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The Journal of Chemical Physics is a scientific journal published by the American Institute of Physics that carries research papers on chemical physics. Two volumes, each of 24 issues, are published annually. It was established in 1933 when Journal of Physical Chemistry editors refused to publish theoretical works.
Th... | Wikipedia/The_Journal_of_Chemical_Physics |
In organic chemistry, a functional group is any substituent or moiety in a molecule that causes the molecule's characteristic chemical reactions. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reactions regardless of the rest of the molecule's composition. This enables systematic prediction of chem... | Wikipedia/Functional_group |
Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), also known as surface potential microscopy, is a noncontact variant of atomic force microscopy (AFM). By raster scanning in the x,y plane the work function of the sample can be locally mapped for correlation with sample features. When there is little or no magnification, this appro... | Wikipedia/Kelvin_probe_force_microscope |
Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) is a form of electron microscopy in which a material is exposed to a beam of electrons with a known, narrow range of kinetic energies. Some of the electrons will undergo inelastic scattering, which means that they lose energy and have their paths slightly and randomly deflected.... | Wikipedia/Electron_energy_loss_spectroscopy |
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for the determination of the surface structure of single-crystalline materials by bombardment with a collimated beam of low-energy electrons (30–200 eV) and observation of diffracted electrons as spots on a fluorescent screen.
LEED may be used in one of two ways:
Q... | Wikipedia/Low_energy_electron_diffraction |
Cyclopædia: or, an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences is a British encyclopedia prepared by Ephraim Chambers and first published in 1728. Six more editions appeared between 1728 and 1751, and there was a Supplement in 1753. The Cyclopædia was one of the first general encyclopedias produced in English.
== Notew... | Wikipedia/Cyclopædia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences |
In fluid mechanics, the force density is the negative gradient of pressure. It has the physical dimensions of force per unit volume. Force density is a vector field representing the flux density of the hydrostatic force within the bulk of a fluid. Force density is represented by the symbol f, and given by the followin... | Wikipedia/Force_density |
In physics, magnetic tension is a restoring force with units of force density that acts to straighten bent magnetic field lines. In SI units, the force density
f
T
{\displaystyle \mathbf {f} _{T}}
e... | Wikipedia/Magnetic_tension_force |
The Grad–Shafranov equation (H. Grad and H. Rubin (1958); Vitalii Dmitrievich Shafranov (1966)) is the equilibrium equation in ideal magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) for a two dimensional plasma, for example the axisymmetric toroidal plasma in a tokamak. This equation takes the same form as the Hicks equation from fluid dyna... | Wikipedia/Grad–Shafranov_equation |
Magnetohydrodynamics is a peer-reviewed physics journal published by the Institute of Physics of the University of Latvia, covering fundamental and applied problems of magnetohydrodynamics in incompressible media, including magnetic fluids. This involves both classical and emerging areas in the physics, thermodynamic... | Wikipedia/Magnetohydrodynamics_(journal) |
Electrohydrodynamics (EHD), also known as electro-fluid-dynamics (EFD) or electrokinetics, is the study of the dynamics of electrically charged fluids. Electrohydrodynamics (EHD) is a joint domain of electrodynamics and fluid dynamics mainly focused on the fluid motion induced by electric fields. EHD, in its simplest f... | Wikipedia/Electrohydrodynamics |
Lorentz force velocimetry (LFV) is a noncontact electromagnetic flow measurement technique. LFV is particularly suited for the measurement of velocities in liquid metals like steel or aluminium and is currently under development for metallurgical applications. The measurement of flow velocities in hot and aggressive li... | Wikipedia/Lorentz_force_velocimetry |
The Cauchy momentum equation is a vector partial differential equation put forth by Augustin-Louis Cauchy that describes the non-relativistic momentum transport in any continuum.
== Main equation ==
In convective (or Lagrangian) form the Cauchy momentum equation is written as:
... | Wikipedia/Cauchy_momentum_equation |
In magnetohydrodynamics, the induction equation is a partial differential equation that relates the magnetic field and velocity of an electrically conductive fluid such as a plasma. It can be derived from Maxwell's equations and Ohm's law, and plays a major role in plasma physics and astrophysics, especially in dynamo ... | Wikipedia/Induction_equation |
The following are important identities involving derivatives and integrals in vector calculus.
== Operator notation ==
=== Gradient ===
For a function
f
(
x
,
y
,
z
)
{\displaystyle f(x,y,z)}
in three-dimensional Ca... | Wikipedia/Vector_calculus_identity |
Live Science is a science news website. The publication features stories on a wide range of topics, including space, animals, health, archaeology, human behavior, and planet Earth. It also includes a reference section with links to other websites. Its stated mission is to inform and entertain readers about science and ... | Wikipedia/Live_Science |
In a toroidal fusion power reactor, the magnetic fields confining the plasma are formed in a helical shape, winding around the interior of the reactor. The safety factor, labeled q or q(r), is the ratio of the times a particular magnetic field line travels around a toroidal confinement area's "long way" (toroidally) to... | Wikipedia/Safety_factor_(plasma_physics) |
In magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), shocks and discontinuities are transition layers where properties of a plasma change from one equilibrium state to another. The relation between the plasma properties on both sides of a shock or a discontinuity can be obtained from the conservative form of the MHD equations, assuming cons... | Wikipedia/Shocks_and_discontinuities_(magnetohydrodynamics) |
In nuclear physics, a magic number is a number of nucleons (either protons or neutrons, separately) such that they are arranged into complete shells within the atomic nucleus. As a result, atomic nuclei with a "magic" number of protons or neutrons are much more stable than other nuclei. The seven most widely recognized... | Wikipedia/Magic_number_(physics) |
High-energy nuclear physics studies the behavior of nuclear matter in energy regimes typical of high-energy physics. The primary focus of this field is the study of heavy-ion collisions, as compared to lighter atoms in other particle accelerators. At sufficient collision energies, these types of collisions are theoriz... | Wikipedia/High-energy_nuclear_physics |
A three-body force is a force that does not exist in a system of two objects but appears in a three-body system. In general, if the behaviour of a system of more than two objects cannot be described by the two-body interactions between all possible pairs, as a first approximation, the deviation is mainly due to a three... | Wikipedia/Three-body_force |
In nuclear physics, ab initio methods seek to describe the atomic nucleus from the bottom up by solving the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation for all constituent nucleons and the forces between them. This is done either exactly for very light nuclei (up to four nucleons) or by employing certain well-controlled appr... | Wikipedia/Ab_initio_methods_(nuclear_physics) |
The decay energy is the energy change of a nucleus having undergone a radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and radiation. This decay, or loss of energy, results in an atom of one type (called the parent nuclide) transforming ... | Wikipedia/Decay_energy |
London dispersion forces (LDF, also known as dispersion forces, London forces, instantaneous dipole–induced dipole forces, fluctuating induced dipole bonds or loosely as van der Waals forces) are a type of intermolecular force acting between atoms and molecules that are normally electrically symmetric; that is, the ele... | Wikipedia/London_dispersion_force |
In classical mechanics, a central force on an object is a force that is directed towards or away from a point called center of force.
F
(
r
)
=
F
(
r
)
... | Wikipedia/Central_forces |
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons... | Wikipedia/Nuclear_model |
The interacting boson model (IBM) is a model in nuclear physics in which
nucleons (protons or neutrons) pair up, essentially
acting as a single particle with boson properties, with
integral spin of either 2 (d-boson) or 0 (s-boson). They correspond to a quintuplet and singlet, i.e. 6 states.
It is sometimes known as th... | Wikipedia/Interacting_boson_model |
Internal conversion is an atomic decay process where an excited nucleus interacts electromagnetically with one of the orbital electrons of an atom. This causes the electron to be emitted (ejected) from the atom. Thus, in internal conversion (often abbreviated IC), a high-energy electron is emitted from the excited atom... | Wikipedia/Internal_conversion |
In nuclear physics, atomic physics, and nuclear chemistry, the nuclear shell model utilizes the Pauli exclusion principle to model the structure of atomic nuclei in terms of energy levels. The first shell model was proposed by Dmitri Ivanenko (together with E. Gapon) in 1932. The model was developed in 1949 following i... | Wikipedia/Nuclear_shell_model |
Agricultural science (or agriscience for short) is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agricul... | Wikipedia/Agriculture_science |
The Polish Academy of Sciences (Polish: Polska Akademia Nauk, PAN) is a Polish state-sponsored institution of higher learning. Headquartered in Warsaw, it is responsible for spearheading the development of science across the country by a society of distinguished scholars and a network of research institutes. It was es... | Wikipedia/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences |
Agricultural science (or agriscience for short) is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agricul... | Wikipedia/Agricultural_Science |
Industrial ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modelled as a network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and transform those resources into by-products, products and services which can be bought and sold to me... | Wikipedia/Industrial_ecology |
Carnot's theorem, also called Carnot's rule or Carnot's law, is a principle of thermodynamics developed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 that specifies limits on the maximum efficiency that any heat engine can obtain.
Carnot's theorem states that all heat engines operating between the same two thermal or heat res... | Wikipedia/Carnot's_theorem_(thermodynamics) |
Equilibrium Thermodynamics is the systematic study of transformations of matter and energy in systems in terms of a concept called thermodynamic equilibrium. The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. Equilibrium thermodynamics, in origins, derives from analysis of the Carnot cycle. Here, typically a system, a... | Wikipedia/Equilibrium_thermodynamics |
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a closed system at thermodynamic equilibrium approaches a constant value when its temperature approaches absolute zero. This constant value cannot depend on any other parameters characterizing the system, such as pressure or applied magnetic field. At absolute ... | Wikipedia/Third_law_of_thermodynamics |
The Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc. (AMCA) is an international trade body that sets standards for Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) equipment. It rates fan balance and vibration, aerodynamic performance, air density, speed and efficiency.
AMCA was formed in 1955 from several earl... | Wikipedia/Air_Movement_and_Control_Association |
Heat recovery ventilation (HRV), also known as mechanical ventilation heat recovery (MVHR) is a ventilation system that recovers energy by operating between two air sources at different temperatures. It is used to reduce the heating and cooling demands of buildings.
By recovering the residual heat in the exhaust gas, t... | Wikipedia/Energy_recovery_ventilation |
Entropy is one of the few quantities in the physical sciences that require a particular direction for time, sometimes called an arrow of time. As one goes "forward" in time, the second law of thermodynamics says, the entropy of an isolated system can increase, but not decrease. Thus, entropy measurement is a way of dis... | Wikipedia/Entropy_(arrow_of_time) |
Building science is the science and technology-driven collection of knowledge to provide better indoor environmental quality (IEQ), energy-efficient built environments, and occupant comfort and satisfaction. Building physics, architectural science, and applied physics are terms used for the knowledge domain that overl... | Wikipedia/Building_science |
Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal video or thermal imaging, is a process where a thermal camera captures and creates an image of an object by using infrared radiation emitted from the object in a process, which are examples of infrared imaging science. Thermographic cameras usually detect radiation in the long-infra... | Wikipedia/Thermographic_camera |
In thermodynamics, the internal energy of a system is expressed in terms of pairs of conjugate variables such as temperature and entropy, pressure and volume, or chemical potential and particle number. In fact, all thermodynamic potentials are expressed in terms of conjugate pairs. The product of two quantities that ar... | Wikipedia/Conjugate_variables_(thermodynamics) |
Biological thermodynamics (Thermodynamics of biological systems) is a science that explains the nature and general laws of thermodynamic processes occurring in living organisms as nonequilibrium thermodynamic systems that convert the energy of the Sun and food into other types of energy. The nonequilibrium thermodynami... | Wikipedia/Biological_thermodynamics |
Atmospheric thermodynamics is the study of heat-to-work transformations (and their reverse) that take place in the Earth's atmosphere and manifest as weather or climate. Atmospheric thermodynamics use the laws of classical thermodynamics, to describe and explain such phenomena as the properties of moist air, the form... | Wikipedia/Atmospheric_thermodynamics |
A forced-air central heating system is one which uses air as its heat transfer medium. These systems rely on ductwork, vents, and plenums as means of air distribution, separate from the actual heating and air conditioning systems. The return plenum carries the air from several large return grills (vents) to a central ... | Wikipedia/Forced-air |
A home energy monitor is a device that provides information about a personal electrical energy usage to a consumer of electricity. Devices may display the amount of electricity used, plus the cost of energy used and estimates of greenhouse gas emissions. The purpose of such devices is to assist in the management of pow... | Wikipedia/Home_energy_monitor |
Endoreversible thermodynamics is a subset of irreversible thermodynamics aimed at making more realistic assumptions about heat transfer than are typically made in reversible thermodynamics. It gives an upper bound on the power that can be derived from a real process that is lower than that predicted by Carnot for a Car... | Wikipedia/Endoreversible_thermodynamics |
Thermodynamics is expressed by a mathematical framework of thermodynamic equations which relate various thermodynamic quantities and physical properties measured in a laboratory or production process. Thermodynamics is based on a fundamental set of postulates, that became the laws of thermodynamics.
== Introduction ... | Wikipedia/Thermodynamic_equations |
A deep energy retrofit (DER) is an energy conservation project in an existing building that leads to an overall improvement in building performance. While there is no exact definition for a deep energy retrofit, it can be characterized as a whole-building analysis and construction process that aims to reduce on-site en... | Wikipedia/Deep_energy_retrofit |
The clean air delivery rate (CADR) is a figure of merit that is the cubic feet per minute (CFM) of air that has had all the particles of a given size distribution removed. For air filters that have air flowing through them, it is the fraction of particles (of a particular size distribution) that have been removed from ... | Wikipedia/Clean_air_delivery_rate |
In mathematics, certain systems of partial differential equations are usefully formulated, from the point of view of their underlying geometric and algebraic structure, in terms of a system of differential forms. The idea is to take advantage of the way a differential form restricts to a submanifold, and the fact that ... | Wikipedia/Integrability_conditions_for_differential_systems |
In thermodynamics, the interpretation of entropy as a measure of energy dispersal has been exercised against the background of the traditional view, introduced by Ludwig Boltzmann, of entropy as a quantitative measure of disorder. The energy dispersal approach avoids the ambiguous term 'disorder'. An early advocate of ... | Wikipedia/Entropy_(energy_dispersal) |
An open system is a system that has external interactions. Such interactions can take the form of information, energy, or material transfers into or out of the system boundary, depending on the discipline which defines the concept. An open system is contrasted with the concept of an isolated system which exchanges neit... | Wikipedia/Surroundings_(thermodynamics) |
Research concerning the relationship between the thermodynamic quantity entropy and both the origin and evolution of life began around the turn of the 20th century. In 1910 American historian Henry Adams printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teacher... | Wikipedia/Entropy_and_life |
Noise control or noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce the impact of that noise, whether outdoors or indoors.
== Overview ==
The main areas of noise mitigation or abatement are: transportation noise control, architectural design, urban planning through zoning codes, and occupa... | Wikipedia/Noise_control |
The zeroth law of thermodynamics is one of the four principal laws of thermodynamics. It provides an independent definition of temperature without reference to entropy, which is defined in the second law. The law was established by Ralph H. Fowler in the 1930s, long after the first, second, and third laws had been wide... | Wikipedia/Zeroth_law_of_thermodynamics |
A thermodynamic system is a body of matter and/or radiation separate from its surroundings that can be studied using the laws of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic systems can be passive and active according to internal processes. According to internal processes, passive systems and active systems are distinguished: passive... | Wikipedia/System_(thermodynamics) |
The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general. Due to the relevance of thermodynamics in much of science and technology, its history is finely woven with the developments of classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, magneti... | Wikipedia/Theory_of_heat |
Dilution is the process of decreasing the concentration of a solute in a solution, usually simply by mixing with more solvent like adding more water to the solution. To dilute a solution means to add more solvent without the addition of more solute. The resulting solution is thoroughly mixed so as to ensure that all p... | Wikipedia/Dilution_(equation) |
Common thermodynamic equations and quantities in thermodynamics, using mathematical notation, are as follows:
== Definitions ==
Many of the definitions below are also used in the thermodynamics of chemical reactions.
=== General basic quantities ===
=== General derived quantities ===
=== Thermal properties of ... | Wikipedia/Table_of_thermodynamic_equations |
In thermodynamics, a quantity that is well defined so as to describe the path of a process through the equilibrium state space of a thermodynamic system is termed a process function, or, alternatively, a process quantity, or a path function. As an example, mechanical work and heat are process functions because they des... | Wikipedia/Process_function |
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a green building certification program used worldwide. Developed by the non-profit U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), it includes a set of rating systems for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings, homes, and neighborhoods, which... | Wikipedia/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design |
Demand controlled ventilation (DCV) is a feedback control method to maintain indoor air quality that automatically adjusts the ventilation rate provided to a space in response to changes in conditions such as occupant number or indoor pollutant concentration. The most common indoor pollutants monitored in DCV systems a... | Wikipedia/Demand_controlled_ventilation |
The caloric theory is an obsolete scientific theory that heat consists of a self-repellent fluid called caloric that flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids. The "caloric theory" was superseded by the mid-19th ... | Wikipedia/Caloric_theory |
In thermodynamics, entropy is a numerical quantity that shows that many physical processes can go in only one direction in time. For example, cream and coffee can be mixed together, but cannot be "unmixed"; a piece of wood can be burned, but cannot be "unburned". The word 'entropy' has entered popular usage to refer to... | Wikipedia/Introduction_to_entropy |
HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) equipment needs a control system to regulate the operation of a heating and/or air conditioning system. Usually a sensing device is used to compare the actual state (e.g. temperature) with a target state. Then the control system draws a conclusion what action has to be t... | Wikipedia/HVAC_control_system |
In thermodynamics, Bridgman's thermodynamic equations are a basic set of thermodynamic equations, derived using a method of generating multiple thermodynamic identities involving a number of thermodynamic quantities. The equations are named after the American physicist Percy Williams Bridgman. (See also the exact diffe... | Wikipedia/Bridgman's_thermodynamic_equations |
In philosophy, the philosophy of physics deals with conceptual and interpretational issues in physics, many of which overlap with research done by certain kinds of theoretical physicists. Historically, philosophers of physics have engaged with questions such as the nature of space, time, matter and the laws that govern... | Wikipedia/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics |
In the thermodynamics of equilibrium, a state function, function of state, or point function for a thermodynamic system is a mathematical function relating several state variables or state quantities (that describe equilibrium states of a system) that depend only on the current equilibrium thermodynamic state of the sy... | Wikipedia/State_function |
Forced-air gas heating systems are used in central air heating/cooling systems for houses. Sometimes the system is referred to as "forced hot air".
== Design ==
Gas-fired forced-air furnaces have a burner in the furnace fueled by natural gas. A blower forces cold air through a heat exchanger and then through duct-wor... | Wikipedia/Forced-air_gas |
The thermodynamic properties of materials are intensive thermodynamic parameters which are specific to a given material. Each is directly related to a second order differential of a thermodynamic potential. Examples for a simple 1-component system are:
Compressibility (or its inverse, the bulk modulus)
Isothermal comp... | Wikipedia/Material_properties_(thermodynamics) |
Domestic energy consumption refers to the total energy consumption of a single household. Globally, the amount of energy used per household may vary significantly, depending on factors such as the standard of living of the country, the climate, the age of the occupant of the home, and type of residence. Households in d... | Wikipedia/Domestic_energy_consumption |
The Berkeley Physics Course is a series of college-level physics textbooks written mostly (but not exclusively) by UC Berkeley professors.
== Description ==
The series consists of the following five volumes, each of which was originally used in a one-semester course at Berkeley:
Mechanics, by Charles Kittel, et al.
... | Wikipedia/Berkeley_Physics_Course |
Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) is an XML-based vector graphics format for defining two-dimensional graphics, having support for interactivity and animation. The SVG specification is an open standard developed by the World Wide Web Consortium since 1999.
SVG images are defined in a vector graphics format and stored in X... | Wikipedia/Scalable_Vector_Graphics |
Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science is the eighth non-fiction book by the American theoretical physicist Lawrence M. Krauss. The text was initially published on March 21, 2011 by W. W. Norton & Company. Physics World chose the book as Book of the Year 2011. In this book, Krauss concentrates on the scientifi... | Wikipedia/Quantum_Man:_Richard_Feynman's_Life_in_Science |
Health physics, also referred to as the science of radiation protection, is the profession devoted to protecting people and their environment from potential radiation hazards, while making it possible to enjoy the beneficial uses of radiation. Health physicists normally require a four-year bachelor’s degree and qualify... | Wikipedia/Health_physics |
Applied physics is physics which is intended for a particular technological or practical use.
Applied physics may also refer to:
== Scientific journals ==
Applied Physics, issued as two separate publications:
Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing
Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics
American Institute of ... | Wikipedia/Applied_Physics_(disambiguation) |
Materials science is an interdisciplinary field of researching and discovering materials. Materials engineering is an engineering field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries.
The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the Age of Enlightenment, when researchers began to use analytical... | Wikipedia/Materials_science_and_engineering |
Materials science is an interdisciplinary field of researching and discovering materials. Materials engineering is an engineering field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries.
The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the Age of Enlightenment, when researchers began to use analytical... | Wikipedia/Materials_physics |
Engineering physics (EP), sometimes engineering science, is the field of study combining pure science disciplines (such as physics, mathematics, chemistry or biology) and engineering disciplines (computer, nuclear, electrical, aerospace, medical, materials, mechanical, etc.).
In many languages, the term technical physi... | Wikipedia/Engineering_Physics |
Cavity optomechanics is a branch of physics which focuses on the interaction between light and mechanical objects on low-energy scales. It is a cross field of optics, quantum optics, solid-state physics and materials science. The motivation for research on cavity optomechanics comes from fundamental effects of quantum ... | Wikipedia/Cavity_optomechanics |
"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" is a paper by James Clerk Maxwell on electromagnetism, published in 1865. Physicist Freeman Dyson called the publishing of the paper the "most important event of the nineteenth century in the history of the physical sciences".
The paper was key in establishing the class... | Wikipedia/A_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_Field |
In theoretical physics, an invariant is an observable of a physical system which remains unchanged under some transformation. Invariance, as a broader term, also applies to the no change of form of physical laws under a transformation, and is closer in scope to the mathematical definition. Invariants of a system are de... | Wikipedia/Invariant_(physics) |
In quantum field theory, a nonlinear σ model describes a field Σ that takes on values in a nonlinear manifold called the target manifold T. The non-linear σ-model was introduced by Gell-Mann & Lévy (1960, §6), who named it after a field corresponding to a spinless meson called σ in their model. This article deals prim... | Wikipedia/Nonlinear_sigma_model |
In classical mechanics, the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector (LRL vector) is a vector used chiefly to describe the shape and orientation of the orbit of one astronomical body around another, such as a binary star or a planet revolving around a star. For two bodies interacting by Newtonian gravity, the LRL vector is a constant... | Wikipedia/Fock_symmetry_in_theory_of_hydrogen |
The Chern–Simons theory is a 3-dimensional topological quantum field theory of Schwarz type. It was discovered first by mathematical physicist Albert Schwarz. It is named after mathematicians Shiing-Shen Chern and James Harris Simons, who introduced the Chern–Simons 3-form. In the Chern–Simons theory, the action is pro... | Wikipedia/Chern–Simons_model |
The Lanczos tensor or Lanczos potential is a rank 3 tensor in general relativity that generates the Weyl tensor. It was first introduced by Cornelius Lanczos in 1949. The theoretical importance of the Lanczos tensor is that it serves as the gauge field for the gravitational field in the same way that, by analogy, the... | Wikipedia/Lanczos_tensor |
In the physics of gauge theories, gauge fixing (also called choosing a gauge) denotes a mathematical procedure for coping with redundant degrees of freedom in field variables. By definition, a gauge theory represents each physically distinct configuration of the system as an equivalence class of detailed local field c... | Wikipedia/Gauge_transformation |
Classical electromagnetism or classical electrodynamics is a branch of physics focused on the study of interactions between electric charges and currents using an extension of the classical Newtonian model. It is, therefore, a classical field theory. The theory provides a description of electromagnetic phenomena whenev... | Wikipedia/Classical_electrodynamics |
Particle physics or high-energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The field also studies combinations of elementary particles up to the scale of protons and neutrons, while the study of combinations of protons and neutrons is called nuclear physics.
The funda... | Wikipedia/Elementary_particle_physics |
Quantum chaos is a branch of physics focused on how chaotic classical dynamical systems can be described in terms of quantum theory. The primary question that quantum chaos seeks to answer is: "What is the relationship between quantum mechanics and classical chaos?" The correspondence principle states that classical me... | Wikipedia/Chaos_(physics) |
The BF model or BF theory is a topological field, which when quantized, becomes a topological quantum field theory. BF stands for background field B and F, as can be seen below, are also the variables appearing in the Lagrangian of the theory, which is helpful as a mnemonic device.
We have a 4-dimensional differentiabl... | Wikipedia/BF_theory |
A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. The word gauge means a measurement, a thickness, an in-between distance (as in railroad tracks), or a resulting number of units per certain parameter (a number of loops in an inch of fabric or a number of lead balls in a pound of ammunition). Modern theories describe physi... | Wikipedia/Introduction_to_gauge_theory |
The cross-correlation matrix of two random vectors is a matrix containing as elements the cross-correlations of all pairs of elements of the random vectors. The cross-correlation matrix is used in various digital signal processing algorithms.
== Definition ==
For two random vectors
... | Wikipedia/Correlation_functions |
In high-energy physics, nonlinear electrodynamics (NED or NLED) refers to a family of generalizations of Maxwell electrodynamics which describe electromagnetic fields that exhibit nonlinear dynamics. For a theory to describe the electromagnetic field (a U(1) gauge field), its action must be gauge invariant; in the cas... | Wikipedia/Nonlinear_electrodynamics |
In quantum field theory, the energy that a particle has as a result of changes that it causes in its environment defines its self-energy
Σ
{\displaystyle \Sigma }
. The self-energy represents the contribution to the particle's energy, or effective mass, due to interactions bet... | Wikipedia/Electron_self-energy |
In electromagnetism, the electromagnetic tensor or electromagnetic field tensor (sometimes called the field strength tensor, Faraday tensor or Maxwell bivector) is a mathematical object that describes the electromagnetic field in spacetime. The field tensor was developed by Arnold Sommerfeld after the four-dimensional... | Wikipedia/Electromagnetic_field_tensor |
In mathematical physics, the Dirac equation in curved spacetime is a generalization of the Dirac equation from flat spacetime (Minkowski space) to curved spacetime, a general Lorentzian manifold.
== Mathematical formulation ==
=== Spacetime ===
In full generality the equation can be defined on
... | Wikipedia/Dirac_equation_in_curved_spacetime |
Coulomb's inverse-square law, or simply Coulomb's law, is an experimental law of physics that calculates the amount of force between two electrically charged particles at rest. This electric force is conventionally called the electrostatic force or Coulomb force. Although the law was known earlier, it was first publish... | Wikipedia/Coulomb_force_constant |
Non-relativistic quantum electrodynamics (NRQED) is a low-energy approximation of quantum electrodynamics which describes the interaction of (non-relativistic, i.e. moving at speeds much smaller than the speed of light) spin one-half particles (e.g., electrons) with the quantized electromagnetic field.
NRQED is an eff... | Wikipedia/Non-relativistic_quantum_electrodynamics |
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