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projected-23571520-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiele%20people | Tiele people | Mythological origin | The Tiele (, Mongolian *Tegreg "[People of the] Carts"), also transliterated as Dili (), Chile (), Zhile (), Tele (), also named Gaoche or Gaoju (, "High Carts"), were a tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu. Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling (). | The Book of Wei preserved the Gaoche's origin myth. | [
"Long Rectangle (plain).png"
] | [
"Chile and Gaoche",
"Mythological origin"
] | [
"Turkic peoples of Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Chinese history",
"History of Central Asia"
] |
projected-23571520-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiele%20people | Tiele people | Rouran Domination | The Tiele (, Mongolian *Tegreg "[People of the] Carts"), also transliterated as Dili (), Chile (), Zhile (), Tele (), also named Gaoche or Gaoju (, "High Carts"), were a tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu. Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling (). | In 391 the Rouran chief, Heduohan (曷多汗) was killed by the Tuoba Northern Wei. Heduohan's brother Shelun raided several tribal dependencies of the Tuoba in retaliation, but reportedly suffered a serious defeat in 399, and was forced to flee westward. Here Shelun defeated the Hulu (斛律) tribe and subjugated them. With the aid of a Hulu named Chiluohou (叱洛侯), Shelun conquered most of the Gaoche tribes and proclaimed himself Kaghan of the Rouran on March 11, 402. Many Gaoche, such as Chiluohou, were promoted to establish better control.
During the reign of Shelun and his successor Datan, the Rouran pushed as far as the Issyk Kul, where they defeated the Wusun and drove them to the south. In the east they raided the Northern Wei before they were defeated on June 16, 429. Afterwards, as many as 1.5 million Gaoche were said to have been captured and settled to areas adjacent to the capital Pingcheng in the south.
After this settlement they were called the Western Chile (西部敕勒), including a section of the Ordos Desert south of the Yellow River known as the Hexi Chile (河西敕勒), the Eastern Chile (东部敕勒), between Wuzhou (武周) and the capital suburbs, and the Northern Chile (北部敕勒), to the north and around the borders.
The greater part of the latter two possibly fled back to the steppe and were not heard of after 524 and 445 respectively. The Western Chile (mainly the Hulu and Tiele related to Fufuluo's Qifuli (泣伏利) clan) being caused by a horse race, by which south and north were eventually assimilated.
With the loss of numerous subjects and vital resources, the Rouran went into a temporary decline. However, in 460 they launched new campaigns in the west, destroying the remnant of Northern Liang. During a campaign against Khotan in 470, the king wrote in his supplicatory letter to the Toba Emperor that all of the statelets in the west had submitted to the Rouran. In 472, Yucheng attacked Northern Wei across the western border. By the time of his death in 485, Yucheng had restored the Kaghanate to a status even more powerful than the times of Datan.
During these wars, a southwestern Gaoche tribal group known as the Fufuluo united twelve clans and rebelled, but were defeated by the Rouran. They escaped and established a state northwest of Gaochang in 487. From then on, little is known about the rest of the Gaoche until the Göktürks. | [] | [
"Chile and Gaoche",
"Rouran Domination"
] | [
"Turkic peoples of Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Chinese history",
"History of Central Asia"
] |
projected-23571520-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiele%20people | Tiele people | Fufuluo | The Tiele (, Mongolian *Tegreg "[People of the] Carts"), also transliterated as Dili (), Chile (), Zhile (), Tele (), also named Gaoche or Gaoju (, "High Carts"), were a tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu. Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling (). | The Fufuluo (副伏罗) were a Gaoche tribe of twelve clans, dwelling close to the Gaochang kingdom (likely by the Tuin River of the Govi-Altai range. Early on a Fufuluo clan known as the Yizhan (which had lived there since the mid 2nd century) allied with the Touba. In 481, the Fufuluo began to interfere with the Gaochang and deposed one of their kings. The Fufuluo were then subjugated by the Rouran Khaganate.
After the death of the Rouran ruler Yucheng in 485 CE, his belligerent son Dulun fought more wars against the Touba Northern Wei.
After a disagreement, A-Fuzhiluo betrayed him, and in 487, together with his younger cousin Qiongqi (穷奇), they managed their clans of over 100,000 yurts to escape from the pursuing armies, led by Dulun and his uncle Nagai by defeating them.
After they settled, he founded a statelet (also known as the A-Fuzhiluo kingdom) under the title of Ulu Beglik (候娄匐勒, based on an interpretation of Shiratori Kurakichi and Pulleyblank). Like the later Qibi and Xueyantuo in 605, the Fufuluo divided their rule between north and south at Dzungaria.
The Fufuluo allied with the Northern Wei in 490 and fought against the Rouran until 541 when they were dispersed by them.
Shortly after the death of Dulun in 492, several important cities on the eastern route were taken by Fufuluo, separating the Rouran from the west. With the elimination of Rouran influence, the Hephthalites, kindred steppe nomads, for the first time extended their domain as far as Karashahr, where Qiongqi was killed and his son Mietu (弥俄突) was taken hostage.
After 507, the Hephthalites uninterruptedly sent eighteen embassies with gifts (朝献/朝贡) to the Chinese courts (twelve to Northern Wei, three to Liang Dynasty, two to Western Wei and one to Northern Zhou), as opposed to only one in 456. Like Peroz I and his son Kavadh I earlier in the west, the Hephthalites helped Mietu. He returned to his realm and Biliyan (跋利延), the successor of A-Fuzhiluo, was overthrown by his tribesmen, while shortly paying tribute to the Touba. In 508, Yujiulü Futu attacked the Fufuluo and gained a victory, but was killed by Mietu on his course back. Later in 516, l, son of Futu, defeated Mietu, and in reprisal had him towed to death by a horse. The Fufuluo went for several years into exile under the refuge of the Hephthalites. In 520, Chounu was repulsed by his younger brother Yifu (伊匐) who restored the realm. After his defeat, Chounu returned to the east, where he was killed in a coup in which the ruling clan of Yujiulu (郁久闾) was split into two factions. In 521, the Fufuluo penetrated into the Rouran territory, but were finally repulsed by 524. Thereafter, the Fufuluo suffered a series of defeats from Anagui before being annihilated in 541. During the final decade, they helped the Eastern Wei to fight the Western Wei in a civil war. After defeat, the nobility surrendered to them. | [] | [
"Chile and Gaoche",
"Fufuluo"
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"Turkic peoples of Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Chinese history",
"History of Central Asia"
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projected-23571520-007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiele%20people | Tiele people | Emergence of the Tiele | The Tiele (, Mongolian *Tegreg "[People of the] Carts"), also transliterated as Dili (), Chile (), Zhile (), Tele (), also named Gaoche or Gaoju (, "High Carts"), were a tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu. Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling (). | The term Tiele appeared in Chinese literature from the 6th Century to 8th Century, and most scholars agree that Tiele is simply different Chinese characters used to describe the same Turkic word as Chile, although some scholars disagree on what the specific original Turkic word may be: Tölöš ~ Töliš, Türk, or Tegreg ~ Tägräg. The name "Tiele" was first interpreted as "Tölis" by Édouard Chavannes and Vilhelm Thomsen, but this was pointed out as inaccurate in 1937 by Cen Zhongmian, as Tölis applied to the Turkic title of official (突利失 Tulishi) in the east that also came to be attached to the Xueyantuo qaghan. Some scholars (Haneda, Onogawa, Geng, etc.) proposed that Tiele, Dili, Dingling, Chile, Tele, & Tujue all transliterated underlying Türk; however, Golden proposed that Dili, Dingling, Chile, Tele, & Tiele transliterated Tegrek while Tujue transliterated Türküt, plural of Türk. The appelation Türük (Old Turkic: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰) ~ Türk (OT: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚) (whence Middle Chinese 突厥 *dwət-kuɑt > *tɦut-kyat > standard Chinese: Tūjué) was initially reserved exclusively for the Göktürks by Chinese, Tibetans, and even the Turkic-speaking Uyghurs. In contrast, medieval Muslim writers, including Turkic speakers like Ottoman historian Mustafa Âlî and explorer Evliya Çelebi as well as Timurid scientist Ulugh Beg, often viewed Inner Asian tribes, "as forming a single entity regardless of their linguistic affiliation" commonly used Turk as a generic name for Inner Asians (whether Turkic- or Mongolic-speaking). Only in modern era do modern historians use Turks to refer to all peoples speaking Turkic languages, differentiated from non-Turkic speakers.
In 546 the remainder of the Fufuluo, now called Tiele, rebelled and were defeated by Bumin Khan at Dzungaria. Around 250,000 of them were then incorporated into his army. In 552, Bumin Khan sent his army and defeated Anagui just north of the Chinese border. Two years before his death, he eliminated the remnants of the Rouran to the north and subjugated the Tiele.
According to Suishu, the Tiele consisted of over 40 tribes divided into seven locations:
The original manuscript contains no punctuation, so different scholars read and reconstruct the ethonyms differently.
The Tiele were a large tribal group, however it is unlikely they would have been under a unified leadership. References of the tribes in the remote areas west of the Pamir Mountains were sparse and mentioned only in passing, some tribes like the Alans were probably erroneously added. By the end of the 6th century nothing more was known about them. Those tribes in the eastern areas (north of China and near Lake Baikal), such as the Guligan (骨利干), Duolange (多览葛) Xijie (奚结) and Baixi (白霫) were being rewarded afterward, though a few like the Fuluo (覆罗), Mengchen (蒙陈) and Turuhe (吐如纥) disappeared. Fuluo (覆羅) were possibly linked to the 伏利(具) Fuli(-ju) in Book of Sui, the 匐利(羽) Fuli(-yu) in Tanghuiyao and the Bökli-Çöligil (𐰋𐰇𐰚𐰲𐰃:𐰲𐰇𐰠𐰏𐰠) on Kul Tigin inscription.
According to some researchers (Onogawa, 1940; Duan, 1988; Lung, 2011; Davis, 2008; Tang, 2009; etc.), the Göktürks' leading Ashina clan were descended from the Tiele tribe by ancestral lineage. Like the Göktürks, the Tiele were probably one of many nomadic Turkic peoples on the steppe. However, Lee & Kuang (2017) state that Chinese histories did not describe the Ashina-led Göktürks as descending from the Dingling or belonging to the Tiele confederation.
The Tiele were ruled by the Göktürks during the mid 6th century and early 7th century. Many of their tribal chiefs were expelled and some were killed during this period. When Göktürks' power peaked, at least 15 Tiele tribes were named:
Tiele allied themselves in a rebellion against the Göktürks during the turmoil between 599 and 603. This might have already started as early as in 582, when rumor was spread about a revolt in the north when a raiding campaign led Ishbara Qaghan away from the capital. Among the rivals of Ishbara in the west was Tardu, son of Istämi. He allied with Apa Khan, a qaghan at the northern Dzungaria and Khovd River, and declared himself independent.
In 587 Baga Khan, heir of Ishbara, captured Apa with the help of the Chinese but died the next year on a campaign in the west. Later on, Dulan took over his reign and in 599 he, together with Tardu, launched a civil war against his son Qimin, who sided with the Chinese. However, he was unsuccessful and was assassinated during his battles with the Chinese. His partner Tardu took over and launched a revolt against the Qaghanate. In 603 he was revolted against by the Tiele tribes, provoked by the Chinese, and fled to the Tuyuhun. Earlier, when Apa was captured, Nili took over from him, but he died after the defeat of Tardu in the east. His son Heshana Khan succeeded him in the Western Qaghanate, levying heavy taxes on the Tiele. To prevent a revolt he gathered several hundreds of chiefs and murdered them. In 605 an alliance among the Tiele under the Qibi (契苾) and Xueyantuo (薛延陀) tribes was formed to overthrow him. They captured most of the Dzungaria and defeated his occupying army, taking several important cities, including Kumul, Karashahr and Gaochang, pushing Heshana Khan further west to the lower Ili River by 607.
After victory, the Qibi chief Geleng (哥楞) was proclaimed as the qaghan by the tribes and the Xueyantuo chief Yiedie Khan as subordinate qaghan. At the same year Geleng allied with the Chinese to defeat the Tuyuhun to resolve a conflict at Dunhuang.
In 611, Shekui, a qaghan from Tashkent and grandson of Tardu, attacked Chuluo and forced him to escape to China. The return of Shekui marked the end of the rebellion, although exactly when the rebels were put down is uncertain. One Chinese account indicated that the Gaochang kingdom still remained under their vassal until the year 612. They were most likely subdued after this year as Shekui restored order in the Western Qaghanate.
Failure to put down these uprisings led to a fatal division within the Gökturks ruling Ashina clan. Under the leadership of Zhenzhu Khan in 628, grandson of Yishibo, the Xueyantuo made their crossing over the Altai, and quickly founded a confederation with the rest of the Tiele at the east.
The Xueyantuo founded a short-lived Qaghanate over the steppe under Zhenzhu Khan, his son Duomi Khan and nephew Yitewushi Khan, the last of which eventually surrendered to the Chinese. | [] | [
"Tiele",
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"History of Central Asia"
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projected-23571520-008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiele%20people | Tiele people | Chinese subjugation | The Tiele (, Mongolian *Tegreg "[People of the] Carts"), also transliterated as Dili (), Chile (), Zhile (), Tele (), also named Gaoche or Gaoju (, "High Carts"), were a tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu. Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling (). | Shortly after 646, the Uyghur and the rest of the twelve Tiele chiefs (and subsequently the far-away Guligan and Dubo) arrived at the Chinese court. They were bestowed either with the title of commander-in-chief (都督 dudu) or prefect (刺史 ) under the loose control (羁縻 jimi) of the northern protectorate or "pacificed north" (安北府), whose seat and name changed at certain times.
The Uyghur were prominent among the Tiele tribes next to the Xueyantuo. Their name first appeared in 390 as Yuanhe (袁纥). Under the leadership of Pusa (菩萨), son of chief Tejian (特健), the Uyghur co-operated with the Xueyantuo to make a stand against the Eastern Qaghanate. Soon after his death, his successor Tumidu (吐迷度) formed a new alliance with the Chinese and turned against his former ally. Thereafter, Tumidu was granted a Chinese title like the rest of the Tiele chiefs, and carried the title of qaghan among the other tribes, who now annually donated furs to the Chinese to fulfill their tax obligations.
In 648, Tumidu was murdered by his nephew Wuhe (乌纥) and another tribesman named Juluobo (俱罗勃). Both were sons-in-law of the Chebi Khan, the ruler of the Eastern Qaghanate at the northern Altai, who now held hegemony over the surrounding tribes, including the Qarluq. This alerted the Chinese, and Wuhe was assassinated by a ruse upon receiving his uncle's position from the Chinese deputy in the north. Later Juluobo was detained by the Chinese. On November 17, Porun (婆闰) was granted his fathers title.
Since their submission, the Tiele (mainly the Uyghur) had participated in several campaigns under Chinese leadership. Under the command of Ashina Sheer (阿史那社尔), Yuan Lichen (元礼臣), Gao Kan (高侃), Liang Jianfang (梁建方), Cheng Zhijie (程知节), Su Ding Fang and Xiao Siya (萧嗣业) this resulted in the capture of Chebi Khan in 650 and the end of the Western Qaghanate in 657, except for a last campaign at Goguryeo which probably killed Porun.
During those campaigns, visits would be paid to restrain the tribes. In 658 such a visit was repelled, a revolt broke out in 660 starting with the Sijie (思结), Bayegu (拔野古), Pugu (仆骨) and Tongluo (同罗), and it was joined by the other 5 tribes later. The reason for this revolt is unclear, perhaps due to the Chinese repression of the surrounding tribes during the campaigns. Two years later the revolts were suppressed by the Chinese at the upper Selenge River around Khangai. The battle was short, and a massacre was said to be committed by the two leading commanders. According to one exaggerated account from Tang Huiyao around 900,000 surrendered tribesmen were slaughtered, though it is certain that a large number of them were captured. After the event, a message was sent to the north to appease the restless Tiele.
In 669 similar unsuccessful revolts had been made by the Xueyantuo, but the details of these are vague. The last revolt was mentioned in 686, led by the Pugu and Tongluo to join with the Ashina clan, who had formed the Second Turkic Khaganate under Ilterish Qaghan in 682. They were immediately suppressed by an army dispatched from Juyan. A number of them were moved to that region along with the seat of the protectorate under the jurisdiction of Ganzhou. Earlier during the rebellion contacts between the northern protectorate and the Chinese capital were cut off, and the only way to pass was through the area of Suzhou. | [] | [
"Tiele",
"Chinese subjugation"
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"Turkic peoples of Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Chinese history",
"History of Central Asia"
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projected-23571520-009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiele%20people | Tiele people | Rise of the Uyghur Khaganate | The Tiele (, Mongolian *Tegreg "[People of the] Carts"), also transliterated as Dili (), Chile (), Zhile (), Tele (), also named Gaoche or Gaoju (, "High Carts"), were a tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu. Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling (). | After the disintegration of the Eastern Qaghanate in 630, many Göktürk nobles were resettled either at the Chinese border or in the capital. Some went on to participate in frontier campaigns for the Chinese.
In 679 a major rebellion was led by three Göktürk nobles. Among them, Ashina Nishufu (阿史那泥熟匐), a direct descendant of Illig, was chosen as their qaghan. They were quickly subdued by the Chinese and their leader was betrayed and killed by his own troops. The rest of the Göktürks managed to escape and allied themselves with Ashina Funian (阿史那伏念) for a new rebellion. Funian declared himself qaghan in 681, but his revolt did not succeed and more than fifty participants were executed on November 16 at the Chinese capital. The remaining rebellious Göktürks formed the Second Turkic Eastern Qaghanate under Ilteris Sad and his 5,000 supporters. They were mostly active in the southern region bordering China at mount Čoγay (总材山). Over the decade they held countless raids across the Chinese border.
Exactly when or how the Tiele came under their subjection is unclear. However, during this period, a number of pro-Chinese Tiele groups who had earlier cooperated with the Chinese against them, such as Uyghur, Qibi, Sijie and Hun (浑), escaped into the Hexi Corridor and eventually resettled to Liangzhou.
According to the Tonyukuk and Kültigin Orkhon script, the Göktürks made five out of forty-seven attacks on the Tiele who were led by Ilteris. Among them, four seem to have been mere raids while the last attack could be seen as their re-subjection on the northern steppe. The estimated date for the Tiele submission to the Göktürks would be around 687, probably without much resistance.
The establishment of a second Göktürk capital at the foot of the sacred mountain Ötüken (於都斤山) brought unrest to the Tiele tribes. After the Uyghur chief was killed, they were recruited for their annual raiding campaigns over the Chinese border after 694. These raids were halted in 708, as the Chinese constructed fortifications along the Ordos. Raids continued elsewhere as Qapagan turned his attention to the west and the Turgesh and Qarluq tribes between 708 and 715. By this time, some of the Tiele had escaped into China and were settled in Lingzhou and elsewhere, while others like the Bayegu had revolted in 707. These revolts continued until 716 and Qapagan, on his way back from suppressing revolts by the Uyghur, Tongluo, Baixi, Bayegu and Pugu, was ambushed and killed by a Bayegu tribesman named Xiezhilue (颉质略) on July 22. In conclusion, not all tribes were involved in the revolts. Two of the northernmost tribal allies, the Guligan and Dubo (都播) did not participate in any of the revolts.
Soon, Bilge Khan took over the reign and together with Tonyukuk, began to appease the subjected Tiele. Tonyukuk was born in China and was considered a wise statesman in both Turkic and Chinese accounts. Meanwhile, a friendly relationship was built with the Chinese. Till the end of the Second Eastern Qaghanate only one raid in 720 was made on the Chinese border. Bilge Khan started to call for a return of the former members of the Tiele tribes who had settled in China. He had risen in status among the tribal chiefs, especially the Uyghur within the Qaghanate.
During this period, many Tiele had betrayed the local Chinese authorities and fled to the north, in particular the five communities around Liang, Ling, Xia, Feng, and Bingzhou, while minor insurgencies had occurred throughout the process. Among the returning Tiele tribes was the Uyghur, specifically the Yaoluoge, who had escaped into China until 727. The Yaoluoge consisted one of nine clans of Uyghur, and had dominated probably for six generations since the fall of Xueyantuo.
After Bilge Khan was poisoned, there were factional struggles within the ruling clan. Within a few years, an alliance was established between the Basmyl (拔悉蜜), Uyghur and Qarluq. They overthrew the Göktürks and killed the qaghan. Most of the heirs were killed subsequently. At the same time the Basmyl chief, who was approved as qaghan, was overthrown by the allies.
In 745 the exiled qaghan of the Göktürks was killed by a Uyghur chief named Qutlugh Boyla, son of Hushu (护输). He founded the new Uyghur Qaghanate under the title of Qutlugh Bilge Köl Qaghan. The name "Tiele", and the "nine allies (of Tiele)" (九姓) or Toquz Oguz (based on the interpretation of scholar Cen Zhongmian in the late 1950s) is not mentioned afterwards, and was probably replaced by the name Huihu (Uyghur) in historic records. From then on the Uyghur consisted of seven former Tiele tribes and two new tribes, while eight former Tiele tribal names had now disappeared. | [] | [
"Tiele",
"Rise of the Uyghur Khaganate"
] | [
"Turkic peoples of Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Chinese history",
"History of Central Asia"
] |
projected-23571520-011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiele%20people | Tiele people | Primary sources | The Tiele (, Mongolian *Tegreg "[People of the] Carts"), also transliterated as Dili (), Chile (), Zhile (), Tele (), also named Gaoche or Gaoju (, "High Carts"), were a tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu. Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling (). | Sima Guang (1985). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.27). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. .
Sima Guang (1986). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.30). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. .
Sima Guang (1987). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.38). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. .
Sima Guang (1987). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.41). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. .
Sima Guang (1987). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.42). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. .
Sima Guang (1988). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.46). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. .
Sima Guang (1988). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.47). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. .
Sima Guang (1988). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.48). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. .
Sima Guang (1989). A Translation (in Vernacular Chinese) and Annotation of Zizhi Tongjian by Bo Yang (Vol.50). Taipei: Yuan-Liou Publishing Company Ltd. . | [] | [
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projected-23571520-012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiele%20people | Tiele people | Secondary sources | The Tiele (, Mongolian *Tegreg "[People of the] Carts"), also transliterated as Dili (), Chile (), Zhile (), Tele (), also named Gaoche or Gaoju (, "High Carts"), were a tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu. Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling (). | Duan, Lianqin (1988). "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele". Shanghai: Shanghai People's Press. .
Li, Jihe (2003). "A Research on Migration of Northwestern Minorities Between pre-Qin to Sui and Tang". Beijing: Nationalities Press. .
Lu, Simian [1934] (1996). "A History of Ethnic Groups in China". Beijing: Oriental Press. .
Pulleyblank, Edwin G (2002). "Central Asia and Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China". Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. .
Trever, Camilla (1932). "Excavations in Northern Mongolia (1924–1925)". Leningrad: J. Fedorov Printing House. OCLC 2566311.
Shen, Youliang (1998). "A Research on Northern Ethnic Groups and Regimes". Beijing: Central Nationalities University Press. .
Suribadalaha (1986). "New Studies of the Origins of the Mongols". Beijing: Nationalities Press. OCLC 19390448.
Wang, Xiaofu (1992). "Political Relationship Between the Chinese, Tibetan and Arab". Beijing: Peking University Press. .
Xue, Zongzheng (1992). "A History of Turks". Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press. .
Zhang, Bibo, and Dong, Guoyao (2001). "Cultural History of Ancient Northern Ethnic Groups in China". Harbin: Heilongjiang People's Press. .
The Peoples of the West, University of Washington, from the Weilue, by Yu Huan
Category:Turkic peoples of Asia
Category:Ethnic groups in Chinese history
Category:History of Central Asia | [] | [
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projected-23571523-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20City%20of%20Toronto%20inside%20and%20outside%20workers%20strike | 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike | Introduction | The 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike (also known as the 2009 Toronto strike) was a legal strike action that was undertaken by the Toronto Civic Employees Union Local 416 and CUPE Local 79, two locals of the Canadian Union of Public Employees in the city of Toronto.
It involved approximately 24,000 city employees. | [] | [
"Introduction"
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"2009 labor disputes and strikes",
"Labour disputes in Ontario",
"Canadian Union of Public Employees",
"2009 in Toronto"
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projected-23571523-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20City%20of%20Toronto%20inside%20and%20outside%20workers%20strike | 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike | Background | The 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike (also known as the 2009 Toronto strike) was a legal strike action that was undertaken by the Toronto Civic Employees Union Local 416 and CUPE Local 79, two locals of the Canadian Union of Public Employees in the city of Toronto.
It involved approximately 24,000 city employees. | On June 22 at midnight Toronto municipal workers belonging to 2 separate unions (CUPE Local 416 - representing the outside workers, and CUPE Local 79 - representing the inside workers) went on strike following six months negotiating with the municipality over contract renewal. | [
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"2009 labor disputes and strikes",
"Labour disputes in Ontario",
"Canadian Union of Public Employees",
"2009 in Toronto"
] |
projected-23571523-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20City%20of%20Toronto%20inside%20and%20outside%20workers%20strike | 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike | Issues | The 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike (also known as the 2009 Toronto strike) was a legal strike action that was undertaken by the Toronto Civic Employees Union Local 416 and CUPE Local 79, two locals of the Canadian Union of Public Employees in the city of Toronto.
It involved approximately 24,000 city employees. | The union said that the main issue for the strike were requests, from the city, for concessions from the union in the new contract.
According to the CBC, the main issues were regard changes to job security, seniority and the banking of sick days. The previous contract allowed some union members to bank unused sick days and cash them out upon retirement. The city proposed contract was to disallow the practise.
CUPE Local 79 President, Ann Dembinski was quoted as saying "This is about getting a fair deal similar to what everyone else got. Everyone else was able to negotiate a collective agreement without huge takeaways. These are huge concessions. No other City of Toronto workforce has had to negotiate any concessions in order to get a collective agreement." | [] | [
"Issues"
] | [
"2009 labor disputes and strikes",
"Labour disputes in Ontario",
"Canadian Union of Public Employees",
"2009 in Toronto"
] |
projected-23571523-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20City%20of%20Toronto%20inside%20and%20outside%20workers%20strike | 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike | Services affected | The 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike (also known as the 2009 Toronto strike) was a legal strike action that was undertaken by the Toronto Civic Employees Union Local 416 and CUPE Local 79, two locals of the Canadian Union of Public Employees in the city of Toronto.
It involved approximately 24,000 city employees. | Union members from Local 416 and Local 79 work in various departments within the city and the work stoppage affected many of their services, including:
Garbage Collection - from single detached dwellings, low-rise residential dwellings and some small commercial businesses. (exception: former city of Etobicoke which contracted out services before amalgamation).
Parks and Recreation - including city run pools and recreation facilities, grass cutting in parks and summer programmes. Toronto Island ferries halted for visitors and residents.
City run daycare facilities.
Municipal Licensing - including building permits, signage permits, taxi cab licenses and burlesque licenses. Marriage licenses were not affected.
Public Health - including regular health inspections of restaurants, public pools, city beaches, city run health clinics and dental offices.
Toronto EMS - Ambulance service running at 75% capacity with priority calls unaffected.
Water Supply/Water Treatment
Animal Services | [
"Toronto09StrikeEmergencyGarbage.JPG",
"Christie Pits Dump Site 1.JPG"
] | [
"Services affected"
] | [
"2009 labor disputes and strikes",
"Labour disputes in Ontario",
"Canadian Union of Public Employees",
"2009 in Toronto"
] |
projected-23571523-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20City%20of%20Toronto%20inside%20and%20outside%20workers%20strike | 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike | Garbage collection | The 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike (also known as the 2009 Toronto strike) was a legal strike action that was undertaken by the Toronto Civic Employees Union Local 416 and CUPE Local 79, two locals of the Canadian Union of Public Employees in the city of Toronto.
It involved approximately 24,000 city employees. | The cessation of garbage collection was one of the more noticeable effects of the labour disruption. Four days into the strike the city announced 19 temporary garbage drop off locations for residential waste. This decision proved controversial in the neighbourhoods containing the sites as residents expressed concerns about pesticide and rodenticide spraying, as well as odour and leaching caused by the piles of garbage. Junk removal entrepreneurs took the opportunity to increase their customer base, specifically because plenty of residents were left without options to deal with their garbage. | [] | [
"Services affected",
"Garbage collection"
] | [
"2009 labor disputes and strikes",
"Labour disputes in Ontario",
"Canadian Union of Public Employees",
"2009 in Toronto"
] |
projected-23571523-005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20City%20of%20Toronto%20inside%20and%20outside%20workers%20strike | 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike | Final resolution | The 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike (also known as the 2009 Toronto strike) was a legal strike action that was undertaken by the Toronto Civic Employees Union Local 416 and CUPE Local 79, two locals of the Canadian Union of Public Employees in the city of Toronto.
It involved approximately 24,000 city employees. | On July 27, after extensions to a union-imposed midnight deadline to reach an agreement, CUPE local 416 President Mark Ferguson announced that the union had "the basis for a deal" with the City of Toronto. Ferguson exhorted the city to turn its attention to resolving outstanding issues with the city's inside workers represented by 416's sister local, local 79.
The final vote by the council on the agreement put forward by the mayor resulted in 21 "yes" votes, 18 "no" votes, and 6 absences. | [] | [
"Final resolution"
] | [
"2009 labor disputes and strikes",
"Labour disputes in Ontario",
"Canadian Union of Public Employees",
"2009 in Toronto"
] |
projected-23571523-006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20City%20of%20Toronto%20inside%20and%20outside%20workers%20strike | 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike | See also | The 2009 City of Toronto inside and outside workers strike (also known as the 2009 Toronto strike) was a legal strike action that was undertaken by the Toronto Civic Employees Union Local 416 and CUPE Local 79, two locals of the Canadian Union of Public Employees in the city of Toronto.
It involved approximately 24,000 city employees. | 2009 City of Windsor inside and outside workers strike
Mayor David Miller | [] | [
"See also"
] | [
"2009 labor disputes and strikes",
"Labour disputes in Ontario",
"Canadian Union of Public Employees",
"2009 in Toronto"
] |
projected-20463625-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamiko%20Takai | Mamiko Takai | Introduction | Mamiko Takai (高井麻巳子, Takai Mamiko, born December 28, 1966 in Obama, Fukui, Japan) is a Japanese idol from the eighties, who debuted in 1985 with the J-pop girl band Onyanko Club, and its first sub-group, duo Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi with her co-worker Yukiko Iwai. She quit those two bands in 1987, becoming a solo artist, and released four albums before marrying producer Yasushi Akimoto and subsequently retiring. Her older sister Masayo made her record debut in July 1986 as a part of a 20-member dance group named . She has two other younger sisters. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Japanese women pop singers",
"Japanese idols",
"Living people",
"1966 births",
"People from Obama, Fukui",
"Onyanko Club",
"Yasushi Akimoto",
"Musicians from Fukui Prefecture"
] | |
projected-20463625-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamiko%20Takai | Mamiko Takai | biography | Mamiko Takai (高井麻巳子, Takai Mamiko, born December 28, 1966 in Obama, Fukui, Japan) is a Japanese idol from the eighties, who debuted in 1985 with the J-pop girl band Onyanko Club, and its first sub-group, duo Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi with her co-worker Yukiko Iwai. She quit those two bands in 1987, becoming a solo artist, and released four albums before marrying producer Yasushi Akimoto and subsequently retiring. Her older sister Masayo made her record debut in July 1986 as a part of a 20-member dance group named . She has two other younger sisters. | Takai's family owned a local bike shop. She played softball at . After entering , she became popular among the students and was dubbed (Jakkō is an abbreviation for Wakasa High School). At that time, she dreamed of becoming an actress in the future. After graduating from high school, she moved to Tokyo to attend Joshibi Junior College. On April 15, 1985, she was approached by Katsunobu Itō (伊藤克信, Itō Katsunobu), a reporter for the variety show , while she was shopping in Harajuku. This led to an audition for that show, which was accepted, and she became a member of Onyanko Club. Note that since she already was affiliated with an entertainment agency, some say that her being approached in Harajuku was a staged act disguised as a coincidence. She became a center of attention as soon as she joined Onyanko Club because she was considered a legitimate beauty. In October 1985, she teamed up with Yukiko Iwai and made their record debut as Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi.
In June 1986, she made her solo debut with the song , which became number one on the Oricon chart in its first appearance. This song was very different from surrealistic novelty songs of Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi, and was a ballad with a calm and quiet tone. Since then, three more of her songs reached number one in a row. On July 6, 1986, a large-scale was held at Osaka-jō Hall and she shook hands with 16,000 fans who gathered there. In October 1986, her radio program, , was launched on Nippon Broadcasting System. In December 1986, Tōhō premiered the movie , in which she co-starred with Yuki Saitō and Haruko Sagara. In this film she played the role of a fun-loving disco queen. In reality, however, she had never been to a disco, and her character was considered to be sober and reserved, the opposite of a playful person, which made her role terribly perplexing to her fans. She also starred in the idol dramas and . In April 1987, she graduated from Onyanko Club along with Sayuri Kokushō, Aki Kihara, Rika Tatsumi, and Kazuko Utsumi (内海和子, Utsumi Kazuko). Along with this, Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi also disbanded. She mentioned that Onyanko Club's first concert, held at Hibiya Open-Air Concert Hall in October 1985, was one of the most memorable events for her as a member of the group.
She then became a solo singer and actress. She was oriented more toward acting than singing. As an actress, she appeared in dramas such as and . In addition, she starred in the drama . In July 1987, she released two videos: a feature-length promotional video titled filmed in Southern Europe and a video titled featuring her first solo concert at NHK Hall in June of that year. She also published a photo book titled , taken in Southern Europe. On May 23, 1988, just three weeks after the official fan club was formed, she married Yasushi Akimoto and retired from the entertainment industry.
They then lived in New York for a year and a half. In March 2001, after 13 years of marriage, she finally had a baby girl. In the 2000s, she published three books of essays on food under the name of Mamiko Akimoto: , , and . Moreover, in December 2002, she and her husband published a picture book titled . In October 2013, they invited Shinzō Abe, then Prime Minister, to their home and served him dinner. She also became an statutory auditor of Yasushi Akimoto's office. | [] | [
"biography"
] | [
"Japanese women pop singers",
"Japanese idols",
"Living people",
"1966 births",
"People from Obama, Fukui",
"Onyanko Club",
"Yasushi Akimoto",
"Musicians from Fukui Prefecture"
] |
projected-20463625-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamiko%20Takai | Mamiko Takai | Relationship with Yukiko Iwai | Mamiko Takai (高井麻巳子, Takai Mamiko, born December 28, 1966 in Obama, Fukui, Japan) is a Japanese idol from the eighties, who debuted in 1985 with the J-pop girl band Onyanko Club, and its first sub-group, duo Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi with her co-worker Yukiko Iwai. She quit those two bands in 1987, becoming a solo artist, and released four albums before marrying producer Yasushi Akimoto and subsequently retiring. Her older sister Masayo made her record debut in July 1986 as a part of a 20-member dance group named . She has two other younger sisters. | She and Yukiko Iwai, who were partnered in Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi, were said by those around them to be not on good terms with each other. However, at least in the early days, it is considered otherwise. They often took a cab home together after appearing on Yūyake Nyan Nyan at the time, since they were going home in the same direction. When Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi disbanded, they both said that it was a very pleasant memory and that they loved this subgroup. Kazuji Kasai, chief director of Yūyake Nyan Nyan, supervisor of Onyanko Club, explained the relationship between the two as follows. "This subgroup was originally formed by our decision without regard to their wishes. So it is true that there were differences in orientation between the two, but they were not as incompatible as they were said to be."
However, Iwai subsequently admitted on a TV program that she and Takai did not get along well. She mentioned that since they were in different groups, they spent little time together and had no conversations with each other outside of work. Iwai felt that Takai was privileged by Akimoto, which was also not amusing to her. Iwai made a curt comment about the successive marriages of Takai and Ruriko Nagata (永田ルリ子, Nagata Ruriko), saying that they should not have rushed into marriage since they were only 21 years old. Note that Eri Nitta, one of the most popular members of Onyanko Club, considered Takai to be one of her best friends. On the other hand, Takai herself recalled that when she was in Onyanko Club, there were no members she was particularly close to, and she was frequently alone. | [] | [
"Relationship with Yukiko Iwai"
] | [
"Japanese women pop singers",
"Japanese idols",
"Living people",
"1966 births",
"People from Obama, Fukui",
"Onyanko Club",
"Yasushi Akimoto",
"Musicians from Fukui Prefecture"
] |
projected-20463625-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamiko%20Takai | Mamiko Takai | Takai's characteristics and Yasushi Akimoto | Mamiko Takai (高井麻巳子, Takai Mamiko, born December 28, 1966 in Obama, Fukui, Japan) is a Japanese idol from the eighties, who debuted in 1985 with the J-pop girl band Onyanko Club, and its first sub-group, duo Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi with her co-worker Yukiko Iwai. She quit those two bands in 1987, becoming a solo artist, and released four albums before marrying producer Yasushi Akimoto and subsequently retiring. Her older sister Masayo made her record debut in July 1986 as a part of a 20-member dance group named . She has two other younger sisters. | Many of Takai's fans interpreted her sudden marriage as Akimoto forcibly taking her away from them. Although they directed their uncontrollable anger toward Akimoto, sometimes even directly harassing him, they accepted this fact over time. In the summer of 1986, she was secretly being stalked by the paparazzi of the photo magazine Friday, which was brought to her attention by one of her most enthusiastic fans. She was also stalked by Akimoto when she and Aki Kihara went to see the movie Year of the Dragon at midnight. On this occasion, Akimoto approached Takai at the movie theater, feigning coincidence. On the other hand, actress Yuki Saitō, who admits to being Takai's close friend, In her collection of essays, , she claimed that, contrary to popular perception, Takai was in fact actively courting Akimoto. He wrote many lyrics for the members of Onyanko Club, but only one song was written for her.
In addition, when Akimoto talked with her in the summer of 1986, he made the following comments about her. "She is naive because she was nurtured by the warm love of her family. Such characteristics of hers make her very clean image stand out in the greasy entertainment industry. While Sonoko Kawai and Eri Nitta will definitely have affairs, she will never commit adultery." In July 1985, when the members of Onyanko Club stayed at a hotel near in Ōiso, Kanagawa, While all of them excitedly watched the pornographic videos, the "pure-hearted" Takai was the only one who was shocked into silence by them. She was considered by the members of Onyanko Club to be the most feminine of the group. Her plain, unassuming, ordinary manner was described as her greatest appeal. On the other hand, Akimoto and others described her as having an awkward and quirky side, despite her calm outward appearance. | [] | [
"Takai's characteristics and Yasushi Akimoto"
] | [
"Japanese women pop singers",
"Japanese idols",
"Living people",
"1966 births",
"People from Obama, Fukui",
"Onyanko Club",
"Yasushi Akimoto",
"Musicians from Fukui Prefecture"
] |
projected-20463625-006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamiko%20Takai | Mamiko Takai | Studio albums | Mamiko Takai (高井麻巳子, Takai Mamiko, born December 28, 1966 in Obama, Fukui, Japan) is a Japanese idol from the eighties, who debuted in 1985 with the J-pop girl band Onyanko Club, and its first sub-group, duo Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi with her co-worker Yukiko Iwai. She quit those two bands in 1987, becoming a solo artist, and released four albums before marrying producer Yasushi Akimoto and subsequently retiring. Her older sister Masayo made her record debut in July 1986 as a part of a 20-member dance group named . She has two other younger sisters. | (1987)
(1987)
(1988)
Message (1988) | [] | [
"Albums",
"Studio albums"
] | [
"Japanese women pop singers",
"Japanese idols",
"Living people",
"1966 births",
"People from Obama, Fukui",
"Onyanko Club",
"Yasushi Akimoto",
"Musicians from Fukui Prefecture"
] |
projected-20463625-007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamiko%20Takai | Mamiko Takai | Compilation albums | Mamiko Takai (高井麻巳子, Takai Mamiko, born December 28, 1966 in Obama, Fukui, Japan) is a Japanese idol from the eighties, who debuted in 1985 with the J-pop girl band Onyanko Club, and its first sub-group, duo Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi with her co-worker Yukiko Iwai. She quit those two bands in 1987, becoming a solo artist, and released four albums before marrying producer Yasushi Akimoto and subsequently retiring. Her older sister Masayo made her record debut in July 1986 as a part of a 20-member dance group named . She has two other younger sisters. | series
(2002)
(2010)
(2004)
(2004) | [] | [
"Albums",
"Compilation albums"
] | [
"Japanese women pop singers",
"Japanese idols",
"Living people",
"1966 births",
"People from Obama, Fukui",
"Onyanko Club",
"Yasushi Akimoto",
"Musicians from Fukui Prefecture"
] |
projected-44496513-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea%20Fulignati | Andrea Fulignati | Introduction | Andrea Fulignati (born 31 October 1994) is an Italian footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Catanzaro. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"1994 births",
"People from Empoli",
"Footballers from Tuscany",
"Living people",
"Italian footballers",
"Italy youth international footballers",
"Association football goalkeepers",
"Palermo F.C. players",
"Trapani Calcio players",
"A.C. Cesena players",
"Empoli F.C. players",
"Ascoli Calcio 1... | |
projected-44496513-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea%20Fulignati | Andrea Fulignati | Career | Andrea Fulignati (born 31 October 1994) is an Italian footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Catanzaro. | Born in Empoli, and a youth product of small Tuscan team Sestese, he was scouted by Palermo and signed for the Under-19 youth team in 2012. He successively became third-choice keeper for the first time in the following years.
In 2015 he was loaned out to Serie B club Trapani to get more first-team experience, but ended up playing only three games during the season, as Nícolas became the first choice.
He successively returned to Palermo in 2016 to be the reserve of Josip Posavec for the Serie A club. He made his debut in the Italian top flight on 12 March 2017 in a home match against Roma, lost with the result of 0–3. He successively managed to break into the starting lineup for the last remaining league games, eventually overtaking Posavec as first choice and playing a total eight games throughout the entire season.
On 27 July 2018, Fulignati joined to Serie A team Empoli a 3-years contract.
After only 6-month Fulignati joined to Ascoli until 30 June 2021.
On 31 January 2019, Fulignati joined to SPAL on loan until 30 June 2019.
On 2 September 2019, he joined Perugia on loan until 30 June 2021, with Nicola Leali moved to opposite direction. On 23 February 2021, he signed a new contract with Perugia until 30 June 2024.
On 28 June 2022, Fulignati signed a two-year contract with Catanzaro. | [] | [
"Career"
] | [
"1994 births",
"People from Empoli",
"Footballers from Tuscany",
"Living people",
"Italian footballers",
"Italy youth international footballers",
"Association football goalkeepers",
"Palermo F.C. players",
"Trapani Calcio players",
"A.C. Cesena players",
"Empoli F.C. players",
"Ascoli Calcio 1... |
projected-44496518-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykaminea%2C%20Larissa | Sykaminea, Larissa | Introduction | Sykaminea (, ) is a village and a community of the Elassona municipality. Before the 2011 local government reform it was a part of the community of Karya of which it was a communal district. The 2011 census recorded 94 inhabitants in the village. The community of Sykaminea covers an area of 47.254 km2. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Populated places in Larissa (regional unit)"
] | |
projected-44496518-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykaminea%2C%20Larissa | Sykaminea, Larissa | Population | Sykaminea (, ) is a village and a community of the Elassona municipality. Before the 2011 local government reform it was a part of the community of Karya of which it was a communal district. The 2011 census recorded 94 inhabitants in the village. The community of Sykaminea covers an area of 47.254 km2. | According to the 2011 census, the population of the settlement of Sykaminea was 94 people, a decrease of almost 34% compared with the population of the previous census of 2001. | [] | [
"Population"
] | [
"Populated places in Larissa (regional unit)"
] |
projected-44496518-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykaminea%2C%20Larissa | Sykaminea, Larissa | See also | Sykaminea (, ) is a village and a community of the Elassona municipality. Before the 2011 local government reform it was a part of the community of Karya of which it was a communal district. The 2011 census recorded 94 inhabitants in the village. The community of Sykaminea covers an area of 47.254 km2. | List of settlements in the Larissa regional unit | [] | [
"See also"
] | [
"Populated places in Larissa (regional unit)"
] |
projected-44496518-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykaminea%2C%20Larissa | Sykaminea, Larissa | References | Sykaminea (, ) is a village and a community of the Elassona municipality. Before the 2011 local government reform it was a part of the community of Karya of which it was a communal district. The 2011 census recorded 94 inhabitants in the village. The community of Sykaminea covers an area of 47.254 km2. | Category:Populated places in Larissa (regional unit) | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"Populated places in Larissa (regional unit)"
] |
projected-20463632-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20Welch | Art Welch | Introduction | Art Welch (born 16 April 1944) is a Jamaican former professional soccer player who played in the North American Soccer League and Major Indoor Soccer League.
He began his career in Jamaica with Cavaliers FC, alongside twin brother Asher.
In May 1977, the Las Vegas Quicksilvers traded Welch to the Washington Diplomats in exchange for Tom Galati.
Welch also represented the Jamaica national team in international play, appearing in qualifying matches for the 1966 and 1970 World Cup tournaments. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"1944 births",
"Living people",
"Sportspeople from Kingston, Jamaica",
"Atlanta Chiefs players",
"Baltimore Bays players",
"Jamaican footballers",
"Jamaica international footballers",
"Jamaican expatriate footballers",
"Jamaican emigrants to the United States",
"Major Indoor Soccer League (1978–19... | |
projected-20463634-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Iron%20Stair | The Iron Stair | Introduction | The Iron Stair may refer to:
The Iron Stair (novel), a crime novel by Rita
The Iron Stair (1920 film), a British film adaptation directed by F. Martin Thornton
The Iron Stair (1933 film), a British film adaptation directed by Leslie S. Hiscott | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [] | |
projected-06899779-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Introduction | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] | |
projected-06899779-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Taxonomy | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | Felis venatica was proposed by Edward Griffith in 1821 and based on a sketch of a maneless cheetah from India. Griffith's description was published in Le Règne Animal with the help of Griffith's assistant Charles Hamilton Smith in 1827.
Acinonyx raddei was proposed by Max Hilzheimer in 1913 for the cheetah population in Central Asia, the Trans-Caspian cheetah. Hilzheimer's type specimen originated in Merv, Turkmenistan. | [] | [
"Taxonomy"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Evolution | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | Results of a five-year phylogeographic study on cheetah subspecies indicate that Asiatic and African cheetah populations separated between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago and are genetically distinct. Samples of 94 cheetahs for extracting mitochondrial DNA were collected in nine countries from wild, seized and captive individuals and from museum specimen. The population in Iran is considered autochthonous monophyletic and the last remaining representative of the Asiatic subspecies.
Mitochondrial DNA fragments of an Indian and a Southeast African cheetah museum specimens showed that they genetically diverged about 72,000 years ago. | [] | [
"Evolution"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Characteristics | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | The Asiatic cheetah has a buff-to-light fawn-coloured fur that is paler on the sides, on the front of the muzzle, below the eyes and inner legs. Small black spots are arranged in lines on the head and nape, but irregularly scattered on body, legs, paws and tail. The tail tip has black stripes. The coat and mane are shorter than of African cheetah subspecies. The head and body of an adult Asiatic cheetah measure about with a long tail. It weighs about . They exhibit sexual dimorphism; males are slightly larger than the females.
The cheetah is the fastest land animal in the world. It was previously thought that the body temperature of a cheetah increases during a hunt due to high metabolic activity. In a short period of time during a chase, a cheetah may produce 60 times more heat than at rest, with much of the heat, produced from glycolysis, stored to possibly raise the body temperature. The claim was supported by data from experiments in which two cheetahs ran on a treadmill for minutes on end but contradicted by studies in natural settings, which indicate that body temperature stays relatively the same during a hunt. A 2013 study suggested stress hyperthermia and a slight increase in body temperature after a hunt. The cheetah's nervousness after a hunt may induce stress hyperthermia, which involves high sympathetic nervous activity and raises the body temperature. After a hunt, the risk of another predator taking its kill is great, and the cheetah is on high alert and stressed. The increased sympathetic activity prepares the cheetah's body to run when another predator approaches. In the 2013 study, even the cheetah that did not chase the prey experienced an increase in body temperature once the prey was caught, showing increased sympathetic activity. | [
"Koushki 2.jpg"
] | [
"Characteristics"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Distribution and habitat | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | The cheetah thrives in open lands, small plains, semi-desert areas, and other open habitats where prey is available. The Asiatic cheetah mainly inhabits the desert areas around Dasht-e Kavir in the eastern half of Iran, including parts of the Kerman, Khorasan, Semnan, Yazd, Tehran, and Markazi provinces. Most live in five protected areas, viz Kavir National Park, Touran National Park, Bafq Protected Area, Dar-e Anjir Wildlife Refuge, and Naybandan Wildlife Reserve.
During the 1970s, the Asiatic cheetah population in Iran was estimated to number about 200 individuals in 11 protected areas. By the end of the 1990s, the population was estimated at 50 to 100 individuals.
During camera-trapping surveys conducted across 18 protected areas between 2001 and 2012, a total of 82 individuals in 15–17 families were recorded and identified. Of these, only six individuals were recorded for more than three years. In this period, 42 cheetahs died due to poaching, in road accidents and due to natural causes. Populations are fragmented and known to survive in the Semnan, North Khorasan, South Khorasan, Yazd, Esfahan, and Kerman Provinces.
In summer 2018, a female cheetah and four cubs were sighted in Touran Wildlife Refuge Iran's Semnan province. | [
"Iranian Cheetah roars.jpg"
] | [
"Distribution and habitat"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Former range | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | The Asiatic cheetah once ranged from the Arabian Peninsula and Near East to Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Afghanistan and Pakistan to India.
It is considered regionally extinct in all of its former range, with the only known surviving population being Iran.
In Iraq, the cheetah was still recorded in the desert west of Basrah in 1926. The last record was published in 1991, and it was a cheetah that had been killed by a car. In the Sinai peninsula, a sighting of two cheetahs was reported in 1946. In the Arabian Peninsula, it used to occur in the northern and southeastern fringes and had been reported in both Saudi Arabia and Kuwait before 1974. Two cheetahs were killed in the northern Saudi Ha'il Region in 1973. In Yemen, the last known cheetah was sighted in Wadi Mitan in 1963, near the international border with Oman. In Oman's Dhofar Mountains, a cheetah was shot near Jibjat in 1977.
In Central Asia, uncontrolled hunting of cheetahs and their prey, severe winters and conversion of grassland to areas used for agriculture contributed to the population's decline. By the early 20th century, the range in Central Asia had decreased significantly. By the 1930s, cheetahs were confined to the Ustyurt plateau and Mangyshlak Peninsula in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and to the foothills of the Kopet Dag mountains and a region in the south of Turkmenistan bordering Iran and Afghanistan. The last known sightings in the area were in 1957 between the Tejen and Murghab Rivers, in July 1983 in the Ustyurt plateau, and in November 1984 in the Kopet Dag. Officers of the Badhyz State Nature Reserve did not sight a cheetah in this area until 2014; the border fence between Iran and Turkmenistan might impede dispersal.
The cheetah population in Afghanistan decreased to the extent that it has been considered extinct since the 1950s. Two skins were sighted in markets in the country, one in 1971, and another in 2006, the latter reportedly from Samangan Province.
In India, the cheetah occurred in Rajputana, Punjab, Sind, and south of the Ganges from Bengal to the northern part of the Deccan Plateau. It was also present in the Kaimur District, Darrah and other desert regions of Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat and Central India. Akbar the Great was introduced to cheetahs around the mid-16th century and used them for coursing blackbucks, chinkaras and antelopes. He allegedly possessed 1,000 cheetahs during his reign but this figure might be exaggerated since there is no evidence of housing facilities for so many animals, nor of facilities to provide them with sufficient meat every day.
Trapping of adult cheetahs, who had already learned hunting skills from wild mothers, for assisting in royal hunts is said to be another major cause of the species' rapid decline in India, as there is only one record of a litter ever born to captive animals. By the beginning of the 20th century, wild Asiatic cheetahs sightings were rare in India, so much so that between 1918 and 1945, Indian princes imported cheetahs from Africa for coursing. Three of India's last cheetahs were shot by the Maharajah of Surguja in 1948. A female was sighted in 1951 in Koriya district, northwestern Chhattisgarh. | [
"Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo with cheetah kill 1948 BNHS.jpg"
] | [
"Distribution and habitat",
"Former range"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Ecology and behaviour | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | Most sightings of cheetahs in the Miandasht Wildlife Refuge between January 2003 and March 2006 occurred during the day and near watercourses. These observations suggest that they are most active when their prey is.
Camera-trapping data obtained between 2009 and 2011 indicate that some cheetahs travel long distances. A female was recorded in two protected areas that are about apart and intersected by railway and two highways. Her three male siblings and a different adult male were recorded in three reserves, indicating that they have large home ranges. | [] | [
"Ecology and behaviour"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Diet | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | The Asiatic cheetah preys on medium-sized herbivores including chinkara, goitered gazelle, wild sheep, wild goat and cape hare. In Khar Turan National Park, cheetahs use a wide range of habitats, but prefer areas close to water sources. This habitat overlaps to 61% with wild sheep, 36% with onager, and 30% with gazelle.
In India, prey was formerly abundant. Before its extinction in the country, the cheetah fed on the blackbuck, the chinkara, and sometimes the chital and the nilgai. | [
"Kushki & rubit.jpg"
] | [
"Ecology and behaviour",
"Diet"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Reproduction | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | Evidence of females successfully raising cubs is very rare. A few observations in Iran indicate that they give birth throughout the year to one to four cubs. In April 2003, four cubs found in a den had still closed eyes. In November 2004, a cub was recorded by a camera-trap that was about 6–8 months old. Breeding success depends on availability of prey.
In October 2013, a female with four cubs were filmed in Khar Turan National Park. In December 2014, four cheetahs were sighted and photographed by camera traps in the same national park. In January 2015, three other adult Asiatic cheetahs and a female with her cub were sighted in Miandasht Wildlife Refuge. Eleven cheetahs were also sighted at the time, and another four a month later. In July 2015, five adult cheetahs and three cubs were spotted in Khar Turan National Park. | [
"CheetahCubs.jpg"
] | [
"Ecology and behaviour",
"Reproduction"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Threats | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | The Asiatic cheetah has been listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1996. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, wildlife conservation was interrupted for several years. Manoeuvres with armed vehicles were carried in steppes, and local people hunted cheetahs and prey species unchecked. The gazelle population declined in many areas, and cheetahs retreated to remote mountainous habitats.
Reduced gazelle numbers, persecution, land-use change, habitat degradation and fragmentation, and desertification contributed to the decline of the cheetah population. The cheetah is affected by loss of prey as a result of antelope hunting and overgrazing from introduced livestock. Its prey was pushed out as herders entered game reserves with their herds. A herder pursued a female cheetah with two cubs on his motorbike, until one of the cubs was so exhausted that it collapsed. He caught and kept it chained in his home for two weeks, until it was rescued by officers of the Iranian Department of Environment.
Mining development and road construction near reserves also threaten the population. Coal, copper, and iron have been mined in cheetah habitat in three different regions in central and eastern Iran. It is estimated that the two regions for coal (Nayband) and iron (Bafq) have the largest cheetah population outside protected areas. Mining itself is not a direct threat to the population; road construction and the resulting traffic have made the cheetah accessible to humans, including poachers. The Iranian border regions to Afghanistan and Pakistan, viz the Baluchistan Province, are major passages for armed outlaws and opium smugglers who are active in the central and western regions of Iran, and pass through cheetah habitat. Uncontrolled hunting throughout the desert cannot be effectively controlled by the governments of the three countries.
Conflict between livestock herders and cheetahs is also threatening the population outside protected areas. Several herders killed cheetahs to prevent livestock loss, or for trophies, trade and fun. Some herders are accompanied by large mastiff-type dogs into protected areas. These dogs killed five cheetahs between 2013 and 2016.
Between 2007 and 2011, six cheetahs, 13 predators and 12 Persian gazelles died in Yazd Province following collisions with vehicles on a transit road. At least 11 Asiatic cheetahs were killed in road accidents between 2001 and 2014. The road network in Iran constitutes a very high risk for the small population as it impedes connectivity between population units.
Efforts to stop the construction of a road through the core of the Bafq Protected Area were unsuccessful.
Between 1987 and 2018, 56 cheetahs died in Iran because of humans; 26 were killed by herders or their dogs. | [
"AkbarHunt.jpg"
] | [
"Threats"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Conservation efforts | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | In September 2001, the project "Conservation of the Asiatic Cheetah and its Associated Biota" was launched by the Iranian Department of Environment in cooperation with the United Nations Development Programme's Global Environment Facility, the Wildlife Conservation Society, the IUCN Cat Specialist Group, the Cheetah Conservation Fund and the Iranian Cheetah Society.
Personnel of Wildlife Conservation Society and the Iranian Department of Environment started radio-collaring Asiatic cheetahs in February 2007. The cats' movements are monitored using GPS collars. International sanctions have made some projects, such as obtaining camera traps, difficult.
A few orphaned cubs have been raised in captivity, such as Marita who died at the age of nine years in 2003. Beginning in 2006, the day of his death, 31 August, became the Cheetah Conservation Day, used to inform the public about conservation programs.
In 2014, the Iranian national football team announced that their 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2015 AFC Asian Cup kits are imprinted with pictures of the Asiatic cheetah in order to bring attention to conservation efforts. In February 2015, Iran launched a search engine, Yooz, that features a cheetah as logo. In May 2015, the Iranian Department of Environment announced plans to quintuple the penalty for poaching a cheetah to 100 million tomans (around US$2500 as of February 2022). In September 2015, Meraj Airlines introduced the new livery of Iranian Cheetah to support its conservation efforts.
Iranian officials have discussed constructing wildlife crossings to reduce the number of deaths in traffic accidents.
In 2014, an Asiatic cheetah was cloned for the first time by scientists from the University of Buenos Aires. The embryo was not born. | [
"MerajAirA306PersianCheetah.JPG"
] | [
"Conservation efforts"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | In captivity | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | In February 2010, photos of an Asiatic cheetah in a "Semi-Captive Breeding and Research Center of Iranian Cheetah" in Iran's Semnan province were published. Another news report stated that the centre is home to about ten Asiatic cheetahs in a semi-wild environment protected by wire fencing all around.
In January 2008, a male cub aged about 7–8 months was recovered from a sheep herder and brought into captivity. Wildlife officials in Miandasht Wildlife Refuge and the Turan National Park have raised a few orphaned cubs.
In December 2015, it was reported that 18 Asiatic cheetah cubs had recently been born at Pardisan Park. | [
"Kooshki (Iranian Cheetah) 04.jpg"
] | [
"Conservation efforts",
"In captivity"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | Re-introduction proposals | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | The Asiatic cheetah whose long history on the Indian subcontinent gave the Sanskrit-derived vernacular name "cheetah" to the species Acinonyx jubatus, also had a gradual history of habitat loss there. In Punjab, before the thorn forests were cleared and extensively utilized for agriculture and human settlement, they were intermixed with open grasslands grazed by large herds of blackbuck; these coexisted with their main natural predator the Asiatic cheetah. The blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is severely endangered in India. Later, more habitat loss, prey depletion, and trophy hunting were to lead to the extinction of the Asiatic cheetah in India by the early 1950s.
The debate over whether cheetah reintroduction is compatible with the stated aims of wildlife conservation, started soon after extinction was confirmed. In 1955, the former State Wildlife Board of Andhra Pradesh proposed the reintroduction of the Asiatic cheetah in two districts of the state, on an experimental basis. In 1965, the pros and cons of reintroduction were critically discussed by M. Krishnan in a newspaper article. In 1984, Divyabhanusinh was asked to write a paper on the prospect of cheetah reintroduction in India for the Ministry of Environment and Forests. This paper was subsequently sent to the Cat Specialist Group of Species Survival Commission of the IUCN, where it sparked international interest.
In the 1970s, India's Department of Environment formally wrote to the Iranian government to request Asiatic cheetahs in use for reintroduction and apparently received a positive response. The talks were stalled after the Shah of Iran was deposed in the Iranian Revolution, and the negotiations never progressed. In August 2009, Jairam Ramesh, the then-Minister of Environment, rekindled the talks with Iran for sharing a few of their animals. Iran had always been hesitant to commit to the idea, given the very low numbers present in the country. It is said that Iran wanted an Asiatic lion in exchange for a cheetah, and that India was not willing to export any of its lions. The plan to source cheetahs from Iran was eventually dropped in 2010.
Proposals for the introduction of African cheetahs were made by the Indian government in 2009, but disallowed by India's supreme court. The court reversed its decision in early 2020, allowing the import of a small number on an experimental basis for testing long-term adaptation. On 17 September 2022, five female and three male Southeast African cheetahs between ages four and six, a gift of the government of Namibia, were released in a small quarantined enclosure within the Kuno National Park in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The cheetahs, all fitted with radio collars, will remain in the quarantined enclosure for a month, whereupon initially the males and later the females will be released into the park.
The scientific reaction to the translocation has been mixed. Adrian Tordiffe, a wildlife veterinary pharmacologist at the University of Pretoria who is an enthusiast considers India to provide "protected space" for the fragmented and threatened population of the world's cheetahs. K. Ullas Karanth, one of India's foremost tiger experts has been critical of the effort, considering it to be a "PR exercise," which given India's realities involves "high mortalities," and requires a continual import of African cheetahs. | [] | [
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] | [
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"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899779-013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic%20cheetah | Asiatic cheetah | See also | The Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is a critically endangered cheetah subspecies currently only surviving in Iran. It once occurred from the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East to the Caspian region, Transcaucasus, Kyzylkum Desert and India, but was extirpated in these regions during the 20th century.
The Asiatic cheetah survives in protected areas in the eastern-central arid region of Iran, where the human population density is very low. Between December 2011 and November 2013, 84 individuals were sighted in 14 different protected areas, and 82 individuals were identified from camera trap photographs. In December 2017, fewer than 50 individuals were thought to be remaining in three subpopulations that are scattered over in Iran's central plateau. As of January 2022, the Iranian Department of Environment estimates that only 12 Asiatic cheetahs, 9 males, and 3 females, are left in Iran.
In order to raise international awareness for the conservation of the Asiatic cheetah, an illustration was used on the jerseys of the Iran national football team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
The Asiatic cheetah diverged from the cheetah population in Africa between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. During the British rule in India, it was called the hunting leopard, a name derived from the ones that were kept in captivity in large numbers by Indian royalty to use for hunting wild antelopes. | Wildlife of Iran
Northeast African cheetah
Northwest African cheetah
Southeast African cheetah
East African cheetah
American cheetahs (Miracinonyx)
Cheetah Conservation Fund | [] | [
"See also"
] | [
"Acinonyx",
"Felids of Asia",
"Fauna of South Asia",
"Fauna of Western Asia",
"Fauna of Iran",
"Critically endangered fauna of Asia",
"Species endangered by habitat loss",
"Species endangered by habitat fragmentation",
"Mammals described in 1821",
"Taxa named by Edward Griffith (zoologist)"
] |
projected-06899782-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Clue%20in%20the%20Crumbling%20Wall | The Clue in the Crumbling Wall | Introduction | The Clue in the Crumbling Wall is the twenty-second volume in the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series. It was first published in 1945 under Carolyn Keene, a pseudonym of the ghostwriter Mildred Wirt Benson. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Nancy Drew books",
"1945 American novels",
"1945 children's books",
"Grosset & Dunlap books",
"Children's mystery novels"
] | |
projected-06899782-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Clue%20in%20the%20Crumbling%20Wall | The Clue in the Crumbling Wall | Plot | The Clue in the Crumbling Wall is the twenty-second volume in the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series. It was first published in 1945 under Carolyn Keene, a pseudonym of the ghostwriter Mildred Wirt Benson. | Nancy and her friends work to find an inheritance concealed in the walls of an old mansion before it can be discovered and stolen by an unscrupulous and crude man. | [] | [
"Plot"
] | [
"Nancy Drew books",
"1945 American novels",
"1945 children's books",
"Grosset & Dunlap books",
"Children's mystery novels"
] |
projected-06899782-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Clue%20in%20the%20Crumbling%20Wall | The Clue in the Crumbling Wall | Covers | The Clue in the Crumbling Wall is the twenty-second volume in the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series. It was first published in 1945 under Carolyn Keene, a pseudonym of the ghostwriter Mildred Wirt Benson. | The original art, by R. H. Tandy shows Nancy (in a shirtwaist dress), Bess and George removing a box that they have found while hiding from two men were "hacking" away at the stone walls of a garden walkway. Bess is depicted with very dark blonde-light brown hair, and all three girls are in feminine clothing, contrary to what the text of the book describes (riding pants/slacks and casual blouses with sturdy boots/shoes). Nancy is depicted in the same dress in the frontispiece.
The cover was updated with revised art in 1962 to show the same scene, with all three girls again in dresses or skirts, and Nancy's hair changed to Titian red. In this cover, the men are on the other side of the wall. The frontispiece was not updated in this edition.
The story was revised for a 1973 edition with new art showing a montage of Heath Castle, the male vandals, and a perplexed and puzzled Nancy. The art work of the 1973 edition included a frontispiece and the internal illustrations that were described as crude and lacking in detail, according to adult critics and collectors.
Category:Nancy Drew books
Category:1945 American novels
Category:1945 children's books
Category:Grosset & Dunlap books
Category:Children's mystery novels | [] | [
"Covers"
] | [
"Nancy Drew books",
"1945 American novels",
"1945 children's books",
"Grosset & Dunlap books",
"Children's mystery novels"
] |
projected-17327112-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Introduction | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] | |
projected-17327112-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | History | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | The original Greek alphabet did not have diacritics. The Greek alphabet is attested since the 8th century BC, and until 403 BC, variations of the Greek alphabet—which exclusively used what are now known as capitals—were used in different cities and areas. From 403 on, the Athenians decided to employ a version of the Ionian alphabet. With the spread of Koine Greek, a continuation of the Attic dialect, the Ionic alphabet superseded the other alphabets, known as epichoric, with varying degrees of speed. The Ionian alphabet, however, also only consisted of capitals. | [
"Codex Sinaiticus-small.jpg"
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"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
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"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Introduction of breathings | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | The rough and smooth breathings were introduced in classical times in order to represent the presence or absence of an in Attic Greek, which had adopted a form of the alphabet in which the letter Η (eta) was no longer available for this purpose as it was used to represent the long vowel . | [
"Byzantinischer Maler um 1020 003.jpg"
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"Koine Greek",
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"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Introduction of accents | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | During the Hellenistic period (3rd century BC), Aristophanes of Byzantium introduced the breathings—marks of aspiration (the aspiration however being already noted on certain inscriptions, not by means of diacritics but by regular letters or modified letters)—and the accents, of which the use started to spread, to become standard in the Middle Ages. It was not until the 2nd century AD that accents and breathings appeared sporadically in papyri. The need for the diacritics arose from the gradual divergence between spelling and pronunciation. | [] | [
"History",
"Introduction of accents"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Uncial script | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | The majuscule, i.e., a system where text is written entirely in capital letters, was used until the 8th century, when the minuscule polytonic supplanted it. | [] | [
"History",
"Uncial script"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Grave accent rule | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | By the Byzantine period, the modern rule which turns an acute accent (oxeia) on the last syllable into a grave accent (bareia)—except before a punctuation sign or an enclitic—had been firmly established. Certain authors have argued that the grave originally denoted the absence of accent; the modern rule is, in their view, a purely orthographic convention. Originally, certain proclitic words lost their accent before another word and received the grave, and later this was generalized to all words in the orthography. Others—drawing on, for instance, evidence from ancient Greek music—consider that the grave was "linguistically real" and expressed a word-final modification of the acute pitch. | [] | [
"History",
"Grave accent rule"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Stress accent | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | In the later development of the language, the ancient pitch accent was replaced by an intensity or stress accent, making the three types of accent identical, and the sound became silent. | [] | [
"History",
"Stress accent"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Simplification | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | At the beginning of the 20th century (official since the 1960s), the grave was replaced by the acute, and the iota subscript and the breathings on the rho were abolished, except in printed texts. Greek typewriters from that era did not have keys for the grave accent or the iota subscript, and these diacritics were also not taught in primary schools where instruction was in Demotic Greek. | [] | [
"History",
"Simplification"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Official adoption of monotonic system | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | Following the official adoption of the demotic form of the language, the monotonic orthography was imposed by law in 1982. The latter uses only the acute accent (or sometimes a vertical bar, intentionally distinct from any of the traditional accents) and diaeresis and omits the breathings. This simplification has been criticized on the grounds that polytonic orthography provides a cultural link to the past. | [] | [
"History",
"Official adoption of monotonic system"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Modern use of polytonic system | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | Some individuals, institutions, and publishers continue to prefer the polytonic system (with or without grave accent), though an official reintroduction of the polytonic system does not seem probable. The Greek Orthodox church, the daily newspaper Estia, as well as books written in Katharevousa continue to use the polytonic orthography. Though the polytonic system was not used in Classical Greece, these critics argue that modern Greek, as a continuation of Byzantine and post-medieval Greek, should continue their writing conventions.
Some textbooks of Ancient Greek for foreigners have retained the breathings, but dropped all the accents in order to simplify the task for the learner. | [] | [
"History",
"Modern use of polytonic system"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
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projected-17327112-010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Description | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | Polytonic Greek uses many different diacritics in several categories. At the time of Ancient Greek, each of these marked a significant distinction in pronunciation.
Monotonic orthography for Modern Greek uses only two diacritics, the tonos and diaeresis (sometimes used in combination) that have significance in pronunciation. Initial is no longer pronounced, and so the rough and smooth breathings are no longer necessary. The unique pitch patterns of the three accents have disappeared, and only a stress accent remains. The iota subscript was a diacritic invented to mark an etymological vowel that was no longer pronounced, so it was dispensed with as well.
The transliteration of Greek names follows Latin transliteration of Ancient Greek; modern transliteration is different, and does not distinguish many letters and digraphs that have merged by iotacism. | [] | [
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projected-17327112-011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Accents | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | The accents (, singular: ) are placed on an accented vowel or on the last of the two vowels of a diphthong (ά, but αί) and indicated pitch patterns in Ancient Greek. The precise nature of the patterns is not certain, but the general nature of each is known.
The acute accent ( or "high") '' marked high pitch on a short vowel or rising pitch on a long vowel.
The acute is also used on the first of two (or occasionally three) successive vowels in Modern Greek to indicate that they are pronounced together as a stressed diphthong.
The grave accent ( or "low", modern varia) '' marked normal or low pitch.
The grave was originally written on all unaccented syllables. By the Byzantine period it was only used to replace the acute at the end of a word if another accented word follows immediately without punctuation.
The circumflex () '' marked high and falling pitch within one syllable. In distinction to the angled Latin circumflex, the Greek circumflex is printed in the form of either a tilde () or an inverted breve (). It was also known as "high-low" or "acute-grave", and its original form ( ) was from a combining of the acute and grave diacritics. Because of its compound nature, it only appeared on long vowels or diphthongs. | [
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projected-17327112-012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Breathings | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | The breathings were written over a vowel or ρ.
The rough breathing (; Latin )—''—indicates a voiceless glottal fricative () before the vowel in Ancient Greek. In Greek grammar, this is known as aspiration. This is different from aspiration in phonetics, which applies to consonants, not vowels.
Rho (Ρρ) at the beginning of a word always takes rough breathing, probably marking unvoiced pronunciation. In Latin, this was transcribed as rh.
Upsilon (Υυ) at the beginning of a word always takes rough breathing. Thus, words from Greek begin with hy-, never with y-.
The smooth breathing (; Latin )—''—marked the absence of .
A double rho in the middle of a word was originally written with smooth breathing on the first rho and rough breathing on the second one (). In Latin, this was transcribed as rrh (diarrhoea or diarrhea). | [
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projected-17327112-013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Coronis | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | The coronis () marks a vowel contracted by crasis. It was formerly an apostrophe placed after the contracted vowel, but is now placed over the vowel and is identical to the smooth breathing. Unlike the smooth breathing, it often occurs inside a word. | [
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projected-17327112-014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Subscript | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | The iota subscript ()—''—is placed under the long vowels ᾱ, η, and ω to mark the ancient long diphthongs ᾱι, ηι, and ωι, in which the ι is no longer pronounced. | [
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projected-17327112-015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Adscript | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | Next to a capital, the iota subscript is usually written as a lower-case letter (Αι), in which case it is called iota adscript (). | [] | [
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projected-17327112-016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Diaeresis | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | In Ancient Greek, the diaeresis ( or ) – – appears on the letters and to show that a pair of vowel letters is pronounced separately, rather than as a diphthong.
In Modern Greek, the diaeresis usually indicates that two successive vowels are pronounced separately (as in , "I trick, mock"), but occasionally, it marks vowels that are pronounced together as an unstressed diphthong rather than as a digraph (as in , "I boycott"). The distinction between two separate vowels and an unstressed diphthong is not always clear, although two separate vowels are far more common.
The diaeresis can be combined with the acute, grave and circumflex but never with breathings, since the letter with the diaeresis cannot be the first vowel of the word.
In Modern Greek, the combination of the acute and diaeresis indicates a stressed vowel after a hiatus. | [
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projected-17327112-017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Vowel length | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | In textbooks and dictionaries of Ancient Greek, the macron—''—and breve—''—are often used over , , and to indicate that they are long or short, respectively. | [] | [
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projected-17327112-019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Caron | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | In some modern non-standard orthographies of Greek dialects, such as Cypriot Greek and Griko, a caron (ˇ) may be used on some consonants to show a palatalized pronunciation. They are not encoded as precombined characters in Unicode, so they are typed by adding the to the Greek letter. Latin diacritics on Greek letters may not be supported by many fonts, and as a fall-back a caron may be replaced by an iota ⟨ι⟩ following the consonant.
Examples of Greek letters with a combining caron and their pronunciation: ζ̌ , κ̌ or , λ̌ , ν̌ , ξ̌ , π̌ , σ̌ ς̌ , τ̌ , τζ̌ or , τσ̌ τς̌ or , ψ̌ . | [] | [
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projected-17327112-020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Dot above | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | A dot diacritic was used above some consonants and vowels in Karamanli Turkish, which was written with the Greek alphabet. | [] | [
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projected-17327112-021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Position in letters | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | Diacritics are written above lower-case letters and at the upper left of capital letters. In the case of a digraph, the second vowel takes the diacritics. A breathing diacritic is written to the left of an acute or grave accent but below a circumflex. Accents are written above a diaeresis or between its two dots. Diacritics are only written on capital letters if they are at the beginning of a word with the exception of the diaeresis, which is always written. Diacritics can be found above capital letters in medieval texts. | [] | [
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projected-17327112-023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Computer encoding | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | There have been problems in representing polytonic Greek on computers, and in displaying polytonic Greek on computer screens and printouts, but these have largely been overcome by the advent of Unicode and appropriate fonts. | [] | [
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] |
projected-17327112-024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | IETF language tag | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | The IETF language tags have registered subtag codes for the different orthographies:
for monotonic Greek.
for polytonic Greek. | [] | [
"Computer encoding",
"IETF language tag"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Unicode | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | While the tónos of monotonic orthography looks similar to the oxeîa of polytonic orthography in most fonts, Unicode has historically separate symbols for letters with these diacritics. For example, the monotonic "Greek small letter alpha with tónos" is at U+03AC, while the polytonic "Greek small letter alpha with oxeîa" is at U+1F71. The monotonic and polytonic accent however have been de jure equivalent since 1986, and accordingly the oxeîa diacritic in Unicode decomposes canonically to the monotonic tónos—both are underlyingly treated as equivalent to the multiscript acute accent, U+0301, since letters with oxia decompose to letters with tonos, which decompose in turn to base letter plus multiscript acute accent. For example: U+1F71 GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA ➔ U+03AC GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS ➔ U+03B1 GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA, U+0301 COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT.
Below are the accented characters provided in Unicode. In the uppercase letters, the iota adscript may appear as subscript depending on font. | [] | [
"Computer encoding",
"Unicode"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | See also | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | Acute accent
Voiceless glottal fricative
Diaeresis – Synaeresis
Greek language
Koine Greek phonology
Modern Greek grammar
Greek alphabet
Greek language question
Greek ligatures
Greek braille
Greek minuscule
Textual criticism
Aristarchian symbols
Obelism
Dagger (typography)
Greek numerals
Attic numerals
Isopsephy
Ancient Greek Musical Notation
Byzantine Musical Symbols | [] | [
"See also"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327112-030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20diacritics | Greek diacritics | Further reading | Greek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The more complex polytonic orthography (), which includes five diacritics, notates Ancient Greek phonology. The simpler monotonic orthography (), introduced in 1982, corresponds to Modern Greek phonology, and requires only two diacritics.
Polytonic orthography () is the standard system for Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek. The acute accent (´), the circumflex (ˆ), and the grave accent (`) indicate different kinds of pitch accent. The rough breathing (῾) indicates the presence of the sound before a letter, while the smooth breathing (᾿) indicates the absence of .
Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by a dynamic accent (stress), and was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greek etymology.
Monotonic orthography () is the standard system for Modern Greek. It retains two diacritics: a single accent or tonos (΄) that indicates stress, and the diaeresis ( ¨ ), which usually indicates a hiatus but occasionally indicates a diphthong: compare modern Greek (, "lamb chops"), with a diphthong, and (, "little children") with a simple vowel. A tonos and a diaeresis can be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verb (, "to feed").
Although it is not a diacritic, the hypodiastole (comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing (, "whatever") from (, "that"). | Panayotakis is critical of the adoption of monotonic, and also provides a useful historical sketch.
See also: . | [] | [
"Further reading"
] | [
"Hellenic scripts",
"Greek-script diacritics",
"Greek language",
"Koine Greek",
"Ancient Greek",
"Orthographies by language",
"Orthography",
"Spelling reform",
"Keyboard layouts"
] |
projected-17327122-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20God%C3%ADnez | Juan Godínez | Introduction | Juan Godíñez (1517 - 1571) Conquistador Juan Godínez, was born in the city of Úbeda, Spain. He came to the Americas in 1532. After coming to Peru, he campaigned with Diego de Almagro in Chile. He later served in Peru in the subjugation of Manco Inca, and in the expeditions of the captains Pedro de Candia and Diego de Rojas. Afterward, he returned to Chile in 1540 with Pedro de Valdivia serving in the wars of the Conquest of Chile until the arrival of García Hurtado de Mendoza.
He was captain of cavalry during the campaign against Lautaro in 1556 where, after the Battle of Peteroa, his company pursued the retreating Mapuche and destroyed a detachment of Lautaro's army near the Maule River. In 1557 his command defending Santiago joined that of the Governor Francisco de Villagra to destroy Lautaro's army in the Battle of Mataquito. He then served in the army of García Hurtado de Mendoza in his campaign during the Arauco War in southern Chile.
He was an encomendero of Choapa. He was a regidor of Santiago, Chile in 1550, 1554 and 1556. He married Catalina de la Cueva in 1557 and had eight children. His mestiza daughter, Leonor Godínez, married Don Juan Hurtado, notary public of Serena and Santiago. He died in 1571. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Spanish conquistadors",
"Spanish generals",
"Encomenderos",
"Viceroyalty of Peru people",
"Captaincy General of Chile",
"Colonial Peru",
"1571 deaths",
"1517 births",
"16th-century Peruvian people"
] | |
projected-17327122-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20God%C3%ADnez | Juan Godínez | Sources | Juan Godíñez (1517 - 1571) Conquistador Juan Godínez, was born in the city of Úbeda, Spain. He came to the Americas in 1532. After coming to Peru, he campaigned with Diego de Almagro in Chile. He later served in Peru in the subjugation of Manco Inca, and in the expeditions of the captains Pedro de Candia and Diego de Rojas. Afterward, he returned to Chile in 1540 with Pedro de Valdivia serving in the wars of the Conquest of Chile until the arrival of García Hurtado de Mendoza.
He was captain of cavalry during the campaign against Lautaro in 1556 where, after the Battle of Peteroa, his company pursued the retreating Mapuche and destroyed a detachment of Lautaro's army near the Maule River. In 1557 his command defending Santiago joined that of the Governor Francisco de Villagra to destroy Lautaro's army in the Battle of Mataquito. He then served in the army of García Hurtado de Mendoza in his campaign during the Arauco War in southern Chile.
He was an encomendero of Choapa. He was a regidor of Santiago, Chile in 1550, 1554 and 1556. He married Catalina de la Cueva in 1557 and had eight children. His mestiza daughter, Leonor Godínez, married Don Juan Hurtado, notary public of Serena and Santiago. He died in 1571. | Jerónimo de Vivar, Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reinos de Chile (Chronicle and abundant and true relation of the kingdoms of Chile) ARTEHISTORIA REVISTA DIGITAL; Crónicas de América (on line in Spanish)
de Góngora Marmolejo, Alonso, Historia de Todas las Cosas que han Acaecido en el Reino de Chile y de los que lo han gobernado (1536-1575) (History of All the Things that Have happened in the Kingdom of Chile and of those that have governed it (1536-1575)), University of Chile: Document Collections in complete texts: Cronicles (on line in Spanish)
XXII. De cómo vino de el audiencia de lo reyes proveído Villagra por corregidor de todo el reino, y de lo que hizo
José Toribio Medina, Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de Chile, Vols. 6-7, IV.— Información de senidos de Alonso López de la Eaigada, vecino de la ciudad de Santiago de Chile. (Archivo de Indias, Patronato, 1-5-34/18), Vols. 6-7 published by Impr. y Encuadernacido Barcelona; v.8-30 by Impr. Elzeviriana., 1901.
Mariño de Lobera, Pedro, Crónica del Reino de Chile, escrita por el capitán Pedro Mariño de Lobera....reducido a nuevo método y estilo por el Padre Bartolomé de Escobar. Edición digital a partir de Crónicas del Reino de Chile Madrid, Atlas, 1960, pp. 227-562, (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles ; 569-575). Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes (on line in Spanish)
Capítulo LIV: Cómo el capitán Lautaro fué sobre la ciudad de Santiago con un copioso ejército y tuvo dos batallas con los capitanes Diego Cano y Pedro de Villagrán
Capítulo LV: De la batalla que el general Francisco de Villagrán y los capitanes Alonso de Escobar y Juan Gudines dieron a Lautaro, donde perdió la vida, en el valle de Mataquito
Diego Barros Arana, Historia general de Chile, Tomo Primero
José Toribio Medina, Diccionario Biográfico Colonial de Chile, Imprenta Elzeviriana, Santiago, 1906, Juan Godíñez
pg. 348.
Category:Spanish conquistadors
Category:Spanish generals
Category:Encomenderos
Category:Viceroyalty of Peru people
Category:Captaincy General of Chile
Category:Colonial Peru
Category:1571 deaths
Category:1517 births
Category:16th-century Peruvian people | [] | [
"Sources"
] | [
"Spanish conquistadors",
"Spanish generals",
"Encomenderos",
"Viceroyalty of Peru people",
"Captaincy General of Chile",
"Colonial Peru",
"1571 deaths",
"1517 births",
"16th-century Peruvian people"
] |
projected-17327124-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamaj | Vamaj | Introduction | Vamaj is a small village situated near Kadi (a town known for its oil industry) and Kalol. Its Panchayat code is 162352. It is also famous for Shri Vamaj Tirth, a temple belonging to the Jain religion. The idol of Dada Adishvar in the temple belongs to the times of king Samprati | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Villages in Mehsana district"
] | |
projected-17327124-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamaj | Vamaj | References | Vamaj is a small village situated near Kadi (a town known for its oil industry) and Kalol. Its Panchayat code is 162352. It is also famous for Shri Vamaj Tirth, a temple belonging to the Jain religion. The idol of Dada Adishvar in the temple belongs to the times of king Samprati | Category:Villages in Mehsana district | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"Villages in Mehsana district"
] |
projected-20463664-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SM%20U-21%20%28Austria-Hungary%29 | SM U-21 (Austria-Hungary) | Introduction | SM U-21 or U-XXI was a or U-boat built for and operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy ( or ) during the First World War. The design for U-21 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy's Havmanden class (three of which had been built in Austria-Hungary), and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war.
U-21 was just over long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes, a deck gun, and a machine gun. Construction on U-21 began in mid 1915 and the boat was launched in September 1916. After suffering damage during a diving trial in January 1917, U-21 underwent seven months of repairs before her commissioning in August 1917.
The U-boat conducted patrols off the Albanian coast in October 1917, but experienced the failure of the seal on her main hatch. The repairs kept the boat out of action until June 1918. But in July a piston in her diesel engine broke, knocking the submarine out of the rest of the war. At the end of World War I, U-21 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920. U-21 had no wartime successes. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"U-20-class submarines",
"U-boats commissioned in 1917",
"1916 ships",
"World War I submarines of Austria-Hungary",
"Ships built in Pola"
] | |
projected-20463664-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SM%20U-21%20%28Austria-Hungary%29 | SM U-21 (Austria-Hungary) | Design and construction | SM U-21 or U-XXI was a or U-boat built for and operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy ( or ) during the First World War. The design for U-21 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy's Havmanden class (three of which had been built in Austria-Hungary), and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war.
U-21 was just over long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes, a deck gun, and a machine gun. Construction on U-21 began in mid 1915 and the boat was launched in September 1916. After suffering damage during a diving trial in January 1917, U-21 underwent seven months of repairs before her commissioning in August 1917.
The U-boat conducted patrols off the Albanian coast in October 1917, but experienced the failure of the seal on her main hatch. The repairs kept the boat out of action until June 1918. But in July a piston in her diesel engine broke, knocking the submarine out of the rest of the war. At the end of World War I, U-21 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920. U-21 had no wartime successes. | When it became apparent to the Austro-Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short one, they moved to bolster their U-boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden class submarines, three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume. Although the Austro-Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design, which was largely obsolete, it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards. The Austro-Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U-21 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915.
U-21 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Pola Navy Yard. Due to demands by the Hungarian government, subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms, and this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design, resulting in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general.
U-21 was an ocean-going submarine that displaced surfaced and submerged and was designed for a complement of 18. She was long with a beam of and a draft of . For propulsion, she featured a single shaft, a single diesel engine for surface running, and a single electric motor for submerged travel. She was capable of while surfaced and while submerged. Although there is no specific notation of a range for U-21, the Havmanden class, upon which the U-20 class was based, had a range of at , surfaced, and at submerged.
U-21 was armed with two torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes. She was also equipped with a deck gun and an machine gun. | [] | [
"Design and construction"
] | [
"U-20-class submarines",
"U-boats commissioned in 1917",
"1916 ships",
"World War I submarines of Austria-Hungary",
"Ships built in Pola"
] |
projected-20463664-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SM%20U-21%20%28Austria-Hungary%29 | SM U-21 (Austria-Hungary) | Service career | SM U-21 or U-XXI was a or U-boat built for and operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy ( or ) during the First World War. The design for U-21 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy's Havmanden class (three of which had been built in Austria-Hungary), and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war.
U-21 was just over long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes, a deck gun, and a machine gun. Construction on U-21 began in mid 1915 and the boat was launched in September 1916. After suffering damage during a diving trial in January 1917, U-21 underwent seven months of repairs before her commissioning in August 1917.
The U-boat conducted patrols off the Albanian coast in October 1917, but experienced the failure of the seal on her main hatch. The repairs kept the boat out of action until June 1918. But in July a piston in her diesel engine broke, knocking the submarine out of the rest of the war. At the end of World War I, U-21 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920. U-21 had no wartime successes. | U-21 was launched on 15 August 1916, the first of the four U-20-class boats. During a diving trial in January 1917, the submarine was damaged when it sank too deep, requiring repairs that took place over the next seven months. U-21 was commissioned on 15 August under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Hugo von Seyffertitz. A 31-year-old native of Brixen, von Seyffertitz was a first-time U-boat commander.
Ten days after commissioning, U-21 safely submerged to a depth of . However, her nose was dented when she hit bottom on another test dive in September, necessitating more repairs. On 29 September, von Seyffertitz steered the boat from the submarine base at Brioni to Cattaro, where she arrived on 1 October. On 4 October, U-21 set out for a patrol off the coast of Albania, but had returned to Cattaro by mid October.
On 15 October, von Seyffertitz and U-21 departed from Cattaro to begin their first Mediterranean deployment. Slated to sail into the Ionian Sea, U-21 instead had to turn back the following day when the main hatch seal on the conning tower leaked and could not be repaired. After her 18 October return to Cattaro, she sailed for Pola, arriving on 24 October. There, she would undergo another lengthy stay in port for repairs. While U-21 was under repair, von Seyffertitz was transferred to .
Linienschiffleutnant Robert Dürrigl was assigned the new commander of U-21 on 24 March 1918. The 26-year-old Galician had served as commander of for four months in 1917. Dürrial led U-21 out of Pola on 1 June for Cattaro, making stops en route at Arbe and Novigrad for repairs to the gyrocompass.
On 16 July, while conducting patrols off the Albanian coast, a piston in U-21s diesel engine broke and Dürrial put in at Djenovic. On 25 July, U-21 was towed to Pola, where she remained until the end of the war. She was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920. Like all of her sister boats, U-21 had no wartime successes. | [] | [
"Service career"
] | [
"U-20-class submarines",
"U-boats commissioned in 1917",
"1916 ships",
"World War I submarines of Austria-Hungary",
"Ships built in Pola"
] |
projected-20463664-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SM%20U-21%20%28Austria-Hungary%29 | SM U-21 (Austria-Hungary) | Bibliography | SM U-21 or U-XXI was a or U-boat built for and operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy ( or ) during the First World War. The design for U-21 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy's Havmanden class (three of which had been built in Austria-Hungary), and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war.
U-21 was just over long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes, a deck gun, and a machine gun. Construction on U-21 began in mid 1915 and the boat was launched in September 1916. After suffering damage during a diving trial in January 1917, U-21 underwent seven months of repairs before her commissioning in August 1917.
The U-boat conducted patrols off the Albanian coast in October 1917, but experienced the failure of the seal on her main hatch. The repairs kept the boat out of action until June 1918. But in July a piston in her diesel engine broke, knocking the submarine out of the rest of the war. At the end of World War I, U-21 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920. U-21 had no wartime successes. | Category:U-20-class submarines
Category:U-boats commissioned in 1917
Category:1916 ships
Category:World War I submarines of Austria-Hungary
Category:Ships built in Pola | [] | [
"Bibliography"
] | [
"U-20-class submarines",
"U-boats commissioned in 1917",
"1916 ships",
"World War I submarines of Austria-Hungary",
"Ships built in Pola"
] |
projected-20463671-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thockrington | Thockrington | Introduction | Thockrington is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Bavington, in Northumberland, England. The village lies about north of Hexham. In 1951 the parish had a population of 18. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Villages in Northumberland",
"Former civil parishes in Northumberland"
] | |
projected-20463671-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thockrington | Thockrington | Governance | Thockrington is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Bavington, in Northumberland, England. The village lies about north of Hexham. In 1951 the parish had a population of 18. | Thockrington is in the parliamentary constituency of Hexham. The parish was abolished on 1 April 1955 to form Bovington. | [] | [
"Governance"
] | [
"Villages in Northumberland",
"Former civil parishes in Northumberland"
] |
projected-20463671-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thockrington | Thockrington | Religious sites | Thockrington is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Bavington, in Northumberland, England. The village lies about north of Hexham. In 1951 the parish had a population of 18. | Thockrington church, which stands so prominently on a spur of the Great Whin Sill, is one of the oldest churches in the county. The church is dedicated to St Aidan.
Here are buried several members of the ancient family of Shafto, the earliest mention of whom is in 1240. The Shaftos lived at nearby Bavington until the eighteenth century when, as a result of their support of the Jacobite cause in 1715, their estates were confiscated by the Crown, and ultimately sold to a Delaval. The Shaftos had connections with the county of Durham and lived on their Durham estates until 1953, when Mr R. D. Shafto returned to Bavington Hall. | [] | [
"Religious sites"
] | [
"Villages in Northumberland",
"Former civil parishes in Northumberland"
] |
projected-20463671-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thockrington | Thockrington | Landmarks | Thockrington is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Bavington, in Northumberland, England. The village lies about north of Hexham. In 1951 the parish had a population of 18. | A little over a mile south-west of the village are the ruins of Little Swinburne Tower, a fifteenth-century pele tower. | [
"Little Swinburne Tower - geograph.org.uk - 116626.jpg"
] | [
"Landmarks"
] | [
"Villages in Northumberland",
"Former civil parishes in Northumberland"
] |
projected-20463671-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thockrington | Thockrington | Notable people | Thockrington is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Bavington, in Northumberland, England. The village lies about north of Hexham. In 1951 the parish had a population of 18. | Lord Beveridge, founder of the modern welfare state, is buried in the churchyard
The author Tom Sharpe's ashes were buried in the churchyard in 2014 by his Spanish partner, witnessed by a Spanish TV crew. Sharpe's father was once vicar of Thockrington.
The aviatrix, Connie Leathart (1903–93), is buried here; her remains are marked by a simple stone bearing the initials "CL". | [] | [
"Notable people"
] | [
"Villages in Northumberland",
"Former civil parishes in Northumberland"
] |
projected-20463686-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copa%20Petrobras%20Buenos%20Aires | Copa Petrobras Buenos Aires | Introduction | The Copa Petrobras Argentina was a tennis tournament held in Buenos Aires, Argentina since 2004. The event is part of the ''challenger series and is played on outdoor clay courts. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"ATP Challenger Tour",
"Sports competitions in Buenos Aires",
"Tennis tournaments in Argentina",
"Clay court tennis tournaments"
] | |
projected-20463689-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XHCHL-FM | XHCHL-FM | Introduction | XHCHL-FM is a radio station on 90.1 FM in Monterrey, Nuevo León radio market. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Radio stations in Monterrey",
"1996 establishments in Mexico"
] | |
projected-20463689-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XHCHL-FM | XHCHL-FM | History | XHCHL-FM is a radio station on 90.1 FM in Monterrey, Nuevo León radio market. | XHCHL received its concession on November 23, 1994. XHCHL was authorized to broadcast with 15,000 (later 20,000) watts on 99.1 MHz from China, Nuevo León. On July 15, 1996, the station came to air with a grupera format known as "La Picosa". In 2007, XHCHL moved to 106.5 MHz.
In 2010, XHCHL was authorized to move to Los Ramones and broadcast on 90.1. Initially, XHCHL on 90.1 was Beat 90.1, a dance Top 40 station featuring s a current-based mix of dance music, with Top 40 and R&B remixes, along with electronica and house music. It was the second Dance Contemporary radio station in Mexico, after semi-sister station XHSON-FM/Mexico City.
In 2017 and 2018, the Bichara family, which owns Núcleo Radio Monterrey, slowly shifted XHCHL toward a new direction, which was completed in early 2018 when the station adopted the name "90.1 FM" and the slogan "Sonamos Diferente"; the Ultra name was added in August. The format is similar to that of KJAV-FM in McAllen, Texas, owned by members of the Bichara family.
On May 1, 2020, Ultra 90.1 ceased broadcasting, making way for El Heraldo Radio's Monterrey debut. The station mostly simulcast the network with some local programming for the Monterrey area. The news/talk programming moved to XHSP-FM 99.7 upon the newspaper's outright purchase of that station from Grupo Radio Centro; on June 1, 2021, Ke Buena officially launched on the frequency by way of a franchise agreement with Heraldo Media Group. | [] | [
"History"
] | [
"Radio stations in Monterrey",
"1996 establishments in Mexico"
] |
projected-20463689-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XHCHL-FM | XHCHL-FM | References | XHCHL-FM is a radio station on 90.1 FM in Monterrey, Nuevo León radio market. | Category:Radio stations in Monterrey
Category:1996 establishments in Mexico | [] | [
"References"
] | [
"Radio stations in Monterrey",
"1996 establishments in Mexico"
] |
projected-20463693-000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | Introduction | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | [] | [
"Introduction"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] | |
projected-20463693-001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | Afghanistan | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | The official languages of Afghanistan are Pashto and Dari, both of which are Iranic languages. Dari, an Afghan standardized register of the Persian language, is considered the lingua franca of Afghanistan and used to write Afghan literature. Tajik is spoken by people closer to Tajikistan, although officially the language is regarded same as Dari. A few Turkic languages like Uzbek and Turkmen are also spoken near regions closer to Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Pashto is widely spoken by the Pashtun people, who mainly reside towards the south of Afghanistan on the Pakistani-Afghan border. | [] | [
"Afghanistan"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | Bangladesh | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Standard Bengali based on Rarhi dialect (West Bengal, India) is the national language of Bangladesh. Majority of Bangladeshis speaks Eastern Bengali. Native languages of Bangladesh are Sylheti and Chittagonian, while some ethnic minority groups also speak Tibeto-Burman, Dravidian and Austro-Asiatic languages. | [] | [
"Bangladesh"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | Bhutan | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Dzongkha is the national language of the Kingdom of Bhutan. Almost all the languages of Bhutan are from Tibetic family (except Nepali, an Indo-Aryan language). | [] | [
"Bhutan"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | India | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Most languages spoken in India belong either to the Indo-Aryan (), the Dravidian (c. 24%), the Austroasiatic (Munda) (c. 1.2%), or the Tibeto-Burman (c. 0.6%) families, with some languages of the Himalayas still unclassified.
The SIL Ethnologue lists 461 living languages for India.
Hindustani is the most widespread language of India. The Indian census takes the widest possible definition of "Hindi" as the broad variety of the Hindi languages. The native speakers of Hindi so defined account for 39% of Indians. Bengali is the second most spoken language of South Asia, found in both Bangladesh and Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam. The International Mother Language Day was created by UNESCO to commemorate the Bengali language. Other notable languages include Odia, Telugu, Punjabi, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Sindhi, Kannada, Pashto, Malayalam, Meitei (Manipuri) and Konkani.
Thirteen languages account for more than 1% of Indian population each, and between themselves for over 95%; all of them are "scheduled languages of the constitution."
Scheduled languages spoken by less than 1% of Indians are Santali (0.64%), Meitei (Manipuri) (0.14%), Bodo (0.13%), Dogri (0.01%, spoken in Jammu and Kashmir). The largest language that is not "scheduled" is Bhili (0.95%), followed by Gondi (0.27%), Tulu (0.17%) and Kurukh (0.099%) | [] | [
"India"
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"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | Maldives | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Divehi is national language of Maldives, spoken by 95% of the population. Arabic being considered as religious language and English being medium of instruction for education and international purposes such as tourism. | [] | [
"Maldives"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | Nepal | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Most of the languages of Nepal either fall under Indo-Aryan languages or Sino-Tibetan languages. The official language of the country is Nepali, earlier known as Gorkhali in the Kingdom of Nepal, and is the mother tongue of around half the population. | [] | [
"Nepal"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | Pakistan | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Pakistan is a linguistically diverse country it has many dozens of languages spoken as first languages. The major languages of Pakistan broadly fall under the category Indo-Iranian languages, with western regions of Pakistan (close to Iran and Afghanistan) speaking Iranic languages and eastern regions (close to India) speaking Indo-Aryan languages (with the Indus River approximately dividing the families).
Other language families in Pakistan include Dravidian (Brahui spoken in Central Balochistan), Sino-Tibetan languages such as Balti and Purgi spoken in the north-east (In Baltistan region of Pakistan), Nuristani languages such as Kamkata-vari spoken in the north-west (In chitral region of Pakistan), Language Isolate Burushaski spoken in the north (In Gilgit Division), Turkic languages are also spoken in Pakistan by a few kyrgyz families in the North and by Refugees from Afghanistan and China.
The national uniting medium of Pakistan is Urdu, a persianized register of the Hindustani language. The major native languages of Pakistan are Baluchi, Punjabi, Sindhi, Saraiki, Pashto, while more than 70 other languages like Shina, Balti, Gujarati, Bengali etc. are also spoken. | [] | [
"Pakistan"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | Sri Lanka | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Sinhala and Tamil are the official languages of Sri Lanka, with Sri Lankan English as the link language. Tamil is a South-Dravidian language, and Sinhala belongs to the Insular Indic family (along with Dhivehi of Maldives). Vedda is said to be the indigenous language of Sri Lanka before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans and Dravidians. | [] | [
"Sri Lanka"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | See also | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Languages of Asia
Languages of Bangladesh
Languages of India:
Official languages of India
List of languages by number of native speakers in India
Languages of Pakistan
Languages of Maldives | [] | [
"See also"
] | [
"Languages of South Asia"
] |
projected-20463693-010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20South%20Asia | Languages of South Asia | References | South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, Turkic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.
South Asian English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. | Data table of Census of India, 2001
SCHEDULED LANGUAGES IN DESCENDING ORDER OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH – 2001
COMPARATIVE RANKING OF SCHEDULED LANGUAGES IN DESCENDING ORDER OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH-1971, 1981, 1991 AND 2001
Census data on Languages | [] | [
"References"
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"Languages of South Asia"
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