British Empire (The Oxford History of the British Empire) (2010) excerpt and text search doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199563746.001.0001 online Elliott, J.H., Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (2006), a major interpretation excerpt and text search Gerits, Frank. The Ideological Scramble for Africa: How the Pursuit of Anticolonial Modernity Shaped a Postcolonial Order (1945–1966) (Cornell University Press, 2023). ISBN 978-1-5017-6791-3. Major scholarly coverage of British, French and Portuguese colonies. see online reviews and reply by author Kenny, Kevin, ed. Ireland and the British Empire (2004). Landsman, Ned. Crossroads of Empire: The Middle Colonies in British North America (2010) excerpt and text search Lees, Lynn Hollen. Planting Empire, Cultivating Subjects: British Malaya, 1786-1941 (2017). Lester, Alan. Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth-Century South Africa and Britain (2001). Louis, William Roger. The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945-1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism (1984) Marshall, Peter, and Glyn Williams, eds. The British Atlantic Empire before the American Revolution (1980) Taylor, Alan. The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies (2010), on War of 1812 Veevers, David. The Origins of the British Empire in Asia, 1600–1750 (2020) excerpt. === Historiography and memory === Adams, James Truslow (1927). "On the Term 'British Empire'". American Historical Review. 22 (3): 485–459. doi:10.2307/1837801. JSTOR 1837801. Armitage, David (1999). "Greater Britain: A Useful Category of Analysis?" (PDF). American Historical Review. 104 (2): 427–445. doi:10.2307/2650373. JSTOR 2650373. Bailkin, Jordanna (2015). "Where Did the Empire Go? Archives and Decolonization in Britain". American Historical Review. 120 (3): 884–899. doi:10.1093/ahr/120.3.884. Ballantyne, Tony (2010). "The Changing Shape of the Modern British Empire and its Historiography". Historical Journal. 53 (2): 429–452. doi:10.1017/s0018246x10000117. S2CID 162458960. Barone, Charles A. Marxist Thought on Imperialism: Survey and Critique (1985) Bowen, Huw V (1998). "British Conceptions of Global Empire, 1756–83". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 26 (3): 1–27. doi:10.1080/03086539808583038. Black, Jeremy. Imperial Legacies: The British Empire Around the World (Encounter Books, 2019) excerpt. Buckner, Phillip. "Presidential Address: Whatever happened to the British Empire?" Journal of the Canadian Historical Association (1993) 4#1 pp. 3–32. online Burnard, Trevor (2007). "Empire Matters? The Historiography of Imperialism in Early America, 1492–1830". History of European Ideas. 33 (1): 87–107. doi:10.1016/j.histeuroideas.2006.08.011. S2CID 143511493. Burton, Antoinette and Isabel Hofmeyr, eds. Ten Books That Shaped the British Empire: Creating an Imperial Commons (2014) excerpt Cannadine, David, "'Big Tent' Historiography: Transatlantic Obstacles and Opportunities in Writing the History of Empire", Common Knowledge (2005) 11#3 pp. 375–392 at Project MUSE Cannadine, David. Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (2002) Cannadine, David. "The Empire Strikes Back", Past & Present No. 147 (May, 1995), pp. 180–194 [1] Cannadine, David. Victorious Century: The United Kingdom, 1800-1906 (2018) Colley, Linda. "What Is Imperial History Now?" in David Cannadine, ed. What Is History Now? (2002), 132–147. Drayton, Richard. "Where does the world historian write from? Objectivity, moral conscience and the past and present of imperialism". Journal of Contemporary History 2011; 46#3 pp. 671–685. online Dumett, Raymond E. ed. Gentlemanly Capitalism and British Imperialism: The New Debate on Empire (1999) online Elton, G. R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online Fieldhouse, David (1984). "Can Humpty-Dumpty be put together again? Imperial history in the 1980s". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 12 (2): 9–23. doi:10.1080/03086538408582657. Fieldhouse, David K. "'Imperialism': An Historiographical Revision". Economic History Review 14#2 (1961): 187–209. [2] Ghosh, Durba. "Another set of imperial turns?". American Historical Review 2012; 117#3 pp: 772–793. online Archived 2014-09-05 at the Wayback Machine Griffin, Patrick. "In Retrospect: Lawrence Henry Gipson's The British Empire before the American Revolution" Reviews in American History, 31#2 (2003), pp. 171–183 in JSTOR Hyam, Ronald (2001). "The study of imperial and commonwealth history at Cambridge, 1881–1981: Founding fathers and pioneer research students". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 29 (3): 75–103. doi:10.1080/03086530108583128. S2CID 161602517. Hyam, Ronald. Understanding the British Empire (2010), 576pp; essays by Hyam. Johnson David, and Prem Poddar, eds. A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Thought in English (Columbia UP, 2005). Kennedy, Dane. The Imperial History Wars: Debating the British Empire (2018) excerpt Kennedy, Dane (2015). "The Imperial History Wars". Journal of British Studies. 54 (1): 5–22. doi:10.1017/jbr.2014.166. S2CID 154163198. Lester, Alan, Kate Boehme, and Peter Mitchell, eds. Ruling the World: Freedom, Civilisation and Liberalism in the Nineteenth-Century British Empire (Cambridge UP, 2021). Lieven, Dominic. Empire: The Russian empire and its rivals (Yale UP, 2002), comparisons with Russian, Habsburg & Ottoman empires. excerpt MacKenzie, John M (2015). "The British Empire: Ramshackle or Rampaging? A Historiographical Reflection". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 43 (1): 99–124. doi:10.1080/03086534.2015.997120. S2CID 161901237. Morris, Richard B. "The Spacious Empire of Lawrence Henry Gipson," William and Mary Quarterly, (1967) 24#2 pp. 170–189 at JSTOR; covers the "Imperial School" of Americanscholars, 1900–1940s Nelson, Paul David. "British Conduct of the American Revolutionary War: A Review of Interpretations." Journal of American History 65.3 (1978): 623-653. online Peers, Douglas M (2002). "Is Humpty Dumpty back together again?: The revival of imperial history and the Oxford History of the British Empire". Journal of World History. 13 (2): 451–467. doi:10.1353/jwh.2002.0049. S2CID 144790936. Pocock, J. G. A. (1982). "The Limits and Divisions of British History: In Search of the Unknown Subject". American Historical Review. 87 (2): 311–336. doi:10.2307/1870122. JSTOR 1870122. Prakash, Gyan (1990). "Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 32 (2): 383–408. doi:10.1017/s0010417500016534. JSTOR 178920. S2CID 144435305. Philips, Cyril H. ed. Historians of India, Pakistan and Ceylon (1961), reviews the older scholarship Rasor, Eugene L. Winston S. Churchill, 1874-1965: A Comprehensive Historiography and Annotated Bibliography (2000) 712pp; online Shaw, A. G. L. (1969). "British Attitudes to the Colonies, Ca. 1820-1850". Journal of British Studies. 9 (1): 71–95. doi:10.1086/385581. JSTOR 175168. S2CID 145273743. Stern, Philip J (2009). "History and Historiography of the English East India Company: Past, Present, and Future". History Compass. 7 (4): 1146–1180. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00617.x. Syriatou, Athena (2013). "National, Imperial, Colonial and the Political: British Imperial Histories and their Descendants" (PDF). Historein. 12: 38–67. doi:10.12681/historein.181. Archived from the original on September 5, 2014. Thompson, Andrew (2001). "Is Humpty Dumpty Together Again? Imperial History and the Oxford History of the British Empire". Twentieth Century British History. 12 (4): 511–527. doi:10.1093/tcbh/12.4.511. Webster, Anthony. The Debate on the Rise of British Imperialism (Issues in Historiography) (2006) Wilson, Kathleen, ed. A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernity in Britain and the Empire, 1660–1840 (2004). excerpt and text search Winks, Robin, ed. Historiography (1999) vol. 5 in William Roger Louis, eds. The Oxford History of the British Empire Winks, Robin W. The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources (1966); this book is by a different set of authors from the previous 1999 entry Winks, Robin W. "Problem Child of British History: The British Empire-Commonwealth", in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp. 451–492 Winks, Robin W., ed. British Imperialism: Gold, God, Glory (1963) excerpts from 15 historians from early 20th century, plus commentary and bibliography. === Bibliography === Gabriel Glickman, "Britain and Empire, 1685-1730" Oxford Bibliographies, annotated books === Primary sources === Board of Education. Educational Systems of the Chief Crown Colonies and Possessions of the British Empire (1905). 340pp online edition Boehmer, Elleke ed. Empire Writing: An Anthology of Colonial Literature, 1870–1918 (1998) Brooks, Chris. and Peter Faulkner (eds.), The White Man's Burdens: An Anthology of British Poetry of the Empire (Exeter UP, 1996). Hall, Catherine. ed. Cultures of Empire: A Reader: Colonizers in Britain and the Empire in the 19th and 20th Centuries (2000) Herbertson, A. J. and O. J. R. Howarth. eds. The Oxford Survey Of The British Empire (6 vol 1914) online vol 2 on Asia and India 555pp; on Africa; vole 1 America; vp; 6 General topics Madden, Frederick, ed. The End of Empire: Dependencies since 1948: Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth: The West Indies, British Honduras, Hong Kong, Fiji, Cyprus, Gibraltar, and the Falklands (2000) 596pp Madden, Frederick, and John Darwin, ed. The Dependent Empire: 1900–1948: Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandates (1963) 908pp Mansergh, Nicholas, ed. Documents and Speeches on Commonwealth Affairs, 1952–1962 (1963) 804pp Wiener, Joel H. ed. Great Britain: Foreign Policy and the Span of Empire, 1689-1971: A Documentary History (4 vol 1972) 3400pp; Mostly statements by British leaders == External links == British Empire Gateway Primary sources and older secondary sources "The British Empire at War Research Group", Comprehensive coverage of the Empire during Second World War. "The British Empire"	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire
Medieval ecclesiastic historiography encompasses the historiographic production by the Clergymen of the European Middle Ages, who created their own style of developing history and passing it on to posterity. It originated with Eusebius of Caesarea, who molded a new way of writing. He gathered several followers who began copying him and propagating his model, even if indirectly. It was generally characterized by the proposal of exposing the goals and methods of the Historians in their work. They sought to clarify their purpose and how they had managed to gather the necessary information for each of their texts. The dominant method was narration and their main goal was to pass on the information to future times. There were serious problems in making the works, the principal one being the search for documents (rare) and the various inconsistencies among the works, resulting from forgeries in many cases. Despite its problems, the ecclesiastic historiography of the Middle Ages had its importance in the development of History as an academic discipline, according to the French historian Bernard Guenée. It also left a legacy that includes the development of auxiliary sciences such as bibliography, epigraphy, archeology, and genealogy. == Origins == The origins of ecclesiastic historiography go back to Eusebius of Caesarea, who is considered its father, and to his immediate successors: Socrates, Sozomenus, Theodoret, and Gelasius, the bishop of Caesarea Maritima. At first, it was possible to compare the new branch of historiography that was forming to political history, and it was possible to draw an analogy between the battles and treatises of the latter with the themes of persecution and heresy in Eusebius' work. Eusebius was the main recognizer of the importance of documents for the development of history while adopting several aspects of Jewish influence in his works. The most relevant of these was "succession," which had been created through the thinking of the rabbis and developed with strong Greek influence. Another line for ecclesiastic historiographic production was that created by Philip of Side, around 430 A.D. His work Christian History began with the origin of the world (explained through the theory of creationism) and included many diverse subjects beyond history, such as geography, the natural sciences, and mathematics. However, Philip failed to garner followers and was soon forgotten. However, while ascending, ecclesiastic historiography did not end the cycles of other types of historiography. Political history, in particular, continued to be developed continuously and was recognized by all the ecclesiastic historians of late antiquity, including Eusebius of Caesarea himself. Rufinus' translation of Church History from Greek into Latin is considered the starting point of ecclesiastic writing in the Western Roman Empire, since before this it had been developed only in the Eastern Roman Empire. The impact of the translation made by Rufinus was so great that the work became extremely popular. It was known that medieval historians such as Gregory of Tours, Beda, and Augustine were familiar with it. == Goals and methods == One of the main characteristics of ecclesiastic historiography is the common presence of goals and methods in the prologue of the works. Through the analysis of the prologues of medieval history books, it is possible to understand how the work was produced, for what purpose it was developed, to whom it was intended, and what methods were applied in its making. The key objective of the Clergymen was to transmit historical knowledge to posterity, but only events worthy of remembrance were to appear in the works produced, and they usually dealt with subjects such as biographies or wars. As it happened with the liturgy of the Catholic Church, history would become a tool of memory. The main method for conveying history was the narration of events, and it was very common to use works of history to convey examples of reputable men that should be followed by others. The work of Valerius Maximus, the Book of Memorable Doings and Sayings, is an example of this compilation made several times. Therefore, it would be up to the historian to create someone's glory or infamy, and for this very reason, several works of history started to be "commissioned" by nobles in the same period (so that their names would not be forgotten). == Sources == === Written === The written sources used by medieval historians came mainly from libraries and archives, and were used especially for studies on "ancient times". During the Middle Ages, libraries were not yet as rich as they would become during the Renaissance (to a great degree after the spread of the press throughout Europe in the 15th century). Only a few books were available and in small quantities, very few being history books. The main source for many works was the Bible, which had been recommended by Cassiodorus to all libraries in the sixth century, in addition to Eusebius of Caesarea's Church History. Content not covered by the Holy Bible and Eusebius' work was hardly found in ordinary libraries, and its diffusion was extremely limited. The archives were as rustic as the libraries, and there were several problems with the conservation of manuscripts. Besides the problem of conservation, there was also a great obstacle imposed by the lack of classification, as well as the lack of access (many historians could only turn to the archive of the institution to which they belonged). One of the best-known archives is that of Reims, which was organized as early as the 9th century by Hincmar. Only from the 11th century onwards did the episcopal archives begin to be inventoried, and only with the advance of royal power in the 14th century did the need for classification become clear. === Oral === The oral sources were those coming from the testimony of people who had witnessed the events narrated in the works. Isidore of Seville is considered a precursor in encouraging the use of oral sources, because of the great influence he had on later historians. According to Isidore's teachings, the oral tradition was followed, and the most reliable oral sources were used, which were direct testimonies. In addition, the search for criticism of testimonies is notorious, since confirmation of these testimonies was sought in others (then considered "secondary"). When it was not possible to use direct testimonies, historians looked for support for their books in popular beliefs, ancient traditions, and songs that circulated in the medieval world. === Auxiliary === Auxiliary sources were those that came from monuments, ruins, sculptures, and buildings, for example. Although there were not yet adequate instruments for exploring the past through the legacies of other times that had already passed (archeology had not yet been developed, and only in the 14th century would epigraphy be considered an auxiliary science of history), the importance of this type of source was already considered. Among the buildings most sought after by medieval historians were the tombs of important men, for these could reveal information of the most diverse nature, from their genealogy to their biography itself. A clear example of such importance is the monastery of Saint-Denis which gathered the tombs of the kings of the Merovingian and Capetian dynasties respectively. === Forgery === The falsification of documents was a recurring attitude in medieval history and, for a long time, it hurt historians, especially those who did not have a very acute critical sense. However, at the same time that there were historians without this skill, others were already dealing with evaluating and analyzing the sources; After comparing them with other sources, they looked for differences and similarities. This often led to an overvaluing of the "authority of the source", which was the search for a "guarantor" for the evaluation of a text as a historical source. This happened several times during the Medieval Era and examples of this are the book on the history of Genoa between the years 1100 and 1152, which was elevated to the level of a highly reputable source by the consuls of the city, and the chronicle of Rolandino of Padua, which vested itself with authority only when it was validated by the scholars of the University of Padua. Another major problem was the influence of copyists who, in numerous historical works, always ended up "adding" some information that was not available in the original text they used. In short, the criterion for the quality of historiographical production was not the truth, but rather the authenticity established by authorities who obeyed a kind of hierarchy. == Genres == The moment history manages to gain its autonomy from the other sciences, its genres (known as historical genres) emerge: annals and chronicles are known for providing brief descriptions of events and related facts by year, while history sees style and rhetoric being highly valued (there is still a tendency to look to historians of antiquity such as Suetonius and Salustius). Later, from history, other genres would derive such as providential history (which was guided by theology), scholarly history (used by clerics and chanceries), political history, and "romance" history (which gains readers from social groups other than the clergy, such as the nobility). There were also a large number of works made to order, which were requested by nobles who wanted to keep their memory alive for posterity. An example of this is the work that appears on the occasion of the death of William the Marshal in 1219, which was commissioned by his son (to keep his father's memory alive). This genre would later also make room for works of genealogy. == Acceptance == During the Medieval Age, ecclesiastic production was well-received and diverse. One of the genres with the greatest popular appeal was the "romance" history of the Crusades, whose books recounted the adventures of the knights of Christianity in the distant lands of the Middle East. However, they were often written with little or even no historical accuracy, which may relativize their use as a source. Among the texts of this kind is the "Song of Antioch." The mendicant orders were also great recipients and repeaters of ecclesiastic historiography, adapting it according to their needs. The Dominicans focused their production on scholarly manuals and were more concerned with preaching than historical research. The Franciscan order, on the other hand, followed a similar line to the Dominicans and sought only "beautiful stories" for preaching in front of people of "less culture". Nowadays, the historiographical production of the Medieval Era is often viewed with contempt, and those responsible for this view are the humanists of the Renaissance. This is thought to be because the view held is that, until then, history was a mere "servant of religion" and auxiliary to the Catholic liturgy. One of the main inaccuracies of medieval texts are the illustrations: illustrators and engravers drew biblical characters as clerics and knights of the Medieval Era and thus incurred serious anachronism. == Legacy == Ecclesiastic historiography has a very important legacy for the further development of history as an academic discipline. This importance can be gauged by the great presence of works created within this historiographic movement, such as the Histories of Gregory of Tours (which was a very important source for the understanding of the sixth century in the Frankish Kingdom), the Ecclesiastical History of the English People by Bede and, later, Vincent de Beauvais' Historial Mirror and the Great Chronicles of France. The legacy of ecclesiastic historiography is summed up in the following quote by the French historian Bernard Guenée: It is during the Middle Ages that the techniques that we are proud to possess today began to be developed. Perhaps we deserve to be branded ungrateful for having allowed our arrogance and ignorance to mercilessly expose the gaps in medieval scholarship. If possibly today's historians are giants, perhaps those of the Middle Ages would have been dwarfs. But today's giants are sitting on the shoulders of yesterday's dwarfs. == See also == Scriptorium. == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == BASCHET, Jérôme (2006). A Civilização Feudal. Do Ano 1000 à Colonização da América. São Paulo: Globo. ISBN 8525041394 CAIRE-JABINET, Marie-Paule (2003). Introdução à Historiografia. Bauru: EDUSC. ISBN 8574601640 LeGOFF, Jacques; SCHMITT, Jean-Paul (2006). Dicionário Temático do Ocidente Medieval. 2. Bauru: EDUSC. ISBN 8574601489 MOMIGLIANO, Arnaldo (2004). As Raízes Clássicas da Historiografia Moderna. Bauru: EDUSC. ISBN 8574602256 SHAHÏD, Irfan (1984). Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century (em inglês). [S.l.]: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0884021165 == Further reading == ARÓSTEGUI, Julio (2006). A Pesquisa Histórica. Teoria e Método. Bauru: EDUSC BREISACH, Ernst (2007). Historiography. Ancient, Medieval, & Modern (em inglês) 3 ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 0226072827 MORESCHINI, Claudio; NORELLI, Enrico (2003). História da Literatura Cristã Antiga Grega e Latina. de Paulo à Era Constantiniana. São Paulo: Edições Loyola. ISBN 85-15-01352-5 ROHRBACHER, David (2002). The Historians of Late Antiquity (em inglês). [S.l.]: Taylor & Francis.ISBN 8515013525	Wikipedia/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography
Military history is the study of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to local and international relationships. Professional historians normally focus on military affairs that had a major impact on the societies involved as well as the aftermath of conflicts, while amateur historians and hobbyists often take a larger interest in the details of battles, equipment, and uniforms in use. The essential subjects of military history study are the causes of war, the social and cultural foundations, military doctrine on each side, the logistics, leadership, technology, strategy, and tactics used, and how these changed over time. On the other hand, just war theory explores the moral dimensions of warfare, and to better limit the destructive reality caused by war, seeks to establish a doctrine of military ethics. As an applied field, military history has been studied at academies and service schools because the military command seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during a battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned from the past. When certifying military history instructors the Combat Studies Institute deemphasizes rote detail memorization and focuses on themes and context in relation to current and future conflict, using the motto "Past is Prologue." The discipline of military history is dynamic, changing with development as much of the subject area as the societies and organisations that make use of it. The dynamic nature of the discipline of military history is largely due to the rapid change of military forces, and the art and science of managing them, as well as the frenetic pace of technological development that had taken place during the period known as the Industrial Revolution, and more recently in the nuclear and information ages. An important recent concept is the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) which attempts to explain how warfare has been shaped by emerging technologies, such as gunpowder. It highlights the short outbursts of rapid change followed by periods of relative stability. == Popular versus academic military history == In terms of the history profession in major countries, military history is an orphan, despite its enormous popularity with the general public. William H. McNeill points out: This branch of our discipline flourishes in an intellectual ghetto. The 144 books in question [published in 1968-78] fall into two distinct classes: works aimed at a popular readership, written by journalists and men of letters outside academic circles, and professional work nearly always produced within the military establishment.... The study of military history in universities remains seriously underdeveloped. Indeed, lack of interest in and disdain for military history probably constitute one of the strangest prejudices of the profession. In recent decades University level courses in military history remain popular; often they use films to humanize the combat experience. For example, Eugene P. A. Scleh, history professor at the University of Maine, has explored the advantages and problems of teaching a course of "Modern War and Its Images" entirely through films. Students said they found the documentaries more valuable than the dramas. However, military historians are frustrated by their marginal status in major history departments. Academic historians concerned with military topics have their own scholarly organization, Society for Military History. Since 1937 it has published The Journal of Military History. Its four issues a year include scholarly articles reviews of new books, and a bibliography of new publications and dissertations. The Society has 2300 members, holds an annual convention, and gives out prizes for the best scholarship. == Historiography of military history == Historiography is the study of the history and method of the discipline of history or the study of a specialised topic. In this case, military history with an eye to gaining an accurate assessment of conflicts using all available sources. For this reason military history is periodised, creating overlaying boundaries of study and analysis in which descriptions of battles by leaders may be unreliable due to the inclination to minimize mention of failure and exaggerate success. Military historians use Historiographical analysis in an effort to allow an unbiased, contemporary view of records. One military historian, Jeremy Black, outlined problems 21st-century military historians face as an inheritance of their predecessors: Eurocentricity, a technological bias, a focus on leading military powers and dominant military systems, the separation of land from sea and recently air conflicts, the focus on state-to-state conflict, a lack of focus on political "tasking" in how forces are used. If these challenges were not sufficient for military historians, the limits of method are complicated by the lack of records, either destroyed or never recorded due to their value as a military secret. Scholars still do not know the exact nature of Greek fire, for instance. Researching Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, for example, have presented unique challenges to historians due to records that were destroyed to protect classified military information, among other reasons. Historians use their knowledge of government regulation and military organization, and employing a targeted and systematic research strategy to piece together war histories. Despite these limits, wars are some of the most studied and detailed periods of human history. Military historians have often compared organization, tactical and strategic ideas, leadership, and national support of the militaries of different nations. In the early 1980s, historian Jeffrey Kimball studied the influence of a historian's political position on current events on interpretive disagreement regarding the causes of 20th century wars. He surveyed the ideological preferences of 109 active diplomatic historians in the United States as well as 54 active military historians. He finds that their current political views are moderately correlated with their historiographical interpretations. A clear position on the left-right continuum regarding capitalism was apparent in most cases. All groups agreed with the proposition, "historically, Americans have tended to view questions of their national security in terms of such extremes as good vs. evil." Though the Socialists were split, the other groups agreed that "miscalculation and/or misunderstanding of the situation" had caused U.S. interventionism." Kimball reports that: Of historians in the field of diplomatic history, 7% are Socialist, 19% are Other, 53% are Liberal, 11% are None and 10% Conservative. Of military historians, 0% are Socialist, 8% are Other, 35% are Liberal, 18% are None and 40% are Conservative. === Online resources === People interested in military history from all periods of time, and all subtopics, are increasingly turning to the Internet for many more resources than are typically available in nearby libraries. Since 1993, one of the most popular sites, with over 4000 members (subscriptions are free) has been H-WAR, sponsored by the H-Net network based at Michigan State University. H-War has six coeditors, and an academic advisory board that sets policy. It sponsors daily moderated discussions of current topics, announcements of new publications and conferences, and reports on developments at conferences. The H-Net family of lists has sponsored and published over 46,000 scholarly book reviews, thousands of which deal with books in military history broadly conceived. Wikipedia itself has a very wide coverage of military history, with over 180,000 articles. Its editors sponsor Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history and encourage readers to join. === Military and war museums === Military museums specialize in military histories; they are often organized from a national point of view, where a museum in a particular country will have displays organized around conflicts in which that country has taken part. They typically take a broad view of warfare's role in the nation's history. They typically include displays of weapons and other military equipment, uniforms, wartime propaganda, and exhibits on civilian life during wartime, and decorations, among others. A military museum may be dedicated to a particular or area, such as the Imperial War Museum Duxford for military aircraft, Deutsches Panzermuseum for tanks, the Lange Max Museum for the Western Front (World War I), the International Spy Museum for espionage, The National World War I Museum for World War I, the "D-Day Paratroopers Historical Center" (Normandy) for WWII airborne, or more generalist, such as the Canadian War Museum or the Musée de l'Armée. For the Italian alpine wall one can find the most popular museum of bunkers in the small museum n8bunker at Olang / Kronplatz in the heard of the dolomites of South Tyrol. The U.S. Army and the state National Guards operate 98 military history museums across the United States and three abroad. Curators debate how or whether the goal of providing diverse representations of war, in terms of positive and negative aspects of warfare. War is seldom presented as a good thing, but soldiers are heavily praised. David Lowenthal has observed that in today's museums, "nothing seems too horrendous to commemorate". Yet as Andrew Whitmarsh notes, "museums frequently portray a sanitised version of warfare." The actual bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Japan became the focus of an angry national controversy with veterans attacking curators and historians when the Smithsonian Institution planned to put its fuselage on public display in 1995. The uproar led to cancellation of the exhibit. == Early historians == The documentation of military history begins with the confrontation between Upper and Lower Egypt c. 3150 BC and Sumer (current Iraq) and Elam (current Iran) c. 2700 BC near the modern Basra. The Egyptian military scribe Tjaneni recorded the Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC) which is accepted as the first battle in relatively reliable detail. Military details are abundant in heroic epics, such as the Epic of Gilgames, Fall of Jericho and Conquest of Canaan, Trojan War in Homer's Iliad, and Mahabharata (though their historicity has been challenged). More credible records of the Israelite military history from the conquest of Canaan to the defeats by the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires are in the Biblical historical books following the Book of Joshua. Next were The Histories by Herodotus (484–425 BC) who is often called the "father of history", and the History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides. Despite being an Athenian, Thucydides' impartiality allowed him to take advantage of his exile to research the war from different perspectives by carefully examining documents and interviewing eyewitnesses. An approach centered on the analysis of a leader was taken by Xenophon (430–355 BC) in Anabasis, recording the expedition of Cyrus the Younger into Anatolia. And Anabasis of Alexander described the expedition in the reverse direction. Greek historians of the 2nd century BC, such as Polybius, and later Roman historians, such as Sallust, Livy, Appian and Cassius Dio, wrote about wars of the rise of Rome to the primacy over the Mediterranean. The memoirs of the Roman Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) enable a comparative approach for campaigns such as Commentarii de Bello Gallico and Commentarii de Bello Civili. East of the Mediterranean world, Arthashastra in India and The Art of War, The Book of Lord Shang, and less known but not less rich in military records Guanzi in China present strategic doctrines during the Axial Age. Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian and Han Fei Zi describe the Warring States of China and the former also its culmination in the Qin wars of unification. == Technological evolution == The nature of warfare never changes, only its superficial manifestations. Joshua and David, Hector and Achilles would recognize the combat that our soldiers and Marines have waged in the alleys of Somalia and Iraq. The uniforms evolve, bronze gives way to titanium, arrows may be replaced by laser-guided bombs, but the heart of the matter is still killing your enemies until any survivors surrender and do your will. New weapons development can dramatically alter the face of war, the cost of warfare, the preparations, and the training of soldiers and leaders. A rule of thumb is that if your enemy has a potentially war winning weapon, you have to either match it or neutralize it. === Ancient era === Chariots originated around 2000 BC. The chariot was an effective, fast weapon; while one man controlled the maneuvering of the chariot, a second bowman could shoot arrows at enemy soldiers. These became crucial to the maintenance of several governments, including the New Egyptian Kingdom and the Shang dynasty and the nation states of the early to middle Zhou dynasty. Some of the military unit types and technologies which were developed in the ancient world are: Slinger Hoplite Auxiliaries Infantry Archery Chariots Cavalry For settled agrarian civilizations, the infantry became the core of military action. The infantry started as opposing armed groups of soldiers underneath commanders. The Greeks and early Romans used rigid, heavily armed phalanxes. The Macedonians and Hellenistic states would adopt phalanx formations with sarissa pikemen. The Romans would later adopt more flexible maniples from their neighbors which made them extremely successful in the field of battle. The kingdoms of the Warring States in East Asia also adopted infantry combat, a transition from chariot warfare from centuries earlier. Archers were a major component of many ancient armies, notably those of the Persians, Scythians, Egyptians, Nubians, Indians, Chinese, Koreans and Japanese. Cavalry became an important tool. In the Sicilian Expedition, led by Athens in an attempt to subdue Syracuse, the well-trained Syracusan cavalry became crucial to the success of the Syracusans. Macedonian Alexander the Great effectively deployed his cavalry forces to secure victories. In battles such as the Battle of Cannae of the Second Punic War, and the Battle of Carrhae of the Roman-Persian Wars, the importance of the cavalry would be repeated. There were also horse archers, who had the ability to shoot on horseback—the Parthians, Scythians, Mongols, and other various steppe people were especially fearsome with this tactic. By the 3rd–4th century AD, heavily armored cavalry became widely adopted by the Parthians, Sasanians, Byzantines, Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms, etc. The early Indo-Iranians developed the use of chariots in warfare. The scythed chariot was later invented in India and soon adopted by the Persians. War elephants were sometimes deployed for fighting in ancient warfare. They were first used in India and later adopted by the Persians. War elephants were also used in the Battle of the Hydaspes River, and by Hannibal in the Second Punic War against the Romans. One of the most important military transactions of the ancient world was Chandragupta Maurya's gift of 500 elephants to Seleucus I Nicator. Naval warfare was often crucial to military success. Early navies used sailing ships without cannons; often the goal was to ram the enemy ships and cause them to sink. There was human oar power, often using slaves, built up to ramming speed. Galleys were used in the 3rd millennium BC by the Cretans. The Greeks later advanced these ships. In 1210 BC, the first recorded naval battle was fought between Suppiluliuma II, king of the Hittites, and Cyprus, which was defeated. In the Greco-Persian Wars, the navy became of increasing importance. Triremes were involved in more complicated sea-land operations. Themistocles helped to build up a stronger Greek navy, composed of 310 ships, and defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis, ending the Persian invasion of Greece. In the First Punic War, the war between Carthage and Rome started with an advantage to Carthage because of their naval experience. A Roman fleet was built in 261 BC, with the addition of the corvus that allowed Roman soldiers to board enemy ships. The bridge would prove effective at the Battle of Mylae, resulting in a Roman victory. The Vikings, in the 8th century AD, invented a ship propelled by oars with a dragon decorating the prow, hence called the Drakkar. The 12th century AD Song dynasty invented ships with watertight bulkhead compartments while the 2nd century BC Han dynasty invented rudders and sculled oars for their warships. Fortifications are important in warfare. Early hill-forts were used to protect inhabitants in the Iron Age. They were primitive forts surrounded by ditches filled with water. Forts were then built out of mud bricks, stones, wood, and other available materials. Romans used rectangular fortresses built out of wood and stone. As long as there have been fortifications, there have been contraptions to break in, dating back to the times of Romans and earlier. Siege warfare is often necessary to capture forts. === Middle-ages === Some of the military unit types and technologies which were used in the medieval period are: Artillery Cataphract Condottieri Fyrd Rashidun Mobile guard Mamluk Janissary Knight (see also: Chivalry) Crossbow Pikeman Samurai Sipahi Trebuchet Bows and arrows were often used by combatants. Egyptians shot arrows from chariots effectively. The crossbow was developed around 500 BC in China, and was used heavily in the Middle Ages. The English/Welsh longbow from the 12th century also became important in the Middle Ages. It helped to give the English a large early advantage in the Hundred Years' War, even though the English were eventually defeated. The Battle of Crécy and the Battle of Agincourt are excellent examples of how to destroy an enemy using a longbow. It dominated battlefields for over a century. === Gunpowder === There is evidence for gunpowder evolving slowly from formulations by Chinese alchemists as early as the 4th century, at first as experiments for life force and metal transmutation, and later experiments as pyrotechnics and incendiaries. By the 10th century, the developments in gunpowder led to many new weapons that were improved over time. The Chinese used incendiary devices based on this in siege warfare against the Mongols starting in the mid 13th century. "Pots with wicks of flax or cotton were used, containing a combination of sulfur, saltpeter (potassium nitrate), aconitine, oil, resin, ground charcoal and wax." Joseph Needham argued the Chinese were able to destroy buildings and walls using such devices. Such experimentation was not present in Western Europe, where the combination of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal were used exclusively for explosives and as a propellant in firearms. What the Chinese often referred to as the "fire drug" arrived in Europe, fully fleshed out, as gunpowder. Cannons were first used in Europe in the early 14th century, and played a vital role in the Hundred Years' War. The first cannons were simply welded metal bars in the form of a cylinder, and the first cannonballs were made of stone. By 1346, at the Battle of Crécy, the cannon had been used; at the Battle of Agincourt they would be used again. The first infantry firearms, from fire lances to hand cannons, were held in one hand, while the explosive charge was ignited by a lit match or hot coal held in the other hand. In the mid-15th century came the matchlock, allowing the gun to be aimed and fired while held steady with both hands, as used in the arquebus. Starting about 1500, clever but complicated firing mechanisms were invented to generate sparks to ignite the powder instead of a lit match, starting with the wheel lock, snaplock, snaphance, and finally the flintlock mechanism, which was simple and reliable, becoming standard with the musket by the early 17th century. At the beginning of the 16th century, the first European fire ships were used. Ships were filled with flammable materials, set on fire, and sent to enemy lines. This tactic was successfully used by Francis Drake to scatter the Spanish Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, and would later be used by the Chinese, Russians, Greeks, and several other countries in naval battles. Naval mines were invented in the 17th century, though they were not used in great numbers until the American Civil War. They were used heavily in the First and Second World Wars. Air-deployed naval mines were used to mine the North Vietnamese port of Haiphong during the Vietnam War. The Iraqi Navy of Saddam Hussein used naval mines extensively during the Tanker War, as part of the Iran–Iraq War. The first navigable submarine was built in 1624 by Cornelius Drebbel, it could cruise at a depth of 15 feet (5 m). However, the first military submarine was constructed in 1885 by Isaac Peral. The Turtle was developed by David Bushnell during the American Revolution. Robert Fulton then improved the submarine design by creating the Nautilus. The Howitzer, a type of field artillery, was developed in the 17th century to fire high trajectory explosive shells at targets that could not be reached by flat trajectory projectiles. Organizational changes resulting in better training and intercommunication, made the concept combined arms possible, allowing the use of infantry, cavalry, and artillery in a coordinated way. Bayonets also became of wide usage to infantry soldiers. Bayonet is named after Bayonne, France where it was first manufactured in the 16th century. It is used often in infantry charges to fight in hand-to-hand combat. General Jean Martinet introduced the bayonet to the French army. They were used heavily in the American Civil War, and continued to be used in modern wars like the Invasion of Iraq. Balloons were first used in warfare at the end of the 18th century. It was first introduced in Paris of 1783; the first balloon traveled over 5 miles (8 km). Previously military scouts could only see from high points on the ground, or from the mast of a ship. Now they could be high in the sky, signalling to troops on the ground. This made it much more difficult for troop movements to go unobserved. At the end of the 18th century, iron-cased artillery rockets were successfully used militarily in India against the British by Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. Rockets were generally inaccurate at that time, though William Hale, in 1844, was able to develop a better rocket. The new rocket no longer needed the rocket stick, and had a higher accuracy. In the 1860s there were a series of advancements in rifles. The first repeating rifle was designed in 1860 by a company bought out by Winchester, which made new and improved versions. Springfield rifles arrived in the mid-19th century also. Machine guns arrived in the late 19th century. Automatic rifles and light machine guns first arrived at the beginning of the 20th century. In the later part of the 19th century, the self-propelled torpedo was developed. The HNoMS Rap was the world's first torpedo boat. === Early guns and artillery === The fire lance, the predecessor of the gun, was invented in China between the tenth and eleventh century. The barrel was originally designed out of bamboo shoots, later with metal. Joseph Needham notes "all the long preparations and tentative experiments were made in China, and everything came to Islam and the West fully fledged, whether it was the fire lance or the explosive bomb, the rocket or the metal-barrel handgun and bombard." By the 1320s Europe had guns, but scholars state that the exact time and method of migration from China remains a mystery. Evidence of firearms is found in Iran and Central Asia in the late fourteenth century. It was not until roughly 1442 that guns were referenced in India. Reliable references to guns in Russia begin around 1382. An illustration of a "pot-shaped gun" found in the Holkham Hall Milemete manuscript dated to 1326 shows earliest advent of firearms in European history. The illustration shows an arrow, set in the pot-shaped gun pointed directly at a structure. Archaeological evidence of such "gun arrows" were discovered in Eltz Castle, "dated by relation to a historical event (a feud with the Archbishop of Trier in 1331–36 leading to a siege), seem to confirm again that this was at least one of the types of guns like the Milemete used in these very early examples." According to Peter Fraser Purton, the best evidence of the earliest gun in Europe is the Loshult gun, dated to the fourteenth century. Discovered in 1861, the Loshult was made of bronze measured 11.8 inches in length. A replica of the Loshult was created, using similar gunpowder compounds with present-day materials, to determine the effectiveness of the weapon. The Gunpowder Research Group, who designed the recreation, found that at high elevations, the Loshult could fire as far as 1300 meters. Though inaccurate, missing targets further than 200 meters, the Loshult could fire a range of projectiles such as arrows and shot. It was determined that the Loshult could be effectively fired at ranks of soldiers and structures. Written works from the Cabinet des Titres of the Imperial Library of Paris has found evidence of canons in France in 1338. The works illustrate canons being used on-board ships at the Rouen during that time. "...an iron Fire-arm, which was provided with forty-eight bolts, made of iron and freather; also one pound of saltpetre and half a pound of sulphur to make the powder propel arrows." Researchers have been unable to determine the sizes of these cannons and others, outside the artifacts recovered. Sir Henry Brackenbury was able to surmise the approximate size of these cannons by comparing receipts for both the firearms and the corresponding amounts of gunpowder purchased. The receipts show a transaction for "25 Livres for 5 canons." Brackenbury was able to deduce, when comparing the costs of the cannons and the gunpowder apportioned, that they each iron cannon weighed approximately 25 lbs, while the brass cannons weighed roughly 22 lbs. Philip the Bold (1363–1404) is credited with creating the most effective artillery power in Europe in the late fourteenth century, effectively creating the Burgundian estate. Philip's development of a large artillery army made the small country a reputable force against larger empires such as England and France. Philip had achieved this by establishing a large scale artillery manufacturing economy in Burgundy. Philip used his new cache of artillery to help the French capture an English-held fortress of Odruik. The artillery used to take Odruik used cannonballs measuring to about 450 pounds. Large artillery was a major contributing factor to the fall of Constantinople at the hands of Mehmed the Conqueror (1432–1481). Having resigned his position as ruler due to youth and inexperience in 1446, Mehmed moved to the Ottoman capital of Manisa. After his father, Murad II died in 1451, Mehmed once again became Sultan. He turned his attention to claiming the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. Mehmed, like Philip, started mass-producing cannons by enticing craftsmen to his cause with money and freedom. For 55 days, Constantinople was bombarded with artillery fire, throwing cannonballs as large as 800 lbs at its walls. On 29 May 1453, Constantinople fell into Ottoman control. === Early firearm tactics === As guns and artillery became more advanced and prevalent, so to did the tactics by which they were implemented. According to Historian Michael Roberts "...a military revolution began with the broad adoption of firearms and artillery by late sixteenth-century European armies." Infantry with firearms replaced cavalry. Empires adapted their strongholds to withstand artillery fire. Eventually drilling strategies and battlefield tactics were adapted for the evolution in firearms use. In Japan, at the same time during the sixteenth-century, this military evolution was also taking hold. These changes included a universal adoption of firearms, tactical developments for effective use, logistical restructuring within the military itself, and "the emergence of centralized and political and institutional relationships indicative of the early modern order." Tactically, beginning with Oda Nobunaga, the technique known as "volleying" or countermarch drills were implemented. Volley fire is an organized implementation of firearms, where infantry are structured in ranks. The ranks will alternate between loading and firing positions, allowing more consistent rates of fire and preventing enemies from taking over a position while members reload. Historical evidence shows that Oda Nobunaga implemented his volley technique successfully in 1575, twenty years before evidence of such a technique is shown in Europe. The first indications of the countermarch technique in Europe was by Lord William Louis of Nassau (1538–1574) in the mid-1590s. Korea also seemed to be adapting the volley technique, earlier than even the Japanese. "Koreans seem to have employed some kind of volley principle with guns by 1447, when the Korean King Sejong the Great instructed his gunners to shoot their 'fire barrels' in squads of five, taking turns firing and loading." This was on display during what Kenneth Swope called the First Great East Asian War, when Japan was trying to take control and subjugate Korea. Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537–1598) made a failed invasion of Korea, which lasted six years, eventually pushed back by the Koreans with the aid of Ming China. Japan, using overwhelming firepower, had many early victories on the Korean peninsulas. Though the Koreans had similar manpower, "the curtain of arrows thrown up by defenders was wiped out by [Japanese] gunfire." After the Japanese were finally pushed back in 1598, sweeping military reforms took place in Korea, largely based on updating and implementing the volley technique with firearms. It was Qi Jiguang, a Ming Chinese General that provided the original treatise, disseminated to Koreans, that aided in this venture. In these manuals, Qi "...gave detailed instructions in the use of small group tactics, psychological warfare, and other 'modern' techniques." Qi emphasized repetitive drilling, dividing men into smaller groups, separating the strong from weak. Qi's ethos was one of synthesizing smaller groups, trained in various tactical formations, into larger companies, battalions and armies. By doing this they could "operate as eyes, hands, and feet..." aiding to overall unit cohesion. === Modern technologies === At the start of the World Wars, various nations had developed weapons that were a surprise to their adversaries, leading to a need to learn from this, and alter how to combat them. Flame throwers were first used in the First World War. The French were the first to introduce the armored car in 1902. Then in 1918, the British produced the first armored troop carrier. Many early tanks were proof of concept but impractical until further development. In World War I, the British and French held a crucial advantage due to their superiority in tanks; the Germans had only a few dozen A7V tanks, as well as 170 captured tanks. The British and French both had several hundred each. The French tanks included the 13 ton Schneider CA1, with a 75 mm gun, and the British had the Mark IV and Mark V tanks. On 17 December 1903, the Wright Brothers performed the first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight; it went 39 meters (120 ft). In 1907, the first helicopter flew, but it was not practical for usage. Aviation became important in World War I, in which several aces gained fame. In 1911 an aircraft took off from a warship for the first time. Landings on a cruiser were another matter. This led to the development of an aircraft carrier with a decent unobstructed flight deck. Chemical warfare exploded into the public consciousness in World War I but may have been used in earlier wars without as much human attention. The Germans used gas-filled shells at the Battle of Bolimov in January 1915. These were not lethal, however. In April 1915, the Germans developed a chlorine gas that was highly lethal, and used it to moderate effect at the Second Battle of Ypres. Gas masks were invented in matter of weeks, and poison gas proved ineffective at winning battles. It was made illegal by all nations in the 1920s. World War II gave rise to even more technology. The worth of aircraft grew from mostly reconnaissance to strategic bombing and more. The worth of the aircraft carrier was proved in the battles between the United States and Japan like the Battle of Midway. Radar was independently invented by the Allies and Axis powers. It used radio waves to detect objects. Molotov cocktails were invented by General Franco in the Spanish Civil War, directing the Nationalists to use them against Soviet tanks in the assault on Toledo. The atomic bomb was developed by the Manhattan Project and dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, quickly and controversially ending World War II. During the Cold War, the main powers engaged in a Nuclear arms race which comprised the making of atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs, and more advanced nuclear bombs. In the space race, both nations attempted to launch human beings into space, to the moon and send satellites. Other technological advances were centered on intelligence (like the spy satellite) and missiles (ballistic missiles, cruise missiles). The nuclear submarine was invented in 1955. This meant submarines no longer needed to surface as often, and could run more quietly. They evolved into underwater missile platforms and completed what became called nuclear triad. == Periods of military history == === Prehistoric warfare === Prehistoric warfare refers to war that occurred between societies without recorded history. The Tollense valley battlefield is the oldest evidence of a large scale battle in Europe. More than 4,000 warriors fought in a battle on the site in the 13th century BC. === Ancient warfare === Much of what we know of ancient history is the history of militaries: their conquests, their movements, and their technological innovations. There are many reasons for this. Kingdoms and empires, the central units of control in the ancient world, could only be maintained through military force. Due to limited agricultural ability, there were relatively few areas that could support large communities, therefore fighting was common. The Umma–Lagash war was one of the first wars in recorded history, fought between the Sumerian city-states of Lagash and Umma. The border conflict over the fertile Guedena region lasted for several generations. Weapons and armor, designed to be sturdy, tended to last longer than other artifacts, and thus a great deal of surviving artifacts recovered tend to fall in this category as they are more likely to survive. Weapons and armor were also mass-produced to a scale that makes them quite plentiful throughout history, and thus more likely to be found in archaeological digs. Such items were also considered signs of prosperity or virtue, and thus were likely to be placed in tombs and monuments to prominent warriors. And writing, when it existed, was often used for kings to boast of military conquests or victories. Writing, when used by the common man, also tended to record such events, as major battles and conquests constituted major events that many would have considered worthy of recording either in an epic such as the Homeric writings pertaining to the Trojan War, or even personal writings. Indeed, the earliest stories center on warfare, as war was both a common and dramatic aspect of life; the witnessing of a major battle involving many thousands of soldiers would be quite a spectacle, even today, and thus considered worthy both of being recorded in song and art, but also in realistic histories, as well as being a central element in a fictional work. Lastly, as nation states evolved and empires grew, the increased need for order and efficiency lead to an increase in the number of records and writings. Officials and armies would have good reason for keeping detailed records and accounts involving any and all things concerning a matter such as warfare that, in the words of Sun Tzu, was "a matter of vital importance to the state". For all these reasons, military history comprises a large part of ancient history. Notable militaries in the ancient world included the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Ancient Greeks (notably the Spartans and Macedonians), Kushites, Indians (notably the Magadhas, Gangaridais, Gandharas and Cholas), Early Imperial Chinese (notably the Qin and Han dynasties), Xiongnu Confederation, Ancient Romans, and Carthaginians. The fertile crescent of Mesopotamia was the center of several prehistoric conquests. Mesopotamia was conquered by the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians. Iranians were the first nation to introduce cavalry into their army. Egypt began growing as an ancient power, but eventually fell to the Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs. The earliest recorded battle in India was the Battle of the Ten Kings. The Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana are centered on conflicts and refer to military formations, theories of warfare and esoteric weaponry. Chanakya's Arthashastra contains a detailed study on ancient warfare, including topics on espionage and war elephants. Alexander the Great invaded Northwestern India and defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River. The same region was soon re conquered by Chandragupta Maurya after defeating the Macedonians and Seleucids. He also went on to conquer the Nanda Empire and unify Northern India. Most of Southern Asia was unified under his grandson Ashoka the Great after the Kalinga War, though the empire collapsed not long after his reign. In China, the Shang dynasty and Zhou dynasty had risen and collapsed. This led to a Warring States period, in which several states continued to fight with each other over territory. Philosopher-strategists such as Confucius and Sun Tzu wrote various manuscripts on ancient warfare (as well as international diplomacy). The Warring States era philosopher Mozi (Micius) and his Mohist followers invented various siege weapons and siegecraft, including the Cloud Ladder (a four-wheeled, extendable ramp) to scale fortified walls during a siege of an enemy city. The warring states were first unified by Qin Shi Huang after a series of military conquests, creating the first empire in China. His empire was succeeded by the Han dynasty, which expanded into Central Asia, Northern China/Manchuria, Southern China, and present day Korea and Vietnam. The Han came into conflict with settled people such as the Wiman Joseon, and proto-Vietnamese Nanyue. They also came into conflict with the Xiongnu (Huns), Yuezhi, and other steppe civilizations. The Han defeated and drove the Xiongnus west, securing the city-states along the silk route that continued into the Parthian Empire. After the decline of central imperial authority, the Han dynasty collapsed into an era of civil war and continuous warfare during the Three Kingdoms period in the 3rd century AD. The Achaemenid Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great after conquering the Median Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Lydia and Asia Minor. His successor Cambyses went on to conquer the Egyptian Empire, much of Central Asia, and parts of Greece, India and Libya. The empire later fell to Alexander the Great after defeating Darius III. After being ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, the Persian Empire was subsequently ruled by the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, which were the Roman Empire's greatest rivals during the Roman-Persian Wars. In Greece, several city-states rose to power, including Athens and Sparta. The Greeks successfully stopped two Persian invasions, the first at the Battle of Marathon, where the Persians were led by Darius the Great, and the second at the Battle of Salamis, a naval battle where the Greek ships were deployed by orders of Themistocles and the Persians were under Xerxes I, and the land engagement of the Battle of Plataea. The Peloponnesian War then erupted between the two Greek powers Athens and Sparta. Athens built a long wall to protect its inhabitants, but the wall helped to facilitate the spread of a plague that killed about 30,000 Athenians, including Pericles. After a disastrous campaign against Syracuse, the Athenian navy was decisively defeated by Lysander at the Battle of Aegospotami. The Macedonians, underneath Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, invaded Persia and won several major victories, establishing Macedonia as a major power. However, following Alexander's death at an early age, the empire quickly fell apart. Meanwhile, Rome was gaining power, following a rebellion against the Etruscans. During the three Punic Wars, the Romans defeated the neighboring power of Carthage. The First Punic War centered on naval warfare. The Second Punic War started with Hannibal's invasion of Italy by crossing the Alps. He famously won the encirclement at the Battle of Cannae. However, after Scipio invaded Carthage, Hannibal was forced to follow and was defeated at the Battle of Zama, ending the role of Carthage as a power. After defeating Carthage the Romans went on to become the Mediterranean's dominant power, successfully campaigning in Greece, (Aemilius Paulus decisive victory over Macedonia at the Battle of Pydna), in the Middle East (Lucius Licinius Lucullus, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus), in Gaul (Gaius Julius Caesar) and defeating several Germanic tribes (Gaius Marius, Germanicus). While Roman armies suffered several major losses, their large population and ability (and will) to replace battlefield casualties, their training, organization, tactical and technical superiority enabled Rome to stay a predominant military force for several centuries, utilizing well trained and maneuverable armies to routinely overcome the much larger "tribal" armies of their foes (see Battles of Aquae Sextiae, Vercellae, Tigranocerta, Alesia). In 54 BC, the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus took the offensive against the Parthian Empire in the east. In a decisive battle at Carrhae Romans were defeated and the golden Aquilae (legionary battle standards) were taken as trophies to Ctesiphon. The battle was one of the worst defeats suffered by the Roman Republic in its entire history. While successfully dealing with foreign opponents, Rome experienced numerous civil wars, notably the power struggles of Roman generals such as Marius and Sulla during the end of the Republic. Caesar was also notable for his role in the civil war against the other member of the Triumvirate (Pompey) and against the Roman Senate. The successors of Caesar—Octavian and Mark Anthony—also fought a civil war with Caesar's assassins (Senators Brutus, Cassius, etc.). Octavian and Mark Anthony eventually fought another civil war between themselves to determine the sole ruler of Rome. Octavian emerged victorious and Rome was turned into an empire with a huge standing army of professional soldiers. By the time of Marcus Aurelius, the Romans had expanded to the Atlantic Ocean in the west and to Mesopotamia in the east and controlled Northern Africa and Central Europe up to the Black Sea. However, Aurelius marked the end of the Five Good Emperors, and Rome quickly fell into decline. The Huns, Goths, and other barbaric groups invaded Rome, which continued to suffer from inflation and other internal strifes. Despite the attempts of Diocletian, Constantine I, and Theodosius I, western Rome collapsed and was eventually conquered in 476. The Byzantine empire continued to prosper, however. === Medieval warfare === When stirrups came into use some time during the Dark Ages militaries were forever changed. This invention coupled with technological, cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery. Similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the world. In China around the 5th century armies moved from massed infantry to cavalry based forces, copying the steppe nomads. The Middle East and North Africa used similar, if often more advanced, technologies than Europe. In Japan, the Medieval warfare period is considered by many to have stretched into the 19th century. In Africa along the Sahel and Sudan states like the Kingdom of Sennar and Fulani Empire employed Medieval tactics and weapons well after they had been supplanted in Europe. In the Medieval period, feudalism was firmly implanted, and there existed many landlords in Europe. Landlords often owned castles to protect their territory. The Islamic Arab Empire began rapidly expanding throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, initially led by Rashidun Caliphate, and later under the Umayyads. While their attempts to invade Europe by way of the Balkans were defeated by Byzantium and Bulgaria, the Arabs expanded to the Iberian Peninsula in the west and the Indus Valley in the east. The Abassids then took over the Arab Empire, though the Umayyads remained in control of Islamic Spain. At the Battle of Tours, the Franks under Charles Martel stopped short a Muslim invasion. The Abassids defeated the Tang Chinese army at the Battle of Talas, but were later defeated by the Seljuk Turks and the Mongols centuries later, until the Arab Empire eventually came to an end after the Battle of Baghdad in 1258. In China, the Sui dynasty had risen and conquered the Chen dynasty of the south. They invaded Vietnam (northern Vietnam had been in Chinese control since the Han dynasty), fighting the troops of Champa, who had cavalry mounted on elephants. After decades of economic turmoil and a failed invasion of Korea, the Sui collapsed and was followed by the Tang dynasty, who fought with various Turkic groups, the Tibetans of Lhasa, the Tanguts, the Khitans, and collapsed due to political fragmentation of powerful regional military governors (jiedushi). The innovative Song dynasty followed next, inventing new weapons of war that employed the use of Greek Fire and gunpowder (see section below) against enemies such as the Jurchens. The Mongols under Genghis Khan, Ögedei Khan, Möngke Khan, and Kublai Khan conquered most of Eurasia. They took over China, Persia, Turkestan, and Russia. After Kublai Khan took power and created the Yuan dynasty, the divisions of the empire ceased to cooperate with each other, and the Mongol Empire was only nominally united. In New Zealand, prior to European discovery, oral histories, legends and whakapapa include many stories of battles and wars. Māori warriors were held in high esteem. One group of Polynesians migrated to the Chatham Islands, where they developed the largely pacifist Moriori culture. Their pacifism left the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Māori in the 1830s. They proceeded to massacre the Moriori and enslave the survivors. Warrior culture also developed in the isolated Hawaiian Islands. During the 1780s and 1790s the chiefs and alii were constantly fighting for power. After a series of battles the Hawaiian Islands were united for the first time under a single ruler who would become known as Kamehameha I. === Gunpowder warfare === After gunpowder weapons were first developed in Song dynasty China (see also: Technology of the Song dynasty), the technology later spread west to the Ottoman Empire, from where it spread to the Safavid Empire of Persia and the Mughal Empire of India. The arquebus was later adopted by European armies during the Italian Wars of the early 16th century. This all brought an end to the dominance of armored cavalry on the battlefield. The simultaneous decline of the feudal system—and the absorption of the medieval city-states into larger states—allowed the creation of professional standing armies to replace the feudal levies and mercenaries that had been the standard military component of the Middle Ages. In Africa, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, was the first African commander to use gunpowder on the continent in the Ethiopian–Adal War, that lasted for fourteen years (1529–1543). The period spanning between the 1648 Peace of Westphalia and the 1789 French Revolution is also known as Kabinettskriege (Princes' warfare) as wars were mainly carried out by imperial or monarchics states, decided by cabinets and limited in scope and in their aims. They also involved quickly shifting alliances, and mainly used mercenaries. Over the course of the 18th–19th centuries all military arms and services underwent significant developments that included a more mobile field artillery, the transition from use of battalion infantry drill in close order to open order formations and the transfer of emphasis from the use of bayonets to the rifle that replaced the musket, and virtual replacement of all types of cavalry with the universal dragoons, or mounted infantry. === Military Revolution === The Military Revolution is a conceptual schema for explaining the transformation of European military strategy, tactics and technology in the early modern period. The argument is that dramatic advances in technology, government finance, and public administration transformed and modernized European armies, tactics, and logistics. Since warfare was so central to the European state, the transformation had a major impact on modernizing government bureaucracies, taxation, and the national economy. The concept was introduced by Michael Roberts in the 1950s as he focused on Sweden 1560–1660. Roberts emphasized the introduction of muskets that could not be aimed at small targets, but could be very effective when fired in volleys by three ranks of infantry soldiers, with one firing while the other two ranks reloaded. All three ranks march forward to demolish the enemy. The infantry now had the firepower that had been reserved to the artillery, and had mobility that could rapidly advance in the battlefield, which the artillery lacked. The infantry thereby surpassed the artillery in tactical maneuvering on the battlefield. Roberts linked these advances with larger historical consequences, arguing that innovations in tactics, drill and doctrine by the Dutch and Swedes 1560–1660 led to a need for more and better trained troops and thus for permanent forces (standing armies). Armies grew much larger and more expensive. These changes in turn had major political consequences in the level of administrative support and the supply of money, men and provisions, producing new financial demands and the creation of new governmental institutions. "Thus, argued Roberts, the modern art of war made possible—and necessary—the creation of the modern state". In the 1990s the concept was modified and extended by Geoffrey Parker, who argued that developments in fortification and siege warfare caused the revolution. The concept of a military revolution based upon technology has given way to models based more on a slow evolution in which technology plays a minor role to organization, command and control, logistics and in general non-material improvements. The revolutionary nature of these changes was only visible after a long evolution that handed Europe a predominant place in warfare, a place that the industrial revolution would confirm. The concept of a military revolution in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has received a mixed reception among historians. Noted military historians Michael Duffy and Jeremy Black have strongly criticised it as misleading, exaggerated and simplistic. === Industrial warfare === As weapons—particularly small arms—became easier to use, countries began to abandon a complete reliance on professional soldiers in favor of conscription. Technological advances became increasingly important; while the armies of the previous period had usually had similar weapons, the industrial age saw encounters such as the Battle of Sadowa, in which possession of a more advanced technology played a decisive role in the outcome. Conscription was employed in industrial warfare to increase the number of military personnel that were available for combat. Conscription was notably used by Napoleon Bonaparte and the major parties during the two World Wars. Total war was used in industrial warfare, the objective being to prevent the opposing nation to engage in war. Napoleon was the innovator. William Tecumseh Sherman's "March to the Sea" and Philip Sheridan's burning of the Shenandoah Valley during the American Civil War were examples. On the largest scale the strategic bombing of enemy cities and industrial factories during World War II was total warfare. === Modern warfare === Since the 1940s, preparation for a major war has been based on technological arms races involving all sorts of new weapons systems, such as nuclear and biological, as well as computerized control systems, and the opening of new venues, such as seen in the Space race involving the United States, the Soviet Union, and more recently, China. Modern war also saw the improvement of armored tank technology. While tanks were present in the First World War, and the Second World War, armored warfare technology came to a head with the start of the Cold War. Many of the technologies commonly seen on main battle tanks today, such as composite armor, high caliber cannons, and advanced targeting systems, would be developed during this time. A distinctive feature since 1945 is the decline in number and casualties of interstate wars, the absence of wars between developed states, and, since 1954, the absence of wars between major powers. Instead actual fighting has largely been a matter of civil wars and insurgencies. == See also == == Notes and references == == Further reading == == External links == International Bibliography of Military History of the International Commission of Military History – from Brill.nl H-WAR, daily discussion group for military historians – from Michigan State University Department of History, H-Net Humanities & Social Sciences Online Web Sources for Military History – from AmericanHistoryProjects.com Military History Encyclopedia on the Web	Wikipedia/Military_historiography
Palaeography (UK) or paleography (US) (ultimately from Ancient Greek: παλαιός, palaiós, 'old', and γράφειν, gráphein, 'to write') is the study and academic discipline of historical writing systems. It encompasses the historicity of manuscripts and texts, subsuming deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts, as well as the analysis of historic penmanship, handwriting script, signification, and printed media. It is primarily concerned with the forms, processes and relationships of writing and printing systems as evident in a text, document or manuscript; and analysis of the substantive textual content of documents is a secondary function. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which texts such as manuscripts, books, codices, tracts, and monographs were produced, and the history of scriptoria. This discipline is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating historical texts. However, in the absence of additional evidence, it cannot be used to pinpoint exact dates. The discipline is one of the auxiliary sciences of history, and is considered to have been founded by Jean Mabillon with his 1681 work De re diplomatica, the first textbook to address the subject. The term palaeography was coined by Bernard de Montfaucon with the publication of his work on Greek palaeography, the Palaeographia Graeca, in 1708. == Application == Palaeography is an essential skill for many historians, semioticians and philologists, as it addresses a suite of interrelated lines of inquiry. First, since the style of an alphabet, grapheme or sign system set within a register in each given dialect and language has evolved constantly, it is necessary to know how to decipher its individual substantive, occurrence make-up and constituency. For example, assessing its characters and typology as they existed in various places, times and locations. In addition, for hand-written texts, scribes often use many abbreviations, and annotations so as to functionally aid speed, efficiency and ease of writing and in some registers to importantly save invaluable space of the medium. Hence, the specialist-palaeographer, philologist and semiotician must know how to, in the broadest sense, interpret, comprehend and understand them. Knowledge of individual letterforms, typographic ligatures, signs, typology, fonts, graphemes, hieroglyphics, and signification forms in general, subsuming punctuation, syntagm and proxemics, abbreviations and annotations; enables the palaeographer to read, comprehend and then to understand the text and/or the relationship and hierarchy between texts in suite. The palaeographer, philologist and semiotician must first determine language, then dialect and then the register, function and purpose of the text. That is, one must by necessity become expert in the formation, historicity and evolution of these languages and signification communities, and material communication events. Secondly, the historical usages of various styles of handwriting, common writing customs, and scribal or notarial abbreviations, annotations conventions, annexures, addenda and specifics of printed typology, syntagm and proxemics must be assessed as a collective undertaking. Philological knowledge of the register, language, vocabulary, and grammar generally used at a given time, place and circumstance may assist palaeographers to identify a hierarchy of texts in a suite through discourse analysis, determining the provenance of texts, identifying forgeries, interpolations and recensions with precision; eliciting a professional authenticity in documentation, textual and manuscript evaluation with view to producing a critical edition if required and a critical assessment of a given discourse event as rendered and set in a materiality or medium. Knowledge of writing materials and discourse material production systems is foundational to the study of handwriting and printing events and to the identification of the periods in which a document or manuscript may have been produced. An important goal may be to assign the text a date and a place of origin, or determining which translations of a text are produced from which specific document or manuscript. This is why the palaeographer and attendant semiologists and philologists must take into account the style, substance and formation of the text, document and manuscript and the handwriting style and printed typology, grapheme typos and lexical and signification system(s) employed. === Document dating === Palaeography may be employed to provide information about the date at which a document was written. However, "paleography is a last resort for dating" and, "for book hands, a period of 50 years is the least acceptable spread of time" with it being suggested that "the 'rule of thumb' should probably be to avoid dating a hand more precisely than a range of at least seventy or eighty years". In a 2005 e-mail addendum to his 1996 "The Paleographical Dating of P-46" paper Bruce W. Griffin stated "Until more rigorous methodologies are developed, it is difficult to construct a 95% confidence interval for [New Testament] manuscripts without allowing a century for an assigned date." William Schniedewind went even further in the abstract to his 2005 paper "Problems of Paleographic Dating of Inscriptions" and stated: "The so-called science of paleography often relies on circular reasoning because there is insufficient data to draw precise conclusion about dating. Scholars also tend to oversimplify diachronic development, assuming models of simplicity rather than complexity". == Ancient Near East == == Aramaic palaeography == The Aramaic language was the international trade language of the Ancient Middle East, originating in what is modern-day Syria, between 1000 and 600 BC. It spread from the Mediterranean coast to the borders of India, becoming extremely popular and being adopted by many people, both with or without any previous writing system. The Aramaic script was written in a consonantal form with a direction from right to left. The Aramaic alphabet, a modified form of Phoenician, was the ancestor of the modern Arabic and Hebrew scripts, as well as the Brahmi script, the parent writing system of most modern abugidas in India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia. Initially, the Aramaic script did not differ from the Phoenician, but then the Aramaeans simplified some of the letters, thickened and rounded their lines: a specific feature of its letters is the distinction between ⟨d⟩ and ⟨r⟩. One innovation in Aramaic is the matres lectionis system to indicate certain vowels. Early Phoenician-derived scripts did not have letters for vowels, and so most texts recorded just consonants. Most likely as a consequence of phonetic changes in North Semitic languages, the Aramaeans reused certain letters in the alphabet to represent long vowels. The letter aleph was employed to write /ā/, he for /ō/, yod for /ī/, and vav for /ū/. Aramaic writing and language supplanted Babylonian cuneiform and Akkadian language, even in their homeland in Mesopotamia. The wide diffusion of Aramaic letters led to its writing being used not only in monumental inscriptions, but also on papyrus and potsherds. Aramaic papyri have been found in large numbers in Egypt, especially at Elephantine—among them are official and private documents of the Jewish military settlement in 5 BC. In the Aramaic papyri and potsherds, words are separated usually by a small gap, as in modern writing. At the turn of the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, the heretofore uniform Aramaic letters developed new forms, as a result of dialectal and political fragmentation in several subgroups. The most important of these is the so-called square Hebrew block script, followed by Palmyrene, Nabataean, and the much later Syriac script. Aramaic is usually divided into three main parts: Old Aramaic (in turn subdivided into Ancient, Imperial, Old Eastern and Old Western Aramaic) Middle Aramaic, and Modern Aramaic of the present day. The term Middle Aramaic refers to the form of Aramaic which appears in pointed texts and is reached in the 3rd century AD with the loss of short unstressed vowels in open syllables, and continues until the triumph of Arabic. Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the official language of the first Aramaean states. The oldest witnesses to it are inscriptions from northern Syria of the 10th to 8th centuries BC, especially extensive state treaties (c. 750 BC) and royal inscriptions. The early Old Ancient should be classified as "Ancient Aramaic" and consists of two clearly distinguished and standardised written languages, the Early Ancient Aramaic and the Late Ancient Aramaic. Aramaic was influenced at first principally by Akkadian, then from the 5th century BC by Persian and from the 3rd century BC onwards by Greek, as well as by Hebrew, especially in Palestine. As Aramaic evolved into the imperial language of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the script used to write it underwent a change into something more cursive. The best examples of this script come from documents written on papyrus from Egypt. About 500 BC, Darius I (522–486) made the Aramaic used by the imperial administration into the official language of the western half of the Achaemenid Empire. This so-called "Imperial Aramaic" (the oldest dated example, from Egypt, belonging to 495 BC) is based on an otherwise unknown written form of Ancient Aramaic from Babylonia. In orthography, Imperial Aramaic preserves historical forms—alphabet, orthography, morphology, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and style are highly standardised. Only the formularies of the private documents and the Proverbs of Ahiqar have maintained an older tradition of sentence structure and style. Imperial Aramaic immediately replaced Ancient Aramaic as a written language and, with slight modifications, it remained the official, commercial and literary language of the Near East until gradually, beginning with the fall of the Achaemenids in 331 BC and ending in the 4th century AD, it was replaced by Greek, Persian, the eastern and western dialects of Aramaic and Arabic, though not without leaving its traces in the written form of most of these. In its original Achaemenid form, Imperial Aramaic is found in texts of the 5th to 3rd centuries BC. These come mostly from Egypt and especially from the Jewish military colony of Elephantine, which existed at least from 530 to 399 BC. == Greek palaeography == A history of Greek handwriting must be incomplete owing to the fragmentary nature of evidence. If one rules out the inscriptions on stone or metal, which belong to the science of epigraphy, there is practically a dependence on papyri from Egypt for the period preceding the 4th or 5th century AD, the earliest of which take back our knowledge only to the end of the 4th century BC. This limitation is less serious than might appear, since the few manuscripts not of Egyptian origin which have survived from this period, like the parchments from Avroman or Dura-Europos, the Herculaneum papyri, and a few documents found in Egypt but written elsewhere, reveal a uniformity of style in the various portions of the Greek world; however, differences can be discerned, with it being probable that distinct local styles could be traced were there more material to analyze. Further, during any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called "uncials" but, in the papyrus period, better styled "book-hand") and that of documents ("cursive") and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. The development of any hand is largely influenced by the materials used. To this general rule the Greek script is no exception. Whatever may have been the period at which the use of papyrus or leather as a writing material began in Greece (and papyrus was employed in the 5th century BC), it is highly probable that for some time after the introduction of the alphabet the characters were incised with a sharp tool on stones or metal far oftener than they were written with a pen. In cutting a hard surface, it is easier to form angles than curves; in writing the reverse is the case; hence the development of writing was from angular letters ("capitals") inherited from epigraphic style to rounded ones ("uncials"). But only certain letters were affected by this development, in particular ⟨E⟩ (uncial ⟨ε⟩), ⟨Σ⟩ (⟨c⟩), ⟨Ω⟩ (⟨ω⟩), and to a lesser extent ⟨A⟩ (⟨α⟩). === Ptolemaic period === The earliest Greek papyrus yet discovered is probably that containing the Persae of Timotheus, which dates from the second half of the 4th century BC and its script has a curiously archaic appearance. ⟨E⟩, ⟨Σ⟩, and ⟨Ω⟩ have the capital form, and apart from these test letters the general effect is one of stiffness and angularity. More striking is the hand of the earliest dated papyrus, a contract of 311 BC. Written with more ease and elegance, it shows little trace of any development towards a truly cursive style; the letters are not linked, and though the uncial ⟨c⟩ is used throughout, ⟨E⟩ and ⟨Ω⟩ have the capital forms. A similar impression is made by the few other papyri, chiefly literary, dating from about 300 BC; ⟨E⟩ may be slightly rounded, ⟨Ω⟩ approach the uncial form, and the angular ⟨Σ⟩ occurs as a letter only in the Timotheus papyrus, though it survived longer as a numeral (= 200), but the hands hardly suggest that for at least a century and a half the art of writing on papyrus had been well established. Yet before the middle of the 3rd century BC, one finds both a practised book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive. These facts may be due to accident, the few early papyri happening to represent an archaic style which had survived along with a more advanced one; but it is likely that there was a rapid development at this period, due partly to the opening of Egypt, with its supplies of papyri, and still more to the establishment of the great Alexandrian Library, which systematically copied literary and scientific works, and to the multifarious activities of Hellenistic bureaucracy. From here onward, the two types of script were sufficiently distinct (though each influenced the other) to require separate treatment. Some literary papyri, like the roll containing Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, were written in cursive hands, and, conversely, the book-hand was occasionally used for documents. Since the scribe did not date literary rolls, such papyri are useful in tracing the development of the book-hand. The documents of the mid-3rd century BC show a great variety of cursive hands. There are none from chancelleries of the Hellenistic monarchs, but some letters, notably those of Apollonius, the finance minister of Ptolemy II, to this agent, Zeno, and those of the Palestinian sheikh, Toubias, are in a type of script which cannot be very unlike the Chancery hand of the time, and show the Ptolemaic cursive at its best. These hands have a noble spaciousness and strength, and though the individual letters are by no means uniform in size there is a real unity of style, the general impression being one of breadth and uprightness. ⟨H⟩, with the cross-stroke high, ⟨Π⟩, ⟨Μ⟩, with the middle stroke reduced to a very shallow curve, sometimes approaching a horizontal line, ⟨Υ⟩, and ⟨Τ⟩, with its cross-bar extending much further to the left than to the right of the up-stroke, ⟨Γ⟩ and ⟨Ν⟩, whose last stroke is prolonged upwards above the line, often curving backwards, are all broad; ⟨ε⟩, ⟨c⟩, ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨β⟩, which sometimes takes the form of two almost perpendicular strokes joined only at the top, are usually small; ⟨ω⟩ is rather flat, its second loop reduced to a practically straight line. Partly by the broad flat tops of the larger letters, partly by the insertion of a stroke connecting those (like H, Υ) which are not naturally adapted to linking, the scribes produced the effect of a horizontal line along the top of the writing, from which the letters seem to hang. This feature is indeed a general characteristic of the more formal Ptolemaic script, but it is specially marked in the 3rd century BC. Besides these hand of Chancery type, there are numerous less elaborate examples of cursive, varying according to the writer's skill and degree of education, and many of them strikingly easy and handsome. In some cursiveness is carried very far, the linking of letters reaching the point of illegibility, and the characters sloping to the right. ⟨A⟩ is reduced to a mere acute angle (⟨∠⟩), ⟨T⟩ has the cross-stroke only on the left, ⟨ω⟩ becomes an almost straight line, ⟨H⟩ acquires a shape somewhat like h, and the last stroke of ⟨N⟩ is extended far upwards and at times flattened out until it is little more than a diagonal stroke to the right. The attempt to secure a horizontal line along the top is here abandoned. This style was not due to inexpertness, but to the desire for speed, being used especially in accounts and drafts, and was generally the work of practised writers. How well established the cursive hand had now become is shown in some wax tablets of this period, the writing on which, despite the difference of material, closely resemble the hands of papyri. Documents of the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BC show there is nothing analogous to the Apollonius letters, perhaps partly by the accident of survival. In the more formal types the letters stand rather stiffly upright, often without the linking strokes, and are more uniform in size; in the more cursive they are apt to be packed closely together. These features are more marked in the hands of the 2nd century. The less cursive often show am approximation to the book-hand, the letters growing rounder and less angular than in the 3rd century; in the more cursive linking was carried further, both by the insertion of coupling strokes and by the writing of several letters continuously without raising the pen, so that before the end of the century an almost current hand was evolved. A characteristic letter, which survived into the early Roman period, is ⟨T⟩, with its cross-stroke made in two portions (variants:). In the 1st century, the hand tended, so far as can be inferred from surviving examples, to disintegrate; one can recognise the signs which portend a change of style, irregularity, want of direction, and the loss of the feeling for style. A fortunate accident has preserved two Greek parchments written in Parthia, one dated 88 BC, in a practically unligatured hand, the other, 22/21 BC, in a very cursive script of Ptolemaic type; and though each has non-Egyptian features the general character indicates a uniformity of style in the Hellenistic world. The development of the Ptolemaic book-hand is difficult to trace, as there are few examples, mostly not datable on external grounds. Only for the 3rd century BC have we a secure basis. The hands of that period have an angular appearance; there is little uniformity in the size of individual letters, and though sometimes, notably in the Petrie papyrus containing the Phaedo of Plato, a style of considerable delicacy is attained, the book-hand in general shows less mastery than the contemporary cursive. In the 2nd century, the letters grew rounder and more uniform in size, but in the 1st century there is a certain disintegration perceptible, as in the cursive hand. Probably at no time did the Ptolemaic book-hand acquire such unity of stylistic effect as the cursive. === Roman period === Papyri of the Roman period are far more numerous and show greater variety. The cursive of the 1st century has a rather broken appearance, part of one character being often made separately from the rest and linked to the next letter. A form characteristic of the 1st and 2nd century and surviving after that only as a fraction sign (1⁄8) is ⟨η⟩ in the shape . By the end of the 1st century, there had been developed several excellent types of cursive, which, though differing considerably both in the forms of individual letters and in general appearance, bear a family likeness to one another. Qualities which are specially noticeable are roundness in the shape of letters, continuity of formation, the pen being carried on from character to character, and regularity, the letters not differing strikingly in size and projecting strokes above or below the line being avoided. Sometimes, especially in tax-receipts and in stereotyped formulae, cursiveness is carried to an extreme. In a letter of the prefect, dated in 209, we have a fine example of the Chancery hand, with tall and laterally compressed letters, ⟨ο⟩ very narrow and ⟨α⟩ and ⟨ω⟩ often written high in the line. This style, from at least the latter part of the 2nd century, exercised considerable influence on the local hands, many of which show the same characteristics less pronounced; and its effects may be traced into the early part of the 4th century. Hands of the 3rd century uninfluenced by it show a falling off from the perfection of the 2nd century; stylistic uncertainty and a growing coarseness of execution mark a period of decline and transition. Several different types of book-hand were used in the Roman period. Particularly handsome is a round, upright hand seen, for example, in a British Museum papyrus containing Odyssey III. The cross-stroke of ⟨ε⟩ is high, ⟨Μ⟩ deeply curved and ⟨Α⟩ has the form ⟨α⟩. Uniformity of size is well attained, and a few strokes project, and these but slightly, above or below the line. Another type, well called by palaeographer Schubart the "severe" style, has a more angular appearance and not infrequently slopes to the right; though handsome, it has not the sumptuous appearance of the former. There are various classes of a less pretentious style, in which convenience rather than beauty was the first consideration and no pains were taken to avoid irregularities in the shape and alignment of the letters. Lastly may be mentioned a hand which is of great interest as being the ancestor of the type called (from its later occurrence in vellum codices of the Bible) the biblical hand. This, which can be traced back at least the late 2nd century, has a square, rather heavy appearance; the letters, of uniform size, stand upright, and thick and thin strokes are well distinguished. In the 3rd century the book-hand, like the cursive, appears to have deteriorated in regularity and stylistic accomplishment. In the charred rolls found at Herculaneum are specimens of Greek literary hands from outside Egypt dating to c. 1 AD. A comparison with the Egyptian papyri reveals great similarity in style and shows that conclusions drawn from the henads of Egypt may, with caution, be applied to the development of writing in the Greek world generally. === Byzantine period === The cursive hand of the 4th century shows some uncertainty of character. Side by side with the style founded on the Chancery hand, regular in formation and with tall and narrow letters, which characterised the period of Diocletian, and lasted well into the century, we find many other types mostly marked by a certain looseness and irregularity. A general progress towards a florid and sprawling hand is easily recognisable, but a consistent and deliberate style was hardly evolved before the 5th century, from which unfortunately few dated documents have survived. Byzantine cursive tends to an exuberant hand, in which the long strokes are excessively extended and individual letters often much enlarged. But not a few hands of the 5th and 6th centuries are truly handsome and show considerable technical accomplishment. Both an upright and a sloping type occur and there are many less ornamental hands, but there gradually emerged towards the 7th century two general types, one (especially used in letters and contracts) a current hand, sloping to the right, with long strokes in such characters at ⟨τ⟩, ⟨ρ⟩, ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨η⟩ (which has the h shape), ⟨ι⟩, and ⟨κ⟩, and with much linking of letters, and another (frequent in accounts), which shows, at least in essence, most of the forms of the later minuscule. (cf. below.) This is often upright, though a slope to the right is quite common, and sometimes, especially in one or two documents of the early Arabic period, it has an almost calligraphic effect. In the Byzantine period, the book-hand, which in earlier times had more than once approximated to the contemporary cursive, diverged widely from it. === Vellum and paper manuscripts === The change from papyrus to vellum involved no such modification in the forms of letters as followed that from metal to papyrus. The justification for considering the two materials separately is that after the general adoption of vellum, the Egyptian evidence is first supplemented and later superseded by that of manuscripts from elsewhere, and that during this period the hand most used was one not previously employed for literary purposes. ==== Uncial hand ==== The prevailing type of book-hand during what in papyrology is called the Byzantine period, that is, roughly from AD 300 to 650, is known as the biblical hand. It went back to at least the end of the 2nd century and had had originally no special connection with Christian literature. In both vellum and paper manuscripts from 4th-century Egypt are other forms of script, particularly a sloping, rather inelegant hand derived from the literary hand of the 3rd century, which persisted until at least the 5th century. The three great early codices of the Bible are all written in uncials of the biblical type. In the Vaticanus, placed during the 4th century, the characteristics of the hand are least strongly marked; the letters have the forms characteristic of the type but without the heavy appearance of later manuscripts, and the general impression is one of greater roundness. In the Sinaiticus, which is not much later, the letters are larger and more heavily made; in the 5th-century Alexandrinus, a later development is seen with emphatic distinction of thick and thin strokes. By the 6th century, alike in vellum and in papyrus manuscripts, the heaviness had become very marked, though the hand still retained, in its best examples, a handsome appearance; but after this it steadily deteriorated, becoming ever more mechanical and artificial. The thick strokes grew heavier; the cross strokes of ⟨T⟩ and ⟨Θ⟩ and the base of ⟨Δ⟩ were furnished with drooping spurs. The hand, which is often singularly ugly, passed through various modifications, now sloping, now upright, though it is not certain that these variations were really successive rather than concurrent. A different type of uncials, derived from the Chancery hand and seen in two papyrus examples of the Festal letters despatched annually by the Patriarch of Alexandria, was occasionally used, the best known example being the Codex Marchalianus (6th or 7th century). A combination of this hand with the other type is also known. ==== Minuscule hand ==== The uncial hand lingered on, mainly for liturgical manuscripts, where a large and easily legible script was serviceable, as late as the 12th century, but in ordinary use it had long been superseded by a new type of hand, the minuscule, which originated in the 8th century, as an adaptation to literary purposes of the second of the types of Byzantine cursive mentioned above. A first attempt at a calligraphic use of this hand, seen in one or two manuscripts of the 8th or early 9th century, in which it slopes to the right and has a narrow, angular appearance, did not find favour, but by the end of the 9th century a more ornamental type, from which modern Greek script descended, was already established. It has been suggested that it was evolved in the Monastery of Stoudios at Constantinople. In its earliest examples it is upright and exact but lacks flexibility; accents are small, breathings square in formation, and in general only such ligatures are used as involve no change in the shape of letters. The single forms have a general resemblance (with considerable differences in detail) both to the minuscule cursive of late papyri, and to those used in modern Greek type; uncial forms were avoided. In the course of the 10th century the hand, without losing its beauty and exactness, gained in freedom. Its finest period was from the 9th to the 12th century, after which it rapidly declined. The development was marked by a tendency to the intrusion, in growing quantity, of uncial forms which good scribes could fit into the line without disturbing the unity of style but which, in less expert hands, had a disintegrating effect; to the disproportionate enlargement of single letters, especially at the beginnings and ends of lines; to ligatures, often very fantastic, which quite changed the forms of letters; to the enlargement of accents, breathings at the same time acquiring the modern rounded form. But from the first there were several styles, varying from the formal, regular hands characteristic of service books to the informal style, marked by numerous abbreviations, used in manuscripts intended only for a scholar's private use. The more formal hands were exceedingly conservative, and there are few classes of script more difficult to date than the Greek minuscule of this class. In the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries a sloping hand, less dignified than the upright, formal type, but often very handsome, was especially used for manuscripts of the classics. Hands of the 11th century are marked in general (though there are exceptions) by a certain grace and delicacy, exact but easy; those of the 12th by a broad, bold sweep and an increasing freedom, which readily admits uncial forms, ligatures and enlarged letters but has not lost the sense of style and decorative effect. In the 13th and still more in the 14th centuries there was a steady decline; the less formal hands lost their beauty and exactness, becoming ever more disorderly and chaotic in their effect, while formal style imitated the precision of an earlier period without attaining its freedom and naturalness, and often appears singularly lifeless. In the 15th century, especially in the West, where Greek scribes were in request to produce manuscripts of the classical authors, there was a revival, and several manuscripts of this period, though markedly inferior to those of the 11th and 12th centuries, are by no means without beauty. === Accents, punctuation, and division of words === In the book-hand of early papyri, neither accents nor breathings were employed. Their use was established by the beginning of the Roman period, but was sporadic in papyri, where they were used as an aid to understanding, and therefore more frequently in poetry than prose, and in lyrical oftener than in other verse. In the cursive of papyri they are practically unknown, as are marks of punctuation. Punctuation was effected in early papyri, literary and documentary, by spaces, reinforced in the book-hand by the paragraphos, a horizontal stroke under the beginning of the line. The coronis, a more elaborate form of this, marked the beginning of lyrics or the principal sections of a longer work. Punctuation marks, the comma, the high, low and middle points, were established in the book-hand by the Roman period; in early Ptolemaic papyri, a double point (⟨:⟩) is found. In vellum and paper manuscripts, punctuation marks and accents were regularly used from at least the 8th century, though with some differences from modern practice. At no period down to the invention of printing did Greek scribes consistently separate words. The book-hand of papyri aimed at an unbroken succession of letters, except for distinction of sections; in cursive hands, especially where abbreviations were numerous, some tendency to separate words may be recognised, but in reality it was phrases or groups of letters rather than words which were divided. In the later minuscule word-division is much commoner but never became systematic, accents and breathings serving of themselves to indicate the proper division. == China == == India == The view that the art of writing in India developed gradually, as in other areas of the world, by going through the stages of pictographic, ideographic and transitional phases of the phonetic script, which in turn developed into syllabic and alphabetic scripts was challenged by Falk and others in the early 1990s. In the new paradigm, Indian alphabetic writing, called Brahmi, was discontinuous with earlier, undeciphered, glyphs, and was invented specifically by King Ashoka for application in his royal edicts 250 BC. In the subcontinent, Kharosthi (clearly derived from the Aramaic alphabet) was used at the same time in the northwest, next to Brahmi (at least influenced by Aramaic) elsewhere. In addition, the Greek alphabet were also added to the Indian context after its penetration in the early centuries AD, with the Arabic alphabet following in the 13th century. After a lapse of a few centuries the Kharoṣṭhi script became obsolete; the Greek script in India went through a similar fate and disappeared. But the Brahmi and Arabic scripts endured for a much longer period. Moreover, there was a change and development in the Brahmi script which may be traced in time and space through the Maurya, Kuṣaṇa, Gupta and early medieval periods. The present-day Nāgarī script is derived from Brahmi. The Brahmi is also the ancestral script of most other Indian scripts, in northern and southern South Asia. Legends and inscriptions in Brahmi are engraved upon leather, wood, terracotta, ivory, stone, copper, bronze, silver and gold. Arabic got an important place, particularly in the royalty, during the medieval period and it provides rich material for history writing. The decipherment and subsequent development of Indus glyphs is also a matter for continuing research and discussion. Most of the available inscriptions and manuscripts written in the above scripts—in languages like Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Apabhraṃśa, Tamil and Persian—have been read and exploited for history writing, but numerous inscriptions preserved in different museums still remain undeciphered for lack of competent palaeographic Indologists, as there is a gradual decline in the subcontinent of such disciplines as palaeography, epigraphy and numismatics. The discipline of ancient Indian scripts and the languages they are written needs new scholars who, by adopting traditional palaeographic methods and modern technology, may decipher, study and transcribe the various types of epigraphs and legends still extant today. The language of the earliest written records, that is, the Edicts of Ashoka, is Prakrit. Besides Prakrit, the Ashokan edicts are also written in Greek and Aramaic. Moreover, all the edicts of Ashoka engraved in the Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts are in the Prakrit language: thus, originally the language employed in the inscriptions was Prakrit, with Sanskrit adopted at a later stage. Past the period of the Maurya Empire, the use of Prakrit continued in inscriptions for a few more centuries. In north India, Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit by the end of the 3rd century, while this change took place about a century later in south India. Some of the inscriptions though written in Prakrit, were influenced by Sanskrit and vice versa. The epigraphs of the Kushana kings are found in a mixture of Prakrit and Sanskrit, while the Mathura inscriptions of the time of Sodasa, belonging to the first quarter of the 1st century, contain verses in classical Sanskrit. From the 4th century onwards, the Gupta Empire came to power and supported the Sanskrit language and literature. In western India and also in some regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, Prakrit was used till the 4th century, mostly in the Buddhist writings though in a few contemporary records of the Ikshvakus of Nagarjunakonda, Sanskrit was applied. The inscription of Yajna Sri Satakarni (2nd century) from Amaravati is considered to be the earliest so far. The earlier writings (4th century) of Salankayanas of the Telugu region are in Prakrit, while their later records (belonging to the 5th century) are written in Sanskrit. In the Kannada speaking area, inscriptions belonging to later Satavahanas and Chutus were written in Prakrit. From the 4th century onwards, with the rise of the Guptas, Sanskrit became the predominant language of India and continued to be employed in texts and inscriptions of all parts of India along with the regional languages in the subsequent centuries. The copper-plate charters of the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Pandyas documents are written in both Sanskrit and Tamil. Kannada is used in texts dating from about the 5th century and the Halmidi inscription is considered to be the earliest epigraph written in the Kannada language. Inscriptions in Telugu began to appear from the 6th or 7th century. Malayalam made its beginning in writings from the 15th century onwards. === North India === In north India, the Brahmi script was used over a vast area; however, Ashokan inscriptions are also found using Kharoshthi, Aramaic and Greek scripts. With the advent of the Saka-Kshatrapas and the Kushanas as political powers in north India, the writing system underwent a definite change due to the use of new writing tools and techniques. Further development of the Brahmi script and perceivable changes in its evolutionary trend can be discerned during the Gupta period: in fact, the Gupta script is considered to be the successor of the Kushana script in north India. From the 6th to about the 10th century, the inscriptions in north India were written in a script variously named, e.g., Siddhamatrika and Kutila ("Rañjanā script"). From the 8th century, Siddhamatrika developed into the Śāradā script in Kashmir and Punjab, into Proto-Bengali or Gaudi in Bengal and Orissa, and into Nagari in other parts of north India. Nagari script was used widely in northern India from the 10th century onwards. The use of Nandinagari, a variant of Nagari script, is mostly confined to the Karnataka region. In central India, mostly in Madhya Pradesh, the inscriptions of the Vakatakas, and the kings of Sarabhapura and Kosala were written in what are known as "box-headed" and "nail-headed" characters. It may be noted that the early Kadambas of Karnataka also employed "nail-headed" characters in some of their inscriptions. During the 3rd–4th century, the script used in the inscriptions of Ikshvakus of Nagarjunakonda developed a unique style of letter-forms with elongated verticals and artistic flourishes, which did not continue after their rule. === South India === The earliest attested form of writing in South India is represented by inscriptions found in caves, associated with the Chalukya and Chera dynasties. These are written in variants of what is known as the Cave character, and their script differs from the Northern version in being more angular. Most of the modern scripts of South India have evolved from this script, with the exception of Vatteluttu, the exact origins of which are unknown, and Nandinagari, which is a variant of Devanagari that developed due to later Northern influence. In south India from the 7th century of the common era onwards, a number of inscriptions belonging to the dynasties of Pallava, Chola and Pandya are found. These records are written in three different scripts known as Tamil, Vattezhuttu and Grantha scripts, the last variety being used to write Sanskrit inscriptions. In the Kerala region, the Vattezhuttu script developed into a still more cursive script called Kolezhuthu during the 14th and 15th centuries. At the same time, the modern Malayalam script developed out of the Grantha script. The early form of the Telugu-Kannada script is found in the inscriptions of the early Kadambas of Banavasi and the early Chalukyas of Badami in the west, and Salankayana and the early Eastern Chalukyas in the east who ruled the Kannada and Telugu speaking areas respectively, during the 4th to 7th centuries. ==== List of South Indian scripts ==== Brahmi script Chalukya and Chera cultures Grantha script Kannada script Malayalam script Nāgarī script and Nandinagari Tamil script (cf. also Abagada writing system) Telugu script == Latin == Attention should be drawn at the outset to certain fundamental definitions and principles of the science. The original characters of an alphabet are modified by the material and the implements used. When stone and chisel are discarded for papyrus and reed-pen, the hand encounters less resistance and moves more rapidly. This leads to changes in the size and position of the letters, and then to the joining of letters, and, consequently, to altered shapes. We are thus confronted at an early date with quite distinct types. The majuscule style of writing, based on two parallel lines, ADPL, is opposed to the minuscule, based on a system of four lines, with letters of unequal height, adpl. Another classification, according to the care taken in forming the letters, distinguishes between the set book-hand and the cursive script. The difference in this case is determined by the subject matter of the text; the writing used for books (scriptura libraria) is in all periods quite distinct from that used for letters and documents (epistolaris, diplomatica). While the set book-hand, in majuscule or minuscule, shows a tendency to stabilise the forms of the letters, the cursive, often carelessly written, is continually changing in the course of years and according to the preferences of the writers. This being granted, a summary survey of the morphological history of the Latin alphabet shows the zenith of its modifications at once, for its history is divided into two very unequal periods, the first dominated by majuscule and the second by minuscule writing. === Overview === Jean Mabillon, a French Benedictine monk, scholar and antiquary, whose work De re diplomatica was published in 1681, is widely regarded as the founder of the twin disciplines of palaeography and diplomatics. However, the actual term "palaeography" was coined (in Latin) by Bernard de Montfaucon, a Benedictine monk, in the title of his Palaeographia Graeca (1708), which remained a standard work in the specific field of Greek palaeography for more than a century. With their establishment of palaeography, Mabillon and his fellow Benedictines were responding to the Jesuit Daniel Papebroch, who doubted the authenticity of some of the documents which the Benedictines offered as credentials for the authorisation of their monasteries. In the 19th century such scholars as Wilhelm Wattenbach, Leopold Delisle and Ludwig Traube contributed greatly to making palaeography independent from diplomatic. In the 20th century, the "New French School" of palaeographers, especially Jean Mallon, gave a new direction to the study of scripts by stressing the importance of ductus (the shape and order of the strokes used to compose letters) in studying the historical development of scripts. === Majuscule writing === ==== Capital writing ==== The Latin alphabet first appears in the epigraphic type of majuscule writing, known as capitals. These characters form the main stem from which developed all the branches of Latin writing. On the oldest monuments (the inscriptiones bello Hannibalico antiquiores of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum = CIL), it is far from showing the orderly regularity of the later period. Side by side with upright and square characters are angular and sloping forms, sometimes very distorted, which seem to indicate the existence of an early cursive writing from which they would have been borrowed. Certain literary texts clearly allude to such a hand. Later, the characters of the cursive type were progressively eliminated from formal inscriptions, and capital writing reached its perfection in the Augustan Age. Epigraphists divide the numerous inscriptions of this period into two quite distinct classes: tituli, or formal inscriptions engraved on stone in elegant and regular capitals, and acta, or legal texts, documents, etc., generally engraved on bronze in cramped and careless capitals. Palaeography inherits both these types. Reproduced by scribes on papyrus or parchment, the elegant characters of the inscriptions become the square capitals of the manuscripts, and the actuaria, as the writing of the acta is called, becomes the rustic capital. Of the many books written in square capitals, the éditions de luxe of ancient times, only a few fragments have survived, the most famous being pages from manuscripts of Virgil. The finest examples of rustic capitals, the use of which is attested by papyri of the 1st century, are to be found in manuscripts of Virgil and Terence. Neither of these forms of capital writing offers any difficulty in reading, except that no space is left between the words. Their dates are still uncertain, in spite of attempts to determine them by minute observation. The rustic capitals, more practical than the square forms, soon came into general use. This was the standard form of writing, so far as books are concerned, until the 5th century, when it was replaced by a new type, the uncial, which is discussed below. ==== Early cursive writing ==== While the set book-hand, in square or rustic capitals, was used for the copying of books, the writing of everyday life, letters and documents of all kinds, was in a cursive form, the oldest examples of which are provided by the graffiti on walls at Pompeii (CIL, iv), a series of waxen tablets, also discovered at Pompeii (CIL, iv, supplement), a similar series found at Verespatak in Transylvania (CIL, iii) and a number of papyri. From a study of a number of documents which exhibit transitional forms, it appears that this cursive was originally simplified capital writing. The evolution was so rapid, however, that at quite an early date the scriptura epistolaris of the Roman world can no longer be described as capitals. By the 1st century, this kind of writing began to develop the principal characteristics of two new types: the uncial and the minuscule cursive. With the coming into use of writing surfaces which were smooth, or offered little resistance, the unhampered haste of the writer altered the shape, size and position of the letters. In the earliest specimens of writing on wax, plaster or papyrus, there appears a tendency to represent several straight strokes by a single curve. The cursive writing thus foreshadows the specifically uncial forms. The same specimens show great inequality in the height of the letters; the main strokes are prolonged upwards (= ⟨b⟩; = ⟨d⟩) or downwards (= ⟨q⟩; = 's). In this direction, the cursive tends to become a minuscule hand. ==== Uncial writing ==== Although the characteristic forms of the uncial type appear to have their origin in the early cursive, the two hands are nevertheless quite distinct. The uncial is a libraria, closely related to the capital writing, from which it differs only in the rounding off of the angles of certain letters, principally . It represents a compromise between the beauty and legibility of the capitals and the rapidity of the cursive, and is clearly an artificial product. It was certainly in existence by the latter part of the 4th century, for a number of manuscripts of that date are written in perfect uncial hands (Exempla, pl. XX). It presently supplanted the capitals and appears in numerous manuscripts which have survived from the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, when it was at its height. By this time it had become an imitative hand, in which there was generally no room for spontaneous development. It remained noticeably uniform over a long period. It is difficult therefore to date the manuscripts by palaeographical criteria alone. The most that can be done is to classify them by centuries, on the strength of tenuous data. The earliest uncial writing is easily distinguished by its simple and monumental character from the later hands, which become progressively stiff and affected. === List of Latin alphabets === Old Italic script Roman cursive Roman square capitals Rustic capitals === Minuscule cursive writing === ==== Early minuscule cursive ==== In the ancient cursive writing, from the 1st century onward, there are symptoms of transformation in the form of certain letters, the shape and proportions of which correspond more closely to the definition of minuscule writing than to that of majuscule. Rare and irregular at first, they gradually become more numerous and more constant and by degrees supplant the majuscule forms, so that in the history of the Roman cursive there is no precise boundary between the majuscule and minuscule periods. The oldest example of minuscule cursive writing that has been discovered is a letter on papyrus, found in Egypt, dating from the 4th century. This marks a highly important date in the history of Latin writing, for with only one known exception, not yet adequately explained—two fragments of imperial rescripts of the 5th century—the minuscule cursive was consequently the only scriptura epistolaris of the Roman world. The ensuing succession of documents show a continuous improvement in this form of writing, characterised by the boldness of the strokes and by the elimination of the last lingering majuscule forms. The Ravenna deeds of the 5th and 6th centuries exhibit this hand at its perfection. At this period, the minuscule cursive made its appearance as a book hand, first as marginal notes, and later for the complete books themselves. The only difference between the book-hand and that used for documents is that the principal strokes are shorter and the characters thicker. This form of the hand is usually called semi-cursive. ==== National hands ==== The fall of the Empire and the establishment of the barbarians within its former boundaries did not interrupt the use of the Roman minuscule cursive hand, which was adopted by the newcomers. But for gaps of over a century in the chronological series of documents which have been preserved, it would be possible to follow the evolution of the Roman cursive into the so-called "national hands", forms of minuscule writing which flourished after the barbarian invasions in Italy, France, Spain, England and Ireland, and which are still known as Lombardic, Merovingian, Visigothic, Anglo-Saxon and Irish. These names came into use at a time when the various national hands were believed to have been invented by the peoples who used them, but their connotation is merely geographical. Nevertheless, in spite of a close resemblance which betrays their common origin, these hands are specifically different, perhaps because the Roman cursive was developed by each nation in accordance with its artistic tradition. Lombardic writing In Italy, after the close of the Roman and Byzantine periods, the writing is known as Lombardic, a generic term which comprises several local varieties. These may be classified under four principal types: two for the scriptura epistolaris, the old Italian cursive and the papal chancery hand, or littera romana, and two for the libraria, the old Italian book-hand and Lombardic in the narrow sense, sometimes known as Beneventana because it flourished in the principality of Benevento. The oldest preserved documents written in the old Italian cursive show all the essential characteristics of the Roman cursive of the 6th century. In northern Italy, this hand began in the 9th century to be influenced by a minuscule book-hand which developed, as will be seen later, in the time of Charlemagne; under this influence it gradually disappeared, and ceased to exist in the course of the 12th century. In southern Italy, it persisted far on into the later Middle Ages. The papal chancery hand, a variety of Lombardic peculiar to the vicinity of Rome and principally used in papal documents, is distinguished by the formation of the letters a, e, q, t. It is formal in appearance at first, but is gradually simplified, under the influence of the Carolingian minuscule, which finally prevailed in the bulls of Honorius II (1124–1130). The notaries public in Rome continued to use the papal chancery hand until the beginning of the 13th century. The old Italian book-hand is simply a semi-cursive of the type already described as in use in the 6th century. The principal examples are derived from scriptoria in northern Italy, where it was displaced by the Carolingian minuscule during the 9th century. In southern Italy, this hand persisted, developing into a calligraphic form of writing, and in the 10th century took on a very artistic angular appearance. The Exultet rolls provide the finest examples. In the 9th century, it was introduced in Dalmatia by the Benedictine monks and developed there, as in Apulia, on the basis of the archetype, culminating in a rounded Beneventana known as the Bari type. Merovingian The offshoot of the Roman cursive which developed in Gaul under the first dynasty of kings is called Merovingian writing. It is represented by thirty-eight royal diplomas, a number of private charters and the authenticating documents of relics. Though less than a century intervenes between the Ravenna cursive and the oldest extant Merovingian document (AD 625), there is a great difference in appearance between the two writings. The facile flow of the former is replaced by a cramped style, in which the natural slope to the right gives way to an upright hand, and the letters, instead of being fully outlined, are compressed to such an extent that they modify the shape of other letters. Copyists of books used a cursive similar to that found in documents, except that the strokes are thicker, the forms more regular, and the heads and tails shorter. The Merovingian cursive as used in books underwent simplification in some localities, undoubtedly through the influence of the minuscule book-hand of the period. The two principal centres of this reform were Luxeuil and Corbie. Visigothic In Spain, after the Visigothic conquest, the Roman cursive gradually developed special characteristics. Some documents attributed to the 7th century display a transitional hand with straggling and rather uncouth forms. The distinctive features of Visigothic writing, the most noticeable of which is certainly the q-shaped ⟨g⟩, did not appear until later, in the book-hand. The book-hand became set at an early date. In the 8th century it appears as a sort of semi-cursive; the earliest example of certain date is ms lxxxix in the Capitular Library in Verona. From the 9th century the calligraphic forms become broader and more rounded until the 11th century, when they become slender and angular. The Visigothic minuscule appears in a cursive form in documents about the middle of the 9th century, and in the course of time grows more intricate and consequently less legible. It soon came into competition with the Carolingian minuscule, which supplanted it as a result of the presence in Spain of French elements such as Cluniac monks and warriors engaged in the campaign against the Moors. The Irish and Anglo-Saxon hands, which were not directly derived from the Roman minuscule cursive, will be discussed in a separate sub-section below. === Set minuscule writing === One by one, the national minuscule cursive hands were replaced by a set minuscule hand which has already been mentioned and its origins may now be traced from the beginning. ==== Half-uncial writing ==== The early cursive was the medium in which the minuscule forms were gradually evolved from the corresponding majuscule forms. Minuscule writing was therefore cursive in its inception. As the minuscule letters made their appearance in the cursive writing of documents, they were adopted and given calligraphic form by the copyists of literary texts, so that the set minuscule alphabet was constituted gradually, letter by letter, following the development of the minuscule cursive. Just as some documents written in the early cursive show a mixture of majuscule and minuscule forms, so certain literary papyri of the 3rd century, and inscriptions on stone of the 4th century yield examples of a mixed set hand, with minuscule forms side by side with capital and uncial letters. The number of minuscule forms increases steadily in texts written in the mixed hand, and especially in marginal notes, until by the end of the 5th century the majuscule forms have almost entirely disappeared in some manuscripts. This quasi-minuscule writing, known as the "half-uncial" thus derives from a long line of mixed hands which, in a synoptic chart of Latin scripts, would appear close to the oldest librariae, and between them and the epistolaris (cursive), from which its characteristic forms were successively derived. It had a considerable influence on the continental scriptura libraria of the 7th and 8th centuries. ==== Irish and Anglo-Saxon writing ==== The half-uncial hand was introduced in Ireland along with Latin culture in the 5th century by priests and laymen from Gaul, fleeing before the barbarian invasions. It was adopted there to the exclusion of the cursive, and soon took on a distinct character. There are two well established classes of Irish writing as early as the 7th century: a large round half-uncial hand, in which certain majuscule forms frequently appear, and a pointed hand, which becomes more cursive and more genuinely minuscule. The latter developed out of the former. One of the distinguishing marks of manuscripts of Irish origin is to be found in the initial letters, which are ornamented by interlacing, animal forms, or a frame of red dots. The most certain evidence, however, is provided by the system of abbreviations and by the combined square and cuneiform appearance of the minuscule at the height of its development. The two types of Irish writing were introduced in the north of Great Britain by the monks, and were soon adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, being so exactly copied that it is sometimes difficult to determine the origin of an example. Gradually, however, the Anglo-Saxon writing developed a distinct style, and even local types, which were superseded after the Norman conquest by the Carolingian minuscule. Through St Columbanus and his followers, Irish writing spread to the continent, and manuscripts were written in the Irish hand in the monasteries of Bobbio Abbey and St Gall during the 7th and 8th centuries. ==== Pre-Caroline ==== James J. John points out that the disappearance of imperial authority around the end of the 5th century in most of the Latin-speaking half of the Roman Empire does not entail the disappearance of the Latin scripts, but rather introduced conditions that would allow the various provinces of the West gradually to drift apart in their writing habits, a process that began around the 7th century. Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great, d. 604) was influential in the spread of Christianity to Britain and also sent Queens Theodelinde and Brunhilda, as well as Spanish bishops, copies of manuscripts. Furthermore, he sent the Roman monk Augustine of Canterbury to Britain on a missionary journey, on which Augustine may have brought manuscripts. Although Italy's dominance as a centre of manuscript production began to decline, especially after the Gothic War (535–554) and the invasions by the Lombards, its manuscripts—and more important, the scripts in which they were written—were distributed across Europe. From the 6th through the 8th centuries, a number of so-called 'national hands' were developed throughout the Latin-speaking areas of the former Roman Empire. By the late 6th century Irish scribes had begun transforming Roman scripts into Insular minuscule and majuscule scripts. A series of transformations, for book purposes, of the cursive documentary script that had grown out of the later Roman cursive would get under way in France by the mid-7th century. In Spain half-uncial and cursive would both be transformed into a new script, the Visigothic minuscule, no later than the early 8th century. ==== Carolingian minuscule ==== Beginning in the 8th century, as Charlemagne began to consolidate power over a large area of western Europe, scribes developed a minuscule script (Caroline minuscule) that effectively became the standard script for manuscripts from the 9th to the 11th centuries. The origin of this hand is much disputed. This is due to the confusion which prevailed before the Carolingian period in the libraria in France, Italy and Germany as a result of the competition between the cursive and the set hands. In addition to the calligraphic uncial and half-uncial writings, which were imitative forms, little used and consequently without much vitality, and the minuscule cursive, which was the most natural hand, there were innumerable varieties of mixed writing derived from the influence of these hands on each other. In some, the uncial or half-uncial forms were preserved with little or no modification, but the influence of the cursive is shown by the freedom of the strokes; these are known as rustic, semi-cursive or cursive uncial or half-uncial hands. Conversely, the cursive was sometimes affected, in varying degrees, by the set librariae; the cursive of the epistolaris became a semi-cursive when adopted as a libraria. Nor is this all. Apart from these reciprocal influences affecting the movement of the hand across the page, there were morphological influences at work, letters being borrowed from one alphabet for another. This led to compromises of all sorts and of infinite variety between the uncial and half-uncial and the cursive. It will readily be understood that the origin of the Carolingian minuscule, which must be sought in this tangle of pre-Carolingian hands, involves disagreement. The new writing is admittedly much more closely related to the epistolaris than the primitive minuscule; this is shown by certain forms, such as the open ⟨a⟩ (), which recall the cursive, by the joining of certain letters, and by the clubbing of the tall letters b d h l, which resulted from a cursive ductus. Most palaeographers agree in assigning the new hand the place shown in the following table: Controversy turns on the question whether the Carolingian minuscule is the primitive minuscule as modified by the influence of the cursive or a cursive based on the primitive minuscule. Its place of origin is also uncertain: Rome, the Palatine school, Tours, Reims, Metz, Saint-Denis and Corbie have been suggested, but no agreement has been reached. In any case, the appearance of the new hand is a turning point in the history of culture. So far as Latin writing is concerned, it marks the dawn of modern times. ==== Gothic minuscule ==== In the 12th century, Carolingian minuscule underwent a change in its appearance and adopted bold and broken Gothic letter-forms. This style remained predominant, with some regional variants, until the 15th century, when the Renaissance humanistic scripts revived a version of Carolingian minuscule. It then spread from the Italian Renaissance all over Europe. == Rise of modern writing == These humanistic scripts are the base for the antiqua and the handwriting forms in western and southern Europe. In Germany and Austria, the Kurrentschrift was rooted in the cursive handwriting of the later Middle Ages. With the name of the calligrapher Ludwig Sütterlin, this handwriting counterpart to the blackletter typefaces was abolished by Hitler in 1941. After World War II, it was taught as an alternative script in some areas until the 1970s; it is no longer taught. Secretary hand is an informal business hand of the Renaissance. === Developments === There are undeniable points of contact between architecture and palaeography, and in both it is possible to distinguish a Romanesque and a Gothic period . The creative effort which began in the post-Carolingian period culminated at the beginning of the 12th century in a calligraphy and an architecture which, though still somewhat awkward, showed unmistakable signs of power and experience, and at the end of that century and in the first half of the 13th both arts reached their climax and made their boldest flights. The topography of later medieval writing is still being studied; national varieties can, of course, be identified but the problem of distinguishing features becomes complicated as a result of the development of international relations, and the migration of clerks from one end of Europe to the other. During the later centuries of the Middle Ages the Gothic minuscule continued to improve within the restricted circle of de luxe editions and ceremonial documents. In common use, it degenerated into a cursive which became more and more intricate, full of superfluous strokes and complicated by abbreviations. In the first quarter of the 15th century an innovation took place which exercised a decisive influence on the evolution of writing in Europe. The Italian humanists were struck by the eminent legibility of the manuscripts, written in the improved Carolingian minuscule of the 10th and 11th centuries, in which they discovered the works of ancient authors, and carefully imitated the old writing. In Petrarch's compact book hand, the wider leading and reduced compression and round curves are early manifestations of the reaction against the crabbed Gothic secretarial minuscule we know today as "blackletter". Petrarch was one of the few medieval authors to have written at any length on the handwriting of his time; in his essay on the subject, La scrittura he criticized the current scholastic hand, with its laboured strokes (artificiosis litterarum tractibus) and exuberant (luxurians) letter-forms amusing the eye from a distance, but fatiguing on closer exposure, as if written for other purpose than to be read. For Petrarch the gothic hand violated three principles: writing, he said, should be simple (castigata), clear (clara) and orthographically correct. Boccaccio was a great admirer of Petrarch; from Boccaccio's immediate circle this post-Petrarchan "semi-gothic" revised hand spread to literati in Florence, Lombardy and the Veneto. A more thorough reform of handwriting than the Petrarchan compromise was in the offing. The generator of the new style (illustration) was Poggio Bracciolini, a tireless pursuer of ancient manuscripts, who developed the new humanist script in the first decade of the 15th century. The Florentine bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci recalled later in the century that Poggio had been a very fine calligrapher of lettera antica and had transcribed texts to support himself—presumably, as Martin Davies points out— before he went to Rome in 1403 to begin his career in the papal curia. Berthold Ullman identifies the watershed moment in the development of the new humanistic hand as the youthful Poggio's transcription of Cicero's Epistles to Atticus. By the time the Medici library was catalogued in 1418, almost half the manuscripts were noted as in the lettera antica. The new script was embraced and developed by the Florentine humanists and educators Niccolò de' Niccoli and Coluccio Salutati. The papal chancery adopted the new fashion for some purposes, and thus contributed to its diffusion throughout Christendom. The printers played a still more significant part in establishing this form of writing by using it, from the year 1465, as the basis for their types. The humanistic minuscule soon gave rise to a sloping cursive hand, known as the Italian, which was also taken up by printers in search of novelty and thus became the italic type. In consequence, the Italian hand became widely used, and in the 16th century began to compete with the Gothic cursive. In the 17th century, writing masters were divided between the two schools, and there was in addition a whole series of compromises. The Gothic characters gradually disappeared, except a few that survived in Germany. The Italian became universally used, brought to perfection in more recent times by English calligraphers. == See also == == References == == Further reading == === Arabic palaeography === D’Ottone, Arianna (3 November 2023). "In Defence of Arabic Palaeography". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 66 (7): 925–951. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341610. ISSN 0022-4995. === Western palaeography === === Indian palaeography === === Digital palaeography === == External links == French Renaissance Paleography (A scholarly site providing over 100 French manuscripts from 1300 to 1700 with tools for deciphering and transcribing them.) 'Manual of Latin Palaeography' (A comprehensive PDF file containing 82 pages profusely illustrated, January 2024). 'Manual of Greek Palaeography' (A comprehensive PDF file containing 71 pages profusely illustrated, January 2024). Palaeography: reading old handwriting 1500–1800: A practical online tutorial, from the National Archives (UK) A comprehensive survey of all the important aspects of medieval palaeography. (in German) A scholarly maintained web directory on palaeography. Guide to the Paleography Study Collection 1250-1791 Another scholarly maintained web directory on palaeography (200 links with critical comments, in French). Comprehensive bibliography (1,200 detailed references with critical comments in French). Online Tuition in the Palaeography of Scottish Documents 1500–1750 An introduction to Greek and Latin palaeography by Thompson, Edward Maunde – Outdated (published 1912) but good and useful illustrated handbook, available as facsimile. Free palaeographical fonts Self-correcting medieval palaeography exercises (13th and 14th century) 12th to 17th century manuscripts originating from Europe and the Middle East, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries Interactive Album of Mediaeval Palaeography Collection of online exercises for the transcription of a variety of scripts, from 8th to 15th century Walter Burley, Commentarium in Aristotelis De Anima L.III Critical Edition by Mario Tonelotto : an example of critical edition from 4 different manuscripts (transcription from medieval palaeography). ELM, a database of manuscripts written in Latin before 800 Archived 9 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine French paleography with Paleo-en-ligne.fr : free introductory cycle DILE Project. Diálogo de la Lengua. Paleographic transcription and to modern Spanish of the facsimile manuscript in the Biblioteca Nacional de España.	Wikipedia/Paleography
Hellenic historiography (or Greek historiography) involves efforts made by Greeks to track and record historical events. By the 5th century BC, it became an integral part of ancient Greek literature and held a prestigious place in later Roman historiography and Byzantine literature. == Overview == The historical period of ancient Greece is exclusive in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography, while earlier ancient history or proto-history is known by much more circumstantial evidence, such as annals, chronicles, king lists, and pragmatic epigraphy. Herodotus is widely known as the "father of history," his Histories being eponymous of the entire field. Written between the 450s and 420s BC, the scope of Herodotus' work reaches about a century in the past, discussing 6th century BC historical figures such as Darius I of Persia, Cambyses II, and Psamtik III and alludes to some 8th century BC ones such as Candaules. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, and Aristotle. Most of these authors were either Athenians or pro-Athenians, which explains why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than of most other contemporary cities. Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, generally ignoring economic and social history. However, while works approaching modern ethnography arose primarily amongst the Romans, some Greeks did include ancillary material describing the customs and rituals of different peoples, Herodotus himself being a prime example in his descriptions of the Egyptians, Scythians, and others. == See also == Chinese historiography List of Graeco-Roman geographers List of Greek historiographers List of historians Modern Greek literature Roman historiography == References == == Further reading == Barcelo, P. (1994). "The Perception of Carthage in Classical Greek Historiography". Acta Classica. 37: 1–14. Grethlein, Jonas (2010). The Greeks and their Past: Poetry, Oratory and History in the Fifth Century BCE. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hornblower, Simon, ed. (1994). Greek Historiography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Hornblower, Simon (2004). Thucydides and Pindar: Historical Narrative and the World of Epinikian Poetry. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Luce, T. J. (1997). The Greek Historians. London and New York: Routledge. Marincola, John (2001). "Greek Historians". Greece & Rome, New Surveys in the Classics. 31. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Parmeggiani, Giovanni, ed. (2014). Between Thucydides and Polybius: The Golden Age of Greek Historiography. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Pitcher, Luke (2009). Writing Ancient History: An Introduction to Classical Historiography. London and New York: I. B. Tauris. Sacks, Kenneth S. (1990). Diodorus Siculus and the First Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Sacks, Kenneth S. (1981). Polybius on the Writing of History. Berkeley: University of California Press. Shrimpton, Gordon S. (1997). History and Memory in Ancient Greece. Montreal and Buffalo, NY: McGill-Queen's University Press. Skinner, Joseph E. (2012). The Invention of Greek Ethnography: From Homer to Herodotus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Woodman, A. J. (1988). Rhetoric in Classical Historiography: Four Studies. London: Routledge.	Wikipedia/Greek_historiography
The historiography of the Eighty Years' War examines how the Eighty Years' War has been viewed or interpreted throughout the centuries. Some of the main issues of contention between scholars include the name of the war (most notably "Eighty Years' War" versus "Dutch Revolt"), the periodisation of the war (particularly when it started, which events to include or exclude, and whether the effective length of the war justifies counting "eighty years" or not), the origins or causes of the war (the Protestant Reformation or the violation of the rights and privileges of the nobility and autonomous cities) and thus its nature (a religious war, a civil war or a war of independence), the meaning of its historical documents such as the Act of Abjuration, and the role of its central characters such as Philip II of Spain, William "the Silent" of Orange, Margaret of Parma, the Duke of Alba, the Duke of Parma, Maurice of Orange, and Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. It has been theorised that Protestant Reformation propaganda has given rise to the Spanish Black Legend in order to portray the actions of the Spanish Empire, the Army of Flanders and the Catholic Church in an exaggerated extremely negative light, while other scholars maintain that the atrocities committed by the Spanish military in order to preserve the Habsburg Netherlands for the Empire have historically been portrayed fairly accurately. Controversy also rages about the importance of the war for the emergence of the Dutch Republic as the predecessor of the current Kingdom of the Netherlands and the role of the House of Orange's stadtholders in it, as well as the development of Dutch and Belgian national identities as a result of the split of the Northern and Southern Netherlands. == Overview == Various historiographers have portrayed the Eighty Years' War in different ways. === 17th and 18th century === A group of 17th-century Dutch Protestant chroniclers such as Hooft, Bor, Meteren, Grotius, Aitzema and Baudartius could build on first-hand reports. As liberal historian Fruin and Catholic historian Nuyens would agree in the mid-19th century, 'before 1798, it was impossible for Catholics in the Northern Netherlands to describe the history of the revolution of the sixteenth century', because the Dutch Republic was dominated by the Dutch Reformed Church (although not formally a 'state church', it was publicly privileged), whose Calvinist preachers were able to influence the secular authorities (the States) to punish any Catholic inhabitant for mounting public criticism of the Protestant consensus on history. Nuyens (1869) summarised the situation as follows: Because of all this, only one part of the Dutch people was left to do the talking, as soon as there was talk of 'the revolt against the Spanish tyranny'; the other, however, might have its traditions, its views, its opinions, yet it could not express them. Bor, van Meteren, Reyd, Hooft, all remained very one-sided in their views. Their successors, the men who wrote about the Dutch Revolt in the eighteenth century, drew on them and worked out their material further. There was no longer the slightest doubt in their minds whether the revolt was lawful: Philip was a hideous tyrant; Orange to one side a man of God, to the other (the staatse) in all cases a great benefactor of his country; the Reformed fought for the true freedom of the children of God, for the pure Gospel light; they also fought for civil liberties against a most appalling despotism. The party papers of Jacob van Wesembeke, the Apology, the Defences of the States against Don Juan, etc., etc., were regarded as infallible truths: the "Romish folks," as one expressed themselves, they might well live in peace and tranquility, provided they behaved only quietly and did not claim the least of rights at all. Aside from them, there were a few Catholic historians who covered the Eighty Years' War, but either wrote in Latin, such as Floris Van der Haer and Michael ab Isselt, or were foreigners, such as Famiano Strada and Guido Bentivoglio, and as such were either inaccessible for Dutch Catholics, or could not speak on their behalf. ==== De Bello Belgico by Strada ==== The Latin work De Bello Belgico (invoking Caesar's classic) of the Italian Jesuit historian Famiano Strada (1572–1649) became popular throughout Europe and was translated into many languages. Strada first published it in Rome as De Bello Belgico decades duae between 1632 and 1647, the first 'decade' in 1632, the second in 1641. The first set of ten books (the first 'decade') covered the period from Charles V's abdication in 1555 to the death of Don Juan of Austria in October 1578. The second set of ten books (the second 'decade') covered the time from the start of Alexander Farnese's government in October 1578 to the conquest of Rheinberg (30 January 1590). A third volume is said to have been prevented from publication by Spanish authorities. Strada's first volume was translated to Dutch as De thien eerste Boecken der Nederlandsche oorloge and published in Amsterdam in 1646, the second as De tweede thien boeken der Nederlandsche oorlogen in Amsterdam in 1649; both parts in Rotterdam in 1655 titled De thien eerste Boecken der Nederlandtsche oorloge and Het Tweede Deel der Nederlandtsche Oorlogen. Pierre du Ryer published both volumes in French under the title Histoire de la guerre de Flandre (Paris 1650). The first decade of the De Bello Belgico was translated into English by Sir Robert Stapylton under the title of The History of the Low-Countrey Warres (London 1650). There were many editions of the original Latin, and continuations were prepared by G. Dondini and A. Gallucci, an Italian translation by C. Papini and P. Segneri (Rome 1638–49, 2 v.), and a Spanish edition by Melchior de Novar (Cologne 1681, 3 v.). Scifoni (1849) stated that 'Strada's work will hold a distinct place among the historical works of the 17th century', despite its 'useless digressions, the insignificant peculiarities and the abuse of comparisons, sentences and all the vain formulas marked by the oratory style'. Strada made extensive use of the Farnese family archives (now destroyed), and was very critical of Alba's performance in fighting the rebels in the Netherlands. According to Reijner (2020), Strada and Guido Bentivoglio were far from the only Italian historians writing about the Eighty Years' War: an unusually high number of them from across the peninsula, such as Florence and Genoa, used the revolt happening in the Habsburg Netherlands for their own purposes in arguing against the dominance of the Spanish Habsburgers in (northern) Italy. In return, Netherlandish historiographers and opionmakers thankfully cited the works of Strada, Bentivoglio and other Italian authors in support of their arguments against Spain. ==== Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis by Grotius ==== Between 1601 and 1612, Hugo Grotius wrote in Latin the Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis for the 1559–1588 period. Grotius adopted the style of Tacitus, and following his sine ira et studio principle, excluded gruesome details of pillaging and battles. The book was commissioned by the States of Holland, but they didn't publish it. It was not until 1681 that a Dutch translation was published, and half a century later it was forgotten again until 2014, when Jan Waszink published a modern Dutch translation. It remains unclear why the States of Holland apparently blocked the Latin publication in 1612, but Waszink concluded they probably found Grotius too critical. Rather than presenting the war as 'a united fight for faith and the old freedoms', Grotius wrote that it was 'a difficult struggle with powerful Spain on the one hand, and with divisions, political self-interest and religious fanaticism on the Dutch side on the other.' Meanwhile, the Catholic Church, though initially positive about a Latin version of the book published in 1657, concluded it had anti-Catholic contents and put it on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum in 1659. Another work by Grotius that did see publication in 1610 was his Treatise of the Antiquity of the Batavian now Hollandish Republic, a rehashing of the Batavian myth from the 1517 Divisiekroniek, an invented tradition which asserted that the inhabitants of the County of Holland were descended from the ancient tribe of the Batavi. During the 69–70 Revolt of the Batavi, this people allegedly freed itself from the Roman Empire and had supposedly been independent ever since, but just changed its name to "Hollanders", and evolved the States of Holland and West Friesland as its political organisation. Although various nominal counts or kings who had ruled over them in the intervening centuries, they 'never really mattered', and the supposed Batavi-turned-Hollanders had always remained republican at heart, and free in practice. The Dutch Revolt against Spain was therefore a confirmation of a very old, long-established freedom rather than a rebellion against a legitimate and widely recognised monarch. This Batavian myth continued to have large influence, reaching its zenith during the late-18th-century Batavian Revolution, but was scrutinised and refuted by historians in the early 19th century. ==== Nederlandsche Historien by Hooft ==== One of the first Dutch authors was P.C. Hooft with his Nederlandsche Historien (1642–1647), which covered the 1555–1587 period. Hooft was a Renaissance humanist who took no sides in religious matters, nor was he a member of any church, but he was educated with an admiration for Tacitus (whose style he adopted, just like Grotius before him) and a staatse republican perspective on justifying the revolt against Spain based on the sovereignty of the States, regarding Orange as their servant. In 1609, 28-year-old Hooft wrote several poems to commemorate the Twelve Years' Truce, in which he compared the Dutch revolt against Spain to the Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, and Orange to Moses as the Israelites' liberator from slavery.: 15–16 However, in the last 20 years of his life (1626–1647), he became more balanced and nuanced, and at that time he wrote his historical book about the war (which was still ongoing, and only concluded a year after Hooft died).: 29, 38 Imitating Tacitus' style, Hooft's work was didactic, trying to teach his readers lessons by using events from the war as examples, but he often struggled to construct a coherent narrative to explain certain chains of events, especially the actions of Don Juan of Austria.: 38–39 Again Hooft attempted to justify the revolt against Spain as a fight against tyranny, because the Burgundians and their Habsburg successors had supposedly violated the inalienable sovereignty of the States, even though his arguments were 'unhistorical' according to Groenveld (1981).: 39–40 On the other hand, he tried to present a nuanced view of Spanish adversaries such as Philip II, Alba, and Requesens, mentioning their positive and negative sides, although the emphasis would still be on the latter.: 40 Towards the end of his book, Orange became the main character, the story's hero who was killed too soon, and never sought power for himself but only served the States.: 42–43 As his health deteriorated, Hooft's coverage of the period in which the Earl of Leicester acted as Elizabeth I's Governor-General of the budding Dutch Republic became increasingly incoherent. Hooft got as far as describing 1587 when he died in 1647, unable to realise his ambition of catching up to his own time.: 43–44 ==== 18th century ==== In the eighteenth century, the collection of sources from the time of the Eighty Years' War became more important. In particular, the compilation of Jan Wagenaar from the mid-eighteenth century became a standard work for that time and as a result, contemporary writers receded more into the background. === 19th century === ==== Early 19th century ==== In the nineteenth century, the Eighty Years' War was again extensively researched. According to the Calvinist anti-revolutionary politician Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, the Revolt was about how through God's guidance the Dutch people under the House of Orange-Nassau had achieved its liberty. This view was most clearly expounded in his Handbook of the History of the Fatherland (1846). VU historian H. Smitskamp (1940) judged that Groen was all too often limiting himself to ideals as a factor in history, and had an overreliance on 'God's hand in history', which was increasingly seen as scholarly problematic. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the Belgian scholars Louis-Prosper Gachard and Joseph Kervyn de Lettenhove also carried out a thorough source research into the Eighty Years' War, especially in the Brussels and Spanish archives. ==== The Rise of the Dutch Republic by Motley/Bakhuizen ==== The liberal Reinier Cornelis Bakhuizen van den Brink (born 1810) made important contributions to Eighty Years' War studies starting in 1844, and as the National Archivist from 1854 to 1865. According to Winkler Prins (2002), Bakhuizen 'renewed and raised historical scholarship together with Robert Fruin as historian and unsurpassed master of historical criticism.' In 1857, he translated The Rise of the Dutch Republic (1856) from the American puritan historian John Lothrop Motley. Bakhuizen was very positive about the book: "The work of Motley seems to me to represent such a proper foundation for the history of the formation of the Commonwealth of United Netherlands, that it almost becomes a duty to contribute everything that one himself possesses to continue building on that foundation." Fellow liberal historian Robert Fruin published an almost equally positive review of the book in 1859, admiring Motley's talents as a writer, agreeing with Bakhuizen's "favourable judgement wholeheartedly", although the book required some "addition and correction". On the other hand, the freethinker historian Johannes van Vloten was utterly critical, and addressed Fruin (and indirectly Bakhuizen) in the preface to his book The Netherlands' Revolt Against Spain. Volume 4 (1575–1577) (1860): "...regarding the appropriate valuation of Motley's efforts (...), I rather less agree with your overly favourable judgement. (...) One cannot continue building on Motley['s "foundation"]; to that end – save for the few bits and pieces he copied here and there from Groen's Archives and Gachard's Correspondances – to that end his representations are generally too outdated." Van Vloten appreciated Motley's attempt to generate attention to the history of the Netherlands amongst an English-speaking audience, but his lack of Dutch-language knowledge prevented him from reviewing the latest insights from Dutch historiographers, and made him prone to partiality in favour of the Protestants and against the Catholics. Van Vloten therefore rejected Bakhuizen's assertion that Motley had laid a "proper foundation" for further research, and Fruin's suggestion of merely doing some "addition and correction" wouldn't be enough to save it. Fruin published a new two-part review of the book in De Gids in 1862, which was a lot more critical of Motley's tendency to make up "facts", or emphasise less relevant events and downplay more relevant events, if they made for a more interesting or picturesque narrative. Finally, in his Nederlandsche Beroerten (1867), Catholic historiographer Wilhelmus Nuyens had nothing positive to say about Motley, whom Nuyens accused of writing a novel rather than a history book. He shared the criticism of Fruin and especially Van Vloten that Motley had 'distorted' and 'twisted' facts, and 'painted them according to his fantasy' whenever that would make Philip II, the Spaniards or the Catholics look worse, or the Dutch rebels or Protestants look better. For example, Nuyens (1869) pointed out that the baseless rumour that the heads of Egmont and Horne (decapitated on 5 June 1568 in Brussels) had been shipped to Madrid, had already been refuted in 1801 when the Egmont's crypt containing Egmont's skull and bones had been found in the church of Zottegem. This was a well-known fact by the time Motley visited Belgium, and Nuyens suggested he could easily have falsified the story if he wanted to, but instead Motley repeated the already-refuted rumour by claiming it was generally assumed to be true (whereas his predecessors never presumed the story's veracity), and even exaggerated it by adding details that made Philip II look even more despicable. After Fruin had read Nuyens's critique of The Rise of the Dutch Republic, he stated in 1867: 'I must now confess that the tone in which the eloquent American has written must be offensive to Catholics, and what is much worse, that he has not spoken the pure truth everywhere. When reading the moving book, I hadn't noticed that as much. I did note many inaccuracies in it, and called them out in my review; but non-Catholic as I am, it hadn't occurred to me that many of those falsehoods and exaggerations came from a bias in Protestant and liberal understandings, and for that reason had to be doubly insulting to strict Catholics. Dr Nuyens was the first to make this clear to me.' ==== Fruin and Nuyens ==== Robert Fruin (1823–1899) was described by Albert van der Zeijden (2012) as the first Dutch historian who strove to apply the historical-critical method to vaderlandse geschiedenis ("fatherland/national/patriotic history", that is, the history of the Netherlands). Van der Zeijden circumscribed his method as 'a careful investigation of authentic historical sources (usually state documents as well as letters and memoirs of important statesmen)' and 'an impartial, positivist manner of historiography'. Fruin is said to have laid the basis for this approach in his speech The impartiality of the historian (1860) on the occasion of his appointment as professor at Leiden University. This made him comparable to the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), founder of the historism school. Fruin did not always follow purely scholarly principles, however, but also pursued a nationalist-liberal agenda: history was to be viewed in national terms. For the history of the Netherlands, this meant on the one hand that the staatse/Loevesteinian and prinsgezinde/Orangist traditions had to be reconciled with each other, and on the other hand that liberalism was supposed to function as an 'impartial' referee between Protestant and Catholic views. Fruin focused on two periods: Tien jaren uit den Tachtigjarigen Oorlog (1857) for 1588–1598 and Het voorspel van de Tachtigjarigen Oorlog (1859) for 1555–1568. His early work showed a tendency towards staatse views, his later work had more Orangist undertones. Fruin's approach was a clear break from that of his contemporaries such as Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, who was promoting a Calvinist-Orangist nationalism. He was hoping for a critical Catholic historian to arise and bring balance to the onesidedness of Dutch historiography of the war, that had been dominated by Protestants for centuries. The Catholic answer to the Protestant and liberal historiography came from Willem Jan Frans Nuyens (1823–1894), who argued that Catholics could also be good patriots, and that many of them had fought on the Dutch side against the Spanish during the Revolt. Nuyens's main work Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Beroerten in de XVIe eeuw ("History of the Netherlandish Troubles in the 16th Century"; Amsterdam, 1865–70, 8 volumes) was important for finding/retrieving the role of Dutch Catholics in the Revolt, and contributed to their emancipation. Contrasting his own situation to earlier times of Calvinist censorship against 'popish naughtiness', Nuyens (1869) expressed relief that he or fellow Catholic writers would not be 'arrested or thrown out of the country, not even risk being reviled as a bastard-Dutchman or somesuch. In that respect, we happily acknowledge, we must commended our Protestant fellow citizens. They have made a lot of progress in tolerance in recent years. Nowadays, they feel that anyone in the Netherlands may write what he deems to be true, including those who are in large part convinced that the history of the 16th century has had a very one-sided representation.' Fruin's generally positive but critical review of Nuyens's Nederlandsche Beroerten in De Gids of August 1867 has become a classic. Fruin said the entire Dutch nation had a lot to learn from Nuyens's Catholic point of view, drawing attention to numerous issues he himself had missed, such as the Protestant biases of leading historiographers. Moreover, Fruin admitted that he had been carried away by John Lothrop Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic: this Puritan American historian, whose work had been translated to Dutch by the liberal Bakhuizen van den Brink (who added an exciting introduction), had engaged in a systematic misrepresentation of a great deal of things, and that had to be corrected. Nuyens thus made essential contributions to Fruin's project of having a complete and balanced 'national' perspective on the Eighty Years' War. Fruin did object to four problematic aspects in the Nederlandsche Beroerten: Nuyens supposedly always contradicted whatever Protestant historians had said (deviating from literary convention); was overly harsh of Motley's book; had an undeservedly negative judgement of Orange's character and goal; and an incorrect view of causes of the Revolt. Nuyens attempted to defend himself against Fruin's criticism in 1869, while thanking Fruin for his balanced review and praising him: '...no more talented, no more honest history writer will one find in the Netherlands but [Fruin], who would never knowingly twist the truth.' === 20th century === ==== Critical Catholic historians ==== Nevertheless, the style of Nuyens was later criticised as overly apologetical; his writings to promote the rights and equality of Dutch Catholics has been considered hardly self-critical nor source-critical compared to Fruin. In the early 20th century, Catholic historians increasingly valued the historical-critical method; they criticised Nuyens for not supporting many of his claims, and they pointed to Fruin as the example to be followed. In the mid-20th century, L.J. Rogier was the most influential Catholic historian; he vehemently rejected the apologetical Catholic historiography of the 19th century. Under the guise of 'Catholic emancipation', Rogier argued, Catholic historians had failed to be self-critical and to treat non-Catholics in the same way as they themselves wished to be treated as equal Dutch people. ==== Geographic and linguistic perspectives ==== In the early 20th century, Pieter Geyl brought a new perspective on the Revolt by arguing that Belgian and Dutch historians such as Henri Pirenne had been led astray by hindsight bias: they assumed that the eventual modern state borders between Belgium and the Netherlands were the result of the logical course of history, whereas it made more sense to Geyl if the state borders had coincided with the Franco–Dutch language border. Geyl managed to convince many of his colleagues that the major rivers were an important geographic barrier that allowed the Rebellion to sustain itself in Holland and Zeeland, that Luxemburg (on the Spanish Road) was the military basis of the Spanish forces, and that the eventual border between these northern and southern strongholds therefore fell somewhere in between at an arbitrary line 'where the generals had managed to advance for all sorts of reasons'. His assumption that the Dutch-language area in the Habsburg Netherlands had constituted a cultural unit upon which it would have made more sense to found a state – the so-called Greater Netherlands – was not widely adopted and sometimes countered, but his other insights proved valuable for Eighty Years' War studies, such as the Protestantisation of the Northern Netherlands. Unlike his staunch nationalist colleague Carel Gerretson, Geyl did not think one should still try to reunite modern Flanders and the Netherlands, and opposed a hypothetical partition of Belgium to achieve it, but did favour federalisation of Belgium. In the late 20th century, British historians Geoffrey Parker and Jonathan Israel sought to demonstrate that many of the developments during the Dutch Revolt were impossible to understand but from an international perspective, and that one also needed to look at events through Spanish eyes. C. Holland (2001) saw the Dutch Revolt as the seedbed of the major democratic revolutions from England, to America to France. ==== Socio-economic analyses ==== In the 1950s and 1960s, new ways of interpreting the various socio-economic processes during the war came to the fore. The driving forces behind the Revolt were variously identified as the role played by the Dutch Reformed Church in social organisation; the allegedly impoverished lesser nobility which rebelled against the threats to their privileges; or frustrations by the emerging middle classes that they were unable to obtain more political and economic power to match their increasing wealth, but instead faced heavier trade taxes. Though the lesser nobility and merchant class would cooperate in their rebellion, the former would decline and the latter acquire a dominating position in the Republic. Historians would eventually agree that a defining feature of arguments used by various rebel factions was that they invoked medieval privileges, regional autonomy and a freer market in support of their resistance to the Spanish government, championing a return to the old ways, but ended up non-deliberately creating 'an entirely new form of government' due to a consensus reached by the leaders of the Revolt. Even though the Dutch Republic was thus a modern polity without a hereditary head of state, the Revolt was not a forward-looking modern revolution which sought to break with the past, but a classical revolution which idealised the past. == Name and periodisation == === Length and the phrase Eighty Years' War === In traditional historiography, the war has long been called the Eighty Years' War (Dutch: Tachtigjarige Oorlog; Spanish: guerra de los Ochenta Años; guerra de Flandes; French: guerre de Quatre-Vingts Ans; German: Achtzigjähriger Krieg; Italian: guerra degli ottant'anni), and dated from the Battle of Heiligerlee (23 May 1568) to the Peace of Münster (15 May 1648), thereby amounting to roughly eighty years. In the 20th century, historians came to consider this dating to be "completely arbitrary", with the Winkler Prins (2002) stating: 'One could just as easily claim that this 'war' already began somewhere between 1555 and 1568 (the 'Prelude' in the naming of R.J. Fruin), or in 1572 (first meeting of rebel cities), in 1576 (Pacification of Ghent), 1579 (Union of Utrecht), or in 1581 (Act of Abjuration).' Of course, nobody knew ahead of time when the war would end, and thus how long it would last, as Dutch comedian Theo Maassen humorously pointed out in 2007: 'I don't think that during the Eighty Years' War, someone said after forty years: "Finally, we are half way!"' Nevertheless, during the war, people seem to have had roughly similar ideas about when the war started, and how long it had been ongoing so far. On 20 September 1629, Carlos Coloma wrote in a letter to the Count-Duke of Olivares: 'The heavy blows we had to endure in just this one, past year, have had a greater impression on the population here than all the misfortunes of 63 years of war put together', meaning that he counted from 1566. In 1641, in the first volume of the Nederlandsche Historien, Hooft wrote: een oorlogh (...), dat nu in 't drientzeventighste jaar gevoert wort ("a war (...), that is now conducted in its seventy-third year"), meaning that he counted from 1568.: 38 Groenveld (2020) concluded that this discrepancy indictated that contemporaries did not exactly agree on when hostilities broke out, in part because at no point 'war' had been formally declared: 'The term "Eighty Years'" didn't possess mathematical precision, but was an approximate designation. And "War" had a broader meaning than just "large-scale and officially declared armed conflict".' For legal purposes, Article 56 of the Peace of Münster (signed 30 January 1648, ratified 15 May 1648) defined 1567 as the year in which the war started: The Dutch States General, for dramatic effect, decided to promulgate the ratification of the Peace of Münster (which was actually ratified by them on 15 May 1648) on the 80th anniversary of the execution of the Counts of Egmont and Horne (5 June 1568), namely, 5 June 1648. Within decades, the uncapitalised phrase "eighty years' war" became established in the literature of various European languages, such as: Spanish: Francisco Dávila Orejón y Gastón, Politica y mecánica militar para sargento mayor de tercio (1669): "(experimentado en mas de ochenta anos, que se continuô la guerra en Flandes)" ("(experienced in more than eighty years, that the war in Flanders continued)") Dutch: Pieter Valckenier, 't Verwerd Europa (1675): "Waar uyt ontstont den tachentig jaarigen en onversoenlyken Oorlog tusschen de Spanjaarden en de Vereenigde Nederlanders?" ("Where did the eighty years' and irreconcilable war between the Spaniards and the United Netherlandish [people] originate from?") German translation: Pieter Valckenier, Das verwirrte Europa (1677): "Woraus ist doch der achtzig jährige / und unversühnliche Krieg / zwischen Spanien und dem Vereinigten Niedrlande / entstanden?" ("But where did the eighty years' / and irreconcilable war / between Spain and the United Netherlands / originate from?") French: La Vie du Michel de Ruyter (1677): "Mess. les Etats ont û une guerre de quatrevingt ans, mais pendant tout ce temps-là le Roy d'Espagne n'a jamais entrepris une telle injustice..." ("The Lords Estates had had a war of eighty years, but during all this time the King of Spain has never undertaken such an injustice....") Italian: Pietro Gazzotti, Historia delle guerre d'Europa arriuate dall'anno 1643 fino al 1680. (1681): "...la fermezza, con cui gli Olandesi havevano sostenuto più di ottant'anni la guerra con la Spagna, era per dare riputatione alle loro armi, e tirare ne'loro interessi molti Principi, ch'erano gelosi della Francia." ("... the firmness with which the Hollanders had sustained for more than eighty years the war with Spain, was to give reputation to their arms, and to draw in their interests many Princes, who were jealous of France.") Dutch: t'Verloste Nederland van het Spaense, en Franse jok (1690): "Door dese Doorluchtige Princen is eyndelijck dien swaren tachtigjarigen oorlog, die de Nederlanden met Spanje gehad hebben, en die de Spaense seven en twintig duysent, seven hondert en veertig tonnen gouts gekost heeft soo geluckelijck ten eynde gebracht." ("Because of these Illustrious Princes, that severe eighty years' war, which the Netherlands have had with Spain, and which has cost the Spanish 27,740 tonnes of gold, was finally so fortunately brought to an end.") Although the name "Eighty Years' War" and the starting year of 1568 would thus come to dominate historiography, they would be challenged by the alternative names "Dutch Revolt" or simply "the Revolt", and earlier dates such as 1566 or 1567, in the 20th century. === "Eighty Years' War" versus "Dutch Revolt" === In part because of the arbitrary dating of the war's beginning, and thus the total length of eighty years upon which the war's name is based, some historians have endeavoured to replace the term Eighty Years' War with Dutch Revolt (Dutch: Nederlandse Opstand) or simply the Revolt (Dutch: de Opstand), while other historians have sought to apply Dutch Revolt only to an initial part of the war, or to the prelude of the war. Some examples include: Anton van der Lem (1995): The Revolt in the Netherlands (1568–1609) Arie van Deursen (2004): "The Revolt of 1572–1584." Mulder et al. (2008): "The Dutch Revolt, 1559–1609" Anton van der Lem (2014): The Revolt in de Netherlands 1568–1648: The Eighty Years' War in Words and Images. In a 2019 official history produced under the direction of the Netherlands Institute of Military History, the authors contend that "Dutch Revolt" is a misnomer if applied to the entire span of the war, as only the first phase of the Eighty Years' War unfolded as an internecine conflict across the breadth of the Netherlands, driven by class and sectarian dynamics, between loyalists and dissident subjects in "revolt" against their sovereign ruler. What followed, they argue, was a regular war between a de facto independent, territorially-bounded nation-state — the Dutch provinces united by the Union of Utrecht — and the territorially contiguous possession of a multinational empire — Spain as dynastic ruler of the remaining Habsburg Netherlands — across a defined and relatively static frontier. === Focus on the first part === Historians have manifested a tendency to focus on the first part of the war, regarding the death of Orange in 1584, the year 1588 (various reasons), or the Truce of 1609 to be turning points, after which they considered it no longer important or interesting to narrate subsequent events of the war to the same level of detail, either because these events are said to have had far less military significance for the result of the war in 1648, or far less significance for the further political, institutional, religious, cultural, or socio-economic history of the northern Netherlands or the Dutch people up to the present. Significance to military outcome: Robert Fruin (1857) noted that history writers had a tendency to write only about the early part of the conflict until the assassination of William of Orange in 1584 (and lay people likewise only remembered this early part well), while this was in no way a turning point of the war; in Fruin's view, it was not until the Ten Years (1588–1598) that the 'victory'/independence of the northern Netherlands as the Dutch Republic was secured. Winkler Prins (2002) stated: "One could argue that the struggle between the Republic and Spain was actually already decided by or during the Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621), although the borders weren't yet clear." Significance to further (non-military) Dutch history: In the introduction to the second volume of his four-volume History of the Dutch People, in which he had to leave out lots of things to control 'the work's size', Petrus Johannes Blok (1896) admitted that he struggled with keeping his narration of the war's first half brief: 'The size of the first part, which deals with the first half of the Eighty Years' War, has nevertheless already become larger than intended. While writing, the author came to the point of view that it was impossible to abridge the story of events, the outline of circumstances in this time so rich in changes, without damaging the proper understanding of the entire development of our people's existence.' To Van der Lem (1995), the entire post-1588 period was less interesting to recount because the ideological struggle had essentially been decided: 'As soon as [the 1588 States-General's decision to wage offensive war] had been taken, the continuation of the 'Revolt' or 'Eighty Years' War' became a regulated war. The ideological element did retain a role, but disappeared to the background. (...) The course of the struggle is henceforth a military one, in which not all conquests and losses need be remembered.' Van der Lem (1995) ended his narrative in 1609, and not until 2014 did he publish a new edition of his 1995 book in which the narrative was extended to 1648. The chaotic and dramatic early decades of the Eighty Years' War, which were filled with civil revolts and large-scale urban massacres, largely ended for the provinces north of the Great Rivers after they proclaimed the Republic in 1588, expelled the Spanish forces and established peace, safety and prosperity for their population. Conventional historiography has a tendency to gloss over the rest of the war, and focus on the economic flourishing of especially the province of Holland in the subsequent so-called Dutch Golden Age. However, modern historians have taken issue with this shift in focus, as the countryside in especially Brabant, Flanders and the lands constituting the modern two provinces of Belgian and Dutch Limburg continued to be devastated by decades of uninterrupted warfare, with armies forcing farmers to hand over their food, or destroying their crops to deny food to the enemy. Both parties levied taxes on farmers in the still-contested environs of 's-Hertogenbosch after the Dutch conquered it in 1629. Towns such as Helmond, Eindhoven and Oisterwijk were repeatedly subjected to pillaging, arson, and sexual violence committed by both rebel and royal forces. These atrocities and tragedies in the borderlands, scholars say, should not be ignored, let alone should it be implied that the 'Golden Age' was experienced by everyone in (what would become) the Dutch Republic. === Periodisation === Until the mid-20th century, 1568 was generally assumed as the year in which the war started. A new point of view regarding the early years of the conflict emerged in the 1960s, with Belgian historian Herman Van der Wee (1969) stating: '...historical research of the last few years has brought to light that the traditional vision, in which the year 1568 is presupposed as the starting date of the Revolt [Presser 1948], should be amended somewhat [Enno van Gelder 1930, Kuttner 1964, Brulez 1954]. The Revolt of the Westkwartier in the autumn of 1566, an uprising that concretised in a gathering of troops in and around Tournai and in the advance of a Geuzen army towards Valenciennes which was besieged by royal troops, was already the result of an organised programme of action, [devised] for a political purpose by ministers and members of the lesser nobles [Brulez 1954, p. 85]. The Beeldenstorm in the summer of 1566 also had a strongly organisational character, which was not without political motives [Dierickx 1966]. Therefore, I am in favour of viewing the initial phase of the Revolt as a troubled period of unrest, which is situated between 1566 and 1568.' == Causes and motives == Algemeen Rijksarchivaris Martin Berendse stated in 2009: 'Much has already been written about [the Eighty Years' War], and just as often attempts have been made to characterise it: a revolt against the legal authorities, a religious war, a struggle for independence, a European war, a struggle for free trade.' The Eighty Years' War is often seen by historians as a religious war, although other descriptions are possible besides "religious war". Even during the war, there were fierce and sometimes violent arguments amongst the rebels about why they were fighting. For example, during the 1573–1574 Siege of Leiden, the city government issued temporary coins with the slogan haec libertatis ergo ("this is about liberty"). In a 19 December 1573 church sermon, preacher Taling rebuked the city magistrate, comparing them to pigs and asserting the coins should have said haec religionis ergo ("this is about religion"). Secretary Jan van Hout was furious, pulled out his gun and asked mayor Pieter Adriaansz. van der Werff sitting next to him whether to shoot the dominee, but the mayor calmed him down. According to Grotius (1612), the primary motive for the Revolt was not the struggle for faith (that is, orthodox Calvinism), but the (sometimes selfish) political considerations of the cities, nobility and provinces, namely, the maintenance of their privileges and serving their own (financial) interests. It has been suspected that the States of Holland, who commissioned Grotius' book, refused to publish it because they disagreed with this perspective on the war. 19th-century historians (as well as some like Henri Pirenne in the early 20th century) were often influenced by nationalism, regarding the war as one between two "nations" (the Netherlandish/Dutch people versus the Spaniards). But by the late 20th century, all scholars had abandoned this perspective: the Revolt was rather a war between civilians than an interstate war. Due to the nature of the conflict, the factions involved, and changing alliances, modern-day historians have put forward arguments that the Dutch Revolt was also a civil war. H.A. Enno van Gelder hypothesised that the Revolt had a politically progressive character, leading the way forward 'directly to the constitutional monarchy of the 19th century', but most historians have rejected his argumentation. Instead, Geyl, Rogier and others argued that the Revolt was motivated by conservatism: the privileged estates were resisting the modern phenomenon of a state trying to establish an absolute monarchy. Later historians such as J.W. Smit and Geoffrey Parker agreed with this latter point of view. L.J. Rogier (1947) wrote that the importance of religious motives varied throughout the war: although the Eighty Years' War would not have started because of religion, that would become the most important reason for its continuation because of "uproar of Calvinists". At the Truce negotiations in 1608, the revolt had already evolved so much to a war of religion that the Austrian archduke and archduchess were prepared to renounce their sovereignty over the United Provinces in exchange for their demand of complete freedom of worship for the Catholic religion in the North, thus putting religious interests above political ones. Van der Lem (1995) stated: 'The Revolt in the Netherlands or Eighty Years' War (...) was about three fundamental rights pertaining to all times, all countries, and – unfortunately – have lost nothing in relevance: about the freedom of religion and conscience, the right to self-determination, and the right to co-determination' (representatives having a say in decision-making). Groenveld (2020) stated that the 'extraordinary result' of the war had not been envisioned by anyone at the start. 'All intended goals had been far more limited. Each one had manifested within a group of proponents, which had proven to be too weak to accomplish something definitive on its own. That goes for the efforts to establish a monopolish Calvinist church, to counter the Habsburg centralisation policies and the defence of endangered privileges, to maintain the power of both the greater and lesser nobility, [and] the attempts to definitively remove foreign troops.' Only because all these dissatisfied groups gradually joined forces over time in their struggle against the sovereign's advisors, and eventually the sovereign himself, with many unexpected turns of events, this result could come about. Quoting Hooft, Groenveld stated that the conflict had elements of civil war, revolt against lawful authority, and religious war. == Alleged Cateau-Cambrésis Catholic conspiracy == It has been alleged that in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559), or in a secret clause or separate agreement made around the same time, the kings Henry II of France and Philip II of Spain agreed to a Catholic alliance to exterminate all Protestant 'heretics' in their realms and the rest of Europe. In part, this belief serves as an explanation why the kings decided to end the Italian War of 1551–1559 between them at Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559, and why devastating wars of religion broke out in both kingdoms (the French Wars of Religion and the Eighty Years' War) in subsequent decades. Some historians think that this royal Catholic conspiracy to exterminate all European Protestants is historical, other historians have concluded that it never existed, and is part of Protestant propaganda that was especially promoted by William of Orange in his 1580 Apology. === Religious contents of the Treaty === Some historians have claimed that all signatories of the treaty needed to 'purge their lands of heresy'; in other words, all their subjects had to be forcefully reverted to Catholicism. Visconti (2003), for example, claimed that when pressured by Spain to implement this obligation, Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy proclaimed the Edict of Nice (15 February 1560), prohibiting Protestantism on pains of a large fine, enslavement or banishment, which soon led to an armed revolt by the Protestant Waldensians in his domain that would last until July 1561. However, modern historians disagree about the primary motives of Philip II of Spain and especially Henry II of France to conclude this peace treaty. Because Henry II had told the Parlement of Paris that the fight against heresy required all his strength and thus he needed to establish peace with Spain, Lucien Romier (1910) argued that, besides the great financial troubles, 'that the religious motive of Henry had great, if not decisive, weight'. According to Rainer Babel (2021), this was 'a judgement which later research, with some nuances in detail, has not refuted', stating however that Bertrand Haan (2010) had 'a deviating interpretation' challenging this consensus. Haan (2010) argued that finances were more important than domestic religious dissension; the fact that the latter were prominent in the 1560s in both France and Spain may have led historians astray in emphasising the role of religion in the 1559 treaty. Megan Williams (2011) summarised: 'Indeed, Haan contends, it was not the treaty itself but its subsequent justifications which stoked French religious strife. The treaty's priority, he argues, was not a Catholic alliance to extirpate heresy but the affirmation of its signatories' honor and amity, consecrated by a set of dynastic marriages.' According to Haan, there is no evidence of a Catholic alliance between France and Spain to eradicate Protestantism, even though some contemporaries have pointed to the treaty's second article to argue such an agreement existed: 'The second article expresses the wish to convene an oecumenical council. People, the contemporaries first, have concluded that the agreement sealed the establishment of a united front of Philip II and Henry II against Protestantism in their states as in Europe. The analysis of the progress of the talks shows that this was not the case.' Pope Pius V raised the Florentine duke Cosimo de' Medici to Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1569, which was confirmed by the emperor, although Philip II of Spain disapproved. Although the Papacy's diplomatic role increased during the Wars of Religion, popes and papal legates played no role in negotiating the most significant truces and treaties between the Habsburg and Valois monarchs during these wars. === Testimony in Orange's Apology === Despite this, Dutch historiographers have long assumed that such an alliance between the two Catholic monarchs was concluded during the peace talks at Le Cateau, albeit in secret, mostly because William of Orange made claims to that extent in his December 1580 Apology (written in his own defence after Philip II of Spain imposed the royal ban on him in March 1580, publicly calling for the assassination of Orange in return for a large reward). In the Apology, Orange alleged that, when he, Alba and Egmont were held as hostages in France in June 1559 to ensure the implementation of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, the following event occurred when he had a meeting with Henry II of France while the latter was on a hunt: ...while being in France, I've heard from the own mouth of King Henry, that the Duke of Alba employed means to exterminate all the suspects of Religion in France, in this Country, and throughout all of Christendom. When the king had outlined the main goal of the Spanish Council and the intention of the Spanish king and the duke of Alba, I pretended that I was already informed on the matter. This caused him to continue with an elaborate narration, from which I was able to sufficiently deduce the intention of the inquisitors. I would happily like to confess that at that moment, I felt a great compassion for so many people of honour, who had been delivered to death; furthermore, I felt sympathy with this country, with which I am so connected and where one thought to introduce a certain kind of inquisition, which would be more cruel than the Spanish. This Spanish inquisition was a trap to entangle both the Noblemen of the land and the people. Those, who could not be subjected by the Spaniards and their adherents by other means, would surely have easily fallen into their hands through this inquisition, from which escape is impossible. After all, you only had to look at a holy statue with contempt in order to be burnt at the stake. Moreover, I confess that at that moment, I resolved in all seriousness, that I would do my utmost to help expell this Spanish rabble, which I have not regretted up to this very moment.: 70 Some historiographers doubt the historicity of this meeting. Van der Lem (1995) stated: "In later years, Orange spread a fable about this stay [in France]. (...) In reality, Orange's thoughts were hardly on matters of religion then: his wife Anna van Buren had died the year before and he was busy looking for a suitable, wealthy second wife, Catholic or Protestant, it didn't matter. The conversation with King Henry II has been added to the Prince's Apology, a propaganda piece in which he subsequently justified his actions in 1580. Klink (1997) stated that the arguments for denial are not strong. Bertrand Haan (2010), however, argued that 'the authenticity of this allegation cannot be determined'; although Alba would later act in a way that is compatible with such a plan to exterminate all Protestants, Henry II seemed not to act on it at all. It may well be that this testimony had merely been a way for Orange 'to blacken Alba's reputation, and more generally to denounce the irreconcilable and tyrannical tendencies of the Spanish government as a whole.' On the other hand, René van Stipriaan (2021) claimed: 'In recent times, the doubts about the historicity of this story have significantly decreased.' In any case, Orange would have been present at Henry's deathbed in early July 1559. === Other claims of Spanish Inquisition in the Netherlands === In connection with the simultaneous papal bull Super Universas (12 May 1559), Van der Lem (1995) remarked: "The secrecy that came about with the ecclesiastical reorganisation fed rumours that the king was also going to introduce the so-called Spanish Inquisition in the Netherlands. About few institutions in history such great fables and absurdities have been told as the Spanish Inquisition. (...) All of this is part of the so-called Black Legend, the whole of imaginary stories that were doing and still do the rounds about Spanish history. (Swart 1975) In reality, the Spanish Inquisition was never introduced in the Netherlands, nor did Philip II intend to introduce it in the Netherlands." There was only a short-lived attempt at establishing a papal (Roman) inquisition in the Netherlands in 1522, which never amounted to much. == Role of main players == === Margaret of Parma === Margaret of Parma, governor-general of the Habsburg Netherlands (1559–1567), has received a mixed scholarly reception. Winkler Prins (2002) regarded her as 'not very independent in general', as the powerful men in her political milieu repeatedly compelled her to act differently than she had intended. 'She acquiesced to the advice of cardinal Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, until she suspected him of not supporting her dynastic interests (the marriage of her son Alexander Farnese to an Austrian princess and the return of Piacenza) to the king.' After Granvelle's departure in 1564, Winkler Prins stated that the noblemen's interference with her government 'increased the chaos in the land', and that Margaret was 'filled with fear, and forced to compromise'. It was thanks to the outrage caused by the Beeldenstorm that the noblemen finally respected her authority: 'Henceforth powerfully supported by Peter Ernst von Mansfeld, Noircarmes, Arenberg and Megen, Margaret managed to restore order.' It concluded that Philip's sending of Alba to the Netherlands was 'an unfortunate and unnecessary measure' that led her to resign from office and leave for Italy on 30 December 1567. Van der Lem (1995) stated that Margaret's status as an illegitimate daughter of Charles V with Johanna Maria van der Gheynst, and thus the half-sister of Philip II, risked undermining her authority: 'It depended on the good disposition with which one wished to judge her, whether one remembered her illegitimate birth or her descent from Emperor Charles.' He rejected the view of traditional historiography that, through the Council of State, Viglius, Berlaymont and especially Granvelle could easily control Margaret, but although they frequently advised the governoress, this merely created 'the illusion that a clique of three people was running the show'. Contrary to what nationalist historians have implied, Van der Lem said, this woman and these three men were not 'Spanish', but born in the Netherlands and Free Burgundy (Granvelle); they were neither necessarily 'pro-Spanish' nor 'anti-national'. The only person who could really overrule Margaret was king Philip, which he did with the first two Letters from the Segovia Woods (October 1565); this put the governoress at odds with the nobility, who had demanded several moderations of anti-heresy policies that Philip had now all rejected. According to legend, when the Compromise of Nobles offered Margaret the petition on 5 April 1566, again demanding to moderate the persecution of Protestants, she was nervous and hesitant, leading Berlaymont to say: 'N'ayez pas peur, Madame, ce ne sont que des gueux' ("Do not fear, Madam, they are mere beggars"), the origin of the term geuzen. Otherwise Van der Lem agreed with Winkler Prins that the Beeldenstorm outrage regained her the nobility's loyalty and thereby the ability to crush the unrest herself, but Philip already sent Alba with a Spanish army before he was informed that Margaret had succeeded. === Philip II of Spain === Mulder et al. (2008) regarded Philip II of Spain's planned tax reforms as reasonable for a 'modern ruler' in the face of unstable revenues, high expenditures and repeated bankruptcy crises in the second half of the 16th century: 'It was very much in the interest of Philip to be able to introduce regular taxes rather than beden. A modern ruler – in the 16th century, therefore, an absolute monarch – had to have access to sufficient finances.' Similarly, they regarded criticism of Alba's implementation of Philip's tax reforms as 'unjustified'. According to Fruin (1857), the turning point in the war that started the Dutch Republic's greatest Ten Years (1588–1598) was a military one that was to be blamed primarily on Philip's errors. The destruction of the Spanish Armada (May–August 1588) began the 'adversity which Philip would suffer almost without interruptions from now on, which is to be attributed more to his own mistakes than the cooperation of his enemies. (...) The attack on England, waged recklessly, fell apart, and prevented the submission of the Netherlands.' Kosterman (1999), too, blamed Philip for appointing the inexperienced and incompetent Medina-Sidonia as admiral of the Armada, while sending his very competent general Parma to invade France, 'thus spoiling his chances of still subduing the rebellious Northern Netherlands, a task that Parma had been carrying out with great success before the Armada.' === Duke of Alba === Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, better known simply as Alba, came to the Netherlands with the Army of Flanders in August 1567 to restore order and shortly afterwards succeeded Margaret of Parma as governor-general (1567–1573). Mulder et al. (2008) remarked: 'Alba has become the bogeyman in our [Dutch] national history. As for his taxation plans [this is] certainly unjustified. The hopelessly outdated beden had to be abolished urgently. [However,] his harsh treatment of rebels rightly earned him his nickname 'iron duke'.' Kosterman (1999) even regarded the immediate collection of the Tenth Penny as 'necessary to finance the Spanish army', which was threatening mutiny due to lack of pay. Meanwhile, the States of the various provinces obstructed or delayed even the most reasonable compromises, and sabotaged the eventual mid-1571 full-on Tenth Penny introduction 'in all possible, sometimes very childish ways.' Nevertheless, Alba proved incompetent to introduce these necessary tax reforms, which he appears to have admitted by requesting king Philip II at the end of every letter to him to send a successor to take over his job as governor-general. He also vainly tried to force the matter upon the city of Brussels's populace by closing their shops and threatening to execute 17 prominent burghers in early 1572. === William of Orange === William "the Silent" of Orange is probably the most controversial figure of the Eighty Years' War, with commentators approaching him with a wide variety of views. These perspectives have ranged from considering Orange a man of God, to the Father of the Fatherland (Pater Patriae) of the Netherlands, to a great benefactor of his country, to one of the founders of modern human rights principles such freedom of conscience and freedom of religion, to an opportunist without principles, down to a war criminal, or even an anti-Christian heretic who was justly assassinated by a pious, God-fearing Catholic. Historians from all backgrounds have struggled to come up with an evidence-based, balanced evaluation of who Orange was, what he did or tried to accomplish, and what his place in history ought to be. Frederiks (1999) stated: 'During the 1570s, Orange had continuously attempted to get the rebel provinces in agreement in their resistance against the king. That way they would evidently be strongest, and prevent Philip from pitting them against each other. [But] Orange was faced with an impossible mission, so great were the mutual opposites in the Netherlands. (...) A second goal that Orange had set himself, and on which the rebellion's success largely depended, was to get France involved in the struggle. If this powerful country with its mighty potential would militarily back the rebels, it would be done deal.' Although Orange managed to get the States-General to accept the French king's brother and heir presumptive Francis, Duke of Anjou as their new sovereign on 23 January 1581, 'yet Orange's plan was only half successful: Holland and Zeeland did not participate, as they refused to even consider subjecting themselves to a lord who was a Catholic.' Moreover, the other States would also be in constant conflict with Anjou. After years of conducting a pro-French policy and trying to secure Anjou's position as the new monarch of the Netherlands and getting French military support, Orange lost a great deal of power and influence due to the French Fury (17 January 1583). Save from a few allies, Van der Lem (1995) stated that Orange had become 'an isolated political figure' amidst the overwhelmingly critical rebel leadership, and was even deserted by his brother and long-time ally Jan van Nassau, as he kept insisting on reconciling with Anjou and obtaining French intervention. Van der Lem (1995) regarded the assassination of William of Orange in 1584 as a turning point, arguing that his political and religious ideals died with him. He did note that Henri Pirenne downplayed the significance of Orange's death in view of Parma's seemingly unstoppable military advance. Van der Lem also pointed out that the term father of the fatherland didn't yet have its later nationalistic meaning in the 16th century, and that the Protestant-dominated Dutch Republic covering just the northern Netherlands (as it would achieve independence in 1648) would certainly not have been the 'fatherland' that Orange had envisioned, namely, a 17-province Netherlandish monarchy with a Valois dynasty and equality for Catholics and Protestants. === Jan van Nassau === Johann VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, also simply known as Jan van Nassau, has long been hailed by nationalist historians as the driving force and 'great hero' behind the Union of Utrecht as he was the first to put his signature under the treaty on 23 January 1579. For this reason, king William III of the Netherlands, a direct descendant of Jan van Nassau, had a statue of him erected on the Dom Square next to the Dom Tower of Utrecht in 1883, but modern historians have challenged this notion. According to Kosterman (1999), Jan van Nassau more or less suddenly appeared in 1577, 'leaving behind [his] family, house and possessions due to great financial stress, coming down from Dillenburg to the Netherlands looking for a well-paying job. After some princely manipulation [by his brother William of Orange], he was appointed stadtholder of Guelders on 22 May 1578.' Nassau's aims differed from his brother Orange: he sought to establish a union of Calvinist provinces in the Netherlands for the benefit of his fellow job-seeking Protestant German noblemen, but his own Catholic-dominated province of Guelders was mostly opposed to such an alliance. Despite staging a coup d'état to get his way on 7 September 1578 and appointing a lot of confidants on key positions, Nassau was unable to sway the majority of the States of Guelders, and he temporarily returned to Germany; it was then the representatives of Holland and Zeeland who completed the preparations for the Union of Utrecht, which failed to obtain majority consent in Guelders. === Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma === Historians, including Dutch ones, are in broad agreement that Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma was an unmatched diplomatic and military genius. Mulder et al. (2008) called him 'a smart diplomat and a talented general.' Likewise, Groenveld (2009) referred to Farnese's 'capable military and diplomatic performance'. Winkler Prins (2002) stated: "Farnese, who was not just an outstanding general, but also a great diplomat, not only accomplished the reconquest, but also the reconciliation of the Southern Netherlands." Belgian historian Henri Pirenne (1911) went as far as to say that the assassination of Orange in 1584 was a meaningless crime, because he had already been powerless to mount a proper defence against Parma's seemingly unstoppable advances for years. Fruin (1857), seconded by Van der Lem (2019), emphasised that the Dutch breakthroughs during the Ten Years (1588–1598) would have been impossible without the bulk of the Spanish army under Parma being tied up in France. Van der Lem (2019) concurred with Fruin that the Ten Years were militarily 'crucial', although it had more to do with the absence of Parma than the brilliance of the Republic's war efforts and economics. Only Winkler Prins (2002) alleged that Maurice of Orange 'mastered the new mathematics-based art of war equal to [Farnese]', although Maurice wasn't very politically gifted. === Maurice of Orange and Johan van Oldenbarnevelt === The relationship between stadtholder and unofficial captain-general Maurice, Prince of Orange (until 1618 known as Maurice of Nassau) and Land's Advocate of Holland Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, who was executed on 13 May 1619 at the instigation of Maurice, has been the subject of many Dutch historians' disputes. The interest of scholars focuses not just on the characters and actions of the two men, but also on what they were (later) said to represent: the earliest forms of the Orangist militarist stadtholderate that would eventually evolve into the Orange dynasty / Dutch monarchy of 1813 that still exists today, versus the staatse regenten / merchant / proto-capitalist class, later evolving into the republican Loevestein faction, some of which still later evolved into the Enlightened democratic-republican Patriotten of the 1780s. While early modern writers usually had a distinct preference of either Maurice or Oldenbarnevelt (for example, Joost van den Vondel vehemently criticised Maurice and admired Oldenbarnevelt in his poems), placing them at the beginning of both political traditions, modern historians have argued that these binary representations are oversimplifications of reality. Many have pointed out that Oldenbarnevelt and Maurice cooperated fairly well during the Ten Years, were in fact dependent on each other to accomplish their goals, and balanced each other out. Still, there is a consensus that Maurice committed a coup d'état in August 1618, and the Trial of Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Hogerbeets was unfair and politically motivated. According to Winkler Prins (2002), 'Oldenbarnevelt is generally recognised as a first-rate intellect, a sharp jurist, the constitutional builder of the Republic of United Netherlands and the founder of its position in the world.' He worked 'with [Orange] to prevent geuzen dictatorship in favour of the regenten families' in 1573–1576. It credited his contacts with exiled Southerners and economic policy as Rotterdam pensionary (1576–1586) for the flourising of the Port of Rotterdam for decades thereafter, but 'as a tolerant humanist, [Oldenbarnevelt] only partially succeeded in securing the principle of religious peace' during the Union of Utrecht preparations. Winkler Prins judged his decision to have Maurice appointed as stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland ('but with restrictions establishing the sovereignty of the States'), and thereby 'the 'national' counterpart of the English governor-general [Leicester]', to be a 'masterpiece'. Simultaneously, however, this created the core of the 'increasing animosity between Oldenbarnevelt and Maurice', as the former (backed by the States of Holland) continuously rejected the idea of granting sovereignty to a 'hereditary chief', while especially Zeeland was in favour of recognising Maurice as count. On the other hand, Winkler Prins stated that Oldenbarnevelt 'managed, based on no legal document whatsoever, to raise the position of his own office to be the most important officials in the entire Republic'. It admired his diplomatic skill of attracting allies, forcing the Twelve Years' Truce and withstanding the pressure of the dynastic interests of Orange and Bourbon upon the republican government. His decision to have the States of Holland adopt the Sharp Resolution of August 1617 to allow cities to hire their own security forces was 'the only important defeat Oldenbarnevelt suffered', and the one which cost him both his office and his life; Maurice used his military force to stage a coup by disbanding the city mercenaries, arresting all political opposition, and appointing his own special court to have Oldenbarnevelt tried and executed. Although he had few friends in life due to being 'tyrannical', his 'dishonourable end motivated his allies such as the poet Joost van den Vondel to turn him into a martyr.' Winkler Prins stated that Maurice 'mastered the new, mathematics-based art of war equal to [Farnese], and after Farnese's death, he was the unmatched greatest military leader of his time.' On the other hand, Maurice wasn't as political shrewd, being 'overshadowed by Oldenbarnevelt', and only 'managing to escape' the monarchal influence of Henry IV of France 'after long hesitation'. The fact that Oldenbarnevelt secured the Twelve Years' Truce (undermining Maurice's military position) and opposed one-person sovereignty (obstructing Maurice's dynastic aspirations) is what caused their rift, while the religious conflicts between them 'barely played a role, because the confessional colours of both has always remained vague.' According to Arie van Deursen's 2000 biography of Maurice, he "failed as the winner of the conflict" the moment Oldenbarnevelt's head rolled: "If there was a court of history, it would unambigiously pronounce a guilty verdict over Maurice". == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Babel, Rainer (2021). "42. Der Frieden von Cateau-Cambrésis 1559". Handbuch Frieden im Europa der Frühen Neuzeit / Handbook of Peace in Early Modern Europe. pp. 857–876. doi:10.1515/9783110591316-042. ISBN 9783110591316. S2CID 234558650. doi:10.1515/9783110591316-042 Blok, Petrus Johannes (1924). Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche volk. Deel 2. Leiden: A.W. Sijthoff. p. 710. Retrieved 28 July 2022. (3rd edition; original published in 1896) Cruz, Laura (2007). "The 80 Years' Question: The Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective". History Compass. 5 (3). Blackwell Publishing: 914–934. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00400.x. Retrieved 10 January 2023. Duke, A. (1997). "A legend in the making: News of the 'Spanish Inquisition' in the Low Countries in German evangelical pamphlets, 1546–1550". Nederlands Archief voor Kerkgeschiedenis/Dutch Review of Church History. 77 (2): 125–144. doi:10.1163/002820397X00225. JSTOR 24011467. Frederiks, Jaap (1999). "Placcaet van Verlatinghe". In Willem Velema (ed.). Het aanzien van een millennium. Kroniek van historische gebeurtenissen van de Lage Landen 1000–2000. Utrecht: Uitgeverij Het Spectrum. pp. 67–69. ISBN 9027468443. Fruin, Robert Jacobus (1899). Tien jaren uit den Tachtigjarigen Oorlog. 1588–1598. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 386. Retrieved 28 July 2022. (5th edition; original published in 1857) Groenveld, Simon (2009). Unie – Bestand – Vrede. Drie fundamentele wetten van de Republiek der Verenigde Nederlanden. Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren. p. 200. ISBN 9789087041274. (in cooperation with H.L.Ph. Leeuwenberg and H.B. van der Weel) Groenveld, Simon; Leeuwenberg, Huib (2020). De Tachtigjarige Oorlog. Opstand en consolidatie in de Nederlanden (ca. 1560–1650). Derde editie (in Dutch). Zutphen: Walburg Pers. p. 750. ISBN 9789462495661. (e-book; original publication 2008; in cooperation with M. Mout and W. Zappey) Haan, Bertrand (2010). Une paix pour l'éternité. La négociation du traité du Cateau-Cambrésis (in French). Casa de Velázquez. ISBN 978-8490961308. Israel, Jonathan Irvine (1995). The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477-1806. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-873072-9. Klink, Hubrecht (1997). Opstand, politiek en religie bij Willem van Oranje. Een thematische biografie. Heerenveen: J.J. Groen en Zoon. p. 392. ISBN 9050308708. Kosterman, Hans (1999). "Alva en de tiende penning; De Unie van Utrecht; De Armada; De terechtstelling van Johan van Oldenbarnevelt". In Willem Velema (ed.). Het aanzien van een millennium. Kroniek van historische gebeurtenissen van de Lage Landen 1000–2000. Utrecht: Uitgeverij Het Spectrum. pp. 49–51, 61–63, 76–78, 91–93. ISBN 9027468443. van der Lem, Anton (1995). De Opstand in de Nederlanden (1555–1648) (in Dutch). Uitgeverij Kosmos / Leiden University. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2022. {{cite book}}: \|work= ignored (help) van der Lem, Anton (2019). Revolt in the Netherlands: The Eighty Years War, 1568–1648. London: Reaktion Books. pp. 142–243. ISBN 9781789140880. Retrieved 9 July 2022. Mallett, Michael; Shaw, Christine (2014). The Italian Wars 1494–1559: War, State and Society in Early Modern Europe. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0582057586. Mulder, Liek; Doedens, Anne; Kortlever, Yolande (2008). Geschiedenis van Nederland, van prehistorie tot heden. Baarn: HBuitgevers. p. 288. ISBN 9789055746262. Nuyens, W. J. F. (1869). "De Geschiedenis van de Nederlandsche Beroerten der XVIe Eeuw, uit een Katholiek oogpunt beschouwd. Andwoord aan Prof. R. Fruin, Prof. J. Van Vloten en Dr M. Van Deventer, door Dr W.J.F. Nuyens". Dietsche Warande. 8: 237–288. Retrieved 26 July 2022. Parker, Geoffrey (2002). Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europe. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9515-2. Rooze-Stouthamer, Clasina Martina (2009). De opmaat tot de Opstand: Zeeland en het centraal gezag (1566–1572) (in Dutch). Uitgeverij Verloren. ISBN 9789087040918. van Stipriaan, René (2021). De zwijger. Het leven van Willem van Oranje. Amsterdam: Querido Facto. p. 944. ISBN 9789021402758. Tracy, J.D. (2008). The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland 1572–1588. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920911-8. Visconti, Joseph (2003). The Waldensian Way to God. Xulon Press. pp. 299–300. ISBN 978-1591607922. Van der Wee, Herman (1969). "De economie als factor bij het begin van de opstand in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden door Herman van der Wee". BMGN: Low Countries Historical Review. 83. Royal Netherlands Historical Society: 15–32. Retrieved 31 July 2022. Williams, Megan (2011). "Review of: Bertrand Haan, Une paix pour l'éternité: La négociation du traité du Cateau-Cambrésis" (PDF). Renaissance Quarterly. 64 (2). The Renaissance Society of America: 626–628. doi:10.1086/661851. S2CID 164326263. Retrieved 4 July 2022. van der Zeijden, Albert (2012). Katholieke identiteit en historisch bewustzijn: W.J.F. Nuyens (1823–1894) en zijn 'nationale' geschiedschrijving. Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren. p. 386. ISBN 9789065507099. Retrieved 25 July 2022.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years'_War
This is a list of historians, but only for those with a biographical entry in Wikipedia. Major chroniclers and annalists are included and names are listed by the person's historical period. The entries continue with the specializations, not nationality. == Antiquity == === Greco-Roman world === ==== Classical period ==== Herodotus (484 – c. 420 BCE), Halicarnassus, wrote the Histories, which established Western historiography Thucydides (460 – c. 400 BCE), Peloponesian War Xenophon (431 – c. 360 BCE), Athenian knight and student of Socrates Ctesias (early 4th century BCE), Greek historian of Assyrian, Persian, and Indian history ==== Hellenistic period ==== Ephorus of Cyme (c. 400–330 BCE), Greek history Theopompus (c. 380 – c. 315 BCE), Greek history Eudemus of Rhodes (c. 370 – c. 300 BCE), Greek historian of science Ptolemy I Soter (367 – c. 283 BCE), general of Alexander the Great, founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty Duris of Samos (c. 350 – post-281 BCE), Greek history Berossus (early 3rd century BCE), Babylonian historian Timaeus of Tauromenium (c. 345 BCE – c. 250 BCE), Greek history Manetho (3rd century BCE), Egyptian historian and priest from Sebennytos (ancient Egyptian: Tjebnutjer) living in the Ptolemaic era Quintus Fabius Pictor (born c. 254 BCE), Roman history Artapanus of Alexandria (late 3rd – early 2nd centuries BCE), Jewish historian of Ptolemaic Egypt Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE), Roman statesman and historian, author of the Origines Cincius Alimentus (late 2nd century BCE), Roman history Eupolemus, Hellenistic Jewish historian Gaius Acilius (fl. 155 BCE), Roman history Agatharchides (fl. mid–2nd century BCE), Greek history Polybius (203 – c. 120 BCE), early Roman history (in Greek) Sempronius Asellio (c. 158 – post-91 BCE), early Roman history Valerius Antias (1st century BCE), Roman history Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius (1st century BCE), Roman history Diodorus of Sicily (1st century BCE), Greek history Posidonius (c. 135 – 51 BCE), Greek and Roman history Theophanes of Mytilene (fl. mid 1st-century BCE), Roman history ==== Roman Empire ==== Julius Caesar (100 – c. 44 BCE), Gallic and civil wars Sallust (86–34 BCE), Roman history Dionysius of Halicarnassus (c. 60 – post-7 BCE), Roman history Livy (64 BCE – 12 CE), Roman history Memnon of Heraclea (fl. 1st century CE), Greek and Roman history Strabo (63 BCE – 24 CE), geography, Greek history Marcus Velleius Paterculus (c. 19 BCE – c. 31 CE), Roman history Claudius (10 BCE – 54 CE), Roman, Etruscan and Carthaginian history Pamphile of Epidaurus (female historian active under Nero, r. 54–68), Greek history Marcus Cluvius Rufus, (fl. 41–69), Roman history Quintus Curtius Rufus (c. 60–70), Greek history Flavius Josephus (37–100), Jewish history Dio Chrysostom (c. 40 – c. 115 CE), history of the Getae Thallus (early 2nd c. CE), Roman history Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (c. 56–120), early Roman Empire Plutarch (c. 45 – 125), Parallel Lives of important Greeks and Romans Criton of Heraclea (fl. 100), history of the Getae and the Dacian Wars Suetonius (c. 69 – post-122), Roman emperors up to the Flavian dynasty Appian (c. 95 – c. 165), Roman history Arrian (c. 92–175), Greek history Granius Licinianus (2nd century), Roman history Criton of Pieria (2nd century), Greek history Lucius Ampelius (c. 2nd c. CE), Roman history Dio Cassius (c. 160 – after 229), Roman history Marius Maximus (c. 160 – c. 230), biography of Roman emperors Diogenes Laërtius (fl. c. 230), history of Greek philosophers Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160 – c. 240), early Christian Herodian (c. 170 – c. 240), Roman history Publius Anteius Antiochus (early 3rd c.) Gaius Asinius Quadratus (fl. 248), Roman history Dexippus (c. 210 – 273), Roman history Ephorus the Younger (late 3rd century), Roman history Acholius (late 3rd century), Roman history Callinicus (died 273), history of Alexandria Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275 – c. 339), early Christian Praxagoras of Athens (fl. early 4th century), Greek and Roman history Festus (fl. 370), Roman history Aurelius Victor (c. 320 – c. 390), Roman history Eutropius (died 390), Roman history Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 325 – c. 391), Roman history Virius Nicomachus Flavianus (334–394), Roman history Sulpicius Alexander (fl. late 4th century), Roman history Rufinus of Aquileia (c. 340–410), early Christian Eunapius (346–414), biographies of philosophers and universal history Orosius (c. 375 – post-418), early Christian Philostorgius (368 – c. 439), early Christian Socrates of Constantinople (c. 380 – unknown date), early Christian Agathangelos (5th century), Armenian history Priscus (5th century), Byzantine history Sozomen (c. 400 – c. 450), early Christian Theodoret (c. 393 – c. 457), early Christian Movses Khorenatsi (13 January 410–488), Armenian history Hydatius (c. 400 – c. 469), chronicler of Hispania Salvian (c. 400/405 – c. 493), early Christian Faustus of Byzantium (5th c.), Armenian history Ghazar Parpetsi (441– after 515), Armenian history Zosimus (fl. 491–518), late Roman history Jordanes (6th century), history of the Goths John Malalas (c. 491–578), Early Christian === China === Zuo Qiuming (左丘明, 556–451 BCE), attributed author of the Zuo Zhuan, a history of Spring and Autumn period Sima Tan (司馬談, 165–110 BCE), began the Records of the Grand Historian, completed by his son Sima Qian Sima Qian (司馬遷, c. 145 – c. 86 BCE), customary father of Chinese historiography, compiled the Records of the Grand Historian Liu Xiang (劉向, 77–76 BCE) (Han dynasty), organized the Han imperial library Ban Biao (班彪, CE 3–54) (Han dynasty), began the Book of Han, completed by his son and daughter Ban Gu (班固, CE 32–92) (Han dynasty), compiled the Book of Han, completed by his sister Ban Zhao Ban Zhao (班昭, CE 45–116) (Han dynasty, China's first female historian, completed the Book of Han Chen Shou (陈寿, 233–297) (Jin dynasty) compiled the Records of the Three Kingdoms Faxian (法顯, c. 337 – c. 422), Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler, wrote an important memoir of his travels to India Fan Ye (范曄, 398–445), compiled the Book of Later Han Shen Yue (沈約, 441–513), wrote the Book of Song on the Liu Song dynasty (420–479) == Middle Ages == === Byzantine sphere === Procopius (c. 500 – c. 565), writings on reigns of Justinian and Theodora Constantine of Preslav (late 9th – early 10th c.), Bulgarian historian Nestor the Chronicler (c. 1056 – c. 1114, in Kiev), author of the Primary Chronicle Anna Komnene (1083–1153), Byzantine princess Joannes Zonaras (12th c.), Byzantine chronicler Nicetas Choniates (died c. 1220) Domentijan (1210–1264), Serbian monk and chronicler === Latin sphere === ==== Early Middle Ages ==== Gildas (500–570), On the Ruin of Britain Gregory of Tours (538–594), A History of the Franks Baudovinia (fl. c. 600), Frankish nun who wrote a biography of Radegund Cogitosus (fl. c. 650), Irish historian Tírechán (fl. c. 655), Irish biographer of Saint Patrick Muirchu moccu Machtheni (7th c.), Irish historian Adamnan (625–704), Irish historian Bede (c. 672–735), Anglo-Saxon England Paul the Deacon (8th c.), Langobards Einhard (9th c.), biographer of Charlemagne Nennius (c. 9th c.), Wales Notker of St Gall (9th c.), anecdotal biography of Charlemagne Martianus Hiberniensis (819–875), Irish teacher and historian Asser, Bishop of Sherborne (died 908/909), Welsh historian Regino of Prüm (died 915) ==== High Middle Ages ==== ==== 10th century ==== Widukind of Corvey (925–973), Ottonian chronicler Liutprand of Cremona (922–972), Byzantine affairs Heriger of Lobbes (925–1007), theologian and historian Richerus (fl. 10th century), French monk and historian Hrostvitha of Gandersheim (935–978), Saxon canoness, poet and historian ==== 11th century ==== Ahimaaz ben Paltiel (1017–1060) - 1054 Jewish chronicle of Byzantine Italy Thietmar of Merseburg (25 July 975 – 1 December 1018), German, Polish, and Russian affairs Michael Psellus (1018 – c. 1078), Greek politician and historian Marianus Scotus (1028–1082/1083), Irish chronicler Michael Attaleiates (c. 1015 – c. 1080), Byzantine historian Guibert of Nogent (1053–1124), Benedictine historian Eadmer (c. 1066 – c. 1124), post-Conquest English history Adam of Bremen (later 11th century), historian of Scandinavia, Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum ==== 12th century ==== Abraham ibn Daud (1110-1180), Sephardic Jewish author of Sefer ha-Qabbalah Albert of Aix (fl. c. 1100), historian of the First Crusade Alured of Beverley (fl. 1143), English chronicler Ambroise (fl. 1190s), Anglo-Norman writer of verse narrative of the Third Crusade Anna Komnene (Anna Comnena, 1083 – post-1148), Byzantine princess and historian Bele Regis Notarius(late 12th century – early 13th century),Hungarian chronicler. Gesta Hungarorum. Eliezer ben Nathan (1090–1170), Jewish chronicler of the Rhineland massacres from Mainz Ephraim of Bonn (1132–1200 or 1221), Jewish chronicler Florence of Worcester (died 1118), English chronicler Galbert of Bruges (12th century), Flemish chronicler Gallus Anonymus (fl. 11th – 12th centuries), Polish historian Geoffrey Gaimar (fl. 1130s), Anglo-Norman chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100 – c. 1155), churchman/historian Geoffroi de Villehardouin (c. 1160–1212) Helmold of Bosau (ca. 1120 – post-1177), German chronicler John of Worcester (fl. 1150s), English chronicler Otto of Freising (c. 1114–1158), German chronicler Pelagius of Oviedo (died 1153), Iberian bishop/historian Saxo Grammaticus (12th century), Danish chronicler Solomon bar Simson (1140), Jewish chronicler of the Crusades in Mainz Svend Aagesen (c. 1140/1150 – unknown date), Danish historian Symeon of Durham (died post-1129), English chronicler William of Malmesbury (1095–1143), English historian William of Newburgh (1135–1198), English historian known as "the father of historical criticism" William of Tyre (c. 1128–1186) ==== 13th century ==== Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 1146 – c. 1223) Wincenty Kadlubek (1161–1223), Polish historian Adam of Eynsham (died c. 1233), English hagiographer and writer, abbot of Eynsham Abbey Snorri Sturluson (c. 1178–1241), Icelandic historian Matthew Paris (died 1259), English chronicler and illuminator Jans der Enikel (c. 1227 – c. 1290), Viennese historian and poet Templar of Tyre (c. 1230–1314), end of the Crusades Simon of Kéza. End of 13th century. A Hungarian chronicler. (c. 1282–1285: Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum) ==== Late Middle Ages ==== Historians of the Italian Renaissance listed under "Renaissance" Piers Langtoft (died c. 1307) Jean de Joinville (1224–1319) Giovanni Villani (1276–1348), Italian chronicler from Florence who wrote the Nuova Cronica John of Küküllő (1320–1393) John Clyn (fl. 1333–1349), Irish historian Seán Mór Ó Dubhagáin (died 1372), Irish historian Adhamh Ó Cianáin (died 1373) John of Fordun (died 1384), Scottish chronicler Ruaidhri Ó Cianáin (died 1387), Irish historian Jean Froissart (c. 1337 – c. 1405), chronicler Dietrich of Nieheim (c. 1345–1418), ecclesiastical history Christine de Pizan (c. 1365 – c. 1430), historian, poet and philosopher Álvar García de Santa María (1370–1460) Giolla Íosa Mór Mac Fhirbhisigh (fl. 1390–1418) John Capgrave (1393–1464) Alfonso de Cartagena (1396–1456) Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c. 1400–1453), French chronicler Georges Chastellain (c. 1405 or 1415–1475), Burgundian chronicler Thomas Basin (1412–1491), French historian Jan Długosz (1415–1480), Polish historian and chronicler Mathieu d'Escouchy (1420–1482), French chronicler Olivier de la Marche (1425–1502), Burgundian chronicler Antonio Bonfini(1424–1502), Italian chronicler Johannes de Thurocz(1435–1489), Hungarian chronicler Jean Molinet (1435–1507), French chronicler Cathal Óg Mac Maghnusa (1439–1498), compiler and annalist Philippe de Commines (1447–1511) === Islamic world === Ibn Rustah (10th century), Persian historian and traveler Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi (995–1077), Persian historian and author Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838–923), Persian historian Al-Biruni (973–1048), Persian historian Ibn Hayyan (987–1075), Al-Andalus historian Ibn Hazm (994–1064), Al-Andalus historian Al-Udri (born 1003), Al-Andalus historian Mohammed al-Baydhaq (fl. 1150), Moroccan historian Usamah ibn Munqidh (1095–1188) Ali ibn al-Athir (1160–1233) Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi (born 1185), Moroccan historian Ibn al-Khabbaza (died 1239), Moroccan historian Ata al-Mulk Juvayni (1226–1283), Persian historian Abdelaziz al-Malzuzi (died 1298), Moroccan historian Ibn Kathir (1300–1373), Arab Islamic Historian and Scholar, Mamluk Sultanate Ibn Abi Zar (fl. 1315), Moroccan historian Ibn Idhari (late 13th/early 14th c.), Moroccan historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (1247–1317), Persian historian Abdullah Wassaf (1299–1323), Persian historian Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), North African historian "of the world" Ismail ibn al-Ahmar (1387–1406), Moroccan historian === East Asia === Fang Xuanling (房玄齡, 579–648, Chinese Tang dynasty) compiled the Book of Jin. Yao Silian (姚思廉, died 637, Chinese Tang dynasty) compiled the Book of Liang and Book of Chen. Wei Zheng (魏徵, 580–643), Chinese historian and lead editor of the Book of Sui Liu Zhiji (劉知幾, 661–721), Chinese history, author of Shitong, the first Chinese work on Chinese historiography and methods Ō no Yasumaro (太安万侶, died 723), Japanese chronicler and editor of Kojiki and Nihon Shoki Liu Xu (劉昫,888–947), Chinese historian and lead editor of Old Book of Tang Li Fang (李昉, 925–996), Chinese editor of Four Great Books of Song Song Qi (宋祁, 998–1061), Chinese historian and co-author of New Book of Tang Ouyang Xiu (歐陽脩, 1007–1072), Chinese historian and co-author of New Book of Tang Sima Guang (司馬光, 1019–1086), Chinese historiographer and politician Kim Bu-sik (김부식, 1075–1151), Korean historian, author of Samguk Sagi Il-yeon (일연, 1206–1289), Korean historian, author of Samguk Yusa Lê Văn Hưu (黎文休, 1230–1322), Vietnamese history Toqto'a (脫脫, 1314–1356) (Chinese Yuan dynasty), Mongol historian who compiled History of Song Song Lian (宋濂, 1310–1381) (Chinese Ming dynasty), wrote History of Yuan Zhu Quan (朱權, 1378–1448), Chinese history === India === Kalhana (c. 12th century), historian of Kashmir and Indian Subcontinent Hemachandra (12th century), Jain polymath Abdul Malik Isami (14th century), Indian historian and poet Jonaraja (15th century) Kashmiri historian and Sanskrit poet Padmanābha (15th century), Indian poet and historian Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi (15th century), Delhi Sultanate == Renaissance to early modern == === Renaissance Europe === Western historians during the Italian Renaissance or Northern Renaissance; those born post-1600 listed under "early modern" Leonardo Bruni (1370–1444), humanist historian Flavio Biondo (1392–1463), humanist historian Philippe de Commines (1447–1511), French historian Robert Fabyan (died 1513), London alderman and chronicler Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527), author of Florentine Histories Hector Boece (1465–1536), Scottish philosopher and historian, author of Historia Gentis Scotorum Albert Krantz (1450–1517), German historian Polydore Vergil (c. 1470–1555), Tudor history Stephanus Brodericus (1480–1539), Croatian Hungarian bishop. Stephani Broderici narratio de praelio quo ad Mohatzium anno 1526 Ludovicus Hungariae rex periit(De conflictu Hungarorum cum Turcis ad Mohacz verissima historia) Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540), historian of the Italian Wars, "Storia d'Italia" Paolo Giovio (1486–1552), historian of the Italian Wars and the Renaissance Papacy, Historiae Paolo Sarpi (1552–1623), historian of the Council of Trent Olaus Magnus (c. 1490–1570), Swedish ecclesiastic Kaspar Helth (1490–1574), Transylvanian Saxon historian and Protestant preacher. Nicolaus Olahus (1493–1568), Hungarian/Wallachian chronicler. H João de Barros (1496–1570), Portuguese historian Aegidius Tschudi (1505–1572), Swiss historian Oliver Mathews (c. 1520–c. 1618), Welsh chronicler Josias Simmler (1530–1576), Swiss classicist Ferenc Forgách, Bishop of Várad (1530–1577), Hungarian historian Arild Huitfeldt (1546–1609), Denmark Raphael Holinshed (died c. 1580), chronicler, source for Shakespeare plays Caesar Baronius (1538–1607), ecclesiastical historian Sigismund von Herberstein (1486–1566), Muscovite affairs Miklós Istvánffy (1538–1615) Hungarian historian Paolo Paruta (1540–1598), Venetian historian Garcilaso de la Vega (1539–1616), Spanish historian of Inca history Pilip Ballach Ó Duibhgeannáin (fl. 1579–1590). Irish historian === Early modern period === Western historians of the Early modern and Enlightenment period, c. 1600–1815 John Hayward (1564–1627) James Ussher (1581–1656), chronology of the history of the world Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft (1581–1647), Dutch Republic William Bradford (1590–1657), Mayflower/Plymouth Colony of America Mícheál Ó Cléirigh (c. 1590–1643), Irish historian Thomas Fuller (1608–1661), English historian and churchman Tadhg Óg Ó Cianáin (died c. 1614), Irish historian Cú Choigcríche Ó Cléirigh (Peregrine O'Clery) (died c. 1662/1664), Irish historian Sir James Ware (1594–1666), Anglo-Irish historian and antiquarian Arthur Wilson (1595–1652), 16th-century Britain Placido Puccinelli (1609–1685), Italian historian Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange (1610–1688), Medieval and Byzantine historian and philologist Mary Bonaventure Browne (c. 1610 – c. 1670), Poor Clare and Irish historian Peregrine Ó Duibhgeannain (fl. 1627–1636), Irish historian Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh (1629–1716/1718), Irish historian Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont (1637–1698), ecclesiastical historian Christoph Cellarius (1638–1707), German universal historian Constantin Catntacuzino (1639-1716), Wallachian Historian John Strype (1643–1737), English historian Thomas Rymer (c. 1643–1713), English historian and antiquary Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh (fl. 1643–1671), Irish historian, annalist, genealogist Geoffrey Keating/Seathrún Céitinn (died 1643), Irish historian Đorđe Branković (1645–1711), Serbian history Josiah Burchett (1666–1746), British naval historian and CEmiralty official Anton Mariah Del Chiaro (1669-aft.1727), the author of a book on the history of Wallachia. Laurence Echard (c. 1670–1730), England Ludovico Antonio Muratori (1672–1750), Italy Manuel Teles da Silva, 3rd Marquis of Alegrete (1682–1736), Portuguese historian Matthias Bel (1684–1749), Lutheran pastor and polymath from Kingdom of Hungary Moses Williams (1685–1742), Welsh scholar and antiquarian Archibald Bower (1686–1766), historian of Rome Vasily Tatishchev (1686–1750), first historian of modern Russia Giambattista Vico (1688–1744), Italian historian, first modern philosopher of history Voltaire (1694–1778), writer on Europe and France Johann Lorenz Von Mosheim (1694–1755), Lutheran historian Charlotta Frölich (1698–1770), Swedish historian Francis Blomefield (1705–1752), historian of Norfolk, England David Hume (1711–1776), History of England Thomas Hutchinson (1711–1780), colonial Massachusetts Francisco Jose Freire (1719–1773), Portuguese historian and philologist William Robertson (1721–1793), Scottish historian György Pray (1723–1801), Hungarian abbot and historian Zaharije Orfelin (1726–1785), Austrian Serb historian Johann Christoph Gatterer (1727–1799), German historian Edward Hasted (1732–1812), English antiquarian and Kent historian Mikhail Shcherbatov (1733–1790), Russian historian August Ludwig von Schlözer (1735–1809), German historian John Barrow (fl. 1735–1774), English naval historian and geographer Edward Gibbon (1737–1794), Roman Empire and Byzantium Alexander Hewat (or Hewatt) (1739–1824), colonial Carolina and Georgia Benjamin Incledon (1730–1796), English antiquary and school historian Philip Yorke (1743–1804), Welsh historian and politician Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), philosophy of the history of mankind Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra (1745–1813), Spanish historian David Ramsay (1749–1815), American Revolution; South Carolina Johannes von Müller (1752–1809), Switzerland Pauline de Lézardière (1754–1835), French law historian Anton Tomaz Linhart (1756–1795), known for Slovenian history Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), German historian Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766–1826), Russian historian, Russian Empire György Fejér (1766–1851) Hungarian author Francesco Maria Appendini (1768–1837), Italian historian, Republic of Ragusa Ernst Moritz Arndt (1769–1860), German historian === Jewish === Abraham Zacuto (1452-1515) Solomon ibn Verga (1460–1554) Abraham ben Solomon (b. 1482) Gedaliah ibn Yahya (c. 1515-1587) Samuel Usque (1500–after 1555) Joseph ha-Kohen (1496–1575) Elijah Capsali (1483–1555) David Gans (1541–1613) Azariah de Rossi (1513–78) David Conforte (c. 1618–c. 1685) Jehiel Heilprin (1660-1746) Nathan Hannover (d. 1663) Menahem Amelander (d. 1767) Abraham Braatbard (1699-1786) Chaim Azulai (1724-1806) Abraham Trebitsch (c. 1760-c. 1850) Salomo Löwisohn (1789-1821) === Middle East and Islamic Empires === Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni (1540–1615), Indo-Persian historian Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi (1553–1616), Moroccan historian Abd al-Aziz al-Fishtali (1549–1621), Moroccan historian Bahrey (born 1593), Ethiopian monk and historian; wrote Zenahu le Galla (History of the Galla, now the Oromo) Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi (1631–1685), Moroccan historian Mohammed al-Ifrani (1670–1745), Moroccan historian Mohammed al-Qadiri (1712–1773), Moroccan historian Abu al-Qasim al-Zayyani (1734–1833), Moroccan historian and poet Sulayman al-Hawwat (1747–1816), Moroccan historian Mohammed al-Duayf (born 1752), Moroccan historian Abbasgulu Bakikhanov (1794–1847), history of Azerbaijan and the Middle East George Grote (1794–1871), classical Greece Teimuraz Bagrationi (1782–1846), history of Georgia and the Caucasus Mohammed Akensus (1797–1877), Moroccan historian Ahmad ibn Abi Diyaf (1804–1874), Tunisian historian === East Asia === Qian Qianyi (銭謙益, 1582–1664, late Chinese Ming dynasty) Zhang Tingyu (張廷玉, 1672–1755, Chinese Qing dynasty) compiled the History of Ming. Qian Daxin (錢大昕, 1728–1804, Chinese Qing dynasty) Chang Hsüeh-ch'eng (章學誠, 1738–1801), Chinese historian, local histories and essays on historiography Yu Deuk-gong (유득공, 1749–1807), Korean historian == Modern historians == === Historians flourishing post-1815, born post-1770 === Lucy Aikin (1781–1864), English historical writer and biographer Archibald Alison (1792–1867), English historian Thomas Arnold (1795–1842), English historian and educator Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881), French Revolution, Germany Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864), Lithuanian Charles Dezobry (1798–1871), French historian and historical novelist John Colin Dunlop (c. 1785–1842), Scottish historian George Finlay (1799–1875), Greece Erik Gustaf Geijer (1783–1847), Swedish nationalist historian François Guizot (1787–1874), French historian of general French, English history Henry Hallam (1777–1859), Medieval European history Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), German philosopher of history Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835), German historian and polymath Joachim Lelewel (1786–1861), Polish historian Heinrich Leo (1799–1878), Prussian historian John Lingard (1771–1851), England Louis Gabriel Michaud (1773–1858), French Jules Michelet (1798–1874), French François Mignet (1796–1884), French historian of the Revolution, Middle Ages Christian Molbech (1783–1857), Danish history, founder of Historisk Tidsskrift (1839) John Neal (1793–1876), US Revolutionary War and US literature Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831), German historian František Palacký (1798–1876), Czech William H. Prescott (1796–1859), US historian of Spain, Mexico, Peru Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), European diplomacy; influential German historian Adolphe Thiers (1797–1877), French historian of the Revolution, Empire George Tucker (1775–1861), US history Isaak Markus Jost (1793-1860), Jewish history Leopold Zunz (1794–1886), Jewish history === Historians born in the 19th century === ==== A ==== Lord Acton (1834–1902), Europe Henry Adams (1838–1918), US 1800–1816 Lucia H. Faxon Additon (1847–1919), Oregon Grace Aguilar (1816–1847), Jewish history Robert G. Albion (1896–1983), maritime Mário de Andrade (1893–1945), Brazil, History of art Charles McLean Andrews (1863–1943), US; US colonial history Marie Célestine Amélie d'Armaillé (1830–1918), France Alfred von Arneth (1819–1897), history of the Austrian Empire Mikhail Artamonov (1898–1972), founder of Khazar studies William Ashley (1860–1927), British economic history Octave Aubry (1881–1946) François Victor Alphonse Aulard (1849–1928), French Revolution and Napoleon I Zurab Avalishvili (1876–1944), history of Georgia and the Caucasus ==== B ==== Dmytro Bahalii (1857–1932), Ukraine, Russia Jacques Bainville (1879–1936), France Meir Balaban (1877-1942), Polish-Jewish George Bancroft (1800–1891), U.S. to 1789 Hubert Howe Bancroft (1832–1918), Native Americans and the Western United States R. Mildred Barker (1897–1990), Shakers, religion Salo Baron, (1895-1989), Jewish history Harry Elmer Barnes (1889–1968), World War I; ideas Wilhelm Barthold (1869–1930), Muslim and Turkic studies Volodymyr Ivanovych Barvinok (1879–1943), Ukraine Charles Bean (1879–1968), Australia in World War I Charles A. Beard (1874–1948), US, economic interpretation, historiography Mary Ritter Beard (1876–1958), US, women's history Carl L. Becker (1873–1945), Enlightenment Max Beer (1864–1943), Imperialism Winthrop Pickard Bell (1884–1965), Nova Scotia Hilaire Belloc (1870–1953), Europe Walter Benjamin (1892–1940), political history, social history and philosophy of history Ella A. Bigelow (1849–1917), Massachusetts, U.S. Karl Bittel (1892–1969), Germany I. M. E. Blandin (1838–1912), Southern U.S. Ernst Bloch (1885–1977), philosophy of history, political history and social history Marc Bloch (1886–1944), medieval France; Annales School Herbert Eugene Bolton (1870–1953), Spanish-US borderlands Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich (1873–1955), Soviet Amadeo Bordiga (1889–1970), political history and social history Erich Brandenburg (1868–1946), Modern Germany George Williams Brown (1894–1963), Canada Otto Brunner (1898–1982), medieval and early modern Austria Geoffrey Bruun (1899–1988), Europe Arthur Bryant (1888–1985), Pepys; English warfare James Bryce, (1838–1922), Europe, America, Middle East Henry Thomas Buckle (1821–1862), England, History of Civilization Serhii Buhoslavskyi (1888–1946), Ukraine, art history Edvard Bull Sr. (1881–1932), Norway Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897), art history, Europe, Renaissance John Hill Burton (1809–1881), Scottish Jacobin history J. B. Bury (1861–1927), classical, Europe ==== C ==== Helen Cam (1885–1968), English medieval Pierre Caron (1875–1952), French revolution E. H. Carr (1892–1982), Soviet history, methodology Henri Raymond Casgrain (1831–1904), French Canada Antonio Cánovas del Castillo (1828–1897), Spanish historian David Cassel (1818–1893), Jewish studies Américo Castro (1885–1972), Spanish identity Bruce Catton (1899–1978), American Civil War Cesar de Bazancourt (1810–1865), Crimean War Nirad C. Chaudhuri (1897–1999), India Boris Chicherin (1828–1904), Russian historian, history of Russian law Zakaria Chichinadze (1854–1931), Georgian literature V. Gordon Childe (1892–1957), archaeology Hiram M. Chittenden (1858–1917), US West, fur trade Giorgi Chubinashvili (1885–1973), Georgian art Winston Churchill (1874–1965), world wars, British Empire Augustin Cochin (1876–1916), French Revolution Stephen F. Cohen (1938–2020), Russia R. G. Collingwood (1889–1943), philosophy of history Christopher Dawson (1889–1970), historian and interdisciplinarian Julian Corbett (1854–1922), British naval Vladimir Ćorović (1885–1941), Serbia Avery Craven (1885–1980), US South Edward Shepherd Creasy (1812–1878), warfare Benedetto Croce (1866–1952), historiography Margaret Campbell Speke Cruwys (1894–1968), Devon John Shelton Curtiss (1899–1983), Soviet Union ==== D ==== Felix Dahn (1834–1912), medieval Angie Debo (1890–1988), Native American and Oklahoma history Léopold Delisle (1826–1910), French historian and librarian Bernard DeVoto (1897–1955), US West Margarita Diez-Colunje y Pombo (1838–1919), Colombia Edith Dobie (1887–1975), Great Britain William Dodd (1869–1940), US South David C. Douglas (1898–1982), Norman England Johann Gustav Droysen (1808–1884), German history W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), Africa, African-American, slavery, political history, cultural history Sir George Dunbar (1878–1962), India Hermann Duncker (1874–1960), Social history, political history Ariel Durant (1898–1981), Europe Will Durant (1885–1981), Europe ==== E ==== Norbert Elias (1897–1990), process of civilization Ephraim Emerton (1851–1935), medieval Europe Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), historical materialism ==== F ==== Cyril Falls (1888–1971), military, world wars Lucien Febvre (1878–1956), France Keith Feiling (1884–1977), England, conservatism Herbert Feis (1893–1972), World War II diplomacy, international finance Charles Harding Firth (1857–1936), 17th-century England Herbert A. L. Fisher (1865–1940) Walter L. Fleming (1874–1932), US reconstruction Vilmos Fraknói (1843–1924), Hungary, Hungarian ecclesiastical history Edward Augustus Freeman (1823–1892), English politics Egon Friedell (1878–1938), cultural history of the modern age James Anthony Froude (1818–1894), Tudor England J. F. C. Fuller (1878–1966), military Frantz Funck-Brentano (1862–1947), France John Sydenham Furnivall (1878–1960), Burma, Southeast Asia Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges (1830–1889), antiquity, France ==== G ==== François-Louis Ganshof (1895–1980), medieval history Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1829–1902), 17th-century England Alice Gardner (1854–1927), ancient history Luise Gerbing (1855–1927), history of Thuringia Pieter Geyl (1887–1966), Dutch Ghulam Muhammad Ghobar (1897–1978), Afghanistan Lawrence Henry Gipson (1882–1970), British Empire before 1775 Arthur Giry (1848–1899), diplomacy Gustave Glotz (1862–1935), Ancient Greece George Peabody Gooch (1873–1968), modern diplomacy Emma Graf (1865–1926), Swiss women Heinrich Graetz (1817–1891), Jewish history Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), Italy, political history, social history, cultural history, history of philosophy Timofey Granovsky (1813–1855), medieval Germany Elizabeth Caroline Gray (1800–1887), Etruscan history John Richard Green (1837–1883), English Mary Anne Everett Green (1818–1895), English Arthur Griffiths (1838–1908), military history Ioseb Grishashvili (1889–1965), Georgian literature Lionel Groulx (1878–1967), Quebec René Grousset (1885–1952), Oriental history James Guillaume (1844–1916), Labor history ==== H ==== Élie Halévy (1870–1937), modern Britain Louis Halphen (1880–1950), Middle Ages Clarence H. Haring (1885–1960), Latin American history B. H. Liddell Hart (1895–1970), military Charles H. Haskins (1870–1937), medieval Henri Hauser (1866–1946), French historian, economist, geographer Julien Havet (1853–1893), Middle Ages Paul Hazard (1878–1944), modern France Eli Heckscher (1879–1954), Swedish economic historian John Donald Hicks (1890-1972), American politics Auguste Himly (1823–1906), French history and geography Otto Hintze (1861–1940), German Serafima Hopner (1880–1966), Soviet Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), social history, cultural history, political history Mihály Horváth (1809–1878), Hungary Henry Hoyle Howorth (1842–1923), British historian and geologist Mykhailo Hrushevsky (1866–1934), Ukrainian history Hu Sheng (1918–2000), Chinese Johan Huizinga (1872–1945), Dutch historian, author of Waning of the Middle Ages ==== I ==== Ibn Zaydan (1873–1946), Moroccan historian Dmitry Ilovaisky (1832–1920), Russian history Marilla Baker Ingalls (1828–1902), Burmese missionary and historian Harold Innis (1894–1952), Canadian economic history ==== J ==== Mohammed ibn Jaafar al-Kattani (1858–1927), Moroccan Muhammad Jaber (1875–1945), history of the Levant and the Middle-East William James (1780–1827), historian of the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars Ivane Javakhishvili (1876–1940), Georgian historian Arthur Johnson (1845–1927), historian at Oxford University Ellen Jørgensen (1877–1948), Danish historian and historiographer J. B. Bury (1851–1927), Anglo-Irish historian of the Medieval Roman epoch. ==== K ==== Sargis Kakabadze (1886–1967), Georgia, Middle Ages Samuel Kamakau (1815–1876), Hawaiian historian Adrian Kashchenko (1858–1921), Ukrainian historian Konstantin Kavelin (1818–1885), Russian historian, history of Russian laws Eckart Kehr (1902–1933), Germany, social history, economic history Korneli Kekelidze (1879–1962), Georgian literature François Christophe Edmond de Kellermann (1802–1868), French political historian Hans Kelsen (1881–1973), legal Philip Moore Callow Kermode (1855–1932), Manx crosses and runic inscriptions Alexander William Kinglake (1809–1891), works on the Crimean War William Kingsford (1819–1898), Canadian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911), Russian history David Knowles (1896–1974), English medieval Lilian Knowles (1870–1926), English economic historian Dudley Wright Knox (1877–1960), US naval historian Ludwig von Köchel (1800–1877), writer, botanist and music historian Mihail Kogălniceanu (1817–1891), Romanian Hans Kohn (1891–1971), European nationalism Nikodim Kondakov (1844–1925), Byzantine art Mehmet Fuad Köprülü (1890–1966), Turkish historian Yannis Kordatos, (1891–1961), Ancient, Byzantine history and Modern Greece Myron Korduba (1876–1947), Ukraine Mykola Kostomarov (1817–1885), Russian and Ukrainian history Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921), economics, sociology and political history Godefroid Kurth (1847–1916), Belgian historian ==== L ==== Leonard Woods Labaree (1897–1980), editor of the Benjamin Franklin papers Harold Lamb (1892–1962), US Karl Lamprecht (1856–1915), German art and economic history William L. Langer (1896–1977), US historian, world and diplomatic history John Knox Laughton (1830–1915), British naval historian Ernest Lavisse (1842–1922), French history William Edward Hartpole Lecky (1838–1903), England and Ireland Georges Lefebvre (1874–1959), French Revolution Elisabeth Lemke (1849–1925) German history Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924), labor, political history, cultural history, economic history, social history, history of philosophy Anna Lewis (1885–1961), South-western US Liang Qichao (梁啓超, 1873–1929), Chinese and Western history and historiography John Edward Lloyd (1861–1947), Welshness Ferdinand Lot (1866–1952), Middle Ages John Lord (1810–1894), Middle Ages, ancient history, historical survey Arthur Oncken Lovejoy (1873–1962), intellectual history Arthur R. M. Lower (1889–1988), Canadian György Lukács (1885–1971), history of literature, art history and philosophy of history Nikolai Lukin (1885–1940), France, Germany, economic history ==== M ==== Thomas Macaulay (1800–1859), British R. B. McCallum (1898–1973) British J. D. Mackie (1887–1978), Scottish William Archibald Mackintosh (1895–1970), Canadian economic Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840–1914), naval Frederic William Maitland (1850–1906), English legal, medieval Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1888–1980), Indian history Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979), social history, cultural history, political history José Carlos Mariátegui (1894–1930), Latin America, Peru, political history, economic history, history of philosophy J. A. R. Marriott (1859–1945), modern Britain and Europe Karl Marx (1818–1883), European society and economy Albert Mathiez (1874–1932), French Revolution Franz Mehring (1846–1919), political history, history of philosophy Friedrich Meinecke (1862–1954), German intellectual and cultural Krste Misirkov (1874–1926), Macedonian historian and author Auguste Molinier (1851–1904), Middle Ages Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903), Roman Empire Alfred Morel-Fatio (1850–1924), Spain Samuel Eliot Morison (1887–1976), naval, American colonial John Lothrop Motley (1814–1877), the Netherlands Lewis Mumford (1895–1988), cities ==== N ==== Lewis Bernstein Namier (1888–1960), 18th-century British and 20th-century diplomatic history Ahmad ibn Khalid al-Nasiri (1835–1897), Moroccan J. E. Neale (1890–1975), Elizabethan England Theodor Neubauer (1890–1945), Germany, political history Allan Nevins (1890–1971), US political and business; Civil War; biography A. P. Newton (1873–1942), British Empire Nikolai Nikolsky, (1877–1959), Oriental studies, religious Stojan Novaković (1842–1915), Serbian ==== O ==== Charles Oman (1860–1946), 19th-century military Herbert L. Osgood (1855–1918), American colonial ==== P ==== K. M. Panikkar (1895–1963), Indian historian Anton Pannekoek (1873–1960), History of astronomy Cesare Paoli (1840–1902), Italian history Gaston Paris (1839–1903), Middle Ages Jane Marsh Parker (1836–1913), US history Francis Parkman (1823–1893), colonial North America Herbert Paul (1853–1935), 19th-century UK Henry Francis Pelham (1846–1907), Roman Arvīds Pelše (1899–1983), political history Samuel W. Pennypacker (1843–1916), Pennsylvania history Dexter Perkins (1889–1984), US history David Pietrusza (1949–), US history Ivy Pinchbeck (1898–1982), English women and children Henri Pirenne (1862–1935), Belgian and medieval European history Sergey Platonov (1860–1933), Russian Mikhail Pokrovsky (1868–1932), economics and Soviet history Albert Pollard (1869–1948), Tudor England Delia Lyman Porter (1858–1933), US history Datto Vaman Potdar (1890–1979), Indian historian Eileen Power (1889–1940), Middle Ages F. M. Powicke (1879–1963, English medieval H. F. M. Prescott (1896–1972), biographer of Mary I of England and medieval History Adam Próchnik (1892–1942), Poland, French Revolution, social history ==== Q ==== Jules Quicherat (1814–1882), Middle Ages ==== R ==== David Riazanov (1893–1974), political history and history of philosophy William Pember Reeves (1870–1938), New Zealand Pierre Renouvin (1893–1974), diplomatic historian Herbert Richmond (1871–1946), British naval James Riker (1822–1889), New York B. H. Roberts (1857–1933), Mormon James Harvey Robinson (1863–1936), European James Rodway (1848–1926), British Guiana Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), US west and naval history John Holland Rose (1855–1942), modern Europe, Britain and France Arthur Rosenberg (1889–1943), Imperial Germany, German Republic, political history Michael Rostovtzeff (1870–1952), ancient history Cecil Roth (1899-1970), Jewish history Hans Rothfels (1891–1976), modern German Roman Rosdolsky, (1898–1967), Eastern Europe Sergei Rudenko (1885–1969), Ukraine, Russian archaeology Simon Rutar (1851–1903), Slovenian Ilarion Ruvarac (1832–1905), Serbian ==== S ==== Abram L. Sachar (1899–1993), modern European history Govind Sakharam Sardesai (1865–1959), Indian Salamon Ferenc (1825–1892), Ottoman Hungary Richard G. Salomon (1884–1966), medieval and church Jadunath Sarkar (1870–1958), history of India George Sarton (1884–1956), history of science Gustave Schlumberger (1844–1929), French Otto Seeck (1850–1921), German John Robert Seeley (1834–1895), British Empire J. Salwyn Schapiro (1879–1973), fascism Arthur Schlesinger, Sr. (1888–1965) US social history Gershom Scholem (1897-1982), Jewish mysticism Moses Schorr (1874-1941), Polish-Jewish W. C. Sellar (1898–1951), co-author of 1066 and All That Victor Serge (1890–1947), Russia Ekaterina Shchepkina (1854–1938), Russia Andrey Shestakov, (1877–1941), Soviet history, agriculture Shin Chaeho (신채호, 1880–1936), Korean Adam Shortt (1859–1931), Canadian Endre Sík (1891–1978), Hungary Charlotte Fell Smith (1851–1937), English early modern Goldwin Smith (1823–1910), British and Canadian Justin Harvey Smith (1857–1930), Mexican–American War Sergey Solovyov (1820–1879), Russian historian Werner Sombart (1863–1941), Germany, economic history Oswald Spengler (1880–1936), world; The Decline of the West Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (1878–1953), labor, political history, economic history Stanoje Stanojević (1874–1937), Serbia Wickham Steed (1871–1956), Eastern Europe Moritz Steinschneider (1816-1907), Jewish studies and Jewish history Frank Stenton (1880–1967), English medieval Doris Mary Stenton (1894–1971), English medieval Floyd Benjamin Streeter (1888–1956), Kansas, American West Dirk Jan Struik (1894–2000), history of mathematics William Stubbs (1825–1902), English law Alexander Svanidze (1886–1941), Ancient László Szalay (1813–1864) Hungarian historian ==== T ==== Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893), French Revolution Frank Bigelow Tarbell (1853–1920), ancient art history Yevgeny Tarle (1874–1955), Russian historian A. Wyatt Tilby (1880–1948), Britain, The English People Overseas Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), France Zeki Velidi Togan (1890–1970), Turkic history Zacharias Topelius (1818–1898) Thomas Frederick Tout (1855–1929), England Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975), world history, A Study of History Heinrich Gotthard von Treitschke (1834–1896), German historian and nationalist George Macaulay Trevelyan (1876–1962), British Leon Trotsky (1879–1940), Soviet Mikheil Tsereteli (1878–1965), Georgian historian Frederick Jackson Turner (1861–1932), US frontier Renáta Tyršová (1854–1937), Czech ethnography and art history ==== U ==== Frank Underhill (1889–1971), Canadian ==== V ==== Alfred Vagts, (1892–1986), Germany, military Paul Vinogradoff (1854–1925), medieval England Vyacheslav Volgin, (1879–1962), Communism ==== W ==== Annie Russell Wall (1835–1920), English historian Spencer Walpole (1839–1907), English historian Charles Webster (1886–1961), British diplomatic history Curt Weibull (1886–1991), Swedish historian Lauritz Weibull (1873–1960), Swedish historian Spenser Wilkinson (1853–1937), Britain, military historian Mary Wilhelmine Williams (1878–1944), Latin America James A. Williamson (1886–1964), Britain, maritime historian and historian of exploration Esmé Cecil Wingfield-Stratford (1882–1971), England Justin Winsor (1831–1897), America, Narrative and Critical History of America Carl Frederick Wittke (1892–1971), US ethnics Ernest Llewellyn Woodward (1890–1971), British history and international relations Muriel Hazel Wright (1889–1975), Oklahoma, Native Americans George MacKinnon Wrong (1860–1948), Canadian ==== Y ==== Yemelyan Yaroslavsky (1878–1943), Soviet Union Yi Byeongdo (이병도, 1896–1989), Korea ==== Z ==== Nicolas Zafra (1892–1979), Philippines Mao Zedong (1893–1976), China, labor, economic history, political history, cultural history Johann Kaspar Zeuss (1806–1856), Celts Faddei Zielinski (1859–1944), ancient Greece === Historians born in the 20th century === ==== A ==== Pavao Anđelić (1920–1985) Bosnian and Yugoslav archaeologist and historian Raouf Abbas (1939–2008), Egyptian Irving Abella (1940–2022), Canadian Aberjhani (born 1957), African American, Harlem Renaissance, Literary Ervand Abrahamian (born 1940), Iran David Abulafia (born 1949), Mediterranean Erwin Ackerknecht (1906–1988), Cultural history, social history Ezequiel Adamovsky (born 1971), Argentina Donald Adamson (1939–2024), Britain Theodor Adorno (1903–1969), Cultural history, social history Teodoro Agoncillo (1912–1985), Philippines Donald Akenson (born 1941), Irish Risto Alapuro (1944–2022), Finland Dean C. Allard (1933–2018), US naval Robert C. Allen (born 1947), British economy James S. Allen (1906–1986), America Gar Alperovitz (born 1936), America, Hiroshima Louis Althusser (1918–1990), history of philosophy, political history, philosophy of history Ida Altman (born 1950), America, colonial Spain and Latin America Mor Altshuler (born 1957), Hasidism, Kabbalism, and Jewish messianism Abbas Amanat (born 1947) Iran, America Stephen Ambrose (1936–2002), World War II, U.S. political Mahdi Amel (1936–1987), Lebanon Yoshihiko Amino (1928–2004), Japan Henri Amouroux (1920–2007), French, Nazi occupation of France Benedict Anderson (1936–2015), Southeast Asia, intellectual and political history Perry Anderson (born 1938), British and European Joyce Appleby (1929–2016), U.S. early national Herbert Aptheker (1915–2003), African-American Leonie Archer (born 1955), England Philippe Ariès (1914–1984), French medieval, childhood Karen Armstrong (born 1944), British religious Andrea Aromatico (born 1966), Italian esotericism and Hermetic iconography Leonard J. Arrington (1917–1999), America, Mormons Thomas Asbridge (born 1969), Crusades Maurice Ashley (1907–1994), 17th-century England Steven Attewell (1984-2024), public policy in 20th century America Paul Avrich (1931–2006), Russian, the Anarchist movement Gerald Aylmer (1926–2000), 17th-century England Ali Azaykou (1942–2004), Moroccan Eiichiro Azuma (born 1966), US, Japan ==== B ==== Alain Badiou (born 1937), history of philosophy Nigel Bagnall (1927–2002), Ancient Rome, Greece Bernard Bailyn (1922–2020), early America; Atlantic Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli (1900–1975), archaeology and art history David E. Barclay (born 1948), German Juliet Barker (born 1958), late Middle Ages, literary biography Frank Barlow (1911–2009), medieval biography Linda Diane Barnes (living), US Geoffrey Barraclough (1908–1984), Germany, world G.W.S. Barrow (1924–2013), Scotland Walter Bartel (1904–1992), German political history H. Arnold Barton (1929–2016), Scandinavia Paul R. Bartrop (born 1955), Holocaust, genocide Jacques Barzun (1907–2012), cultural Jorge Basadre (1903–1980), Peru Leôncio Basbaum (1907–1969), Brazil Hanna Batatu (1926–2000), Palestinian, modern Iraq K. Jack Bauer (1926–1987), U.S. naval, military, and maritime Roland Bauer (1928–2017), Germany, political history Yehuda Bauer (1926–2024), Holocaust Stephen B. Baxter (1929–2020), late 17th – early 18th-century English David Bebbington (born 1949), Evangelicalism Antony Beevor (born 1946), World War II David Bell (living), Early Modern France, cultural history James Belich (born 1956), New Zealand Esther Benbassa (1950-), Jewish history Abdelmajid Benjelloun (born 1944), Morocco Laurence Bergreen (born 1950), biography Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997), ideas Rowland Berthoff (1921– 2001), American culture Giuseppe Berti (1901–1979), Italy, political history Michael Beschloss (born 1955), Cold War Juliette Bessis, (1925–2017), Tunisia Nicholas Bethell (1938–2007), Soviet Charles Bettelheim (1913–2006), political history, economic history Robert Bickers (born 1964), modern China and colonialism Anthony Birley (1937–2020), Ancient Rome Yael Bitrán (born 1965), musicology David Blackbourn (born 1949), German Geoffrey Blainey (born 1930), Australian Lesley Blanch (1904–2007), English Gisela Bock (born 1942), German feminist Brian Bond (born 1936), British military Chrystelle Trump Bond (1938–2020), US dance historian Robert Bonfil, (1937-), Jewish history Daniel J. Boorstin (1914–2004), US Georges Bordonove (1920–2007), France Alfredo Bosi (1936–2021), Brazilian literature John Boswell (1947–1994), medievalist Robert Bothwell (born 1944), Canada Gérard Bouchard (born 1943), Canada Joanna Bourke (born 1963), military Steven Bowman, Jewish history Paul S. Boyer (1935–2012), US morality Karl Dietrich Bracher (1922–2016), modern German Jim Bradbury (1937–2023), Middle Ages James C. Bradford (born 1944), US naval David Brading (1936–2024), Mexican history William Brandon (1914–2002), American West Ray Brassier, (born 1965), philosophical history Fernand Braudel (1902–1985), world, Mediterranean Ahron Bregman (born 1958), Arab-Israeli conflict Michael Brenner (1964-), Jewish history Robert Brenner (born 1943), US history, economic history, agriculture Bridget Brereton (born 1946), Trinidad and Tobago Holly Brewer (born 1964), early American history Carl Bridenbaugh (1903–1992), American colonial Asa Briggs (1921–2016), British social history Alan Brinkley (1949–2019), American 1930s David Brody (born 1930), American labor Timothy Brook (born 1951), China Martin Broszat (1926–1989), Nazi Germany Pierre Broué (1926–2005), Trotskyism Gregory S. Brown (living), Early Modern French History, Cultural History Peter Brown (born 1935), medieval Christopher Browning (born 1944), Holocaust Aleks Buda (1910–1993), Albania Nikolai Bugay (born 1941), Soviet Union Sérgio Buarque de Holanda (1902–1982), Brazil Alan Bullock (1914–2004), 1940s, Hitler studies Colin Bundy (born 1944), South Africa Peter Burke (born 1937), modern period, cultural history Michael Burlingame (born 1941), Abraham Lincoln Briton C. Busch (1936–2004), British diplomatic and US maritime Richard Bushman (born 1931), US colonial and Mormon Jon Butler (born 1940), US religion Herbert Butterfield (1900–1979), historiography ==== C ==== Sima Ćirković (1929–2009) Yugoslav and Serbian historian Claude Cahen (1909–1991), Islamic Middle Ages, social history Angus Calder (1942–2008), Second World War Philip L. Cantelon (born 1940), United States Edison Carneiro (1912–1972), Brazil, afro-brazilian, political history, cultural history Julio Caro Baroja (1914–1995), anthropologist Sir Raymond Carr (1919–2015), Spain and Latin America Richard Carrier (born 1969), ancient Rome; history of philosophy, science and religion Paul Cartledge (born 1947), classicist Lionel Casson (1914–2009), classicist Cornelius Castoriadis (1922–1997), social history, political history and philosophy of history Boris Celovsky (1923–2008), Czech-German relations David G. Chandler (1934–2004), British historian specializing in Napoleonic history Bipan Chandra (1928–2014), modern India Iris Chang (1968–2004), China Howard I. Chapelle (1901–1975), maritime François Châtelet, (1925–1985), philosophical history Maher Charif (living), Arabic intellectual history and political movements Yevhen Chernenko (1934–2007), Ukrainian archaeology Louis Chevalier (1911–2001), France Alexander Campbell Cheyne (1924–2006), Scotland Thomas Childers (born 1976), war and society, both world wars Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri (1935–2016), India I. R. Christie (1919–1998), Britain Robert M. Citino (born 1958), US military historian of Europe Alan Clark (1928–1999), both world wars Christopher Clark (born 1960), Prussia J. C. D. Clark (born 1951), British Manning Clark (1915–1991), Australia Oliver Edmund Clubb (1901–1989), China Yolande Cohen (born 1950), youth, women, Moroccan Jews Patrick Collinson (1929–2011), Elizabethan England and Puritanism Ann Gorman Condon (1936–2001), Canada Robert Conquest (1917–2015), Russia Margaret Conrad (born 1946), Canada Martin Conway (born 1960), British scholar of European history John Milton Cooper (born 1940), Woodrow Wilson Peter Cottrell (born 1964), Anglo-Irish Mario Coyula Cowley (1935–2014), Cuban architecture Gordon A. Craig (1913–2005), German and diplomatic Catherine Crary (1909–1974), American Revolution Donald Creighton (1902–1979), Canadian Vincent Cronin (1924–2011), European and art history William Cronon (born 1954), US environmental Pamela Kyle Crossley (born 1955), China Roger Crowley (born 1951), Mediterranean Sea; Portuguese empire Dan Cruickshank (born 1949), Britain, architecture Robert M. Crunden (1940–1999), US cultural Gemma Cruz (born 1943), Rizaliana, Philippines Barry Cunliffe (born 1939), archaeology Bruce Cumings (born 1943), East Asia, Korea Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui (born 1949), Bolivia ==== D ==== Vahakn N. Dadrian (1926–2019), Armenia Robert Dallek (born 1934), 20th-century US presidents William Dalrymple (born 1965), Scottish David B. Danbom (born 1947), US rural Ahmad Hasan Dani (1920–2009), South Asia Robert Darnton (born 1939), 18th-century France Mahir Darziev (born 1957), Azerbaijan Saul David (born 1966), military John Davies (1938–2015), Wales Norman Davies (born 1939), Poland, Britain Kenneth S. Davis (1912–1999), Franklin D. Roosevelt Mike Davis (scholar) (1946–2022), Labor history, economic history Natalie Zemon Davis (1928–2023), early modern France, film R. H. C. Davis (1918–1991), Middle Ages Lucy Dawidowicz (1915–1990), Holocaust David Day (born 1949), Australia Renzo De Felice (1929–1996), Italian fascism Carl N. Degler (1921–2014), US Len Deighton (born 1929), British military Esther Delisle (born 1954), French-Canadian Jean Delumeau (1923–2020), Catholic Church Marcel Detienne (1935–2019), ancient Greece Alexandre Deulofeu (1903–1978), Catalan Isaac Deutscher (1907–1967), Soviet Wu Di (吴迪, born 1951), China Igor M. Diakonov (1914–1999), Ancient Near East Hasia Diner (1946-), American-Jewish Arif Dirlik (1940–2017), China, economic history, cultural history Jay P. Dolan (1936–2023), American Catholics David Herbert Donald (1920–2009), American Civil War Gordon Donaldson (1913–1993), Scotland Susan Doran (living), Elizabethan England Elisabeth Joan Doyle (1922–2009), 19th-century American and British history William Doyle (born 1932), French Revolution Georges Duby (1924–1996), Middle Ages William S. Dudley (born 1936), US naval Robert Dudley Edwards (1909–1988), Ireland Eamon Duffy (born 1947), 15th–17th-century religious Hermann Walther von der Dunk (1928–2018), 20th-century Dutch and German Mary Maples Dunn (1931–2017), early American, women's history Richard Slator Dunn (1928–2022), early American, slavery A. Hunter Dupree (1921–2019), US science and technology Trevor Dupuy (1916–1995), military Jean-Baptiste Duroselle (1917–1994), French diplomacy Enrique Dussel (1934–2023), Latin America Harold James Dyos (1921–1978), British urban ==== E ==== Terry Eagleton (born 1943), political history, art history, cultural history Elizabeth Eisenstein (1923–2016), French Revolution, printing Geoff Eley (born 1949), German Mircea Eliade (1907–1986), history of religion John Elliott (1930–2022), Spanish Joseph J. Ellis (born 1943), early US Geoffrey Elton (1921–1994), Tudor England Peter Englund (born 1957), Sweden Robert Malcolm Errington (born 1939), Britain Richard J. Evans (born 1947), German social Alf Evers (1905–2004), America ==== F ==== Frantz Fanon (1925–1961), history of colonialism Esther Farbstein (born 1946), Israeli, Holocaust Grahame Farr (1912–1983), maritime, south-west England Brian Farrell (1929–2014), Ireland Boris Fausto (1930–2023), Brazil John Lister Illingworth Fennell (1918–1992), medieval Russia Niall Ferguson (born 1964), military, business, imperial Božidar Ferjančić (1929–1998), medieval Florestan Fernandes (1920–1995), Brazil, social history, political history Robert H. Ferrell (1921–2018), US history, US presidency, World War I, US foreign policy and diplomacy, Harry S. Truman Marc Ferro (1924–2021), World War I Sérgio Ferro (born 1938), Architecture Joachim Fest (1926–2006), Nazi Germany David Feuerwerker (1912–1980), Jewish Heinrich Fichtenau (1912–2000), medieval, diplomacy David Kenneth Fieldhouse (1925–2018), British Empire Federico Brito Figueroa (1921–2000), Venezuela Orlando Figes (born 1957), Russian Robert O. Fink (1905–1988), classical Norman Finkelstein (born 1953), Israel, Palestine Moses Finley (1912–1986), ancient, especially economic David Hackett Fischer (born 1935), American Revolution, cycles Fritz Fischer (1908–1999), Germany Frances FitzGerald (born 1940), Vietnam, history textbooks Sheila Fitzpatrick (born 1941), Soviet Union Judith Flanders (born 1959), Victorian British social Simha Flapan (1911–1987), Israel Robin Fleming (born 1950s), medieval Britain David Flusser (1917-2000), early Christianity and Second Temple Judaism Robert Fogel (1926–2013), US economic, cliometrics Eric Foner (born 1943), Reconstruction Neil Foley (born 1965), US ethnic and racial history Philip S. Foner (1910–1994), US history, political history, labor history Shelby Foote (1916–2005), American Civil War Amanda Foreman (born 1968), Georgian England, American Civil War, women's history Michel Foucault (1926–1984), ideas Jo Fox (living), 20th-century film and propaganda Robin Lane Fox (born 1946), ancient Elizabeth Fox-Genovese (1941–2007), US South, cultural and social, women Andre Gunder Frank (1929–2005), Latin America, economic history, agriculture Walter Frank (1905–1945), Nazi historian H. Bruce Franklin (born 1934), Vietnam War Antonia Fraser (born 1932), England Frank Freidel (1916–1993), Franklin Roosevelt Joseph Friedenson (1922–2013), Holocaust Henry Friedlander (1930–2012), Holocaust Saul Friedländer (born 1932), Holocaust Sheppard Frere (1916–2015), anthropologist, Roman Empire David Fromkin (1932–2017), Middle East Francis Fukuyama (born 1955), world Bruno Fuligni (born 1968), French history Amos Funkenstein (1937-1995), Jewish history François Furet (1927–1997), French Revolution Halima Ferhat (born 1941), Middle Ages of the Maghreb ==== G ==== Femme Gaastra (born 1945), Dutch John Lewis Gaddis (born 1941), Cold War Lloyd Gardner (born 1934), US diplomatic Delphine Gardey (born 1967, gender and science) Robert Garland, (born 1947, Classical history) Edwin Gaustad (1923–2011), religion in America Peter Gay (1923–2015), psycho-history, Enlightenment and 19th-century social Eugene Genovese (1930–2012), US South, slavery Imanuel Geiss (1931–2012), 19th/20th-century Germany François Géré (born 1950), military Christian Gerlach (born 1963), Holocaust N.H. Gibbs (1910–1990), military William Gibson (born 1959), ecclesiastical history Martin Gilbert (1936–2015), Holocaust Carlo Ginzburg (born 1939), social history Martin Glaberman (1918–2001), US society and political history Jan Glete (1947–2009), Swedish Elizaveta I. Gnevusheva (1916–1994), Dutch India Eric F. Goldman (1916–1989), 20th-century US James Goldrick (1958–2023), Australian Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969), ancient history David Hamilton Golland (born 1971), 20th-century US civil rights, public policy, labor Guillermo Gómez (born 1936), Philippine history Brison D. Gooch (1925–2014), 19th century Europe Ruth Goodman (born 1963), early modern period Doris Kearns Goodwin (born 1943), US presidential Andrew Gordon (born 1951), British naval history Yefim Gorodetsky (1907–1993), Soviet history Svetlana Gorshenina (born 1969), Central Asian history Kurt Gossweiler (1917–2017), Economics of fascism Lewis L. Gould (born 1939), US presidents and First Ladies Gerald S. Graham (1903–1988), British imperial Jack Granatstein (born 1939), Canada Michael Grant (1914–2004), ancient Abigail Green British historian of modern Europe Peter Green (1924–2024), ancient Vivian H.H. Green (1915–2005), Christianity John Robert Greene (born 1955), US presidency Roger D. Griffin (born 1948), fascism, political and religious fanaticism Boris Grushin (1929–2007), political history Ramachandra Guha (born 1958), India, environment Ranajit Guha (1923–2023), Indian Lev Gumilyov (1912–1992), Soviet Oliver Gurney (1911–2001), Assyria, Hittites John Guy (born 1949), Tudor England ==== H ==== Irfan Habib (born 1931), India Sheldon Hackney (1933–2013), US South Kenneth J. Hagan (born 1936), US naval John Haldon (born 1948), Byzantine Empire John Whitney Hall (1916–1997), Japan Bruce Barrymore Halpenny (1937–2015), World War II air war Orit Halpern, historian and cyberneticist Pekka Hämäläinen (born 1967), Native American history N. G. L. Hammond (1907–2001), ancient Greek history Nahema Hanafi (born 1983), modern and contemporary history Victor Davis Hanson (born 1953), ancient warfare Syed Nomanul Haq (born 1948), history and philosophy of science Yuval Noah Harari (born 1976), Israeli, military, Medieval Donna Haraway (born 1944), History of consciousness Mohamed Harbi (born 1933), Algeria Antoinette Harrell (born 1960), post-slavery peonage of African-American sharecroppers Dick Harrison (born 1966), Swedish and Medieval Peter Harrison (born 1955), early modern intellectual Edgar Hartwig (born 1928), Germany, Political history Gerhart Hass (1931–2008), Germany Max Hastings (born 1945), military, WWII John Hattendorf (born 1941), maritime Ragnhild Hatton (1913–1995), 17th–18th-century European international Georges Haupt (1928–1978), Romania, Hungary, political history, labor history, history of literature Denys Hay (1915–1994), medieval and Renaissance Europe John Daniel Hayes (1902–1991), US naval Peter Hayes (born c. 1947), Holocaust Joel Hayward (born 1964), Islamic, maritime, military Ingo Heidbrink (born 1968), maritime history, history of technology Michael Heinrich (born 1957), philosophy Jean van Heijenoort (1912–1986), mathematical logic Klaus Hentschel (born 1961), historian of science and of visual cultures Ulrich Herbert (born 1951), modern Germany Jeffrey Herf (born 1947), Germany, Europe Arthur L. Herman (born 1956), America, Britain Michael Hicks (born 1948), late medieval England Raul Hilberg (1926–2007), Holocaust Klaus Hildebrand (born 1941), 19th/20th-century Germany Christopher Hill (1912–2003), 17th-century England Andreas Hillgruber (1925–1989), 20th-century Germany Richard L. Hills (1936–2019), technology Rodney Hilton (1916–2002), late medieval period Gertrude Himmelfarb (1922–2019), Britain Harry Hinsley (1918–1998), British intelligence, World War II Gerhard Hirschfeld (born 1946), 20th-century Germany, World War I, World War II Eric Hobsbawm (1917–2012), labour; Marxism Thomas Lionel Hodgkin (1910–1982), Africa Marshall Hodgson (1922–1968), Islamic Peter Hoffmann (1930–2023), National Socialism Richard Hofstadter (1916–1970), US political David Hoggan (1923–1988), neo-Nazi Hajo Holborn (1902–1969), Germany Tom Holland (born 1968), Ancient Greece, Rome, Middle Ages C. Warren Hollister (1930–1997), Middle Ages George Holmes (1927–2009), medieval Richard Holmes (1946–2011), military Ed Hooper (born 1964), Southern Appalachia, Tennessee, Old South A. G. Hopkins (born 1938), Britain Keith Hopkins (1934–2004), ancient Michiel Horn (born 1939), Canada Alistair Horne (1925–2017), modern French Gerald Horne (born 1949), US history, African-American, political history, labor history Daniel Horowitz (born 1954), US cultural Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz (born 1942), women Albert Hourani (1915–1993), Middle East Youssef Hourany (1931–2019), Lebanon, ancient Michael Howard (1922–2019), military Ray Huang (1918–2000), China Robert Hughes (1938–2012), Australia, cities Marnie Hughes-Warrington (born 1970), historiography, philosophy of history Gershon Hundert (1946–2023), Jewish, early modern Eastern Europe Andrew Hunt (born 1968), Cold War America Tristram Hunt (born 1974) Mark C. Hunter (born 1974), naval Paula Hyman (1946-2011), American-Jewish social history ==== I ==== Moshe Idel (1947-), Jewish history Georg Iggers (1926–2017), Germany, Historiography Halil Inalcik (1916–2016), Ottoman Empire Kiyoshi Inoue (1913–2001), Japan Jonathan Israel (born 1946), Netherlands, Enlightenment, Jewry ==== J ==== Eberhard Jäckel (1929–2017), Nazi Germany John Archibald Getty (born 1950) Julian T. Jackson (born 1954), French C. L. R. James (1862–1935), Trinidad/England Harold James (born 1956), modern Germany Nikoloz Janashia (1931–1982), Georgia and Caucasus Simon Janashia (1900–1947), Georgia and Caucasus Marius Jansen (1922–2000), Japan Pawel Jasienica (1909–1970), Poland Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones (born 1942), US intelligence Merrill Jensen (1905–1980), American Revolution Richard J. Jensen (born 1941), America Julio César Jobet (1912–1980), Chile Khasnor Johan (living), Malaysian historian Paul Johnson (1928–2023), Britain, Western civilization Robert Erwin Johnson (1923–2008), US naval Mauno Jokipii (1924–2007), Finnish, World War II A. H. M. Jones (1904–1970), later Roman Empire George Hilton Jones III (1924–2008), England Gwyn Jones (1907–1999), medieval Loe de Jong (1914–2005), Netherlands Tony Judt (1948–2010), 20th-century European, postwar ==== K ==== Donald Kagan (1932–2021), ancient Greek George McTurnan Kahin (1918–2000), Southeast Asia Michel Kaplan (born 1946), French Byzantinist Efraim Karsh (born 1953), Israel David S. Katz (born 1953), early modern England Alex J. Kay (born 1979), Nazi Germany Elie Kedourie (1926–1992), Middle East Rod Kedward (1937–2023), 20th-century France John Keegan (1934–2012), military Robin Kelley (born 1962), US history, African-American, political history John H. Kemble (1912–1990), US maritime Paul Murray Kendall (1911–1973), late Middle Ages Elizabeth Topham Kennan (born 1938), medieval George F. Kennan (1904–2005), US–Soviet relations James Kennedy (born 1963), Netherlands Paul Kennedy (born 1945), world, military W. Hudson Kensel (1928–2014), western America Ian Kershaw (born 1943), Nazi Germany, Hitler Daniel J. Kevles (born 1939), science Rashid Khalidi (born 1948), Palestine Khan Roshan Khan (1914–1988), Pakistan Khoo Kay Kim (1937–2019), Malaysia Kim Jung-bae (born 1940), Korea Michael King (1945–2004), New Zealand Patrick Kinross (1904–1976), Ottoman Empire Henry Kissinger (born 1923), 19th-century Europe; late 20th-century Martin Kitchen (born 1936), modern Europe Simon Kitson (born c. 1967), Vichy France Klemens von Klemperer (1916–2012), Germany Oleg Khlevniuk (born 1959), Soviet Union Alfred Klahr (1904–1944), Austria Matti Klinge (1936–2023), Finnish Felix Klos (born 1992), American/Dutch, Modern European R.J.B. Knight (born 1944), British naval Yuri Knorozov (1922–1999), historical linguist Frank Kofsky (1935–1997), jazz Eberhard Kolb (born 1933), German Gabriel Kolko (1932–2014), US Claudia Koonz (born 1940), Nazi Germany Andrey Korotayev (born 1961), economic, Near East, Islamic and pre-Islamic Ernst Kossmann (1922–2003), Low Countries Conor Kostick (born 1964), medieval Stephen Kotkin (born 1959), Russia, Soviet Union Philip A. Kuhn (1933–2016), China Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996), science Myoma Myint Kywe (1960–2021), Burmese writer and historian ==== L ==== Dubravko Lovrenović (1956–2017) Bosnian and Yugoslav historian Benjamin Woods Labaree (1927–2021), U.S. colonial and maritime Leopold Labedz (1920–1993), Soviet Walter LaFeber (1933–2021), diplomatic, Cold War Brij Lal (1952–2021), Fiji K. S. Lal (1920–2002), Medieval India Đinh Xuân Lâm (1925–2017), Vietnam Andrew Lambert (born 1956), British naval Peter Lampe (born 1954), Hellenistic and late antiquity Ricardo Lancaster-Jones y Verea (1905–1983), haciendas in Western Mexico Dieter Langewiesche (born 1943), 19th–20th century, nationalism and liberalism Abdallah Laroui (born 1933), Maghreb David Lavender (1910–2003), American West Jacques Le Goff (1924–2014), medieval Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie (1929–2023), French Daniel Leab (1936–2016), 20th century Eusebio Leal (1942–2020), Cuba Robert Leckie (1920–2001), U.S. military Ulrich L. Lehner (born 1976), intellectual and cultural history Lee Ki-baek (1924–2004), Korean William Leuchtenburg (1922–2025), U.S. political and legal Barbara Levick (born 1931), Roman emperors Moshe Lewin (1921–2010), Russia, Soviet Union Bernard Lewis (1916–2018), Oriental studies David Levering Lewis (born 1936), African American, Harlem Renaissance Li Minqi (born 1969), Chinese, social history, political history Li Ao (1935–2018), Chinese Raffaele Licinio (1945–2018), Medieval Italy Marcel Liebman (1929–1986), Marxism Peter Linebaugh (born 1942), Atlantic, British history, Irish history, labor history Leon F. Litwack (1929–2021), America, African-American Xinru Liu (born 1951), Ancient Indian and Chinese Mario Liverani (born 1939), ancient Middle East David Loades (1934–2016), Tudor England Roger Lockyer (1927–2017), Stuart England James W. Loewen (1942–2021), America Elizabeth Longford (1906–2002), Victorian England Erik Lönnroth (1910–2002), Scandinavia Walter Lord (1917–2002), America Domenico Losurdo (1941–2018), political history John Lukacs (1924–2019), modern Europe Cesare Luporini (1909–1993), History of philosophy ==== M ==== Joseph A. McCartin (born 1959), American labor Charles B. MacDonald (1922–1990), World War II Stuart Macintyre (1947–2021), Australia Piers Mackesy (1924–2014), British military Margaret MacMillan (born 1943), 20th-century international relations William Miller Macmillan (1885–1974), liberal South African historiography Ramsay MacMullen (1928–2022), Roman Heidrun E. Mader (born 1977), 2nd cent BCE – 2nd cent CE Magnus Magnusson (1929–2007), Norse Charles S. Maier (born 1939), 20th-century Europe Paul L. Maier (born 1930), ancient history Pauline Maier (1938–2013), early America Leonid Makhnovets (1919–1993), Ukrainian literature Leonard Maltin (born 1950), film William Manchester (1922–2004), Churchill Golo Mann (1909–1994), general Susan Mann (born 1941), Canadian Susan L. Mann (born 1943), history of China and women Adel Manna (born 1947), Palestine in Ottoman period María Emma Mannarelli (born 1954), social Philip Mansel (born 1951), France, Ottoman Empire Manning Marable (1950–2011), African-American, political history Arthur Marder (1910–1980), British naval Ruy Mauro Marini (1932–1997), Latin America and economic history Michael Marrus (1941–2022), French and Jewish Rev. F. X. Martin (1922–2000), Irish medievalist and campaigner Henri-Jean Martin (1924–2007), the Book Luis Martínez-Fernández (born 1960), Cuba, the Caribbean Laurence Marvin (living), US, French medievalist Ezequiel González Mas (1919–2007), Spanish literature Timothy Mason (1940–1990), Nazi Germany Garrett Mattingly (1900–1962), early modern Europe Ernest R. May (1928–2009), 20th-century warfare and international relations Richard J. Maybury (born 1946), America, World War I, World War II, Middle East Arno J. Mayer (1926–2023), World War I and Europe Mark Mazower (born 1958), Balkans, Greece Santo Mazzarino (1916–1987), Ancient Rome David McCullough (1933–2022), US Forrest McDonald (1927–2016), early national America, presidency, business K. B. McFarlane (1903–1966), English medievalist William S. McFeely (1930–2019), American Civil War Randall H. McGuire (born 1951), archaeology Maurie McInnis (born 1966), Antebellum art and politics W. David McIntyre (1932–2022), Commonwealth, New Zealand Neil McKendrick (born 1935), modern economic and social history Ross McKibbin (born 1942), 20th-century Britain Rosamond McKitterick (born 1949), medieval William McNeill (1917–2016), world James M. McPherson (born 1936), American Civil War Jon Meacham (born 1969), US presidency D. W. Meinig (1924–2020), US geography Giorgi Melikishvili (1918–2002), Georgia, Caucasus, Middle East Evaldo Cabral de Mello (born 1936), Dutch Brazil Russell Menard (living), colonial American Thomas C. Mendenhall (1910–1998), history of sport Josef W. Meri (born 1969), Islamic world, Jews John M. Merriman(1946–2022), France Barbara Metcalf (born 1941), India Roin Metreveli (born 1939), Georgia and Caucasus Michael A. Meyer, (1937-), Jewish history Rade Mihaljčić (1937–2020), medieval Serbia Perry Miller (1905–1963), US intellectual Giles Milton (born 1966), exploration Zora Mintalová – Zubercová (born 1950), food history and material culture of Central Europe Steven Mintz (born 1953), US family Yagutil Mishiev (born 1927), Derbent, Dagestan, Russia Arnaldo Momigliano (1908-1987), ancient world Hans Mommsen (1930–2015), Germany Wolfgang Mommsen (1930–2004), Britain, Germany Indro Montanelli (1909–2001) general Simon Sebag Montefiore (born 1965), Russia, Middle East Theodore William Moody (1907–1984), Ireland Harri Moora (1900–1968), Estonian archaeology Franco Moretti (born 1950), Italy, literary history Edmund Morgan (1916–2013), American colonial and Revolution Kenneth O. Morgan (born 1934), British politics, Wales William J. Morgan (1917–2003), US naval Samuel Eliot Morison (1887–1976), US colonial and naval Benny Morris (born 1948), Middle East Ian Mortimer (born 1967), Middle Ages W.L. Morton (1908–1980), Canada George Mosse (1918–1999), German, Jewish, fascist, sexual Roland Mousnier (1907–1993), early modern France Mubarak Ali (born 1941), Pakistan Robert K. Murray (1922–2019), 20th century US David Muskhelishvili (born 1928), Georgia David N. Myers (1960-), Jewish history ==== N ==== J. Milton Nance (1913–1997), American writer on the history of Texas Hernán Ramírez Necochea (1917–1979), Chile Joseph Needham (1900–1995), Chinese science and technology Mark E. Neely Jr. (born 1944), American Civil War Malcolm Neesam (1946–2022), history of Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England Cynthia Neville (living), late medieval, Scotland and England, Gaelic culture Thomas Nipperdey (1927–1992), 19th c. German history Ernst Nolte (1923–2016), German, fascism and communism ==== O ==== Josiah Ober (living), ancient Greece Heiko Oberman (1930–2001), Reformation Ambeth Ocampo (born 1961), Philippines Tom O'Lincoln, (1947–2023), Australia W. H. Oliver (1925–2015), New Zealand Robin O'Neil (living), Holocaust Neil Oliver (born 1967) Melanie Oppenheimer (living), Australia Vincent Orange (1935–2012), military, World War II, aviation Michael Oren (born 1955), modern Middle East Margaret Ormsby (1909–1996), Canada İlber Ortaylı (born 1947), Turkey Marius Ostrowski (born 1988), European social democracy Fernand Ouellet (1926–2021), French Canada Richard Overy (born 1947), World War II Steven Ozment (1939–2019), Germany ==== P ==== Dominic A. Pacycga (born 1949), Chicago George Padmore (1903–1959), Africa Thomas Pakenham (born 1933), Africa Madhavan K. Palat (born 1947), Russia and Europe Ilan Pappé (born 1954), Israel Michael Parenti, (born 1933), US history, Ancient Peter Paret (1924–2020), military Geoffrey Parker (born 1943), early modern military Simo Parpola (born 1943), ancient Middle East J. H. Parry (1914–1982), maritime T. T. Paterson (1909–1994), archaeologist and sociologist Fred Patten (1940–2018), science fiction Stanley G. Payne (born 1934), Spain, fascism Abel Paz (1921–2009), Spanish anarchist Brian Pearce (1915–2008), William Armstrong Percy (1933–2022), Medieval Europe and ancient Greek and Roman, homosexuality Bradford Perkins (1925–2008), US diplomatic Detlev Peukert (1950–1990), everyday life in Weimar and Nazi eras John Edward Philips (born 1952), Africa Đặng Phong (1937–2010), Vietnam, economic history Liza Picard (1927–2022), London William B. Pickett (born 1940), US history, Dwight D. Eisenhower David Pietrusza (born 1949), US Boris B. Piotrovsky (1908–1990), Urartu, Scythia Richard Pipes (1923–2018), Russian and Soviet J.H. Plumb (1911–2001), 18th-century Britain J. G. A. Pocock (1924–2023), early modern intellectual Boris Ponomarev, (1905–1995), Soviet history Kwok Kin Poon (born 1949), Chinese Southern and Northern dynasties Barbara Corrado Pope (born 1941), America, Belle Époque, women's studies Boris Porshnev, (1905–1972), France Roy Porter (1946–2002), medicine, British social and cultural Moishe Postone (1942–2018), social history, political history, economic history and intellectual history Norman Pounds (1912–2006), geography and England Caio Prado Júnior (1907–1990), Brazil Gordon W. Prange (1910–1980), World War II Pacific Vijay Prashad (born 1967), India, cultural history, political history Joshua Prawer (1917–1990), Crusades Jean-Claude Pressac (1944–2003), Holocaust Michael Prestwich (born 1943), medieval England Clement Alexander Price (1945–2014), America Francis Paul Prucha (1921–2015), American Indians Janko Prunk (born 1942), Slovenia Alenka Puhar (born 1945), Slovenia ==== Q ==== Carroll Quigley (1910–1977), classical, western history, theorist of civilizations ==== R ==== Marc Raeff (1923–2008), Russian Empire Alexander Rabinowitch (born 1934), Russia Werner Rahn (1939–2022), German naval Jack N. Rakove (born 1947), U.S. Constitution and early politics Šerbo Rastoder (born 1956), Montenegrin George Rawick (1929–1990), US history, slavery Marcus Rediker (born 1951), Piracy and the Middle Passage Robert V. Remini (1921–2013), Jacksonian U.S. René Rémond (1918–2007), French politics Francesco Renda, (1922–2013), Sicily Timothy Reuter (1947–2002), Medieval Germany Ofelia Rey Castelao (born 1956), Spanish Galician women Henry A. Reynolds (born 1938), Australia Susan Reynolds (1929–2021), medieval Richard Rhodes (born 1937), World War II, hydrogen bomb Nicholas V. Riasanovsky (1923–2011), Russia Darcy Ribeiro (1922–1997), Brazil Jonathan Riley-Smith (1938–2016), Crusades Blaze Ristovski (1931–2018), Macedonia Charles Ritcheson (1925–2011), Anglo-US relations 1775–1815 Gerhard A. Ritter (1929–2015), Germany Andrew Roberts (born 1963), Britain Geoffrey Roberts (born 1952), World War II, Soviet Union J. M. Roberts (1928–2003), Europe Nicholas A. M. Rodger (born 1949), British naval William Ledyard Rodgers (1860–1944), ancient naval Maxime Rodinson (1915–2004), oriental studies Walter Rodney (1942–1980), Guyana David Roediger (born 1952), political history, labor history, slavery Vadim Rogovin (1937–1998), Soviet Union, Trotskyism Theodore Ropp (1911–2000), military W. J. Rorabaugh (1945–2020), 19th and 20th-century US Ron Rosenbaum (born 1946), Hitler Charles E. Rosenberg (born 1936), medicine and science Gavriel D. Rosenfeld (1967-), Jewish history Stephen Roskill (1903–1982), British naval Maarten van Rossem (born 1943), 20th-century US María Rostworowski (1915–2016), Peruvian Constance Rover (1910–2005), feminism Sheila Rowbotham (born 1943), feminism, socialism Herbert H. Rowen (1916–1999), Netherlands A. L. Rowse (1903–1997), English Maximilien Rubel (1905–1996), political history Miri Rubin (born 1956), social, Europe 1100–1600 George Rudé (1910–1993), French revolution Robert W. Thurston (born 1949) R. J. Rummel (1932–2014), genocide Steven Runciman (1903–2000), Crusades Leila J. Rupp (born 1950), feminist Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell (1937–2004), 17th-century Britain Marina Rustow, Jewish history Cornelius Ryan (1920–1974), World War II, popular Boris Rybakov (1908–2001), Soviet ==== S ==== Tatshat Sahakyan (1916–1999), Armenia Edgar V. Saks (1910–1984), Estonia Andrey Sakharov (1930–2019), Russia Dominic Sandbrook (born 1974), recent Britain and America Usha Sanyal (living), Asian, Islam, Sufism S. Srikanta Sastri (1904–1974), Indian Waltraut Schälike, (1927–2021), philosophical history Simon Schama (born 1945), British, Dutch, US, French Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. (1917–2007), Andrew Jackson, New Deal, politics Rene Schmerling (1901–1967), Georgian art Jean-Claude Schmitt (born 1946), Middle Ages David Schoenbaum (born 1935), modern German and US–Israeli relations Ismar Schorsch (1935-), Jewish history Carl Emil Schorske (1915–2015), Vienna, Modernism, intellectual Paul W. Schroeder (1927–2020), European diplomacy Wolfgang Schröder (1935–2010), Germany, labor D. M. Schurman (1924–2013), British imperial and naval Marjan Schwegman (living), Dutch Karl Schweizer (living), 18th-century European Dorothy Schwieder, (1933–2014), Iowa Joan Scott (born 1941), feminism William Henry Scott (1921–1993), Philippines Howard Hayes Scullard (1903–1983), ancient Jules Sedney (1922–2020), Surinamese historian and former prime minister Tom Segev (born 1945), Israel Lorelle D. Semley (born 1969), US historian of Africa Robert Service (born 1947), Soviet, Russian Dasharatha Sharma (1903–1976), Rajasthan Ram Sharan Sharma (1919–2011), ancient India Helena Sheehan (born 1944), political history James J. Sheehan (born 1937), modern Germany Nancy E. Sheppard (born 1983), early American military airship development Michael S. Sherry (born 1945), 20c American military; LGBTQ William L. Shirer (1904–1993), 20c Europe, Third Reich Avi Shlaim (born 1945), Israel and the Middle East Ishimoda Shō (1912–1986), Ancient Japan He Shu (born 1948), Chinese cultural revolution Dhimitër Shuteriqi (1915–2003), Albanian literature Arkady Sidorov, (1900–1966), Russia Jack Simmons (1915–2000), English historian, railway history Keith Sinclair (1922–1993), New Zealand Helene J. Sinnreich (born 1975), Holocaust Nathan Sivin (1931–2022), China Quentin Skinner (born 1940), early modern Britain Alexandre Skirda (1942–2020), Russia Theda Skocpol (born 1947), institutions and comparative method; sociological Morris Slavin (1913–2006), French Revolution Richard Slotkin (born 1942), US environment and West Cornelius Cole Smith, Jr. (1913–2004), military history, American Old West Digby Smith (1935–2024), military Henry Nash Smith (1906–1986), US cultural Jean Edward Smith (1932–2019), US foreign policy, constitutional law, biography Page Smith (1917–1995), U.S. Richard Norton Smith (born 1953), US presidential T. C. Smout (born 1933), Scottish environmental and social John Smolenski, (born 1973), American colonial period Louis Leo Snyder (1907–1993), German nationalism Timothy D. Snyder (born 1969), Eastern Europe Albert Soboul (1913–1982), French revolution Nelson Werneck Sodré (1911–1999), Brazil, cultural history, political history, literature Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008), Russian Gulag Pat Southern (born 1948), ancient Rome R. W. Southern (1912–2001), medieval E. Lee Spence (born 1947), shipwrecks Jonathan Spence (1936–2021), China Jonathan Sperber (born 1952), US historian of Europe. Jackson J. Spielvogel (born 1939), world Kenneth Stampp (1912–2009), U.S. South, slavery George Stanley (1907–2002), Canada David Starkey (born 1945), Tudor Leften Stavros Stavrianos (1913—2004), world James M. Stayer (born 1935), German Reformation Valerie Steele (born 1955), fashion Jonathan Steinberg (1934–2021), US historian of Germany Jean Stengers (1922–2002), Belgian Fritz Stern (1926–2016), Germany and Jewish Zeev Sternhell (1935–2020), fascism William N. Still, Jr. (1932–2022), US naval Dan Stone (living), recent Europe Lawrence Stone (1919–1999), early modern British social, economic and family Norman Stone (1941–2019), military Hew Strachan (born 1949), military Barry S. Strauss (born 1953), ancient military Michael Stürmer (born 1938), modern German Ronald Suleski (born 1942), China Ronald Grigor Suny (born 1940), Soviet Union, Armenia, Russia Jean Suret-Canale, (1921–2007), Africa Viktor Suvorov (born 1947), Soviet Union Ronald Syme (1903–1989), ancient David Syrett (1939–2004), British naval ==== T ==== Manfredo Tafuri (1935–1994), architecture Ronald Takaki (1939–2009), America, ethnic studies J. L. Talmon (1916–1980), Modern, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy Ali Tandilava (1913–1985), Laz people Alexander Tarasov, (born 1958), politics and society Alasdair and Hettie Tayler (1870–1937/1869–1951), Scotland A. J. P. Taylor (1906–1990), Britain, modern Europe Abdelhadi Tazi (1921–2015), Moroccan Adam J. Teller (1962-), Jewish history Antonio Tellez (1921–2005), Spanish Anarchism, anti-fascist resistance Harold Temperley (1879–1939), 19th and early 20th-century diplomacy Romila Thapar (born 1931), ancient India Françoise Thébaud (born 1952), history of women Stephan Thernstrom (born 1934), US ethnic Barbara Thiering (1930–2015), Biblical Joan Thirsk (1922–2013), agriculture Hugh Thomas (1931–2017), Spanish Civil War, Atlantic slave trade Keith Thomas (born 1933), early modern Britain, culture E. A. Thompson (1914–1995), Ancient, medieval E. P. Thompson (1924–1993), British labor history Mark Thompson (born 1959), Balkans, World War I Italy Carl L. Thunberg (born 1963), Viking Age, Middle Ages Charles Tilly (1929–2008), Modern Europe; politics and society Louise A. Tilly (1930–2018), modern Europe; women, family José Ramos Tinhorão (1928–2021), Brazil, brazilian culture, music John Toland (1912–2004), World War I and World War II K. Ross Toole (1920–1981), Montana Adam Tooze (1967), economic history Ahmed Toufiq (born 1943), Moroccan Éric Toussaint (born 1954), Economic history Marc Trachtenberg (born 1946), Cold War Enzo Traverso, (born 1957), Holocaust, totalitarianism, historiography Hugh Trevor-Roper (1914–2003), Nazi; British Francesca Trivellato (1970-), Italian, Jewish early modern period Petro Tronko (1915–2011), Ukrainian history Gil Troy (born 1961), modern US, the Presidency Marcel Trudel (1917–2011), New France, slavery in Canada Barbara Tuchman (1912–1989), 20th-century military Robert C. Tucker (1918–2010), Stalin Peter Turchin (born 1957), Russian historian of historical dynamics Henry Ashby Turner, Jr. (1932–2008), 20th-century German Denis Twitchett (1925–2006), China David Tyack (1930–2016), US education ==== U ==== Walter Ullmann (1910–1983), medieval Laurel Thatcher Ulrich (born 1938), early America David Underdown (1925–2009), 17th-century England Mladen Urem (born 1964), Croatian literary Robert M. Utley (1929–2022), 19th-century US West ==== V ==== Hans van de Ven (born 1958), Britain, modern China Frank Vandiver (1925–2005), US Civil War Jan Vansina (1929–2017), Belgium, Africa Horpyna Vatchenko (1923–2004), Ukraine Andrekos Varnava (born 1979), Australia, modern history Jean-Pierre Vernant (1914–2007), France, ancient Greece Paul Veyne (1930–2022), France, ancient Greece and Rome César Vidal Manzanares (born 1958), Spain Pierre Vidal-Naquet (1930–2006), France, ancient Greece, civil rights activist Pierre Vilar, (1906–2003), Catalonia Richard Vinen (born 1963), Britain Lynne Viola (born 1955), Soviet Union Jaime Vicens Vives (1910–1960), Spain Lise Vogel (born 1938), Art history ==== W ==== P. B. Waite, (1922 –2020), Canadian politics John Waiko (born 1944), Papua New Guinea J. Samuel Walker (living), nuclear energy and weapons Immanuel Wallerstein (1930–2019), world-systems theory Retha Warnicke (born 1939), Tudor and gender issues Peter Watson (born 1943), intellectual history Eugen Weber (1925–2007), modern French Cicely Veronica Wedgwood (1910–1997), 16th and 17th-century Europe Hans-Ulrich Wehler (1931–2014), 19th-century German social Russell Weigley (1930–2004), military Gerhard Weinberg (born 1928), Germany, World War II Roberto Weiss (1906–1969), Renaissance Emma J. Wells (born 1986), church history Frank Welsh (1931–2023), British imperial Liselotte Welskopf-Henrich (1901–1979), Germany, US history, Ancient Greece Christopher Whatley (living), Scotland John Wheeler-Bennett (1902–1975), Germany John Whyte (1928–1990), Northern Ireland, divided societies Christopher Wickham (born 1950), medieval Robert H. Wiebe (1930–2000), American business and society Toby Wilkinson (born 1969), ancient Egypt Eric Williams (1911–1981), Guiana, Caribbean Glanmor Williams (1920–2005), Wales Glyndwr Williams (1932–2022), exploration William Appleman Williams (1921–1990), US diplomacy John Willingham (born 1946), Texas Andrew Wilson (born 1961), Ukraine Clyde N. Wilson (born 1941), 19th-century US South Ian Wilson (born 1941), religious Keith Windschuttle (born 1942), Australia; historiography Henry Winkler (born 1938), German Robert S. Wistrich (1945–2015), Anti-Semitism, Holocaust, Jews John B. Wolf (1907–1996), French Michael Wolffsohn (born 1947), German Jewish Herwig Wolfram (born 1934), medieval John Womack (born 1937), Latin American history, Mexico history Gordon S. Wood (born 1933), American Revolution Ellen Meiksins Wood (1942–2016), Marxist political and economic history Michael Wood (born 1948), England C. Vann Woodward (1908–1999), American South Daniel Woolf (born 1958), Britain, historiography Lucy Worsley (born 1973), Britain Gordon Wright (1912–2000), modern France Lawrence C. Wroth (1884–1970), US printing ==== Y ==== Yen Ching-hwang (顏清湟, born 1937), writer, works on Overseas Chinese history Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (1932-2009), Jewish history Robert J. Young (born 1942), French Third Republic Robert M. Young (1935–2019), medicine ==== Z ==== Gregorio F. Zaide (1907–1986), Philippines Adam Zamoyski (born 1949), Napoleonic era Anna Żarnowska (1931–2007), Polish historian Alfred-Maurice de Zayas (born 1947), German Yuri Zhukov (1938–2023), Soviet Howard Zinn (1922–2010), US Rainer Zitelmann (born 1957), German Vladislav M. Zubok (born 1958), Cold War Marek Żukow-Karczewski (born 1961), Poland, Kraków == See also == General Historiography Historiography of the British Empire Historiography of the United Kingdom Historiography of Canada Historiography of China Historiography of the French Revolution Historiography of Germany Historiography of the United States Historiography of World War II History List of history journals Lists of historians Area of study Canadian England (Middle Ages) French Revolution Contemporary Greek Irish Jewish Russian == References == == Bibliography == The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature, ed. by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (3rd ed. 2 vol, Oxford UP, 1995), 2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics vol 1 online, vol 2 online Allison, William Henry et al. eds. A guide to historical literature (1931), comprehensive bibliography for scholarship to 1930 as selected by scholars from the American Historical Association online edition Barnes, Harry Elmer. A history of historical writing (1962) Barnes, Harry Elmer. History, its rise and development: a survey of the progress of historical writing from its origins to the present day (1922), online Barraclough, Geoffrey. History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978) Bentley, Michael. ed., Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 9780415285575; 39 chapters by experts Boia, Lucian, ed. Great Historians of the Modern Age: An International Dictionary (Greenwood, 1991), 868 pp. Boyd, Kelly, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing. Taylor and Francis 2 vol. ISBN 9781884964336. {{cite book}}: \|last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link); detailed coverage of historians and major themes Breisach, Ernst. Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 3rd edition, 2007, ISBN 0-226-07278-9 Elton, G. R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online Gilderhus, Mark T. History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction, 2002, ISBN 0-13-044824-9 Gooch, G. P. History and historians in the nineteenth century (1913), online Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (2005) Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006. 520pp; ISBN 978-1-4051-4961-7 Momigliano, Arnaldo. The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990, ISBN 978-0-226-07283-8 Rahman, M. M. ed. Encyclopaedia of Historiography (2006), Excerpt and text search E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 (2004) Thompson, James, and Bernard J. Holm. A History of Historical Writing: Volume I: From the Earliest Times to the End of the Seventeenth Century (2nd ed. 1967), 678 pp.; A History of Historical Writing: Volume II: The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (2nd ed. 1967), 676 pp.; highly detailed coverage of European writers to 1900 Woolf, D. R. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities) (2 vols. 1998), excerpt and text search Woolf, Daniel, et al. The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011–12), covers all major historians since ancient times to present; see vol 1 == External links == "Making History", covering British historians and institutions from Institute of Historical Research	Wikipedia/Medieval_historiography
Prosopography is an investigation of the common characteristics of a group of people, whose individual biographies may be largely untraceable. Research subjects are analysed by means of a collective study of their lives, in multiple career-line analysis. The discipline is considered to be one of the auxiliary sciences of history. == History == British historian Lawrence Stone (1919–1999) brought the term to general attention in an explanatory article in 1971, although it had been used as early as 1897 with the publication of the Prosopographia Imperii Romani by German scholars. The word is drawn from the figure of prosopopeia in classical rhetoric, introduced by Quintilian, in which an absent or imagined person is figured forth—the "face created" as the Greek suggests—in words, as if present. Stone noted two uses of prosopography as an historian's tool, in uncovering deeper interests and connections beneath the superficial rhetoric of politics, to examine the structure of the political machine and in analysing the changing roles in society of status groups—holders of offices, members of associations—and assessing social mobility through family origins and social connections of recruits to those offices or memberships. "Invented as a tool of political history", Stone observed, "it is now being increasingly employed by the social historians". == Overview == Prosopographical research has the goal of learning about patterns of relationships and activities through the study of collective biography; it collects and analyses statistically relevant quantities of biographical data about a well-defined group of individuals. The technique is used for studying many pre-modern societies. The nature of prosopographical research has evolved. In his 1971 essay, Lawrence Stone discussed an "older" form of prosopography which was principally concerned with well-known social elites, many of whom were already historical figures. Their genealogies were well researched and social webs and kinship linking could be traced, allowing a prosopography of a "power elite" to emerge. Prominent examples which Stone drew upon were the work of Charles A. Beard and Sir Lewis Namier. Beard's An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States (1913) offered an explanation of the form and content of the U.S. Constitution by looking at the class background and economic interests of the Founding Fathers. Namier produced an equally influential study of the 18th-century House of Commons of Great Britain, The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III, and inspired a circle of historians whom Stone light-heartedly termed "Namier Inc". Stone contrasted this older prosopography with what in 1971 was the newer form of quantitative prosopography, which was concerned with much wider populations, particularly "ordinary people". An early example of this kind of work is Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie's pioneering microhistory Montaillou (1975), which developed a picture of patterns of kinship and heresy as well as daily and seasonal routine in a small Occitan village, the last pocket of Cathars, from 1294 to 1324. Stone anticipated that this new form of prosopography would become dominant as part of a growing wave of social science history. Prosopography and other associated forms of social science and quantitative history went into a period of decline during the 1980s. In the 1990s, perhaps because of developments in computing and particularly in database software, prosopography was revived. The "new prosopography" has since become clearly established as an important approach in historical research. == Data in prosopographical research == A certain mass of data is required for prosopographical research. The collection of data underlies the creation of a prosopography and, in contemporary research, this is usually in the form of an electronic database. But data assembly is not the goal of the research; rather, the objective is to understand patterns and relationships by analysing the data. A uniform set of criteria needs to be applied to the group in order to achieve meaningful results. And, as with any historical study, understanding the context of the lives studied is essential. In the words of prosopographer Katharine Keats-Rohan, "prosopography is about what the analysis of the sum of data about many individuals can tell us about the different types of connection between them, and hence about how they operated within and upon the institutions—social, political, legal, economic, intellectual—of their time". In this sense prosopography is clearly related to, but distinct from, both biography and genealogy. While biography and prosopography overlap, and prosopography is interested in the details of individuals' lives, a prosopography is more than the plural of biography. A prosopography is not just any collection of biographies. The lives of the research subjects must have enough in common for relationships and connections to be uncovered. Genealogy, as practiced by family historians, has as its goal the reconstruction of familial relationships, and as such, well-conducted genealogical research may form the basis of a prosopography. == See also == Big data Historiography Prosopographical network == References == == Sources == == Further reading == Broughton, T. R. S. 1972. "Senate and Senators of the Roman Republic: The Prosopographical Approach." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. 1.1. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 250–265. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter. Cameron, Averil, ed. 2003. Fifty Years of Prosopography: The Later Roman Empire, Byzantium and Beyond. Proceedings of the British Academy 118. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Eck, Werner. 2010. "Prosopography." In The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, Edited by Barchiesi, Alessandro and Scheidel, Walter. Oxford Handbooks, 146–159. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Pr. Fraser, P. M., and Elaine Matthews, eds. 1987–. A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names. Oxford: Clarendon. Svorenčík, Andrej. 2018. "The missing link: Prosopography in the history of economics." History of Political Economy 50.3 (2018): 605-613. == External links == "Prosopography Research". Modern History Research Unit, University of Oxford. Retrieved 30 December 2015. – a prosopography portal that includes a short guide, a bibliography, and an international directory of current projects and researchers. Eligivs – Anagrafica del personale di zecca – Prosopography of the mint officials (in Italian).	Wikipedia/Prosopography
Soviet historiography is the methodology of history studies by historians in the Soviet Union (USSR). In the USSR, the study of history was marked by restrictions imposed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). Soviet historiography is itself studied in modern historiography. == Theoretical approaches == George M. Enteen identifies two approaches to the study of Soviet historiography. A totalitarian approach associated with the Western analysis of the Soviet Union as a totalitarian society, controlled by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, this school "thought that signs of dissent merely represented a misreading of commands from above."363 For Enteen the other school of writing on Soviet historiography is the social-history school which draws attention to "important initiative from historians at odds with the dominant powers in the field."363 Enteen is unable to decide between these different approaches based on current literature. In Markwick's view there are a number of important post war historiographical movements, which have antecedents in the 1920s and 1930s. Surprisingly these include culturally and psychologically focused history. In the late 1920s Stalinists began limiting individualist approaches to history, culminating in the publication of Stalin and other's "Short Course" History of the Soviet Communist Party (1938). This crystallised the piatichlenka or five official periods of history in terms of vulgar dialectical materialism: primitive-communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism and socialism.284 Following publication of the "Short course", on 14 November 1938 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union issued a special statement that the course and its chapter "About dialectic and historical materialism" were declared as "encyclopedia of philosophical knowledge in a field of Marxism-Leninism", in which were given "official and verified by the Central Committee interpretation of basic issues of history of the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and Marxism-Leninism and without allowing any other arbitrary interpretations". While the triumph of Stalinist history was being imposed, different modes of history began to emerge. These included BA Romanov's People and Morals in Ancient Rus' (1947), a study of mentalités at the height of the Zhdanovshchina. However, it was not until the 20th Congress of the CPSU that different schools of history emerged from the Stalinist freeze. Firstly, a "new direction" within Leninist materialism emerged, as an effectively loyal opposition to Stalinist dialectical materialism, secondly a social psychology of history emerged through a reading of Leninist psychology, thirdly a "culturological" tendency emerged.284–285 == Characteristics of Soviet historiography == Soviet-era historiography was deeply influenced by Marxism. Marxism maintains that the moving forces of history are determined by material production and the rise of different socioeconomic formations. Applying this perspective to socioeconomic formations such as slavery and feudalism is a major methodological principle of Marxist historiography. Based on this principle, historiography predicts that there will be an abolition of capitalism by a socialist revolution made by the working class. Soviet historians believed that Marxist–Leninist theory permitted the application of categories of dialectical and historical materialism in the study of historical events. Marx and Engels' ideas of the importance of class struggle in history, the destiny of the working class, and the role of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the revolutionary party are of major importance in Marxist methodology. Marxist–Leninist historiography has several aspects. It explains the social basis of historical knowledge, determines the social functions of historical knowledge and the means by which these functions are carried out, and emphasizes the need to study concepts in connection with the social and political life of the period in which these concepts were developed. It studies the theoretical and methodological features in every school of historical thought. Marxist–Leninist historiography analyzes the source-study basis of a historical work, the nature of the use of sources, and specific research methods. It analyzes problems of historical research as the most important sign of the progress and historical knowledge and as the expression of the socioeconomic and political needs of a historical period. Soviet historiography has been severely criticized by scholars, chiefly—but not only—outside the Soviet Union and Russia. Its status as "scholarly" at all has been questioned, and it has often been dismissed as ideology and pseudoscience. Robert Conquest concluded that "All in all, unprecedented terror must seem necessary to ideologically motivated attempts to transform society massively and speedily, against its natural possibilities. The accompanying falsifications took place, and on a barely credible scale, in every sphere. Real facts, real statistics, disappeared into the realm of fantasy. History, including the history of the Communist Party, or rather especially the history of the Communist Party, was rewritten. Unpersons disappeared from the official record. A new past, as well as new present, was imposed on the captive minds of the Soviet population, as was, of course, admitted when truth emerged in the late 1980s." That criticism stems from the fact that in the Soviet Union, science was far from independent. Since the late 1930s, Soviet historiography treated the party line and reality as one and the same. As such, if it was a science, it was a science in service of a specific political and ideological agenda, commonly employing historical revisionism. In the 1930s, historical archives were closed and original research was severely restricted. Historians were required to pepper their works with references—appropriate or not—to Stalin and other "Marxist–Leninist classics", and to pass judgment—as prescribed by the Party—on pre-revolution historic Russian figures. Nikita Khrushchev commented that "Historians are dangerous and capable of turning everything upside down. They have to be watched." The state-approved history was openly subjected to politics and propaganda, similar to philosophy, art, and many fields of scientific research. The Party could not be proven wrong, it was infallible and reality was to conform to this line. Any non-conformist history had to be erased, and questioning of the official history was illegal. Many works of Western historians were forbidden or censored, and many areas of history were also forbidden for research because, officially, they had never happened. For this reason, Soviet historiography remained mostly outside the international historiography of the period. Translations of foreign historiography were produced (if at all) in a truncated form, accompanied by extensive censorship and "corrective" footnotes. For example, in the Russian 1976 translation of Basil Liddell Hart's History of the Second World War pre-war purges of Red Army officers, the secret protocol to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, many details of the Winter War, the occupation of the Baltic states, the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, Allied assistance to the Soviet Union during the war, many other Western Allies' efforts, the Soviet leadership's mistakes and failures, criticism of the Soviet Union and other content were censored out. The official version of Soviet history was dramatically changed after every major governmental shake-up. Previous leaders were denounced as "enemies", whereas current leaders usually became the subject of a personality cult. Textbooks were rewritten periodically, with figures—such as Leon Trotsky or Joseph Stalin—disappearing from their pages or being turned from great figures to great villains. Certain regions and periods of history were made unreliable for political reasons. Entire historical events could be erased if they did not fit the party line. For example, until 1989 the Soviet leadership and historians, unlike their Western colleagues, had denied the existence of a secret protocol to the Soviet-German Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, and as a result the Soviet approach to the study of the Soviet-German relations before 1941 and the origins of World War II were remarkably flawed. In another example, the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939 as well as the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–1920 were censored out or minimized in most publications, and research was suppressed, in order to enforce the policy of 'Polish-Soviet friendship'. Similarly, the enforced collectivisation, the wholesale deportations or massacres of small nationalities in the Caucasus or the disappearance of the Crimean Tatars were not recognized as facts worthy of mention. Soviet historians also engaged in producing false claims and falsification of history; for example Soviet historiography falsely claimed that the Katyn massacre was carried out by Germans rather than by Soviets. Yet another example is related to the case of Soviet reprisals against former Soviet POWs returning from Germany; some of them were treated as traitors and imprisoned in Gulags for many years, yet that policy was denied or minimized by Soviet historians for decades and modern Western scholars have noted that "In the past, Soviet historians engaged for the most part in a disinformation campaign about the extent of the prisoner-of-war problem." == Marxist influence == The Soviet interpretation of Marxism predetermined much of the research done by historians. Research by scholars in the USSR was limited to a large extent due to this predetermination. Some Soviet historians could not offer non-Marxist theoretical explanations for their interpretation of sources. This was true even when alternate theories had a greater explanatory power in relation to a historian's reading of source material. The Marxist theory of historical materialism identified means of production as chief determinants of the historical process. They led to the creation of social classes, and class struggle was the motor of history. The sociocultural evolution of societies was considered to progress inevitably from slavery, through feudalism and capitalism to socialism and finally communism. In addition, Leninism argued that a vanguard party was required to lead the working class in the revolution that would overthrow capitalism and replace it with socialism. Soviet historiography interpreted this theory to mean that the creation of the Soviet Union was the most important turning event in human history, since the USSR was considered to be the first socialist society. Furthermore, the Communist Party—considered to be the vanguard of the working class – was given the role of permanent leading force in society, rather than a temporary revolutionary organization. As such, it became the protagonist of history, which could not be wrong. Hence the unlimited powers of the Communist Party leaders were claimed to be as infallible and inevitable as the history itself. It also followed that a worldwide victory of communist countries is inevitable. All research had to be based on those assumptions and could not diverge in its findings. In 1956, Soviet academician Anna Pankratova said that "the problems of Soviet historiography are the problems of our Communist ideology." Soviet historians have also been criticized for a Marxist bias in the interpretation of other historical events, unrelated to the Soviet Union. Thus, for example, they assigned to the rebellions in the Roman Empire the characteristics of the social revolution. Often, the Marxist bias and propaganda demands came into conflict: hence the peasant rebellions against the early Soviet rule, such as the Tambov Rebellion of 1920–21, were simply ignored as inconvenient politically and contradicting the official interpretation of the Marxist theories. == Soviet views of history == Soviet and earlier Slavophile historians emphasized the Slavic roots in the foundation of the Russian state in contrast to the Normanist theory of the Vikings conquering the Slavs and founding the Kievan Rus'. There was an outright ban of the theory about the Varangian origin of Kievan Rus in the Soviet Union for ideological reasons. "Anti-Normanists" accused Normanist theory proponents of distorting history by depicting the Slavs as undeveloped primitives. In contrast, Soviet historians stated that the Slavs laid the foundations of their statehood long before the Norman/Viking raids, while the Norman/Viking invasions only served to hinder the historical development of the Slavs. They argued that Rus' composition was Slavic and that Rurik and Oleg' success was rooted in their support from within the local Slavic aristocracy. After the dissolution of the USSR, Novgorod acknowledged its Viking history by incorporating a Viking ship into its logo. Soviet historians trace the origin of feudalism in Russia to the 11th century, after the founding of the Russian state. The class struggle in medieval times is emphasized because of the hardships of feudal relations. For example, Soviet historians argue that uprisings in Kiev in 1068–69 were a reflection of the class struggle. There was a constant struggle between the powers of the princes and those of the feudal aristocracy, known as the boyars. In regions like Novgorod, the boyar aristocracy was able to limit the prince's power by making the office and the head of church elective. The Mongol conquests in the 13th century had significant consequences for Russia. Soviet historians emphasize the cruelty of Genghis Khan and the suffering and devastation that Russia endured. Soviet historians attribute the success of Genghis Khan to the fact that feudalism among his people had not developed, which would have involved feudal and political strife. By contrast, the peoples opposed to the Mongols were in a mature state of feudalism and the political disunity that went with it. Soviet historians conclude that the Mongol domination had disastrous consequences for Russia's historical progress and development. It is also argued that by bearing the full weight of the Mongolian invasions, Russia helped to save Western Europe from outside domination. The struggle against foreign domination and the heroism of its participants is a recurring theme in Soviet historiography. Soviet historians have an upbeat assessment of Alexander Nevsky, characterized as one of the greatest military leaders of his time for defeating the German knights' invasions of Russia in the 13th century. Much importance is attached to the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), which marked the beginning of the end of the Mongol domination of Russia. Dmitry Donskoi, for his leadership in the struggle against the Mongols, is credited for being an outstanding military commander and contributing significantly to the unity of the Russian lands. == Reliability of statistical data == "The deceptive figure". This is the translation of a widely cited article ("Lukavaia Tsifra") by journalist Vasilii Seliunin and economist Grigorii Khanin, in Novyi Mir, February 1987, #2: 181–202 Various Sovietologists have raised the issue of the quality (accuracy and reliability) of data published in the Soviet Union and used in historical research. The Marxist theoreticians of the Party regarded statistics as a social science; hence many applications of statistical mathematics were curtailed, particularly during the Stalin era. Under central planning, nothing could occur by accident. The law of large numbers or the idea of random deviation were decried as "false theories". Statistical journals were closed; world-renowned statisticians like Andrey Kolmogorov and Eugen Slutsky abandoned statistical research. As with all Soviet historiography, the reliability of Soviet statistical data varied from period to period. The first revolutionary decade and the period of Stalin's dictatorship both appear highly problematic with regard to statistical reliability; very few statistical data were published from 1936 to 1956. Notably, the 1937 census' organizers were executed and results destroyed altogether, and no further censuses were conducted until 1959. The reliability of data improved after 1956 when some missing data was published and Soviet experts themselves published some adjusted data for the Stalin era; however the quality of documentation has deteriorated. Some researchers say that on occasion the Soviet authorities may have completely "invented" statistical data potentially useful in historical research (such as economic data invented to prove the successes of the Soviet industrialization, or some published numbers of Gulag prisoners and terror victims—as Conquest claims). Data was falsified both during collection—by local authorities who would be judged by the central authorities based on whether their figures reflected the central economy prescriptions—and by internal propaganda, with its goal of portraying the Soviet state in the most positive light to its own citizens. Nonetheless the policy of not publishing—or simply not collecting—data that was deemed unsuitable for various reasons was much more common than simple falsification; hence the many gaps in Soviet statistical data. Inadequate or missing documentation for much of Soviet statistical data is also a significant problem. == Credibility == In his book, The Stalin School of Falsification, Leon Trotsky cited a range of historical documents such as private letters, telegrams, party speeches, meeting minutes, and suppressed texts such as Lenin's Testament, to argue that the Stalinist faction routinely distorted political events, forged a theoretical basis for irreconcilable concepts such as the notion of "Socialism in One Country" and misrepresented the views of opponents. He also argued that the Stalinist regime employed an array of professional historians as well as economists to justify policy manoeuvering and safeguarding its own set of material interests. Not all areas of Soviet historiography were equally affected by the ideological demands of the government; additionally, the intensity of these demands varied over time. The impact of ideological demands also varied based on the field of history. The areas most affected by ideological demands were 19th and 20th century history, especially Russian and Soviet history. Part of the Soviet historiography was affected by extreme ideological bias, and potentially compromised by the deliberate distortions and omissions. Yet part of Soviet historiography produced a large body of significant scholarship which continues to be used in the modern research. == Experiences of individual Soviet historians == Mikhail Pokrovsky (1862–1932) was held in the highest regard as a historian in the Soviet Union and was elected to the Soviet Academy of Sciences in 1929. He emphasized Marxist theory, downplaying the role of personality in favour of economics as the driving force of history. However posthumously Pokrovsky was accused of "vulgar sociologism", and his books were banned. After Stalin's death, and the subsequent renouncement of his policies during the Khrushchev Thaw, Pokrovsky's work regained some influence. When Eduard Burdzhalov, then the deputy editor of the foremost Soviet journal on history, in spring of 1956 published a bold article examining the role of Bolsheviks in 1917 and demonstrated that Stalin had been an ally of Kamenev—who had been executed as a traitor in 1936—and that Lenin had been a close associate of Zinoviev—who had been executed as a traitor in 1936—Burdzhalov was moved to an uninfluential post. == Underground historiography == The Brezhnev Era was the time of samizdat (circulating unofficial manuscripts within the USSR) and tamizdat (illegal publication of work abroad). The three most prominent Soviet dissidents of that era were Alexandr Solzhenitsyn, Andrei Sakharov and Roy Medvedev. Of the tamizdat authors, Solzhenitsyn was the most famous, publishing The Gulag Archipelago in the West in 1973. Medvedev's Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism was published in 1971 in the West. Neither could publish in the Soviet Union until the advent of Perestroika and Glasnost. == Influence of Soviet historiography in modern Russia == The 2006 Russian book, A Modern History of Russia: 1945–2006: A Manual for History Teachers has received significant attention as it was publicly endorsed by Russian President Vladimir Putin. Putin said that "we can't allow anyone to impose a sense of guilt on us" and that the new manual helps present a more balanced view of Russian history than that promoted by the West. The book says that repressions, carried out by Stalin and others, were "a necessary evil in response to a cold war started by America against the Soviet Union." It cites a recent opinion poll in Russia that gave Stalin an approval rating of 47%, and states that "The Soviet Union was not a democracy, but it was an example for millions of people around the world of the best and fairest society." The Economist contends that the book is inspired by Soviet historiography in its treatment of the Cold War, as it claims that the Cold War was started by the United States, that the Soviet Union was acting in self-defense, and that the USSR did not lose the Cold War but rather voluntarily ended it. According to The Economist, "rabid anti-Westernism is the leitmotif of [the book's] ideology." In 2009, president Dmitri Medvedev created the Historical Truth Commission, against the perceived anti-Soviet and anti-Russian slander. Officially, the Commission's mission is to "defend Russia against falsifiers of history and those who would deny Soviet contribution to the victory in World War II." United Russia has proposed a draft law that would mandate jail terms of three to five years "for anyone in the former Soviet Union convicted of rehabilitating Nazism." == See also == Agitprop (Soviet propaganda) Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union Bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union Censorship in the Soviet Union Historiography of World War II#USSR Propaganda in the Soviet Union Samizdat (illegal underground publications in Soviet Union) == References == == Further reading == Avrich, Paul H. (1960). The Short Course and Soviet Historiography. Political Science Quarterly 75 (4), 539–553. Enteen, George M. (1976). Marxists versus Non-Marxists: Soviet Historiography in the 1920s. Slavic Review 35 (1), 91–110. Gefter, M. J. & V. L. Malkov (1967) Reply to a Questionnaire on Soviet Historiography. History and Theory 6 (2), 180–207. Ito Takayuki (ed.), Facing up to the Past: Soviet Historiography under Perestroika. Sapporo: Hokkaido University, 1989. Keep, John (ed.),Contemporary History in the Soviet Mirror. NY; London: Praeger, 1964. Markwick, Roger D. Rewriting History in Soviet Russia: The Politics of Revisionist Historiography, 1956–1974. NY: Palgrave, 2001. Mazour, Anatole G. & Herman E. Bateman (1952). Recent Conflicts in Soviet Historiography. The Journal of Modern History 24 (1), 56–68. Mazour, Anatole G. The Writing of History in the Soviet Union. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1971. McCann, James M. (1984). Beyond the Bug: Soviet Historiography of the Soviet-Polish War of 1920. Soviet Studies 36 (4), 475–493. Asher, Harvey (1972). The Rise, Fall, and Resurrection of M. N. Pokrovsky. Russian Review 31 (1), 49–63. Baron, Samuel H. (1974). The Resurrection of Plekhanovism in Soviet Historiography. Russian Review 33 (4), 386–404. Daniels, Robert V. (1967). Soviet Historians Prepare for the Fiftieth. Slavic Review 26 (1), 113–118. Eissenstat, Bernard W. (1969). M. N. Pokrovsky and Soviet Historiography: Some Reconsiderations. Slavic Review 28 (4), 604–618. Enteen, George M. (1969). Soviet Historians Review Their Own Past: The Rehabilitation of M. N. Pokrovsky. Soviet Studies 20 (3), 306–320. Enteen, George M. (1970). Pokrovsky's Rehabilitation: A Reply to Bernard W. Eissenstat. Soviet Studies 22 (2), 295–297. McCann, J. M. (1984). Beyond the Bug: Soviet Historiography of the Soviet-Polish War of 1920. Soviet Studies, 36 (4), 475–493. McNeal, Robert H. (1958). Soviet Historiography on the October Revolution: A Review of Forty Years. American Slavic and East European Review 17 (3), 269–281. Schlesinger, Rudolf (1950). Recent Soviet Historiography. II. Soviet Studies 2 (1), 3–21. Schlesinger, Rudolf (1950).Recent Soviet Historiography. III. Soviet Studies 2 (2), 138–162. Schlesinger, Rudolf (1950). Recent Soviet Historiography. I. Soviet Studies 1 (4), 293–312. Schlesinger, Rudolf (1951). Note on Recent Soviet Historiography, Part IV. Soviet Studies 3 (1), 64. Shapiro, Jane P. (1968). Soviet Historiography and the Moscow Trials: After Thirty Years. Russian Review 27 (1), 68–77. Barber, John. Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928–1932. NY; Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1980. Pundeff, Marin. History in the USSR. Selected Readings. San Francisco; Chandler Publishing Company, 1967. Shteppa, Konstantin F. Russian Historians and the Soviet State. New Brunswick; Rutgers University Press, 1962 Black, C. E. Rewriting Russian History. Soviet Interpretations of Russia's Past. NY; Praeger, 1956. Nancy Whittier Heer. Politics and History in the Soviet Union. Cambridge and London; MIT Press, 1971. Švābe, Arveds (1949). The Story of Latvia, Chapter 9 – Lies and Violence as Instruments of Russian Policy. Latvian National Foundation Kuuli, Olaf 2008: "Eesti ajaloo kirjutamisest Stalini ja Hruštšovi ajal" (Estonian for Of historiography in Estonia during Stalin's and Khruschev's rule). ISBN 978-9949-18-195-7.	Wikipedia/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union
In the history of labor, socialism, and revolutions, the historiography of the Paris Commune connects its 1871 events with the revolutions of 1848 and 1917. Historical interpretation of the Commune influenced subsequent revolutionary ideology and sociopolitical events. As of the late 20th century, there were two main historiographical schools of thought: the political interpretation, that the Commune was a patriotic eruption of fury in response to circumstantial hardship following the Siege of Paris; and the social interpretation, that the Commune was the result of macro socioeconomic forces boiling over, e.g., that it was a war of class struggle. Histories in the latter interpretation have used the Commune's events to make ideological points on behalf of their authors, either that the Commune was an illegitimate, criminal aggression, or that the Commune was the consummation of revolutionary momentum. Similarly, historians within both the political and social interpretations have disagreed as to whether the Commune was inevitable or accidental (though there is agreement that the uprising was unplanned), a harbinger of the future or a sunset for revolutionary zeal. Shortly after the brutal end of the Commune, which killed, imprisoned, or exiled 100,000 Parisians, the Commune quickly became subject to polarizing legend. Conservative contemporaries of the Commune attributed the insurrection to revolutionary conspiracy by the First International and its affiliates. Partly in response, revolutionary socialists did not acknowledge organizations as contributing to the Commune. Their sense of the revolution's legitimacy rested in its popular spontaneity, as compared to the deliberate planning of a coup. Scholarship of the Commune began with Georges Bourgin's Histoire de la Commune just prior to World War I, and thus became viewed through the lens of 1917. It received treatments from preeminent scholars including C.L.R. James and Henri Lefebvre, and was the subject of most of Jacques Rougerie's career. Communist historiography fell out of favor by the end of the 20th century. Where there had previously been debate over whether the Commune was a revolutionary socialist movement or a movement of artisans, Rougerie's La Commune: 1871 (1988) attributed the Commune to an amalgam of both. Roger Gould's 1995 Insurgent Identities challenged Marxist (David Harvey) and humanist urban theory (Lefebvre and Manuel Castells) narratives of the Commune. == References == == Bibliography == == Further reading ==	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune
Chorography (from χῶρος khōros, "place" and γράφειν graphein, "to write") is the art of describing or mapping a region or district, and by extension such a description or map. This term derives from the writings of the ancient geographer Pomponius Mela and Ptolemy, where it meant the geographical description of regions. However, its resonances of meaning have varied at different times. Richard Helgerson states that "chorography defines itself by opposition to chronicle. It is the genre devoted to place, and chronicle is the genre devoted to time". Darrell Rohl prefers a broad definition of "the representation of space or place". == Ptolemy's definition == In his text of the Geographia (2nd century CE), Ptolemy defined geography as the study of the entire world, but chorography as the study of its smaller parts—provinces, regions, cities, or ports. Its goal was "an impression of a part, as when one makes an image of just an ear or an eye"; and it dealt with "the qualities rather than the quantities of the things that it sets down". Ptolemy implied that it was a graphic technique, comprising the making of views (not simply maps), since he claimed that it required the skills of a draftsman or landscape artist, rather than the more technical skills of recording "proportional placements". Ptolemy's most recent English translators, however, render the term as "regional cartography". == Renaissance revival == Ptolemy's text was rediscovered in the west at the beginning of the fifteenth century, and the term "chorography" was revived by humanist scholars. John Dee in 1570 regarded the practice as "an underling, and a twig of Geographie", by which the "plat" [plan or drawing] of a particular place would be exhibited to the eye. The term also came to be used, however, for written descriptions of regions. These regions were extensively visited by the writer, who then combined local topographical description, summaries of the historical sources, and local knowledge and stories, into a text. The most influential example (at least in Britain) was probably William Camden's Britannia (first edition 1586), which described itself on its title page as a Chorographica descriptio. William Harrison in 1587 similarly described his own "Description of Britaine" as an exercise in chorography, distinguishing it from the historical/chronological text of Holinshed's Chronicles (to which the "Description" formed an introductory section). Peter Heylin in 1652 defined chorography as "the exact description of some Kingdom, Countrey, or particular Province of the same", and gave as examples Pausanias's Description of Greece (2nd century AD); Camden's Britannia (1586); Lodovico Guicciardini's Descrittione di tutti i Paesi Bassi (1567) (on the Low Countries); and Leandro Alberti's Descrizione d'Italia (1550). Camden's Britannia was predominantly concerned with the history and antiquities of Britain, and, probably as a result, the term chorography in English came to be particularly associated with antiquarian texts. William Lambarde, John Stow, John Hooker, Michael Drayton, Tristram Risdon, John Aubrey and many others used it in this way, arising from a gentlemanly topophilia and a sense of service to one's county or city, until it was eventually often applied to the genre of county history. A late example was William Grey's Chorographia (1649), a survey of the antiquities of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne. Even before Camden's work appeared, Andrew Melville in 1574 had referred to chorography and chronology as the "twa lights" [two lights] of history. However, the term also continued to be used for maps and map-making, particularly of sub-national or county areas. William Camden praised the county mapmakers Christopher Saxton and John Norden as "most skilfull (sic) Chorographers"; and Robert Plot in 1677 and Christopher Packe in 1743 both referred to their county maps as chorographies. By the beginning of the eighteenth century the term had largely fallen out of use in all these contexts, being superseded for most purposes by either "topography" or "cartography". Samuel Johnson in his Dictionary (1755) made a distinction between geography, chorography and topography, arguing that geography dealt with large areas, topography with small areas, but chorography with intermediary areas, being "less in its object than geography, and greater than topography". In practice, however, the term is only rarely found in English by this date. == Modern usages == In more technical geographical literature, the term had been abandoned as city views and city maps became more and more sophisticated and demanded a set of skills that required not only skilled draftsmanship but also some knowledge of scientific surveying. However, its use was revived for a second time in the late nineteenth century by the geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen. He regarded chorography as a specialization within geography, comprising the description through field observation of the particular traits of a given area. The term is also now widely used by historians and literary scholars to refer to the early modern genre of topographical and antiquarian literature. == See also == Local history Antiquarianism Cartography Khôra Chorology English county histories Regional geography == References == == Bibliography == Brayshay, Mark, ed. (1996). Topographical Writers in South-West England. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. ISBN 0-85989-424-X. Broadway, Jan (2006). "No Historie So Meete": gentry culture and the development of local history in Elizabethan and early Stuart England. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-7294-9. Currie, C. R. J.; Lewis, C. P., eds. (1994). English County Histories: a guide. Stroud: Alan Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-0289-2. Helgerson, Richard (1992). Forms of Nationhood: the Elizabethan Writing of England. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-32633-0. Mendyk, S. A. E. (1989). "Speculum Britanniae": regional study, antiquarianism and science in Britain to 1700. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-5744-6. Rohl, Darrell J. (2011). "The Chorographic Tradition and Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Scottish Antiquaries" (PDF). Journal of Art Historiography. 5. Shanks, Michael; Witmore, Christopher (2010). "Echoes across the Past: chorography and topography in antiquarian engagements with place". Performance Research. 15 (4): 97–106. doi:10.1080/13528165.2010.539888. S2CID 190848019. Witmore, Christopher (2020). Old Lands: A Chorography of the Eastern Peloponnese. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-815-36344-6.	Wikipedia/Chorography
Modern Jewish historiography is the modern iteration of Jewish historical narrative writing and historical literature. While Jewish oral history and the collection of commentaries in the Midrash and Talmud are ancient, with the rise of the printing press and movable type in the early modern period, Jewish histories and early editions of the Torah/Tanakh were published which dealt with the history of the Jewish diaspora ethno-religious groups, and increasingly, national histories of the Jews, Jewish nationhood or peoplehood and identity. This was a move from a manuscript or scribal culture to a printing culture. Jewish historians wrote accounts of their collective experiences, but also used history for political, cultural, and scientific or philosophical exploration. Writers drew upon a corpus of culturally inherited text in seeking to construct a narrative to critique or advance the state of the art. Modern Jewish historiography intertwines with intellectual movements such as the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment but drew upon earlier works in the Late Middle Ages and into diverse sources in antiquity, such as Christian and Hellenistic materials. Modern Jewish historiography as distinct from earlier medieval historiography and ancient biblical historiography developed characteristics of what historians think of as formal historiography such as the study of sources and methods. == Background and context == Mircea Eliade defined Judaism as a "historical religion;" Yerushalmi disagreed, but believed Jews practiced oriented or sacred history, such as biblical history, and were the "fathers of meaning in history." However, premodern Judaism before the Renaissance often didn't focus on post-biblical history, preferring philosophy and mysticism. Moshe Idel posits a model of Jewish history distinct from the typical role of history in European nationalism, conceived as a unification with, and then a rupture from, Jewish religious tradition. Though not many of their works fully survive, Hellenistic Jewish historians such as Artapanus of Alexandria and Eupolemus presented an interpretatio Judaica which argued for the antiquity of their people, drawing on inherited texts. While Hellenistic Jewish historiography was forgotten by mainstream Jewish thought for many years, it was preserved by the Church and in the Book of Maccabees from the Hasmonean Kingdom. The earliest Hebrew books were printed in Rome starting in 1469, and early printers were aware of the strong sofer tradition of Hebrew scribal production. The move to printing eliminated the diversity and variation exhibited in manuscripts and enabled texts to reach more people. The major publications in Jewish history in the early modern period were influenced by the political climate of their respective times. Certain Jewish historians, acting on a desire to achieve Jewish equality, used Jewish history as a tool towards Jewish emancipation and religious reform. Regarding the Jewish historians of the 18th and 19th century, Michael A. Meyer writes that: "Envisaging Jewish identity as essentially religious, they created a Jewish past that focused on Jewish religious rationality, and stressed Jewish integration within the societies in which Jews lived." === Attitudes toward historical writing === Talmudic authorities discouraged the writing of history in the medieval and early modern era; the extent to which this was effective in discouraging actual historical production is unclear. Moritz Steinschneider and Arnaldo Momigliano had observed that Jewish historiography appears to slow down at the end of the Second Temple period, and even Maimonides (1138–1204) considered history a waste of time. Isaac Abarbanel, while he practiced and defended traditional biblical historiography, criticized contemporary historiographers for bias and unreliability, mixing truth with falsehood due to their preferences, and emphasized the importance of eyewitness accounts. Officially, secular philosophy was seen by rabbinic authorities as a gentile activity and forbidden. Higher-class Jewish scholars were encouraged to study medicine. Astrology was also permitted. Medicine, astronomy and cosmography were an acceptable blending of religion and science, drawing on the Babylonians. History was read at times but considered an activity pursued by other groups; however, medieval Jewish authorities in the Arab world treated the practice of secular philosophy with salutary neglect, though banned, a blind eye was turned to its practice. In fact, as David Berger notes, Spanish Jewry was clearly hospitable to philosophy, literary arts and the sciences. Joseph Caro called history books "books of wars," which he prohibited the reading of as the "sitting in the gathering of thoughtless people," and the Geonim, such as Saadia Gaon, implied the roots of heresy or simply lack of education. Some early attempts at writing history were met with controversy or imposed sanctions or prohibitions, such as bans, selective or general, or ordered burnings, or boycotts and effective sabotage of the publication's success. The conventional wisdom in Jewish historiography, as epitomized by Salo Wittmayer Baron and Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, is that halakhic attitudes severely limited the output of medieval Jewish historians, though this has been challenged in part by Robert Bonfil, Amos Funkenstein, and Berger, the former considering the Renaissance to be the "swan song" of earlier work, forming an important Yerushalmi-Bonfil debate in Jewish historiography according to Yerushalmi's student David N. Myers. Amram Tropper has explained that intellectual elites used classicist literature and scholasticism to construct identity in the Roman Empire after failed Jewish revolts. Explaining through the example of Maimonides, ha-Cohen's, and Elijah Capsali (1485-1550)'s attitude toward history, Bonfil shows there is nonetheless a medieval historiography inherited by later writers, though he acknowledges the paucity of Jewish medieval historiography and the impact of the negative halakhic stance that should not be underestimated. Capsali, an important historian of Muslim and Ottoman history, has a medieval historical approach, with early modern subject matter. Capsali's chronicle may be the first example of a diasporic Jew writing a history of their own location (Venice). Bonfil surmises that the return to traditionalism in orthodoxy was actually a later phenomenon, a reactionary response to modernity. When those among the halakhic authorities who valued philosophy studied it, such as Moses Isserles, they justified it with a continuity to Hellenistic philosophy. Notably, Baruch Spinoza was excommunicated for transgressing the bounds of Rabbinic thought into the growing domain of Enlightenment philosophy in 1656. Spinoza and rabbi Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, who studied with Galileo, shared a goal to liberate science from theology, and combined it with scriptural references. Spinoza and others, such as Abraham Abulafia or Ibn Caspi, became figures in the conflict between emancipation and traditionalism in Jewish political and historical ideology. Israël Salvator Révah, per Marina Rustow, has stressed that the anti-rabbinic themes expressed by both Uriel da Costa (1585-1640) and Spinoza had emerged from the crucible of Iberian crypto-Jewish culture. Early modern philology (i.e. the study of historical texts) had an important impact on the development of the Enlightenment intellectual movements through work such as that of Spinoza. Richard Simon also had his work of historical biblical criticism suppressed by the Catholic authorities in France in 1678. While some Jews were willing to express doubt or disbelief privately, they feared the judgment or ostracism of the community to go too far in criticism of the establishment. Medieval Jewish historical consciousness permeated various writings beyond formal historiography. Steinschneider included a broad range of texts in his definition of historical literature, such as selichot (penitential prayers), qinot (elegies), communal statutes, travel accounts, minhagim (customs), testaments, and letters. Yerushalmi acknowledged "the so-called ‘chain of tradition’ of the oral law (shalshelet ha-qabbalah)" was the exception to the scarcity of medieval Jewish historiography, that Bonfil pointed out remained a bestseller even in the era of early printed books, leading Bonfil to view Renaissance and Baroque Jewish historical writing as a "sad epilogue" of the medieval period. Bonfil further argued that this scarcity was partly due to a perceived Jewish marginality and lack of agency in political and military spheres, which were the predominant subjects of medieval historiography. Bonfil has pointed out that the chain of tradition has parallels in the Christian historiographical genre of apostolic succession as established by Eusebius in his medieval ecclesiastic historiography such as the Ecclesiastical History and other historiography in the Middle Ages, and Tropper has pointed out that both inherit from Hellenistic succession tradition such as those from the second Sophistic movement (60-250). Bart Wallet points out that shalshelet ha-qabbalah influenced later historians such as David Gans and Menahem Amelander. === Medieval sources === About 90% of world Jewry inhabited the Muslim world around the Mediterranean in the medieval period. Jews of the medieval Islamic world such as Andalusia, North Africa, Syria, Palestine, and Iraq were prolific producers and consumers of historical works in Hebrew, Judeo-Arabic, Arabic and rarely Aramaic. David B. Ruderman has stated that Bonfil's perspective on the complex dialectic between Jews and non-Jews, rather than a simplistic understanding of "influence," is a revisionist perspective with implications for understanding historiography in context be it Christian or Ottoman; Ruderman is a proponent of Bonfil's interpretation. Over 400,000 manuscript fragments in the Cairo Geniza are an important historical source from the Fatimid period, rediscovered as a historical source in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Geniza has been called a "lost archive." The Geniza was literally a storeroom in the Ben Ezra Synagogue in Fustat which contained scrap documents dating to the 9th century, and now exists as a corpus of widely-studied documents at various academic institutions. Iggeret of Rabbi Sherira Gaon (987) and Sefer ha-Qabbalah (1161) by Abraham ibn Daud (ibn David) were two medieval sources available to and trusted by Jewish thinkers and early modern historiographers and are two of the most widely-cited and important early sources. Ibn David is considered one of the first rationalist Spanish Jewish philosophers. The 10th century responsa of the Geonim are an important corpus of correspondence. Iraqi Jews in areas such as Baghdad and Basra, were an important community in this time period and corresponded with the Talmudic academies in Babylonia. The medieval chroniclers such as Ahimaaz ben Paltiel in 1054 in Byzantine Italy, who merged history with mythology and hagiography in liturgical poems, and the Ashkenazic martyrologers such as Solomon bar Simson around 1140 in Mainz who recorded the persecutions of the Crusades, Eliezer bar Nathan (1090–c.1170), before 1146 in Mainz, Ephraim bar Jacob of Bonn (1132–1200 or 1221), the Sefer ha-Zikhronot, or Sefer ha-Zikaron (Book of Memory) of Eleazar bar Asher ha-Levi around 1335, and the Mainz Anonymous were important medieval sources. Bonfil calls this genre a book-of-tales or a sefer-midrash. Eli Yassif wrote that Sefer ha-Zikhronot constitutes the "greatest, most encompassing, and diverse literary anthology of the Jewish Middle Ages that we know of," and it strove to create "an encompassing historical picture of the world and the Jewish people" and a "universal history." Menachem HaMeiri of Perpignan (c.1249–c.1315), writing in Southern France, makes reference to many historical events in his commentary, and makes use of ibn Daud and Sherira Gaon. These medieval chronicles are part of the chain of tradition genre, as does David ben Samuel of Estelle (c.1340) in an overview of rabbinic scholarship. Isaaq ben Yaqob de Lattes, who incorporates both of the former in his 1372 chronicle Shaarey Tzion (Gates of Zion) which was relied upon by Saadiah ben Maimun ibn Danan (c.1436–93), Gedaliah ibn Yahya, David Conforte, and Hayyim Azulai. The chronicle of Abraham bar Hiyya d. c.1136, considered the first chronicle of Jewish Christian Spain, was also utilized by ibn Daud and covers biblical, Jewish and world history until 1099. In Spain, Menahem ben Aaron ibn Zerah (1308 or 1310, to 1385), Samuel ibn Senah Tzartza (c.1369), and Hasdai Crescas (1340–1410/11) recorded the sufferings of Jewish communities of Spain. Profiat Duran (d. c.1414) wrote a survey of Jewish persecutions from the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE to the pogroms of 1391 during which he was forcibly baptized. Joseph ben Tzaddik incorporated a chain of tradition in his Qitzur Zekher Tzaddiq (Compendium of the Memory of the Righteous), 1467-1487. Abraham ben Solomon of Torrutiel continued ibn Daud in 1510 covering the events of 1492. ==== Josippon ==== Josippon (or Sefer/Sepher Josippon), also called "Josephus of the Jews," was a key medieval source familiar to Hasdai ibn Shaprut and Ibn Hazm, one of if not the most influential historical works in pre-modern Jewish historiography, probably composed by a pseudonymous "Joseph ben Gorion" in the 10th century based on the earlier Josephus Flavius and his work Antiquities of the Jews. It relies on the Hegesippus (or Pseudo-Hegesippus), a Latin translator of Antiquities and Josephus' The Jewish War. The author had access to a decent library of material and drew on 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Jerome's translation of Eusebius, the Aeneid, Macrobius, Orosius, and Livy. Like its namesake and inspiration, the work commingles Roman history and Jewish history. Yosippon was republished in the 16th century and was a historical chronicle of critical importance to medieval Jews. It was relied on by Abraham ibn Ezra and Isaac Abravanel. These books were frequently reprinted through the 18th century. The work emerged from the context of Hellenistic Judaism or Romaniote Judaism in the Jewish Byzantine Empire. The version of Josippon by the young Balkan scholar Yehudah ibn Moskoni (1328-1377), printed in Constantinople in 1510 and translated to English in 1558, became the most popular book published by Jews and about Jews for non-Jews, who ascribed its authenticity to the Roman Josephus, until the 20th century. Born in Byzantium, Moskoni's library of 198 volumes was once considered by historians to be the largest individual Jewish library in medieval Western Europe, although as Eleazar Gutwirth notes, there were numerous Jewish and converso libraries 1229-1550, citing Jocelyn Nigel Hillgarth. He further notes that Moskoni's library was sold in 1375 for a high price, and that Moskoni specifically commented on the use of non-Jewish sources in Josippon. Moskoni was part of a Byzantine Greek-Jewish milieu that produced a number of philosophical works in Hebrew and a common intellectual community of Jews in the Mediterranean. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) 's Muqaddimah (1377) also contains a post-biblical Jewish history of the "Israelites in Syria" and he relied on Jewish sources, such as the Arabic translation of Josippon by Zachariah ibn Said, a Yemenite Jew, according to Khalifa (d. 1655). Saskia Dönitz has analyzed an earlier Egyptian version older than the version reconstructed by David Flusser, drawing on the work of a parallel Judaeo-Arabic Josippon by Shulamit Sela and fragments in the Cairo Geniza, which indicate that Josippon is a composite text written by multiple authors over time. Josippon was also a popular work or a volksbuch, and had further influence such as its Latin translation by Christian Hebraist Sebastian Münster which was translated into English by Peter Morvyn, a fellow of Magdalen College in Oxford and a Canon of Lichfield, printed by Richard Jugge, printer to the Queen in England, and according to Lucien Wolf may have played a role in the resettlement of the Jews in England. Munster also translated the historical work of ibn Daud which was included with Morwyng's edition. Steven Bowman notes that Josippon is an early work that inspired Jewish nationalism and had a significant influence on midrashic literature and talmudic chroniclers as well as secular historians, though considered aggadah by mainstream Jewish thought, and acted as an ur-text for 19th century efforts in Jewish national history. === Jewish expulsions and the Spanish Inquisition === Jewish expulsions accelerated in the 15th century and influenced the growth in Jewish historiography. Sephardic Jews from Spain, Portugal, and France settled in Italy and the Ottoman Empire during this period, shifting the nexus of Jewry east. Southern France, particularly Narbonne, Hachmei Provence and the Languedoc region, had a large population of respected rabbis and Jewish authors, were forced to convert or flee in the 14th century, and they sought to avoid detection, which creates a paucity of documentation and a difficult scenario for historians. Within Italy, there was also considerable upheaval with the migration and expulsion of Jews in the Papal States in the late 1500s. The Spanish Inquisition attempted to burn any parchment or paper containing Hebrew, and any book known to have been translated from Hebrew. This led to an estimated millions of texts destroyed in Spain and Portugal, especially centers of academic learning as Salamanca and Coimbra, rendering surviving manuscripts in foreign libraries rare and hard to come by. Whether the Spanish Inquisition's records are truthful or worthy of trust is the subject of debate. Historians such as Yitzhak Baer and Haim Beinart have taken the view that the crypto-Jews were sincerely Jewish; Benzion Netanyahu has argued they were sincerely Christian converts, and their secret practice of Judaism a myth, before changing his view; Norman Roth has also argued the Inquisition's records can be trusted, which is disputed. Yerushalmi observed that the "rise of Jewish historiography in the 16th century" in the works of Solomon ibn Verga (1460–1554), Abraham Zakuto (1452-c.1515), Samuel Usque (1500–after 1555), Joseph ha-Kohen (1496–1575), Gedaliah ibn Yaḥia (1526–87), Elijah Capsali (1483–1555), and David Gans (1541–1613) form "a cultural and historical continuum" in their relationship to "the primary stimulus" of expulsion from Spain and Portgual. The exceptions were Azariah de Rossi (1513–78), and per Mordechai Breuer, Gans. == 16th century: post-medieval and Renaissance era == The 16th century is considered something of a blossoming of Jewish historiography by some historians, such as Yerushalmi, who characterizes the focus as shifting social and post-biblical. Although some historians focus on the 19th century as an important period in the development of modern Jewish historiography, the 16th century is also considered an important period. Religion figured prominently and the differences in martyrdom and messianic figures in Sephardic and Askenazic communities post-expulsion are the subject of historiographical debate. Some historians, such as Bonfil, have disagreed with Yerushalmi that this period produced a significant sea change in historiography. Italian Jewry in particular benefitted from factors such as education, geography, and access to printing. They enjoyed relative freedom during the period and had contact with Christian scholars. Besides their interest in Jewish text, they also pursued the sciences, medicine, music, and history. The liberal dukes of d'Este practiced toleration of Jewish faith. The Book of the Honeycomb's Flow (1476) by Italian rabbi Judah Messer Leon (c.1420-1498) (Judah ben Jehiel, alias Leone di Vitale) is an early work of humanistic classical rhetorical analysis that was also noted by Graetz, which was noted by Bonfil, and paraphrasing Israel Zinberg stated, he "was a child not only of the old people of Israel, but also of the youthful Renaissance." Nofet Zufim drew on the classical theoretical writings of Cicero, Averroes and Quintilian While not a work of history, it was a precursor to Azariah dei Rossi and cited by him as opening the door to the value of secular studies. It was printed by Abraham Conat. David ben Judah Messer Leon, his son, published a humanistic work defending the literary arts in Constantinople in 1497. === Zacuto === The 1504 historic work of the Portuguese royal astronomer Abraham Zacuto (1452-1515), Sefer ha-Yuḥasin (Book of the Genealogies), contains anti-Christian historiographical polemic and urging of strength in the face of persecution and Jewish martyrdom. Still, Zacuto was aware of and depended on secular work. Zacuto was an important scientist who befriended Columbus and provided a meaningful new astrolabe for the Portuguese explorers in addition to his work in history and commentary. Abraham A. Neuman writes, Sefer Yuhasin is a medley of historical biographical notes, reminiscences, comments and observations which often express his inner thoughts. Here, he appears in his strength and weakness, a man of numerous contradictions. He was necessarily a many-sided figure, for he lived and participated in the adventures of an explosive age, midway between medievalism and modernism, holding in its grasp the Inquisition and the discovery of new worlds. It is primarily a world history with specific attention to the Jewish plight, from creation to 1500. Sefer Yuhasin traces the chronology and development of the Oral Torah, and contains critical appraisal of Talmudic evidence. Zacuto expresses his view of the importance of familiarity with Roman history. He was familiar with Josippon but was apparently unfamiliar with the genuine Josephus; Samuel Shullam, his editor who published his annotated version in 1566, was familiar with the original Josephus, and inserted comments and glosses with corrections. === ibn Yahya === Italian talmudic chronologer Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph's (1515-1587) 1587 Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah (Chain of Tradition) was also of significance during this period. It included a justification of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic philosophy. The "chain of tradition" or the successor tradition is also used to refer to the continuation aspect of historians building on the shared reference base of works by creating introductions or citations to prior work, key to rabbinic textual analysis in the mishnah or mesorah well as Jewish historiography. === ibn Verga === Solomon ibn Verga (1460-1554)'s 1520 Scepter of Judah (Shevet Yehudah) was a notable chronicle of Jewish persecutions, written in Italy and published in the Ottoman Empire in 1550. It contains some 75 stories of Jewish persecution, and is a transitional work between the medieval and modern periods of Jewish history. Born in Spain, Verga's views were shaped by the expulsion in 1492, his forced baptism, and the massacres as he fled Portugal. Shevet Yehudah was "the first Jewish work whose main concern was the struggle against ritual murder accusations." It was cited by his contemporary Samuel Usque, Consolação às Tribulações de Israel ("Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel"), Ferrara, 1553. Usque was a trader. Rebecca Rist has called it a satirical work that blends fiction with history. Jeremy Cohen has said Verga was a pragmatist who presented benevolent and enlightened characters with a happy ending. === ha-Cohen === Joseph ha-Cohen (1496-1575) was a Sephardic physician and chronicler who is considered one of the most significant 16th century Jewish historians and Renaissance scholars. Born in Avignon to Castilian and Aragonian Jewish parents and later in Genoa, he was cited and highly regarded by later historians such as Basnage. His Emek Ha-Bakha (Vale of Tears), appeared in 1558 and is considered an important historical work. The name comes from Psalm 84, and it is a history of Jewish martyrdom. It consisted of the narrative of Jewish persecution that extracted from and built on the Jewish part of his earlier world histories, and inspired Salo Baron's idea of the "lachrymose" conception of Jewish history. Yerushalmi notes that it begins in the post-biblical era. Bonfil notes that ha-Cohen's historiography is specifically shaped by the Jewish expulsion from Spain and France that ha-Cohen personally experienced. ha-Cohen's sources included Samuel Usque. ha-Cohen and Usque are sources for early documentation of Jewish blood libels. He was a contemporary of the Italian-Jewish geographer Abraham Farissol, a scribe from Avignon who worked for Judah Messer Leon, and drew upon his work. It incorporates earlier medieval chronicles almost verbatim. === dei Rossi === Azariah dei Rossi (1511-1578) was an Italian-Jewish physician, rabbi, and a leading Torah scholar during the Italian Renaissance. Born in Mantua, he translated classical works such as Aristotle, and was known to quote Roman and Greek writers along with Hebrew in his work. He is often considered the father of modern Jewish historiography. He was the first major author in Jewish historiography to incorporate and edit non-Jewish texts into his work. His 1573 work Me'or Einayim (Light of the Eyes) is an important early work of humanistic 16th century Jewish historiography. It includes a polemic critique of Philo noted by Baron and Norman Bentwich; Philo's work was popular among contemporary Italian Jews. Rossi drew on the Latin Josephus, with specific annotations on source text versions for the Jewish academies at Ferrara, and investigated the Septuagint. Bonfil writes that it was an attempt at a "New History" of the Jews and a work of ecclesiastical historiography, that adopted as its main tool, logical and philological criticism. Rossi also cited rabbinical material and Jewish writers such as Zacuto; Baron has also noted it was an apologetic work, and Bonfil has asserted ultimately a conservative work with a medieval worldview, but nonetheless pioneering in its critical study and methods. De Rossi's work was critical of the rabbinical establishment, questioning the historicity of post-biblical Jewish legends, and was met with condemnation, opprobrium and bans; Joseph Caro called for it to be burned, though he died before this was carried out, and Samuel Judah Katzenellenbogen, the leader of the Venetian rabbis at the time, published herem prior to publication prohibiting owning or reading the book without permission. Rossi's work mixed the world of secular Renaissance scholarship with Jewish rabbinical textual analysis, addressing contradictions, which offended the sensibilities of religious leaders such as the Rabbi Judah Loew of Prague, known as the Maharal, who said the words of Torah should not mix with those of science. Signatories to the ban included important Jewish community scholars Yehiel Nissim da Pisa and Yehiel Trabot. Nonetheless, the rabbis of Mantua, Judah Moscato and David Provençal, although critical in some ways, still considered him a respectable Jew with great value. Rossi went to Venice to argue his case with the rabbis who had charged him with heresy, who said he could publish if he would include David's brother Moses Provençal's defense of the traditional chronology, which he did along with his own response to the response. They also requested some passages to be deleted, which he yielded to; Abraham Coen Porto rescinded his veto, but the 1574 decree still held sway in limiting publication. Rossi sought help from the Catholics interested in bible study, and obtained an imprimatur from Marco Marini, a teacher of Hebrew and Latin in Venice. Marini taught Giacomo Boncompagno who requested Rossi translate Me'or Einyanim into Italian. Like Elijah Levita, Rossi became known for teaching Hebrew to Christians, earning disapproval from fellow Jews, but he did not convert. Rossi was cited by Christian Hebraists such as Bartolocci, Bochart, Buxtorf, Hottinger, Lowth, Voisin, and Morin. Despite its controversial status, Rossi's work was known in the 17th and 18th centuries, per David Cassel and Zunz as relayed by Joanna Weinberg, individuals such as Joseph Solomon Delmedigo and Menasseh ben Israel considered it required reading. Baron considered Rossi an antiquarian; Bonfil argues he had a nationalistic view of Jewish history. Rossi's work is considered by some to be an early example of the construction of Jewish identity through modern historical methods. === Gans === David Gans (1541–1613) was a German-Jewish rabbi, astronomer, historian, and chronicler from Lippstadt, Westphalia, whose historical work Tzemach David, published in 1592, was a pioneering study of Jewish history. Gans wrote on a variety of liberal arts and scientific topics, making him unique among the Ashkenazi for his production of secular scholarship. Gans was a student of the Maharal, whom Yerushalmi says had the more profound ideas about Jewish history, and of Moses Isserles. Gans was the first Jewish scholar to use a telescope and the science of Copernicus. Gans also corresponded with secular astronomers such as Johannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe, and drew on August Gottlieb Spangenberg. Gans took inspiration from Josippon and Maimonides. Gans' work is a hybrid of two parallel stories of world and Jewish history. While not as cutting-edge a historian as his contemporary, de Rossi, his books introduced historiography to the Ashkenazi audience, making him a forerunner of subsequent developments in Jewish culture. Gans' work can be seen as a defense of the traditional dissemination of knowledge. == 17th century == Abraham Portaleone was another Italian-Jewish Renaissance physician who, as discussed by Peter Miller and Moses Shulvass, published the historiographical work, Shilte ha-Giborim (Shields of the Heroes) in Mantua in 1612 which contained detailed descriptions of ancient life. Miller calls it a "complex" and "strange" "encyclopedic study." While ostensibly on the subject of the levitical tasks of the Temple, it touches on diverse topics such as botany, music, warfare, zoology, mineralogy, chemistry, and philology, and appears as a work of Renaissance scholarship per Samuel S. Kottek. === Conforte === David Conforte (1618) was a literary historian and compiler of Jewish bibliographic material from Salonica whose 17th century chronicle Kore ha-Dorot contains information on Sephardic rabbis from the Ottoman Empire and Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries, and relies on the rabbinic chain of tradition via Zacuto, Daud, and Yahya as well as responsa literature. It was reprinted in Warsaw in 1838 with an introduction by Jost, and by Cassel in 1846. This work contains historical information on extant yeshivot of the Jewish diaspora. According to Bonfil, likely motivated by the failure of Sabbateanism, the work explores the history of the Jewish people without mentioning that messianic movement. His work was also cited by Azulai. === Hannover === Nathan ben Moses Hannover's Yeven Mezulah (Abyss of Despair) (1653) is a chronicle of the Khmelnytsky massacres or pogroms in eastern Europe in the mid 17th century. While a massacre certainly occurred, accounts and casualty numbers differ among Ukrainian, Polish, and Jewish historians. All three groups also use the story as part of their own national ideologies. === Basnage === Jacques Basnage (1653-1723), a Huguenot living in the Netherlands, was one of the first authors in the modern era to publish a comprehensive post-biblical history of the Jews. Basnage aimed to recount the story of the Jewish religion in his work Histoire des juifs, depuis Jésus-Christ jusqu'a present. Pour servir de continuation à l'histoire de Joseph (1706, in 15 volumes). Basnage heavily cites early modern and medieval Sephardic Jewish historians, such as Isaac Cardoso, Leon Modena, Abraham ibn Daud, Josippon, and Joseph ha-Cohen (whom he called "the best historian this nation has had since Josephus"), but also drew on Christian sources such as Jesuit Juan de Mariana. It was said to be the first modern comprehensive post-biblical history of Judaism and became the authoritative work for 100 years; Basnage, quoted by Yerushalmi, believed no such work had ever been published before. Basnage sought to provide an objective account of the history of Judaism. His work was widely influential, and developed further by other authors such as Hannah Adams. Basnage's work is considered the birth of the "Christian historiography" of Jewish history. == 18th century == In the 18th century, reformists such as Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) invoked Maimonides to pursue a rational emancipationist movement for German Jews. Mendelssohn has a significant role in Jewish history and the Haskalah or Jewish enlightenment. One of Mendelssohn's central goals concerned a grounding in Jewish history. Isaac Euchel (1756-1804)'s Toledot Rabbenu Moshe ben Menahem (1788) was the first biography of Mendelssohn and significant in beginning a movement of biographical studies in Jewish historiography. Meyer notes that Euchel acknowledges that Mendelssohn began his secular studies in history. Israel Zamosz, one of Mendelssohn's teachers, also published a work applying reason and science to the statements of talmudic authorities. According to David B. Ruderman, the maskilim were inspired by such medieval and early modern historians and thinkers as Judah Messer Leon, de Rossi, ibn Verga, Moscato, Portaleone, Tobias Cohen, Simone Luzzatto, Menasseh ben Israel, and Isaac Orobio de Castro. Rossi's Me'or Einayim was republished by Isaac Satanow in 1794. Satanow wrote on education and encouraged the study of science and enlightenment philosophy, citing David Gans. According to Funkenstein as related by David Sorkin, the development of the Haskalah was related to classical liberalism, citing Mendelssohn's influence by Thomas Hobbes. The Haskalah made education a priority and produced pedagogical literature in the humanistic vein, such as that of Satanow and David Friedländer. The Haskalah became interested in Sephardic Jewish sources and had an idea of historiography with an eye toward reformism. The scholarship of the Sephardim held a mystique for emancipated German Jews who had an opportunity to redefine their identities. They held manuscripts in held esteem, and superior to other types of sources. The travel diary of Chaim Yosef David Azulai (1724-1806) is one important source for information on the broader Jewish world during this period. The Vilna Gaon was another figure that encouraged critical reading of text and scientific study during this period. Prague was a major center of Jewish scholarship before the 19th century, with maskilim Peter Beer (1758-1838), Salomo Löwisohn (1789-1821), and Marcus Fischer (1788-1858) making it a center for Jewish historical production. There was also significant progression in Yiddish historiography during the 18th century such as the work of Menahem Amelander (also called Menahem ben Solomon ha-Levi or Menahem Mann) in the Netherlands, who translated Josippon. He also drew on Basnage. His 1743 work Sheyris Yisroel (Remnant of Israel) picks up where Josippon left off. It is a continuation of his Yiddish translation of Josippon with a general history of the Jews in the diaspora until 1740. Max Erik and Israel Zinberg considered it the foremost representative of its genre. It was cited by Abraham Trebitsch with his Qorot ha-'Ittim and Abraham Chaim Braatbard with his Ayn Naye Kornayk. Zinberg called it "the most important work of Old Yiddish historiographical literature". The Lithuanian rabbi Jehiel ben Solomon Heilprin (1660-1746)'s Seder HaDoroth (1768) was another 18th century historical work which cited the earlier work by Gans, ibn Yahya and Zacuto as well as other medieval work such as the itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela. == 19th century and birth of modern Jewish studies == Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi wrote that first modern professional Jewish historians appeared in the early 19th century, writing that "[v]irtually all nineteenth-century Jewish ideologies, from Reform to Zionism, would feel a need to appeal to history for validation". He has further explained that the 19th century themes of martyrology and the chain of rabbinic tradition were a line of continuation from the medieval era; Daniel Frank has suggested a corollary, that Jewish history had tended to focus on these themes and ignore threads without clear expression of them. The German Wissenschaft des Judentums (or the "science of Judaism" or "Jewish studies") movement, was founded by Isaac Marcus Jost, Leopold Zunz, Heinrich Heine, Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport, and Eduard Gans, and was the birth of modern academic Jewish studies. Although a rationalist movement, it also drew on spiritual sources such as Yehuda Halevi's Kuzari. Zunz started the movement in 1818 with his Etwas. Another important father of the movement was Immanuel Wolf whose essay Über den Begriff einer Wissenschaft des Judentums (On the Concept of Jewish Studies) in 1822 proposed a structure for Jewish studies, and indicated a modern notion of Jewish peoplehood. Wolf was a German idealist who dealt with Judaism in systematic, universal, Hegelian terms. David Cassel was a notable historian and student of Zunz. Edouard Gans was one of Hegel's students. Abraham Geiger founded the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums or school/seminary for Jewish studies, in Berlin in 1872, which remained until it was shuttered by the Nazis in 1942. Solomon Schechter was an important Moldavian-born, later British-American rabbi. A student of the Hochschule, he went on to start his own American school, become president of synagogues and was influential in the development of Conservative Judaism in the United States. He was also influential in British and American Jewish education. Schechter became aware of the Cairo Geniza and was instrumental in bringing the documents to Cambridge University Library and the Jewish Theological Seminary for study. Adolph Jellinek was a rabbi, publisher and pamphleteer who spoke and wrote emphatically against antisemitism, and republished medieval works from the Crusades era and history from the early modern period such as ha-Kohen's Emeq ha-Bakha. The Wissenschaft has been called "institutionalized German historicism," and a number of historians from Funkenstein to Meyer to Shmuel Feiner and Louise Hecht have challenged Yerushalmi's interpretation that the 19th century narrative is the salient shift in the characterization of Jewish historiography into modernity. Significant work from the 19th century included Moritz Steinschneider (1816-1907)'s Geschichtsliteratur der Juden. Steinschneider became the preeminent scholar of the period. The work of Julius Fürst was also significant. Théodore Reinach (1860-1928)'s Histoire des Israelites (1884) is the most significant example of 19th-century French-Jewish historiography which is something of a counterpoint to the mainstream German development in this time. Marco Mortara (1815-1894) can be considered an Italian-Jewish version. Isidore Loeb (1839-1892) founded the Revue des Études Juives or Jewish studies review, in 1880 in Paris. British Jews Claude Montefiore and Israel Abrahams founded The Jewish Quarterly Review, an English counterpart, in 1889. Emmanuel Levinas, a Lithuanian-French philosopher, offered a "new science of Judaism" critique of the Wissenschaft pertaining to Jewish particularism. Forerunners to Jewish national Zionist historiography from the 19th century include Peretz Smolenskin, Abraham Shalom Friedberg, and Saul Pinchas Rabinowitz, part of the Hibbat Zion movement, leading to Ahad Ha'am. === Jost === Isaak Markus Jost (1793-1860) was the first Jewish author to publish a comprehensive post-biblical modern history of the Jews. His Geschichte der Israeliten seit den Zeit der Maccabaer, in 9 volumes (1820–1829), was the first comprehensive history of Judaism from Biblical to modern times by a Jewish author. It primarily focused on recounting the history of the Jewish religion. Jost's history left "the differences among various phases of the Jewish past clearly apparent". He was criticized for this by later scholars such as Graetz, who worked to create an unbroken narrative. Unlike Zunz, Jost has an anti-rabbinical stance, and sought to free Jewish history from Christian theology. He saw influence from Greco-Roman law and philosophy in Jewish philosophy, and sought to secularize Jewish history. === Zunz === Leopold Zunz (1794-1886), a colleague of Jost, was considered the father of academic Jewish studies in universities, or Wissenschaft des Judentums (or the "science of Judaism"). Zunz' article Etwas über die rabbinische Litteratur ("On Rabbinical Literature"), published in 1818, was a manifesto for modern Jewish scholarship. Zunz was influenced by Rossi's philological and comparative linguistics approach. Though they were childhood friends, Zunz had a harsh and perhaps jealous criticism of Jost's earlier work and sought to improve on it. Zunz was a student of August Böckh and Friedrich August Wolf and they influenced his work. Zunz urged his contemporaries to, through the embrace of study of a wide swath of literature, grasp the geist or "spirit" of the Jewish people. Zunz proposed an ambitious Jewish historiography and further proposed that Jewish people adopt history as a way of life. Zunz not only proposed a university vision of Jewish studies, but believed Jewish history to be an inseparable part of human culture. Zunz's historiographical view aligns with the "lachrymose" view of Jewish history of persecution. Zunz was the least philosophically inclined of the Wissenschaft but the most devoted to scholarship. Zunz called for an "emanicipation" of Jewish scholarship "from the theologians." He was the editor of Nachman Krochmal. Contrasting with earlier bible printing, Zunz adopted a re-Hebraization of names. Zunz was politically active and was elected to office. He believed that Jewish emancipation would come out of universal human rights. The revolutionary year of 1848 had an influence on Zunz, and he expressed a messianic eagerness in the ideals of equality. Zunz's stated goal was to transform Prussia into a democratic republic. === Graetz === Heinrich Graetz (1817-1891) was one of the first modern historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish people from a specifically Jewish perspective. Geschichte der Juden (History of the Jews) (1853-1876) had a dual focus. While he provided a comprehensive history of the Jewish religion, he also highlighted the emergence of a Jewish national identity and the role of Jews in modern nation-states. Graetz sought to improve on Jost's work, which he disdained for lacking warmth and passion. Salo Baron later identified Graetz with the "lachrymose conception" of Jewish history which he sought to critique. Baruch Ben-Jacob (1886-1943) likewise criticized Graetz' "sad and bitter" narrative for omitting Ottoman Jews. Graetz was also meaningfully challenged by Hermann Cohen and Zecharias Frankel. == 20th century == The 20th century saw the Shoah and the establishment of Israel, both of which had a major impact on Jewish historiography. Ephraim Deinard (1846–1930) was a notable 20th century historian of American Jews. The writings of Gershom Scholem and Hannah Arendt are also important in modern Jewish historiography of the 1940s. Scholem was a critic of the Wissenschaft for their history that had omitted Jewish mysticism. Martin Buber also was a significant exponent of Jewish mysticism building on the work of Scholem in the 20th century. While most of the historians associated with the Wissenschaft were men, Selma Stern (1890-1981) was the first woman associated with the movement and one of the first professional female historians in Germany. === Dubnow === Simon Dubnow (1860-1941) wrote Weltgeschichte des Jüdischen Volkes (World History of the Jewish People), which focused on the history of Jewish communities across the world. His scholarship developed a unified Jewish national narrative, especially in the context of the Russian Revolution and Zionism. Dubnow's work nationalized and secularized Jewish history, whilst also moving its modern center of gravity from Germany to Eastern Europe and shifting its focus from intellectual history to social history. Michael Brenner commented that Yerushalmi's "faith of fallen Jews" observation "is probably applicable to no one more than to Dubnow, who claimed to be praying in the temple of history that he himself erected." === Dinur === Ben-Zion Dinur (1884 – 1973) followed Dubnow with a Zionist version of Jewish history. Conforti writes that Dinur "provided Jewish historiography with a clear Zionist-nationalist structure... [and] established the Palestine-centric approach, which viewed the entire Jewish past through the prism of Eretz Israel". Dinur was the first Zionist scholar to study the fate of Jewish communities in Palestine during the Crusades. === Baron === Salo Wittmayer Baron (1895-1989), a professor at Columbia University, became the first chair in Jewish history at a secular university; the chair at Columbia is now named after him. Born in Tarnów, he was ordained at the Jewish Theological Seminary in Vienna, Austria in 1920. He joined the faculty at Columbia in 1930, and starting in 1950 he directed Columbia's Institute for Israel and Jewish Studies, where he worked until retirement in 1963. He published 13 works of Jewish history. His student Yerushalmi called him the greatest 20th century historian of Jewish history. His A Social and Religious History of the Jews (18 vols., 2d ed. 1952–1983) covered both the religious and social aspects of Jewish history. His work is the most recent comprehensive multi-volume Jewish history. Baron's work further developed the Jewish national history, particularly in the wake of the Holocaust and the establishment of Israel. Baron called for Jews and Jewish historical studies to be integrated into traditional general world history as a key part. Baron sought to balance the tendencies toward extremes of traditionalism or modernity, seeking a third way on the question of emancipation. While Baron's earlier work was periodic, in The Jewish Community he analyzed a Jewish community that transcended time, per Elisheva Carlebach. Amnon Raz‐Krakotzkin says Baron's historiography is a call to view Jewish history as counter-history. In contrast to Baer and the Zionist historians, Baron believed the diaspora to be a critical source of strength and vitality. While Baron was mainly criticizing the lachrymose conception of medieval Jewish history, "neobaronianism" has been proposed by David Engel to apply more generally. Baron admired and even revered Graetz, who was an influence on him, but he sought to counter and critique the historical view espoused by the older historian. Engel says the Baronian view of history stresses continuities, rather than ruptures. Baron's analysis of Jewish historiography runs through Zacuto, Hacohen, Ibn Verga, to Jost, Graetz, and Dubnow. Baron believed older work to be "parochial." Adam Teller says his work is an alternative to history motivated by persecution and antisemitism, at the risk of de-emphasizing the impact of violence on Jewish history. Esther Benbassa is another critic of the lachrymose conception and says that Baron is joined by Cecil Roth and to a lesser extent Schorsch in restoring a less tragic vision of Jewish fate. === Baer === Yitzhak Baer (1888-1980) made a significant contribution to medieval and modern Jewish historiography. He had a critique of Baron's view that had failed to take into account his friend Gershom Sholem's studies of Jewish mysticism and Jewish messianism. Baer aligned his approach with Israeli Zionist historians such as Dinur and Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson. Moshe Idel considers Baer a "historian's historian" and possibly the most important historian at the Hebrew University since its inception, and the founder of the Jerusalem School of Jewish history. Baer's periodization considers Jewish history one long period from the end of the Second Temple until the Enlightenment. == Later 20th century: history of historiography == Jewish historiography also developed uniquely in Jewish diaspora communities such as Anglo-Jewish historiography, Polish-Jewish historiography, and American-Jewish historiography. History of women and Jewish women in particular became more widespread in the 1980s, such as the work of Paula Hyman and Judith Baskin. Beginning around 1970, a new Polish-Jewish historiography gradually arose, driven by reprints of works by Zinberg, Dubnow, and Baron, as well as new consideration by Bernard Dov Weinryb. Relevant authors in Polish-Jewish historiography are Meier Balaban, Yitzhak Schipper and Moses Schorr. The concept of microhistory has also arisen to describe a new movement in Jewish history led by Francesca Trivellato and Carlo Ginzburg. Steven Bowman is the recipient of a Fulbright Fellowship and filled a gap in the study of Greek Jews. === Yerushalmi === Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (1932-2009) wrote Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory (1982) which explored the intersection of historical scholarship and Jewish collective memory, including mythology, religion and assimilation. The term Zakhor is an imperative "Remember," and the book discusses the author's perception of the decay in memory and the impact on the Jewish psyche; his core belief is that one can never stop being Jewish. It has been described as the "pathbreaking study on the relationship between Jewish historiography and memory from the biblical period to the modern age". Yerushalmi's work can be viewed largely as critique of the Wissenschaft. He was influenced by his teacher, Salo Baron, whose classes he attended at Columbia University where he later taught, and saw himself as a social historian of Jews, not of Judaism. Yerushalmi was born and lived most of his life in New York City, aside from a stint at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Whilst Yerushalmi's work largely centered on premodern Jewish histories, it set the stage for future analysis of modern Jewish histories, per his student Brenner. Yerushalmi deeply studied the Sephardim, such as Isaac Cardoso, particularly the marrano or converso, i.e. crypto-Jewish or forced Catholic secular Jews, which were a core historical interest. In addition to his work on the Sephardim, Yerushalmi's history also focused on German Jewish, not Eastern European Jewish social history, despite being American Eastern European Jewish himself. Yerushalmi wrote that: ...the secularization of Jewish history is a break with the past, [and] the historicizing of Judaism itself has been an equally significant departure... Only in the modern era do we really find, for the first time, a Jewish historiography divorced from Jewish collective memory and, in crucial respects, thoroughly at odds with it. To a large extent, of course, this reflects a universal and ever-growing modern dichotomy... Intrinsically, modern Jewish historiography cannot replace an eroded group memory which, as we have seen throughout, never depended on historians in the first place. The collective memories of the Jewish people were a function of the shared faith, cohesiveness, and will of the group itself, transmitting and recreating its past through an entire complex of interlocking social and religious institutions that functioned organically to achieve this. The decline of Jewish collective memory in modern times is only a symptom of the unraveling of that common network of belief and praxis through whose mechanisms, some of which we have examined, the past was once made present. Therein lies the root of the malady. Ultimately Jewish memory cannot be "healed" unless the group itself finds healing, unless its wholeness is restored or rejuvenated. But for the wounds inflicted upon Jewish life by the disintegrative blows of the last two hundred years the historian seems at best a pathologist, hardly a physician. Some scholars such as Bonfil, Yerushalmi's students David N. Myers and Marina Rustow, and Amos Funkenstein took issue with Yerushalmi's interpretation of the importance of Jewish historiography or its relative abundance in the medieval period. In particular, Funkenstein argues that collective memory is an earlier form of historical consciousness, not a fundamental break. Rustow says that Yerushalmi's core thesis rests on a narrow definition of historiography and explores the issue of historical particularism. Gavriel D. Rosenfeld writes that Yerushalmi's fear that history would overtake memory was unfounded. Myers writes that his teacher took the criticism of his paper, which contextualized the work as a post-Shoah malaise and a postmodern authorial perspective, hard, and did not know how to respond to it, leading to estrangement that lasted years before reconnecting shortly before his professor's death. Yerushalmi is also described by Rustow as practicing microhistory, that he did not believe in traditional methods, "heritage", "contributions", but sought a spirituality and "immanence" in his study of history. Yerushalmi was frustrated by "antiquarianism" and the anachronistic view of history. He had a complex relationship with the Jerusalem school of historians including Baer, whom he disagreed with, but was influenced by, and Scholem. He was also influenced by Lucien Febvre. Rustow, writes that Yerushalmi, like his teacher Baron, believed modernity to be a trade-off and that the role of the Church in protecting, as well as persecuting, the Jewish people of premodern Europe was "anti-lachrymose," and drew admiration from his teacher. However she writes that he agreed with Baer and Scholem that history could be only understood in Jewish terms, and disagreed with Baron's more integrationist view. Ultimately, he is criticized for accepting the sources of the Spanish Inquisition without characterizing their motive as anti-Jewish. One of Yerushalmi's major themes as expressed in the foreword to Zakhor is about a proposed return to previous modes of thinking. === Meyer === Michael A. Meyer's Ideas of Jewish History (1974) is a milestone in the study of modern Jewish histories, and Meyer's ideas were developed further by Ismar Schorsch's "From Text to Context" (1994). These works emphasized the transformation of Jewish historical understanding in the modern era and are significant in summarizing the evolution of modern Jewish histories. According to Michael Brenner, these works – like Yerushalmi's before them – underlined the "break between a traditional Jewish understanding of history and its modern transformation". === Brenner === Michael Brenner's Prophets of the Past, first published in German in 2006, was described by Michael A. Meyer as "the first broadly conceived history of modern Jewish historiography". Born in Weiden in der Oberpfalz, Brenner studied under Yerushalmi at Columbia. === Rustow === Marina Rustow, a Princeton University professor and student of Yerushalmi's at Columbia, was a recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship and a Guggenheim Fellowship and specializes in medieval Egypt, particularly the Cairo Geniza. Her 2008 work has changed the scholarly view of heresy with respect to the relative community interaction with the Karaites, a divergent group from the Rabbanite sect dominant in Judaism. == References == Media related to Jewish history at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Collections of the National Library of Israel at Wikimedia Commons == Bibliography == Baron, Salo Wittmayer; Hertzberg, A.; Feldman, L.A. (1964). History and Jewish Historians: Essays and Addresses. Jewish Publication Society of America. Retrieved 2023-09-19. Batnitzky, Leora (2011). How Judaism Became a Religion: An Introduction to Modern Jewish Thought. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13072-9. Retrieved 2023-09-23. Biale, David (1994). "Modern Jewish Ideologies and the Historiography of Jewish Politics". In Frankel, Jonathan (ed.). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: X: Reshaping the Past: Jewish History and the Historians. OUP USA/Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. ISBN 978-0-19-509355-1. Retrieved 2023-09-23. Brenner, Michael (2006). The Same History is Not the Same Story: Jewish History and Jewish Politics (PDF). Dorit and Gerald Paul lecture. Robert and Sandra S. Borns Jewish Studies Program, Indiana University. Retrieved 2023-09-18. Brenner, Michael (2010). Prophets of the Past: Interpreters of Jewish History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3661-1. Conforti, Yitzhak (2005). "Alternative voices in Zionist historiography". Journal of Modern Jewish Studies. 4 (1). Informa UK Limited: 1–12. doi:10.1080/14725880500052667. ISSN 1472-5886. S2CID 144459744. Conforti, Yitzhak (2012). "Zionist Awareness of the Jewish Past: Inventing Tradition or Renewing the Ethnic Past?". Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism. 12 (1). Wiley: 155–171. doi:10.1111/j.1754-9469.2012.01155.x. ISSN 1473-8481. Feiner, S. (2004). Haskalah and History: The Emergence of a Modern Jewish Historical Consciousness. Littman Library Liverpool University Press Series. Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. ISBN 978-1-904113-10-2. Retrieved 2023-09-20. Funkenstein, Amos (1993). Perceptions of Jewish History. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91219-9. Retrieved 2023-09-19. Gareau, Paul L. (2011). "History as the Rise Of a Modern Jewish Identity". Revue de Sciences des Religions d'Ottawa // Ottawa Journal of Religion. Retrieved 2023-09-20. Gechtman, Roni (2012-05-01). "Creating a Historical Narrative for a Spiritual Nation: Simon Dubnow and the Politics of the Jewish Past". Journal of the Canadian Historical Association. 22 (2). Consortium Erudit: 98–124. doi:10.7202/1008979ar. ISSN 1712-6274. Helled, Alon (2021). "The Israeli National Habitus and Historiography: The Importance of Generations and State-Building". Norbert Elias in Troubled Times. Palgrave Studies on Norbert Elias. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 295–311. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74993-4_16. ISBN 978-3-030-74992-7. ISSN 2662-3102. S2CID 238937377. Israel, Jonathan I. (1998). European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550-1750 (Third ed.). The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. ISBN 1-874774-42-0. מיכאל, ראובן (Reuven Michael) (1993). הכתיבה ההיסטורית היהודית: מהרנסנס עד העת החדשה (in Hebrew). מוסד ביאליק. ISBN 978-965-342-601-6. Retrieved 2023-09-23. מיכאל, ראובן (Reuven Michael) (1983). י״מ יוסט, אבי ההיסטוריוגרופיה היהודית המודרנית (in Hebrew). הוצאת ספרים ע״ש י״ל מאגנס, האוניברסיטה העבירת. ISBN 978-965-223-450-6. Retrieved 2023-09-23. מיכאל, ראובן (Reuven Michael) (2003). היינריך גרץ: ההיסטוריון של העם היהודי (in Hebrew). מוסד ביאליק. ISBN 978-965-342-843-0. Retrieved 2023-09-23. Meyer, Michael A. (1974). Ideas of Jewish History. Library of Jewish studies. Behrman House. ISBN 978-0-87441-202-4. Retrieved 2023-09-19. Meyer, Michael A. (1988). "The Emergence of Jewish Historiography: Motives and Motifs". History and Theory. 27 (4). [Wesleyan University, Wiley]: 160–175. doi:10.2307/2505001. ISSN 0018-2656. JSTOR 2505001. Retrieved 2023-09-18. Meyer, Michael A. (2007). "New Reflections on Jewish Historiography". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 97 (4). [University of Pennsylvania Press, Center for Advanced Judaic Studies, University of Pennsylvania]: 660–672. ISSN 0021-6682. JSTOR 25470231. Retrieved 2023-09-17. Myers, David N. (1988). "History as Ideology: The Case of Ben Zion Dinur, Zionist Historian". Modern Judaism. 8 (2). Oxford University Press: 167–193. doi:10.1093/mj/8.2.167. ISSN 0276-1114. JSTOR 1396383. Retrieved 2023-09-20. Myers, David N.; Kaye, Alexander (2013). The Faith of Fallen Jews: Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi and the Writing of Jewish History. Tauber Institute Series for the Study of European Jewry. Brandeis University Press. ISBN 978-1-61168-487-2. Retrieved 2023-09-23. Ram, Uri (1995). "Zionist Historiography and the Invention of Modern Jewish Nationhood: The Case of Ben Zion Dinur". History and Memory. 7 (1). Indiana University Press: 91–124. ISSN 0935-560X. JSTOR 25618681. Retrieved 2023-09-18. Rosman, Moshe (2007). How Jewish is Jewish History?. The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-909821-12-5. Schorsch, Ismar (1994). From Text to Context: The Turn to History in Modern Judaism. Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry Waltham, Mass.: The Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry series. Brandeis University Press. ISBN 978-0-87451-664-7. Retrieved 2023-09-19. Schulin, Ernst [in German] (1995). 'The Most Historical of All Peoples': Nationalism and the New Construction of Jewish History in Nineteenth-century Germany (PDF). Annual Lecture - German Historical Institute London. German Historical Institute. ISBN 978-0-9521607-8-6. Retrieved 2023-09-23. Steinschneider, Moritz (1905). Die geschichtsliteratur der Juden in druckwerken und handschriften, zusammengestellt: von Moritz Steinschneider (in German). H. Itzkowski. Retrieved 2023-09-19. Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim (1982). 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Historians writing about the origins of World War I have differed over the relative emphasis they place upon the factors involved. Changes in historical arguments over time are in part related to the delayed availability of classified historical archives. The deepest distinction among historians remains between those who focus on the actions of Germany and Austria-Hungary as key and those who focus on a wider group of actors. Meanwhile some historians, such as Fritz Fischer, maintain that Germany deliberately sought war while others do not. The main distinction among the latter is between those who believe that a war between the "Great Powers" was ultimately unplanned but still caused principally by Germany and Austria-Hungary taking risks, and those who believe that either all or some of the other powers, namely Russia, France, Serbia and Great Britain, played a more significant role in risking war than had been traditionally suggested. Given the catastrophic consequences of the war, and its far-reaching social, political and economic implications, the origins of the war, and in particular who "caused" the war, remain heated questions. == Historiographic approach == Historiography avoids macrohistoric trends, comparisons, generalizations and theories. Professional Historians focus on details. In the second century of the endeavor, the debate who is guilty for the War remains heated. The very relevance of such a debate is questioned given the fact that World Wars had been theoretically explained and predicted before they happened, and the role of leaders was explicitly downgraded in favor of more fundamental historical forces: "The moment is close when the struggle for the domination of the world is going to take place... The struggle... of the future will not be the joy of kings or the caprices of peoples, but the necessary consequence of the needs of nations at crossroad." For details see Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1899). == 1914–the Color books == As soon as the war began, the major nations issued "color books" containing documents (mostly from July 1914) that helped justify their actions. A color book is a collection of diplomatic correspondence and other official documents published by a government for educational or political reasons, and to promote the government position on current or past events. In wartime or times of crisis, they have especially been used as a propaganda vehicle, to justify governmental action, or to assign blame to foreign actors. The choice of what documents to include, how to present them, and even what order to list them, can make them tantamount to government-issued propaganda. In the early 17th century, blue books first came into use in England as a means of publishing diplomatic correspondence and reports. They were so named, because of their blue cover. During the time of the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century, they were being published regularly. By the second half of the century, Turkey began publishing its own version in red, and the concept of color books spread to other countries in Europe, with each country using one color: Germany using white; France: yellow; red: Austria-Hungary (Spain also used red later, as did the Soviet Union); green: Italy; gray: Belgium; orange: Netherlands (and Tsarist Russia). This concept spread to the Americas as well, with the United States using red, Mexico: orange, and various countries in Central and South America using other colors; it even spread as far as China (yellow) and Japan (gray).: 26 The German White Book appeared on 4 August 1914, and was the first such book to come out. It contains 36 documents. Within a week, most other combatant countries had published their own book, each named with a different color name. France held off until 1 December 1914, when they finally published their Yellow Book. Other combatants in the war published similar books: the Blue Book of Britain, the Orange Book of Russia, the Yellow Book of France, and the Austro-Hungarian Red Book, the Belgian Grey Book, and the Serbian Blue Book. The French Yellow Book (Livre Jaune), completed after three months of work, contained 164 documents. These works of propaganda aimed to convince public opinion of the validity of their rights.: 7–19 Unlike the others which were limited to the weeks before the start of the war, the Yellow Book included some documents from 1913, putting Germany in a bad light by shedding light on their mobilization for a European war. Some of the documents in the Yellow Book were challenged by Germany as not genuine, but their objections were mostly ignored, and the Yellow Book was widely cited as a resource in the July crisis of 1914. It turned out after the war was over, that the Yellow Book wasn't complete, or entirely accurate. Historians who gained access to previously unpublished French material were able to use it in their report to the Senate entitled "Origins and responsibilities for the Great War" as did ex-President Raymond Poincaré. The conclusion set forth in the report of the 1919 French Peace Commission is illustrative of the two-pronged goals of blaming their opponents while justifying their own actions, as laid out in two sentences: The war was premeditated by the Central Powers, as well as by their Allies Turkey and Bulgaria, and is the result of acts deliberately committed with the intention of making it inevitable.Germany, in concordance with Austria-Hungary, worked deliberately to have the many conciliatory proposals of the Entente Powers set aside, and their efforts to avoid war nullified. Later, publication of complete archives from the period of the July crisis by Germany, Britain, and Austria, as well as some from Soviet archives, revealed some truths that the Yellow Book conveniently left out. In particular, was Yellow Book document #118, which showed a Russian mobilization in response to Austrian mobilization the day before on 30 July, but in fact, the order of mobilization was reversed; Russian mobilized first. After a contorted explanation by Quai d'Orsay, confidence in the Yellow Book was ruined, and historians avoided using it. In his essay for the April 1937 issue of Foreign Affairs, Bernadotte E. Schmitt examined recently published diplomatic correspondence in the Documents Diplomatiques Français and compared it to the documents in the French Yellow Book published in 1914, concluding that the Yellow Book "was neither complete nor entirely reliable" and went into some detail in examining documents either missing from the Yellow Book, or presented out of order to confuse or mislead the sequence in which events occurred. He concluded,The documents will not change existing views to any great extent. They will not establish the innocence of France in the minds of Germans. On the other hand, the French will be able to find in them a justification of the policy they pursued in July 1914; and in spite of Herr Hitler's recent declaration repudiating Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, they will continue, on the basis of these documents, to hold Germany primarily responsible for the Great War. In the German White Book, anything that could benefit the Russian position was redacted. == 1918–1930s == Straight after the war Allied historians argued that Germany was solely responsible for the start of the war: a view reinforced by the inclusion of 'war guilt' clauses within the Treaty of Versailles. In 1919, the German diplomat and former Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow went through the German archives to suppress any documents that might show that Germany was responsible for the war and to ensure that only documents that were exculpatory (favorable to the defendant, in this case, Germany) might be seen by historians. As a result of Bülow's efforts, between 1923–27 the German Foreign Ministry published forty volumes of documents, which as the German-Canadian historian Holger Herwig noted were carefully edited to promote the idea that the war was not the fault of one nation but were rather the result of the breakdown of international relations. Certain documents such as some of the papers of the Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg which did not support this interpretation were destroyed. Hermann Kantorowicz, one of the few German historians who argued in the 1920s that Germany was responsible for the war, found that the Foreign Ministry went out of its way to stop his work from being published and tried to have him fired from his post at Kiel University. After 1933, Kantorowicz who as a Jewish German would have been banned from publishing, was forced to leave Germany for his "unpatriotic" writings. With the exceptions of the work of scholars such as Kantorowicz, Herwig has concluded that the majority of the work published on the subject of World War I's origins in Germany prior to Fritz Fischer's book Griff nach der Weltmacht was little more than a pseudo-historical "sham". Academic work in the English-speaking world in the later 1920s and 1930s, blamed the participants more or less equally. In the early 1920s, several American historians opposed to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles such as Sidney Bradshaw Fay, Charles A. Beard and Harry Elmer Barnes produced works that claimed that Germany was not responsible for war. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, which had seemingly assigned all responsibility for the war to Germany and thus justified the Allied claim to reparations, was invalid. A feature of American "revisionist" historians of the 1920s was a tendency to treat Germany as a victim of the war and the Allies as the aggressors. The objective of Fay and Barnes was to put an end to reparations imposed on Germany, by attempting to prove what they regarded as the moral invalidity of Article 231. The exiled Wilhelm praised Barnes upon meeting him in 1926. According to Barnes, Wilhelm "was happy to know that I did not blame him for starting the war in 1914. He disagreed with my view that Russia and France were chiefly responsible. He held that the villains of 1914 were the international Jews and Free Masons who, he alleged, desired to destroy national states and the Christian religion." The German Foreign Ministry lavished special "care" upon the efforts of both Fay and Barnes with generous use of the German archives, and in the case of Barnes, research funds provided by the German government. The German government liked Fay's The Origin of the War so much that it purchased hundreds of copies in various languages to hand out for free at German embassies and consulates. The German government allowed books that were pro-German in their interpretation, such as Barnes's The Genesis of the World War, to be translated into German while books such as Bernadotte Schmitt's The Coming of War 1914 that were critical of German actions in 1914, were not permitted to be published in Germany. Chapter 10 of Wilhelm II's Memoirs is entitled "The Outbreak of War". In it the Kaiser lists twelve "proofs" from the more extensive "Comparative Historical Tables" that he had compiled, which demonstrate the preparations for war by the Entente Powers made in the spring and summer of 1914. In particular he alleged: (5) According to the memoirs of the French Ambassador at St. Petersburg, M. Paléologue, published in 1921 in the Revue des Deux Mondes, the Grand Duchesses Anastasia and Militza told him, on July 22, 1914, at Tsarskoe Selo, that their father, the King of Montenegro, had informed them in a cipher telegram, "we shall have war before the end of the month [that is, before the 13th of August, Russian style] ... nothing will be left of Austria. ... You will take Alsace-Lorraine. ... Our armies will meet at Berlin. ... Germany will be annihilated." In a different approach, Lenin in his pamphlet Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism portrayed the war as imperialist, caused by rivalries triggered by highly organised financial monopolies, that by frenzied competition for markets and raw materials, had inevitably brought about the war. Evidence of secret deals between the Tsar and British and French governments to split the spoils of war was released by the Soviets in 1917–18. In the 1920s and 1930s, more socialist works built on this theme, a line of analysis which is still to be found, although vigorously disputed on the grounds that wars occurred before the capitalist era. Lenin argued that the private ownership of the means of production, in the hands of a limited number of capitalist monopolies, would inevitably lead to war. He identified railways as a 'summation' of the basic capitalist industries, coal, iron and steel and that their uneven development summed up capitalist development. The National Socialist approach to the question of the war's origins were summed up in a pamphlet entitled Deutschkunde uber Volk, Staat, Leibesubungen. In 1935, the British ambassador to Germany, Sir Eric Phipps, summed up the contents of Deutschkunde uber Volk, Staat, Leibesubungen which described the origins of the war thus: "Not Germany, but England, France and Russia prepared for war soon after the death of Bismarck. But Germany has also guilt to bear. She could have prevented the world war on three fronts, if she had not waited so long. The opportunity presented itself often—against England in the Boer War, against Russia when she was engaged against Japan... That she did not do so is Germany's guilt, though a proof that she was peaceful and wanted no war." In the inter-war period, various factors such as the network of secret alliances, emphasis on speed of offence, rigid military planning, Darwinian ideas and a lack of resolution mechanisms were blamed by many historians. These ideas have maintained some currency since then. Famous proponents include Joachim Remak and Paul Kennedy. At the same time, many one-sided works were produced by politicians and other participants, often trying to exculpate themselves. In Germany these tended to deflect blame, while in Allied countries they tended to blame Germany or Austria-Hungary. == The Fischer thesis == In 1961, the German historian Fritz Fischer published the controversial Griff nach der Weltmacht, in which Fischer argued that the German government had an expansionist foreign policy, formulated in the aftermath of Social Democratic gains in the election of 1912 and had started a war of aggression in 1914. Fischer was the first historian to have full access to the entire remaining German World War I archives. Previous historians had only been able to access heavily edited archives that had been created in order to support the view that war was the inevitable product of the breakdown of international diplomacy, rather than the end result of German expansionist ambitions. He was the first to draw attention to the War Council chaired by the Kaiser Wilhelm II and the top military-naval leadership of the Reich on December 8, 1912, in which it was declared that Germany would start a war of aggression in the summer of 1914. The Kaiser and the Army leadership wanted to start a war at once in December 1912, but heeded objections from Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, who supported the idea of starting a war but argued that the German Navy needed more time to prepare and asked that the war be put off until the summer of 1914. The Kaiser agreed to Tirpitz's request. In 1973, the British historian John Röhl noted that in view of what Fischer had uncovered, especially the War Council meeting of December 8, 1912, that the idea that Germany bore the main responsibility for the war was no longer denied by the vast majority of historians, although Fischer later denied claiming that the war was decided upon at that meeting. Annika Mombauer in contrast to Röhl observed in her work on Helmuth von Moltke that despite a great deal of research and debate "there is no direct evidence to prove that military decision-makers understood December 1912 as a decisive moment at which a future war had been agreed upon". Fischer's discovery of Imperial German government documents prepared after the war began, calling for the ethnic cleansing of Russian Poland and German colonization to provide Germany with Lebensraum (living space) as a war aim, has also led to the widespread acceptance by historians of continuity between the foreign policies of Germany in 1914 and 1939. Fischer alleged the German government hoped to use external expansion and aggression to check internal dissent and democratization. Some of his work is based on Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg's Septemberprogramm which laid out Germany's war aims. Controversially, Fischer asserted a version of the Sonderweg thesis that drew a connection between aggression in 1914 and 1939. Fischer was later to call Bethmann Hollweg the "Hitler of 1914". Fischer prompted the Primat der Innenpolitik ("primacy of domestic politics") school, emphasizing domestic German political factors. Some prominent scholars in this school include Imanuel Geiss, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Wolfgang Mommsen and Volker Berghahn. In a major 2011 conference entitled "the Fischer Controversy 50 Years On", a group of historians and academics debated the legacy of Fischer's work. The conclusion was that "...a consensus emerged that Fischer had got it right in attributing 'a significant part of the historical responsibility for the outbreak of a general war' to Germany and that Fischer's thesis of the continuity of German war aims still stands fifty years later." Yet by August 2014, many new books had appeared which by their divergent views collectively continue the controversy. === Opposition to the Fischer thesis === The "Berlin War Party" thesis and variants of it, blaming domestic German political factors, became something of an orthodoxy in the years after publication. Nonetheless many authors have attacked it. German conservative historians such as Gerhard Ritter asserted that the thesis was dishonest and inaccurate. Ritter promoted the idea that Germany displayed the same traits as other countries and could not be singled out. In a 1962 essay, Ritter contended that Germany's principal goal in 1914 was to maintain Austria-Hungary as a great power, and thus German foreign policy was largely defensive as opposed to Fischer's claim that it was mostly aggressive. Ritter claimed that Fischer attached unwarranted significance to the highly bellicose advice about waging a "preventive war" in the Balkans offered in July 1914 to the Chief of Cabinet of the Austro-Hungarian foreign ministry, Count Alexander Hoyos, by the German journalist Viktor Naumann. Ritter charged that Naumann was speaking as a private individual and not as Fischer claimed on behalf of the German government. Ritter felt that Fischer had been dishonest in his portrayal of Austro-German relations in July 1914. Ritter charged that it was not true that Germany had pressured a reluctant Austria-Hungary into attacking Serbia. Ritter argued that the main impetus for war within Austria-Hungary was internal, and though there were divisions of opinion about the course to pursue in Vienna and Budapest, it was not German pressure that led to war being chosen. In Ritter's opinion, the most Germany can be criticized for in July 1914 was a mistaken evaluation of the state of European power politics. Ritter claimed that the German government had underrated the state of military readiness in Russia and France, falsely assumed that British foreign policy was more pacific than what it really was, overrated the sense of moral outrage caused by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on European opinion, and above all, overestimated the military power and political common sense of Austria-Hungary. Ritter felt that in retrospect it was not necessary from the German point of view to maintain Austria-Hungary as a great power but claimed that at the time most Germans regarded the Dual Monarchy as a "brother empire" and viewed the prospect of the Balkans being in the Russian sphere of influence as an unacceptable threat. Ritter argued that though the Germans supported the idea of an Austrian-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, this was more of an ad hoc response to the crisis gripping Europe as opposed to Fischer's claim that Germany was deliberately setting off a war of aggression. Ritter complained that Fischer relied too much on the memories of Austro-Hungarian leaders such as the Count István Tisza and Count Ottokar Czernin who sought to shift all of the responsibility for the war on German shoulders. Ritter ended his essay by writing he felt profound "sadness" over the prospect that the next generation of Germans would not be as nationalistically-minded as previous generations as a result of reading Fischer. Fischer argued that in private, Ritter admitted that some evidence supported Fischer on some points. In a letter to Hans Rothfels on March 26, 1962, before publishing an article attacking Fischer, Ritter wrote: "I am alarmed and dismayed by your letter of 21 March. If Bethmann, as you write, in July 1914 had the 'desire' [Wunsch] to bring about war with Russia, then either he played without conscience with the fate of the German people, or he had simply incredible illusions about our military capablilities. In any case, Fischer would then be completely in the right when he denies that Bethmann seriously wanted to avoid war...If what in your view, Riezler's diary reveals is correct, I would have to discard my article, instead of publishing it...In any case we are dealing here with a most ominous [unheimlichen] state secret, and all historical perspectives are displaced [verschieben sich], since...Bethmann Hollweg's September Program then appears in a wholly different light". Trachtenberg concluded in 1991: It is certainly not true, however, that the views of the Fischer school have come to be almost universally shared, either inside Germany or out. The older interpretations of people like Pierre Renouvin, Bernadotte Schmitt, and Luigi Albertini--which, while quite critical of Germany, never went so far as to claim that the German government deliberately set out to provoke a general war--are still very widely accepted. == 1960s–1990s == In the 1960s two theories emerged to explain the causes of World War I. One championed by the West German historian Andreas Hillgruber argued that in 1914, a "calculated risk" on the part of Berlin had gone awry. Hillgruber argued that what the Imperial German government had attempted to do in 1914 was to break the informal Triple Entente of Russia, France and Britain by encouraging Austria-Hungary to invade Serbia and thus provoke a crisis in an area that would concern only St. Petersburg. Hillgruber argued that the Germans hoped that both Paris and London would decide the crisis in the Balkans did not concern them and that lack of Anglo-French support would lead the Russians to reach an understanding with Germany. Hillgruber argued that when the Austrian attack on Serbia caused Russia to mobilize instead of backing down, the German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg under strong pressure from a hawkish General Staff led by General Moltke the Younger panicked and ordered the Schlieffen Plan to be activated, thus leading to a German attack on France. In Hillgruber’s opinion the German government had pursued a high-risk diplomatic strategy of provoking a war in the Balkans that had inadvertently caused a world war. Another theory was A. J. P. Taylor's "Railway Thesis" in his 1969 book War by Timetable. In Taylor's opinion, none of the great powers wanted a war but all of the great powers wished to increase their power relative to the others. Taylor argued that by engaging in an arms race and having the general staffs develop elaborate railway timetables for mobilization, the continental powers hoped to develop a deterrent that would lead to other powers seeing the risk of war as too dangerous. When the crisis began in the summer of 1914, the need to mobilize faster than potential opponents made the leaders of 1914 prisoners of their logistics. The railway timetables forced invasion (of Belgium from Germany) as an unavoidable physical and logistical consequence of German mobilization. Taylor argued that the mobilization that was meant to serve as a threat and deterrent to war instead relentlessly caused a world war by forcing invasion. Other authors, such as the American Marxist historian Arno J. Mayer in 1967, agreed with some aspects of the "Berlin War Party" theory but felt that what Fischer said applied to all European states. In a 1967 essay "The Primacy of Domestic Politics", Mayer made a Primat der Innenpolitik ("primacy of domestic politics") argument for the war's origins. Mayer rejected the traditional Primat der Außenpolitik ("primacy of foreign politics") argument of diplomatic history, because it failed to take into account that all of the major European countries were in a "revolutionary situation" in 1914. In Mayer's opinion, in 1914 Britain was on the verge of civil war and massive industrial unrest, Italy had been rocked by the Red Week of June 1914, France and Germany were faced with ever-increasing political strife, Russia was facing a huge strike wave, and Austria-Hungary was confronted with rising ethnic and class tensions. Mayer insists that liberalism was disintegrating in face of the challenge from the extreme right and left in Britain, France and Italy, while being a non-existent force in Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. Mayer ended his essay by arguing that World War I should be best understood as a pre-emptive "counterrevolutionary" strike by ruling elites in Europe to preserve their power. In a 1972 essay "World War I As a Galloping Gertie", the American historian Paul W. Schroeder blamed Britain for the First World War. Schroeder argued that the war was a "Galloping Gertie", that it got out of control, sucking the Great Powers into an unwanted war. Schroeder thought that the key to the European situation was what he claimed was Britain's "encirclement" policy directed at Austria-Hungary. Schroeder argued that British foreign policy was anti-German and even more anti-Austrian. Schroeder argued that because Britain never took Austria-Hungary seriously, it was British policy to always force concessions on the Dual Monarchy with no regard to the balance of power in Central Europe. Schroeder claimed that 1914 was a "preventive war" forced on Germany to maintain Austria as a power, which was faced with a crippling British "encirclement policy" aimed at the break-up of that state. The American historian Samuel R. Williamson, Jr., lays most of the blame with the Austro-Hungarian elites rather than the Germans in his 1990 book, Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War. Another recent work is Niall Ferguson's The Pity of War which rejects the Fischer thesis, laying most of the blame on diplomatic bumbling from the British. Ferguson echoes Hillgruber in asserting that the German government attempted to use the crisis to split the Entente. == Post-2000 == According to Annika Mombauer in 2015, a new consensus among scholars had emerged by the 1980s, mainly as a result of Fischer’s intervention: Few historians agreed wholly with his [Fischer's] thesis of a premeditated war to achieve aggressive foreign policy aims, but it was generally accepted that Germany’s share of responsibility was larger than that of the other great powers. Regarding historians inside Germany, she adds that by the 1990s, "There was 'a far-reaching consensus about the special responsibility of the German Reich' in the writings of leading historians, though they differed in how they weighted Germany’s role. === Europe's Last Summer === American historian David Fromkin has blamed elements in the military leadership of Germany and Austria-Hungary in his 2004 book Europe's Last Summer. Fromkin's thesis is that there were two war plans; a first formulated by Austria-Hungary and the German Chancellor to start a war with Serbia to reinvigorate a fading Austro-Hungarian Empire; the second secret plan was that of the German military leadership to provoke a wider war with France and Russia. He thought that the German military leadership, in the midst of a European arms race, believed that they would be unable to further expand the German army without extending the officer corps beyond the traditional Prussian aristocracy. Rather than allowing that to happen, they manipulated Austria-Hungary into starting a war with Serbia in the expectation that Russia would intervene, giving Germany a pretext to launch what was in essence a preventive war. Part of his thesis is that the German military leadership were convinced that by 1916–18, Germany would be too weak to win a war with France, England and Russia. Notably, Fromkin suggests that part of the war plan was the exclusion of Kaiser Wilhelm II from knowledge of the events, because the Kaiser was regarded by the German General Staff as inclined to resolve crises short of war. Fromkin also argues that in all countries but particularly Germany and Austria documents were widely destroyed or forged to distort the origins of the war. === The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 === Christopher Clark's 2013 book The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 refocused the origins back to the Balkans and sought to redistribute agency back to the diplomats. He also sought to distribute responsibility to all of the Great Powers, paying particular attention to Germany, Austria-Hungary, France and Russia. Clark argues that the Germanic powers sought a localised war to punish Serbia, but in doing so knowingly risked war with Russia. For its part Russia accepted the risk of war by upsetting the balance of power in the Balkans in 1912-13, encouraging anti-Austrian irredentism, and deciding to support Serbia come what may. France did not restrain Russia, positively encouraging her to face down the Germans and support Serbia in 1914. Clark concludes that while all the continental powers risked a general war, none sought that war. Clark notes the speed of the crisis rendered diplomacy futile: "German efforts at mediation – which suggested that Austria should “Halt in Belgrade” and use the occupation of the Serbian capital to ensure its terms were met – were rendered futile by the speed of Russian preparations, which threatened to force the Germans to take counter–measures before mediation could begin to take effect". Furthermore, while Clark does not seek to place responsibility on Russia alone, he places more emphasis on Russian actions than many previous historians, stating: "Yes, the Germans declared war on Russia before the Russians declared war on Germany. But by the time that happened, the Russian government had been moving troops and equipment to the German front for a week. The Russians were the first great power to issue an order of general mobilisation and the first Russo-German clash took place on German, not on Russian soil, following the Russian invasion of East Prussia. That doesn’t mean that the Russians should be ‘blamed’ for the outbreak of war. Rather it alerts us to the complexity of the events that brought war about and the limitations of any thesis that focuses on the culpability of one actor." The book challenges the imputation, hitherto widely accepted by mainstream scholars since 1919, of a peculiar "war guilt" on the part of the German Empire, instead mapping carefully the complex mechanism of events and misjudgements that led to war. There was, in 1914, nothing inevitable about it. Risks inherent in the strategies pursued by the various governments involved had been taken before without catastrophic consequences: this now enabled leaders to follow similar approaches while not adequately evaluating or recognising those risks. Among international experts many saw this presentation by Clark of his research and insights as groundbreaking. ==== Reception in Germany ==== In Germany itself, where the book received much critical attention, reactions were not all positive. Volker Ullrich contended that Clark's analysis largely disregards the pressure for war coming from Germany's powerful military establishment. According to Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Clark had diligently researched the sources covering the war's causes from the German side only to "eliminate [many of them] with bewildering one-sidedness" ("verblüffend einseitig eliminiert"). Warming to his theme, Wehler attributed the sales success of the book in Germany to a "deep seated need [on the part of German readers], no longer so constrained by the taboos characteristic of the later twentieth century, to free themselves from the burdensome allegations of national war guilt". ==== Vernon Bogdanor ==== Vernon Bogdanor has criticized Clark for downplaying the German and Austrian refusal of offers of mediation. Over the course of the July Crisis Sir Edward Grey, British Foreign Secretary, offered a four-power conference of the Great Powers to help mediate the conflict. Clark dismisses Grey’s attempts as “half-hearted” and founded on a “partisan indifference to the power-political realities of Austro-Hungary’s situation”. Russia accepted the four power conference proposal but Austria-Hungary rejected the proposal. Germany also rejected the proposal on the grounds that they believed only Germany would support their ally. Bogdanor believes the Germans were mistaken. “That’s mistaken. I think Grey would have taken the Austrian side and would have said concessions were needed by Serbia to keep the peace…and it would have been very difficult for the Russians not to go along with that." The Russians further proposed that the conflict be subject to the court of arbitration in the Hague but this too was rejected by Germany and Austria-Hungary. To Bogdanor the rejection of the options of the four power conference and the court of arbitration weigh heavily against Germany and Austria-Hungary when looking for the causes of the war. ==== Mombauer on Clark's thesis ==== Annika Mombauer directly challenges Christopher Clark’s "sleepwalker" thesis, rejecting his portrayal of July 1914 decision-makers as unaware or passive. She argues that Clark’s framing leads to a problematic "relativization of responsibility" that obscures the conscious and deliberate decisions made in Berlin and Vienna to pursue war rather than diplomacy. While acknowledging that multiple governments contributed to the crisis, Mombauer emphasizes that the principal impetus for war came from Austria-Hungary and Germany, and insists on the importance of recognizing degrees of responsibility. === The Russian Origins of the First World War and July 1914 === Sean McMeekin, in his books The Russian Origins of the First World War and July 1914, also places more emphasis on Russian actions and in particular Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov’s bellicosity and duplicity. McMeekin argues that Russia’s Balkan policy, and crucial support for Serbia, only make sense in the context of her wider strategic desire to control or capture Constantinople and the Straits from the ailing Ottomans. This is similar to the Russians' plan during the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 in which they had also wanted to gain the Straits around the area. Furthermore, Russia's foreign policy of gaining these Straits were the same during the Balkan Wars. He further argues that during the July crisis Sazonov must have known that Russia’s partial mobilisation would inevitably lead to general mobilisation and likely war. Moreover he highlights that Sazonov deliberately lied to the British about Russia’s mobilisation, rendering the British unable to restrain their entente partner through ignorance of the advanced state of their military preparations. === The War That Ended Peace === Margaret MacMillan, in her book, The War That Ended Peace, puts the blame for the start of the First World War on the decision making of a small group of people, primarily blaming the leaders of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Russians did not want to back down after mobilizing, due to the fast mobilization that they had ordered. German leaders were also to blame due to their issuance of the Blank Cheque to Austria-Hungary during the July Crisis, which pushed Austria-Hungary into going to war with Serbia. Finally, the leaders of Austria-Hungary were culpable for planning to invade Serbia after the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. === The Origins of the First World War === Historian William Mulligan, in his book, The Origins of the First World War, believes that the First World War had started due to the fall of international relations which had then led to various empires around the continent feeling threatened which had then led to poor decision making. European powers had weakened due to crisis such as the Bosnian Crisis and the two crises in Morocco which happened as a result of the weakening power in the Ottoman Empire in the area. Mulligan believes that an arms race was facilitated due to the powers becoming weaker and this arms race led to even more fear and instability. All this fear and instability then exploded in the July Crisis and poor decisions were made because European powers believed that the power of their countries were at stake. === Other views === Alexander Anievas also puts the blame of the start of the First World War on the decline of relations between the European powers in the article "1914 In World Historical Perspective: The Uneven and Combined Origins of World War I". Anievas believes that countries in Europe such as Germany and Russia had tried to bolster their empires due to the collapse of influence from the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans region of Europe. In this attempt, major crises such as those in Bosnia and Morocco broke out These crises brought further problems on the European stage. For example, due to the Bosnian Crisis, Russia had now suffered a major embarrassment on the world stage; their relationship with Austria-Hungary worsened and Russia ordered an early mobilization during the July Crisis. Furthermore, with the nation of Germany, the crisis that had occurred in Morocco led to worse relations between Germany and other major European countries. The Germans felt threatened; they began to build up their weapons which in turn led to Russia re-arming too. British historian Alexander Watson quotes Austro-Hungarian noble, Baron Leopold von Andrian-Werburg, in assigning Austria-Hungary the bulk of the blame for rash decisions during the July Crisis: "We began the war, not the Germans and still less the Entente — that I know." Watson argues that Austro-Hungarian leaders, eager to assert dominance over the irascible Serbia, were exceptional among the great powers in that "they alone actively planned from early July 1914 to take their country to war." Holger H. Herwig takes a similar position, arguing that the onset of the Great War was a result of calculated decisions by Austria-Hungary, to the extent that "In fact, Berchtold throughout July was most reluctant to share information with Berlin for fear that the latter might apply the brakes and seek a last-minute diplomatic resolution to the crisis." In his view, "Vienna first resolved for war, sought German assurances, and then exploited them once received." Political scientists Richard N. Lebow and Thomas Lindemann argue that the First World War broke out partly due to ideas about Social Darwinism. Austrians felt that Serbians, as Slavs, were inferior to Austrian-Hungarians and Germans, so it was legitimate to make Serbian territory part of Germanic empires. == Synoptic Table == == See also == Causes of World War I Diplomatic history of World War I American entry into World War I Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I British entry into World War I French entry into World War I German entry into World War I Italian entry into World War I Japanese entry into World War I Ottoman entry into World War I Russian entry into World War I History of the Balkans International relations (1814–1919) Paris Peace Conference, 1919 War guilt question Causes of World War II == Notes == == References == == Bibliography ==	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I
The historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas is highly controversial. Most Argentine historians take an approach either for or against him, a dispute that has influenced much of the entire historiography of Argentina. == Contemporary descriptions == Rosas' government of Argentina, during the period of the civil wars, attracted wide criticism. Most leaders of the Unitarian Party exiled themselves to other countries during Rosas' rule. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, living in Chile, wrote Facundo, a biography of Facundo Quiroga whose real intention was to attack Rosas. Most Unitarians established themselves in Montevideo. In their writings they criticized Rosas, calling him a ruthless dictator and accusing him of many crimes. These statements were not intended for merely local effect but were designed to promote a European intervention in the conflict. José Rivera Indarte wrote a work called Blood Tables (Tablas de Sangre) which was published in Europe. It was intended to be a complete list of the known victims of Rosas. It attributed more than 22,000 deaths to his government. The Argentine politician Manuel Moreno considered this work to be libel. The reports from Montevideo were echoed in France, as many French citizens resided in Montevideo at that time. Alexandre Dumas wrote the novel Montevideo, or the New Troy based on the reports of Melchor Pacheco. Adolphe Thiers urged François Guizot to intervene in the conflict. On its own initiative France imposed a blockade of the Río de la Plata between 1838 and 1840, which was followed in 1845 by a joint blockade with Great Britain. The intervention by the European powers won sympathy for Rosas from other South Americans, who saw him as a fellow American standing against powerful foreign aggressors. He was supported by Francisco Antonio Pinto, José Ballivián, and many international newspapers. Some of those newspapers were the American New York Sun (5 August 1845) and New York Herald (7 September 1845), the Brazilians O Brado de Amazonas (9 August 1845) and O Sentinella da Monarchia (20 August 1845) and the Chilean El Tiempo (15 August 1845). The liberator José de San Martín, who was living in France, corresponded with Rosas, offering his full support, both against the Europeans and the Unitarians. San Martín showed his respect by bequeathing his sword to Rosas. == Later descriptions == Rosas was deposed by Justo José de Urquiza in 1852, in the battle of Caseros, and Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation later in the year. Rosas moved into exile in Southampton. The Unitarians confiscated all his properties and repudiated him in a variety of ways. José Mármol wrote the novel Amalia, the first Argentine novel, and included several criticisms to Rosas, such as "not even the dust of your bones the America will have". However, such authors cannot be considered exclusively from the perspectives of historiography or the history of ideas, as they were politically active people, even with main roles in the political struggles of their time; and their works were used as tools to advertise their ideas. Most documents of the time were burned during the aftermath of Caseros. The legislature of Buenos Aires charged him with High treason in 1857; Nicanor Arbarellos supported his vote with the following speech: Rosas, sir, that tyrant, that barbarian, even if barbarian and cruel, was not considered as such by the European and civilized nations, and that judgment of the European and civilized nations, moved to posterity, will hold in doubt, at least, that barbarian and execrable tyranny that Rosas exercised among us. It's needed, then, to mark with a legislative sanction declaring him guilty of lèse majesté so at least this point is marked in history, and it is seen that the most potent court, which is the popular court, which is the voice of the sovereign peoples by us represented, throws to the monster the anathema calling him traitor and guilty of lèse majesté. Judgments like those must not be left for history. What will be said, what might be said in history when it's seen that the civilized nations of the world, for whom we are but just a point, have acknowledged in this tyrant a being worthy to deal with them? That England has returned his cannons taken in war action, and saluted his bloody and innocent-blood stained flag with a 21-gun salute? This fact, known by history, would be a great counterweight, Sir, if we leave Rosas without this sanction. The France itself, which started the crusade that was shared by general Lavalle, in its due time also abandoned him, dealt with Rosas and saluted his flag with a 21-gun salute. I ask, Sir, if this fact won't erase from history everything we may say, if we leave this monster that decimated us for so many years without a sanction. The judgment of Rosas must not be left to history, as some people desire. It's clear that it can't be left to history the judgment of the tyrant Rosas. Let's throw to Rosas this anathema, which perhaps can be the only one to harm him in history, because otherwise his tyranny will always be doubtful, as well as his crimes! What will be said in history, sir? And this is sad to tell, what will be said in history when it is said that the brave Admiral Brown, the hero of the Navy of the Independence war, was the admiral who defended the tyranny of Rosas? What will be said in history without this anathema, when it is said that this man who contributed with his glories and talents to give shine to the Sun of May, that the other deputy referenced in his speech, when it is said that General San Martín, the conqueror of the Andes, the father of the Argentine glories, made him the greatest tribute that can be given to a soldier by handing him his sword? Will this be believed, sir, if we don't throw an anathema to the tyrant Rosas? Will this man be known as he is in 20 or 50 years, if we want to go further, when it is known that Brown and San Martín were loyal to him and gave him the most respectful tributes, along with France and England? No, sir: they will say, the savage unitarians, his enemies, lied. He has not been a tyrant: far from that, he has been a great man, a great general. It's needed to throw without doubts this anathema to the monster. If at least we had imititated the English people, who dragged the corpse of Cromwell across the streets of London, and had dragged Rosas across the streets of Buenos Aires! I support, Mr. President, the project. If the judgment of Rosas was left to the judgment of history, we won't get Rosas to be condemned as a tyrant, but perhaps he may be in it the greatest and most glorious of Argentines. A notable exception to this trend was Juan Bautista Alberdi, who was among the Unitarian expatriates in Montevideo and attacked Rosas during his rule. He met with him during the latter's exile in England in 1857, an event which changed his mind into supporting him and even led to their becoming friends. Alberdi would condemn the aforementioned sanction against Rosas, lauded that he never plotted to regain power, compared the barbarism attributed to him with the contemporary United States, Russia, Italy and Germany, and pointed that Urquiza deposed Rosas to organize the country but the actual result was the secession of Buenos Aires. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento changed his view of Rosas during his late life as well. Bartolomé Mitre maintained his hatred towards him all his life, which may be explained by family reasons: Mitre's father was appointed as treasurer of Uruguay by Fructuoso Rivera and fired by Manuel Oribe; and Rosas supported Oribe against Rivera during the Uruguayan civil war. Bartolomé Mitre started the first noteworthy historiographic studies shortly afterwards, but opted to avoid the period of Rosas rule altogether. He wrote biographies for Manuel Belgrano and José de San Martín, which actually detailed the Spanish rule in the Americas, the Argentine War of Independence and the War with Brazil, but made no mention afterwards. His biography of San Martín ended at the point when San Martín ended his military career, and he declined to write his projected book "The ostracism and apotheosis of General San Martín", as he would have to write about San Martín's disputes with Bernardino Rivadavia, his repudiation of the execution of Manuel Dorrego and the rule of Juan Lavalle, his steady appreciative correspondence to Rosas and his rejection to the European interventions against him; all of which would hint that San Martín was closer to the Federalists than to the Unitarians. Similarly, Mitre wrote a series of small biographies of men from the War of Independence; some of them worked with Rosas later but those details were carefully omitted. Mitre established a version of history with an explicit bias against his enemies of the civil war; this method constrated sharply with the historiography of the United States, which avoided the arbitrary divisions into heroes and villains and preferred a fair and dispassionate perspective. The liberal historiography promoted by Mitre and Sarmiento was highly influenced by Anglophilia. The first major attempt to study Rosas and the Confederation as a historical period was done by Adolfo Saldías. Being one generation after the contemporaries of Rosas, he attempted to make a scientific and dispassionated account of his rule. His work was based on a high number of sources, from varied origins. He visited Rosas' daughter Manuela Rosas in Southampton to check the archive of state documents that Rosas took with himself to the exile: mails sent and received, draft copies of official announcements and diplomatic reports, confidential reports of his ministers in London, París, Washington and Río de Janeiro, and confidential police reports. Saldías checked as well the documents published at the newspapers of the time, interviews with contemporaries and memoirs of military leaders. Saldías rejected the civilization and barbarism dichotomy introduced by Sarmiento, and described the ranchers of the countryside as a mere political faction with specific interests. He gave new significance to the Federal Pact, a perspective that would be shared by both future revisionists and authors as Emilio Ravignani and Ricardo Levene. == The Generation of '80 == The years between 1880 and 1930 saw a rise of positivist essayists. They modified the approach in the study of history, but with little changes to general interpretations; for instance, the Great Man theory was gradually dismissed, favoring instead perspectives that explained history through social, mental, cultural or economic factors. José María Ramos Mejía tried to explain key biographies, specially Rosas', through a phrenologist analysis. Vicente Fidel López and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento praised his original approach, but López pointed out the lack of clinical records from the period being studied, and Sarmiento that Mejía trusted too much on libelles from that time (even by Sarmiento himself) which were more concerned with the political conflicts than with historical accuracy. Another author from this period was Ernesto Quesada, who worked with Rosas and wrote "La época de Rosas" (Spanish: The age of Rosas) and the influential "Rosas y su tiempo" (Spanish: Rosas and his time). Quesada applied the standards of the current German scholarship, as he had studied in that country. He considered that the events of the civil war were best explained by characteristics of Argentine society rather than by Rosas' own personality, and compared the rise of Rosas after the anarchy of the year XX with the rule of the king Louis XI of France. He did not consider Rosas a tyrant, at least not in comparison with the Unitarian rules, and attributed the failure of the early attempts of political organization to the lack of political education. His book was well documented, and detailed how the image of Rosas was distorted after his exile, and many key documents concealed or destroyed. However, he was critical of Saldías' work, and had disputes with him. A common assumption of the time considered that Argentina began an age of prosperity after the defeats of Rosas and Urquiza at Caseros and Pavón. This perspective was weakened after the 1912 Grito de Alcorta and the raise of Hipólito Yrigoyen to the presidency. Juan Álvarez, influenced by the new state of affairs, wrote a history of Argentina from an economic perspective, and redeemed the protectionist policy of Rosas as an attempt to restore the economy of the country that had been badly damaged by wars and free trade. == The new historical school == The new historical school was a new generation of historians, influenced by the University Revolution, who sought to modernize the historiographical work with new methodologies. The New Historical School did not share common ideas about historical topics in themselves, but rather a common modus operandi. They were not part of the social upper classes that ruled Argentina since 1852, but sons of immigrants who arrived to Argentina during the great immigrations waves at the turn of the century. As a result, they were less influenced by factionalism and preconceived ideas. One of the authors of the New Historical School that worked with Rosas was Emilio Ravignani, his main interest being the origins of federalism and the national organization. He presided the "Institute of historical investigations", and joined the Junta of History and Numismatics by recommendation of Ricardo Levene. As subsecretary of international relations during the administration of Hipólito Yrigoyen he could check a lot of documents and bibliography, which allowed him to write a book about the first meeting of Rosas and the British diplomat Henry Southern. In his study of the Argentine Constitution of 1853, he considered that the Federal Pact was a strong precedent which established Federal rule, later confirmed in 1853. Unlike the authors that dismissed the period as anarchic, Ravignani considered that the pacts and the role of the caudillos was instrumental to maintain national unity. Ravignani gave new significance to the caudillos, Rosas and Artigas, his work was influenced by Saldías and Quesada. His work was discussed by Ricardo Levene, who thought that the civil war and the delegation of the sum of public power generated a dictatorship, and that Rosas was a special caudillo, unlike the others. A notable historian of the 1920s was Dardo Corvalán. All his works reinvidicated the actions of Rosas. He employed a less scholarly language than Saldías or Quesada, favoring instead a language closer to the average reader, although Saldías was almost exclusively the source of his work. He did not focus his criticism on other historians, but on writers of poetry or pamphlets against Rosas, such as Rivera Indarte. Though he was an Yrigoyenist, he did not portray Rosas as a popular or populist leader – pointing instead to his support among the wealthy people. Another important historian was Carlos Ibarguren, minister of Roque Sáenz Peña and teacher of History of Argentina at the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature. He organized a number of conferences about Rosas, which were compiled and published in an influential book. High interest in Rosas existed for political reasons: politicians opposing Hipólito Yrigoyen (the president at the time) compared him with Rosas under a negative light, and his supporters took pride of the comparison by pointing similarities between Rosas and Yrigoyen. Ibarguren is neither critical nor supportive of Rosas, trying to provide explanations for his actions based on psychology. == Historical revisionism == The 1930s saw the work of the first revisionist historians in Argentina. The historiography of Argentina is usually simplified as having a liberal or "official" history, that would be hegemonic, scientific and endorsed by the formal institutions, and a "counter history" closer to the writing of essays than to historical work and influenced by political movements. However, the context is much more complicated than that, and the frontiers between both types of history are rather diffuse. Authors deemed as "liberal" did not always follow scientific procedures, nor had homogeneous perspectives in all topics. It was not always hegemonic either, and several revisionists hold public offices or were supported by the current governments. Moreover, revisionist historians did not even have homogeneous points of view: Saldías is commonly considered the first revisionist, but his work praised Bernardino Rivadavia as well as Rosas, suggesting a continuity between both, whereas most revisionists would praise Rosas and reject Rivadavia. The 1930s revisionists were divided into right-wing nationalists, who rejected the black legend and praised the Catholic Church and the Hispanic heritage, and popular nationalists, who rejected the exclusion of the masses from political life and praised Rosas's popular support. The starting point of the historical revisionism in the 1930s is disputed, according to the perspective held over such revisionism. Authors who consider revisionism a phenomenon related to ongoing political movements point to the 1934 book La Argentina y el imperialismo británico (Spanish: Argentina and the British imperialism), by the Irazusta brothers. This work, highly critical of the recent Roca–Runciman Treaty, considered that Britain had been imperialistic towards Argentina since its beginnings. Authors that focus instead on the historiographical merits of revisionism choose instead Ensayo sobre el año 20 (Spanish: Essay about the Year 20) and Ensayo sobre Rosas y la suma del poder (Spanish: Essay about Rosas and the sum of power), by Julio Irazusta, also from 1934. The first essay analyzed the anarchy of the year XX, and the second the historiography of Rosas. Irazusta diverged with previous works supporting Rosas: unlike Saldías, he did not consider Rosas and Rivadavia as part of a same political project but part of divergent ones. Quesada did not think Rosas to be a skilled politician, while Irazusta did think so. Neither Saldías nor Quesada considered the battle of Caseros a turning point in the history of Argentina, while Irazusta considered it a lost chance to become a global power. There were many works about Rosas written at the end of the 1930 decade and beginning of the 1940s: Vida de Juan Manuel de Rosas (Spanish: Life of Juan Manuel de Rosas) by Manuel Gálvez in 1940, the first volume of Vida política de Juan Manuel de Rosas a través de su correspondencia (Spanish: Political life of Juan Manuel de Rosas though his correspondence) by Julio Irazusta in 1941, and Defensa y pérdida de nuestra independencia económica (Spanish: Defense and loss of our economic independence) by José María Rosa in 1942. The studies about Rosas were channeled through a new institute, the Juan Manuel de Rosas national institute of historical investigations, established in 1938. This institute and similar ones thought that public instruction was instrumental in generating a new nationalist sentiment in the population, but using new historical structures in place of the ones used in previous decades. Along with the institute, there was Pro-Repatriation Rosas Committee, which promoted the repatriation of Juan Manuel de Rosas's body. Popular interest in Rosas further increased with the start of the Spanish Civil War and World War II, which increased and radicalized the disputes between supporters of fascism and anti-fascism to its highest level in Latin America. Most historians tried to avoid the modern political controversies and stay focused on the time period under study; Emilio Ravignani warned in 1939 that the figure of Rosas should not be used to justify modern dictatorships. Still, those disputes influenced the way people perceived history. Academics as Diego Luis Molinari and José María Rosa were attacked by student unions that considered them Nazis because of their support to Rosas, and tried to prevent them from teaching at universities. Many authors, on the other hand, opted instead to avoid Rosas altogether. The Rosas National Institute quickly abandoned its historiographical purposes, and focused instead in merely promoting Rosas' image. It was considered that historical revisionism had already prevailed and that Rosas should be considered a national hero. Thus, the institute made little work in creating archives of the time period (although that was one of its initial purposes) and actual historical investigation, and worked instead with conferences, parades and literary comment. Although they were accused of holding fascist ideas, they did not support Francisco Franco or other modern fascist governments, supporting instead Argentine neutrality in World War II. Palacio thought that historiography should be a reflection of the values of the society that generates it, so the historiography of decades ago was correct for its own time period but outdated in the 1930s. Manuel Gálvez compared the actions of Rosas with those of other world leaders under similar circumstances, such as Louis XI of France, Diego Portales, and considered him a leader of Republicanism in Argentina, unlike the monarchist Unitarians. Irazusta considered instead that Rosas was a great historical figure, not only in Argentina or even in South America, but in world history as well. José María Rosa rejected the Great Man theory, and thought that history should not focus on specific isolated men or events but on the evolution of society as a whole. == Peronism == The Revolution of '43 benefited revisionist historians. National universities were intervened and revisionism got a prominent role in them. However, the radical role of Jordán Bruno Genta at the National University of the Littoral was highly criticized, both by antifascists and by other revisionists as Arturo Jauretche and the Irazusta brothers. Jauretche was imprisoned for his criticism, and the magazine run by the Irazusta was closed. Others as Vicente Sierra tried a more integrationist approach. The historical revisionism lost the high hierarchical roles achieved in the Revolution of '43 when Juan Perón was elected president. Revisionists had divided opinions towards him: Manuél Gálvez, Vicente Sierra, Ramón Doll and Ernesto Palacio gave their full support to Peronism; Juan Pablo Oliver and Federico Ibarguren supported him from other political parties; José María Rosa and Raúl Scalabrini Ortiz supported him at a mere personal level, without getting involved in politics, but Genta and the Irazusta brothers became antiperonists. The government of Perón avoided taking sides in the ideological disputes of the times, and did the same in historical topics, without endorsing nor rejecting revisionism. Other than replacing the title "The Rosas dictatorship" for "Rosas and his era" in high school textbooks, Peronism did not endorse revisionism or Rosas in any way. The state only made official praise to universally accepted national heroes, such as José de San Martín, whose centennial was celebrated in 1950. After the railway nationalization no railway received the name of Rosas; being named instead Urquiza, Mitre and Sarmiento (all of them historical enemies of Rosas) and Belgrano and San Martín (universally accepted national heroes of Argentina). On the other hand, antiperonism condemned revisionism and Rosas, extrapolating in him the criticism towards Perón. Most notably, they celebrated the centennial of the battle of Caseros in which Rosas was ousted from power. Still, the antiperonist coup that deposed Perón saw no need to modify the history curriculum, which continued to be used in schools with no modifications. The analogies between Perón and Rosas became explicit during the Revolución Libertadora, a coup that ousted Perón from power and banned Peronism. Eduardo Lonardi, de facto president, used the quote "ni vencedores ni vencidos" (Spanish: "neither victors nor vanquished"), which was used by Urquiza after deposing Rosas in Caseros. The official perspective was that Perón was "the second tyranny", the first one being Rosas, and that both ones should be equally rejected, and conversely both governments that ousted them should be praised. This perspective was condensed into the line of historical continuity "May - Caseros - Libertadora". According to it, the purpose of the May Revolution was to build government institutions, and that purpose would only be achieved after Rosas' defeat. This approach backfired. So far revisionism had success in academic contexts, but failed to change the popular perception of history. Perón was highly popular and the military coup unpopular; this made revisionism popular by embracing the comparison established between Rosas and Perón, but viewing him with a positive light instead. The strategy, however, was not immediate. José María Rosa was one of the most benefited revisionist historians in this context. == Modern times == The Repatriation of Juan Manuel de Rosas's body, a project begun in the 1930s, finally took place in 1989, at the beginning of the first presidency of Carlos Menem. His body, until that time kept at the Southampton Old Cemetery in the United Kingdom, was moved to La Recoleta cemetery. The procession, attended by both descendants of Rosas and descendants of his historical enemies, was a symbol of the national unification promoted by Menem, who called for an end to historical enmities. According to the historian Félix Luna, the disputes between supporters and detractors of Rosas are outdated, and modern historiography has incorporated the several corrections made by historical revisionism. Luna points that Rosas is no longer seen as a horrible monster, but as a common historical man as the others; and that it is anachronistic to judge him under modern moral standards. Luis Alberto Romero, leader historian of the CONICET, the University San Martín and the UBA, pointed that the ideas of revisionism have been smoothly included into high-school textbooks, with no visible contradictions with other perspectives. Horacio González, head of the National Library of the Argentine Republic, points a paradigm shift in the historiography of Argentina, where revisionism has moved from being the second most important perspective into being the mainstream one. However, divulgative historians often repeat outdated misconceptions about Rosas. This is usually the case of historians from outside of Argentina, who have no bias towards the Argentine topics but unwittingly repeat cliches that have long been refuted by Argentine historiography. == Footnotes == == References == == Bibliography == Bethell, Leslie (1996). Ideas and Ideologies in Twentieth-Century Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-46341-6. García, Irene Pilar (2011). Juan Bautista Alberdi: su bicentenario. San Miguel de Tucumán: Junta de estudios históricos de Tucumán. ISBN 978-987-25142-2-8. Gelman, Jorge; Raúl Fradkin (2010). Doscientos años pensando la Revolución de Mayo (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. ISBN 978-950-07-3179-9. Devoto, Fernando; Nora Pagano (2009). Historia de la Historiografía Argentina (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. ISBN 978-950-07-3076-1. Johnson, Lyman (2004). Death, dismemberment, and memory: body politics in Latin America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-3200-5. Knight, Alan; Rock, David; et al. (2008). Informal Empire in Latin America: Culture, Commerce, and Capital / edited by Matthew Brown. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-7932-4. Lascano, Marcelo (2005). Imposturas históricas e identidad nacional (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: El Ateneo. ISBN 950-02-5900-1. Miller, Nicola (1999). In the shadow of the state: Intellectuals the quest for national identity in the twentieth-century Spanish-America. London: Verso. ISBN 1-85-984-738-2. Otero, José Pacífico (1978). Historia del libertador don José de San Martín. Buenos Aires: Biblioteca del Oficial (Círculo Militar). Rein, Mónica Esti (1998). Politics and Education in Argentina: 1946-1962. Armonk (N. Y.): M.E.Sharpe inc. ISBN 0-7656-0209-1. Shumway, Nicolas (1991). The Invention of Argentina. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08284-2. Spinelli, Spinelli, María Estela (2005). Los vencedores vencidos: el peronismo y la "Revolución libertadora". Argentina: Editorial Biblos. ISBN 950-786-494-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Félix Luna; Arturo Jauretche; Benjamín Villegas Basavilbaso; Jaime Gálvez; León Rebollo Paz; Fermín Chávez; José Antonio Ginzo; Luis Soler Cañas; Arturo Capdevilla; Julio Irazusta; Enrique de Gandia; Ernesto Palacio; Bernardo González Arrili; Emilio Ravignani; José Antonio Saldías; Arturo Orgaz; Manuel Gálvez; Diego Luis Molinari; Ricardo Font Ezcurra; Héctor Pedro Blomberg; Ramón Doll; Adolfo Mitre; Rafael Padilla Rorbón; Alberto Gerchunoff; Mariano Bosch; Ramón de Castro Ortega; Carlos Steffens Soler; Julio Donato Álvarez; Roberto de Laferrere; Justiniano de la Fuente; Federico Barbará; Ricardo Caballero (2010). Con Rosas o contra Rosas (in Spanish). Santa Fe: H. Garetto Editor. ISBN 978-987-1493-15-9.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas
The historiography of Adolf Hitler deals with the academic studies of Adolf Hitler from the 1930s to the present. In 1998, a German editor said there were 120,000 studies of Hitler and Nazi Germany. Since then many more have appeared, with many of them decisively shaping the historiography regarding Hitler. == Early biographies and historiographical disputes == === Konrad Heiden === The first important biography was written in exile in Switzerland by Konrad Heiden (1901–1966), Hitler: A Biography (2 vol Zürich, 1936–1937); an English version appeared as Der Führer – Hitler's Rise to Power (1944). Heiden was a journalist for a liberal newspaper who witnessed Hitler's rise to power and fled to exile when he realized that he was a target of the regime (he managed to escape the Gestapo). In his introduction Heiden wrote "the 'hero' of this book is neither a superman nor a puppet. He is a very interesting contemporary and, viewed quantitatively, a man who is stirred up the masses more than anyone else in human history." Heiden was successful in analyzing Hitler as an orator, how he drew strength from his audience, learning which points to emphasize to maximize his impact. Hitler realized it was emotion, not rationality, he had to appeal to, using repetition, exaggeration, little lies and big lies, all the while vehemently denouncing the horrors of the past and promising a sparkling bright visions of the future. Like all early biographers, Heiden paid little attention to the anti-Semitic fulminations, or to Hitler's goals of destroying the Jews and Generalplan Ost the seizure of control of Eastern Europe for German resettlement. === Alan Bullock === The Allies seized vast masses of documents in 1945, which British historian Alan Bullock (1914–2004) used with a brilliant writing style. Bullock's biography Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (1952) depicts Hitler as the product of the chaos in Germany after 1918, where uncertainty and anger inflamed extremism and created the ideal setting for Hitler's demagoguery to succeed. Bullock tells of a totally unprincipled opportunist, who had no deep values or goals, except seizing power by any means possible. In 1991, John Campbell wrote "Although written so soon after the end of the war and despite a steady flow of fresh evidence and reinterpretation, it has not been surpassed in nearly 40 years: an astonishing achievement." === Eberhard Jäckel === Bullock has generally stood the test of time, except that historians today reject the idea that Hitler was unprincipled, thanks especially to the work by German scholar Eberhard Jäckel (1929–2017), Professor of Modern History at the University of Stuttgart. In the 1970s and 1980s his demonstration of Hitler's unwavering commitment to a few extreme principles of removing Jews and conquering living space in the East is no longer disputed. Jäckel argues that Mein Kampf was not only a "blueprint" for power, but also for genocide. In Jäckel's view, He had to annihilate the Jews, thus restoring the meaning of history, and with the thus restored, nature-intended struggle for existence, he at the same time had to conquer new living space for the German people. Each of these tasks was inextricably linked to the other. Unless the Jews were annihilated there would very soon no longer be any struggle for living space, nor therefore any culture and consequently nations would die out; not just the German nation, but ultimately all nations. But if, on the other hand, the German people failed to conquer new living space, it would die out because of that and the Jews would triumph". === Structuralism === Academic historians by the 1960s were committed to social history, and rejected the great man interpretation of the past. Biography could be a popular art form, but was theoretically incapable of explaining great events. Popular historians, biographers, and the general public disregarded these abstract laws history, and demanded colorful history based on idiosyncratic personality traits. This popular approach was based on what scholars call "intentionalism". Who ordered the Holocaust has been a central theme of the debate. Intentionalists maintained that Adolf Hitler intended from the earliest days of his political career to exterminate Jews. Functionalists (or structuralists) argued that although Hitler had a longstanding murderous hatred of Jews, his plan to exterminate them did not arise until bureaucratic opportunities and world events (such as war with Russia) converged to make extermination possible. The debate largely faded away after 1980 as such scholars as Ian Kershaw and Michael Burleigh increasingly agreed that "intention" and "structure" are both essential to understanding Nazi Germany and need synthesis rather than opposition. Taking note of the shift of interest among professional historians toward social history in the 1960s, Alan Bullock agreed that in general deep long-term social forces are decisive in history but not always, he argued, for there are times when the Great Man is decisive. In revolutionary circumstances, "It is possible for an individual to exert a powerful even a decisive influence on the way events develop and the policies that are followed....After the pendulum has swung between exaggerating and underestimating [individuals]...the longer perspective suggests that in both cases neither the historical circumstances nor the individual personality is sufficient explanation by itself without the other". Those historians who took an intentionalist line, like Andreas Hillgruber, argued that everything that happened after the invasion of the USSR in 1941 was part of a master plan he credited Hitler with developing in the 1920s. Hillgruber wrote in his 1967 book Germany and the Two World Wars that for Hitler, The conquest of European Russia, the cornerstone of the continental European phase of his program, was thus for Hitler inextricably linked with the extermination of these "bacilli", the Jews. In his conception they had gained dominance over Russia with the Bolshevik Revolution. Russia thereby became the center from which a global danger radiated, particularly threatening to the Aryan race and its German core. To Hitler, Bolshevism meant the consummate rule of Jewry, while democracy—as it had developed in Western Europe and Weimar Germany—represented a preliminary stage of Bolshevism, since the Jews there won a leading, if not yet a dominant, influence. This racist component of Hitler's thought was so closely interwoven with the central political element of his program, the conquest of European Russia, that Russia's defeat and the extermination of the Jews were—in theory as later in practice—inseparable for him. To the aim of expansion per se, however, Hitler gave not racial, but political, strategic, economic and demographic underpinnings. The German historian Helmut Krausnick argued that, What is certain is that the nearer Hitler's plan to overthrow Russia as the last possible enemy on the continent of Europe approached maturity, the more he became obsessed with an idea—with which he had been toying as a "final solution" for a long time—of wiping out the Jews in the territories under his control. It cannot have been later than March 1941, when he openly declared his intention of having the political commissars of the Red Army shot, that he issued his secret decree—which never appeared in writing though it was mentioned verbally on several occasions—that the Jews should be eliminated. Streim wrote that Krausnick had been taken in by the line invented after the war to reduce the responsibility of the Einsatzgruppen leaders brought to trial. Against the intentionalist interpretation, functionalist historians like Martin Broszat argued that the lower officials of the Nazi state had started exterminating people on their own initiative. Broszat argued that the Holocaust began “bit by bit” as German officials stumbled into genocide. Broszat argued that in the fall of 1941 German officials had begun "improvised" killing schemes as the "simplest" solution. In Broszat's analysis, Hitler subsequently approved of the measures initiated by the lower officials and allowed the expansion of the Holocaust from Eastern Europe to all of Europe. In this way, Broszat argued that the Shoah was not begun in response to an order, written or unwritten, from Hitler but was rather "a way out of the blind alley into which the Nazis had manoeuvred themselves." The American historian, Christopher Browning, has argued that, Before the invasion, the Einsatzgruppen were not given explicit orders for the total extermination of Jews on Soviet territory. Along with the general incitement to an ideological and racial war, however, they were given the general task of liquidating "potential" enemies. Heydrich's much-debated directive of 2 July 1941 was a minimal list of those who had to be liquidated immediately, including all Jews in state and party positions. It is very likely, moreover, that the Einsatzgruppen leaders were told of the future goal of a Judenfrei [Jew-free] Russia through systematic mass murder. The Swiss historian, Philippe Burrin, argues that such a decision was not made before August 1941 at the earliest. Browning argues that sometime in mid-July 1941 Hitler made the decision to begin general genocide owing to his exhilaration over his victories over the Red Army, whereas Burrin contends that the decision was made in late August 1941 owing to Hitler's frustration over the slowing down of the Wehrmacht. Kershaw argues that the dramatic expansion in both the range of victims and the intensity of the killings after mid-August 1941 indicates that Hitler issued an order to that effect, most probably a verbal order conveyed to the Einsatzgruppen commanders through either Himmler or Heydrich. == Major biographies since the 1970s == === Joachim Fest === Joachim Fest (1926–2006) was a German historian who wrote a biography of Hitler, Hitler: Eine Biographie (1973) (which was translated into English as Hitler (1974) by Richard and Clara Winston) which was the first major biography of Hitler since Alan Bullock's Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (1952) and was the first by a German writer. It was much praised by reviewers for its elegant style. Fest relied almost entirely on published sources, thereby avoiding the archival research that historians specialize in. He sees Hitler as a "singular personality," and downplays structuralism or indeed any systematic analysis of political and social context. He made his strongest statement against the structuralist historiography. Historians agreed to the quality of the work, but they noted that he downplayed the key role of conservative elites who enabled the Nazis come to power in 1933. === John Toland === American historian John Toland (1912–2004) wrote a biography of Hitler (1976) which was based on an extensive amount of original research, such as previously unpublished documents, diaries, notes, photographs, and interviews with Hitler's colleagues and associates. === Ian Kershaw === British historian Ian Kershaw (born 1943) wrote a two-volume biography of Hitler between 1998 and 2000 (Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris and Hitler 1936–1945: Nemesis) which has been hailed by historians as definitive, and as of 2012 has not been displaced at the top of the bibliographies. His approach is to emphasize structural factors, and then bring in Hitler's personality by arguing that the top leadership, the middle leadership, and even the lower ranks of the Nazi movement devoted themselves to working towards the Führer's supposed wishes, whether or not he had ever expressed those wishes, in the hopes of gaining the Führer's approval. Kershaw depicts Hitler's leadership as charismatic, which emphasizes his profound influence on the audience, and so the audience—and thereby the German society as a whole—was acting under his very broad command. === Volker Ullrich === German historian and journalist Volker Ullrich (born 1943) wrote a two-volume biography of Hitler. The first edition was published in German in 2013 and was translated into English in 2016 (Hitler – A Biography, Volume 1: Ascent 1889–1939); the second was published in 2018 and appeared in English translation in 2020 (Hitler – A Biography. Volume II: Downfall 1939–1945). Ullrich depicts Hitler as a narcissist who was both clownish and deceitful and who rose to power using slick propaganda at a time the German elite was too dysfunctional to realize the danger he posed. == Historikerstreit re Nazi Germany == The Historikerstreit ("historians' quarrel") was an intellectual and political controversy in the late 1980s in West Germany about the crimes of Nazi Germany, including their comparability with the crimes of the Soviet Union. The Historikerstreit pitted right-wing against left-wing intellectuals. The positions taken by the right-wing intellectuals were largely based on the totalitarianism approach which takes a comparative approach to totalitarian states, while left-wing intellectuals argued that fascism was uniquely evil, referred to as the Sonderweg thesis and could not be equated with the crimes of Soviet communism. The former were accused by their critics of downplaying Nazi crimes, while the latter were accused by their critics of downplaying Soviet crimes. The debate attracted much media attention in West Germany, with its participants' frequently giving television interviews and writing op-ed pieces in newspapers. It flared up again briefly in 2000 when one of its leading figures, Ernst Nolte, was awarded the Konrad Adenauer Prize for science. == See also == Historiography of Germany Bibliography of Adolf Hitler Nazi foreign policy debate Appeasement Historiography of World War II Causes of World War II International relations (1919–1939) Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941 Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration == References == == Further reading == Bessel, Richard. "Functionalists vs. Intentionalists: The Debate Twenty Years on 'or' Whatever Happened to Functionalism and Intentionalism?" German Studies Review (2003) 26#1 pp 15–20 Dobry, Michel. "Hitler, charisma and structure: Reflections on historical methodology." Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7#2 (2006): pp 157–171. Englund, Steven. "Napoleon and Hitler" Journal of the Historical Society (2006) 6#1 pp 151–169. Evans, Richard J. "From Hitler To Bismarck:‘Third Reich’and Kaiserreich in Recent Historiography." Historical Journal 26#2 (1983): pp 485–497. Fox, John P. "The Final Solution: intended or contingent? The Stuttgart Conference of May 1984 and the historical debate." Patterns of Prejudice 18.3 (1984): pp 27–39. Kershaw, Ian. The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation (4th ed. 2015). excerpt Marrus, Michael. The Holocaust In History (2000). Stackelberg, Roderick, ed. The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany (2007); emphasis on historiography.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler
The historiography of World War II is the study of how historians portray the causes, conduct, and outcomes of World War II. There are different perspectives on the causes of the war; the three most prominent are the Orthodox from the 1950s, Revisionist from the 1970s, and Post-Revisionism which offers the most contemporary perspective. The orthodox perspective arose during the aftermath of the war. The main historian noted for this perspective is Hugh Trevor-Roper. Orthodox historians argue that Hitler was a master planner who intentionally started World War II due to his strong beliefs on fascism, expansionism, and the supremacy of the German state. Revisionist historians argue that it was an ordinary war by world standards and that Hitler was an opportunist of the sort who commonly appears in world history; he merely took advantage of the opportunities given to him. This viewpoint became popular in the 1970s, especially in the revisionism of A. J. P. Taylor. Orthodox historians argue that, throughout the course of the war, the Axis powers were an evil consuming the world with their powerful message and malignant ideology, while the Allied powers were trying to protect democracy and freedom. Post-revisionist historians of the causes, such as Alan Bullock, argue that the cause of the war was a matter of both the evil and the banal. Essentially Hitler was a strategist with clear aims and objectives, that would not have been achievable without taking advantage of the opportunities given to him. Each perspective of World War II offers a different analysis and provides different perspectives on the blame, conduct and causes of the war. On the result of the war, historians in countries occupied by the Nazis developed strikingly similar interpretations celebrating a victory against great odds, with national liberation based on national unity. That unity is repeatedly described as the greatest source of future strength. Historians in common glorified the resistance movement (somewhat to the neglect of the invaders who actually overthrew the Nazis). There is great stress on heroes — including celebrities such as Charles de Gaulle, Winston Churchill and Josip Broz Tito — but also countless brave partisans and members of the resistance. Women rarely played a role in the celebrity or the histories, although since the 1990s, social historians have been piecing together the role of women on the home fronts. In recent years much scholarly attention has focused on how popular memories were constructed through selection, and how commemorations are held. == Causes and motives == === Self esteem and glory === R.J. Bosworth argues the major powers have experienced intellectual conflict in interpreting their wartime stories. Some have ignored the central issues. Germany and, to a much lesser extent, Japan have experienced a collective self-analysis. But these two, as well as Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy, have largely ignored many roles and have looked instead for glory even when it was lacking. In a lot of cases the countries deny any involvement in war crimes or objectionable historical occurrences. === Blame === Blame as the driving force during World War II, is a widely known orthodox perspective. Especially directly after World War II, Nazi Germany was held to blame for starting the war. Orthodox historians cited several reasons for this. Germany was the one who initially invaded Poland against the recommendation of the allies, and also attacked the Soviet Union. Also, the system of alliances between the Axis Powers was one that was only meant for war. The Tripartite Pact stated that if any country declared war on one of the Axis countries, the other two would also declare war on those countries. Another reason, historians saw, is that the policies of Hitler were overly aggressive; not only did Hitler preach war with France and the Soviet Union, but he followed a careful plan of expansion. The events that took place before the war such as the Remilitarization of the Rhineland, Anschluss, and the German involvement during the Spanish Civil War, showed that Hitler was anticipating the possibility of war and preparing for one. === Taylor The Origins of the Second World War (1961) === In 1961, English historian A. J. P. Taylor published his most controversial book, The Origins of the Second World War, which earned him a reputation as a revisionist—that is, a historian who sharply changes which party was "guilty." The book had a quick, profound impact, upsetting many readers. Taylor argued against the standard thesis that the outbreak of the Second World War – by which Taylor specifically meant the war that broke out in September 1939 – was the result of an intentional plan on the part of guilty Adolf Hitler. He began his book with the statement that too many people have accepted uncritically what he called the "Nuremberg Thesis", that the Second World War was the result of criminal conspiracy by a small gang comprising Hitler and his associates. He regarded the "Nuremberg Thesis" as too convenient for too many people and claimed that it shielded the blame for the war from the leaders of other states, let the German people avoid any responsibility for the war and created a situation where West Germany was a respectable Cold War ally against the Soviets. Taylor's thesis was that Hitler was not the demoniacal figure of popular imagination but in foreign affairs a normal German leader. Citing Fritz Fischer, he argued that the foreign policy of Nazi Germany was the same as those of the Weimar Republic and the German Empire. Moreover, in a partial break with his view of German history advocated in The Course of German History, he argued that Hitler was not just a normal German leader but also a normal Western leader. As a normal Western leader, Hitler was no better or worse than Stresemann, Chamberlain or Daladier. His argument was that Hitler wished to make Germany the strongest power in Europe but he did not want or plan war. The outbreak of war in 1939 was an unfortunate accident caused by mistakes on everyone's part. Notably, Taylor portrayed Hitler as a grasping opportunist with no beliefs other than the pursuit of power and anti-Semitism. He argued that Hitler did not possess any sort of programme and his foreign policy was one of drift and seizing chances as they offered themselves. He did not even consider Hitler's anti-Semitism unique: he argued that millions of Germans were just as ferociously anti-Semitic as Hitler and there was no reason to single out Hitler for sharing the beliefs of millions of others. Taylor argued that the basic problem with an interwar Europe was a flawed Treaty of Versailles that was sufficiently onerous to ensure that the overwhelming majority of Germans would always hate it, but insufficiently onerous in that it failed to destroy Germany's potential to be a Great Power once more. In this way, Taylor argued that the Versailles Treaty was destabilising, for sooner or later the innate power of Germany that the Allies had declined to destroy in 1918–1919 would inevitably reassert itself against the Versailles Treaty and the international system established by Versailles that the Germans regarded as unjust and thus had no interest in preserving. Though Taylor argued that the Second World War was not inevitable and that the Versailles Treaty was nowhere near as harsh as contemporaries like John Maynard Keynes believed, what he regarded as a flawed peace settlement made the war more likely than not. == By geography == The Nazis perfected the art of stealing, draining the local economies to the maximum or beyond, so that overall production fell. In all occupied countries resistance movements sprang up. The Germans tried to infiltrate and suppress them, but after the war they emerged as political actors. The local Communists were especially active in promoting resistance movements, as was the British Special Operations Executive (SOE). === Canada === Canada incorporated professional historians to Canadian Military Headquarters in the United Kingdom during the war and paid much attention to the chronicling of the conflict in the words of the official historians of the Army Historical Section and through art and trained painters. The official history of the Canadian Army was undertaken after the war, with an interim draft published in 1948 and three volumes in the 1950s. This was in comparison to the First World War's official history, only one volume of which was completed by 1939 and the full text only released after a change in authors some 40 years after the fact. Official histories of the RCAF and RCN in the Second World War were also a long time coming, and the book Arms, Men and Government by Charles Stacey (one of the main contributors to the Army history) was published in the 1980s as an "official" history of the war policies of the Canadian government. The performance of Canadian forces in some battles has remained controversial, such as Hong Kong and Dieppe, and a variety of books have been written on them from various points of view. Serious historians, mainly scholars, emerged in the years after the Second World War, foremost Terry Copp (a scholar) and Denis Whitaker (a former soldier). === Eastern Front === It is commonly said that history is written by the victors, but the opposite occurred in the chronicling of the Eastern Front, particularly in the West. Soviet secrecy and unwillingness to acknowledge events that might discredit the regime led to them revealing little information, always heavily edited, leaving western historians mostly to rely on German sources. While valuable sources, they tended to be self-serving; German generals, in particular, tried to distance themselves and the Heer from the Nazi Party, while at the same time blaming them for their defeat (individuals supporting these arguments are commonly called part of the 'Hitler Lost Us The War' group). While this self-serving approach was noticed at the time, it was still generally accepted as the closest version of the truth. The result was a commonly held picture of the Heer being the superior army, ground down by the vast numbers of the 'Bolshevik horde' and betrayed by the stupidity of Hitler. Not only did this ignore Hitler's talent as a military leader, an erratic talent that was sometimes brilliantly incisive and sometimes grossly in error, it also severely undervalued the remarkable transformation of the Soviet armed forces, especially the Red Army, from the timid, conservative force of 1941 to an effective war-winning organisation. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, Western historians were suddenly exposed to the vast number of Soviet records of the time. This has led to an explosion of the works on the subject, notably by David Glantz, Earl Ziemke and Richard Overy. These historians revealed the brutality of Stalin's regime, the recovery of the USSR and the Red Army in 1942 and the courage and abilities of the average Soviet soldier, relying on Soviet archival material to do so. Phillips Payson O'Brien argues that it is a fallacy that the war was won on the Eastern Front. He argues instead that it was won by the air-sea battle, which immobilized the German and Japanese forces. They lost mobility, were unable to move munitions from the factory to the battlefield and ran out of fuel for their aircraft and ships. They became highly vulnerable and were helpless. Especially here the provided data gets interpreted differently. When it comes to casualties, there are massive differences, which are often influenced by the political or societical structure of a country. This cannot be really proven though, because the provided data from that time is already manipulated and may not be true or fabricated. Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory (2006) by Welsh historian Norman Davies sought to correct common misconceptions about the war, such as that contrary to popular belief in the West, the dominant part of the conflict took place in Eastern Europe between the two totalitarian systems of the century, communism and Nazism; that Stalin's USSR was as bad as Hitler's Germany. The subtitle No Simple Victory does therefore not just refer to the losses and suffering the Allies had to endure to defeat the Axis but also the difficult moral choice the Western democracies had to make when allying themselves with one criminal regime in order to defeat another. === France === ==== Battle of France, 1940 ==== The German victory over French and British forces in the Battle of France (10 May – 22 June 1940) was one of the most unexpected and astonishing events of the 20th century and has generated a large popular and scholarly literature. Observers in 1940 found the events unexpected and earth-shaking. Historian Martin Alexander notes that Belgium and the Netherlands fell to the German army in a matter of days and the British were soon driven back to their home islands: But it was France's downfall that stunned the watching world. The shock was all the greater because the trauma was not limited to a catastrophic and deeply embarrassing defeat of her military forces - it also involved the unleashing of a conservative political revolution that, on 10 July 1940, interred the Third Republic and replaced it with the authoritarian, collaborationist Etat Français of Vichy. All this was so deeply disorienting because France had been regarded as a great power....The collapse of France, however, was a different case (a 'strange defeat' as it was dubbed in the haunting phrase of the Sorbonne's great medieval historian and Resistance martyr, Marc Bloch). One of the most influential books on the war was written in summer 1940 by French historian Marc Bloch: L'Étrange Défaite ("Strange Defeat"). He raised most of the issues historians have debated since. He blamed France's leadership: What drove our armies to disaster was the cumulative effect of a great number of different mistakes. One glaring characteristic is, however, common to all of them. Our leaders...were incapable of thinking in terms of a new war. Guilt was widespread. Carole Fink argues that Bloch: blamed the ruling class, the military and the politicians, the press and the teachers, for a flawed national policy and a weak defense against the Nazi menace, for betraying the real France and abandoning its children. Germany had won because its leaders had better understood the methods and psychology of modern combat. ==== Resistance ==== The heroism of the French Resistance has always been a favoured topic in France and Britain, with new books in English appearing regularly. ==== Vichy France ==== After 1945 the French ignored or downplayed the role of Marshal Petain's puppet government in Vichy France. Since the late 20th century it has become a major research topic. ==== Collaboration ==== Collaboration with the Germans was long denied by the French, but since the late 20th century has generated a large literature. ==== Civilian conditions ==== The roles of civilians, forced labourers and POW's has a large literature. There are numerous studies of women. ==== Alsace-Lorraine ==== Germany integrated Alsace-Lorraine into its German Empire in 1871, France recovered it in 1918, it was again in occupation 1940–45. There was widespread material damage. The first wave of destruction in 1940 was inflicted by German forces, the second was caused by Allied bombers in 1944, and the final wave surrounded bitter fighting between German occupiers and American liberators in 1944–1945. === Denmark === Beginning with the German occupation of Denmark in 1940 and lasting until 1943, the Danish government had a "Policy of Cooperation" (da) with Nazi Germany. This meant the Danish government tried to do a balancing act of officially cooperating with the Nazis, while at the same time also working against them and aiding the Danish resistance. Due to this cooperation, Adolf Hitler labelled Denmark as the "model protectorate". When the Policy of Cooperation collapsed in 1943, the resistance helped about 7,000 Jews (and about 500 non-Jewish spouses of Jews) escape across Øresund to neutral Sweden. This operation is known as the rescue of the Danish Jews, and was a great source of frustration for the Nazis. Denmark has a large popular literature on the war years, which has helped shape national identity and politics. Scholars have also been active but have much less influence on this topic. After the liberation two conflicting narratives emerged. A consensus narrative told how Danes were united in resistance. However, there was also a revisionist interpretation which paid attention to the resistance of most Danes, but presented Danish establishment as a collaborating enemy of Danish values. The revisionist version from the 1960s was successfully adopted by the political Left for two specific goals: to blemish the establishment now allied with the "imperialist" United States, and to argue against Danish membership in the European Community. From the 1980s, the Right started to use revisionism to attack asylum legislation. Finally around 2003, Liberal Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen started using it as his basic narrative of the war years (partly to legitimize his government's decision to join the war against Iraq in 2003). The occupation has thus played a central role in Danish political culture since 1945, although the role of professional scholars has been marginal. === Netherlands === Dutch historiography of World War II focused on the government in exile, German repression, Dutch resistance, the Hunger Winter of 1944-45 and, above all, the Holocaust. The economy was largely neglected; it was robust in 1940-41 then deteriorated rapidly as exploitation produced low productivity, impoverishment and hunger. === Norway === The memory of the war seared Norwegians and shaped national policies. Economic issues remain an important topic. === Poland === On August 1, 1944, the clandestine Polish Home Army, owing allegiance to the exiled government in London, initiated an uprising in Warsaw against the occupying Germans. There is a large literature in several languages. The Warsaw Rising Museum (WRM), opened in Warsaw in 2004 to commemorate it. Polish Jews made up about half of Holocaust victims. There is a large literature on the Holocaust in Poland and its memory and memorials, and also the Jewish uprising in the Warsaw ghetto in 1943. === Soviet Union === Popular behaviour has been explored in Byelorussia under the Germans, using oral history, letters of complaint, memoirs, and reports made by the Soviet secret police and by the Communist Party. == By theme == === Common themes: heroic liberation from Nazis === Almost all national narratives of the Second World War—ranging from historiography in liberal democracies to that of Communist dictatorship, fit the same European pattern. The French-German historian Etienne Francois has identified the common themes, as paraphrased by Johan Östling: Fundamental to them all...was the victory over Nazi Germany. In descriptions of the end of the war and the liberation, national unity was often stressed. This newly won liberty opened a door to the future and marked the beginning of a new, bright chapter in history. A common characteristic in most national narratives was the glorification of the resistance movement, while in countries that had been liberated by foreign troops, domestic efforts tended to be highly praised. In addition, the 'heroisation' of the war was another common denominator in the narratives – not only were charismatic victors such as Charles de Gaulle, Winston Churchill and Josip Broz Tito designated as heroes, but also brave partisans and members of the resistance. === Historikerstreit === === Holocaust denial === A field of pseudohistory has emerged which attempts to deny the existence of the Holocaust and the mass extermination of Jews in German-occupied Europe. The proponents of the belief, known as Holocaust deniers or "negationists", are usually associated with Neo-Nazism and their views are rejected by professional historians. === War crimes of the Wehrmacht === At the Nuremberg Trials, the Schutzstaffel (SS) was declared a criminal organization, but the regular armed forces (Wehrmacht) were not. Although some high-ranking field marshals and generals were convicted of war crimes for issuing criminal orders, Nazi war crimes were mostly blamed on the SS-Totenkopfverbände (concentration camp guards) and the Einsatzgruppen (death squads), overlooking the participation of Wehrmacht soldiers in the Holocaust. More recent scholarship has challenged this view. An exhibition on the war crimes of the Wehrmacht sparked demonstrations. === Women === == References == === Works cited === Cohen, Roger (June 21, 2000). "Hitler Apologist Wins German Honor, and a Storm Breaks Out". New York Times. == Further reading ==	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_World_War_II
The salons of Early Modern and Revolutionary France played an integral role in the cultural and intellectual development of France. The salons were seen by contemporary writers as a cultural hub, responsible for the dissemination of good manners and sociability. It was not merely manners that the salons supposedly spread but also ideas, as the salons became a centre of intellectual as well as social exchange, playing host to many members of the Republic of Letters. Women, in contrast to other Early Modern institutions, played an important and visible role within the salons. The extent of this role is, however, heavily contested by some historians. The role that the salons played in the process of Enlightenment, and particularly the fact that women played such an integral part in them, means that there is an abundance of historical debate surrounding them. The relationship with the state and the public sphere, the role of women, as well as their form and periodisation are all important factors in the historiography of the salon. == Historiography of the Salons == The historiography of the salons is far from straightforward. The salons have been studied in depth by a mixture of feminist, Marxist, cultural, social and intellectual historians. Each of these methodologies focus on different aspects of the salons, and thus have varying analyses of the salons’ importance in terms of French history and the Enlightenment as a whole. Major historiographical debates focus around the relationship between the salons and the public sphere, as well as the role of women within the salons. === Periodisation of the salon === Breaking down the salons into a historical periods is complicated due to the various historiographical debates that surround them. Most studies stretch from the mid-seventeenth century to the end of eighteenth century. Goodman is typical in ending her study at The French Revolution, where, she writes: 'the literary public sphere was transformed into the political public'. Steven Kale is relatively alone in his recent attempts to extend the period of the salon up until Revolution of 1848. Kale points out: A whole world of social arrangements and attitude supported the existence of french salons: an idle aristocracy, an ambitious middle class, an active intellectual life, the social density of a major urban center, sociable traditions, and a certain aristocratic feminism. This world did not disappear in 1789. === Conversation, content and the form of the salon === The content and form of the salon to some extent defines the character and historical importance of the salon. Contemporary literature about the salons is dominated by idealistic notions of politesse (politeness), civilité (civility) and honnêteté (honesty or proper behavior), but whether the salons lived up to these standards is matter of debate. Older texts on the salons tend to paint an idealistic picture of the salons, where reasoned debate takes precedence and salons are egalitarian spheres of polite conversation. Today, however, this view is rarely considered an adequate analysis of the salon. Dena Goodman claims that rather than being leisure based or 'schools of civilité' salons were instead at 'the very heart of the philosophic community' and thus integral to the process of Enlightenment. In short, Goodman argues, the seventeenth and eighteenth century saw the emergence of the academic, Enlightenment salons, which came out of the aristocratic 'schools of civilité'. Politeness, argues Goodman, took second-place to academic discussion. The period in which salons were dominant has been labeled the 'age of conversation'. The topics of conversation within the salons - that is, what was and was not 'polite' to talk about - are thus vital when trying to determine the form of the salons. The salonnières were expected, ideally, to run and moderate the conversation (See Women in the salon). There is, however, no universal agreement among historians as to what was and was not appropriate conversation. Marcel Proust 'insisted that politics was scrupulously avoided'. Others suggested that little other than government was ever discussed. The disagreements that surround the content of discussion partly explain why the salon's relationship with the public sphere is so heavily contested. Oppositional politics were frowned upon within the salon, thus whether the salons can be classed as within the public sphere is debatable. === The salon and the 'public sphere' === Recent historiography of the salons has been dominated by Jürgen Habermas' work, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (triggered largely by its translation into French, in 1978, and then English, in 1989), which argued that the salons were of great historical importance. Theatres of conversation and exchange – such as the salons, and the coffeehouses in England – played a critical role in the emergence of what Habermas termed the ‘public sphere’, which emerged in ‘cultural-political contrast’ to court society. Thus, while women retained a dominant role in the historiography of the salons, the salons received increasing amounts of study, much of it in direct response to, or heavily influenced by Habermas’ theory. The dominance of Habermas’ work in salon historiography has come under criticism from some quarters, with Pekacz singling out Dena Goodman's Republic of Letters for particular criticism because it was written with ‘the explicit intention of supporting [Habermas’] thesis’, rather than verifying it. The theory itself, meanwhile, has been criticised for a fatal misunderstanding of the nature of salons. The main criticism of Habermas’ interpretation of the salons, however, is that the salons were not part of an oppositional public sphere, and were instead an extension of court society. This criticism stems largely from Norbert Elias’ The History of Manners, in which Elias contends that the dominant concepts of the salons – politesse, civilité and honnêteté – were ‘used almost as synonyms, by which the courtly people wished to designate, in a broad or narrow sense, the quality of their own behaviour’. Joan Landes agrees, stating that, ‘to some extent, the salon was merely an extension of the institutionalised court’ and that rather than being part of the public sphere, salons were in fact in conflict with it. Erica Harth concurs, pointing to the fact that the state ‘appropriated the informal academy and not the salon’ due to the academies’ ‘tradition of dissent’ – something that lacked in the salon. But Landes’ view of the salons as a whole is independent of both Elias’ and Habermas’ school of thought, insofar that she views the salons as a ‘unique institution’, that cannot be adequately described as part of the public sphere, or court society. Others, such as Steven Kale, compromise by declaring that the public and private spheres overlapped in the salons. Antoine Lilti goes further, describing the salons as simply ‘institutions within Parisian high society,’ with little or no link to the realm of the public sphere or public opinion. Because salons appear to be largely aristocratic institutions of "politesse", Lilti argues the only possible impact on the public sphere was in the form of patronage networks for philosophes. The most prominent defence of salons as part of the public sphere comes from Dena Goodman's The Republic of Letters, which claims that the ‘public sphere was structured by the salon, the press and other institutions of sociability’. Goodman's work is also credited with further emphasising the importance of the salon in terms of French history, the Republic of Letters and the Enlightenment as a whole, and has dominated the historiography of the salons since its publication in 1994. === Debates surrounding women and the salon === When dealing with the salons, historians have traditionally focused upon the role of women within them. Works in the nineteenth and much of the twentieth century often focused on the scandals and ‘petty intrigues’ of the salons. Other works from this period focused on the more positive aspects of women in the salon. Indeed, according to Jolanta T. Pekacz, the fact women dominated history of the salons meant that study of the salons was often left to amateurs, while men concentrated on 'more important' (and masculine) areas of the Enlightenment. Historians tended to focus on individual salonnières, creating almost a 'great-woman' version of history that ran parallel to the Whiggish, male dominated history identified by Herbert Butterfield. Even in 1970, works were still being produced that concentrated only on individual stories, without analysing the effects of the salonnières' unique position. The integral role that women played within salons, as salonnières, began to receive greater - and more serious - study in latter parts of the twentieth century, with the emergence of a distinctly feminist historiography. The salons, according to Caroyln Lougee, were distinguished by 'the very visible identification of women with salons', and the fact that they played a positive public role in French society. General texts on the Enlightenment, such as Daniel Roche's France in the Enlightenment tend to agree that women were dominant within the salons, but that their influence did not extend far outside of such venues. Antoine Lilti, on the other hand, rejects the notion that women 'governed' conversation in the salons. It was, however, Goodman's The Republic of Letters that ignited a real debate surrounding the role of women within the salons and – so Goodman contends – the Enlightenment as a whole. According to Goodman: ‘The salonnières were not social climbers but intelligent, self-educated, and educating women who adopted and implemented the values of the Enlightenment Republic of Letters and used them to reshape the salon to their own social intellectual, and educational needs’. While few historians doubt that women played an important, significant role in the salons, Goodman is often criticised for her narrow use of sources. Very recent historiography has tended to moderate Goodman's thesis, arguing that while women did play a significant role in the salons they facilitated - rather than created, as Goodman argues - the ideas and debates generally associated with the Enlightenment. This was particular true in Vienna, where the cultural salon started later than it did in Paris and Berlin. == See also == Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin == References == == Bibliography == Craveri, Benedetta, The Age of Conversation (New York: New York Review Books, 2005) Elias, Norbert, (Trans. Edmund Jephcott), The Civilising Process: The History of Manners, Vol. 1 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978) Goodman, Dena, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994) Goodman, Dena, 'Enlightenment Salons: The Convergence of Female and Philosophic Ambitions' Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 22, No. 3, Special Issue: The French Revolution in Culture (Spring, 1989), pp. 329–350 Kale, Steven, French Salons: High Society and Political Sociability from the Old Regime to the Revolution of 1848 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006) Habermas, Jürgen, (trans. Thomas Burger), The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Camb., Mass.: MIT Press, 1989) Harth, Erica, Cartesian Women: Versions and Subversions of Rational Discourse in the Old Regime (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992). Huddleston, Sisley, Bohemian, Literary and Social Life in Paris: Salons, Cafes, Studios (London: George G. Harrap, 1928) Kavanagh, Julia, Women in France during the Enlightenment Century, 2 Vols (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1893) Landes, Joan B., Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988); Latour, Anny (Trans. A. A. Dent), Uncrowned Queens: Reines Sans Couronne (London: J. M. Dent, 1970) Lougee, Carolyn C., Le Paradis des Femmes: Women, Salons and Social Stratification in Seventeenth Century France (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976) Lilti, Antoine, ‘Sociabilité et mondanité: Les hommes de lettres dans les salons parisiens au XVIIIe siècle’ French Historical Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Summer 2005), p. 415-445 Pekacz, Jolanta T., Conservative Tradition In Pre-Revolutionary France: Parisian Salon Women (New York: Peter Lang, 1999) Roche, Daniel, (Trans Arthur Goldhammr), France in the Enlightenment, (Cambridge, Mass.: HUP, 1998) Tallentyre, S. G., Women of the Salons (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1926) Webberley, Helen "Jewish cultural patronage in 1900 Vienna", Limmud Oz Conference, Melbourne, June 2011.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_salon
Modernization theory or modernisation theory holds that as societies become more economically modernized, wealthier and more educated, their political institutions become increasingly liberal democratic and rationalist. The "classical" theories of modernization of the 1950s and 1960s, most influentially articulated by Seymour Lipset, drew on sociological analyses of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Talcott Parsons. Modernization theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s, and saw a resurgence after 1991, when Francis Fukuyama wrote about the end of the Cold War as confirmation of modernization theory. The theory is the subject of much debate among scholars. Critics have highlighted cases where industrialization did not prompt stable democratization, such as Japan, Germany, and the Soviet Union, as well as cases of democratic backsliding in economically advanced parts of Latin America. Other critics argue the causal relationship is reverse (democracy is more likely to lead to economic modernization) or that economic modernization helps democracies survive but does not prompt democratization. Other scholars provide supporting evidence, showing that economic development significantly predicts democratization. == History == The modernization theory of the 1950s and 1960s drew on classical evolutionary theory and a Parsonian reading of Weber's ideas about a transition from traditional to modern society. Parsons had translated Weber's works into English in the 1930s and provided his own interpretation. After 1945, the Parsonian version became widely used in sociology and other social sciences. Some of the thinkers associated with modernization theory are Marion J. Levy Jr., Gabriel Almond, Seymour Martin Lipset, Walt Rostow, Daniel Lerner, Lucian Pye, David Apter, Alex Inkeles, Cyril Edwin Black, Bert F. Hoselitz, Myron Weiner, and Karl Deutsch. By the late 1960s opposition to modernization theory developed because the theory was too general and did not fit all societies in quite the same way. Yet, with the end of the Cold War, a few attempts to revive modernization theory were carried out. Francis Fukuyama argued for the use of modernization theory as universal history. A more academic effort to revise modernization theory was that of Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel in Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy (2005). Inglehart and Welzel amended the 1960s version of modernization theory in significant ways. Counter to Lipset, who associated industrial growth with democratization, Inglehart and Welzel did not see an association between industrialization and democratization. Rather, they held that only at a latter stage in the process of economic modernization, which various authors have characterized as post-industrial, did values conducive to democratization – which Inglehart and Welzel call "self-expression values" – emerge. Nonetheless, these efforts to revive modernization theory were criticized by many, and the theory remained a controversial one. == Modernization and democracy == The relationship between modernization and democracy or democratization is one of the most researched studies in comparative politics. Many studies show that modernization has contributed to democracy in some countries. For example, Seymour Martin Lipset argued that modernization can turn into democracy. There is academic debate over the drivers of democracy because there are theories that support economic growth as both a cause and effect of the institution of democracy. "Lipset's observation that democracy is related to economic development, first advanced in 1959, has generated the largest body of research on any topic in comparative politics," Anderson explains the idea of an elongated diamond in order to describe the concentration of power in the hands of a few at the top during an authoritarian leadership. He develops this by giving an understanding of the shift in power from the elite class to the middle class that occurs when modernization is incorporated. Socioeconomic modernization allows for a democracy to further develop and influences the success of a democracy. Concluded from this, is the idea that as socioeconomic levels are leveled, democracy levels would further increase. Larry Diamond and Juan Linz, who worked with Lipset in the book, Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America, argue that economic performance affects the development of democracy in at least three ways. First, they argue that economic growth is more important for democracy than given levels of socioeconomic development. Second, socioeconomic development generates social changes that can potentially facilitate democratization. Third, socioeconomic development promotes other changes, like organization of the middle class, which is conducive to democracy. As Seymour Martin Lipset put it, "All the various aspects of economic development—industrialization, urbanization, wealth and education—are so closely interrelated as to form one major factor which has the political correlate of democracy". The argument also appears in Walt W. Rostow, Politics and the Stages of Growth (1971); A. F. K. Organski, The Stages of Political Development (1965); and David Apter, The Politics of Modernization (1965). In the 1960s, some critics argued that the link between modernization and democracy was based too much on the example of European history and neglected the Third World. One historical problem with that argument has always been Germany, whose economic modernization in the 19th century came long before the democratization after 1918. Political science professor Berman, however, concludes that a process of democratization was underway in Imperial Germany, for "during these years Germans developed many of the habits and mores that are now thought by political scientists to augur healthy political development". One contemporary problem for modernization theory is the argument of whether modernization implies more human rights for citizens or not. China, one of the most rapidly growing economies in the world, can be observed as an example. The modernization theory implies that this should correlate to democratic growth in some regards, especially in relation to the liberalization of the middle and lower classes. However, active human rights abuses and constant oppression of Chinese citizens by the government seem to contradict the theory strongly. Interestingly enough, the irony is that increasing restrictions on Chinese citizens are a result of modernization theory. In the 1990s, the Chinese government wanted to reform the legal system and emphasized governing the country by law. This led to a legal awakening for citizens as they were becoming more educated on the law, yet more understanding of their inequality in relation to the government. Looking down the line in the 2000s, Chinese citizens saw even more opportunities to liberalize and were able to be a part of urbanization and could access higher levels of education. This in turn resulted in the attitudes of the lower and middle classes changing to more liberal ideas, which went against the CCP. Over time, this has led to their active participation in civil society activities and similar adjacent political groups in order to make their voices heard. Consequently, the Chinese government represses Chinese citizens at a more aggressive rate, all due to modernization theory. Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel contend that the realization of democracy is not based solely on an expressed desire for that form of government, but democracies are born as a result of the admixture of certain social and cultural factors. They argue the ideal social and cultural conditions for the foundation of a democracy are born of significant modernization and economic development that result in mass political participation. Randall Peerenboom explores the relationships among democracy, the rule of law and their relationship to wealth by pointing to examples of Asian countries, such as Taiwan and South Korea, which have successfully democratized only after economic growth reached relatively high levels and to examples of countries such as the Philippines, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia and India, which sought to democratize at lower levels of wealth but have not done as well. Adam Przeworski and others have challenged Lipset's argument. They say political regimes do not transition to democracy as per capita incomes rise. Rather, democratic transitions occur randomly, but once there, countries with higher levels of gross domestic product per capita remain democratic. Epstein et al. (2006) retest the modernization hypothesis using new data, new techniques, and a three-way, rather than dichotomous, classification of regimes. Contrary to Przeworski, this study finds that the modernization hypothesis stands up well. Partial democracies emerge as among the most important and least understood regime types. Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2008) further weaken the case for Lipset's argument by showing that even though there is a strong cross-country correlation between income and democracy, once one controls for country fixed effects and removes the association between income per capita and various measures of democracy, there is "no causal effect of income on democracy." In "Non-Modernization" (2022), they further argue that modernization theory cannot account for various paths of political development "because it posits a link between economics and politics that is not conditional on institutions and culture and that presumes a definite endpoint—for example, an 'end of history'." Sirianne Dahlum and Carl Henrik Knutsen offer a test of the Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel revised version of modernization theory, which focuses on cultural traits triggered by economic development that are presumed to be conducive to democratization. They find "no empirical support" for the Inglehart and Welzel thesis and conclude that "self-expression values do not enhance democracy levels or democratization chances, and neither do they stabilize existing democracies." A meta-analysis by Gerardo L. Munck of research on Lipset's argument shows that a majority of studies do not support the thesis that higher levels of economic development leads to more democracy. == Modernization and economic development == Modernization theorists often saw traditions as obstacles to economic development. According to Seymour Martin Lipset, economic conditions are heavily determined by the cultural, social values present in that given society. Furthermore, while modernization might deliver violent, radical change for traditional societies, it was thought worth the price. Critics insist that traditional societies were often destroyed without ever gaining the promised advantages. Others point to improvements in living standards, physical infrastructure, education and economic opportunity to refute such criticisms. Modernization theorists such as Samuel P. Huntington held in the 1960s and 1970s that authoritarian regimes yielded greater economic growth than democracies. However, this view had been challenged. In Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990 (2000), Adam Przeworski argued that "democracies perform as well economically as do authoritarian regimes." A study by Daron Acemoglu, Suresh Naidu, Pascual Restrepo, and James A. Robinson shows that "democracy has a positive effect on GDP per capita." == Modernization and globalization == Globalization can be defined as the integration of economic, political and social cultures. It is argued that globalization is related to the spreading of modernization across borders. Global trade has grown continuously since the European discovery of new continents in the early modern period; it increased particularly as a result of the Industrial Revolution and the mid-20th century adoption of the intermodal container. Annual trans-border tourist arrivals rose to 456 million by 1990 and almost tripled since, reaching a total of over 1.2 billion in 2016. Communication is another major area that has grown due to modernization. Communication industries have enabled capitalism to spread throughout the world. Telephony, television broadcasts, news services and online service providers have played a crucial part in globalization. Former U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson was a supporter of the modernization theory and believed that television had potential to provide educational tools in development. With the many apparent positive attributes to globalization there are also negative consequences. The dominant, neoliberal model of globalization often increases disparities between a society's rich and its poor. In major cities of developing countries there exist pockets where technologies of the modernised world, computers, cell phones and satellite television, exist alongside stark poverty. Globalists are globalization modernization theorists and argue that globalization is positive for everyone, as its benefits must eventually extend to all members of society, including vulnerable groups such as women and children. == Applications == === United States foreign aid in the 1960s === President John F. Kennedy (1961–1963) relied on economists W.W. Rostow on his staff and outsider John Kenneth Galbraith for ideas on how to promote rapid economic development in the "Third World", as it was called at the time. They promoted modernization models in order to reorient American aid to Asia, Africa and Latin America. In the Rostow version in his The Stages of Economic Growth (1960) progress must pass through five stages, and for underdeveloped world the critical stages were the second one, the transition, the third stage, the takeoff into self-sustaining growth. Rostow argued that American intervention could propel a country from the second to the third stage he expected that once it reached maturity, it would have a large energized middle class that would establish democracy and civil liberties and institutionalize human rights. The result was a comprehensive theory that could be used to challenge Marxist ideologies, and thereby repel communist advances. The model provided the foundation for the Alliance for Progress in Latin America, the Peace Corps, Food for Peace, and the Agency for International Development (AID). Kennedy proclaimed the 1960s the "Development Decade" and substantially increased the budget for foreign assistance. Modernization theory supplied the design, rationale, and justification for these programs. The goals proved much too ambitious, and the economists in a few years abandoned the European-based modernization model as inappropriate to the cultures they were trying to impact. Kennedy and his top advisers were working from implicit ideological assumptions regarding modernization. They firmly believed modernity was not only good for the target populations, but was essential to avoid communism on the one hand or extreme control of traditional rural society by the very rich landowners on the other. They believed America had a duty, as the most modern country in the world, to promulgate this ideal to the poor nations of the Third World. They wanted programs that were altruistic, and benevolent—and also tough, energetic, and determined. It was benevolence with a foreign policy purpose. Michael Latham has identified how this ideology worked out in three major programs: the Alliance for Progress, the Peace Corps, and the strategic hamlet program in South Vietnam. However, Latham argues that the ideology was a non-coercive version of the modernization goals of the imperialistic of Britain, France and other European countries in the 19th century. == Criticisms and alternatives == From the 1970s, modernization theory has been criticized by numerous scholars, including Andre Gunder Frank (1929–2005) and Immanuel Wallerstein (1930–2019). In this model, the modernization of a society required the destruction of the indigenous culture and its replacement by a more Westernized one. By one definition, modern simply refers to the present, and any society still in existence is therefore modern. Proponents of modernization typically view only Western society as being truly modern and argue that others are primitive or unevolved by comparison. That view sees unmodernized societies as inferior even if they have the same standard of living as western societies. Opponents argue that modernity is independent of culture and can be adapted to any society. Japan is cited as an example by both sides. Some see it as proof that a thoroughly modern way of life can exist in a non western society. Others argue that Japan has become distinctly more Western as a result of its modernization. As Tipps has argued, by conflating modernization with other processes, with which theorists use interchangeably (democratization, liberalization, development), the term becomes imprecise and therefore difficult to disprove. The theory has also been criticised empirically, as modernization theorists ignore external sources of change in societies. The binary between traditional and modern is unhelpful, as the two are linked and often interdependent, and "modernization" does not come as a whole. Modernization theory has also been accused of being Eurocentric, as modernization began in Europe, with the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Revolutions of 1848 and has long been regarded as reaching its most advanced stage in Europe. Anthropologists typically make their criticism one step further and say that the view is ethnocentric and is specific to Western culture. === Dependency theory === One alternative model is dependency theory. It emerged in the 1950s and argues that the underdevelopment of poor nations in the Third World derived from systematic imperial and neo-colonial exploitation of raw materials. Its proponents argue that resources typically flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theorists such as Andre Gunder Frank that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system". Dependency models arose from a growing association of southern hemisphere nationalists (from Latin America and Africa) and Marxists. It was their reaction against modernization theory, which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy. === Barrington Moore and comparative historical analysis === Another line of critique of modernization theory was due to sociologist Barrington Moore Jr., in his Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (1966). In this classic book, Moore argues there were at least "three routes to the modern world" - the liberal democratic, the fascist, and the communist - each deriving from the timing of industrialization and the social structure at the time of transition. Counter to modernization theory, Moore held that there was not one path to the modern world and that economic development did not always bring about democracy. === Guillermo O'Donnell and bureaucratic authoritarianism === Political scientist Guillermo O'Donnell, in his Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism (1973) challenged the thesis, advanced most notably by Seymour Martin Lipset, that industrialization produced democracy. In South America, O'Donnell argued, industrialization generated not democracy, but bureaucratic authoritarianism. === Acemoglu and Robinson and institutional economics === Economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2022), argue that modernization theory cannot account for various paths of political development "because it posits a link between economics and politics that is not conditional on institutions and culture and that presumes a definite endpoint—for example, an 'end of history'." == See also == == References == == Further reading == Bernstein, Henry (1971). "Modernization theory and the sociological study of development". Journal of Development Studies. 7 (2): 141–60. doi:10.1080/00220387108421356. Black, Cyril (1966). The Dynamics of Modernization: A Study in Comparative History. Harper & Row. Black, Cyril (1975). The Modernization of Japan and Russia. Brown, Richard D. (1976). Modernization: The Transformation of American Life, 1600–1865. Brown, Richard D. (1972). "Modernization and the Modern Personality in Early America, 1600–1865: A Sketch of a Synthesis". Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 2 (3): 201–28. doi:10.2307/202285. JSTOR 202285. Brugger, Bill; Hannan, Kate (1983). Modernization and revolution. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7099-0695-7. Cammack, Paul Anthony, Capitalism and Democracy in the Third World: The Doctrine for Political Development. London: Leicester University Press, 1997 Dixon, Simon M. (1999). The modernisation of Russia, 1676–1825. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37961-8. Eisenstadt, S. N., ed. (1968). The Protestant Ethic and Modernization: A Comparative View. Basic Books. Garon, Sheldon. "Rethinking Modernization and Modernity in Japanese History: A Focus on State-Society Relations" Journal of Asian Studies 53#2 (1994), pp. 346–366 online Gilman, Nils (2004). Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America. Johns Hopkins University Press. Goorha, Prateek (2010). "Modernization Theory". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.266. Groh, Arnold (2019). Theories of Culture. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-66865-2. Hua, Shiping; Zhong, Yang, eds. (2006). Political Civilization And Modernization in China: The Political Context of China's Transformation. Huntington, Samuel P. (1966). "Political Modernization: America vs. Europe". World Politics 18 (3): 378–414. Inglehart, Ronald & Welzel, Christian (2005). Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521846950.. Janos, Andrew C. Politics and Paradigms: Changing Theories of Change in Social Science. Stanford University Press, 1986 Jaquette, Jane S. (1982). "Women and Modernization Theory". World Politics. 34 (2): 267–73. doi:10.2307/2010265. JSTOR 2010265. S2CID 154657383. Jensen, Richard (2001). Illinois: A History, modernizers, traditionalists and post-moderns make state history Jensen, Richard (1980). "On Modernizing Frederick Jackson Turner: The Historiography of Regionalism". Western Historical Quarterly. 11 (3): 307–22. doi:10.2307/967565. JSTOR 967565. Kerr, Peter; Foster, Emma; Oaten, Alex; Begum, Neema (2018). "Getting back in the DeLorean: modernization vs. anti-modernization in contemporary British politics" (PDF). Policy Studies. 39 (3): 292–309. doi:10.1080/01442872.2018.1478407. ISSN 0144-2872. S2CID 158499629. Khan, Joel S. (2001). Modernity and exclusion. SAGE. ISBN 978-0-7619-6657-9. Knobl, Wolfgang (2003). "Theories That Won't Pass Away: The Never-ending Story". In Delanty, Gerard; Isin, Engin F. (eds.). Handbook of Historical Sociology. pp. 96–107. Leroy, Peter; van Tatenhove, Jan (2000). "Political modernization theory and environmental politics". Environment and Global Modernity. pp. 187–208. doi:10.4135/9781446220139.n9. ISBN 9780761967675. Lipset, Seymour Martin, ed. (1996). The Encyclopedia of Democracy. (4 vol.) Macionis, John J.; Plummer, Ken (2008). Sociology (4th ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-205158-3. McGuigan, Jim (2006). Modernity and postmodern culture. Marshall, T. H.; Lipset, Seymour Martin, eds. (1965). Class, Citizenship, and Social Development. Mazlish, Bruce (1993). Conceptualizing Global History. Westview Press. Misa, Thomas J.; Brey, Philip; Feenberg, Andrew, eds. (2004). Modernity and Technology. MIT. Munck, Gerardo L. "Modernization Theory as a Case of Failed Knowledge Production." The Annals of Comparative Democratization 16, 3 (2018): 37–41. [5] Archived 2019-08-13 at the Wayback Machine Rodgers, Daniel T. (1977). "Tradition, Modernity, and the American Industrial Worker: Reflections and Critique". Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 7 (4): 655–81. doi:10.2307/202886. JSTOR 202886. So, Alvin Y. (1990). Social Change and Development: Modernization, Dependency and World-System Theories. SImmons, Joel W. (2024). "Democracy and Economic Growth: Theoretical Debates and Empirical Contributions". World Politics. Tipps, Dean C. (1973). "Modernization Theory and the Comparative Study of Societies: A Critical Perspective". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 15 (2): 199–226. doi:10.1017/S0010417500007039. JSTOR 178351. S2CID 145736971. Wagner, Peter (1993). A Sociology of Modernity: Liberty and Discipline. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415081863. Wagner, Peter (2001). Theorizing Modernity. Inescapability and Attainability in Social Theory. London: SAGE. ISBN 978-0761951476. Wagner, Peter (2008). Modernity as Experience and Interpretation: A New Sociology of Modernity. Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-4218-5. Wucherpfennig, Julian, and Franziska Deutsch. 2009. "Modernization and Democracy: Theories and Evidence Revisited." Living Reviews in Democracy Vol. 1, p. 1-9. 9p.[6] Young, Nancy Beck. "Modernization and Texas Historiography" in Beyond Texas through time: breaking away from past interpretations ed. by Walter L. Buenger and Arnoldo De Leon. (Texas A&M UP, 2011) pp.221-270. == External links == Modernization theory at Wikibooks The dictionary definition of modernization theory at Wiktionary	Wikipedia/Modernisation_theory
The Dark Ages is a term for the Early Middle Ages (c. 5th–10th centuries), or occasionally the entire Middle Ages (c. 5th–15th centuries), in Western Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which characterises it as marked by economic, intellectual, and cultural decline. The concept of a "Dark Age" as a historiographical periodization originated in the 1330s with the Italian scholar Petrarch, who regarded the post-Roman centuries as "dark" compared to the "light" of classical antiquity. The term employs traditional light-versus-darkness imagery to contrast the era's supposed darkness (ignorance and error) with earlier and later periods of light (knowledge and understanding). The phrase Dark Age(s) itself derives from the Latin saeculum obscurum, originally applied by Caesar Baronius in 1602 when he referred to a tumultuous period in the 10th and 11th centuries. The concept thus came to characterize the entire Middle Ages as a time of intellectual darkness in Europe between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance, and became especially popular during the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment. Others, however, have used the term to denote the relative scarcity of written records regarding at least the early part of the Middle Ages. As the accomplishments of the era came to be better understood in the 19th and the 20th centuries, scholars began restricting the Dark Ages appellation to the Early Middle Ages; today's scholars maintain this posture. The majority of modern scholars avoid the term altogether because of its negative connotations, finding it misleading and inaccurate. Despite this, Petrarch's pejorative meaning remains in use, particularly in popular culture, which often oversimplifies the Middle Ages as a time of violence and backwardness. == History == === Petrarch === The idea of a Dark Age originated with the Tuscan scholar Petrarch in the 1330s. Writing of the past, he said: "Amidst the errors there shone forth men of genius; no less keen were their eyes, although they were surrounded by darkness and dense gloom". Christian writers, including Petrarch himself, had long used traditional metaphors of 'light versus darkness' to describe 'good versus evil'. Petrarch was the first to give the metaphor secular meaning by reversing its application. He now saw classical antiquity, so long considered a 'dark' age for its lack of Christianity, in the 'light' of its cultural achievements, while Petrarch's own time, allegedly lacking such cultural achievements, was seen as the age of darkness. From his perspective on the Italian peninsula, Petrarch saw the Roman period and classical antiquity as an expression of greatness. He spent much of his time traveling through Europe, rediscovering and republishing classic Latin and Greek texts. He wanted to restore the Latin language to its former purity. Renaissance humanists saw the preceding 900 years as a time of stagnation, with history unfolding not along the religious outline of Saint Augustine's Six Ages of the World, but in cultural (or secular) terms through progressive development of classical ideals, literature, and art. Petrarch wrote that history had two periods: the classic period of Greeks and Romans, followed by a time of darkness in which he saw himself living. In around 1343, in the conclusion of his epic Africa, he wrote: "My fate is to live among varied and confusing storms. But for you perhaps, if as I hope and wish you will live long after me, there will follow a better age. This sleep of forgetfulness will not last forever. When the darkness has been dispersed, our descendants can come again in the former pure radiance." In the 15th century, historians Leonardo Bruni and Flavio Biondo developed a three-tier outline of history. They used Petrarch's two ages, plus a modern, 'better age', which they believed the world had entered. Later, the term 'Middle Ages' – Latin media tempestas (1469) or medium aevum (1604), was used to describe the period of supposed decline. === Reformation === During the Reformations of the 16th and 17th centuries, Protestants generally had a similar view to Renaissance humanists such as Petrarch, but also added an anti-Catholic perspective. They saw classical antiquity as a golden time not only because of its Latin literature but also because it witnessed the beginnings of Christianity. They promoted the idea that the 'Middle Age' was a time of darkness also because of corruption within the Catholic Church, such as popes ruling as kings, veneration of saints' relics, a licentious priesthood and institutionalized moral hypocrisy. === Baronius === In response to the Protestants, Catholics developed a counter-image to depict the High Middle Ages in particular as a period of social and religious harmony and not 'dark' at all. The most important Catholic reply to the Magdeburg Centuries was the Annales Ecclesiastici by Cardinal Caesar Baronius. Baronius was a trained historian who produced a work that the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1911 described as "far surpassing anything before" and that Acton regarded as "the greatest history of the Church ever written". The Annales covered the first twelve centuries of Christianity to 1198 and was published in twelve volumes between 1588 and 1607. It was in Volume X that Baronius coined the term "dark age" for the period between the end of the Carolingian Empire in 888 and the first stirrings of Gregorian Reform under Pope Clement II in 1046: "The new age (saeculum) that was beginning, for its harshness and barrenness of good could well be called iron, for its baseness and abounding evil leaden, and moreover for its lack of writers (inopia scriptorum) dark (obscurum)". Significantly, Baronius termed the age 'dark' because of the paucity of written records. The "lack of writers" he referred to may be illustrated by comparing the number of volumes in Migne's Patrologia Latina containing the work of Latin writers from the 10th century (the heart of the age he called 'dark') with the number containing the work of writers from the preceding and succeeding centuries. A minority of these writers were historians. There is a sharp drop from 34 volumes in the 9th century to just 8 in the 10th. The 11th century, with 13, evidences a certain recovery, and the 12th century, with 40, surpasses the 9th, something that the 13th, with just 26, fails to do. There was indeed a 'dark age', in Baronius's sense of a "lack of writers", between the Carolingian Renaissance in the 9th century and the beginnings, sometime in the 11th, of what has been called the Renaissance of the 12th century. Furthermore, there was an earlier period of "lack of writers" during the 7th and 8th centuries. Therefore, in Western Europe, two 'dark ages' can be identified, separated by the brilliant but brief Carolingian Renaissance. Baronius' 'dark age' seems to have struck historians, for it was in the 17th century that the term started to spread to various European languages, with his original Latin term saeculum obscurum being reserved for the period to which he had applied it. Some, following Baronius, used 'dark age' neutrally to refer to a dearth of written records, but others used it pejoratively and lapsed into that lack of objectivity that has discredited the term for many modern historians. The first British historian to use the term was most likely Gilbert Burnet, in the form 'darker ages' which appears several times in his work during the later 17th century. The earliest reference seems to be in the "Epistle Dedicatory" to Volume I of The History of the Reformation of the Church of England of 1679, where he writes: "The design of the reformation was to restore Christianity to what it was at first, and to purge it of those corruptions, with which it was overrun in the later and darker ages." He uses it again in the 1682 Volume II, where he dismisses the story of "St George's fighting with the dragon" as "a legend formed in the darker ages to support the humour of chivalry". Burnet was a bishop chronicling how England became Protestant, and his use of the term is invariably pejorative. === Enlightenment === During the Age of Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries, many critical thinkers saw religion as antithetical to reason. For them the Middle Ages, or "Age of Faith", was therefore the opposite of the Age of Reason. Baruch Spinoza, Bernard Fontenelle, Immanuel Kant, David Hume, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Marquis De Sade and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were vocal in attacking the Middle Ages as a period of social regress dominated by religion, while Gibbon in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire expressed contempt for the "rubbish of the Dark Ages". Yet just as Petrarch, seeing himself at the cusp of a "new age", was criticising the centuries before his own time, so too were Enlightenment writers. Consequently, an evolution had occurred in at least three ways. Petrarch's original metaphor of light versus dark has expanded over time, implicitly at least. Even if later humanists no longer saw themselves living in a dark age, their times were still not light enough for 18th-century writers who saw themselves as living in the real Age of Enlightenment, while the period to be condemned stretched to include what we now call Early Modern times. Additionally, Petrarch's metaphor of darkness, which he used mainly to deplore what he saw as a lack of secular achievement, was sharpened to take on a more explicitly anti-religious and anti-clerical meaning. === Romanticism === In the late 18th and the early 19th centuries, the Romantics reversed the negative assessment of Enlightenment critics with a vogue for medievalism. The word "Gothic" had been a term of opprobrium akin to "Vandal" until a few self-confident mid-18th-century English "Goths" like Horace Walpole initiated the Gothic Revival in the arts. This stimulated interest in the Middle Ages, which for the following generation began to take on the idyllic image of an "Age of Faith". This, reacting to a world dominated by Enlightenment rationalism, expressed a romantic view of a Golden Age of chivalry. The Middle Ages were seen with nostalgia as a period of social and environmental harmony and spiritual inspiration, in contrast to the excesses of the French Revolution and, most of all, to the environmental and social upheavals and utilitarianism of the developing Industrial Revolution. The Romantics' view is still represented in modern-day fairs and festivals celebrating the period with 'merrie' costumes and events. Just as Petrarch had twisted the meaning of light and darkness, the Romantics had twisted the judgment of the Enlightenment. However, the period that they idealized was largely the High Middle Ages, extending into Early Modern times. In one respect, that negated the religious aspect of Petrarch's judgment, since these later centuries were those when the power and prestige of the Church were at their height. To many, the scope of the Dark Ages was becoming divorced from this period, denoting mainly the centuries immediately following the fall of Rome. == Modern scholarly use == The term was widely used by 19th-century historians. In 1860, in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, Jacob Burckhardt delineated the contrast between the medieval 'dark ages' and the more enlightened Renaissance, which had revived the cultural and intellectual achievements of antiquity. The earliest entry for a capitalized "Dark Ages" in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a reference in Henry Thomas Buckle's History of Civilization in England in 1857, who wrote: "During these, which are rightly called the Dark Ages, the clergy were supreme." The OED in 1894 defined an uncapitalised "dark ages" as "a term sometimes applied to the period of the Middle Ages to mark the intellectual darkness characteristic of the time". Since the Late Middle Ages significantly overlap with the Renaissance, the term 'Dark Ages' became restricted to distinct times and places in medieval Europe. Thus the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain, at the height of the Saxon invasions, have been called "the darkest of the Dark Ages". The term "Dark Ages" was increasingly questioned from the mid-twentieth century as archaeological, historical and literary studies led to greater understanding of the period, In 1977, the historian Denys Hay spoke ironically of "the lively centuries which we call dark". More forcefully, a book about the history of German literature published in 2007 describes "the dark ages" as "a popular if uninformed manner of speaking". Most modern historians do not use the term "dark ages" and prefer terms such as Early Middle Ages. However, when used by some historians today, the term "Dark Ages" is meant to describe the economic, political and cultural problems of the era. For others, the term Dark Ages is intended to be neutral, expressing the idea that the events of the period seem 'dark' to us because of the paucity of the historical record. For example, Robert Sallares, commenting on the lack of sources to establish whether the plague pandemic of 541 to 750 reached Northern Europe, opines that "the epithet Dark Ages is surely still an appropriate description of this period". However, from the later 20th century onward, other historians became critical even of this nonjudgmental use of the term for two main reasons. Firstly, it is questionable whether it is ever possible to use the term in a neutral way: scholars may intend it, but ordinary readers may not understand it so. Secondly, 20th-century scholarship had increased understanding of the history and culture of the period, to such an extent that it is no longer really 'dark' to modern viewers. To avoid the value judgment implied by the expression, many historians now avoid it altogether. It was occasionally used up to the 1990s by historians of early medieval Britain, for example in the title of the 1991 book by Ann Williams, Alfred Smyth and D. P. Kirby, A Biographical Dictionary of Dark Age Britain, England, Scotland and Wales, c.500–c.1050, and in the comment by Richard Abels in 1998 that the greatness of Alfred the Great "was the greatness of a Dark Age king". In 2020, John Blair, Stephen Rippon and Christopher Smart observed that: "The days when archaeologists and historians referred to the fifth to the tenth centuries as the 'Dark Ages' are long gone, and the material culture produced during that period demonstrates a high degree of sophistication." == Modern non-scholarly use == A 2021 lecture by Howard Williams of Chester University explored how "stereotypes and popular perceptions of the Early Middle Ages – popularly still considered the European 'Dark Ages' – plague popular culture"; and finding 'Dark Ages' is "rife outside of academic literature, including in newspaper articles and media debates." As to why it is used, according to Williams, legends and racial misunderstandings have been revitalized by modern nationalists, colonialists and imperialists around present-day concepts of identity, faith and origin myths i.e. appropriating historical myths for modern political ends. In a book about medievalisms in popular culture by Andrew B. R. Elliott (2017), he found "by far" the most common use of 'Dark Ages' is to "signify a general sense of backwardness or lack of technological sophistication", in particular noting how it has become entrenched in daily and political discourse. Reasons for use, according to Elliott, are often "banal medievalisms", which are "characterized mainly by being unconscious, unwitting and by having little or no intention to refer to the Middle Ages"; for example, referring to an insurance industry still reliant on paper instead of computers as being in the 'Dark Ages'. These banal uses are little more than tropes that inherently contain a criticism about lack of progress. Elliott connects 'Dark Ages' to the "Myth of Progress", also observed by Joseph Tainter, who says, "There is genuine bias against so-called 'Dark Ages'" because of a modern belief that society normally traverses from lesser to greater complexity, and when complexity is reduced during a collapse, this is perceived as out of the ordinary and thus undesirable; he counters that complexity is rare in human history, a costly mode of organization that must be constantly maintained, and periods of less complexity are common and to be expected as part of the overall progression towards greater complexity. In Peter S. Wells's 2008 book, Barbarians to Angels: The Dark Ages Reconsidered, he writes, "I have tried to show that far from being a period of cultural bleakness and unmitigated violence, the centuries (5th - 9th) known popularly as the Dark Ages were a time of dynamic development, cultural creativity, and long-distance networking". He writes that our "popular understanding" of these centuries "depends largely on the picture of barbarian invaders that Edward Gibbon presented more than two hundred years ago," and that this view has been accepted "by many who have read and admire Gibbon's work." David C. Lindberg, a science and religion historian, says the 'Dark Ages' are "according to wide-spread popular belief" portrayed as "a time of ignorance, barbarism and superstition", for which he asserts "blame is most often laid at the feet of the Christian church". Medieval historian Matthew Gabriele echoes this view as a myth of popular culture. Andrew B. R. Elliott notes the extent to which "Middle Ages/Dark Ages have come to be synonymous with religious persecution, witch hunts and scientific ignorance". == See also == Conflict thesis and continuity thesis Greek dark ages after Late Bronze Age collapse == References == == External links == "Dark Ages" in Encyclopædia Britannica "Decline and fall of the Roman myth" by Terry Jones "Why the Middle Ages are called the Dark Ages" Alban Gautier, « De l'usage des Dark Ages en histoire médiévale », portail Ménestrel, 2017 (in French)	Wikipedia/Dark_Ages_(historiography)
The Westminster Stone theory is the belief held by some historians and scholars that the stone which traditionally rests under the Coronation Chair is not the true Stone of Destiny but a 13th-century substitute. Since the chair has been located in Westminster Abbey since that time, adherents to this theory have created the title 'Westminster Stone' to avoid confusion with the 'real' stone (sometimes referred to as the Stone of Scone). One of the most vocal proponents of this theory was writer and historian Nigel Tranter, who consistently presented the theory throughout his non-fiction books and historical novels. Other historians have held this view, including James S. Richardson, who was an Inspector of Ancient Monuments in the mid-twentieth century. Richardson produced a monograph on the subject. == History of the Stone of Destiny == The Stone of Destiny was the traditional Coronation Stone of the Kings of Scotland and, before that, the Kings of Dál Riata. Legends associate it with Saint Columba, who might have brought it from Ireland as a portable altar. In AD 574, the Stone was used as a coronation chair when Columba anointed and crowned Aedan as the King of Dál Riata. The Stone of Destiny was kept by the monks of Iona, the traditional headquarters of the Scottish Celtic church, until Viking raiding caused them to move to the mainland, first to Dunkeld, Atholl, and then to Scone. Here it continued to be used in coronations, as a symbol of Scottish Kingship. == Edward I and the Stone == In his attempts to conquer Scotland, Edward I of England invaded in 1296 at the head of an army. Sacking Berwick, beating the Scots at Dunbar, and laying siege to Edinburgh Castle, Edward then proceeded to Scone, intending to take the Stone of Destiny, which was kept at Scone Abbey. He had already taken the Scottish regalia from Edinburgh, which included Saint Margaret's Black Rood relic, but to confiscate an object so precious to the Scots, and so symbolic of their independence, would be a final humiliation. He carried it back to Westminster Abbey. By placing it within the throne of England, he had a potent symbol of his claim for overlordship. It is this stone which sat in Westminster until 1996, when it was returned to Scotland. == Substitution == According to the Westminster Stone theory, the stone Edward removed was not the real Stone of Destiny, but a substitute. The English army was at the Scottish border in mid-March, 1296, and did not reach Scone until June. With three months to anticipate Edward's arrival, there was ample time and incentive for a switch to be made, in order to protect the original relic. Such a substitution could have been instigated by the Abbot of Scone, who stood as custodian. The 'Stone of Destiny' could therefore have been transported to a place of safety, and Edward tricked with a different piece of sandstone. === Hiding the 'True Stone' === There are many theories regarding the possible resting place of the 'True Stone' since, inspired by logical deduction and, in some cases, fantastical, wishful thinking. Nigel Tranter believed the True Stone was originally hidden by the Abbot of Scone, and eventually entrusted to the care of Aonghus Óg Mac Domhnaill, by Robert the Bruce. Aonghus Óg hid it in his native Hebrides, where the stone probably remains. One legend records that after the True Stone was given into the keeping of Aonghus Óg, its keepership passed into the branch of the clan who settled in Sleat. A descendant of this line, C. Iain Alasdair MacDonald, wrote to Tranter, claiming he was now the custodian of the Stone, which was hidden on Skye. == Evidence == === Arguments for a substitution === The Westminster Stone is a lump of roughly-dressed sandstone, of proportions appropriate for use in building. As such, it is not remarkable or unique, or impressive. The only unusual thing about it is the presence of an iron hoop inserted in each top end, suitable for carrying on a pole. Edward I would not have been tricked by anything newly-hewn, but a piece long-since rejected by builders would look suitably ancient, especially if abandoned outside and consequently weathered. That the Westminster Stone has a fault (weak point) is demonstrated by the fact it broke in half when removed from Westminster Abbey in 1950. The Westminster Stone is certainly not the stone of Iona mentioned in early documents and traditions. Geologists confirm that the Stone is 'lower Old Red Sandstone' and was quarried in the vicinity of Scone. Early seals and documentary descriptions suggest a stone that is larger than the Westminster Stone, darker in colour (possibly basalt or marble), with elaborate carvings. And it might have been retrieved because a letter to the editor of the Morning Chronicle, dated 2 January 1819, states: On the 19th of November, as the servants belonging to the West Mains of Dunsinane-house, were employed in carrying away stones from the excavation made among the ruins that point out the site of Macbeth's castle here, part of the ground they stood on suddenly gave way, and sank down about six feet, discovering a regularly built vault, about six feet long and four wide. None of the men being injured, curiosity induced them to clear out the subterranean recess, when they discovered among the ruins a large stone, weighing about 500l [230 kg]. which is pronounced to be of the meteoric or semi-metallic kind. This stone must have lain here during the long series of ages since Macbeth's reign. Besides it were also found two round tablets, of a composition resembling bronze. On one of these two lines are engraved, which a gentleman has thus deciphered.— 'The sconce (or shadow) of kingdom come, until Sylphs in air carry me again to Bethel.' These plates exhibit the figures of targets for the arms. [...] The curious here, aware of such traditions, and who have viewed these venerable remains of antiquity, agree that Macbeth may, or rather must, have deposited the stone in question at the bottom of his Castle, on the hill of Dunsinane (from the trouble of the times), where it has been found by the workmen. This curious stone has been shipped for London for the inspection of the scientific amateur, in order to discover its real quality. There is no record to show the Scots ever requested the return of the Westminster Stone in the century after its departure, which they would have done if it were an important relic. The absence of a request is quite marked in the Treaty of Northampton. The Scots had been harrying England for some years, and in 1328 the English sued for peace. The Treaty is drawn in Scotland's favour, for they were in the position to make demands. The Treaty stipulates the return of the Scottish regalia and St Margaret's Black Rood, but there is no mention of the Stone of Scone. Tranter states that the English offered to return the stone, but the Scots were not interested. === Arguments against a substitution === The Westminster Stone theory is not accepted by many historians, or those responsible for the care of the Stone. There are many strong arguments against the theory. If Edward I did not remove the true stone, yet claimed to have done so, the Scots' easiest refutation of his claims would be to produce the True Stone. However, there is no record of them doing so. Hiding the stone might have been a sensible precaution while the English remained a threat, but it was never produced once the threat was removed. Despite its importance as a symbol of Kingship, the stone was not used for subsequent coronations, which it surely would have if still in Scottish possession. Legends and theories abound, but no proof has been found to indicate there is another stone. If there was warning enough of Edward's intention to remove the Stone, why were the other regalia, documents and Black Rood not hidden also? A number of English knights attended the coronation of King John of Scotland only a few years earlier, and would have seen the true stone, but none of them told Edward that his stone was a fake. On studying the Stone in 1996, after its return to Scotland, nine periods of workmanship were identified on the Stone's faces, as well as recognisable erosion between the features, which proves it is an ancient artefact. Edward had followers from the Scottish nobility who would also have been able to verify the stone's authenticity. Dunsinane Hill has the remains of a late prehistoric hill fort, and this has historical associations with Macbeth, but no remains dating to the 11th century have been identified on the hill. == Second theory: the 1950 substitution == On Christmas Day 1950, the Westminster Stone was taken from the abbey by four Scottish students. It remained hidden until April 1951, when a stone was left in Arbroath Abbey. Some speculate that this stone is not the one taken from the Abbey, but merely a copy. The stone left in Arbroath was damaged, for the Westminster Stone had broken in half when removed from the Coronation Chair, but had been repaired by Glasgow stonemason Robert Gray. However, Gray had made replicas of the Stone in the 1930s, and further fuelled speculation by declaring later that he did not know which stone had been sent back to London as "there were so many copies lying around". This scenario receives support from a plaque placed in St Columba's Parish Church in Dundee, which claims to mark the site of the 'Stone of Scone', given to them in 1972 by 'Baillie Robert Gray'. The apparent disrespect shown towards the Stone by Gray and the students is explained by Nigel Tranter, who had some claim to knowledge, as the students asked him to act as an intermediary after the removal of the stone. Tranter later stated that Gray inserted a note inside the Westminster Stone, when repairing it, to the effect that it was 'a block of Old Red Sandstone of no value to anyone', although other reports state that Gray never revealed what the note said. However, in the 1940s, the British Geological Survey, had carried out a survey of the Stone when the Coronation Chair was undergoing conservation work. The fault line had been noticed as well as the many marks and features of the Stone's surface. This allowed verification of the authenticity of the returned item. A scanray examination conducted by the Home Office Police Scientific Development Branch in 1973 confirmed the presence of 'three metal rods and sockets, one being at right angles to the other two'. This also indicated that the repaired Westminster Stone, not a replica, had been returned. == References == == External links == Nigel Tranter, Scots Magazine, 1960	Wikipedia/Westminster_Stone_theory
Historiographic metafiction is a term coined by Canadian literary theorist Linda Hutcheon in the late 1980s. It incorporates three domains: fiction, history, and theory. == Concept == The term is used for works of fiction which combine the literary devices of metafiction with historical fiction. Works regarded as historiographic metafiction are also distinguished by frequent allusions to other artistic, historical and literary texts (i.e., intertextuality) in order to show the extent to which works of both literature and historiography are dependent on the history of discourse. Although Hutcheon said that historiographic metafiction is not another version of the historical novel, there are scholars (e.g., Monika Fludernik) who describe it as such, citing that it is simply an updated late-twentieth-century version of the genre for its embrace of the conceptualizations of the novel and of the historical in the twentieth century. The term is closely associated with works of postmodern literature, usually novels. According to Hutcheon's "A Poetics of Postmodernism", works of historiographic metafiction are "those well-known and popular novels which are both intensely self-reflexive and yet paradoxically also lay claim to historical events and personages". This is demonstrated in the genres that historiographic metafiction parodies, which it uses and abuses so that each parody constitutes a critique in the way it problematizes them. This process is also identified as "subversion" for the purpose of exposing suppressed histories to allow the redefinition of reality and truth. == Examples == Works often described as examples of historiographic metafiction include: Doctor Copernicus by John Banville (1976), The French Lieutenant's Woman by John Fowles (1969), Ragtime by E. L. Doctorow (1975), Legs by William Kennedy (1975), Kindred by Octavia E. Butler (1979), Midnight's Children by Salman Rushdie (1981), The Great Indian Novel by Shashi Tharoor (1989), Possession by A. S. Byatt (1990), The English Patient by Michael Ondaatje (1992), The Master of Petersburg by J. M. Coetzee (1994), and Mason & Dixon by Thomas Pynchon (1997). By seeking to represent both actual historical events from World War II while, at the same time, problematizing the very notion of doing exactly that, Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five (1969) features a metafictional, "Janus-headed" perspective. Literary scholar Bran Nicol argues that Vonnegut's novel features "a more directly political edge to metafiction" compared to the writings of Robert Coover, John Barth, and Vladimir Nabokov. == References == === Works cited === "Historiographic Metafiction: 'The Pastime of Past time'" from Fu Jen Catholic University Hutcheon, Linda: Historiographic Metafiction. Parody and the Intertextuality of History Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction. New York: 1988. Kotte, Christina: Ethical Dimensions in British Historiographic Metafiction: Julian Barnes, Graham Swift, Penelope Lively. Trier: 2002, (Studies in English Literary and Cultural History, 2), ISBN 3-88476-486-1.	Wikipedia/Historiographic_metafiction
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was a combination of legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe from the 9th to 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. The classic definition, by François Louis Ganshof (1944), describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations of the warrior nobility and revolved around the key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. A broader definition, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but the obligations of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry, all of whom were bound by a system of manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a "feudal society". Although it is derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum (fief), which was used during the medieval period, the term feudalism and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people who lived during the Middle Ages. Since the publication of Elizabeth A. R. Brown's "The Tyranny of a Construct" (1974) and Susan Reynolds's Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society. == Definition == The adjective feudal was in use by at least 1405, and the noun feudalism was in use by the end of the 18th century, paralleling the French féodalité. According to a classic definition by Ganshof, feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations of the warrior nobility that revolved around the key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs, though Ganshof himself noted that his treatment was only related to the "narrow, technical, legal sense of the word." A broader definition, as described in Bloch's 1939 Feudal Society, includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but the obligations of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and those who lived off their labour, most directly the peasantry, which was bound by a system of manorialism. This order is often referred to as a feudal society, echoing Bloch's usage. Outside its European context, the concept of feudalism can be extended to analogous social structures in other regions, most often in discussions of feudal Japan under the shoguns, and sometimes in discussions of the Zagwe dynasty in medieval Ethiopia, which had some feudal characteristics (sometimes called "semifeudal"). Some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing feudalism (or traces of it) in places as diverse as Spring and Autumn period China, ancient Egypt, the Parthian Empire, India until the Mughal dynasty and the Antebellum South and Jim Crow laws in the American South. The term feudalism has also been applied—often pejoratively—to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those in medieval Europe are perceived to prevail. Some historians and political theorists believe that the term feudalism has been deprived of specific meaning by the many ways it has been used, leading them to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society. The applicability of the term feudalism has also been questioned in the context of some Central and Eastern European countries, such as Poland and Lithuania, with scholars observing that the medieval political and economic structure of those countries bears some, but not all, resemblances to the Western European societies commonly described as feudal. == Etymology == The word feudal comes from the medieval Latin feudālis, the adjectival form of feudum 'fee, feud', first attested in a charter of Charles the Fat in 884, which is related to Old French fé, fié, Provençal feo, feu, fieu, and Italian fio. The ultimate origin of feudālis is unclear. It may come from a Germanic word, perhaps fehu or fehôd, but these words are not attested in this meaning in Germanic sources, or even in the Latin of the Frankish laws. One theory about the origin of fehu was proposed by Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern in 1870, being supported by, amongst others, William Stubbs and Marc Bloch. Kern derived the word from a putative Frankish term fehu-ôd, in which *fehu means 'cattle' and -ôd means 'goods', implying "a movable object of value". Bloch explains that by the beginning of the 10th century it was common to value land in monetary terms but to pay for it with objects of equivalent value, such as arms, clothing, horses or food. This was known as feos, a term that took on the general meaning of paying for something in lieu of money. This meaning was then applied to land itself, in which land was used to pay for fealty, such as to a vassal. Thus the old word feos meaning 'movable property' would have changed to feus, meaning the exact opposite: 'landed property'. Archibald Ross Lewis proposes that the origin of fief is not feudum (or feodum), but rather foderum, the earliest attested use being in Vita Hludovici (840) by Astronomus. In that text is a passage about Louis the Pious that says annona militaris quas vulgo foderum vocant, which can be translated as "Louis forbade that military provender (which they popularly call "fodder") be furnished." Initially in medieval Latin European documents, a land grant in exchange for service was called a beneficium (Latin). Later, the term feudum, or feodum, began to replace beneficium in the documents. The first attested instance of this is from 984, although more primitive forms were seen up to one-hundred years earlier. The origin of the feudum and why it replaced beneficium has not been well established, but there are multiple theories, described below. The term "féodal" was first used in 17th-century French legal treatises (1614) and translated into English legal treatises as an adjective, such as "feodal government". In the 18th century, Adam Smith, seeking to describe economic systems, effectively coined the forms "feudal government" and "feudal system" in his book The Wealth of Nations (1776). The phrase "feudal system" appeared in 1736, in Baronia Anglica, published nine years after the death of its author Thomas Madox, in 1727. In 1771, in his book The History of Manchester, John Whitaker first introduced the word "feudalism" and the notion of the feudal pyramid. Another theory by Alauddin Samarrai suggests an Arabic origin, from fuyū (the plural of fay, which literally means 'the returned', and was used especially for 'land that has been conquered from enemies that did not fight'). Samarrai's theory is that early forms of 'fief' include feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others, the plurality of forms strongly suggesting origins from a loanword. The first use of these terms is in Languedoc, one of the least Germanic areas of Europe and bordering Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain). Further, the earliest use of feuum (as a replacement for beneficium) can be dated to 899, the same year a Muslim base at Fraxinetum (La Garde-Freinet) in Provence was established. It is possible, Samarrai says, that French scribes, writing in Latin, attempted to transliterate the Arabic word fuyū (the plural of fay), which was used by the Muslim invaders and occupiers at the time, resulting in a plurality of forms – feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others—from which eventually feudum derived. Samarrai, however, also advises to handle this theory with care, as Medieval and Early Modern Muslim scribes often used etymologically "fanciful roots" to support outlandish claims that something was of Arabian or Muslim origin. == History == Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a result of the decentralization of an empire: such as in the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century AD, which lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure[clarification needed] necessary to support cavalry without allocating land to these mounted troops. Mounted soldiers began to secure a system of hereditary rule over their allocated land and their power over the territory came to encompass the social, political, judicial, and economic spheres. These acquired powers significantly diminished unitary power in these empires. However, once the infrastructure to maintain unitary power was re-established—as with the European monarchies—feudalism began to yield to this new power structure and eventually disappeared. === Classic feudalism === The classic François Louis Ganshof version of feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations of the warrior nobility based on the key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. In broad terms a lord was a noble who held land, a vassal was a person granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the use of the fief and protection by the lord, the vassal provided some sort of service to the lord. There were many varieties of feudal land tenure, consisting of military and non-military service. The obligations and corresponding rights between lord and vassal concerning the fief form the basis of the feudal relationship. === Vassalage === Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a commendation ceremony, which was composed of the two-part act of homage and oath of fealty. During homage, the lord and vassal entered into a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command, whilst the lord agreed to protect the vassal from external forces. Fealty comes from the Latin fidelitas and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty" also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage; such an oath follows homage. Once the commendation ceremony was complete, the lord and vassal were in a feudal relationship with agreed obligations to one another. The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to provide aid or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal had to answer calls to military service by the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal could have other obligations to his lord, such as attendance at his court, whether manorial, baronial, both termed court baron, or at the king's court. It could also involve the vassal providing "counsel", so that if the lord faced a major decision he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. At the level of the manor this might be a fairly mundane matter of agricultural policy, but also included sentencing by the lord for criminal offences, including capital punishment in some cases. Concerning the king's feudal court, such deliberation could include the question of declaring war. These are examples of feudalism; depending on the period of time and location in Europe, feudal customs and practices varied. === The feudal revolution in France === In its origin, the feudal grant of land had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the historian Marc Bloch). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution" or "mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that was unlike the development of feudalism in England or Italy or in Germany in the same period or later: Counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as castellans and lesser seigneurs took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, including travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations, use the lord's mill and, most importantly, the highly profitable rights of justice, etc. (what Georges Duby called collectively the "seigneurie banale"). Power in this period became more personal. This "fragmentation of powers" was not, however, systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later. Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal/feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a "liege lord" was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century. === End of European feudalism (1500–1850s) === Around this time, rich, "middle-class" commoners chafed at the authority and powers held by feudal lords, overlords, and nobles, and preferred the idea of autocratic rule where a king and one royal court held almost all the power. Feudal nobles regardless of ethnicity generally thought of themselves as arbiters of a politically free system, so this often puzzled them before the fall of most feudal laws. Most of the military aspects of feudalism effectively ended by about 1500. This was partly since the military shifted from armies consisting of the nobility to professional fighters thus reducing the nobility's claim on power, but also because the Black Death reduced the nobility's hold over the lower classes. Vestiges of the feudal system hung on in France until the French Revolution of the 1790s. Even when the original feudal relationships had disappeared, there were many institutional remnants of feudalism left in place. Historian Georges Lefebvre explains how at an early stage of the French Revolution, on just one night of 4 August 1789, France abolished the long-lasting remnants of the feudal order. It announced, "The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely." Lefebvre explains: Without debate the Assembly enthusiastically adopted equality of taxation and redemption of all manorial rights except for those involving personal servitude—which were to be abolished without indemnification. Other proposals followed with the same success: the equality of legal punishment, admission of all to public office, abolition of venality in office, conversion of the tithe into payments subject to redemption, freedom of worship, prohibition of plural holding of benefices ... Privileges of provinces and towns were offered as a last sacrifice. Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the release of seigneurial dues; these dues affected more than a quarter of the farmland in France and provided most of the income of the large landowners. The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled. Thus the peasants got their land free, and also no longer paid the tithe to the church. In the Kingdom of France, following the French Revolution, feudalism was abolished with a decree of 11 August 1789 by the Constituent Assembly, a provision that was later extended to various parts of Italian kingdom following the invasion by French troops. In the Kingdom of Naples, Joachim Murat abolished feudalism with the law of 2 August 1806, then implemented with a law of 1 September 1806 and a royal decree of 3 December 1808. In the Kingdom of Sicily the abolishing law was issued by the Sicilian Parliament on 10 August 1812. In Piedmont feudalism ceased by virtue of the edicts of 7 March, and 19 July 1797 issued by Charles Emmanuel IV, although in the Kingdom of Sardinia, specifically on the island of Sardinia, feudalism was abolished only with an edict of 5 August 1848. In the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, feudalism was abolished with the law of 5 December 1861 n.º 342 were all feudal bonds abolished. The system lingered on in parts of Central and Eastern Europe as late as the 1850s. Slavery in Romania was abolished in 1856. Russia finally abolished serfdom in 1861. More recently in Scotland, on 28 November 2004, the Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000 entered into full force putting an end to what was left of the Scottish feudal system. The last feudal regime, that of the island of Sark, was abolished in December 2008, when the first democratic elections were held for the election of a local parliament and the appointment of a government. The "revolution" is a consequence of the juridical intervention of the European Parliament, which declared the local constitutional system as contrary to human rights, and, following a series of legal battles, imposed parliamentary democracy. == Feudal society == The phrase "feudal society" as defined by Marc Bloch offers a wider definition than Ganshof's and includes within the feudal structure not only the warrior aristocracy bound by vassalage, but also the peasantry bound by manorialism, and the estates of the Church. Thus the feudal order embraces society from top to bottom, though the "powerful and well-differentiated social group of the urban classes" came to occupy a distinct position to some extent outside the classic feudal hierarchy. == Historiography == The idea of feudalism was unknown and the system it describes was not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the medieval period. This section describes the history of the idea of feudalism, how the concept originated among scholars and thinkers, how it changed over time, and modern debates about its use. === Evolution of the concept === The concept of a feudal state or period, in the sense of either a regime or a period dominated by lords who possess financial or social power and prestige, became widely held in the middle of the 18th century, as a result of works such as Montesquieu's De L'Esprit des Lois (1748; published in English as The Spirit of Law), and Henri de Boulainvilliers's Histoire des anciens Parlements de France (1737; published in English as An Historical Account of the Ancient Parliaments of France or States-General of the Kingdom, 1739). In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism to denigrate the antiquated system of the Ancien Régime, or French monarchy. This was the Age of Enlightenment, when writers valued reason and the Middle Ages were viewed as the "Dark Ages". Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages" including feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain. For them "feudalism" meant seigneurial privileges and prerogatives. When the French Constituent Assembly abolished the "feudal regime" in August 1789, this is what was meant. Adam Smith used the term "feudal system" to describe a social and economic system defined by inherited social ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and economic privileges and obligations. In such a system, wealth derived from agriculture, which was arranged not according to market forces but on the basis of customary labour services owed by serfs to landowning nobles. === Heinrich Brunner === Heinrich Brunner, in his The Equestrian Service and the Beginnings of the Feudal System (1887), maintained that Charles Martel laid the foundation for feudalism during the 8th century. Brunner believed Martel to be a brilliant warrior who secularized church lands for the purpose of providing precarias (or leases) for his followers, in return for their military service. Martel's military ambitions were becoming more expensive as it changed into a cavalry force, thus the need to maintain his followers through the despoiling of church lands. Responding to Brunner's thesis, Paul Fouracre theorizes that the church itself held power over the land with its own precarias. The most commonly utilized precarias was the gifting of land to the church, done for various spiritual and legal purposes. Although Charles Martel did indeed utilize precaria for his own purposes, and even drove some of the bishops out of the church and placed his own laymen in their seats, Fouracre discounts Martel's role in creating political change, that it was simply a military move in order to have control in the region by hording land through tenancies, and expelling the bishops who he did not agree with, but it did not specifically create feudalism. === Karl Marx === Karl Marx also uses the term in the 19th century in his analysis of society's economic and political development, describing feudalism (or more usually feudal society or the feudal mode of production) as the order coming before capitalism. For Marx, what defined feudalism was the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) in their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom and principally by means of labour, produce and money rents. He deemed feudalism a 'democracy of unfreedom', juxtaposing the oppression of feudal subjects with a holistic integration of political and economic life of the sort lacking under industrial capitalism. He also took it as a paradigm for understanding the power-relationships between capitalists and wage-labourers in his own time: "in pre-capitalist systems it was obvious that most people did not control their own destiny—under feudalism, for instance, serfs had to work for their lords. Capitalism seems different because people are in theory free to work for themselves or for others as they choose. Yet most workers have as little control over their lives as feudal serfs." Some later Marxist theorists (e.g. Eric Wolf) have applied this label to include non-European societies, grouping feudalism together with imperial China and the Inca Empire, in the pre-Columbian era, as 'tributary' societies . === Later studies === In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, J. Horace Round and Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions about the character of Anglo-Saxon English society before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had brought feudalism with them to England, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain before 1066. The debate continues today, but a consensus viewpoint is that England before the Conquest had commendation (which embodied some of the personal elements in feudalism) while William the Conqueror introduced a modified and stricter northern French feudalism to England incorporating (1086) oaths of loyalty to the king by all who held by feudal tenure, even the vassals of his principal vassals (holding by feudal tenure meant that vassals must provide the quota of knights required by the king or a money payment in substitution). In the 20th century, two outstanding historians offered still more widely differing perspectives. The French historian Marc Bloch, arguably the most influential 20th-century medieval historian, approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one, presenting in Feudal Society (1939; English 1961) a feudal order not limited solely to the nobility. It is his radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers: while the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection – both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centred on "lordship", and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy. In contradistinction to Bloch, the Belgian historian François Louis Ganshof defined feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in Qu'est-ce que la féodalité? ("What is feudalism?", 1944; translated in English as Feudalism). His classic definition of feudalism is widely accepted today among medieval scholars, though questioned both by those who view the concept in wider terms and by those who find insufficient uniformity in noble exchanges to support such a model. Although Georges Duby was never formally a student in the circle of scholars around Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre, that came to be known as the Annales school, Duby was an exponent of the Annaliste tradition. In a published version of his 1952 doctoral thesis entitled La société aux XIe et XIIe siècles dans la région mâconnaise (Society in the 11th and 12th centuries in the Mâconnais region), and working from the extensive documentary sources surviving from the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, as well as the dioceses of Mâcon and Dijon, Duby excavated the complex social and economic relationships among the individuals and institutions of the Mâconnais region and charted a profound shift in the social structures of medieval society around the year 1000. He argued that in early 11th century, governing institutions—particularly comital courts established under the Carolingian monarchy—that had represented public justice and order in Burgundy during the 9th and 10th centuries receded and gave way to a new feudal order wherein independent aristocratic knights wielded power over peasant communities through strong-arm tactics and threats of violence. In 1939, the Austrian historian Theodor Mayer subordinated the feudal state as secondary to his concept of a Personenverbandsstaat (personal interdependency state), understanding it in contrast to the territorial state. This form of statehood, identified with the Holy Roman Empire, is described as the most complete form of medieval rule, completing conventional feudal structure of lordship and vassalage with the personal association among the nobility. But the applicability of this concept to cases outside of the Holy Roman Empire has been questioned, as by Susan Reynolds. The concept has also been questioned and superseded in German historiography because of its bias and reductionism towards legitimating the Führerprinzip. === Challenges to the feudal model === In 1974, the American historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown rejected the label feudalism as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the current use of many, often contradictory, definitions of feudalism, she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically" into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have suggested that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument. Reynolds argues: Too many models of feudalism used for comparisons, even by Marxists, are still either constructed on the 16th-century basis or incorporate what, in a Marxist view, must surely be superficial or irrelevant features from it. Even when one restricts oneself to Europe and to feudalism in its narrow sense it is extremely doubtful whether feudo-vassalic institutions formed a coherent bundle of institutions or concepts that were structurally separate from other institutions and concepts of the time. The term feudal has also been applied to non-Western societies, in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed (see Examples of feudalism). Japan has been extensively studied in this regard. Karl Friday notes that in the 21st century historians of Japan rarely invoke feudalism; instead of looking at similarities, specialists attempting comparative analysis concentrate on fundamental differences. Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term feudalism has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading some historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society. Historian Richard Abels notes that "Western civilization and world civilization textbooks now shy away from the term 'feudalism'." == See also == === General === === Non-European === == References == === Bibliography === == Further reading == Bloch, Marc, Feudal Society. Tr. L.A. Manyon. Two volumes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. ISBN 0-226-05979-0. Ganshof, François Louis (1952). Feudalism. London; New York: Longmans, Green. ISBN 978-0-8020-7158-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Guerreau, Alain, L'avenir d'un passé incertain. Paris: Le Seuil, 2001 (complete history of the meaning of the term). Poly, Jean-Pierre and Bournazel, Eric, The Feudal Transformation, 900–1200., Tr. Caroline Higgitt. New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1991. Reynolds, Susan, Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-19-820648-8. === Historiographical works === Abels, Richard (2009). "The Historiography of a Construct: "Feudalism" and the Medieval Historian". History Compass. 7 (3): 1008–1031. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00610.x. Brown, Elizabeth (1974). "The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe". American Historical Review. 79 (4): 1063–1068. doi:10.2307/1869563. JSTOR 1869563. Cantor, Norman F. (1991). Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth century. Quill. Friday, Karl (2010). "The Futile Paradigm: In Quest of Feudalism in Early Medieval Japan". History Compass. 8 (2): 179–196. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00664.x. Harbison, Robert (1996). The Problem of Feudalism: An Historiographical Essay. Western Kentucky University. Archived from the original on 29 February 2008. === End of feudalism === Bean, J.M.W. (1968). Decline of English Feudalism, 1215–1540. OL 23803960M. Davitt, Michael (1904). The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland: Or, The Story of the Land League Revolution. OCLC 1595429. OL 23299170M. Hall, John Whitney (1962). "Feudalism in Japan-A Reassessment". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 5 (1): 15–51. doi:10.1017/S001041750000150X. JSTOR 177767. S2CID 145750386.; compares Europe and Japan. Nell, Edward J. (1967). "Economic Relationships in the Decline of Feudalism: An Examination of Economic Interdependence and Social Change". History and Theory. 6 (3): 313–350. doi:10.2307/2504421. JSTOR 2504421. Okey, Robin (1986). Eastern Europe 1740–1985: Feudalism to Communism. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0816615616. OCLC 13644378. OL 2718094M. ==== France ==== Herbert, Sydney. The Fall of Feudalism in France (1921) full text online free. Mackrell, John Quentin Colborne. The Attack on Feudalism in Eighteenth-century France (Routledge, 2013). Markoff, John. Abolition of Feudalism: Peasants, Lords, and Legislators in the French Revolution (Penn State Press, 2010). Sutherland, D. M. G. (2002). "Peasants, Lords, and Leviathan: Winners and Losers from the Abolition of French Feudalism, 1780-1820". The Journal of Economic History. 62 (1): 1–24. JSTOR 2697970. == External links == "Feudalism", by Elizabeth A. R. Brown. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "Feudalism?" Archived 18 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, by Paul Halsall. Internet Medieval Sourcebook. "Feudalism: the history of an idea", by Fredric Cheyette (Amherst), excerpted from New Dictionary of the History of Ideas (2004) Medieval Feudalism, by Carl Stephenson. Cornell University Press, 1942. Classic introduction to Feudalism. "The Problem of Feudalism: An Historiographical Essay" at the Wayback Machine (archived 26 February 2009), by Robert Harbison, 1996, Western Kentucky University.	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_feudalism
The historiography of the French Revolution stretches back over two hundred years. Contemporary and 19th-century writings on the Revolution were mainly divided along ideological lines, with conservative historians condemning the Revolution, liberals praising the Revolution of 1789, and radicals defending the democratic and republican values of 1793. By the 20th-century, revolutionary history had become professionalised, with scholars paying more attention to the critical analysis of primary sources from public archives. From the late 1920s to the 1960s, social and economic interpretations of the Revolution, often from a Marxist perspective, dominated the historiography of the Revolution in France. This trend was challenged by revisionist historians in the 1960s who argued that class conflict was not a major determinant of the course of the Revolution and that political expediency and historical contingency often played a greater role than social factors. In the 21st-century, no single explanatory model has gained widespread support. The historiography of the revolution has become more diversified, exploring areas such as cultural histories, gender relations, regional histories, visual representations, transnational interpretations, and decolonisation. Nevertheless, there persists a very widespread agreement that the French Revolution was the watershed between the premodern and modern eras of Western history. == Contemporary and 19th-century historians == The first writings on the French revolution were near contemporaneous with events and mainly divided along ideological lines. These included Edmund Burke's conservative critique Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) and Thomas Paine's response Rights of Man (1791). From 1815, narrative histories dominated, often based on first-hand experience of the revolutionary years. By the mid-19th century, more scholarly histories appeared, written by specialists and based on original documents and a more critical assessment of contemporary accounts. Dupuy identifies three main strands in 19th-century historiography of the revolution. The first is represented by reactionary writers who rejected the revolutionary ideals of popular sovereignty, civil equality, and the promotion of rationality, progress and personal happiness over religious faith. The second stream is those writers who celebrated the democratic republican values of the revolution. The third stream is those liberal writers, such as Germaine de Staël and Guizot, who accepted the necessity of reforms establishing a constitution and the rights of man, but rejected state interference with private property and individual rights even if supported by a democratic majority. Doyle states that the three streams can be described as the reactionary, the radical and the liberal, or simply right, left and centre. === Burke and Barruel === In Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Burke presented an influential conservative interpretation of the Revolution, arguing that the Old Regime was stable and viable and was only in need of moderate reform. The Revolution was a conspiracy of philosophers and literary men who undermined faith in religion, monarchy, and the established social order, inciting "the swinish multitude" to create disorder. In France, conspiracy theories were rife in the highly charged political atmosphere, with the Abbé Barruel, in perhaps the most influential work Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism (1797–1798), arguing that Freemasons and other dissidents had been responsible for an attempt to destroy the monarchy and the Catholic Church. === Adolphe Thiers === Adolph Thiers' Histoire de la Révolution française (published 1823-27) was the first major work of the liberal tradition of French historiography. The complete work of ten volumes sold ten thousand sets, and was particularly popular in liberal circles and among younger Parisians. Written during the Restoration, the book praised the principles, leaders and accomplishments of the 1789 Revolution. The heroes were Mirabeau, Lafayette, and other moderate leaders. Thiers condemned Marat, Robespierre and the other radical leaders, and also condemned the monarchy, aristocracy and clergy for their inability to change. The book played a notable role in undermining the legitimacy of the Bourbon regime of Charles X, and bringing about the July Revolution of 1830. Thiers' history was widely praised in France and won him a seat in the Académie française in 1834. Kidron describes Thiers' history as: "historical determinism with a romantic aura." Thiers believed that impersonal historical forces were stronger than the will of human actors and that each phase of the Revolution was inevitable. Nevertheless, he distinguished between the positive phase of the Revolution from 1789-91 when the bourgeoisie wrested power from an oppressive and inefficient Old Regime, and the regrettable phase from 1793 when violence and dictatorship were made necessary by war and other circumstances. === François Mignet === François Mignet published his Histoire de la Révolution française in 1824. Writing in the liberal tradition, Mignet saw the Revolution of 1789 as the result of a growing, more prosperous and better educated bourgeoisie which challenged the inequalities of the old regime. The liberal aristocrats and middle classes that led the revolution sought to establish a constitution, representative institutions, and equal political and civil rights. Mignet's views on historical necessity were similar to those of Thiers. According to Kidron, Mignet's history is notable for its lack of moral judgment and it presentation of the Terror as the acts of a war government against its enemies. === Thomas Carlyle === Thomas Carlyle's three-volume The French Revolution, A History (1837) was a major example of narrative history of the romantic school. Carlyle rejected Thiers' deterministic view of history which emphasised inexorable historical forces over individual moral responsibility. Carlyle was more interested in the lived experience of individuals and declared that Mirabeau, Danton and Napoleon were the three great men of the Revolution. He rejected ideological interpretations of the Revolution, insisting on "facts, facts, no theory." His research made him hostile to the Girondins and radicals of the Revolution, but he refused to endorse a politically liberal interpretation. His position on revolutionary violence was ambiguous; he abhorred it, but found it understandable in the context of the misery of the common people. Aulard praised his use of the available sources and called him, "Impartial...but neither calm nor without feeling." === Jules Michelet === Jules Michelet (1798–1874) published his multi-volume Histoire de la Révolution française between 1847 and 1856. Influenced by Vico, MIchelet placed more importance on the masses than individuals. He portrayed the revolution as a spontaneous uprising of the French people against poverty and oppression and in the name of republican equality, and emphasised that the Revolution achieved the unification and legislative reconstruction of France. Michelet was critical of Robespierre and the Jacobins but blamed counter-revolutionaries for provoking the Terror. Rudé and Doyle place Michelet in the radical, democratic republican tradition, while Kidron describes the work as romantic, liberal and nationalist. François Furet said Michelet's history is, "the cornerstone of all revolutionary historiography and is also a literary monument." === Alexis de Tocqueville === Alexis de Tocqueville's work L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution (The Old Regime and the Revolution,1856) was very influential in the English-speaking world of the 19th-century. Tocqueville was a political liberal who argued that the Revolution was led by thinkers without practical experience who had put too much emphasis on equality over liberty. The democratic egalitarian tendency of the Revolution had laid the groundwork for the destruction of liberty by Napoleon. Tocqueville's contributions to the historiography of the Revolution included his extensive use of the recently opened French archives and his stress that the Revolution had multiple causes, including the King's attempts at reform: "The social order destroyed by a revolution is almost always better than that which immediately precedes it, and experience shows that the most dangerous moment for a bad government is generally that in which it sets about reform." For Tocqueville, the Revolution was not a result of misery and oppression: education and the economy were growing and ownership of land was becoming more diversified. He emphasised the social structure of the Old Regime, the origins of specific economic and legal grievances, and the continuity of administrative centralisation from the Old Regime to the Revolutionary years. === Hippolyte Taine === Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893) in his Origines de la France contemporaine (1875–94) used archival sources extensively and his interpretation emphasised the role of popular action. His interpretation was conservative and marked by hostility towards the revolution and revolutionary crowds which he claimed were mainly composed of criminal elements. He argued that revolutionaries were mainly motivated by the transfer of property, and rejected any distinction between the revolution of 1789 and that of 1793. Historians such as Shafer argue that his interpretation was influenced by his negative experience of the Paris Commune of 1871. He was an admirer of Burke, English conservative principles and "scientific" history based on contemporary documents. He had a major influence on right wing historians of the twentieth century including Augustin Cochin and Pierre Gaxotte. === Other historians === Other significant 19th-century historians of the revolution include: Louis Blanc (1811–1882) – Blanc's 13-volume Histoire de la Révolution française (1847–1862) displays utopian socialist views, and sympathizes with Jacobinism. Théodore Gosselin (1855–1935) – Better known by the pseudonym "G. Lenotre". Albert Sorel (1842–1906) – Diplomatic historian; L'Europe et la Révolution française (8 volumes, 1895–1904); introductory section of this work translated as Europe under the Old Regime (1947). Edgar Quinet (1803–1875) – Late Romantic nationalist. == 20th-century == The broad distinction between conservative, democratic-republican and liberal interpretations of the Revolution persisted in the 20th-century, although historiography became more nuanced, with greater attention to critical analysis of documentary evidence. From the late 1920s to the 1960s, social and economic analysis of the Revolution, often from a Marxist perspective, dominated the historiography of the Revolution in France. This historical trend has been variously called "Marxist, "classic", "Jacobin" or "history from below" and is associated with historians such as Albert Mathiez, Georges Lefebvre and Albert Soboul. From the 1960s, the dominance of social and economic interpretations of the Revolution emphasising class conflict was challenged by revisionist historians such as Alfred Cobban and François Furet. === Jean Jaurès === Jean Jaurès (1859–1914) wrote a three-volume Histoire socialiste de la Révolution française (published 1901-04). He analysed the political, social and economic aspects of the Revolution from a socialist perspective. His thesis was that the Revolution established a bourgeois democratic republic which set the preconditions for the emergence of a socialist movement. His history was also notable for its detailed study of the peasantry and urban poor. As a parliamentarian, he was instrumental in establishing the state-funded "Jaurès Commission", responsible for publishing historical documents and monographs on the Revolution. === Alphonse Aulard and academic studies === Alphonse Aulard (1849–1928) was the first professional historian of the Revolution; he promoted graduate studies, scholarly editions, and learned journals. He was appointed to the first National Chair in the History of the French Revolution at the Sorbonne in 1891. He trained advanced students, founded the Société de l'Histoire de la Révolution, edited the scholarly journal La Révolution française, and assembled and published many key primary sources. His major works on the French Revolution include Histoire politique de la Révolution française (A political history of the French revolution, 1901), La Révolution française et le régime féodale (The French revolution and feudalism, 1919) and Le Christianisme et la Révolution française (Christianity and the French Revolution, 1925). Aulard's historiography was based on positivism. The assumption was that methodology was all-important and the historian's duty was to present in chronological order the duly verified facts, to analyse relations between facts, and provide the most likely interpretation. Full documentation based on research in the primary sources was essential. Aulard's books focused on institutions, public opinion, elections, parties, parliamentary majorities, and legislation. He was a leading historian in the radical tradition, arguing that the democratic republic was the logical culmination of the Revolution. The suspension of the constitution in 1793 and the Terror that followed were necessary expedients to defeat the counter revolution and push through necessary social welfare reforms. Aulard, however, was critical of the excesses of Robespierre, his hero being Danton. According to Aulard,From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life.... The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity." === Cochin and Gaxotte === Augustin Cochin (1876–1916) was a conservative critic of the Revolution whose work was influenced by Taine. He argued that there was a continuous tradition linking pre-revolutionary intellectual groups, the freemasons and the Jacobins. His major works include his posthumously published essays Les Sociétés de Pensée et la Démocratie ('Intellectual societies and democracy', published 1921) and La Révolution et la Libre Pensée ('The Revolution and free thought', published 1924). Furet praised Cochin's "rigorous conceptualisation" of the Revolution. Pierre Gaxotte (1895–1982) was a Royalist critic of the revolution. In his study The French Revolution (1928) he drew on Cochin's work to argue that the Revolution was a conspiracy inspired by pre-revolutionary intellectual societies and was inherently violent from the beginning. The work of Cochin and Gaxotte became the dominant interpretation of the Revolution in Vichy France but fell out of favour after the war. === Albert Mathiez === Albert Mathiez (1874–1932) was a Marxist historian who argued that the Revolution of 1789 was a result of class conflict between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, and was followed by conflict between the bourgeoisie and the sans-culottes, who were a proto-proletariat. He defended Robespierre, arguing that the Terror was necessary to defend the democratic republican revolution and that the Jacobins were overthrown when they tried to carry out a property revolution. The Revolution ended on 9 Thermidor, after which there was only reaction. Mathiez established the Society for Robespierrist Studies and its journal, the Annales Historiques de la Révolution française. His major works include La Révolution française (3 vol. 1922–1924) and La Vie chère et le movement social sous la Terreur (1927). Mathiez was a leading figure in what came to be known as the Marxist, Jacobin or "classic" school of French revolutionary historiography. === Georges Lefebvre === Georges Lefebvre (1874–1959) was a Marxist historian who wrote detailed studies of the French peasantry (Les paysans du Nord (1924)), The Great Fear of 1789 (1932, first English translation 1973) and revolutionary crowds, as well as a general history of the Revolution La Révolution française (published 1951–1957). He argued that the Revolution represented the triumph of the bourgeoisie and that the Terror was a reaction to an aristocratic plot. He presented the peasantry as active participants in the Revolution who held a fundamentally anti-capitalist worldview. Lefebvre held the Chair of French Revolution History at the Sorbonne from 1939 until 1955. He mentored a generation of historians who generally wrote cultural, social and economic interpretations defending the achievements of the Revolution. These historians included Albert Soboul, George Rudé, Richard Cobb, and Franco Venturi. === Albert Soboul === Albert Soboul (1914–1982) was a leading Marxist historian who was Chair of French Revolution History at the Sorbonne from 1968 to 1982 and president of the Société des Études Robespierristes. He specialised in the analysis of popular movements during the Revolution and detailed studies of the sans-culottes. In Les Sansculottes Parisiens en l’An II (Paris, 1958; English translation, The Parisian Sans-Culottes and the French Revolution, 1793-4, 1964) he argued that the sans-culottes reflected a popular movement which drove the radicalisation of the Revolution. In his general history of the Revolution (Histoire de la Révolution française, published 1962) he argued that the Revolution represented the culmination of the long economic and social evolution which made the bourgeoisie the dominant class. === Alfred Cobban and revisionist historians === Alfred Cobban (1901–1968) challenged Marxist social and economic explanations of the revolution in two important works, The Myth of the French Revolution (1955) and Social Interpretation of the French Revolution (1964). Cobban argued that the revolution was primarily a political conflict rather than a social one. The revolution wasn't initiated by a rising capitalist bourgeoisie but rather by a declining class of lawyers and office holders, and feudalism had virtually disappeared before the Revolution. The victors of the Revolution were large and small conservative property owners, a result which retarded economic development. American historian George V. Taylor also challenged the class conflict interpretation of the Revolution. In ‘Noncapitalist Wealth and the Origins of the French Revolution’ (1967) and other essays, he argued that there was little economic conflict between the old regime nobility and capitalists and that the share of wealth represented by capitalist enterprises was small. He concluded that the Revolution was not primarily a social one, but a political revolution with social consequences. === Robert Palmer === In The Age of the Democratic Revolution (2 volumes, 1959–64) Robert Palmer argued against "French exceptionalism". He provided a global interpretation of the Revolution, arguing that the revolutionary conflicts of the second half of the 18th-century amounted to an “Atlantic revolution” or “western revolution”. According to Palmer: “All revolutions since 1800, in Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa, have learned from the eighteenth-century Revolution of Western Civilization.” David Armitage comments: “That judgment might seem guilty of almost every current scholarly sin—Eurocentrism, essentialism, teleology, diffusionism—but it captured the essence of Palmer’s endeavor: to understand the present through the past with the perspective of the longue durée.” Palmer's thesis was rejected by both Marxists and French nationalists. Marvin R. Cox states that Marxist historians accused Palmer of "a brief to provide historical legitimacy for NATO," while French nationalists said it diminished the importance of the French Revolution as an historical event. Armitage also criticised Palmer for his omissions: “Its omission of the Haitian Revolution and of Iberian America—not to mention the absence of the enslaved, women, and much cultural history—implied that Palmer was afraid to acknowledge the truly radical elements of the age of revolution, that he was blind to its exclusions and complacent about its failed promises.” === François Furet === François Furet (1927–1997) was a leading French critic of "Jacobin-Marxist" interpretations of the Revolution. In their influential La Revolution française (1965), Furet and Denis Richet argued for the primacy of political decisions, contrasting the reformist period of 1789-91 with the following interventions of the urban masses which led to radicalisation and an ungovernable situation. Furet later argued that a clearer distinction needed to be made between analyses of political events, and of social and economic changes which usually take place over a much longer period than the Jacobin-Marxist school allowed. He also stated that Jacobin-Marxist interpretations of the revolution harboured a totalitarian tendency, and anachronistically viewed the Revolution in the light of the Russian revolution of October 1917. Furet, however, conceded that the Jacobin-Marxist school had increased the understanding of the role of peasants and the urban masses in the revolution. Influenced by Alexis de Tocqueville and Augustin Cochin, Furet argued that the French should stop seeing the revolution as the key to all aspects of modern French history. Other major works by Furet include Penser la Révolution Française (1978; translated as Interpreting the French Revolution 1981) and A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989). === Other 20th-century historians === Some other influential historians of this period are: Albert Sorel (1842–1906) – Diplomatic historian: Europe et la Révolution française (eight volumes, 1895–1904); introductory section of this work translated as Europe under the Old Regime (1947). Ernest Labrousse (1895–1988) – Performed extensive economic research on 18th-century France. George Rudé (1910–1993) – Another of Lefebvre's protégés, did further work on the popular side of the Revolution, including: The Crowd in the French Revolution (1959). Richard Cobb (1917–1996) was a leading exponent of "history from below" who wrote detailed studies of both provincial and city life, avoiding the revisionism debate by "keeping his nose very close to the ground". His major works include Les armées révolutionnaires (published 1961-63, translated as The People's Armies in 1987). == Modern historiography (1980s to present) == From the 1980s, Western scholars largely abandoned Marxist interpretations of the revolution in terms of bourgeoisie-proletarian class struggle as anachronistic. However, no new explanatory model has gained widespread support. The historiography of the revolution has become more diversified, exploring areas such as cultural histories, regional histories, visual representations, transnational interpretations, and decolonisation. === Cultural studies === From the 1980s, there was a proliferation of interpretations based on the study of language and popular culture, in which the Revolution was largely viewed as a symptom of deeper cultural trends. Some of the more prominent works include: Robert Darnton The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (1982) Keith Michael Baker Inventing the French Revolution (1990) R. Chartier, The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution (1991) Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (1984), and The Family Romance of the French Revolution (1992). === Women and gender === Late 20th-century studies of women and the revolution emphasised the role of women as participants in the revolution but their exclusion from revolutionary political institutions and full citizenship rights. More recent studies have concentrated on the experiences of specific female groups such as teachers, writers, prostitutes, rural women and those associated with the military and have argued that women were often able to promote new notions of citizenship and challenge gendered power relations. Some key works include: Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (1988) Hufton, Olwen, Women and the Limits of Citizenship in the French Revolution (Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1992) Melzer, S. E. and L. W. Rabine, eds., Rebel Daughters: Women and the French Revolution (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992). Godineau, Dominique., The Women of Paris and their French Revolution (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1998) Jennifer Ngaire Heuer, The Family and the Nation: Gender and Citizenship in Revolutionary France, 1789–1830 (Ithaca, NY, 2005) === Decolonisation === Recent studies of the French colonies have largely abandoned the Jacobin-Marxist approach of classic studies such as C. L. R. James' The Black Jacobins (1938) and Aimé Césaire's Toussaint Louverture: La Révolution française et le problème colonial (1960). Scholars such as Michel-Rolph Traillot and Anthony Hurley have emphasised the cultural traditions of colonial slaves, arguing that the Haitian revolution was not a derivative of the French revolution. === Trans-Atlantic and global histories === Trans-Atlantic and global interpretations of the French Revolution have become a major field of study. Important recent histories include Suzanne Desan, Lynn Hunt, and William Max Nelson (eds), The French Revolution in Global Perspective (Ithaca, NY, 2013); David Armitage and Sanjay Subrahmanyan (eds), The Age of Revolutions in Global Context (Basingstoke, 2010); and Wim Klooster, Revolutions in the Atlantic World; a comparative history (New York, 2009). === Other contemporary historians === Simon Schama's Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (1989) is a popular narrative history in the tradition of Cobban and Furet. Schama argues that violence was an essential element of the Revolution from 1789 and that the revolution ended with the fall of Robespierre in 1794. William Doyle, a British revisionist historian who wrote The Origins of the French Revolution (1980) and The Oxford History of the French Revolution (2nd edition 2002). Doyle argues that the outbreak of the revolution was a result of political miscalculation rather than social conflicts. Timothy Tackett has written a number of histories of the Revolution including When the King Took Flight (2004), Becoming a Revolutionary (2006), and The Coming of the Terror in the French Revolution (2015). == Bibliography == Works mentioned, by date of first publication: Burke, Edmund (1790). Reflections on the Revolution in France. Barruel, Augustin (1797). Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire du Jacobinisme. Fauche. Thiers, Adolphe (1823–1827). Histoire de la Révolution française. Mignet, François (1824). Histoire de la Révolution française. Guizot, François (1830). Histoire de la civilisation en France. Paris, Pichon. Carlyle, Thomas (1837). The French Revolution: A History. Michelet, Jules (1847–1856). Histoire de la Révolution française. Tocqueville, Alexis de (1856). L'Ancien régime et la révolution. Lévy. Usually translated as The Old Regime and the French Revolution. Blanc, Louis (1847–1862). Histoire de la Révolution française. Taine, Hippolyte (1875–1893). Origines de la France contemporaine. Sorel, Albert (19 April 1895). L'Europe et la Révolution française. Introductory part translated as Europe under the Old Regime (1947). Aulard, François-Alphonse. The French Revolution, a Political History, 1789–1804 (4 vol. 3rd ed. 1901; English translation 1910); volume 1 1789–1792 online; Volume 2 1792–95 online Mathiez, Albert (1922–27). La Révolution française. Paris, Colin. Lefebvre, Georges (1924). Les paysans du Nord. Cochin, Augustin (1925). Les Sociétés de pensée et la Révolution en Bretagne. Gaxotte, Pierre (1928). La Révolution française. Lefebvre, Georges (1932). La Grande Peur de 1789. Translated as The Great Fear of 1789 (1973). Lefebvre, Georges (1939). Quatre-Vingt-Neuf. Translated as The Coming of the French Revolution (1947). Guérin, Daniel (1946). La lutte de classes sous la Première République. Lefebvre, Georges (1957). La Révolution française. Translated in two volumes: The French Revolution from its origins to 1793 (1962), and The French Revolution from 1793 to 1799 (1967). Rudé, George (1959). The Crowd in the French Revolution. Rudé, George (1988). The French Revolution: Its Causes, Its History and Its Legacy After 200 Years. Grove Press. ISBN 978-1555841508. Cobban, Alfred (1963). The Social Interpretation of the French Revolution. Cambridge. Cobb, Richard (1968). Les armées révolutionnaires. Translated as The People's Armies (1987). Soboul, Albert (1968). Les Sans-Culottes. Translated as The Sans-Culottes (1972). Furet, François (1978). Penser la Révolution française. Gallimard. Translated as Interpreting the French Revolution (1981). Darnton, Robert (1982). The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. Hunt, Lynn (1984). Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution. ISBN 9780520052048. Doyle, William (1988). Origins of the French Revolution. Oxford. Doyle, William (1989). The Oxford History of the French Revolution. Oxford. Furet, François; Mona Ozouf (1988). Dictionnaire critique de la Révolution Française. Translated as A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989). Gauchet, Marcel (1989). La Révolution des droits de l'homme. Gallimard. Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. Knopf. Baker, Keith Michael (1990). Inventing the French Revolution. Hunt, Lynn (1992). The Family Romance of the French Revolution. Connelly, Owen (1993). The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era. Van Kley, Dale K. (1996). The Religious Origins of the French Revolution. Godineau, Dominique (1998). The Women of Paris and their French Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hufton, Olwen (1999). Women and the Limits of Citizenship in the French Revolution. Steel, Mark (2003). Vive La Revolution. Tackett, Timothy (2004). When the King Took Flight. ISBN 9780674010543. Heuer, Jennifer Ngaire (2005). The Family and the Nation: Gender and Citizenship in Revolutionary France, 1789–1830. New York: Ithaca. Tackett, Timothy (2006). Becoming a Revolutionary. Heller, Henry (2006). The Bourgeois Revolution in France: 1789–1815. == References == === Works cited === Bell, David A (2004). "Class, consciousness, and the fall of the bourgeois revolution". Critical Review. 16 (2–3): 323–51. doi:10.1080/08913810408443613. S2CID 144241323. De la Croix de Castries, René (1983). Monsieur Thiers. Librarie Académique Perrin. ISBN 2-262-00299-1. Doyle, William (2018). The Oxford History of the French Revolution (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198804932. Dupuy, Pascal (2012). "The Revolution in History, Commemoration, and Memory". In McPhee, Peter (ed.). A Companion to the French Revolution. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 486–7. ISBN 9781444335644. Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Harvard UP. ISBN 9780674177284. Guiral, Pierre (1986). Adolphe Thiers ou De la nécessité en politique. Paris: Fayard. ISBN 2213018251. Kidron, Hedva Ben-Israel (1968). English historians on the French Revolution. London: Oxford University Press. Rudé, George (1988). The French Revolution: Its Causes, Its History and Its Legacy After 200 Years. Grove Press. ISBN 978-1555841508. Spang, Rebecca L (2003). "Paradigms and Paranoia: How modern Is the French Revolution?". American Historical Review. 108 (1): 119–47. doi:10.1086/533047. JSTOR 10.1086/533047. Tendler, Joseph (2013). "Alphonse Aulard Revisited". European Review of History. 20 (4): 649–69. doi:10.1080/13507486.2012.763159. S2CID 143535928. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Thiers, Louis Adolphe" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. == Further reading == Andress, David (2013). "Polychronicon: Interpreting the French Revolution". Teaching History (150): 28–29. JSTOR 43260509. Baker, Keith Michael; Joseph Zizek (1998). "The American Historiography of the French Revolution". In Anthony Molho; Gordon S. Wood (eds.). Imagined Histories: American Historians Interpret the Past. Princeton University Press. pp. 349–92. Bell, David A., and Yair Mintzker, eds. Rethinking the age of revolutions: France and the birth of the modern world (Oxford UP, 2018. Bell, David A (Winter 2014). "Questioning the Global Turn: The Case of the French Revolution". French Historical Studies. 37 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1215/00161071-2376501. Brinton, Crane (1963). A Decade of Revolution: 1789–1799 (2nd ed.). pp. 293–302. Cavanaugh, Gerald J (1972). "The Present State of French Revolutionary Historiography: Alfred Cobban and Beyond". French Historical Studies. 7 (4): 587–606. doi:10.2307/286200. JSTOR 286200. Censer, Jack R. (2019). "The French Revolution is Not Over: An Introduction". Journal of Social History. 52 (3): 543–44. doi:10.1093/jsh/shy081. S2CID 149714265. Censer, Jack R. (2019). "Intellectual History and the Causes of the French Revolution". Journal of Social History. 52 (3): 545–54. doi:10.1093/jsh/shy082. S2CID 150297989. Censer, Jack (1999). "Social Twists and Linguistic Turns: Revolutionary Historiography a Decade after the Bicentennial". French Historical Studies. 22 (1): 139–67. doi:10.2307/286705. JSTOR 286705. Censer, Jack (1987). "The Coming of a New Interpretation of the French Revolution". Journal of Social History. 21 (2): 295–309. doi:10.1353/jsh/21.2.295. JSTOR 3788145. Cheney, Paul (2019). "The French Revolution's Global Turn and Capitalism's Spatial Fixes". Journal of Social History. 52 (3): 575–83. doi:10.1093/jsh/shy074. S2CID 85505432. Cobban, Alfred (1999). The social interpretation of the French Revolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521661515. rejects Marxist models Cobban, Alfred (1945). "Historical Revision No CVII. The Beginning of the French Revolution". History. 30 (111): 90–98. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1945.tb00879.x. JSTOR /24402690. covers the older studies. Conner, Susan P. (1990). "In the Shadow of the Guillotine and in the Margins of History: English-Speaking Authors View Women in the French Revolution". Journal of Women's History. 1 (3): 244–60. doi:10.1353/jowh.2010.0075. S2CID 144010907. Cox, Marvin R. (1993). "Tocqueville's Bourgeois Revolution". Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques. 19 (3): 279–307. JSTOR 41298973. Cox, Marvin R. (2001). "Furet, Cobban and Marx: The Revision of the "Orthodoxy" Revisited". Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques. 27 (1): 49–77. JSTOR 41299194. D'Antuono, Giuseppina. "Historiographical heritages: Denis Diderot and the men of the French Revolution." Diciottesimo Secolo 6 (2021): 161-168. online Davies, Peter (2006). The Debate on the French Revolution. Manchester University Press.. Basic survey of the historiography Desan, Suzanne (2019). "Recent Historiography on the French Revolution and Gender". Journal of Social History. 52 (3): 566–74. doi:10.1093/jsh/shy079. S2CID 149683075. Desan, Suzanne (2000). "What's after Political Culture? Recent French Revolutionary Historiography". French Historical Studies. 23 (1): 163–96. doi:10.1215/00161071-23-1-163. S2CID 154870583. Desan, Suzanne. "Recent Historiography on the French Revolution and Gender." Journal of Social History 52.3 (2019): 566-574. online Disch, Lisa. "How could Hannah Arendt glorify the American Revolution and revile the French? Placing On Revolution in the historiography of the French and American Revolutions." European Journal of Political Theory 10.3 (2011): 350–71. Douthwaite, Julia V. “On Seeing the Forest through the Trees: Finding Our Way through Revolutionary Politics, History, and Art.” Eighteenth-Century Studies 43#2 2010, pp. 259–63. online Doyle, William. The Oxford history of the French revolution (Oxford UP, 2018). Doyle, William (2001). Origins of the French Revolution (3rd ed.). pp. 1–40. ISBN 0198731744. Dunne, John. "Fifty Years of Rewriting the French Revolution: Signposts Main Landmarks and Current Directions in the Historiographical Debate," History Review. (1998) pp. 8ff. Edelstein, Melvin. The French Revolution and the Birth of Electoral Democracy (Routledge, 2016). Ellis, Geoffrey (1978). "The 'Marxist Interpretation' of the French Revolution". The English Historical Review. 93 (367): 353–76. doi:10.1093/ehr/XCIII.CCCLXVII.353. JSTOR 567066. Farmer, Paul. France Reviews its Revolutionary Origins (1944) Friguglietti, James, and Barry Rothaus, "Interpreting vs. Understanding the Revolution: François Furet and Albert Soboul," Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750–1850: Proceedings, 1987 (1987) Vol. 17, pp. 23–36 Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; strong on history of ideas and historiography (esp pp. 881–1034) excerpt and text search; 17 essays on leading historians, pp. 881–1032 Furet, François. Interpreting the French revolution (1981). Germani, Ian, and Robin Swayles. Symbols, myths and images of the French Revolution. University of Regina Publications. 1998. ISBN 978-0-88977-108-6 Gershoy, Leo. The French Revolution and Napoleon (2nd ed. 1964), scholarly survey Geyl, Pieter. Napoleon for and Against (1949), 477 pp; reviews the positions of major historians regarding Napoleon Guillaume, Lancereau. "Unruly Memory and Historical Order: The Historiography of the French Revolution between Historicism and Presentism (1881-1914)." História da Historiografia: International Journal of Theory and History of Historiography 14.36 (2021): 225-256 online. Hanson, Paul R. Contesting the French Revolution (1999), excerpt and text search, combines analytic history and historiography Hanson, Paul R. (2019). "Political History of the French Revolution since 1989". Journal of Social History. 52 (3): 584–92. doi:10.1093/jsh/shy075. S2CID 150289715. Heller, Henry. The Bourgeois Revolution in France (1789–1815) (Berghahn Books, 2006) defends Marxist model Heuer, Jennifer (2007). "Liberty 'And' Death: The French Revolution". History Compass. 5 (1): 175–200. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00362.x. Hobsbawm, Eric J. Echoes of the Marseillaise: two centuries look back on the French Revolution (Rutgers University Press, 1990) by an English Marxist } Hutton, Patrick H. "The role of memory in the historiography of the french revolution." History and Theory 30.1 (1991): 56–69. Israel, Jonathan. Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History of the French Revolution from The Rights of Man to Robespierre (2014) Jones, Rhys. "Time Warps During the French Revolution." Past & Present 254.1 (2022): 87-125. Kafker, Frank A. and James M. Laux, eds. The French Revolution: Conflicting Interpretations (5th ed. 2002) Kaplan, Steven Laurence. Farewell, Revolution: The Historians' Feud, France, 1789/1989 (1996), focus on historians excerpt and text search Kaplan, Steven Laurence. Farewell, Revolution: Disputed Legacies, France, 1789/1989 (1995); focus on bitter debates re 200th anniversary excerpt and text search Kates, Gary, ed. The French Revolution: Recent Debates and New Controversies (2nd ed. 2005) excerpt and text search Kim, Minchul. "Volney and the French Revolution." Journal of the History of Ideas 79.2 (2018): 221–42. Langlois, Claude; Tacket, Timothy (1990). "Furet's Revolution". French Historical Studies. 16 (4): 766–76. doi:10.2307/286319. JSTOR 286319. Lewis, Gwynne. The French Revolution: Rethinking the Debate (1993) 142 pp Lyons, Martyn. Napoleon Bonaparte and the legacy of the French Revolution (Macmillan, 1994) McManners, J. "The Historiography of the French Revolution," in A. Goodwin, editor, The New Cambridge Modern History: volume VIII: The American and French Revolutions, 1763–93 (1965) 618–52 online McPhee, Peter, ed. (2012). A Companion to the French Revolution. John Wiley & Sons. pp. xv–xxiv. ISBN 9781118316412. Maza, Sarah (1989). "Politics, Culture, and the Origins of the French Revolution". The Journal of Modern History. 61 (4): 704–23. doi:10.1086/468342. JSTOR 1881465. S2CID 144366402. Parker, Noel. Portrayals of Revolution: Images, Debates and Patterns of thought on the French Revolution (1990) Root, Hilton L. (1989). "The Case Against George Lefebvre's Peasant Revolution". History Workshop Journal. 28: 88–102. doi:10.1093/hwj/28.1.88. Rigney, Ann. The Rhetoric of Historical Representation: Three Narrative Histories of the French Revolution (Cambridge UP, 2002) covers Alphonse de Lamartine, Jules Michelet and Louis Blanc. Rosenfeld, Sophia (2019). "The French Revolution in Cultural History". Journal of Social History. 52 (3): 555–65. doi:10.1093/jsh/shy078. S2CID 149798697. Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus, eds. Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789–1799 (2 vol 1984), short essays by scholars Scott, Michael; Christofferson (1999). "An Antitotalitarian History of the French Revolution: Francois Furet's Penser la Revolution francaise in the Intellectual Politics of the Late 1970s". French Historical Studies. 22 (4): 557–611. doi:10.2307/286759. JSTOR 286759. S2CID 154051700. Skocpol, Theda (1989). "Reconsidering the French Revolution in World-Historical Perspective". Social Research. 56 (1): 53–70. JSTOR 40970534. sociological approach Sole, Jacques. "Historiography of the French Revolution," in Michael Bentley, ed. Companion to Historiography (1997) ch 19 pp. 509–25 Sutherland, Donald (1990). "An Assessment of the Writings of Franco̧is Furet". French Historical Studies. 16 (4): 784–91. doi:10.2307/286321. JSTOR 286321. Tarrow, Sidney. “‘Red of Tooth and Claw’: The French Revolution and the Political Process – Then and Now.” French Politics, Culture & Society 29#1 2011, pp. 93–110. online Walton, Charles. "Why the neglect? Social rights and French Revolutionary historiography." French History 33.4 (2019): 503–19. Williamson, George S. "Retracing the Sattelzeit: thoughts on the historiography of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras." Central European History 51.1 (2018): 66-74 online. == External links == French Revolution History in Hindi H-France daily discussion email list	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution
The Historiography of the Suffragette Campaign deals with the various ways Suffragettes are depicted, analysed and debated within historical accounts of their role in the campaign for women's suffrage in early 20th century Britain. The term “Suffragette” refers specifically to British suffragists who campaigned for the rights of women to vote in public elections as part of militant organisations, such as the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). These organisations were formed under the belief that existing legal and constitutional campaigning had achieved little towards the success of the women's suffrage campaign in Britain, and more drastic measures were needed. Suffragettes, under the motto of “Deeds, Not Words”, engaged in civil disobedience and disruption, smashing windows, exploding letterboxes, cutting telegraph wires and storming parliament in an attempt to oversee the success of their cause. Although female enfranchisement was granted with the Representation of the People Acts of 1918 and 1928, the militant campaigning methods of Suffragettes have become a source of contention amongst historical accounts. The debate primarily centres around whether militancy was a justified, effective and decisive means to a failing political end, or acted as a hindrance to the ongoing constitutional campaigning of other suffragists by alienating politicians and the British public. There are four main schools of Suffragette history, each taking a different position on the perceived efficacy, or lack thereof, of Suffragettes. == The Militant School == The Militant school is one of two founding schools of Suffragette history, established within the accounts and autobiographies of WSPU members, who supported and engaged in militancy themselves. Accounts of the Militant school focus on a dichotomous organisation of suffragists as either militants or non-militants, presenting Suffragettes as necessary and effective saviours to a failing political cause, and justifying militancy by arguing that without it, female enfranchisement would not have been achieved when it was. When the WSPU was formed, it focused on a complete break from the constitutionalist campaigning that had emerged in the 19th century and continued with the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) into the 20th century. Constitutionalists believed that social change would be instigated by “the gradual and progressive evolution of a society through its own organic capacity for developments and growth”, or that with minimal campaigning, society would evolve of its own accord and grant women the vote. The WSPU disputed this; Emmeline Pankhurst's ‘Freedom or Death’ speech of 1913 revealed her view that constitutional methods had been ineffective in gaining enfranchisement in a male-centred and male-dominated political environment. The Suffragette motto, ‘Deeds, Not Words’, was therefore implemented to take what Suffragettes argued was a stronger force of social action; and it is this position accounts of the Militant school present. Within their respective autobiographies My Own Story and Unshackled, Suffragettes and WSPU founders Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst both justify the decision to adopt militancy with the breakaway of the WSPU as a direct response to the perceived lack of progress of the non-militant NUWSS, to which they had both previously belonged. Both accounts express belief that non-militants had achieved little with constitutional lobbying, and that militancy was thus a necessity if the campaign was to be successful. As Emmeline Pankhurst wrote, the value of militant actions held an “innumerable value” that constitutionalist campaigning could not match. Central to the militant account of Emmeline Pankhurst is also the argument that the militancy of Suffragettes was justified as the same means through which men had procured their own enfranchisement in Britain previously. The Militant school posits that militancy and suffrage historically go hand in hand, and therefore militancy was a justified, historically proven means to an end. As well as justifying the actions of Suffragettes, the Militant school also posits that it was Suffragettes alone who ensured the success of the Suffrage campaign. Suffragette Annie Kenney said that at the time of the militant split, there was “no living interest in the question” of votes for women amongst the British public, rendering the campaign stagnant. Suffragette Mona Caird wrote that constitutional campaigning provided no evidence in the eyes of the public and politicians that women wanted the vote, but Suffragettes and the militant campaign amended this by placing the campaign within practical politics. Ultimately, Frederick Pethick-Lawrence of the Militant school argued it was only the actions of Suffragettes which “shook the complacency of the government” adequately enough to spur any action, to the extent that it was unlikely the vote would have been granted at all were it not for their militant campaign. The Militant school thus posits that without militancy, female enfranchisement in Britain would not have been achieved when it was, and that Suffragettes were justified in their actions as those responsible for the passing of female enfranchisement within British parliament where their constitutionalist counterparts had failed. == The Constitutionalist School == The Constitutionalist School is the second founding school of Suffragette history, established within the accounts of constitutionalist suffragists such as those belonging to the NUWSS. Accounts of the constitutionalist school come from those suffragists who engaged in traditional and lawful campaigning, and disapproved of militancy and Suffragettes as a hindrance to their own efforts. The most widely regarded constitutionalist work is The Cause by NUWSS member Ray Strachey. The NUWSS held a “strong disapprobation of the use of physical force and physical violence” as a means to a political end; constitutionalist accounts such as Strachey's therefore stand directly at odds with the accounts of the Militant school, and established the initial historical debate surrounding the actions of Suffragettes. Within The Cause, Strachey presents Suffragettes as inferior to constitutional suffragists through a dichotomous distinction between the “organised, powerful and politically important” NUWSS, compared to the “defiant and antagonistic” WSPU. She writes that militants displayed a “lack of dignity” and held “extraordinary notoriety”, which was directly rousing public protests and had “no favourable effect” on the campaign by antagonising the government. Much focus is therefore placed on how militancy alienated the British public by making the campaign appear “absurd”, and presenting women as too emotional and irrational to participate in politics. Suffragette historian Paula Bartley also presents a constitutionalist analysis in her account of the actions of Suffragettes. She writes that militancy undermined Suffragist efforts to present women as “mature adults” who were worthy of the vote, instead making the whole campaign appear irrational. This, she writes, provided the “ideal excuse” for the government at the time to continue to deny female suffrage. Indeed, Winston Churchill wrote in a letter to Christabel Pankhurst, cited within constitutionalist accounts, that his attitude of “growing sympathy” towards female enfranchisement was undermined by the actions of Suffragettes, who had alienated his support with their militant campaigning. At odds with the Militant school's depiction of Suffragettes, the Constitutionalist school posits that constitutional suffragists were on the way to success in gaining female enfranchisement, and had politicians and the public on side, before militancy hindered any further support and even caused discouragement and alienation among those who had previously supported the cause. The historiographical debate thus emerged between these two schools as to whether Suffragettes were to be credited with the success of women's suffrage in Britain, or credited with delaying it. == The Masculinist School == The Masculinist school of Suffragette history emerged in the decades following the Militant and Constitutionalist schools, with George Dangerfield's The Strange Death of Liberal England as the foundational work. The Masculinist school is so-titled by Suffragette historian Sandra Stanley Holton because it is a male-constructed addition to the historiography of Suffragettes, depicting them as a women's political movement that was, by its existence, an aberration from traditional male politics which would have by itself overseen the granting of female enfranchisement. The Masculinist school's analysis of Suffragettes focuses on blaming them for the failure of successive liberal governments to grant women the vote, due to their militant activities. Dangerfield writes militancy was seen as “neither sensible nor endearing” to the public, and as a result, the sympathy of both politicians and the public to the suffragist cause “ebbed away” and the granting of female enfranchisement was significantly delayed. He also describes Suffragettes as “ludicrous” and “melodramatic”, and describes their militant campaign as a “brutal comedy” which invited “unprincipled laughter” amongst parliament and the public, sharing the Constitutionalist view that militancy caused women to be seen as unworthy and undeserving of the vote compared to their male counterparts. Walter L. Arnstein similarly attributed Suffragettes as hindrances to their own efforts, writing “the law-minded prime minister” David Lloyd George was, “understandably enough, not attracted to a cause whose adherents vilified him” through militant attacks. Brian Harrison also blames militancy for the refusal of the liberal government to enfranchise women, as he claims favourable public opinion was instrumental to the success of the movement, but the disruption and violence of Suffragettes and their militancy only created public opposition, and perpetuated the view that women were too emotional and could not think logically enough to vote. The Masculinist school does depict Suffragettes as justified in their belief that women were deserving of the vote, and does not deny support for female enfranchisement. However, defining the Masculinist school is also the view that women would have been granted this right eventually as the “vehicles of the inevitable historical processes that were the political actions of men”. Suffragettes and their actions are argued to have delayed what Masculinist's propose was a natural and already underway progression towards female enfranchisement. Masculinist histories thus posit that in taking actions into their own hands, Suffragettes delayed a historically inevitable process, as their actions alienated public and political opinion to too large an extent to be considered useful. == Contemporary Feminist Schools == Developing later in the 20th century were the new-feminist schools of suffrage history, influenced by the emergence of radical feminist historians, whose ideology encompassed second-wave feminism and whose construction of history was focused on subverting the marginalisation of women in the historical record. Contemporary Feminist schools tend not to side with either the Militant, Constitutionalist or Masculinist Schools on the historical debate surrounding Suffragettes’ contributions to the enfranchisement movement, but rather focus on an evaluation of the position of each amongst a broader discussion of the historical and social implications of the Suffragette's actions. Some Contemporary Feminist Schools also focus on shifting Suffragette history away from the hindrance-or-help debate, and thus do not participate at all in the historical debate. The Radical feminist school does engage in this debate. Central to this analysis is the argument that women's liberation required a total restructuring of society, and militancy was and continues to be a means to achieve this. In terms of Suffragette history, this gave rise to the argument that militancy was necessary and effective not just as a political tactic, but as a significant symbol of wider female emancipation and societal change. June Purvis claimed that the widely held academic and historical focus on militancy shows little understanding of what the enfranchisement movement actually meant, due to its focus on the effects of militancy, rather than the causes. She claims the causes of militancy were born from “a sense of the burning injustice of the wrongs done to [females] in a male-dominated society”, and thus that militancy was an “unavoidable adaptation of the masculine justification of force”. She depicts militancy as justified within its context, as a tactic previously adopted by male suffragists, and analyses it as a mark of wider female emancipation, subverting traditional activities of women in the political sphere. From a radical feminist view, militancy was not simply a radical political tactic undertaken purely to win the vote, but ran much deeper as a “repudiation of submissiveness”, as women felt it necessary to subvert their traditional roles in society to not only win the vote but to achieve wider emancipation. The Radical feminist school therefore interprets militancy as much more than just the effective or ineffective political tactics examined in militant, constitutionalist and masculinist schools, and instead depicts Suffragettes as spurring a movement that inspired greater female emancipation and societal change on a much broader scale. In regards to the debate surrounding the efficacy, or lack thereof, of Suffragettes, consensus amongst Contemporary Feminist schools is that neither Suffragettes nor their constitutionalist counterparts can be credited with standalone success in the achievement of female enfranchisement. Rather, it is argued that constitutionalists gained political confidence from the radical actions of Suffragettes, and were able to exploit the public awareness militancy raised, positive or not, to further their cause. Contemporary Feminist Schools therefore posit that whether a hindrance or a help to broader Suffragist efforts, Suffragettes were a necessary part of the granting of female enfranchisement within Britain. == See also == Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom Women's Social and Political Union == References ==	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes
The Great Game was a rivalry between the 19th-century British and Russian empires over influence in Central Asia, primarily in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. The two colonial empires used military interventions and diplomatic negotiations to acquire and redefine territories in Central and South Asia. Russia conquered Turkestan, and Britain expanded and set the borders of British India. By the early 20th century, a line of independent states, tribes, and monarchies from the shore of the Caspian Sea to the Eastern Himalayas were made into protectorates and territories of the two empires. Though the Great Game was marked by distrust, diplomatic intrigue, and regional wars, it never erupted into a full-scale war directly between Russian and British colonial forces. However, the two nations battled in the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856, which affected the Great Game. The Russian and British Empires also cooperated numerous times during the Great Game, including many treaties and the Afghan Boundary Commission. Britain feared Russia's southward expansion would threaten India, while Russia feared the expansion of British interests into Central Asia. As a result, Britain made it a high priority to protect all approaches to India, while Russia continued its military conquest of Central Asia. Aware of the importance of India to the British, Russian efforts in the region often had the aim of extorting concessions from them in Europe, but after 1901, they had no serious intention of directly attacking India. Russian war plans for India that were proposed but never materialised included the Duhamel and Khrulev plans of the Crimean War (1853–1856). Russia and Britain's 19th-century rivalry in Asia began with the planned Indian March of Paul and Russian invasions of Iran in 1804–1813 and 1826–1828, shuffling Persia into a competition between colonial powers. According to one major view, the Great Game started on 12 January 1830, when Lord Ellenborough, the president of the Board of Control for India, tasked Lord Bentinck, the governor-general, with establishing a trade route to the Emirate of Bukhara. Britain aimed to create a protectorate in Afghanistan, and support the Ottoman Empire, Persia, Khiva, and Bukhara as buffer states against Russian expansion. This would protect India and key British sea trade routes by blocking Russia from gaining a port on the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean. As Russian and British spheres of influence expanded and competed, Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone. Traditionally, the Great Game came to a close between 1895 and 1907. In September 1895, London and Saint Petersburg signed the Pamir Boundary Commission protocols, when the border between Afghanistan and the Russian Empire was defined using diplomatic methods. In August 1907, the Anglo-Russian Convention created an alliance between Britain and Russia, and formally delineated control in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. == Name == The phrase "the Great Game" was used well before the 19th century and was associated with games of risk, such as cards and dice. The French equivalent Le grand jeu dates back to at least 1585 and is associated with meanings of risk, chance and deception. The term Great Game was coined in 1840 by a British intelligence officer Captain Arthur Conolly (1807–1842). Rudyard Kipling's 1901 novel Kim popularized the term, increasing its association with great power rivalry. It became even more popular after the 1979 advent of the Soviet–Afghan War. In the historical sense, the term dates from the mid-19th century. Captain Conolly had been appointed as a political officer. A similar term, the "Tournament of Shadows" was reportedly used by Russian diplomat Karl Nesselrode. In July 1840, in correspondence to Major Henry Rawlinson who had been recently appointed as the new political agent in Kandahar, Conolly wrote, "You've a great game, a noble game, before you." Conolly believed that Rawlinson's new post gave him the opportunity to advance humanitarianism in Afghanistan, and summed up his hopes:If the British Government would only play the grand game – help Russia cordially to all that she has a right to expect – shake hands with Persia – get her all possible amends from Oosbegs – force the Bukhara Amir to be just to us, the Afghans, and other Oosbeg states, and his own kingdom – but why go on; you know my, at any rate in one sense, enlarged views. The expediency, nay the necessity of them will be seen, and we shall play the noble part that the first Christian nation of the world ought to fill. It was introduced into the mainstream by the British novelist Rudyard Kipling in his novel Kim (1901). It was first used academically by Professor H.W.C. Davis in a presentation titled The Great Game in Asia (1800–1844) on 10 November 1926. The use of the term "The Great Game" to describe Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia became common only after the Second World War. == First signs of possible India invasion == At the start of the 19th century, the Indian subcontinent was ruled in part by independent princely states and in part by the company rule of the British East India Company. During the 19th century, a political and diplomatic confrontation developed between Britain and Russia over Afghanistan which would become known as The Great Game. Russia's foreign policy was driven by the perspective that Britain would develop and control commercial and military inroads into Central Asia, and Britain's foreign policy was based on expectations of Russia adding the "jewel in the crown", India, to the vast empire that Russia was building in Asia. This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and the constant threat of war between the two empires. If Russia were to gain control of the Emirate of Afghanistan, it might then be used as a staging post for a Russian invasion of India, was the British line of thinking. Napoleon had proposed a joint Franco-Russian invasion of India to tsar Paul I of Russia. Expecting a future action by the British against Russia and her allies in Europe, Paul decided in 1801 to make the first move towards where he believed the British Empire was weakest (Indian March of Paul). He wrote to the Ataman of the Don Cossacks Troops, Cavalry General Vasily Petrovich Orlov, directing him to march to Orenburg, conquer the Central Asian Khanates, and from there invade India. Paul was assassinated in the same year, and the invasion was terminated. Historian Peter Hopkirk wrote that Tsar Paul had not been able to obtain a detailed map of India until the Cossacks' departure from Orenburg. He quotes the Tsar as instructing Orlov: "My maps only go as far as Khiva and the River Oxus. Beyond these points it is your affair to gain information about the possessions of the English, and the condition of the native population subject to their rule". The British public learned about the incident years later, but it firmly imprinted on the popular consciousness, contributing to feelings of mutual suspicion and distrust associated with the Great Game. Hugh Seton-Watson observed that "the grotesque plan had no military significance, but at least showed its author's state of mind". Hopkirk remarked that "no serious thought or study has been given to this wild adventure". Napoleon tried to persuade Paul's son, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, to invade India; however Alexander resisted. In 1807, Napoleon dispatched General Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane on a French military mission to Persia, with the intention of persuading Russia to invade India. In response, Britain sent its own diplomatic missions in 1808, with military advisers, to Persia and Afghanistan under the capable Mountstuart Elphinstone, averting the possible French and Russian threat to India. However, Britain was left with concerns about being able to defend its colony on the subcontinent. At the time, Russia also went to war with Qajar Iran and invaded the Persian Caucasus from 1804-1813, adding to Britain's fears, while Russia was distracted mainly by the Napoleonic Wars. In 1810, British Lieutenant Henry Pottinger and Captain Charles Christie undertook an expedition from Nushki (Balochistan) to Isfahan (Central Persia) disguised as Muslims. The expedition was funded by the East India Company and was to map and research the regions of "Beloochistan" (Balochistan) and Persia because of concerns about India being invaded by French forces from that direction. After the disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812 and the collapse of the French army, the threat of a French invasion through Persia was removed. The shah of Iran, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar would become part of diplomatic intrigues about India. He first received limited British support in 1801 that was canceled after Russia's invasion of Persia in 1804. Fath-Ali then lent a promise to Napoleon in 1807 to theoretically invade British India in exchange for French military assistance (Gardane's mission) which fell through despite the Treaty of Finckenstein. When France allied with Russia at Tilsit in 1807, as Russia was still invading Iran, Fath-Ali Shah turned toward British diplomacy and alliance in 1809. The shah was also able to use a rivalry between the East India Company and the British Foreign Office, to garner more British aid. In the 1809 preliminary Treaty of Tehran, Persia agreed to stop any European or foreign army passing to India, while the British agreed to send a mission to train sixteen thousand Persian soldiers and, if Qajar Persia was invaded by a European state, pay a £100,000 subsidy to Persia, while attempting to mediate if at peace with Persia's enemy.: 167 Nevertheless, Russia would end up defeating Iran a few years later, with Britain mediating the treaty. The Russo-Persian Wars began to coalesce into a point of tension between the British and Russian empires, particularly following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, which gave the Russian Empire the theoretical right to intervene in Persia at any time, a humiliation of Persia. Fath-Ali Shah sought to counterbalance Russia by increasing the ties between the Qajars and Britain; the British offered military and financial assistance to the shah, supporting Iran as a buffer between Russia and India. The Russian invasion of Iran in 1826-1828 led to a Russian victory, weakening Qajar Iran which retained only minimal influence and power. This fully placed Persia into another colonial contest between Russia and Britain. == Beginnings == === Britain's perspective === The Great Game is said to have begun on 12 January 1830 when Lord Ellenborough, the president of the Board of Control for India tasked Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General of India, to establish a new trade route to Bukhara. Following the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) and the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), Britain expected that Persia and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) would be forced to become protectorates of Russia. This would change Britain's perception of the world, and its response was The Great Game. Britain had no intention of getting involved in the Middle East, but it did envision a series of buffer states between the British and Russian Empires that included Turkey, Persia, plus the Khanate of Khiva and the Khanate of Bukhara that would grow from future trade. Behind these buffer states would be their protected states stretching from the Persian Gulf to India and up into the Emirate of Afghanistan, with British sea-power protecting trade sea-lanes. Access to Afghanistan was to be through developing trade routes along the Indus and Sutlej rivers using steam-powered boats, and therefore access through the Sind and Punjab regions would be required. Persia would have to give up its claim on Herat in Afghanistan. Afghanistan would need to be transformed from a group of warring principalities into one state ruled by an ally whose foreign relations would be conducted on his behalf by the Governor-General and the Foreign Office. The Great Game meant closer ties between Britain and the states along her northwest frontier. Britain believed that it was the world's first free society and the most industrially advanced country, and therefore that it had a duty to use its iron, steam power, and cotton goods to take over Central Asia and develop it. British goods were to be followed by British values and the respect for private property. With pay for work and security in place, nomads would settle and become tribal herdsman surrounding oasis cities. These were to develop into modern states with agreed borders, as in the European model. Therefore, lines needed to be agreed and drawn on maps. Morgan says that two proud and expanding empires approached each other, without any agreed frontier, from opposite directions over a "backward, uncivilized and undeveloped region."Here we are, just as we were, snarling at each other, hating each other, but neither wishing for war. – Lord Palmerston (1835)American historian David Fromkin argues that by the mid-19th century the British had developed at least nine reasons to expect a major war with Russia unless Russian expansion in Asia could be stopped: Expansion would upset the balance of power by making Russia too powerful. Sooner or later Russia will invade India. Russian success would encourage anti-colonial elements in India to revolt. It would undermine the old Islamic regimes of central Asia leading to a frantic war among the powers for shares of the spoils. It would add power and prestige to the Russian regime that was the great enemy of political freedom. The British people hated and feared Russia and demanded a pushing back. It could disrupt the established British trade with Asia. It would strengthen protectionism and thereby undermine the free trading ideal that Britain was committed to. When Russia reached the Indian Ocean it could threaten the naval communications that held the British Empire together. By the late 19th century London added the argument that Russian success against the Ottoman Empire would seriously embarrass Britain's reputation for diplomatic prowess. And finally petroleum deposits in central Asia were discovered in the early 20th century. This oil was essential to the modernization of the Royal Navy, and to build Britain's economy. In the early 1880s Russia failed to float a nine 9 million loan on the European markets for its strategic geopolitical enterprises, driving severe budget cuts by the Minister of Finance. For the construction of the Russo-Indian railway however, an operation supervised by renowned engineer General Mikhail Annenkov, funding had been freely furnished. The Tsar also entered into agreements about delivery of munition for its fortresses at an estimated value of one million sterling, with German steel magnate Alfred Krupp, being the arms manufacturer for the German Empire. === Russia's perspective === In 1557, Bokhara and Khiva sent ambassadors to Ivan IV seeking permission to trade in Russia. Russia had an interest in establishing a trade route from Moscow to India. From then until the mid-19th century, Russian ambassadors to the region spent much of their time trying to free Russians who had been taken as slaves by the khanates. Russia would later expand across Siberia to the Far East, where it reached the Pacific port that would become known as Vladivostok by 1859. This eastward expansion was of no concern to the British Foreign Office because this area did not lie across any British trade routes or destinations, and therefore was of no interest to Britain. Beginning in the 1820s, Russian troops would begin to advance southward from Siberia in search of secure boundaries and reliable neighbors. This advance would not cease until Russia's frontiers and her sphere of influence were firm in the Central Asia, and this would include Bokhara and Khiva. Between 1824 and 1854, Russia occupied the entire Kazakh Khanate (modern-day Kazakhstan). This raised Russo-Khivan tensions in addition to Khiva's legal discrimination of Russian merchants who were just beginning to penetrate Central Asia, and the ongoing issue of Russian slaves. Russia launched an attack in 1839–1840 but it failed to reach Khiva because of the tough terrain and weather. However, the khan of Khiva feared a further Russian assault and released a number of Russian slaves. During the 1840s and 1850s, Russia's aims in Central Asia were for Bukhara and Khiva to refrain from hostile actions against Russia, cease possession of Russian slaves and the granting of asylum to Kazakhs fleeing from Russian justice. Khiva must cease her attacks on caravans along the Syr Darya. Russian merchants must be allowed to trade on the same terms as native merchants in Bukhara and Khiva. The khanates must guarantee the safety of the persons and property of Russian merchants, levy no excessive duties, permit unhampered transit of goods and caravans across Central Asia into neighboring states and allow Russian commercial agents to reside in Bukhara and Khiva, and free navigation on the Amu Darya river for Russian ships. None of these aims was realised. Russia's borders remained insecure and in addition there was growing British influence in the region. In 1869, when British diplomat Clarendon proposed the Amu Darya river as the basis for a neutral zone between British and Russian spheres of influence, Alexander Gorchakov proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone. Russia feared the influence that a Muslim power with British support might have on the other khanates in the region. The Russian Empire sought to expand its access to strategic coastlines such as the Black Sea, Persian Gulf, and the Pacific. Russian war plans against British India were developed during the Crimean War, presented to the Tsar in 1854 and 1855. These were the Duhamel plan and Khrulev plan. According to historian Evgeny Sergeev, the Great Game represented a great power competition that did not initiate only with Russia's defeat in the Crimean War in 1856, but was already well underway and was only intensified thereafter. Expansion into Central Asia was closely connected with ambitions in India. Historian Alexandre Andreyev argued that the rapid advance of the Russian Empire in Central Asia, while mainly serving to extend the southern frontier, was aimed to keep British eyes off of the January uprising in Poland. Andreyev states that, as late as 1909, strategists of the Russian Empire sought to use Afghanistan to "threaten India... to exert influence on Britain", quoting Andrei Snesarev. According to diplomatic historian Barbara Jelavich, it was logistically not possible for the Russian Empire to invade India and was not seriously considered, however the Tsars understood that making invasion plans threatening the "jewel" of Britain's empire was a way to extract more favorable outcomes in Europe. Similarly to the British Empire, the Russian Empire saw themselves as a "civilizing power" expanding a purely humanitarian mission among the Turcomans into what they perceived a "semi-barbarous" region, reflecting the ideology of the time. == Early explorations and accounts == === East India Company === In 1782, George Forster, a civil servant of the East India Company, undertook a journey that began in Calcutta, Bengal and passed through Kashmir, Afghanistan, Herat, Khorassan, Mazanderan, crossed the Caspian Sea by ship, and then travelled to Baku, Astrakhan, Moscow, St Petersburg and then by ship to London. Forster's detailed description of the journey was published in 1798. William Moorcroft was an explorer, doctor, veterinary surgeon, and Superintendent of the East India Company's horse stud. He had an interest in expanding trade in Central Asia, where he thought the Russian traders were already active. In 1820, Moorcroft, George Trebeck and George Guthrie left India for Bukhara to buy Turkoman horses and reached Bukhara in 1825. However, all three died of fever on the return journey. His travels were published in 1841. Charles Masson, formerly of the East India Company, resided in Baluchistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab between 1826 and 1838 and published his travels. In September 1829, Lieutenant Arthur Conolly of the East India Company travelled from St. Petersburg, Russia to the Caspian desert, to Kir (northern Iran), was detained in Astrabad (northern Iran) as a Russian spy, then travelled with a caravan of pilgrims to Meshed, marched with the Afghan army from there to Herat, then traveled to Kandahar, to Quetta, then across the Indian desert to the British frontier in January 1831. He published his travels in 1834. However, after 1830, Britain's commercial and diplomatic interest to the north-west would eventually become formidable. In 1831, Captain Alexander Burnes and Colonel Henry Pottinger's surveys of the Indus river would prepare the way for a future assault on the Sind to clear a path towards Central Asia. Burnes embarked on a dangerous 12-month journey beginning in 1831 into Afghanistan and through the Hindu Kush to Bukhara, returning in 1832. Burnes, a Christian travelling through a Muslim country was one of the first to study Afghanistan for British Intelligence and upon his return, he published his book, Travels To Bukhara, which became an overnight success in 1834. Between 1832 and 1834, Britain attempted to negotiate trade agreements with Ranjit Singh, ruler of the Sikh empire, and the Amirs of Sindh. However, these attempts were unsuccessful. ==== Afghanistan and Central Asia ==== In 1835, Lord Auckland was appointed Governor-General, and replaced Bentinck who had pursued a non-intervention policy. The India Board instructed Auckland:to watch more closely than has hitherto been attempted the progress of events in Afghanistan, and to counteract the progress of Russian influence...The mode of dealing with this very important question, whether by dispatching a confidential agent to Dost Mohammed of Kabul merely to watch the progress of events, or to enter into relations with this Chief, either of a political or merely in the first instance of a commercial character, we confide in your discretion as well as the adoption of any other measures that may appear to you desirable to counteract Russian influence in that quarter, should you be satisfied...that the time has arrived at which it would be right for you to interfere decidedly in the affairs of Afghanistan. Such an interference would doubtless be requisite, either to prevent the extension of Persian dominion in that quarter or to raise a timely barrier against the impending encroachments of Russian influence.In that year, Lieutenant John Wood of the Indian Navy commanded the first steamboat to paddle up the Indus River and surveyed the river as he went. In 1838, he led an expedition that found one of the River Oxus' sources in central Asia. He published his travels in 1872. In 1837, the Russian envoy Captain Jan Vitkevitch visited Kabul, and the British believed that it was to facilitate some form of diplomatic or military presence in Afghanistan. While in Kabul, he dined with the British envoy, Captain Alexander Burnes, who reported negatively on Russia's intentions. Russia feared British inroads on their commerce in Central Asia, as well as the influence that a Muslim power with British support might have on the other khanates. In 1837, Russian troops occupied the island of Ashuradeh in the Gorgan Bay of the southern Caspian Sea. However, from 1837 to 1857 the Russian Empire lent their support to the Shah. In 1838, Colonel Charles Stoddart of the East India Company arrived in the Emirate of Bukhara to arrange an alliance with Nasrullah Khan. Nasrullah Khan had Stoddart imprisoned in a vermin-infested dungeon because he had not bowed nor brought gifts. In 1841, Captain Arthur Conolly arrived to try to secure Stoddart's release. He was also imprisoned and on 17 June 1842 both men were beheaded. On hearing of the execution of the two British officers, Emperor Nicholas I of Russia would no longer receive Bukhara's gifts or emissaries, and its ambassador was turned back at Orenburg with a message that the Emperor would no longer have anything to do with the Emir of Bukhara. After its two representatives were executed in Bukhara, Britain actively discouraged officers from traveling in Turkestan. During 1838, there were rumors in London of a coming Russian move towards Khiva. Additionally, Persia intended to annex Herat to make up for territory it had lost in the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), however the allegiance of Herat to Afghanistan was crucial to the British strategy. The Siege of Herat began in November 1837, when the new Shah of Persia, Mohammed Mirza, arrived before Herat. His intention was to take Herat then move on to Kandahar. With him was the Russian Envoy Count Simonich, seconded Russian officers and a regiment of Russian deserters under the Polish general Berowski. Eldred Pottinger, an officer of the Bengal Artillery, who had earlier entered Herat in disguise, stiffened the defences and despite the presence of Russian advisers the siege lasted eight months. Britain threatened to take military action and Persia withdrew in September. In October 1838, Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto, a piece of propaganda designed to blacken the reputation of Dost Mohammad Khan (Emir of Afghanistan) and which claimed that Dost Mohammad:openly threatened...to call in every foreign aid that he could command...we could never hope that the tranquility of our neighborhood could be secured...the Governor-General confidently hopes that the Shah will speedily be replaced on his throne...the independence and integrity of Afghanistan restored, the British army will be withdrawn. == First Anglo-Afghan War == British influence was to be extended into Afghanistan and it was to become a buffer state. The intention to invade was clear, and when a copy of the Manifesto reached London there was no objection. In 1838, the British marched into Afghanistan and deposed Dost Mohammad Khan. After a period of resistance, Dost Mohammad surrendered despite his victories. The British sent him into exile in India and replaced him with the previous ruler, Shah Shuja, who shared their more progressive vision for the people of the region. Shah Shuja ul-Mulk had ascended the throne in 1803 and had signed a mutual defence agreement with the British in 1809 against a possible Franco-Russian invasion of India via Afghanistan. In the same year he was deposed and imprisoned by his half-brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani. There were a number of Amirs of Afghanistan until Dost Mohammad Khan gained power in 1826. Shah Shuja was not popular with the Afghans and tensions grew, leading to the killing of the British envoy, Captain Alexander Burnes, in 1841. By January 1842, the Afghans were in full revolt. With a weakening of military discipline, the British decided to withdraw from Kabul. The Kabul garrison of 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers left Kabul for Jalalabad that was 80 miles and 5 days march away. They were attacked by 30,000 Afghans. Six British officers escaped on horseback but only one, the wounded Dr William Brydon riding on a wounded horse, made it to Jalalabad. Over one hundred of the British and 2,000 sepoys and camp followers were taken hostage and the rest killed. So perished the "Army of the Indus". In April, a punitive expedition was dispatched and recaptured Kabul and freed the captives in September. The new Governor-General, Lord Ellenborough, decided to withdraw all British garrisons from Afghanistan and Dost Mohammad Khan was freed in India to return to the throne. Dost Mohammad is reported to have said:I have been struck by the magnitude of your resources, your ships, your arsenals, but what I cannot understand is why the rulers of so vast and flourishing an empire should have gone across the Indus to deprive me of my poor and barren country. === Khiva (1839) === In 1839, acting Captain James Abbott of the Bengal Artillery undertook a mission to the Khanate of Khiva in an attempt to negotiate the release of Russian slaves that would deny the Russians a pretext for invading Khiva. If war had already broken out, Abbot was instructed to attempt to negotiate a settlement. The attempted Russian assault on Khiva may have been in response to Britain's "forward policy" on Afghanistan, however it failed to reach Khiva due to the severe winter conditions. Of the 5,000 men who had left Orenburg, only 4,000 returned. Abbott was hampered by a lack of understanding of Khivan language and culture, and the attempt to release Russian slaves was unsuccessful. He did agree with the Khivan ruler, Allah Quli Khan, to establishing a British agent to Khiva and to mediate between Khiva and Russia. Abbott set off from Khiva in 1840 towards Russia to commence negotiations, which he did on his own initiative and it was not authorised by his superiors. His caravan was attacked by Khazakhs and he was wounded in the hand and taken hostage, however he and his party were released because they feared retribution. He reached Saint Petersburg but the attempt at mediation failed. His bravery was recognized through promotion to full Captain. In the same year, Lieutenant Richmond Shakespear of the Bengal Artillery was successful in negotiating the release of 416 Russian captives, whom he escorted into Russia. He was knighted for this undertaking. == Anglo-Sikh Wars == In 1843, Britain annexed the Sind. The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought between the Sikh Empire and the East India Company in 1845–1846, resulting in the partial subjugation of the Sikh kingdom. The Second Anglo-Sikh War was fought in 1848–1849, resulting in subjugation of the remainder of the Sikh Empire, and the annexation of the Punjab Province and what subsequently became the North-West Frontier Province. == Anglo-Persian War == In 1856, Persia commenced an assault on Herat and the British Home Government declared war on Persia. The Anglo-Persian War was conducted under Major General Sir James Outram until 1857, when Persia and Britain both withdrew and Persia signed a treaty renouncing its claim on Herat. == Further expansion == === Under the British Crown === Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the East India Company's remaining powers were transferred to the British Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (who in 1876 was proclaimed Empress of India). As a state, the British Raj functioned as the guardian of a system of connected markets maintained by military power, business legislation and monetary management. The Government of India Act 1858 saw the India Office of the British government assume the administration of British India through a Viceroy appointed by the Crown. In 1863 Sultan Ahmad Khan of Herat, who was placed into power by Persia and issued coinage on behalf of the Shah, attacked the disputed town of Farrah. Farrah had been under Dost Mohammad Khan's control since 1856, and he responded by sending his army to defeat Herat and reunited it with Afghanistan. === Under Alexander II of Russia === The Crimean War had ended in 1856 with Russia's defeat by an alliance of Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire. The new and wary Alexander II of Russia waited some years so as not to antagonize the British, then Russia expanded into Central Asia in two campaigns. In 1864, a circular was sent to the consular officers abroad by Gorchakov, the Russian Chancellor, patiently explaining the reasons for expansion centering on the doctrines of necessity, power and spread of civilisation. Gorchakov went to great lengths to explain that Russia's intentions were meant not to antagonize the British but to bring civilised behavior and protect the traditional trade routes through the region. The first campaign started from Orenburg and proceeded in the direction of Kabul in Afghanistan. Russia occupied Chimkent in 1864, Tashkent in 1865, Khokhand and Bukhara in 1866, and Samarkand in 1868. Russia's influence now extended to outlying regions of Afghan Turkestan. The second campaign started from the Caspian Sea and was in the direction of Herat, near the Persian frontier. Khiva was occupied in 1873. Russian forces also seized Krasnovodsk (now in Turkmenistan) in 1869. Notable Russian generals included Konstantin Kaufman, Mikhail Skobelev, and Mikhail Chernyayev. From 1869 to 1872, Mir Mahmud Shar was able to gain control of the Khanate of Badakhshan with the help of Afghanistan's new ruler, Amir Sher Ali Khan, and by 1873 Afghanistan governed Badakhshan. == Tibet and Inner Asia == British-Russian competition also existed in Tibet and "Inner Asia". Strategists of the Russian Empire sought to create a springboard to surround the Qing dynasty in Inner Asia as well as a second front against British India from the northeast direction. Britain had been exploring territories north of India by recruiting "Pundits", native Indian explorers, among them Nain Singh, who reached Lhasa, Tibet, in 1866. He and his cousin Kishen Singh continued to travel around Tibet and surrounding regions for many years. The publications of the Royal Geographical Society in 1869 made the arrival of British Pundits at Lhasa known in Russia. The Russian explorer Nikolay Przhevalsky felt there was a British threat to Russian ambitions in Inner Asia, and set out on a series of 1870s expeditions. Although he failed to reach Tibet's capital at Lhasa, he travelled extensively in Tibet, Qinghai, and Xinjiang. Przhevalsky's expeditions became famous and increased interest in European expansion into Asia among the Russian press, aristocracy and academia. In the 1880s, Przhevalsky advocated for the "forcible annexation of western China, Mongolia, and Tibet, and their colonization by Cossacks", although the plan received some pushback from Tsar Alexander III who favoured influence rather than an invasion. Historian Alexandre Andreev argues that Tibet was a major territorial focus of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union, and was connected to the Great Game. Andreyev mentions that in 1893, Tsar Alexander III financed an adventurist project by a Tibetan medicine practitioner, Piotr Aleksandrovich Badmaev, which aimed to annex Mongolia, Tibet, and China to the Russian Empire. Although not very successful, various agents were sent out to conduct espionage in Tibet in regards to British influence, investigate trade and attempted to foment rebellion in Mongolia against the Qing dynasty. In the late 19th century, Britain strategically supported the Qing Dynasty's protectorates against the Russian Empire. According to Andreyev, "in the days of the Great Game, Mongolia was an object of imperialist encroachment by Russia, as Tibet was for the British."": pg.96 Britain feared increased Russian influence in Tibet, due to contacts between the Russia-born Buryat Agvan Dorzhiev and the 13th Dalai Lama. Agvan Dorzhiev claimed that Russia was a powerful Buddhist country that would ally with Tibet against China or Britain. In response, Britain sought to increase its own influence in Tibet as a buffer for British India. British forces, led by Sir Francis Younghusband, invaded the country with the Curzon expedition in 1904 and made a treaty with the Tibetans, the 1904 Lhasa Convention. According to Robert Irwin, who considers a smaller, espionage-focused interpretation of the Great Game, Tibet was indeed connected to the Great Game, but "the truth is that, in the period concerned, British ruling circles didn't own so much as a sweetshop in Tibet." Specifically, he notes that the commercial trade that followed the Younghusband expedition was negligible compared to the cost of the expedition. Pradip Phanjoubam states that the Anglo-Russian rivalry in Tibet ultimately had implications for Northeast India as well, culminating in the Simla Convention. Phanjoubam argues that Britain overreacted to Russian interest in Tibet, if perhaps understandably due to the presence of Dorzhiev. A constantly shifting British policy on China from pro- to anti-Qing protectorates by Britain, as well as the shift from opposition to Russia to the 1907 Convention, led the Qing Dynasty to decide on a forward policy in the Himalayas. If it were not for the Xinhai Revolution, India would have been more threatened than it was. Nonetheless, "On the chessboard of the Great Game in far off places as Mongolia, Afghanistan and Persia was thus determined the fate of British Tibet policy, and therefore, the shadow of the Great Game too came to fall on the future of India's Northeast." In its Meiji period, the Empire of Japan would observe the Great Game and participate indirectly through diplomacy and espionage. For example, Japan hosted Abdurreshid Ibrahim, a pan-Muslim opponent of Russian and British expansion. Japanese interest in the region as well as enmity with Russia led to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and an attempted Ottoman-Japanese alliance. Nishi Tokujirō made some of Japan's first official diplomatic interactions in Central Asia and observed Russian colonial policy during the early Meiji period, while during the end of the period, Colonel Fukushima Yasumasa managed Japan's Central Asia policy during its contest with Russia. Later, the Russo-Japanese War also changed and weakened Russian designs in Xinjiang. According to researcher Jin Noda, Japanese intelligence activities occurred "against a backdrop of acute Russian and British interest in the geopolitical fate of Xinjiang, Tibet, and Russian Turkestan". Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim also acted as a tsarist agent during the Great Game, leading an expedition through Tibet, Xinjiang, and Gansu on the way to Beijing. The Russian General Staff wanted on-the-ground intelligence about reforms and activities by the Qing dynasty, as well as the military feasibility of invading Western China: a possible move in their struggle with Britain for control of inner Asia. In a report to the Russian General Staff, Mannerheim also argued in favor of a Russian invasion of Xinjiang. Disguised as an ethnographic collector, Mannerheim joined the French archeologist Paul Pelliot's expedition at Samarkand in modern Uzbekistan. They started from the terminus of the Trans-Caspian Railway in Andijan in July 1906, but Mannerheim quarreled with Pelliot, so he made the greater part of the expedition on his own. Mannerheim met the 13th Dalai Lama of Tibet and acted as an envoy of Russia. == Persia == Various authors connect British-Russian competition in Iran to the Great Game as well. This competition continued until the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907 after which the British and Russian Empires largely moved together in their overtures for imperial influence in the region until the Bolshevik Revolution. The Great Game in Iran took the form of military conquests, diplomatic intrigues, and the competition of trade goods.: 20, 74 Russian colonists arrived in northern Iran, settling the region around Astarabad.: 73–74 Although Britain had a reputation for industrialization and international trade boosted by its colony of India, Russian authors saw the Russian Empire as competing directly with Britain for trade in Iran and other bordering markets. Russian travelogues written between the 1870s and the turn of the 1900s seem to imply that Russian commerce had become dominant in the northern and western portions of Iran that would be officially delineated to Russia by Britain in 1907.: 74–76 Russia had also acquired concessions such as a monopoly on the lucrative caviar in the southern Caspian Sea, which lasted until after the First World War.: 20 After the 1828 Treaty of Turkmanchay, Russia received territorial domination in Iran. With the Romanovs shifting to a policy of 'informal support' for the weakened Qajar dynasty—continuing to place pressure with advances in the largely nomadic Turkestan, a crucial frontier territory of the Qajars – this Russian domination of Persia continued for nearly a century. The Persian monarchy became more of a symbolic concept in which Russian diplomats were themselves powerbrokers in Iran and the monarchy was dependent on British and Russian loans for funds. In 1879, the establishment of the Cossack Brigade by Russian officers gave the Russian Empire influence over the modernization of the Qajar army. This influence was especially pronounced because the Persian monarchy's legitimacy was predicated on an image of military prowess, first Turkic and then European-influenced. By the 1890s, Russian tutors, doctors and officers were prominent at the Shah's court, influencing policy personally. Russia and Britain had competing investments in the industrialisation of Iran including roads and telegraph lines, as a way to profit and extend their influence. However, until 1907 the Great Game rivalry was so pronounced that mutual British and Russian demands to the Shah to exclude the other, blocked all railroad construction at the end of the 19th century.: 20 In 1907 the British and Russian Empires came to a mutual agreement, which provided a zone of influence in southeastern Iran to Britain and northern Iran to Russia. Tsar Nicholas II would be a staunch supporter of the Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar against the revolutionaries, in a large scale intervention that involved both regular Russian troops and the Persian Cossacks. Failing to fully suppress the Persian Constitutional Revolution or keep Muhammad Ali Shah in power, the constitutional reforms were put in place against Russia's wishes, though the Cossack Brigade remained a major factor. An Iranian former Cossack, Reza Shah, would establish the Pahlavi dynasty. == Second Anglo-Afghan War == In 1878, Russia sent troops on an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan, tried unsuccessfully to keep them from entering Afghanistan, the Russians arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878. As a reaction, on 14 August the British demanded that Sher Ali also accept a British mission. The Amir not only refused to receive a British mission under Neville Bowles Chamberlain but also threatened to stop it if it attempted to enter his country. Lord Lytton, the Viceroy of British India, ordered an envoy to set out on a diplomatic mission for Kabul in September 1878. The mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the Khyber Pass, triggering the Second Anglo–Afghan War. In November 1878, 40,000 men led by the British Raj, invaded Afghanistan from British India. Warfare had been settled for a while through diplomatic negotiations in 1879, in 1880 however the fighting was reignited after a British envoy on a mission to Kabul was massacred. == Diplomacy == === Agreement Between Great Britain and Russia 1873 === On 21 January 1873, Great Britain and Russia signed an agreement that stipulated that the eastern Badakhshan area as well as the Wakhan Corridor to Lake Sariqol were Afghan territory, the northern Afghan boundary was the Amu Darya (Oxus River) as far west as Khwaja Salar (near Khamyab), and a joint Russian-British commission would define the boundary from the Amu Darya to the Persian border on the Hari (Harirud) River. However, no boundary west of the Amu Darya was defined until 1885. The agreement was regarded as having defined the British and Russian spheres of influence in Afghanistan and Central Asia, gave the two sides the legitimacy to advance within their designated zones, created cordial relations between the two rival European powers, and raised the new problem of defining what were the frontiers of Afghanistan, Russia and China in the upper Oxus region in the Pamir mountains. The agreement was negotiated by Russian diplomat Prince Alexander Gorchakov, the lands of Badakhshan and Wakhan were accepted by Russia as part of Afghanistan, Russia accepted all of Britain's proposals on Afghanistan's northern borders and expected that Britain would keep Afghanistan from committing any aggression. However, this set in motion Russia's annexation of the Khanate of Khiva in the same year. Badakhshan would later be divided between Afghanistan and Russian-controlled Bukhara by the Pamir Boundary Commission in 1895. === Treaty of Gandamak, 1879 === After the British Siege of Kabul, warfare was settled diplomatically by the Treaty of Gandamak of 1879. The British sent an envoy and mission to Kabul, but on 3 September this mission was massacred and the conflict was reignited. The second phase ended in September 1880 when the British defeated Ayub Khan outside Kandahar. A new Emir, Abdul Rahman Khan who was known to be a Russian ally and an opponent of the British, ratified and confirmed the Gandamak treaty once more. When the British and Indian soldiers had withdrawn, the Afghans agreed to let the British attain most of their geopolitical objectives, as well as create a buffer between the British Raj and the Russian Empire. The British were aware that Amir Abdur Rahman Khan had the support of the Afghans to continue fighting and he did not allow a British resident to stay in Kabul which was a British objective that caused the start of the conflict. In return, he accepted British control of Afghanistan's foreign policies while maintaining internal sovereignty and to cede to the British a number of its southern frontier areas, including the districts of Pishin, Sibi, Harnai, and Thal Chotiali. In 1881, Russian forces however took Geok Tepe and in 1884 they occupied Merv. As the Russian forces were close to Herat, the British and Russian governments formed a joint Anglo-Russian diplomatic Afghan Boundary Commission in the same year to define the borders between the Russian Empire and northern Afghanistan. In 1885, a Russian force annexed the Panjdeh district north of Herat province and its fort in what has been called the Panjdeh incident. The Afghans claimed that the people of the district had always paid tribute to Afghanistan, and the Russians argued that this district was part of the Khanates of Khiva and Merv which they had annexed earlier. The Afghan Boundary Commission was supposed to have settled the dispute, however the battle occurred before its arrival. The Afghan force of 500 was overwhelmed by superior Russian numbers. Britain did not aid Afghanistan as was required by the Treaty of Gandamak, leading the Amir to conclude that he could not rely on the British in the face of Russian aggression. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck saw how important the Great Game had become for Russia and Britain. Germany had no direct stakes, however its dominance of Europe was enhanced when Russian troops were based as far away from Germany as possible. Over two decades, 1871–1890, he maneuvered to help the British, hoping to force the Russians to commit more soldiers to Asia. However, Bismarck through the Three Emperors' League also aided Russia, by pressuring the Ottoman Empire to block the Bosporus from British naval access, compelling an Anglo-Russian negotiation regarding Afghanistan. === Protocol Between Great Britain and Russia 1885 === On 10 September 1885, the Delimitation Protocol Between Great Britain and Russia was signed in London. The protocol defined the boundary from the Oxus to the Harirud and was later followed by 19 additional protocols providing further detail between 1885 and 1888. The Afghan Boundary Commission agreed that Russia would relinquish the farthest territory captured in their advance, but retain Panjdeh. The agreement delineated a permanent northern Afghan frontier at the Amu Darya, with the loss of a large amount of territory, especially around Panjdeh. This left the border east of Lake Zorkul in the Wakhan region to be defined. This territory was claimed by China, Russia and Afghanistan. In the 1880s, the Afghans had advanced north of the lake to the Alichur Pamir.: p13 In 1891, Russia sent a military force to this area and its commander, Yanov, ordered the British Captain Francis Younghusband to leave Bozai Gumbaz in the Little Pamir. The Russians claimed that because they had annexed the Khanate of Kokand they had a claim over the Pamirs. Afghanistan claimed that the region never paid tribute to Kokand and was independent, so having annexed it the region was theirs. The British claimed that this was a breach of the Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1873. Unfortunately for Britain, the Indian government pointed out that Bozai Gumbaz was not included in the Agreement and so it was in an undefined zone. Bozai Gumbaz had not appeared on the Russian map as being in Wakhan. Additionally, the British became aware that Younghusband had mistakenly entered Russian territory near Kara Kul and could have been arrested by the administrator there. Yanov offered a verbal apology if he had mistakenly entered the Wakhan territory, and the Russian government proposed a joint survey to agree on a border. In 1892, the British sent Charles Murray, 7th Earl of Dunmore to the Pamirs to investigate. Britain was concerned that Russia would take advantage of Chinese weakness in policing the area to gain territory.: p14 Murray was engaged in some form of diplomacy or espionage but the matter is not clear, and in 1893 reached agreement with Russia to demarcate the rest of the border, a process completed in 1895.: p14 === Agreement Between Great Britain and Afghanistan 1893 === On 12 November 1893, the Agreement Between Great Britain and Afghanistan was signed in Kabul. The Agreement reconfirmed the 1873 Agreement, required Afghanistan to withdraw from the territory north of the Amu Darya that it had occupied in 1884, and called for delimitation of the boundary east of Lake Sari. When Mortimer Durand, Secretary for State of India was appointed administrator of the Gilgit Agency (now part of the Gilgit-Baltistan of Pakistan), he opened up the region by building roads, telegraph, and mail systems while maintaining a dialogue with the Mir of Gilgit. He intended to improve the road from Kashmir through the princely states of Hunza and Nagar and up to the frontier with Russia. The Mirs of Nagar and Hunza saw this as a threat to their natural advantage of remoteness. In 1890, Durand reinforced Chalt Fort that was near the border due to the rumor that Nagar and Hunza fighters were about to attack it, and continued redeveloping the road up to the fort. In May 1891, Nagar and Hunza sent a warning to Durand not to continue work on the road to the fort and to vacate the fort, which was on the Gilgit side of the border, else they would regard it as an act of war. Durand reinforced the fort and accelerated the road construction to it, causing Nagar and Hunza to see this as an escalation and so they stopped mail from the British Resident in Chinese Turkmenistan through their territory. British India regarded this as a breach of their 1889 agreement with Hunza, and after an ultimatum was issued and ignored they initiated the Anglo-Brusho Campaign of 1891. Hunza and Nagar came under a British protectorate in 1893. === Exchange of Notes Between Great Britain and Russia 1895 === On 11 March 1895, there was an Exchange of Notes Between Great Britain and Russia. The notes defined British and Russian spheres of influence east of Lake Sari-Qul by defining the northern boundary of the Wakhan Corridor east of the lake. This boundary was subsequently demarcated by a mixed commission. The Great Game is proposed to have ended on 10 September 1895 with the signing of the Pamir Boundary Commission protocols, when the border between Afghanistan and the Russian empire was defined.: p14 The Pamir Boundary Commission was conducted by Major-General Gerard who met with a Russian deputation under General Povalo-Shveikovsky in the remote Pamir region in 1895, who were charged with demarcating the boundary between Russian and British spheres of interest from Lake Victoria eastwards to the Chinese border. The report of the Commission proved the absolute impracticality of any Russian invasion of India through the Pamir mountains. The result was that Afghanistan became a buffer state between the two powers. It was agreed that the Amu Darya river would form the border between Afghanistan and the Russian Empire. The agreements also resulted in the Russian Empire losing control of most Afghan territory it conquered, with the exception of Panjdeh. The Pamir Mountains were demarcated as a border line between the Russian Empire and Afghanistan as well. The Taghdumbash would be the subject of a later Afghan-China agreement. To conclude their agreement, one peak was named Mount Concord. In exchange for a British agreement to use the term Nicholas Range in honor of the Emperor Nicholas II of Russia on official maps, the Russians agreed to refer to Lake Zorkul as Lake Victoria in honour of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. The Russians had gained all of the lands north of the Amu Darya which included the land claimed by the Khanate of Khiva, including the approaches to Herat, and all of the land claimed by the Khanate of Khoqand, including the Pamir plateau. To ensure a complete separation, this new Afghan state was given an odd eastern appendage known as the Wakhan Corridor. "In setting these boundaries, the final act of the tense game played out by the British and Russian governments came to a close." === Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 === In the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, the Russian Empire and British Empire officially ended their rivalry to focus on opposing the German Empire. In the Convention of 1907, Russia recognized Afghanistan and southern Iran as part of the British sphere of influence, while Britain recognized Central Asia and northern Iran as part of the Russian sphere of influence. Both parties recognized Tibet as a neutral territory, except Russia had special privileges in negotiating with the Dalai Lama, and Britain had special privileges in Tibetan commercial deals. For a time, the British and Russian Empires moved together against potential German entrance into the Great Game, and against a constitutional movement in Iran that threatened to dispel the two-way sphere of influence. Russia had earlier established the Persian Cossack Brigade in 1879, a force which was led by Russian officers and served as a vehicle for Russian influence in Iran. In 1908, the Persian Constitutional Revolution sought to establish a Western-oriented, democratic civil society in Iran, with an elected Majilis, a relatively free press and other reforms. Seeking to resolve financial problems of the Qajar dynasty such as heavy debts to Imperial Russia and Britain, the Majilis recruited the American financial expert, Morgan Schuster, who later wrote the book The Strangling of Persia condemning Britain and Russia. The Russian Empire intervened in the Persian Constitutional Revolution to support the Shah and abolish the constitution. The Cossacks bombarded the Majilis in June 1908 and occupied Tehran. Additional brigades of the Russian Army were also deployed to assist the Shah and occupied Tabriz after April 1909. Nonetheless, the constitutionalists were able to retake the capital and were initially victorious with the Triumph of Tehran in July 1909, and dispelled Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar, who was exiled and took refuge with the Russians. When a new ruler, Ahmad Shah Qajar, took power he found it difficult to completely reverse the constitutional reforms, yet the Qajar state was weakened by the upheaval and the Qajar court dependent on foreign powers. Meanwhile, Britain and Russia aligned to oust Shuster from Iran by an ultimatum in 1911 which was unanimously rejected by the Majilis. British and Russian officials coordinated as the Russian army, still present in Persia, invaded the capital again and suspended the parliament. The Tsar ordered the troops in Tabriz "to act harshly and quickly", while purges were ordered, leading to many executions of prominent revolutionaries. The British Ambassador, George Head Barclay reportedly disapproved of this "reign of terror", though would soon pressure Persian ministers to officialize the Anglo-Russian partition of Iran. By June 1914, Russia established near-total control over its northern zone, while Britain had established influence over Baluch and Bakhtiari autonomous tribal leaders in the southeastern zone. Qajar Iran would become a battleground between Russian, Ottoman, and British forces in the Persian campaign of World War I. == Historiographical dating == Historians do not agree on dating the beginning or end of the Great Game. Konstantin Penzev believes that the Great Game commenced with Russia's victory in the Russo-Persian War (1804–13) and the signing of the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813 or the Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828. Edward Ingram believes that it began between 1832 and 1834 as an attempt to negotiate trade deals with Ranjit Singh and the Amirs of Sind. Hopkirk views "unofficial" British support for Circassian anti-Russian fighters in the Caucasus (c. 1836 – involving David Urquhart and (for example) the Vixen affair – in the context of the Great Game. Sergeev believes that the Great Game started in the aftermath of the Caucasus War (1828–59) and intensified with the Crimean War (1853–56).: 94 Edward Ingram proposes that The Great Game was over at the end of the First Anglo-Afghanistan war in 1842 with the British withdrawal from Afghanistan. British fears ended in 1907 and the Great Game came to a close in 1907 when Britain and Russia became military allies (with France). They made three Anglo-Russian agreements which delineated spheres of interest between British India and Russian Central Asia in the borderland areas of Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet.: 276–298 However historian Elena Andreeva sets the endpoint with the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 and the temporary end of Russia's interest in Persia. Konstantin Penzev has stated, echoing Kipling's fictional summary ("When everyone is dead, the Great Game is finished. Not before."), that unofficially the Great Game in Central Asia will never end. === Soviet Great Game === According to German historian David X. Noack, the Great Game resumed from 1919 to 1933 as a conflict between Britain and the Soviet Union, with the Weimar Republic and Japan as additional players. Noack calls it a "Second Tournament of Shadows" over the territory composing the border of British India, China, the Soviet Union and Japanese Manchuria. To Britain, the Germans initially appeared to be a secret Soviet ally. In 1933–1934 it "ended with Mongolia, Soviet Central Asia, Tannu-Tuva and Xinjiang isolated from non-Soviet influence." Authors Andrei Znamenski and Alexandre Andreyev also describe the continuation of elements of the Great Game by the Soviet Union until the 1930s, focused on secret diplomacy and espionage in Tibet and Mongolia. == Historiographical interpretations of the Great Game == === Allegation that "Britain had lost the Great Game by 1842" === Edward Ingram proposes that Britain lost the Great Game. "The Great Game was an aspect of British history rather than international relations: the phrase describes what the British were doing, not the actions of Russians and Chinese." The Great Game was an attempt made in the 1830s by the British to impose their view on the world. If Khiva and Bukhara were to become buffer states, then trade routes to Afghanistan, as a protectorate, along the Indus and Sutlej rivers would be necessary and therefore access through the Sind and Punjab regions would be required. The Great Game began between 1832 and 1834 as an attempt to negotiate trade deals with Ranjit Singh and the Amirs of Sind, and the "first interruption of this magnificent British daydream was caused by the determination of the Amirs of Sind to be left alone." Its failure occurred at the end of the First Anglo-Afghanistan war in 1842 with the British withdrawal from Afghanistan. The failure to turn Afghanistan into a client state meant that The Great Game could not be won. Nonetheless, Britain would win a decisive victory in the Second Anglo-Afghan War which occurred between 1878 and 1880. The victory also strengthened Britain's influence in Afghanistan, which had become a British protectorate. In 1889, Lord Curzon, who later became Viceroy of India (1899-1905), wrote a book on the strategic balance between the Russian and British Empires, as well as his travels on the Trans-Caspian railway. In that book, Russia in Central Asia in 1889 & the Anglo-Russian Question, he commented: Our relations with Afghanistan in the forty years between 1838 and 1878 were successively those of blundering interference and of unmasterly inactivity.However, he also portrayed the great game as a then-ongoing and future event in 1889, stating:...the Transcaspian conquests of the Czar have brought about, and the seal upon which has been set by the completion of the new railway. The power of menace, which the ability to take Herat involves, has passed from English to Russian hands; the Russian seizure of Herat is now a matter not so much of war as of time; and that the Russians will thus, without an effort, win the first hand in the great game that is destined to be played for the empire of the East.Russia remained a focus for Curzon through and after his time as Viceroy of India. === "The British colluded with the Russians over Central Asia" === In the 1850s, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels accused MP and PM Lord Palmerston of colluding with Russia during the Crimean War. At the time, Marx alleged that Palmerston weakened Britain's defense of the Ottoman Empire. Although this view was not otherwise widespread, the same accusation was levied by David Urquhart (1805-1877). Mail communications between London and Calcutta could take as long as three months either way. Long-distance telegraph lines were built across Russia in the 1850s. In 1870, the Indo-European Telegraph Line was completed and it provided a communication link between London and Calcutta after passing through Russia. For the first time, the India Office within the British Foreign Office could telegraph its orders and have them acted on in a timely manner. The Government in Westminster now had complete control over foreign policy in India and the Governor-General of India lost the discretion that he once enjoyed. In 1868, Russia moved against Bukhara and occupied Samarkand. Prince Gorchakov wrote in the Gorchakov Memorandum of 1874 that the Russian Ambassador to Britain offered an explanation that satisfied Clarendon, the British Foreign Secretary. Clarendon replied that the rapid advance of Russian troops neither alarmed nor surprised the British Government, however it did the British public and the Indian Government. Clarendon proposed a neutral zone between Britain and Russia in the region, a view that was shared by the Russian Government. This led to a confidential meeting in Wiesbaden between Clarendon and Count Brunow, the Russian Imperial Secretary. After the signing of the Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1873 that was followed by Russia's occupation of Khiva, Gorchakov wrote in the Gorchakov Memorandum of 1874 that "Although ... the Khanate of Khiva remained entirely in our sphere of action, we thought we would make an act of courtesy of not adopting any decisive measure against Khiva before having informed Britain of it." In November 1874, Lord Augustus Loftus, British ambassador to Russia called on Russia's V. Westmann, Acting Minister for Foreign Affairs, and told him that "The advance of Russia in Central Asia of late years was a subject of watchful interest, although it was not one of either jealousy or fear to the Government of India." In December 1874, long before Russia annexed Merv in 1884, Northbrook, the Viceroy of India, wrote to Salisbury, the Secretary of State for India, that he accepted an eventual Russian annexation of Merv. In the following year he wrote to Rawlinson, a member of the Council of India, "Our engagement with Russia with respect to the frontier of Afghanistan precludes us from promoting the incorporation of the Turkomans of Merv in the territories subject to the Ameer of Kabul". Northbrook would not accept any extension of Persia towards Merv. It has been proposed that from Sher Ali's (Afghanistan's) point of view, prior to the invasion of Afghanistan by Britain in the Second Anglo-Afghan War of 1878, that there was evidence of the beginnings of a growing understanding between Britain and Russia to divide Central Asia between themselves. Britain and Russia officially ended their dispute with the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, and afterward cooperated to enforce its provisions on Qajar Iran, while covert rivalry continued. == Effect of the Great Game on contemporary political boundaries == === On India === Narendra Singh Sarila, aide-de-camp to Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, in 1948 describes in his book The Shadow of the Great Game that based on his research in The Oriental and India Collection of British Library that the partition of India was partially connected to the Great Game between Britain and the USSR. He stated the following in his book:Once the British realized that the Indian nationalists who would rule India after its independence would deny them military cooperation under a British Commonwealth defence umbrella, they settled for those willing to do so by using religion for the purpose. Their problem could be solved if Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the Muslim League Party, would succeed in his plan to detach the northwest of India abutting Iran, Afghanistan and Sinkiang and establish a separate state there – Pakistan. Lawyer and mediator in Supreme Court of India, Aman M. Hingorani in his book Unravelling the Kashmir Knot that Winston Churchill directed War Cabinet to assess 'the long-term policy required to safeguard the strategic interests of the British Empire in India and the Indian Ocean', the report in respect of which was submitted on 19 May 1945. He states in the book:The report emphasized that 'Britain must retain its military connection with the subcontinent so as to ward off the Soviet Union's threat to the area', citing four reasons for the 'strategic importance of India to Britain'—India's 'value as a base from which forces could be suitably deployed within the Indian Ocean area, in the Middle East and the Far East'; it serving as 'a transit point for air and sea communications'; it being 'a large reserve of manpower of good fighting quality'; and the strategic importance of the northwest region to threaten the Soviet Union. == The Great Game as a legend == === Mythologized aspects of the Great Game === A. Vescovi argued that Kipling's use of the term was entirely fictional, "...because the Great Game as it is described in the novel never existed; it is almost entirely Kipling's invention. At the time when the story is set (i.e. in the late Eighties), Britain did not have an intelligence service, nor an Ethnographical Department; there was only a governmental task force called 'Survey of India' that was entrusted with the task of charting all India in response to a typically English anxiety of control." According to military history scholar Matt Salyer, the "Great Game" as a British strategy was a fiction, but the "Great Game" as a vague descriptor of various actions of multiple empires, "as far back as the Seven Years' War" is accurate. He writes that "the 'legend of the Great Game' emerged as a distinct historiographical lens after the Second World War." However, he says, "That does not mean that historians who describe trajectories of British Imperial statecraft in terms of 'the Great Game' are wrong." Two authors, Gerald Morgan and Malcolm Yapp, have proposed that The Great Game was a legend and that the British Raj did not have the capacity to conduct such an undertaking. An examination of the archives of the various departments of the Raj showed no evidence of a British intelligence network in Central Asia. At best, efforts to obtain information on Russian moves in Central Asia were rare, ad hoc adventures and at worst intrigues resembling the adventures in Kim were baseless rumours, and that such rumours "were always common currency in Central Asia and they applied as much to Russia as to Britain". After two British representatives were executed in Bukhara in 1842, Britain actively discouraged officers from traveling in Turkestan. Gerald Morgan also proposed that Russia never had the will nor ability to move on India, nor India the capability to move on Central Asia. Russia did not want Afghanistan, considering their initial failure to take Khiva and the British debacle in the First Anglo-Afghan War. To invade Afghanistan they would first require a forward base in Khorasan, Persia. St. Petersburg had decided by then that a forward policy in the region had failed but one of non-intervention appeared to work. Sneh Manajan wrote that the Russian military advances in Central Asia were advocated and executed only by irresponsible Russians or enthusiastic governors of the frontier provinces. Robert Middleton suggested that The Great Game was all a figment of the over-excited imaginations of a few jingoist politicians, military officers and journalists on both sides. The use of the term The Great Game to describe Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia became common only after the Second World War. It was rarely used before that period. Malcolm Yapp proposed that some Britons had used the term "The Great Game" in the late 19th century to describe several different things in relation to its interests in Asia, but the primary concern of British authorities in India was the control of the indigenous population and not preventing a Russian invasion. Robert Irwin argues the Great Game was certainly perceived by both British and Russian adventurers at the time, but was played up by more expansionist factions for power politics in Europe. Irwin states that "Prince Ukhtomsky might rail against the corrupting effects of British rule over India and declare that there could be no frontiers for the Russians in Asia, but Russian policy was usually decided by saner heads. Canny statesmen such as Witte sanctioned the despatch of diplomatic missions, explorers and spies into Afghanistan and Tibet, but they did so to extort concessions from the British in Europe. Whitehall, on the other hand, was reluctant to have its foreign policy in Europe dictated to by the Raj." According to historian Patrikeeff, the concept of the Great Game was also applied, possibly inaccurately, to Northeast Asia to describe Russia and Japan's contest over Manchuria – which took the form of the Russian invasion of Manchuria, Russo-Japanese War, and part of the Russian Civil War – and perhaps had similar ideological underpinnings to start with. However, unlike the British-Russian Great Game in South and West Asia, where clear-cut spheres of influence were established, Patrikeeff says that this supposed Great Game in Northeast Asia ignored that economic dominance did not follow political (with Japan's victory in Manchuria not fully ousting the Russian concessions such as the CER) and that centuries-old distinct traditions such as the Qing legacy there led to key differences. Nonetheless, ancient and even mythic appeals to legitimacy were used by exiled supporters of empire, such as Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg's attempt at reviving a 'new Mongolian khanate'. Whereas the Great Game between Russia and Britain was codifying imperial spheres of influence at their frontiers, the supposed Great Game between Russia and Japan did not end up in a similarly defined frontier, with warlord states and Honghuzi emerging through the period. === Role of legends and mysticism in the Great Game === Several scholars have focused on the role of legends and mysticism (sometimes interpreted as a form of Orientalism that was prominent in the late 19th and early 20th century), during the Great Game and in its aftermath. Some writers such as Karl Meyer and Shareen Brysac have connected the Great Game to earlier and later expeditions in Inner Asia, predominantly those expeditions by British, Russian, and German orientalists. Robert Irwin summarizes the expeditions as "William Moorcroft, the horse doctor with a mission to find new stock for the cavalry in British India; Charles Metcalfe, the advocate of a forward policy on the frontier in the early 19th century; Alexander 'Bokhara' Burnes, the foolhardy political officer, who perished at the hands of an Afghan mob; Sir William Hay Macnaghten, the head of the ill-fated British Mission in Kabul (and a scholar who produced an important edition of The Arabian Nights); Nikolai Przhevalsky, the explorer who gave his name to a hard-to-spell horse; Francis Younghusband, the mystical imperialist; Aurel Stein, the manuscript hunter; Sven Hedin, the Nazi sympathiser who seems to have regarded Asian exploration as a proving ground for the superman; Nicholas Roerich, the artist and barmy quester after the fabled hidden city of Shambhala." The founder of Theosophy, esotericist Helena Blavatsky, has also been connected to the Great Game, with her Himalayas-inspired Western mysticism both critiquing, and falling for, two forms of Orientalism by the British and Russian Empires, as they competed to define and claim "the Orient". Blavatsky would be referenced by the poet Velimir Khlebnikov, who argued that Britain and Russia had both taken traits from the Kazan Khanate and Mongol Empire respectively, in their colonial struggle over Asia. Blavatsky would also refer to Russia's double-layered conception of itself as a European power in contrast to Asia as well as an empire based in Asia; meanwhile, she would also "consciously appropriate" British rhetoric on Russia in labelling herself a "Russian savage". Both Blavatsky and Khlebnikov claimed Kalmyk ancestry in imitation of the traditionally nomadic culture. Scholar Anindita Banerjee argued this shows a "deconstruction" of national identities by identifying with a "religious, geographic, and ethnic other", relevant to the diversity of Central Asia and India and the frontier that existed between the British and Russian Empires. According to the scholar Andrei Znamenski, Soviet Communists of the 1920s aimed to extend their influence over Mongolia and Tibet, using the mythical Buddhist kingdom of Shambhala as a form of propaganda to further this mission, in a sort of "great Bolshevik game". The expedition of Russian symbolist Nicholas Roerich has been put in context of the Great Game due to his interest in Tibet, Although Roerich did not like the Communists, he agreed to help Soviet intelligence and influence operations due to a shared paranoia towards Britain, as well as his goal to form a "Sacred Union of the East": 181–182 Jan Morris states that "Roerich brought the bewilderments of the later Great Game to America" through mysticism movements called Roerichism. In the early 1920s, Roerich asserted that beings from an esoteric Buddhist community in India told him that Russia was destined for a mission on Earth. That led Roerich to formulate his "Great Plan," which envisaged the unification of millions of Asian peoples through a religious movement using the Future Buddha, or Maitreya, into a "Second Union of the East." There, the King of Shambhala would, following the Maitreya prophecies, make his appearance to fight a great battle against all evil forces on Earth. Roerich understood that as "perfection towards Common Good." The new polity was to include southwestern Altai, Tuva, Buryatia, Outer and Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet, with its capital in "Zvenigorod," the "City of Tolling Bells," which was to be built at the foot of Mount Belukha, in Altai. According to Roerich, the same Mahatmas revealed to him in 1922 that he was an incarnation of the Fifth Dalai Lama. == Other uses of the term "Great Game" == The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan invited comparisons to the Great Game in the 1980s. Concerns of resource scarcity emerged once again in the 1990s, and with it the hope that the newly independent states of Central Asia and the Caucasus would provide a resource boom – the new "Persian Gulf" – and with it competition for oil and gas in a 21st-century version of the Great Game. These expectations were not supported by the facts, and came with an exaggeration of the region's commercial and geopolitical value. Since that time, some journalists have used the expression The New Great Game to describe what they proposed was a renewed geopolitical interest in Central Asia because of the mineral wealth of the region, which was at that time becoming more available to foreign investment after the end of the Soviet Union. One journalist linked the term to an interest in the region's minerals and another to its minerals and energy. The interest in oil and gas includes pipelines that transmit energy to China's east coast. One view of the New Great Game is a shift to geoeconomic compared to geopolitical competition. Xiangming Chen believes that "China and Russia are the two dominant power players vs. the weaker independent Central Asian states". Other authors have criticized the reuse of the term "Great Game". It may imply that Central Asian states are entirely the pawns of larger states, when this ignores the potentially counterbalancing factors. According to strategic analyst Ajay Patnaik, the "New Great Game" is a misnomer, because rather than two empires focused on the region as in the past, there are now many global and regional powers active with the rise of China and India as major economic powers. Central Asian states have diversified their political, economic, and security relationships. David Gosset of CEIBS Shanghai states "the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) established in 2001 is showing that Central Asia's actors have gained some real degree of independence. But fundamentally, the China factor introduces a level of predictability." In the 2015 international relations book Globalizing Central Asia, the authors state that Central Asian states have pursued a multivectored approach in balancing out the political and economic interests of larger powers, but it has had mixed success due to strategic reversals of administrations regarding the West, China, and Russia. They suppose that China could balance out Russia. However, Russia and China have a strategic partnership since 2001. According to Ajay Patnaik, "China has advanced carefully in the region, using the SCO as the main regional mechanism, but never challenging Russian interests in Central Asia." In the Carnegie Endowment, Paul Stronski and Nicole Ng wrote in 2018 that China has not fundamentally challenged any Russian interests in Central Asia. They suggested that China, Russia, and the West could have mutual interests in regional stability in Central Asia. The Great Game has been described as a cliché-metaphor, and there are authors who have now written on the topics of "the Great Game" in Antarctica, the world's far north, and in outer space. == See also == == References == == Further reading == == External links == The Franco-Russian Expedition to India Central Asia: Afghanistan and Her Relation to British and Russian Territories from 1885. The timeline of the Great Game Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine The Great Game and Afghanistan – Library of Congress	Wikipedia/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game
Marxist historiography, or historical materialist historiography, is an influential school of historiography. The chief tenets of Marxist historiography include the centrality of social class, social relations of production in class-divided societies that struggle against each other, and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes (historical materialism). Marxist historians follow the tenets of the development of class-divided societies, especially modern capitalist ones. Marxist historiography has developed in varied ways across different regional and political contexts. It has had unique trajectories of development in the West, the Soviet Union, and in India, as well as in the pan-Africanist and African-American traditions, adapting to these specific regional and political conditions in different ways. Marxist historiography has made contributions to the history of the working class, and the methodology of a history from below. Marxist historiography is sometimes criticized as deterministic, in that it posits a direction of history, towards an end state of history as classless human society. Marxist historiography within Marxist circles is generally seen as a tool; its aim is to bring those it perceives as oppressed by history to self-consciousness, and to arm them with tactics and strategies from history. For these Marxists, it is both a historical and a liberatory project. Not all Marxist historiography is socialist. Methods from Marxist historiography, such as class analysis, can be divorced from the original political intents of Marxism and its perceived deterministic nature; historians who use Marxist methodology but disagree with the politics of Marxism often describe themselves as Marxian historians, and practitioners of this Marxian historiography often refer to their techniques as Marxian. == Marx and Engels == Friedrich Engels' (1820–1895) most important historical contribution to the development of Marxist historiography was Der Deutsche Bauernkrieg (The Peasant War in Germany, 1850), which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes. Although The German Peasants' War was overdetermined and lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it exemplifies an early Marxist interest in history from below and in class analysis; it also attempts a dialectical analysis. Karl Marx (1818–1883) contributed important works on social and political history, including The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (1852), The Communist Manifesto (1848), The German Ideology (written in 1845, published in 1932), and those chapters of Das Kapital (1867–1894) dealing with the historical emergence of capitalists and proletarians from pre-industrial English society. == Labour and class struggle == The key to understanding Marxist historiography is his view of labour. For Marx "historical reality is none other than objectified labour, and all conditions of labour given by nature, including the organic bodies of people, are merely preconditions and 'disappearing moments' of the labour process." This emphasis on the physical as the determining factor in history represents a break from virtually all previous historians. Until Marx developed his theory of historical materialism, the overarching determining factor in the direction of history was some sort of divine agency. In Marx's view of history "God became a mere projection of human imagination" and more importantly "a tool of oppression". There was no more sense of divine direction to be seen. History moved by the sheer force of human labour, and all theories of divine nature were a concoction of the ruling powers to keep the working people in check. For Marx, "The first historical act is... the production of material life itself." As one might expect, Marxist history not only begins with labour, it ends in production: "history does not end by being resolved into "self-consciousness" as "spirit of the spirit," but that in it at each stage there is found a material result: a sum of productive forces, a historically created relation of individuals to nature and to one another, which is handed down to each generation from its predecessor..." For further, and much more comprehensive, information on this topic, see historical materialism. == Historical materialism == === Introduction === Historical materialism is a methodology to understand human societies and their development throughout history. Marx's theory of history locates historical change in the rise of class societies and the way humans labour together to make their livelihoods. Marx argues that the introduction of new technologies and new ways of doing things to improve production eventually lead to new social classes which in turn result in political crises which can threaten the established order. Marx's view of history is in contrast to the commonplace notion that the rise and fall of kingdoms, empires and states, can broadly be explained by the actions, ambitions and policies of the people at the top of society; kings, queens, emperors, generals, or religious leaders. This view of history is summed up by the 19th-century Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle who wrote "the history of the world is nothing but the biography of great men". An alternative to the "great man" theory is that history is shaped by the motivating force of "great ideas" – the struggle of reason over superstition or the fight for democracy and freedom. The "great man" and "great women" theory of history and the view that history is primarily shaped by ideas has provoked no end of debate but many historians have believed there are more fundamental patterns at play beneath historical events. Marx asserted that the material conditions of a society's mode of production, or in Marxist terms a society's productive forces and relations of production, fundamentally determine society's organization and development including the political commitments, cultural ideas and values that dominate in any society. Marx argues that there is a fundamental conflict between the class of people who create the wealth of society and those who have ownership or control of the means of production, decide how society's wealth and resources are to be used and have a monopoly of political and military power. Historical materialism provides a profound challenge to the view that the historical process has come to a close and that capitalism is the end of history. Since Marx's time, the theory has been modified and expanded. It now has many Marxist and non-Marxist variants. The main modes of production that Marx identified generally include primitive communism, slave society, feudalism, mercantilism, and capitalism. In each of these social stages, people interacted with nature and production in different ways. Any surplus from that production was distributed differently as well. To Marx, ancient societies (e.g. Rome and Greece) were based on a ruling class of citizens and a class of slaves; feudalism was based on nobles and serfs; and capitalism based on the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat). === Description === Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. Historical materialism builds upon the idea of historical progress that became popular in philosophy during the Enlightenment, which asserted that the development of human society has progressed through a series of stages, from hunting and gathering, through pastoralism and cultivation, to commercial society. Historical materialism rests on a foundation of dialectical materialism, in which matter is considered primary and ideas, thought, and consciousness are secondary, i.e. consciousness and human ideas about the universe result from material conditions rather than vice versa. Marxism uses this materialist methodology, referred to by Marx and Engels as the materialist conception of history and later better known as historical materialism, to analyse the underlying causes of societal development and change from the perspective of the collective ways in which humans make their living. Historical materialism springs from a fundamental underlying reality of human existence: that in order for subsequent generations of human beings to survive, it is necessary for them to produce and reproduce the material requirements of everyday life. Marx then extended this premise by asserting the importance of the fact that, in order to carry out production and exchange, people have to enter into very definite social relations, or more specifically, "relations of production". However, production does not get carried out in the abstract, or by entering into arbitrary or random relations chosen at will, but instead are determined by the development of the existing forces of production. How production is accomplished depends on the character of society's productive forces, which refers to the means of production such as the tools, instruments, technology, land, raw materials, and human knowledge and abilities in terms of using these means of production. The relations of production are determined by the level and character of these productive forces present at any given time in history. In all societies, Human beings collectively work on nature but, especially in class societies, do not do the same work. In such societies, there is a division of labour in which people not only carry out different kinds of labour but occupy different social positions on the basis of those differences. The most important such division is that between manual and intellectual labour whereby one class produces a given society's wealth while another is able to monopolize control of the means of production and so both governs that society and lives off of the wealth generated by the labouring classes. Marx's account of the theory is in The German Ideology (1845) and in the preface A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859). All constituent features of a society (social classes, political pyramid and ideologies) are assumed to stem from economic activity, forming what is considered as the base and superstructure. The base and superstructure metaphor describes the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, the "sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society" and forms a society's economic base. The base includes the material forces of production such as the labour, means of production and relations of production, i.e. the social and political arrangements that regulate production and distribution. From this base rises a superstructure of legal and political "forms of social consciousness" that derive from the economic base that conditions both the superstructure and the dominant ideology of a society. Conflicts between the development of material productive forces and the relations of production provokes social revolutions, whereby changes to the economic base leads to the social transformation of the superstructure. This relationship is reflexive, in that the base initially gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. Those newly formed social organizations can then act again upon both parts of the base and superstructure so that rather than being static, the relationship is dialectic, expressed and driven by conflicts and contradictions. Engels clarified: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes." Marx considered recurring class conflicts as the driving force of human history as such conflicts have manifested themselves as distinct transitional stages of development in Western Europe. Accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production: Primitive communism: co-operative tribal societies. Slave society: development of tribal to city-state in which aristocracy is born. Feudalism: aristocrats are the ruling class while merchants evolve into the bourgeoisie. Capitalism: capitalists are the ruling class, who create and employ the proletariat. While historical materialism has been referred to as a materialist theory of history, Marx did not claim to have produced a master-key to history and that the materialist conception of history is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the marche générale, imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself." In a letter to editor of the Russian newspaper paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym (1877), he explained that his ideas are based upon a concrete study of the actual conditions in Europe. === Summary === To summarize, history develops in accordance with the following observations: Social progress is driven by progress in the material, productive forces a society has at its disposal (technology, labour, capital goods and so on) Humans are inevitably involved in productive relations (roughly speaking, economic relationships or institutions), which constitute our most decisive social relations. These relations progress with the development of the productive forces. They are largely determined by the division of labour, which in turn tends to determine social class. Relations of production are both determined by the means and forces of production and set the conditions of their development. For example, capitalism tends to increase the rate at which the forces develop and stresses the accumulation of capital. The relations of production define the mode of production, e.g. the capitalist mode of production is characterized by the polarization of society into capitalists and workers. The superstructure—the cultural and institutional features of a society, its ideological materials—is ultimately an expression of the mode of production on which the society is founded. Every type of state is a powerful institution of the ruling class; the state is an instrument which one class uses to secure its rule and enforce its preferred relations of production and its exploitation onto society. State power is usually only transferred (migrated) from one class to another by social and political agreements. When a given relation of production no longer supports further progress in the productive forces, either further progress is strangled, or 'revolution' must occur. The actual historical process is not predetermined but depends on class struggle, especially the elevation of class consciousness and organization of the working class. == In the West == Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels worked in relative isolation together outside the larger mainstream. However, by the turn of the twentieth century, Marxist thought was perhaps the most prominent opposition to the idealist traditions. R. H. Tawney (1880–1962) was an early historian working in this tradition. The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912) and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the "Storm over the Gentry" in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper and John Cooper. A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) was formed in 1946. It became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who shared a common interest in and contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. While some members of the group (most notably Christopher Hill [1912–2003] and E. P. Thompson [1924–1993]) left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history. E. P. Thompson famously engaged Althusser in The Poverty of Theory, arguing that Althusser's theory overdetermined history, and left no space for historical revolt by the oppressed. Christopher Hill's studies on 17th-century English history were widely acknowledged and recognized as representative of Marxist historians and Marxist historiography in general. His books include Puritanism and Revolution (1958), Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (1965 and revised in 1996), The Century of Revolution (1961), AntiChrist in 17th-century England (1971), The World Turned Upside Down (1972) and many others. E. P. Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work, The Making of the English Working Class, published in 1963. It focused on the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below: I am seeking to rescue the poor stockinger, the Luddite cropper, the "obsolete" hand-loom weaver, the "Utopian" artisan, and even the deluded follower of Joanna Southcott, from the enormous condescension of posterity. Their crafts and traditions may have been dying. Their hostility to the new industrialism may have been backward-looking. Their communitarian ideals may have been fantasies. Their insurrectionary conspiracies may have been foolhardy. But they lived through these times of acute social disturbance, and we did not. Their aspirations were valid in terms of their own experience; and, if they were casualties of history, they remain, condemned in their own lives, as casualties. Thompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined "class". He argued that class was not a structure, but a relationship that changed over time. Thompson's work is commonly considered the most influential work of history in the twentieth century and a crucial catalyst for social history and from social history to gender history and other studies of marginalized peoples. His essay, "Time, Work, Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism" is also hugely influential and argues that industrial capitalism fundamentally altered (and accelerated) humans' relationship to time. He opened the gates for a generation of labour historians, such as David Montgomery (1927–2011) and Herbert Gutman (1928–1985), who made similar studies of the American working classes. Perhaps the best known of the Communist historians was E. B. Hobsbawm (1917–2012). He is credited for establishing many of the basic historical arguments of current historiography and synthesizing huge amounts of modern historical data across time and space – most famously in his trilogy: The Age of Revolutions, The Age of Empires, and The Age of Extremes. Hobsbawm's Bandits is another example of this group's work. C. L. R. James (1901–1989) was also a great pioneer of the 'history from below' approach. Living in Britain when he wrote his most notable work The Black Jacobins (1938), he was an anti-Stalinist Marxist and so outside of the CPGB. The Black Jacobins was the first professional historical account of the greatest and only successful slave revolt in colonial American history, the Haitian Revolution. James's history is still touted as a remarkable work of history nearly a century after publication, an immense work of historical investigation, story-telling, and creativity. Other important British Marxist historians included Raphael Samuel (1934–1996), A. L. Morton (1903–1987), and Brian Pearce (1915–2008). In the United States, Marxist historiography greatly influenced the history of slavery and labour history. Marxist historiography also greatly influenced French historians, including France's most famous and enduring historian Fernand Braudel (1902–1985), as well as Italian historians, most famously the Autonomous Marxist and micro-history fields. == In the Soviet Union == Soviet-era historiography was deeply influenced by Marxism. Marxism maintains that the moving forces of history are determined by material production and the rise of different socioeconomic formations. Applying this perspective to socioeconomic formations such as slavery and feudalism is a major methodological principle of orthodox Marxist historiography. Based on this principle, historiography predicts that there will be an abolition of capitalism by a socialist revolution made by the working class. Soviet historians believed that Marxist–Leninist theory permitted the application of categories of dialectical and historical materialism in the study of historical events. However Soviet historiography was significantly influenced by the strict control by the authorities aimed at propaganda and Soviet power as well, as a result Marxist historiography suffered in the Soviet Union, as the government required overdetermined historical writing. Soviet historians tended to avoid contemporary history (after 1903) where possible, and effort was predominantly directed at pre-modern history (before 1850). As history was considered to be a politicized academic discipline, historians limited their creative output to avoid prosecution. Since the late 1930s, Soviet historiography treated the party line and reality as one and the same. As such, if it was a science, it was a science in service of a specific political and ideological agenda, commonly employing historical negationism. In the 1930s, historical archives were closed and original research was severely restricted. Historians were required to pepper their works with references—appropriate or not—to Stalin and other "Marxist–Leninist classics", and to pass judgment—as prescribed by the Party—on pre-revolution historic Russian figures. Nikita Khrushchev commented that "Historians are dangerous and capable of turning everything upside down. They have to be watched." The Soviet interpretation of Marxism predetermined much of the research done by historians. Research by scholars in the USSR was limited to a large extent due to this predetermination. Some Soviet historians could not offer non-Marxist theoretical explanations that did not fit with the party's official ideology for their interpretation of sources. This was true even when alternate theories had a greater explanatory power in relation to a historian's reading of source material. Marx and Engels' ideas of the importance of class struggle in history, the destiny of the working class, and the role of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the revolutionary party are of major importance in Marxist methodology. Marxist–Leninist historiography has several aspects. It explains the social basis of historical knowledge, determines the social functions of historical knowledge and the means by which these functions are carried out, and emphasizes the need to study concepts in connection with the social and political life of the period in which these concepts were developed. It studies the theoretical and methodological features in every school of historical thought. Marxist–Leninist historiography analyses the source-study basis of a historical work, the nature of the use of sources, and specific research methods. It analyses problems of historical research as the most important sign of the progress and historical knowledge and as the expression of the socioeconomic and political needs of a historical period. The Marxist theory of historical materialism identified means of production as chief determinants of the historical process. They led to the creation of social classes, and class struggle was the motor of history. The sociocultural evolution of societies was considered to progress inevitably from slavery, through feudalism and capitalism to socialism and finally communism. In addition, Leninism argued that a vanguard party was required to lead the working class in the revolution that would overthrow capitalism and replace it with socialism. Soviet historiography interpreted this theory to mean that the creation of the Soviet Union was the most important turning event in human history, since the USSR was considered to be the first socialist society. Furthermore, the Communist Party – considered to be the vanguard of the working class – was given the role of permanent leading force in society, rather than a temporary revolutionary organization. As such, it became the protagonist of history, which could not be wrong. Hence the unlimited powers of the Communist Party leaders were claimed to be as infallible and inevitable as the history itself. It also followed that a worldwide victory of communist countries is inevitable. All research had to be based on those assumptions and could not diverge in its findings. In 1956, Soviet academician Anna Pankratova said that "the problems of Soviet historiography are the problems of our Communist ideology." Soviet historians have also been criticized for a Marxist bias in the interpretation of other historical events, unrelated to the Soviet Union. Thus, for example, they assigned to the rebellions in the Roman Empire the characteristics of the social revolution. Often, the Marxist bias and propaganda demands came into conflict: hence the peasant rebellions against the early Soviet rule, such as the Tambov Rebellion of 1920–21, were simply ignored as inconvenient politically and contradicting the official interpretation of the Marxist theories. Notable histories include the Short Course History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik), published in 1938, which was written to justify the nature of Bolshevik party life under Joseph Stalin. This work crystallised the piatichlenka or five acceptable moments of history in terms of vulgar dialectical materialism: primitive-communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism and socialism. == In China == Most Chinese history that is published in the People's Republic of China (PRC) is based on a Marxist interpretation of history. These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are: Slave society Feudal society Capitalist society Socialist society The world communist society The official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history. Labour society (digital) – Xia to Shang Feudal society (decentralized) – Zhou to Sui Feudal society (bureaucratic) – Tang to the First Opium War Feudal society (semi-colonial) – First Opium War to end of Qing dynasty Capitalist society – Republican era Socialist society – PRC 1949 to present Because of the strength of the Chinese Communist Party and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favour of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history. Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong, historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them. There are several problems associated with imposing Marx's European-based framework on Chinese history. First, slavery existed throughout China's history but never as the primary form of labour. While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal, later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analysed their European counterparts as being. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term "bureaucratic feudalism". The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with the imperial examination. Some world-systems analysts, such as Janet Abu-Lughod, claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed. The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan. Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools. One held that China followed the set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that "Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West" and assumed that China existed in a "qualitatively different historical world from Western society". That is, there is an argument between those who see "unilinear, monistic world history" and those who conceive of a "two-tracked or multi-tracked world history". Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analysing the Six Dynasties 220–589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal. He concluded that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy. The period established social and political patterns which shaped China's history from that point on. There was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism's ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics. == In India == In India Marxist historiography takes the form of Marxian historiography where Marxian techniques of analysis are used but Marxist political intentions and prescriptions are discarded. B. N. Datta and D. D. Kosambi are considered the founding fathers of Marxist historiography in India. D. D. Kosambi, a polymath, viewed Indian History from a Marxist viewpoint. The other Indian scholars of Marxian historiography are R. S. Sharma, Irfan Habib, D. N. Jha, and K. N. Panikkar. Other historians such as Satish Chandra, Romila Thapar, Bipan Chandra, Arjun Dev, and Dineshchandra Sircar, are sometimes referred to as "influenced by the marxian approach to history." The Marxian historiography of India has focused on studies of economic development, land ownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and deindustrialization during the colonial period. One debate in Indian history that relates to a historical materialist schema is on the nature of feudalism in India. D. D. Kosambi in the 1960s outlined the idea of "feudalism from below" and "feudalism from above". Element of his feudalism thesis was rejected by R. S. Sharma in his monograph Indian Feudalism (2005) and various other books. However R. S. Sharma also largely agrees with Kosambi in his various other books. Most Indian Marxian historians argue that the economic origins of communalism are feudal remnants and the economic insecurities caused by slow development in India. The Marxian school of Indian historiography is accused of being too ideologically influenced. B. R. Ambedkar criticized Marxists, as he deemed them to be unaware or ignorant of the specifics of caste issues. Many have alleged that Marxian historians used negationism to whitewash some of the atrocities committed by Muslim rulers in the Indian Subcontinent. Since the late 1990s, Hindu nationalist scholars especially have polemicized against the Marxian tradition in India for neglecting what they believe to be the country's 'illustrious past' based on Vedic-puranic chronology. An example of such works is Arun Shourie's Eminent Historians (1998). == The effects of Marxist historiography == Marxist historiography has had an enormous influence on historiography, and compares with empiricist historiography as one of the basic and foundational historiographic methodologies. Most non-Marxist historians make use of tools developed within Marxist historiography, like dialectical analysis of social formations, class analysis, or the project of broadening the scope of history into social history. Marxist historiography provided the first sustained efforts at social history, and is still highly influential within this area. The contribution of class analysis has also led to the development of gender and race as other analytical tools. Marxism was one of the key influences on the Annales school tradition of French historiography. == See also == Alltagsgeschichte Cleometrics Mode of production Historical materialism Philosophy of history Historical determinism Historicism == References == Perry Anderson, In the tracks of Historical Materialism Paul Blackledge, Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History (2006) Evans, Michael (1975). Karl Marx. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN 978-0415436779. "Deciphering the past" International Socialism 112 (2006) Meek, Ronald L. (1976). Social Science and the Ignoble Savage. Cambridge Studies in the History and Theory of Politics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Seligman, Edwin R. A. (1901). "The Economic Interpretation of History". Political Science Quarterly. 16 (4): 612–640. doi:10.2307/2140420. JSTOR 2140420. Tanigawa, Michio (1985). Medieval Chinese Society and the Local "Community". Translated by Joshua A. Fogel. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520053700.	Wikipedia/Leninist_historiography

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