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Naples: Linking Climate Change to Urban Planning
Naples has to cope with unbearable heat waves. Now, the city wants to do more climate adaptive planning. In order to do so, the requirements for urban regeneration, new construction and retrofitting in highly densely populated areas need to be evaluated by integrating inevitable constraints. Here is a step-by-step methodology how CLARITY aims to realise all of the above.
The first challenge is climate adaptive planning focussing on hazards. Heat waves need to be visualized and landslide as well as pluvial flood hazard maps have to be made. These maps stand in relation to the climate change projections for the area of the Metropolitan city of Naples.
These maps and visualizations enable service users to identify the most exposed areas in terms of buildings and population density considering the expected hazard exposure variation due to climate change.
Sometimes water fountains and a cool airstream is just not enough.
Secondly, the impact of heat waves, landslides and pluvial floods in relation to certain elements such as population, buildings, transport infrastructures and local economy has to be quantified to understand the effect of extreme climate events. These events stand in relation to climate change projections considering the expected impact variation due to climate change.
The results of CLARITY simulations and climate services will be applied to both existing conditions and design scenarios with different levels of details in relation to the area. For example the Metropolitan City vs. city neighbourhood. The CLARITY system can be used in different operational contexts, depending on the role of the Municipality of Napoli.
New Tools for Spatial Planners
Spatial planners using the methodology should to apply the model to different proposed options, which may include variations in the volumetric distribution of new buildings, the hydraulic and sewerage system, the urban surfaces and vegetation.
If Neapolitan spatial planners would be equipped with this information, they could better prioritize design scenarios and identify the benefits of climate adaptive solutions and measure the cost-effectiveness of investments in relation to both short- and long-term benefits.
Visualizing the Climate Change Impact
The results of CLARITY simulations and climate services have to be visualized as Georeferenced maps so that they can be used as official planning documents for the redevelopment projects to be directly implemented by the Municipality of Napoli.
Also, the results would have to be visualized as a synthetic document such as a pdf with text and images. They then can be used as consultation documents for the redevelopment projects to be implemented jointly with Regional or State level authorities.
Integrating Climate Change in City legislation
The second challenge is climate adaptive design guidelines and building regulations. A set of design guidelines needs to be acquired which are also applicable to the multi-risk conditions of the Metropolitan area. Then, public policies and private investments aimed at integrating Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction can be promoted.
On one hand, there is multi-risk integration. A set of guidelines to integrate climate adaptive solutions within current building regulations has to be acquired which concern landscape protection, volcanic risk, landslide floods, hydrological issues and earthquakes. Ongoing structural retrofitting interventions can then be addressed, both public policies and private investments, to include climate adaptation within a multi-hazard resilience perspective and evaluate the opportunity of climate financial incentives.
On the other hand, there is benchmarking. A set of benchmarks and assessment tools for alternative Disaster Risk Reduction and Cause-consequence analysis techniques needs to be acquired in order to evaluate projects presented by private entities for new buildings and retrofitting actions.
Taking Climate Change hazards into account
All of the above will be realised with this new approach based on climate modelling, directing to the use of sustainable materials and technologies aimed at climate adaptation. This model may help investigating the performances of different typologies of land use and alternative technological options.
Furthermore, in compliance with the standard building regulations, the model can be run for different alternatives to help the project manager to choose a project. This maximizes climate benefits and enables city planners to evaluate the best practices for public policies and address private investments that may represent a fast way for urban and social change.
City Profile - Naples
Naples, in the region of Campania, is third largest municipality in Italy after Rome and Milan with about 5 million inhabitants. The name Naples derives from its Latin name Neapolis, which means new city. About one third of the Neapoitan population works in the sector of public services.
Even in the time of the ancient Romans and the Greeks Naples was a signifcant position in Italy. It was founded on the plain and eventually became one of the foremost cities of Italy and Magna Graecia.
In 1995 Naples' whole historic city centre was named UNESCO world heritage.
Each year one citizen of Naples produces about 582 kg waste, which makes a total of about 560.000 tonnes of waste per year. Only about 5.23% of about 120 km² of the city are public green areas including about 1.5km² that are part of a more rural area of the city. |
Category: Research Article
doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004078
The interaction of arbuscular endomycorrhizal (AM) fungi and land plants is a very successful symbiosis as it is ancient (∼450 million years), and maintained by the vast majority of plant species [1]. AM fungi are obligate biotrophs that infect roots and form highly branched structures (arbuscules) inside root cortical cells [1]. These arbuscules are connected to an extensive network of extraradical mycelium that facilitates uptake of nutrients from the soil, e.g. immobile phosphates.
AM hyphal networks form a continuous coenocytic compartment with numerous nuclei. AM fungi are considered to be ancient asexual organisms [2][4] and propagation occurs via spores that become filled with multiple nuclei that subsequently divide [5]. AM fungal individuals can be heterokaryotic, i.e. consist of genetically divergent nuclei, because single nucleus cellular stages never occur during the lifecycle, and because hyphae of different fungal individuals can fuse and exchange nuclei by anastomosis [6], [7]. Our knowledge of the genome structure of AM fungi is rudimentary. For instance, the degree to which a minimal gene set is present in a single nucleus, or is distributed over genetically distinct nuclei is unknown [2], [8][11]. Although there is evidence for genetic variability within single spores, the genomic organization of this variation remains elusive. Two competing hypotheses have been advocated. The genetic variation may be present in a single, possibly polyploid, nucleus [9], or it could be distributed over multiple nuclei in a single individual [8], [10]. However, in reality these hypotheses may represent extremes along a continuum of genetic variation among and within nuclei [2].
Extensive efforts to sequence the genome of the reference AM fungal species Rhizophagus irregularis DAOM197198 (previously known as Glomus intraradices [12], [13] have not been successful, possibly because of its heterokaryotic nature [14]. To address this issue and determine the extent to which nuclei are indeed markedly different, we conducted de novo genome sequencing of individual nuclei of an R. irregularis line isolated from the reference strain DAOM197198 (designated DAOM197198w). The resulting R. irregularis genome sequence revealed a surprisingly low level of polymorphism between nuclei.
Results and Discussion
Genome sequencing of individual nuclei reveals that R. irregularis is homokaryotic
Spores of a mycorrhized root culture of chicory (Cichorium intybus) were stained by 10 µM Sytox Green (Fig. 1A). Single nuclei were collected from a supernatant of crushed spores using a micromanipulator (Fig. 1B). Individual nuclei were immediately processed for whole genome amplification. To verify the quality of the amplified nuclear DNA ten randomly selected loci were PCR amplified, and also the extent of bacterial contamination was monitored. Four amplified single nucleus genomes were processed for sequencing, resulting in assembled genomes of 115, 90, 71 and 95 Mbps, respectively (Tables S1 and S2). The different sizes of the assemblies are likely reflecting variation in the whole genome amplification efficiencies among the four samples. First comparative analyses detected surprisingly few SNPs and indels across the four nuclei. This suggested that nuclei are markedly more similar than was expected. Therefore we decided to sequence also two DNA samples extracted from mycelium. The generated sequences of these DNA samples (designated DNA1 and DNA2) were assembled individually, resulting in genome assemblies of 116 and 117 Mbps, respectively (Table 1). Additionally, the six genome sequences were assembled together resulting in a reference genome for R. irregularis of 141 Mbps. A self-alignment of this reference genome revealed little redundancy ruling out the occurrence of (significant) artificial duplifications within the assembly (Fig. S1). By comparative genomic analysis, only 28,872 SNPs and 12,315 indels were detected across the six assemblies when compared to the reference genome (Fig. 1C, Table S2). Furthermore, a reference-independent comparison of the four single nuclei and the two mycelial samples also revealed a comparable low level of polymorphisms (Table S3). This indicates that more than 99.97% of the (aligned) genome sequence is identical between different nuclei. Furthermore, as the size of the assembled genome is in line with previous estimates of the DNA content of nuclei [15], we conclude that R. irregularis nuclei are haploid.
Genome sequence of single <i>R. irregularis</i> DAOM197198w nuclei.
Fig. 1. Genome sequence of single R. irregularis DAOM197198w nuclei.
(A) Sytox Green stained spore containing numerous nuclei. (B) Single Sytox-stained nucleus trapped with a micropipette. (C) Level of homology between four individual nuclei (N6, N31, N33 and N36) and 2 mycelium DNA samples (DNA1 and DNA2). Presented are the 10 largest contigs of the reference genome (representing ∼1,278 kb). The occurrence of SNPs (marked in blue) and INDELs (marked in red), and gene distributions, in the different assemblies are indicated.
Tab. 1. Characteristics of the seven genome assemblies from R. irregularis DAOM197198w.
Characteristics of the seven genome assemblies from <i>R. irregularis</i> DAOM197198w.
N50: the length for which the contigs (scaffolds) of that length or longer contains at least half of the total lengths of the contigs (scaffolds).
Several loci have previously been used to determine genetic polymorphisms within AM individuals. These include Binding Protein (BIP), SSR marker Bg112, the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) of the 45S rDNA locus in R. irregularis and POL1-Like Sequence (PLS) in Glomus etunicatum [8], [9], [16]. We compared these loci in the different genome assemblies. Only a single PLS homolog was identified in R. irregularis (RiPLS, RirG174000), whereas G. etunicatum has multiple copies that belong to two main types, of which the highly polymorphic PLS1 likely represents a pseudogene [9], [17]. No polymorphisms were found for RiPLS in the different assemblies (Fig. S2). For BIP three loci were identified and designated RiBIP1 (RirG196040), RiBIP2 (RirG160690) and RiBIP3 (RirG043980). Sequence and structure of these genes is highly conserved and homologous to a Rhizopus delemar 70 kD Heat shock protein (GenBank: EIE83965). RiBIP1, RiBIP2 and RiBIP3 are present also in nucleus 6 without allelic variation when compared to the DNA1 and DNA2 genome assemblies. This holds true also for the other three sequenced nuclei, though not all three BIP loci were covered in the genome assemblies, which can be attributed to incomplete amplification (Fig. S3). Next, we studied Bg112 for which three loci were identified. Again, no allelic variation was detected among the four nuclei (Fig. S4). The polymorphism of the ITS region of the multi-copy 45S rDNA locus was studied within each of the 4 nuclei. By mapping sequence reads to a reference R. irregularis ITS sequence (Genbank JF439109), many variants reported previously for strain DAOM197198 were identified within individual nuclei (Fig. 2) [8], [12]. This demonstrates that, in addition to reported intraspecific ITS variability within single R. irregularis spores [12], [18], the ITS region in the multi-repeat 45S rDNA locus is extremely variable even within individual nuclei, and that different nuclei can show quantitative variation in polymorphic ITS variants. In general, multi-repeat loci such as rDNA sequences are thought to be homogenized through concerted evolution [19], which presumably is most effective during meiosis [20], [21]. Therefore, the high level of heterogeneity among the copies within a single repeat seems to be consistent with ancient asexuality. However, also in several sexual fungal species varying levels of intra-individual polymorphism have been found [22], and R. irregularis may be an extreme case, although exact percentages cannot be deduced from the Illumina read data. Given the high level of ITS variability within single nuclei, we conclude that the 45rDNA ITS sequence is less suited for comparative studies of Glomeromycota. Based on the whole genome comparison of individual nuclei we conclude that the organization of the R. irregularis genome of the used reference culture DAOM197198w is basically homokaryotic. The high divergence observed among copies of the 45S rDNA repeat occurs within a single nucleus, indicating that this region is unsuited to claim that nuclei within a strain are highly divergent [8]. However, the presence of a low level of polymorphisms suggests that genetically, slightly divergent nuclei can arise and coexist in a single mycelium.
Overview of polymorphisms in the <i>R. irregularis</i> 45S rDNA repeat unit in four individual nuclei.
Fig. 2. Overview of polymorphisms in the R. irregularis 45S rDNA repeat unit in four individual nuclei.
The top part indicates the various regions within the R. irregularis DAOM197198 45S rDNA reference sequence (Genbank JF439109). Position means the position of each polymorphic site on the reference. G1: genotype identical to reference; G2: polymorphic nucleotide. The six histograms show the numbers of sequenced reads supporting the two genotypes for N6, N31, N33, N36 and mycelium DNA samples DNA1 and DNA2. The dashed lines indicate the average sequencing depth for each sample.
Genetic make-up of R. irregularis
The reference genome assembly of DAOM197198w covers about 97% of the current R. irregularis EST collection [23] indicating that it represents nearly the complete genic region of the genome. This is further supported by a survey of core eukaryotic genes (CEG), which shows that among the 248 CEG proteins 229 (92.3%) are included in the predicted protein-coding genes (Table S4). Genome annotation using EVidenceModeler resulted in 27,392 protein-coding gene models representing 30,003 putative transcripts. Of these models 11,145 are supported by at least one R. irregularis EST, whereas an additional 5,586 protein-coding gene models find support by homology to available protein sequences. Using an AHRD functional annotation pipeline we could assign putative functions to 14,073 protein-coding gene models (Table S5). To obtain insight into the R. irregularis gene repertoire a comparative approach using OrthoMCL was conducted on 10 species representing all five fungal phyla (Fig. 3). This resulted in 19,300 putative orthology groups (Table S6), of which 1,370 contained exclusively R. irregularis gene models that may represent genes unique for AM fungi (14,742 gene models in total). Of these 6,014 were functionally annotated (Table S7). A summary of the top ten Interpro domains is shown in Table S8. Interestingly, about 28% of these putative genes are predicted to encode proteins with a kinase domain, underling a striking overrepresentation of these signaling proteins in the R. irregularis genome. The second largest group (∼25%) that seems to be enriched especially in R. irregularis are BTB domain containing proteins (BTB-POZ (PF00651) and BTB-Kelch (BACK; PF07707)). Both findings are supported a recent transcriptome study [23].
ML tree derived from the concatenation of 35 widespread, single-copy genes.
Fig. 3. ML tree derived from the concatenation of 35 widespread, single-copy genes.
The amino acid alignment was trimmed as explained in the Materials and methods section to remove non-informative positions, resulting in 26,604 positions. The tree was estimated using the rtREV evolutionary model implemented in RAxML. Bootstrap analysis was performed based on 100 replicates, and the three nodes with support below 100 are indicated. Scale bar indicates average number of amino acid substitutions per site.
We observed a high level of putative/predicted (retro-)transposable (TE) elements in the R. irregularis genome. In addition to well-known TE classes, representing 1.1% of the genome based on the Repbase [24] TE library (Table S9), potential novel TE repeats were identified, revealing that TE repeats represented ∼40% of the genome (Table S10). The presence of potential deleterious TE elements is difficult to reconcile with the ancient asexuality of Glomeromycota, as an uncontrolled accumulation of such elements would cause a deleterious load that leads to extinction [25], [26]. Therefore, the presence of such TE elements [27], together with the identification of meiotic recombination proteins [3] and signatures of recombination within populations [28][30], argues for the potential rare occurrence of so far unidentified sexual reproduction in R. irregularis [25], [26]. As an alternative, parasexual cycles where nuclei fuse and undergo recombination, together with observed exchange of nuclei through anastomoses, may explain both the spread of TE elements as well as restrain their intragenomic proliferation [2], [11].
Glomeromycota are related to Mucoromycotina
We noted that the gene repertoire of R. irregularis overlaps the most with the repertoire of sequenced Mucoromycotina species. Mucoromycotina have traditionally been classified as Zygomycota, which also have coenocytic hyphae, similarly as those in AM fungi. In general they are saprotrophic fungi, but some isolates can also act as opportunistic pathogens. A reconstruction of the early evolution of fungi largely based on the 45S rDNA locus suggested that the Zygomycota phylum is paraphyletic and that Glomeromycota are sister to the Dikarya phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota [31]. However, this has only limited statistical support, and analyses based on protein coding genes gave conflicting results [3], [32], [33]. As our data, together with that from others [12], [18] revealed that the 45S rDNA locus of R. irregularis is highly polymorphic we reinvestigated the phylogenetic relationships of R. irregularis within the fungi. To do so, we analysed a supermatrix of 35 highly conserved, putative single copy nuclear genes proposed by Capella-Gutiérez et al. [34], totaling a concatenated length of 26,604 aligned amino acids from 23 fungal species and 4 outgroups (Table S11). Phylogenetic analysis of this supermatrix using maximum-likelihood (ML) revealed that R. irregularis is related to Mucoromycotina rather than to the Dikarya phyla Basidiomycota and Ascomycota (Fig. 3). This phylogenetic placement of R. irregularis received maximal bootstrap support (100%; Fig. 3) and alternative placements resulted in significantly lower likelihoods (p< = 0.004; see Table S12). This finding is in concordance with gene repertoire reconstructions presented here, as well as phylogenetic studies based on genes encoding (meiotic) DNA repair proteins [3], [35], [36]. We note, however, that our taxonomic sampling includes Mucorales only. Additional lineages within Mucoromycotina (i.e. Mortierellales, Endogonales) and especially other currently unplaced subphyla traditionally classified as Zygomycota (e.g. Kickxellomycotina, Zoopagomycotina, Entomophthoromycotina) may better resolve the precise relationships of R. irregularis, as genome sequences for these members will become available in the future.
R. irregularis has a relatively small repertoire of effector-like proteins
In comparison to pathogenic fungi, AM fungi have an extremely broad host range. Pathogenic fungi suppress defence responses of their host by secreting effectors that interfere with this defence. This raises the question whether a particular repertoire of secreted putative effector proteins underlies the broad host range of AM fungi. From the deduced proteome of 30,003 putative proteins, we predicted the secretome to contain 299 proteins (1% of proteome) using stringent bioinformatics criteria, and 566 proteins (1.9% of proteome) using more relaxed criteria (Table S13). In relative sense, this is rather low compared with averages of other fungal secretomes such as plant pathogens (7.4%), animal pathogens (4.7%), and non-pathogens (5.3%) (Fig. 4). It is remarkable that AM fungi are able to colonize a broad range of plants despite the fact that it has a small secretome suggesting more research is needed on the effectors. The relative small secretome may have resulted from adaptation to a symbiotic lifestyle in which the secretome has been streamlined through the loss of unnecessary secreted protein genes. The proteins in the R. irregularis secretome identified with relaxed criteria were grouped into 254 tribes based on sequence similarity, annotated, and ranked based on potential effector features (Table S13). The top 100 tribes that are likely to contain effectors highlighted five protein tribes containing thirteen sequences with similarity to the known R. irregularis effector protein SP7 (Fig. 5) [37]. Alignment of these protein sequences identified conserved features also present in SP7 (Fig. S5), indicating that these proteins are good candidates to display effector functionality. To further analyze potential R. irregularis specific features, we compared the number of predicted secreted proteins of R. irregularis in each tribe with those of selected pathogenic and symbiotic fungi (Fig. S6). A survey of top 100 tribes, containing 16–134 members, revealed that R. irregularis was represented in only 26 tribes compared to for example 76 tribes and 64 tribes for the fungi Magnaporthe oryzae and Laccaria bicolor, respectively. This suggests that not only the secretome of R. irregularis is reduced, but also that it is missing some secreted proteins that are present in other fungi compared in this analysis. However, there is a 22-member tribe composed of R. irregularis proteins only (Tribe 62 based on the numbering of Fig. S6, equivalent to the largest R. irregularis Tribe 1 of Table S13). It is tempting to speculate that such effectors play important roles in the AM symbiosis.
Comparison of secretomes of <i>R. irregularis</i> and other 43 fungi.
Fig. 4. Comparison of secretomes of R. irregularis and other 43 fungi.
Percentage of predicted proteome representing putative effectors, using stringent (lacking transmembrane domains; yellow bars) or relaxed criteria (including proteins with predicted single transmembrane domain that overlapped with the signal peptide; blue bars).
Top 100 ranked protein tribes containing putative effector candidates.
Fig. 5. Top 100 ranked protein tribes containing putative effector candidates.
Clusters were determined using hierarchical clustering of the top 100 ranked tribes containing putative effector candidates. A. Rank associated with each tribe based on their content of effector features. B. Score for number of members containing a nuclear localization signals (NLS). C. Score for number of members classified as repeat containing (RCPs). D. Score reflecting number of members classified as small and cysteine rich (SCRs). E. Score for number of members not annotated by searches against swissprot. F. Average protein sequence length for tribe members (ranging from 55 to 856 amino acids). Stars indicate tribes that contain members with similarity to the characterised effector SP7.
Among the putative effectors, a protein with a so-called Crinkler (CRN) domain was present (RirT087480; tribe 245). Secreted CRN domain effectors are abundantly present in oomycete plant pathogens of the Phytophthora genus [38], [39]. We searched the R. irregularis deduced proteome for proteins containing CRN domains using amino acid sequences of canonical CRN proteins from the potato blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans as query. This resulted in 42 sequences with positive scores for the so-called N-terminal LFLAK domain that is common to all CRN proteins (Table S14). Within this set, we also identified additional CRN domains (Fig. S7, Table S14). Among these 42 CRN-like proteins, only five have a putative signal peptide, similar as the canonical CRN proteins from P. infestans. Similar CRN domain effector-like proteins were identified in the Chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, but not yet in other sequenced fungal genomes. This led to speculations of horizontal acquisitions of these genes by this pathogenic fungus [40]. However, the occurrence of CRN genes in the R. irregularis genome makes a vertical descent equally well possible, and indicates that these proteins are encoded by an ancient eukaryotic gene family.
Genome sequencing of individual cells has previously been used for example to determine the genome of individual cancer cells [41]. However in these cases a reference genome was already available. Our study shows that it is possible to obtain a de novo genome sequence starting from a single haploid nucleus. This approach can be attractive for genomes of species with high heterozygocity that are notoriously difficult to assemble. We applied a single nucleus genome sequence approach on the AM fungus R. irregularis and provide solid evidence for the occurrence of homokaryosis in this strain. This demystifies the long lasting hypothesis that nuclei of a single Rhizophagus isolate are markedly different. The sequences of four nuclei, in combination with the reference genome sequence will provide the basis for future studies on AM fungi to address issues such as genetic selection, long-term persistence of asexuality, obligate endosymbiosis, adaptation to host plants and suppression of plant defense.
Materials and Methods
Isolation of nuclei, DNA extraction and whole genome amplification
A monoxenic culture of Agrobacterium rhizogenes (RiT-DNA) transformed chicory (Cichorium intybus) roots mycorrhized with the fungus R. irregularis DAOM197198 was obtained from Dr. Paola Bonfante and Dr. Andrea Genre (University of Torino) (originally obtained from GINCO (MUCL 43194)). This root culture was designated DAOM197198w and grown in a split-plate setup, where the fungus is allowed to grow into a compartment containing liquid M medium to allow easy collection of spores and extraradical mycelium [42].
Genomic R. irregularis DNA, used for meta-genome sequencing, was isolated from extraradical mycelium containing spores using the DNeasy Plant kit (Qiagen). Mycelium containing spores was washed 10× in sterile water. Spores were carefully teased out using forceps, washed by transferring through a series of (at least 5) sterile water droplets, and finally transferred to a small drop of 10 µM Sytox Green (Invitrogen) in Citifluor (Citifluor Ltd). To release the nuclei, spores were crushed using a teflon coated dounce and transferred to an eppendorf tube. The volume was adjusted to 25 µl with 10 µM Sytox Green. To remove cell debris, the crushed spore suspension was centrifuged for 1 min. at 4000 rpm.
Spore suspensions were loaded onto cover slips, from which individual nuclei were collected using a Narishige micromanipulator mounted to an inverted PASCAL Zeiss Confocal Laser Scanning microscope (excitation 480 nm; emission 505–530 nm). Individual isolated nuclei were transferred to a PCR tube containing 5 µl 1× ALB (200 mM KOH, 0.5 mM DTT) buffer, by breaking the tip of the glass microinjection needle containing the captured nucleus.
Whole genome amplification (WGA) was performed using the REPLI-g UltraFast midi-kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturers instructions. Amplified DNA was diluted 100×. To verify the efficiency of the WGA a set of 10 selected amplicons was amplified using Premix Taq (Ex TaqVersion 2.0) polymerase (Takara Bio Inc). Amplicons could not be amplified from WGA-amplified control suspension lacking single nuclei. The extent of contamination of the WGA amplified DNA with bacterial DNA was checked by amplification of 16S rDNA amplicons. Primers for selected amplicons are listed in Table S15. From in total 40 WGA samples, 4 samples that allowed amplification of the selected R. irregularis amplicons and showed minimal bacterial contamination were selected for Illumina sequencing.
Illumina sequencing and assembly
Library construction and sequencing
The amplified DNAs were sheared into fragments of about 350 bp, using an ultrasonicator (Covaris), to construct a paired-end sequencing library for each sample according to the manufacturer's instructions (Illumina). All libraries were paired-end sequenced with a read length of 90 bp for each end on the Illumina Hiseq 2000. The duplicated reads, low-quality and adaptor sequences from each library were removed (Table S1).
Assembling for each sample
Paired-end reads from each sample were separately assembled by employing k-mer of optimized length (N31: 59; N33: 63; N36: 59; N6: 60; DNA1: 63; DNA2: 63) using SOAPdenovo2 [43]. Then, all paired-end reads were aligned to the assembled contigs. If two contigs were connected by more than 3 read pairs, they were constructed into a scaffold. Only the scaffolds with the length >100 bp were remained in the final assembly. In addition, the quality of each base was corrected by mapping the reads onto the assembly.
Assembling all reads from the six samples
A total of 21.5 Gb raw sequence data representing 150-fold coverage of R. irregularis genome were generated for the six samples. To reduce the sequencing errors to a large extent and to facilitate the assembly of the sequencing data from different samples, we also performed error correction using k-mer frequency spectrum. We used the MSR-CA assembler version 1.6 (, which combines the advantage of de Bruijn graph and Overlap-Layout-Consensus assembly approaches, to generate the reference genome assembly. During the assembly, the program will compute the optimal k-mer size based on the read data and GC content (25–101 bp are supported). All contigs with the length of less than 200 bp were excluded in the final assembly.
Genome and gene functional annotation
Masking repeats
The genomic scaffolds were masked using RepeatMasker (, version 3.3.0) and the Repbase TE library [24] for identifying transposable elements across the genome. We found that the percentage of known transposable elements in the genome was about 1.1%.
Three software packages, PILER (version 1.0) [44], LTR_FINDER (version 1.05) [45], and RepeatScout (version 1.0.5) [46], were used to identify de novo repetitive elements in the reference genome, which was previously masked with Repbase TE library (version 20120418). Firstly, repetitive elements which belong to rRNA or satellites were filtered using BLASTN with parameters of E-value≤1e-10, identity ≥80%, coverage ≥50%, and match length ≥100 bp. Secondly, if comparison of two identified repeats met the criteria of E-value≤1e-10, identity ≥80%, coverage ≥80%, and match length ≥100 bp, then the shorter one was excluded. Through these two filtering steps, a non-redundant de novo transposable elements database was generated. Finally, RepeatMasker (version 3.3.0) was used to re-mask the reference genome with this de novo transposable elements' database, and we identified ∼40% transposable elements in the reference genome.
Identification of putative variants among a group of samples using Cortex pipeline
Cortex, designed for reference-free variant calling by de novo assembly of multiple samples, allows directly comparing samples without using a reference genome [47], [48]. We applied Cortex to data from (1) the four single nucleus samples, (2) the two mycelium samples, respectively. Thus, we could compare both results without a reference. We used the joint discovery workflow to directly compare all samples from the same group by using the Bubble Caller algorithm. In this workflow, we set the reference to be “Absent”, meaning that no reference was loaded into the graph and a fake reference is used to get the coordinates of variants. In addition, as suggested, we set k = 31(low k-mer for relatively low coverage at these sites) and k = 61(high k-mer for genome repeat content/genome complexity) to make different variants accessible.
Prediction of protein-coding genes
EVidenceModeler (EVM, version r03062010) [49], which is a nonstochastic weighted evidence evaluation system to produce consensus gene structure, was used to combine the alignments of proteins and transcripts to the genomic sequences, and various de novo predictions into a predicted gene set. A more detailed explanation as follows. Firstly, we processed evidence at the transcript level. Spaln (version 1.4.4) [50] mapped the fungal ESTs downloaded from NCBI (Sep 2012) onto our assembled genome and mapping by PASA (version rJAN_09_2011) [51] used R. irregularis ESTs [23]. These two processes/programs produced a dataset of putative intron-exon boundaries. Meanwhile, the alignment of ESTs to the reference genome by PASA also produced protein-coding gene models. Based on this set of gene models, we constructed a training set, which was used by de novo predictors, by selecting the genes with complete structures and at least 95% mapping rate for UniProt [52] proteins, and filtering out the redundant genes with more than 70% sequence identity by CD-HIT (version 4.1.1) [53]. Secondly, we focused on the evidence at the protein sequence level. The protein sequences from UniProt fungi (release 2012_09) [52] were mapped onto the genomic sequence using Spaln (version 1.4.4) [54] and TBLASTN [55]. The putative intron-exon boundaries were generated by Spaln. For TBLASTN mapping, we performed following procedures: (I) For each protein, joining all of the HSPs (1e-5) with the gap of 500 bp into a consecutive region; (II) selecting the region when the overlapping coverage of its HSPs with the protein is greater or equal to 80%; (III) extending 1000 bp at both ends of the region; (IV) applying GeneWise onto the region to identify the putative intron-exon boundaries of the predicted gene. Thirdly, we collected protein-coding evidence by de novo predictors. For this purpose, AUGUSTUS (version 2.4) [56], GeneID (version 1.4.4) [57], GeneMark-ES (version 2.3) [58], GlimmerHMM (version 3.0.1) [59] and SNAP (2006-07-28) [60] were used. Besides GeneMark-ES, all programs used the masked genomic sequences. August, GlilmmerHMM and Snap are supervised predictors with the training set generated by PASA abovementioned, while GeneID utilized the parameters of Schizosaccharomyces japonicus. Finally, all evidence for protein-coding genes collected by the methods abovementioned was combined into a consensus protein-coding gene models by EVM. In addition, based this set of gene models and the EST dataset, we also used PASA to polish the gene models by adding untranslated regions (UTRs), correcting gene models, and generating all possible alternatively spliced isoforms at the mRNA level.
Functional annotation
The putative biological functions of the protein-coding genes predicted were assigned by AHRD (developed by Schoof et al., which integrates three types of evidence to describe gene functions using standard nomenclature. The three types of evidence are: (I) The best BLASTP alignments (E-value cutoff of 1e-4) of the SwissProt database (release 2011-03) [52] and yeast protein sequences downloaded from NCBI (2012-12-10); (II) The InterPro signatures determined by searching against the InterPro databases (v29.0) [61] with InterProScan (V4.7) [62]; (III) The GO terms assigned by BLAST2GO (version 2.5.0) [63] based on the gene ontologies (GO version 2012-11-03).
CEGMA ( analysis was performed according to [64], to assess the completeness of the assembly.
Orthology assessment
OrthoMCL [65] was used to identify orthologous groups among the set of protein sequences extracted from the following eleven completely sequenced genomes: R. irregularis, Neurospora crassa, Tuber melanosporum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Laccaria bicolor, Ustilago maydis, Rhizopus oryzae, Phycomyces blakesleeanus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Magnaporthe grisea and Monosiga brevicollis [66][75]. Only the longest sequence of each protein-coding gene was chosen in the further analysis. The set contains 171,398 sequences. Three steps took as follows: (1) all-against-all comparison strategy was applied to the set of protein sequences by BLASTP with an E-value cutoff of 1e-5; (2) The distance matrix among all proteins was constructed by the OrthoMCL algorithm; (3) The orthologous groups were generated by MCL [76] (I = 1.5) algorithm based on the distance matrix. The software versions used in this process were: OrthoMCL version 2.02, MCL version mcl 10–201, and NCBI BLAST version 2.2.15.
Phylogenetic analyses
We reinvestigated the phylogenetic placement of R. irregularis within the fungi based on a set of 52 low-copy genes proposed by [34] with addition of orthologs from R. irregularis, Magnaporthe orzyzae, Tuber melanosporum, Ustilago maydis, and the Cryptomycete Rozella allomyces [77]. Amino acid sequences were aligned using MAFFT [78] and positions covering less than three species were trimmed. Seventeen gene alignments supported paralogy shared among different fungal lineages and were excluded from the analysis, leaving in a total number of 35 gene alignments that were concatenated into a supermatrix of 26,604 amino acids. Table S14 lists all included protein sequences. We then estimated a ML phylogenetic tree based on the supermatrix using RAxML 7.2.8 [79] applying the amino acid substitution model with the best fit on a maximum parsimony tree (rtREV; [80] with empirical frequencies and gamma-distributed rate heterogeneity (-m PROTGAMMARTREVF). Clade support was assessed using the rapid bootstrapping algorithm [81] with 100 alignment replicates.
To test alternative hypotheses of monophyly we imposed three alternative topological constraints on parallel RAxML analyses, with R. irregularis forming a clade with either Dikarya, Chytridiomycota, or Microsporidia and Cryptomycota. Branch lengths were optimized and all competing hypotheses were compared with an unconstrained analysis using the eight bootstrap probability tests implemented in CONSEL [82]; Table S12).
Effector mining
Identifying fungal secretomes
Proteomes of 43 fungi containing 17 plant pathogens, 10 animal pathogens and 16 non-pathogens were used to identify the secretomes of the fungi including R. irregularis. Therefore, we used the following approach; First, signal peptide containing proteins were predicted using SignalP V2.0 software [83] using the criteria of Torto et al. [84]. Second, the presence of transmembrane domains and mitochondrial signal peptides in these proteins was predicted using TMHMM V2.0c ( and TargetP V1.1 [85] programs. Third, secretomes were established by removing the proteins that contain transmembrane domains and mitochondrial signals. For stringent prediction of secretome, proteins with one or more transmembrane domains were removed. For relaxed prediction of secretomes, proteins with single transmembrane domain that overlapped with the signal peptide were included in the secretome. Last, the secretome was assessed for the presence of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention signal by either searching for the canonical ER retention signal sequence “KDEL or HDE[LF]” [86] or by using the protein localization prediction program WoLF PSORT [87]. However, we would like to point out that in our experience these ER retention signals are not particularly robust for fungal proteomes.
Annotation and classification of candidate effectors
To identify and classify candidate effectors from R. irregularis, we implemented a modified version of the bioinformatics pipeline described in Saunders et al. [88]. Briefly, proteins in the secretome were annotated with (I) nuclear localization signal (PredictNLS, [89] and Prosite Scan with database release 20.91, [90], (II) cysteine content higher than 3% [88], [91], (III) repeat units (T-REK, [92], and (IV) BLASTP [93] hit against UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot protein database [94]. The proteins were then grouped into tribes based on sequence similarity of the mature proteins using Markov clustering [78]. To order and classify the secreted protein tribes, we used the aforementioned annotation criteria and associated the scores to each tribe based on their likelihood of containing potential effector proteins. Tribes were then ranked giving a higher weight to features that are distinctive to the only reported R. irregularis effector SP7 [37].
Identification of CNR-like proteins in R. irregularis
To identify CRN-like proteins in R. irregularis, we did BLASTP search with amino acid sequences of canonical CRN proteins from P. infestans against the R. irregularis proteome. We collected sequences that matched to CRN sequences with E-value less than 10−5 and searched for CRN motifs using a library of 36 CRN HMMs described in Haas et al [39]. 90 sequences were identified that had similarities to P. infestans CRN proteins from BLASTP search with E-value cutoff of 10−5. Among these, 42 sequences showed positive scores for LFLAK_domain HMM, which is common to all CRN proteins (Fig. S6, Table S14). Within this set, other CRN domains described in Haas et al. [39] were additionally identified, including DWL (18 proteins with positive score), DI (1), D2 (2), DBF (2), DC (1), DN5 (1), DN17 (10), DSV (1), DX8 (1), DX9 (1), DXS (2), and DXX (5) domains (Fig. S6, Table S14). SignalP2.0 was used to predict signal peptides, with HMM probability scores from 0.508 to 0.971, which are comparable to the canonical CRN proteins from P. infestans, which have scores of 0.541 to 0.984 [39]. CRN-domain containing proteins with scores less than 0.9 cutoff used for secretome prediction were omitted from the secretome. Trans-membrane domains were predicted by TM-HMM 2.0c program.
Accession numbers
The sequence data have been deposited into Genbank with accession number PRJNA230015. The R. irregularis reference genome and assemblies are also available at
Supporting Information
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UWM Students Are Trying To Build A Better Recumbent Trike
Apr 5, 2019
Some engineering students strive to design a faster or more fuel efficient car. But not at UWM’s Bicycle and Motorcycle Engineering Research Laboratory.
The lab, started a few years ago within the Department of Mechanical Engineering, tests bicycle tires and works with motorcycle parts. It also has a team that's been building a human-powered, recumbent three-wheeler.
Since it's a recumbent, the rider's feet are roughly at the same height as his or her head. The bike has one, standard-looking wheel in front, with the pedals above it, and two smaller wheels in back, a little ways under the rider's neck. But Anthony Pierson, a student who helped design the bike, says in many ways, it's a plain-old bike.
"It does every bike thing you want a bike to do. So, it sounds like a bike. It rides just like a bike," Pierson says.
Anthony Pierson (on tricycle), Andrew Dressel and Alissa Shortreed, with the recumbent tricycle at UWM.
Credit Chuck Quirmbach
That's partly because Pierson and his colleagues are trying to do something different than you would normally find at the back end of a three-wheeler. There's a pivoting lever called a bell crank that helps connect the rear wheels. The bell crank can be set for unstable or stable positions, according to the students' adviser and mechanical engineering lecturer Andrew Dressel.
An illustration of a basic bell crank.
Credit (npcserver)/Wikimedia Commons
"You'd want it to be stable. So, it's like sitting in a chair, when you're going real slow. Or when you're stopped, so you don't have to put your feet down," Dressel explains.
Dressel says the unstable position allows for faster riding and leaning into a curve or turn, much the way you'd do on a bicycle. He says the narrow track — meaning the back wheels are 18 inches closer together than normal — allows those wheels to tilt, instead of the tipping over that might occur on a more standard tricycle.
The back wheels of the tricycle tilt, when in "unstable" position.
Credit Chuck Quirmbach
With some older riders ditching more traditional upright bikes because of back pain and other concerns, Dressel says he had someone in mind when he thought of the concept.
"When it occurred to me we could combine all these things in one, I thought, 'Maybe there's something we can get my mom to ride,' " he says.
Dressel's mother is 79 years old.
Like many engineering efforts, there are several people involved. Student Phillip Van Asten used to manage a bike shop service department and was recruited for the project.
"They recruited me in part, I think, because of my ability to handle the conventional bike aspects. A lot of this is very novel. But it does incorporate a lot of stock bike parts, and part of my role is helping fit all that together," he explains.
(From left) Anthony Pierson, Andrew Dressel, Brad Carstens and Alissa Shortreed with the tricycle.
Credit Chuck Quirmbach
Van Asten also got a bicycle company to donate the recumbent tricycle's front end.
Engineering student Brad Carstens says his role has been the question-asker, including when Pierson was using a computer to design the bike.
"You know, I would sit down with him and ask him, 'Why are you putting it this way? What's happening with this?' " Carstens says. He adds, "One, it helped me gain knowledge of what's going on with our bike. Two, I think it also possibly benefited Anthony as he was designing to help explain his reasoning."
Engineering student Alissa Shortreed says she's been the organizer, helping everyone communicate. That includes describing the tricycle to people who aren't engineers. She says it's not just older riders who are interested in innovative bike design.
"I know a lot of my friends are bikers. It's not something I realized right away, but now that I have been exposed to it, I realize there is a big importance and a big draw to having this product," Shorteed says.
Tim Wegehaupt of the UWM team rides the recumbent tricycle at the weekend competition at Michigan State University.
Credit Andrew Dressel
The UWM team took their narrow-track recumbent tricycle to a human-powered vehicle competition last weekend at an engineering festival at Michigan State University. Andrew Dressel reports UWM overall finished 15th of 43 competing teams.
Next, the UWM team will work on installing a switch, so the rider can more quickly go back and forth between the stable, and unstable rear-wheel settings. But the young inventors and their advisor are confident enough of success — they already submitted a provisional patent.
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Running a Command
Function: int system (const char *command)
This function executes command as a shell command. In the GNU C library, it always uses the default shell sh to run the command. In particular, it searches the directories in PATH to find programs to execute. The return value is -1 if it wasn't possible to create the shell process, and otherwise is the status of the shell process. See section Process Completion, for details on how this status code can be interpreted.
The system function is declared in the header file `stdlib.h'.
The popen and pclose functions (see section Pipe to a Subprocess) are closely related to the system function. They allow the parent process to communicate with the standard input and output channels of the command being executed.
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Sample APA Paper upon Humans and Nature
Sample APA Paper upon Humans and Nature
The following APA dissertation examines many ways in which humans and mother nature herself affect writers bay one another. This biology essay explores different helpful hints from the associated with climate change for better on individuals violence into the effects of characteristics on human health. This paper was first written in a undergraduate level as a test for the Ultius web log.
Ways in Which Mankind and Makeup have Disturbed Each Other
The partnership between individuals and makeup is a long and complicated one. From the millions of years that humans and makeup have been toddler experience, there have been a large number of changes to take in that were supported by the other. Some of these transformations have been cheerful while others seem to have been undeniably detrimental. Humans come with greatly harmed the masse of billions of plant and animal types of fish, actually adjusted the plant cycles for several sapling and deposit species, and caused an increase in vegetation emergence as a result of temperature change. Aspect has influenced humans in a number of ways as well. Studies show that warm climates can change human activities, nature has beneficial celebrations on humans’ mental wellness, and can even possess positive impacts on on human beings physical medical, as well.
The Effect of Issues Change with Human Physical violence
Climate transformation undoubtedly has an effect on human assault. Many professionals have figured warmer conditions lead to larger rates in violent wrongdoing. It is viewed that fewer deviation in seasonal surroundings can lead to an instant life approach, less self-control, and a decreased focus on tomorrow (Grabmeier). All of these traits are thought to create violent routines and lack of control. Some think that warmer temperature lead to extra irritation and discomfort, nevertheless this are certainly not explain the larger extreme crimes like killing ? suicide ? assassination ? homicide ? slaying. Another theory is that august 2010 warmer, folks are more likely to end up being partaking through activities out of the house, leading to extra interaction with other people, which increases the opportunity for conflict. Still, that does not enlighten why you will find more assault in locations where the average hot and cold temperature is 90 than in areas where the average coldness is 75 when people through both spaces are likely to be out of the house more.
Brand-new research shows that the increase during violence is caused by a mixture of hotter temperature and less periodic variances for temperature. Experimenters at the Higher education of Ohio explained some temperature patters can enjoy serious results on the local weather. Agricultural arranging, food hoarding and preparing, or simple preparations needed for winter effects and structures a traditions in many ways, including how very important time and self-control are, but we may not realize that. (Grabmeier). Since there is less big difference in heat range between the periods, people are whole lot more able to do what they want as they do not have to equipped food or perhaps firewood or supplies to achieve winter.
Additionally , people in warmer temperatures may go through the stress that is included with parasites, venomous animals, and other risks associated with hot locations. People for warmer conditions are for this reason more concerned with what is happening right now rather than how their actions will influence them at some forward point. Researchers likewise noted the affects absence of forthcoming focus is wearing other components of culture should they stated, ‘We see proof of a quickly life approach in steamy climates with less hotness variation- they are less dedicated about time, they have less usage of birth control, they may have children early on and more in many instances (Grabmeier). And not have to focus on tomorrow, people in these climates very often do not create a strong awareness of self-control, which can be responsible for increased attentat and thrashing behavior around the globe.
The Effect in Human Profile on Critters
The ever-domineering presence of humans has got affected excellent animal class. Since the end of the previous Ice Years of age, humans acquire relocated just about one thousand credited species and domestication practically five hundred pet animal species and three hundred manufacturing facility species (Floorwalker). Many pet dog species had been forced to conform. The population acceso surrounding the Industrial Revolution a new huge influence on several rodents. While there couple of species that undoubtedly sustained, from tracking and day fishing for example , other species noticed to adjust to the presence of persons and continue to keep thrive. For example , animals that happen to be common on urban and suburban areas, like pigeons and crows, have quoted quite well. They may have changed their whole feeding designs and food storage structures to better fit in urban living.
A study directed in Denmark found that almost twenty five endangered species of birds are nesting in business parks during urban areas (Floorwalker). This got birth for the idea that industry parks can be designed specifically for encourage ducks to nest in these individuals. Their dull, wide rooftops would keep your birds from your hustle and bustle of the streets under and keep relatively private at night, producing the optimal setting for many of these city-dwelling pet animals.
Another have an effect on that psychological presence has brought on rats is that completely new group have developed. During World War II, many individuals were made into the Birmingham Underground when their destinations were bombed. They helped bring some insects with these folks. While the women, underground passageways were contrasting from their healthy habitat and free of all their normal meal source, creatures blood, there is plenty of individual blood meant for eating and standing drinking water for mating. After spending 60 to 70 years definitely isolated on the surface world, that they eventually formulated their own proliferation behavior, nourishing habits, and DNA, rendering it impossible to breed effectively with other mosquito species that reside above place (Kaplan). An entirely new classes was created just because of human activity.
Other pup species have been completely entirely dismissed by humane presence. One of these of mammal species pushed to annihilation by humankind is the traveler pigeon. These birds use for make up nearly forty percent of the entire bird residents in the United States. Before European settlers arrived, difficult an estimated several billion person pigeons through North America (Gerken). When settlers cleared variety miles on the birds’ mood, the woodlands of far eastern North America, the pigeons were forced in farmland like a resource for meal. They triggered severe destruction of fields in crops and were often times shot by means of farmers the two to protect their crops as well as for meat. A rise in hunting and trapping throughout the nineteenth 100 years seriously used up the traveling pigeon inhabitants. The last a person died inside Cincinnati Wildlife in 1914 (Gerken). This kind of bird classes became vanished entirely due to presence from humans.
The effects of Aspect on Real person Health
We have seen several research that concluded that nature boasts a positive affect on the mind and physical health from human beings. Study workers for the University from Glasgow set up an observational study as they concluded that being exposed to nature boasts beneficial effects relating to human health and wellness. The study analyzed the entire doing work population in England, excluding those with circulatory disease, lung cancers, and those that has a history or self-harm (Mitchell and Popham 1655). The experiment wanted to discover in a case where populations residing in greener areas experience fewer income-based health disparity, as well as incapability to pay for health care as well as related within health issues. They concluded that lower income populations currently in areas with additional vegetation experienced lower fatality rate rates and better medical.
In addition to physical health, nature seems to have proven to reveal benefits to our mental health and wellbeing, as well. The University in Essex seen in 2013 that if participants got short makeup walks, the clinical gloominess scores reduced by much more than seventy percent (Bushak). In contrast, your control local community was tested after trekking through a shopping center. Afterwards, their particular clinical dejection scores had been only decreased by forty-five percent, although more than one junior high of members reported being more compressed (Bushak). Furthermore, research on the University of Southern California completely supports these kinds of findings. Teenagers who kept for few months or more within thirty three hundred feet of green space experienced some severe drop in aggressive behavior (Floorwalker). Local communities that were thought of as ‘ bad’ neighborhoods was to experience a 12 percent lowering in violent and aggressive behavior immediately after an increase in greenery in the section (Floorwalker). All these results were unfailing regardless of competition, education, and income level.
The Effect of sunshine Pollution upon Seasons
Analyses have shown the fact that light pollution from standard amounts of fraudulent light for urban areas offers proven to be upsetting to herbal ecosystems. Researchers in the United Kingdom lately conducted a great observational try out charting the relationship between the period local dogs produce pals and light polluting of the environment. The team seen four distinct tree kinds and found that there are a very good risk that replica light might cause trees to bud on the week just before their sisters living faraway from such excellent urban areas (Ffrench-Constant et ‘s. ). While the theory offers yet to get proven, the learning certainly means that the artificial light has an effect on the trees’ budding time.
One of the study’s authors expressed, ‘It’s correlative, so we all can’t display anything. We can just exhibit that there’s a fabulous correlation, (Ffrench-Constant). If animals really are flourishing earlier than they will normally will, this could be responsible for a larger influence on the surrounding environment. The fraudulent light would alter flora cycles, severely disrupting all their bud dormancy, growth style, and eventually, their very own production in leaves and fruit (Ffrench-Constant). It can also change the habitat and feeding signs of moths, which are drawn to light, including their potential predators or innovators with these folks.
The Effect of Climate Change on Vegetation
Climate switch has had a surprising effect on the expansion of crops. Melting glaciers and the unhurried but incessant disappearance in ice-shelves have obtained an additional effect; as soon as the ice fades away, green organic and development appears instead (Floorwalker). This is discovered by just NASA through their satellite television for pc imagery. When the ice touches, it lets out carbon dioxide into your air; that, coupled with more comfortable temperatureand so longer developing seasons is an optimal setting for plant to thrive. New research in atmosphere change carries statistically ascribed this change to human causes (Mooney). These experiments put to use various packages of problems model works to determine if the specific environmental change is likely to happen during simulations including greenhouse gas emissions from humans when compared to it is in simulations that do not. That they found the simulations with greenhouse smells ended up seeking incredibly the same as NASA’s satellite direct tv images than the simulations with no greenhouse un wanted gas.
The study concluded, ‘the trend in strengthened north vegetation greening… can be carefully attributed, with high statistical confidence, to anthropogenic forcings, particularly to rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gas (Mooney). This is one of several brand-new studies which happen to have proven such a relationship somewhere between climate cash and a good greener asian hemisphere. Totally free studies likewise suggest that a further huge making contributions factor to our rather unanticipated environmental amendment caused by humans- an increase in nitrogen in the surroundings.
Caused by our inevitable interaction with one another, humans and nature experienced a long, advanced relationship which includes had both positive and negative effects on each of your. Nature features effected mankind by further enhancing their cerebral and physical health although also appears to be able to affect human unruly behavior. On the other side, real have influenced millions and millions of plant and animal classes, including varying plant cycles and increasing vegetation through areas where ice caps are rapidly melting. Such an fancy and included relationship will be complicated and important as long as the idea continues.
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Những từ vựng thường xuất hiện trong bài thi IELTS (Phần 2)
Thứ Năm - 05.01.2017
Những từ vựng giúp bạn ăn điểm trong bài thi IELTS (Phần 2)
STT Từ vựng Cách phát âm Nghĩa Tiếng Việt Ví dụ:
1 Accessible (adj) Có thể đến được Machu Picchu is accessible by plane, train, or hiking.
2 Archeologist (n) Nhà khảo cổ học An archeologist is interested in ancient cultures.
3 Ceremonial (adj) Nghi lễ Archeologist have many theories but few precise ideas about the ceremonial functions of Machu Picchu.
4 Construct (v) Xây dựng All constructed from heavy blocks of granite fitted precisely together.
5 Institute (v) Đặt ra, xây dựng In 2005, the Peruvian government instituted a set of restrictions on the use of the trail.
6 Marvel (n) Vật kỳ diệu Its offers many marvels of its own.
7 Pertain (v) Liên quan đến, nói đến There are also legal requirements that pertain to the minium wage that porters must be paid as well as the maximum weight load they can be required to carry.
8 Precisely (adv) Chính xác, hoàn toàn đúng It is not precisely clear how the ancient inca used the site.
9 Spectacular (adj) Đẹp mắt, ngoạn mục The spectacular natural setting, the wonders of architectural and engineering skills embodied in the well-preserved buildings.
10 Upside (n) Ưu điểm, phần tốt The upside is that the environment and the workers are protected.
11 Category (n) Hạng, loại The types of vacations that fit into the category of ecotourism vary widely.
12 Culprit (n) Thủ phạm Ecotourists often shun cruise ships, because these are among the biggest culprits in the toursim industry in terms of environmental pollution.
13 Delicate (adj) Mỏng manh, dễ tổn thương Cruise ships also cause damage to coral reefs and other delicate ecosystems that they travel near.
14 Dump (v) Vứt bỏ, đổ rác Many large cruise ships injure the environment by dumping garbage into the sea.
15 Principle (n) Quy tắc Not all of these companies follow the principles of ecotourism.
16 Publicity (n) Hoạt động khiến công chúng biết đến The more publicity ecotourism gets, the more people will become interested in this type of travel.
17 Remote (adj) Xa xôi, hẻo lánh Many companies advertise themselves as ecotourism companies, especially those that offer trips to remote, natural areas.
18 Strive (v) Cố gắng, phấn đấu Ecotourists strive to support the local economy where they travel/
19 Wary (adj) Đề phòng Travelers needs to be wary and do their research carefully.
20 Wilderness (n) Vùng hoang vu, hoang dã Ecotourism refers only to trips made to remote wilderness destinatiions.
21 Economical (adj) Tiết kiệm One of the advantage of these types of vacations is that they can be more economical than traditional cavations.
22 Endeavor (n) Hoạt động có chủ đích, sự cố gắng It has become common for adults to spend their vacation time in educational endeavor.
23 Enroll (v) Đăng ký Travelers to Britain can enroll in courses at any of the twenty-plus adults residential colleges around the country.
24 Hone (n) Mài sắc, nâng cao Trip participants hone their creative skills under the supervision of professional artists and writes while at the same time enjoying.
25 Ingredient (n) Nguyên liệu, thành phần Travelers may learn all about how traditional meals are prepared and what ingredients are used.
26 Ongoing (adj) Liên tục A group flies to Turkey to join an ongoing archeological dig for the summer.
27 Sponsor (v) Tổ chức và chịu trách nhiệm It is common for colleges to sponsor learning vacations.
28 Supervision (n) Sự giám sát, trông nom You will always have the supervision of an experienced at teacher during the painting trip.
29 Taste (n) Sở thích There are options to suit all tastes and budgets. |
4 min read
Lights of ideas
By Matt Jones, Tessella
So, what do we mean by AI?
Firstly, we need to understand what AI is and what it is not. AI is a composite of several techniques and toolkits including; machine learning, deep learning, neural networks, and natural language generation and processing. These tools ingest carefully selected training data to make sense of the task, the information sought and the world in which they live and operate.
What we are not talking about is ‘strong AI’ or Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) – which can, in theory, learn without training, but is still a considerable time from being a reality. This is fine for future gazing, but if you’re looking at what AI can do for you now, put AGI on the backburner.
Building and training AI
If you really want to benefit from AI, you need to develop an AI suited to your problem, and then train it correctly.
One option is to buy an AI black box which will suck in your all your data and spot potentially useful patterns within it. However, many problems worthy of the black box price tag are too complex to automate, and the correlations that pop out the other end are not magically wrapped up in business insight or context, they usually require a lot more work to understand what they really mean, if they’re relevant at all.
Another option is to build the AI yourself. This allows you to bake in an understanding of data and context, rather than using someone else’s approximation. This ensures you understand what’s happening, which helps you identify possible flaws or biases once it’s up and running. And, you get to keep control of all of your data.
There are times when a black box is simpler and we are not advocating building your own AI in every situation, but it certainly offers more control and greater precision of the answers generated. And the good news for people wanting to take this approach is that the leading tech companies—Google, Microsoft and Facebook, etc—have made their AI tools freely available to anyone. These, individually or combined, can be used to build bespoke transformational AI or machine learning platforms, which are as sophisticated as any black box currently on the market, for the price of a data scientist’s salary or consultancy fee.
Customer insights vs operational intelligence
A key part of building and training your AI is understanding what you want it to do.
Most discussion of AI in the media refers to consumer products which aim to guess your behaviour. Much of this is a progression of the data analytics approach used by marketing-led companies like Amazon: mine huge data sets to spot how consumers reacted to promotions, pricing, etc, and use that to predict future behaviour. Finding that a promotion adds 1% to sales is great, it’s not important why the 1% bought or who they were. AI takes this further by using more sophisticated data sets, bringing in new data sources (images, voice etc) and an ability to learn as it goes. But essentially it is still looking for correlations.
Operational and business challenges, on the other hand, tend to use large volumes of data to predict a small number of high-risk events, e.g. under what circumstances a jet engine will fail, a drug will exhibit adverse effects, or oil drilling platform suffer from subsurface corrosion that affects the integrity and safety of operations. They cannot afford failed experiments. They need to know whether one event will lead to another so they can act on which serious money, and sometimes lives, depend.
Doing this needs someone to identify the data needed to train the AI, precisely manage the training, evaluate the outputs and design scientific experiments which can isolate the issue being studied and understand whether one action is the direct result of another – for example, does a change in readings from a jet engine mean it needs a quick clean or that you should take the plane out of service. If you’re not 100% sure, you need to play it safe, which can be very costly.
This needs data skills, the industry expertise to understand what the data means, and an understanding of the scientific method to test patterns, eliminate biases and prove the link between cause and effect. For all the talk of AI as the latest technology, it is as much a scientific issue as a technology one.
Using AI effectively
AI has become a very broad term. The curse of the hype around it is that lots of people are trying to position themselves as experts, shouting about its business changing potential but rarely explaining how.
Platforms with baked in AI has something to offer. Many innovative companies will be developing AI-based products designed for non-expert use. Many of these technologies will be excellent and solve important problems.
But buying an off the shelf product doesn’t immediately solve all your business problems or put you ahead of the competition. If you see AI as an opportunity for your company to make disruptive leaps forward, you need to look at how it can work for you.
AI and machine learning is a series of tools and toolkits. Like any disruptive force, you can’t just buy new tools and expect them to solve your problems. You need people that understand these tools; know how to wield them and when and where they’re most appropriate. That is how to become one of the next disruptors.
Matt Jones is Lead Analytics Strategist at Tessella, Altran’s World Class Center for Analytics.
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How to Set Healthy Boundaries
How to Set Healthy Boundaries
Between family and friends, it's often hard at times to set appropriate boundaries with other people. Let me know if the following sounds familiar. Have you ever had a situation where someone kind of bullied you into making a decision where you didn't feel comfortable? What about a time when you went along with something even though it didn't feel right to you? These are examples of when your internal alarm was going off, and you ignored it. So what are boundaries and how can you keep them?
Boundaries are invisible barriers that are set in place to help you and other people. It's a means of protecting yourself and others from things that can hurt you emotionally, physically, and mentally. Often times, boundaries are the hardest thing to enforce, because we learn certain patterns of boundaries. These patterns become a part of our internal message, and they can be hard to get rid of.
7 Ways to Set Boundaries
Be responsible for yourself. Identify if you are letting go of your boundaries. There are two different emotions that tend to be warning signs that you are not setting appropriate boundaries for yourself. The two of these include resentment and discomfort. If you are feeling either one of these emotions related to an interaction or an expectation, this is your cue that you need to do some internal digging to find out more about what's going on with you. What is it about what they are saying or doing that is causing you to be uncomfortable or resentful?
Know your limits. Identify emotional, physical, mental, and spiritual limits. Once you know your limits, you need to be able to verbalize what your limits are (in a way that promotes conversation- you don't want to scream at someone). A lot of times, we expect others to be able to read our minds, but outside of sci-fi movies, it's not a fair expectation. You can let the person know what your boundaries are. If they cross your boundaries, don't be afraid to have a conversation on working together to make sure that it doesn't happen again.
Practice saying no. With some people, boundaries tend to come a little easier and you won't have to verbalize your boundaries as some people are able to read your cues. However, with others, it's not so easy. You may need to verbalize your boundaries with your friends, family, and significant other. Sometimes, with family members, you may need to practice setting boundaries as you may feel guilty saying no or may not feel as though boundaries are an acceptable thing to have in relationships with your family. However, boundaries are just a part of a healthy relationship, and they tend to be an indicator of how you feel about yourself as well.
Understand that you can't fix people. If you are having a hard time with boundaries, practice makes perfect. Look at exploring new relationships where you can practice setting appropriate boundaries with others. Remember, you can only control you and what you do. You can't control other people's emotions or actions. If you set boundaries with someone and they are unable to stick to your boundaries (even after talking about the boundaries), you may need to take some time away from that relationship. Sometimes, just by being an example of what good boundaries look like, others will follow suit.
Be self aware about how your decisions affect your health and happiness. Part of your journey with boundaries includes identifying what feels right for you. You need to make a habit of asking yourself if something feels off. For example, asking yourself what's either going on with you or someone else that's causing you to feel that way. Taking it a step further, when you figure out what's going on, you can make a better decision with what to do next.
Practice self love and take care of yourself. In order to practice self love and take care of yourself, you need to give yourself permission to do so. Part of knowing yourself is understanding that your emotions and well being matter. Often times, your emotions will give you clues as to how you need to proceed. As I've mentioned before, I like the airplane instructions for putting on oxygen masks in case of an emergency. I think it's relevant to self love as well. You need to put on your own mask before you help someone else out. You can't help them if you are emotionally dead.
Remove yourself from toxic situations and controlling people. It may be hard to acknowledge some of those expectations that are considered toxic, because they may be a part of your internal dialogue. However, being self aware of how you feel and what others are doing will help you to set appropriate boundaries with others. You can't expect to change others and how they function; you can only control what you do. Sometimes, if the relationship is toxic or you don't like how others are treating you, it may be best to just walk away.
When Setting Boundaries
For those of you who are new to setting boundaries, try setting smaller boundaries first. This, just like a lot of things, takes practices. If you start with smaller things that aren't as threatening, you will gain confidence to help you with the harder stuff.
Still Need Something Extra?
There are so many things that you can do to explore ways to help with anxiety and trauma. I have a lot of different resources that you can check out here. However, if you need something a bit stronger, such as individual guidance or even group help, you can schedule a time to talk about what those next steps would look like. Do you want/need something to change? If so, let's talk.
Creative Space Online Counseling and Coaching
Barbara Maulding, NCC, LCPC |
QA 38. January 2013. Rocking the foundations of thought
Education systems that render people stupid, mental health treatment that renders people mad, religions that render people wicked, economies that render people poor, political systems that render people powerless. How is it that our social systems break down (render) precisely what they are meant to serve (render to)? Read more
QA 7. (Sept 08) Fearless speech
Speaking truth to power refers to those brave souls who go up against some entrenched power armed only with the truth. Since democracy’s beginning, this kind of truth-speaking has been honoured. In Greek, it is called parrhesia, which Michel Foucault (Fearless Speech, Semiotext(e) 2001) has characterised as “frankness in speaking the truth”. The citizen parrhesiastes says what’s on his mind and identifies himself as the one who knows this truth that he speaks. Parrhesia finds fault with someone powerful; it is always dangerous and risky; it responds to a sense of moral duty.
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Iron Curtain; The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944 to 1956
Iron Curtain; The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944 to 1956 by Anne Applebaum. Anchor, 2013 paper.
Anne Applebaum’s “crushing” in her book’s title is misleading. While she describes Eastern Europe’s brutal experience in the aftermath of World War II with the Russian occupation, she argues that the creation of the ”Iron Curtain”, brutal though it was, followed a brutal German occupation. Also Eastern European borders were shaped by decisions made by the Allies at Yalta in February 1945 and Potsdam in August 1945. All of this was before Churchill named the Russian occupation zone in March 1946.
One of those Allied decisions was to forcibly move Germans (Volksdeutsche) living in Eastern Poland and Ukraine into a truncated Germany. That single act created 7.6 million German refugees. Add to that the 2.5 Czech refugees returning to the vacated Sudetenland. Applebaum suggests that these numbers dwarf the refugee problem in the twenty-first century.
By 1945 German armies in Eastern Europe were collapsing, with little hope of preventing Russians from capturing the great prize, Berlin. President Franklin Roosevelt, concerned about ending the war and bringing the soldiers home, had agreed with General Dwight Eisenhower to allow the Russians to occupy Berlin. Russian armies had also occupied Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Hence allowing the Russians to determine the future of Eastern Europe’s boundaries was simply recognizing the ‘facts on the ground.’
The “liberation” of Warsaw and Poland was a particularly complicated story. There were several Polish organizations involved, and they were bitter rivals: the Poles who had escaped to Britain in 1939 (the London Poles), those who formed a resistance in the forests of eastern Poland, and those Poles who had been in training in the Soviet Union to take over the administration of Poland after the war (Moscow communists).
Initially Joseph Stalin was willing to allow communist parties in Eastern Europe to cooperate with other left-wing parties to form post-war governments. That effort, Applebaum reports, quickly proved to be impossible. Pre-war Polish and Hungarian governments and certainly the National Socialists in Germany had not allowed these left-wing parties, including the communists, to have any part of the political process and hence they had no governing experience.
Earning “hearts and minds” proved difficult for the Soviets. They realized that they must build a more sympathetic public, and an effort was made to reach out to young people. They opened summer camps and introduced indoctrination classes into the public schools. The Russians also worked to discredit alternative allegiances as well – the Catholic Church for example. Its clergy were branded as reactionaries.
Applebaum describes Russian destruction of civil society in Eastern Europe. Churches, educational institutions, newspapers, art, sports clubs, and universities were elements of civil society in Eastern Europe that the Soviets considered enemies of a workers’ and peasants’ democracy.
The loyalty of factory workers was assured by the intervention of the Russians on behalf of unions. On the other hand, the seizure of private companies that had survived physical destruction, their dismantling and shipment to Russia as war reparations must have reduced factory employment. Land was redistributed where it was not already in the hands of the peasantry, mostly the Junker estates, the German landed nobility of eastern Prussia.
The author notes that Jewish owners of companies and private dwellings were big losers. Anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe after the War was alive and well.
She also follows the careers of three “little Stalins.” Trained in Moscow for leadership positions, they brought with them to their respective countries in occupied Eastern Europe a well-trained security police force. With their assistance the Russians held the equivalent of the Russian “show trials” of the 1930s. They already had their lists of enemies of the Soviet Union; more names were added.
The Russians had acquired the Reichsrundfunk, the fully equipped Berlin radio station. It proved to be an important component of efforts to sell communism. The American occupation forces established a rival Radio in the American Sector or RIAS. Radio Free Europe was its successor. The Nazi regime had used radio effectively as a propaganda tool. And like other components of the Allied occupation, radio built on precedents in the Nazi authoritarian state.
Josef Stalin’s death in 1953 was a blow to the ardor of the Russian occupation. Applebaum lists several other blows to Soviet prestige in Eastern Europe. The Marshall Plan provided badly needed liquidity in Western Europe. The aid package was offered to Eastern European but declined at the Russian insistence. The blundering attempt to seal off Berlin from the three other occupying powers, the Berlin blockade and the dramatic Berlin airlift all blunders costing Russia considerable ill will. And also Yugoslavia’s Josip Tito got away with a departure from the Eastern European Russian bloc.
Applebaum doesn’t mention a fourth blow to Soviet prestige, the long battle with two Catholic cardinals Stefon Wyszynaski (Polish) and Jozsef Mindszenty (Hungarian). Both were progressive priests much admired in Eastern Europe as well as the West.
Despite these blows, why wasn’t there more open resistance? For one thing, the Soviet occupation followed a horrible war, now over. Many of those who tolerated Eastern European communist regimes had already taken earlier steps toward collaboration. There were rewards, small though appreciated, like a coal delivery or an additional ration card. By not discussing matters with colleagues, neighbors, and friends; you could avoid trouble. Simply keeping quiet was read as compliance.
Anne Applebaum guides the reader through much disputed territory.
Leningrad; Siege and Symphony; The Story of the Great City Terrorized by Stalin, Starved by Hitler, Immortalized by Shostakovich by Brian Moynahan. Grove Press, 2015, paper.
In 1942 while Dmitri Shostakovich was composing his Seventh Symphony, his native city, Leningrad, was surrounded by German armies. The Germans, wishing to avoid a street-by-street battle for the city, had instead determined to starve the city into submission.
The terror referenced in Brian Moynahan’s title had been unleashed in the 1930s by Josef Stalin and the NKVD headed by Lavrentiy Beria. Leningrad was Russia’s second largest city and its Bolshevik establishment and intelligentsia rivaled that of the Soviet capital, Moscow.
The author illustrates the character of Bolshevik ‘party politics’ in Soviet Russia with the murder of Sergi Kirov in 1934. Kirov had been the popular chief of the Leningrad Bolsheviks, and his assassination may have been ordered by Stalin. In any case, Stalin took the opportunity to liquidate those delegates who, while attending the Seventeenth Party Congress in 1934, had made clear Kirov’s popularity over Stalin’s.
That murdering campaign then moved on to other victims: many of Leningrad’s artists, musicians, composers, dancers, and film-makers, a favored class of ‘creatives,’ who had made the city a great cultural center in Soviet Russia, as it had been in Imperial Russia. Stalin was an art enthusiast, but he knew what he liked – and didn’t like. Shostakovich had watched Stalin walk out of his opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk. Opera, Shostakovich concluded, was too dangerous and henceforth he concentrated on symphonic music, string quartets, and smaller orchestral pieces.
Moynahan provides us with descriptions of the interrogation techniques of the NKVD. Boris Izvekov, head of geophysics at Leningrad Technical University, was arrested in February 1942. Likely his name had been obtained earlier from a mathematics professor who, under interrogation, had fingered him as an active participant in a German spy ring within the faculty. Izvekov was a son of a priest – not good, but he had had nothing to do with the “anti-Bolshevik” Whites. His interrogation went on for days until he confessed and also incriminated colleagues for counter-revolutionary activities. He then was shot.
Moynahan considers whether Stalin knew about Operation Barbarossa before it was launched in 22 June 1941. It is difficult to believe that he wasn’t informed of the 3.2 million German soldiers marshalling on his borders. Warnings of German preparations were dismissed as “Allied provocations.”
Stalin counted on the German invasion of the Low Countries and France taking more time and a greater toll of German military strength. And in the meanwhile Soviet war production was expanded and factories dismantled and moved toward the Urals. Were the Russians stalling for time?
The German Army overran Poland and the Baltic states and by August 1941 had reached the Leningrad area. Another German/Finish army approached the city from the north. The residents remained patriotic and even heroic in their resistance. Yet food failed to reach the city and their bread ration continued to be reduced.
There were favored groups: Russian defenders of the city of course but surprisingly the musical community. Live broadcasts of orchestra music was considered vital to the city’s optimism. The state-owned radio stations in Russia had their own orchestras. Each Russian army unit its band. There were orchestras attached to different performance spaces. Many of these musicians including, Shostakovich and his family, were evacuated to inland cities, including Kuibyshev (modern-day Samara), designated to be the Russian capital should Moscow fall.
The fourth movement of his Seventh Symphony was finished at Kuibyshev. (The first three had been composed in Leningrad during the siege.) And the world premiere of the Seventh was performed there on March 1942. The Leningrad premier was in August of that year. The score was smuggled out and performed in London and New York.
Moynahan’s narrative, a month-by-month account, switches abruptly from starvation – even cannibalism – in Leningrad to the fortunes of the Russian army in 1941-1943. Bad news kept coming: the fall of Sevastopol and Kharkov and the ever tightening grip on Leningrad. The staggering German defeat before Stalingrad from August 1942 and February 1943 is beyond the scope of this book. And hence the reader cannot celebrate it alongside the citizens of Leningrad.
Moynahan mentions an important event that should also have cheered Leningrad had the city been able to foresee its outcome. On 8 December 1941 the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor and aimed their armies at Southeast Asia. Russia would not have to fight a war in its Far East. Hitler declared war on the U.S. and American weaponry and munitions began flowing through the port of Murmansk. But it wasn’t until January 1943 that the Russian army broke the siege of Leningrad, establishing a corridor that allowed food to reach the starving city.
Ravensbrück; Life and Death in Hitler’s Concentration Camp for Women
Ravensbrück; Life and Death in Hitler’s Concentration Camp for Women by Sarah Helm. Doubleday, 2016 paper.
Ravensbrück is a history (Sarah Helm calls it a biography.) of this concentration camp for women in the Mecklenburg region fifty miles due north of Berlin. The book is also a compendium of information that many will find useful, as I did. I had a good friend, Maguy (Katz) McCullough, who spent almost a year in the Ravensbrück camp. Her story blends into Helm’s camp chronology. See my essay in three parts, “Maguy (Katz) McCullough, In Memoriam.”
The title of Helm’s book should read “Heinrich Himmler’s Concentration Camp for Women.” Its location and purpose were determined by Himmler’s authority as Reichsfürher and head of the SS (Schutzstaffel). Ravensbrück was part of his ‘empire’ within the Third Reich. He had an estate near the camp, where he had installed his mistress and hence made periodic visits to the camp. He was the quintessential micro-manager, making decisions about such minutia as the number of strokes of the whip for various offenses.
The prison was built primarily to house German female opponents of the National Socialists and to relieve overcrowded local jails. But the camp and its sub-camps kept receiving new groups of women who weren’t politicos: Jehovah Witnesses, Jews, habitual criminals, and a-socials (prostitutes, homeless women, and the “work-shy”). Ravensbrück and its satellite camps had a top population of 45,000, well above capacity. The higher administration was primarily drawn from the SS and changed frequently. The women guards were from neighboring villages. They had had no training; they generally despised those they oversaw, and frequently beat them out of their frustration.
The inmates were expected to work in order to live. Many of them worked in an adjoining factory that made military uniforms or at Siemens, an electronics company that made components for weapons. Payments for the work of these women were made directly to the SS, not to the workers. Hence they were ‘slaves’ and their labor, ‘slave labor.’
Helm argues that the killing that went on in Ravensbrück was not primarily the result of any ideological position. Hanna Arendt’s famous phrase “the banality of evil” that results from ordinary people following orders without much thought about their actions best explains the murdering that went on at Ravensbrück. Yet how can one fit into any scheme of private morality the story Helm tells of some guard beating to death with a hammer an inmate who could not get up when commanded to do so?. Or the story of twelve Polish Catholic nuns who, for reasons unknown, ended up at Ravensbrück in its last few weeks and were shot, some through their eyes?
Helm spends much time detailing the camp’s organization. In addition to the staff, there were prisoners called blockovas (elsewhere kapos) who supervised the day-to-day operations. Their volunteering made it less likely that they would be selected for one or another horrible fate and because they received perks. Some blockovas were brutal, like their masters. Some tried to be ameliorative.
Much has been made of the medical experiments performed on prisoners at Ravensbrück and other camps. They resulted in much suffering. Fortunately the numbers were small and the deaths few.
My friend was Parisian and had been arrested for her participation in the French Resistance. Fortunately for Maguy, her arrest was late in the German occupation, sometime after D-Day when German occupation forces decided to ship female prisoners off to Ravensbrück. They were ill-prepared for camp life; shocked at what the encountered upon arrival. Fortunately they only had to survive one Ravensbrück winter.
Most of the French inmates were liberated in April 1945, the result of an agreement between Himmler and a member of the Swedish royal family, Count Folke Bernadotte, acting on behalf of the Swedish Red Cross. Initially mostly Danish and Norwegian women were liberated, transported to the Danish border on especially marked white buses and then by rail through Denmark and ferry to Sweden. Himmler eventually opened the rescue to all nationalities. The Ravensbrück rescue is the largest in World War II.
Himmler approved the rescue as part of his screwy idea of convincing the British and Americans to join him in a ‘post-Hitlerite Germany’ in opposing the Soviet domination of central and eastern Europe. Our General Eisenhower would have none of this and other such schemes by Nazi big-wigs who were hoping to avoid the hangman’s knot.
Eisenhower’s other decision that impacted the fate of the prisoners at Ravensbrück was that they should “stay-put,” awaiting the arrival of Allied forces and prepare themselves for an orderly repatriation after the German surrender. Meanwhile the sick were getting bullets in the head, and the Ravensbrück gas chambers were operating to tidy up the camp for its liberation.
Himmler hid these arrangements from Hitler. Hitler had ordered that the releases from Ravensbrück and other camps cease and all remaining inmates shot or gassed. Or marched to camps deeper inside Germany. The result was those deadly marches in the last few days of the war. But Maguy Katz was safe in Sweden.
Lens of War; Exploring Iconic Photographs of the Civil War
Lens of War; Exploring Iconic Photographs of the Civil War by J. Matthew Gallman & Gary Gallagher, editors. University of Georgia Press, 2015.
The Civil War was well documented by commercial photographers. They invited the leadership of the War into their studios to have portraits made. They also carried their photographic equipment to the fields of battle and into military camps. Several dozen historians of the Civil War were asked by the editors to pick their favorite photograph and write an essay on what the picture tells us about that deadly conflict.
Much has been said about Abraham Lincoln’s visits to Mathew Brady’s and Alexander Gardner’s studios in Washington to have his picture taken. Appropriately Lens of War begins with a portrait taken by Gardner the day before Lincoln was to make a “short contribution” to the dedication of the Gettysburg Cemetery. There is some speculation by the essayist that Lincoln may have been thinking about a portrait to illustrate his few, but well-chosen words.
Lincoln may also have had in mind the Gardner portrait being used for a carte de visite. These were popular photographic reproductions mounted on a cardboard measuring 4 x 2½ inches. They were traded amongst friends and left as calling cards. Celebrity photographs, including President Lincoln’s, were much valued. But ordinary soldiers of the Civil War era also stood in lines to obtain a carte de visite of themselves in uniform to mail home.
This was before the age of the photographic smile. Back in the 1860s, you were supposed to look yourself. You were allowed to frown, even scowl, as appropriate to the situation. And there would be few occasions for a smile amongst these often grim circumstances.
One of the photographic portraits is of William Tecumseh Sherman. His “march to the sea” is often compared to what in the twentieth-century is called ‘total war.’ He looks a bit crazed in this photograph. The accompanying essay reveals that Sherman suffered a mental breakdown in the winter of 1861.
Photographers documented the totality of warfare. The most common subject was death, often dead bodies in various stages of decomposition.
One of the photographs is of a dying horse, and we are reminded that armies moved by animal power, mule and horse-drawn wagons. There was an enormous amount of matériel to be transported; warfare in the 1860s involved a vast supply structure. Horses were overworked, badly tended, and not given enough forage or water. The Union armies needed 2.3 million new horses each year of the war.
Several portraits of generals have them dressed in uniforms of cavalry officers. The famous picture of Robert E. Lee on his horse, Traveler, is included in this volume. But unlike draft animals, cavalry mounts played a small role in the major battles of the War.
A photo of three prisoners of war captured by Union forces at the Gettysburg battle suggests that they were not Lee’s finest. The essayist calls attention to their shoes which looked to be in good shape, not having been subject to several years of marching. They may have been stragglers or deserters. They would soon be put in jeopardy of their lives. By 1863 the prisoner exchange was breaking down. The results were over-crowded, prisoner-of-war camps and death from neglect and disease. The tragedy is well-documented at the Andersonville prison site in Georgia.
Most of the photographs are ‘staged’ in one way or another. Photographers looking for a compelling image, moved rifles around, even repositioned bodies. With no Photoshop, details had to be considered before the photograph was taken. In some cases there are included a sequence of images that attest to this moving around of the “décor” of the battlefield.
Several photographs document the large numbers of black refugees flooding into Union lines. Many were leaving plantation homes threatened by invading armies. But many were opting to “liberate” themselves and their families. By 1864 perhaps 400,000 slaves had walked away from the cotton fields where they had labored for a life-time. The essayist argues that this flood of refugees, having made their own personal decisions, forced the Union to grapple with the issue of slavery; hence the Emancipation Proclamation.
The last photo in Lens of War was of the Grand Review, victorious Union troops marching down Pennsylvania Avenue in May of 1865. It was a momentous occasion; at that point the Union army was the world’s greatest. Most of the marchers were from the Midwest and having won the war, were anxious to get home. The guns were silent but their futures uncertain.
It would be illuminating to have had photographs that documented Confederate soldiers returning to their often devastated homes. But the Confederacy was not nearly as well documented visually. Later, and often much later, statues were the common means of envisioning “the lost cause” and commemorating its Civil War. We are presently tucking away these statues.
Such a good book.
Dark Continent; Europe’s Twentieth Century by Mark Mazower.
Dark Continent; Europe’s Twentieth Century by Mark Mazower. Vintage, 2000 paper. (752)
Mark Mazower has received much praise for his Dark Continent. He argues there and in this book that European fascism in the interwar period is a continuation of the authoritarian regimes of the nineteenth century and not alien to European traditions. Thus National Socialism cannot be explained solely by the party and its leader’s insanity. Moreover post-war European political economy has many of the same intentions as the National Socialist regime in Germany. Had Adolf Hitler not chosen to divert the German economy to war production in the late 1930s, the economic consequences of his corporatism might have resembled the prosperity of post-war Germany and Europe.
The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 had created 25,000,000 citizens living in states in which they were a minority. The largest two minorities were Germans and Jews. It was assumed that the League of Nations would be able to guard Europe’s ethnic complexity; hence there was no necessity for an exchange of populations. But ethnic conflict remained a continuing challenge to the League. Unlike America, Europe had no tradition of the ‘melting-pot.’
This minority problem was particularly acute in Eastern Europe. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which ended the Great War on the eastern front had established a “Pax Germania.” That was overturned by the Russian revolution in 1917 and the Versailles treaty, which created relatively weak buffer states between Russia and Germany with uncertain futures.
The success of Mazower’s book is that it explains interwar developments that have often been considered inexplicable. For example, the British policy of ‘appeasement’ which we are always told only encouraged Adolf Hitler’s ambitions. The alternative to appeasement, it is commonly argued, would have been opposition, and that had been ruled out because Britain was unprepared. Mazower suggests, rather, that Chamberlain was “blinkered” by the traditional anti-Bolshevism of the British Conservative Party. National Socialism, many Brits believed, was an understandable reaction to the rise of Bolshevism. Sooner or later the two dictators would clash, sparing Britain another land war. Or so they hoped.
Both the Soviet Union and National Socialist Germany were in the process of creating a new social order. However Russia believed in the future of the industrial state and had little regard for the welfare of its agricultural classes. Hitler wanted to turn Germans into peasants, not industrial workers. Both economies were evolving in an interwar backdrop of population decline, unemployment and political extremism.
Mazower does a remarkable job of making post-World War II Europe interesting. One can sense in the Dark Continent the declining interest of historians in the Cold War. The conflict between the two world powers that emerged from the rubble did not, fortunately, result in military confrontation. Rather the Cold War, according to Mazower, brought stability to post-war Europe. There was an acceptance of the status quo, post-1945, despite the rhetoric.
Mazower speaks of continuity but he fashions Margaret Thatcher’s victory in 1979 and her years as Britain’s Prime Minister as a bolt out of the blue. She set about dismantling social democracy in Britain while it was being rebuilt on the Continent. She sold off state-owned enterprises when Continentals were comfortable with theirs. Hers was an authoritarian form of neo-liberalism, both strengthening the role of the state in, for example, regulating labor relations, but also weakening Britain’s industrial sector. During her decade Britain lost over a million factory jobs. She looked with disfavor on the post-colonial migration of colonials to Britain. Her legacy is rarely celebrated these days.
Mrs. Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, who occupied the White House in those same years, have often been given credit – have taken credit – for the unexpected collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe. Rather than Anglo-American bluster, it was the result of the prolonged old age of the political economy of Stalinism that lasted for three decades after his death in 1953, and well beyond its usefulness.
Meanwhile in Eastern Europe “goulash consumerism,” the importation of consumer goods from the West, mollified the public and propped up the “little Stalins.” Occasionally the Russians had to lend a helping hand, for example suppressing the Hungarian Revolution in 1956 and the Prague Spring in 1968. But ultimately Russia lacked the will to continue these interventions.
The real victor in 1989 and the Soviet zone in Eastern Europe was not the Anglo-Americans, nor the European Union. Rather it was European capitalism, but a capitalism willing to accept the welfare state and recognize its continuity with Europe’s twentieth century.
The Beauty and the Sorrow; An Intimate History of the First World War
The Beauty and the Sorrow; An Intimate History of the First World War by Peter Englund. Knopf, 2012 paper. (781)
A wonderful book. Peter Englund has woven together the experiences of twenty individuals to form a narrative of the “Great War.” Drawn from diaries and memoirs, they suggest the sorrow and something of the beauty experienced by those men and women caught up in a world at war. Englund has provided excellent explanatory footnotes to give these accounts their context.
The author follows a chronological order, traveling from one front to another: France and Belgium, the Russian front, Italy, Mesopotamia, East Africa, the Caucasus, and back. He reinforces the common view that this vast waste of human life was never guided by any intermediate objectives, only the ultimate ‘total victory.’ Initially the war was popular; by 1917 war weariness and the huge loss of life were fomenting revolutions.
We can comprehend the sorrow emanating from this seemingly senseless slaughter. Less so the beauty. But in fact the diarists often remark on the beauty encountered: the landscape, the sunsets, the sacrifices, the sense of comradeship. When fighting, soldiers experienced the thrill of combat. Their low-paying civilian jobs offered no future; the war provided them with purpose.
Most of the time, however, they are not fighting but waiting, waiting and having time to think about and dread the next enemy engagement. They had no idea of the significance of their battlefield nor knowledge of what is happening elsewhere. They were exhausted, bored, depressed, and in some cases hungry.
Englund’s war experiences include two women, volunteer nurses caring for the bodies and souls of the wounded and dying. The wounds are horrendous; infections that would now be stopped with drugs usually meant death in World War I. Soldiers died of the Spanish flu, dysentery, and typhus and suffered from malaria, trench foot, and dengue fever. Although the care of the wounded and sick became more organized over time, it remained mostly a volunteer effort.
Many soldiers suffered a cluster of symptoms resulting from the trauma of battle; a dazed stare, shaking and stammering, difficulty walking, dizziness, vomiting, sever headaches, buzzing in the ears, a yellowish mist in front of the eyes, amnesia. This phenomenon was called ‘Shell Shock’ in World War I. In our later wars ‘Combat Stress Reaction’, ‘Battle Fatigue’, and ‘Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.’
Several of the diarists were from the New World. Harvey Cushing was a doctor from Boston who went to France to study war surgery. He reflects on the field hospitals and their care. He is struck by the amount of wastage in the war. After a battle, the field would be strewn with dead bodies but also the detritus of warfare.
Rafael de Nogales was a Venezuelan who did not wish to miss the excitement ‘over there.’ His first choice was the German army. Rejected he offered his services to “heroic little Belgium,” then to Serbia and Russia which likewise rejected his offer. He finally settled on the Ottoman Army first serving on the Caucasus front and ultimately Mesopotamia. The Ottoman Army proved a bad choice; De Nogales openly disapproved of their shooting the wounded, prisoners, deserters, and all partisans. He tried on several occasions to save the lives of enemy airmen. He feared for his own safety.
Much has been made of the mutinies of soldiers and sailors. Mutinous behavior began with the tendency of soldiers to adopt a strategy of live-and-let-live. The famous ‘Christmas truce’ in 1914, for instance. By 1916 indiscipline was becoming serious. The contagion spread from the Austrian to the Russian army and then to the western front. On the home front there were strikes in factories and dockyards. The diary entries in the last two years of the war are much less poetic. Rumors that the war would soon be ending did not help with the willingness to fight on.
Paolo Minnelli, a trooper in an Alpine regiment of the Italian army, tells the story of an execution of two deserters in those last years, soldiers from his own unit. The first is tied to a tree and the adjutant orders the squad to fire. Nothing happens. A second order to fire. Nothing happens again. The adjutant claps his hands, a threat to the reluctant executioners. A third command works. The second soldier’s death then follows. The firing squad is dismissed, having made its statement about the war and its commands.
Went the Day Well? Witnessing Waterloo
Went the Day Well? Witnessing Waterloo by David Crane. Vintage, 2016, paper.
The Battle of Waterloo ended Napoleon’s effort to reverse his and French fortunes. In1814 he had been banished to the island of Elba off the coast of Tuscany, escaped, took command of the French army, and invaded Belgium. He was defeated by the Prussians at Ligny on 16 June 1815, fought the British at Quatre Bras, and was soundly defeated the next day by the combined armies of Prussia and Britain, near a village called Waterloo. David Crane’s book is a group portrait of the English on the day of battle.
Crane is critical of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, and field marshal of the British army. Britain had always relied more heavily on her navy. But Wellington’s army had performed well during the Peninsular War in Spain. Perhaps it can be said that Wellington lucked out; Waterloo brightened a generally lackluster military career.
Crane presents the army officer, George Keppel, as exemplary of the British nobility - an entrenched, privileged caste. Keppel cared nothing about his opportunity to acquire an education, preferring instead the London of prize-fighting and bull-bating. His father, 4th Earl of Albemarle, decided that a commission in the army might straighten out his sixteen-year-old son.
Some of the nobility acknowledged the obligations of their caste; Keppel did not. He landed in Brussels in command of an undistinguished unit of commoners, best his father could arrange for a second son. In no way prepared for leadership in a field of battle, Keppel survived. Many under his command did not.
William DeLancey did not survive Waterloo. He was a respected young officer, under Wellington as well. He had just married and the couple had spent a night or two together in Brussels, before he left for the front. She, like many female family members of the privileged class, had rented a room in the city to await news of the battle and the fate of her husband. They came: a report that he had been wounded but still alive, another that he was dead, was badly wounded and sheltered in a cottage near the field of battle. There was little care for the wounded, so she made her way to his side. They spent the last few hours of his life together.
Frederick Ponsonby was wounded at Waterloo as well. He was also the second son of a titled Englishman. Armed with only a long spear or lance his company of Light Dragoons had battled French cavalry. Ponsonby was wounded in the encounter and left on the field with the dead and dying. He spent eighteen hours there before being rescued.
Lying wounded, he had had a series of “visitors.” The first was a lone French soldier, a straggler, who stabbed Ponsonby in the back. Next a French infantry man looking for loot. Then a French officer came by, friendly but unable to come to Ponsonby’s assistance because the battle was still raging. He did offer Ponsonby a swig of his brandy. He conveyed the news – false – that the Duke of Wellington was dead and Allied battalions surrendering. Next a French infantryman used his body as a shield, chattering gaily while he fired away. Finally a gang of murderous Belgian looters came by. He survived.
Many of the stories are not about participants at Waterloo, but ordinary English folk on the “home front.” A young servant girl, Eliza Fenning, was on death row. She had insisted on baking some dumplings for her mistress, according to her mistress. It turned out that they were poisoned with arsenic. Spats between servants and mistresses were common, and this appeared to the prosecution to be the outcome of one of them. The English press, however, had doubts about Eliza’s guilt and stirred up a public controversy. All of England witnessed her trial through the newspapers. Eliza was hanged on the Friday before Waterloo. Life went on, notwithstanding events in Belgium.
In 1815 communications across Britain were limited mostly to newspapers. No wire service then, most of the news from Waterloo would be distributed in the usual way, by coach-and-fours setting out from Lombard Street, London. On this occasion, delivering the victory at Waterloo, coaches and drivers were bedecked with flowers and ribbons. On to Lincoln, Winchester, Portsmouth, Gloucester, Oxford, Bristol, Manchester, York, Newcastle, Edinburg, Perth, and Glasgow. Criers on the mail coaches proclaimed news of the great victory.
David Crane reminds us that despite the glorious defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, the ordinary Englishman saw no real improvement in his or her lives. At this juncture, crofters were being forced off their enclosed parcels of tillable land to create sheep ranges. The great landed barons, claiming outright ownership, were responding to the growing demand for wool for the mills in many of those towns through which the mail coaches passed. Many of the young men who ‘witnessed Waterloo’ would find employment in the mills, with their long hours and dangerous working conditions.
Maguy (Katz) McCullough, Holocaust Survivor, Friend. Part I, Occupied Paris.
This account is heavily indebted to two books: When Paris Went Dark; The City of Light Under German Occupation, 1940 to 1944 by Ronald Rosbottom, 2014 paper and Ravensbrüch; Life and Death in Hitler’s Concentration Camp for Women by Sarah Helm, paper 2015. Thanks always to Wikipedia.
I first met Maguy (Katz) McCullough, a Parisian, at my bookstore in Gainesville. She or her husband, Bob McCullough, both well past retirement age, would come into the bookstore every morning for their New York Times. They had met on the way to Japan on a Polish tramp steamer, married, and lived half of the year in Gainesville, half in Maguy’s flat in Paris.
Neither Bob nor Maguy drove, so every Friday, I picked her up and we went grocery shopping at the nearest Publix. As both of us were not in any hurry, we almost always spent time in its parking lot, Maguy telling me her stories, me asking questions. As part of the friendship and in payment for the shopping trips, she would invite me over for scotch. More stories and questions. Stories were repeated – and repeated, which has helped me remember.
After Bob’s death, Maguy gave up coming to Gainesville so I visited her in Paris on three different occasions. She was living in the same flat that she had lived in during the 1930s, when she had a good job working for the French Railways until her arrest in 1944. Again more opportunities for stories to be told. Again good for memory work.
She told me a bit about the Katz family. Her grandfather was from Alsace. Jewish, he was a merchant, and had decided after the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) that Paris was a better place for him, his family, and his business than was Alsace under the Prussians. Maguy said very little about her Jewish ancestry. Only that while at the Ravensbrück work camp she wore the Jewish star.
The Wehrmacht invaded France in May 1940 and six weeks later, France surrendered. The country was divided between occupied and unoccupied zones (until November 1942). Both were governed by the Vichy Regime, so named because it was to this small spa town that Maréchal Phillipe Pétain had moved the French government. Paris was in the occupied zone and hence subject to a German army of occupation.
Maguy was not in Paris when the German troops entered the city. At first she was uncertain about what to do. There had been a massive flight of Parisians and no certainty about what the occupation would involve and how long it would last. Eventually she returned to her Paris apartment in the 16th Arrondissement, not far from the Bois de Boulogne.
Shortly, thereafter, Adolf Hitler made his famous tour of the city. He thought Paris to be a model for European cities in the new world of Pax Germania. He hoped also to convince Parisians that life ‘under the German heel’ would be tolerable. And the German occupation force set to work to make it so – except for Jews, communists, and anyone resisting the occupation authorities.
While few Parisians openly welcomed German soldiers or Nazi bigwigs, many in the French army, the Roman Catholic Church, industrialists, and the conservative right viewed the occupation as an opportunity to weaken the French Left. Collaboration took various forms. The presence of many Germans, both military and otherwise, required a “service sector.” French merchants, café owners, waiters, laundresses, and many others served the Germans. Were they collaborating?
Like collaboration, resistance also took different forms. The earliest resisters were mostly from the French Left, and particularly the communists. Maguy always made the point that she was not, and never had been, a communist. Rather she had joined the “Free French” led from London by General Charles de Gaulle. De Gaulle, an army man, distrusted the freewheeling nature of the communist resistance; he viewed them as hot-heads. While ideology divided the resistance movement in Paris and elsewhere in France, these distinctions were lost on the SS and the Gestapo.
Early in the occupation, the roundups and arrests did not involve Parisians but rather German and Austrian refugees who had arrived in Paris after 1933 and especially Jews. In 1940, the Germans had expelled 150,000 Jews from Alsace-Lorraine after it was incorporated into greater Germany. And they were mostly hiding out in Paris.
German authorities required Jews, both foreigners and Parisians, to wear the Star of David patch and carry special ID cards. A series of edicts restricted the economic and professional activities of Jews in Paris. By the time of the Grand Rafle in July 1942 – the largest of the roundups – it was obvious that French Jews were also now targeted. But surprisingly, Maguy never was a victim of these measures, and her Jewishness was not the cause of her arrest and deportation.
So far as I know, Maguy did not keep a diary. Diaries from the years of occupation kept by Parisians, famous and otherwise, suggest a city gone “dark.” From these diaries one gets the feeling of life being narrowed, to one’s neighborhood, to one’s apartment, to one room, usually the kitchen as keeping warm became a problem. Paris was dark, and also quiet; few pedestrians, fewer private cars. There was a city-wide, early-evening curfew, which put a crimp on nightlife. Bikes and public transportation were the options; Maguy took to the bike.
As she was not arrested until sometime after June 1944, Maguy had four long years under the Germans. Because telephones could not be trusted, women in the resistance were used as couriers. And she became part of the communications network; this was the golden age of the mimeograph machine and the underground tract. They urged Parisians to be more aggressive in their opposition to the German occupation, rather than waiting it out.
The knock on the door eventually came. Maguy’s name was on a list of her circuit, carelessly left on a colleague’s desk and found by the Parisian police. Her best-laid plans did not work. After her arrest she spent weeks in jail awaiting her trial before a panel of collaborating French judges. She was found guilty and sentenced to death, though the sentence was commuted to a term in prison.
I once asked Maguy if, after the war, she had ever come across the judges who had convicted her. Oh no, she assured me, they were eliminated by the resistance.
Maguy (Katz) McCullough, Holocaust Survivor, Friend. Part II, Ravensbrück.
There were growing numbers of women in Parisian jails as their role in the resistance broadened, and they were occupying space that the Germans wished to use for incarcerating French men. It was decided in 1944 to deport the women to Ravensbrück, a work camp for women political prisoners in Germany, due north of Berlin.
I would like to have asked Maguy about her journey from her Parisian jail to Ravensbrück. It was certainly by rail. This was not a good time to be traveling on either French or German railroads. By 1944 they were the subject of a massive British-American air offensive. The journey would have taken days, mostly nights. Maguy would have told me of over-loaded freight cars, so she may have been spared that.
The French women, Maguy included, only had to survive one winter in the camp, and that saved many of their lives. Camp-hardened Poles and other Eastern Europeans noted how ill-prepared these French women were for camp life. In turn the French women must have been overwhelmed by their first encounter with the brutal, overcrowded camp world they entered.
Maguy would have encountered every kind of prisoner: the asoziale (a-social) – prostitutes, homeless, work-shy. A good part of the camp’s inmates were Polish women sent to Ravensbrück as part of the German land clearance program in occupied Poland and then the Warsaw Uprising in August 1944. Also Polish Jews, though Jews constituted no more than 10% of the inmate population at Ravensbrück. Also represented were habitual criminals, gypsies, communists and socialists, and Jehovah’s Witnesses. The latter were the worst treated because they refused work that involved the manufacture of weaponry.
The idea of locating war production at Ravensbrück was a new initiative by Heinrich Himmler, SS Reichsfürher. There were already sewing shops that made clothes for the army. But in the fall of 1942 Siemens, a big prewar electrical company, located a unit there which made electrical parts for fighter planes. Shocked that the women in the sewing shops were only working eight-hours a day, Himmler introduced an eleven-hour day. Siemens reimbursed the SS for their work, not the women themselves. Still it was good to have work in these camps. You never wanted to become a useless mouth, as Himmler liked to put it.
Maguy told several stories that involved these Polish women. She and her Parisian colleagues had a special concern for them because they were young and miserably treated by their German guards.
She suffered from a strict camp procedure called the Appell (roll-call) in the Appellplatz, (camp square) rain or shine, or snow. In the winter it began before dawn. The women had to stand sometimes for hours until all were accounted for. On one Appell Maguy collapsed and was taken to her barracks, which saved her life, but at some risk to the rescuer. It was perhaps even more dangerous to appear at the Revier (infirmary). The sick and weak were commonly allowed to die.
By the time of Maguy’s arrival, discipline (though not the cruelty) was beginning to crumble. This was both fortuitous and unfortunate. Individual inmates could angle for the better work assignments, such as the squads that removed the dead or working in the camp kitchen. This competition eroded prisoner solidarity. The severe overcrowding required a disciplined regimen. By 1944 that was beginning to crumble with deadly results as prisoners felt more secure in ignoring the rules.
Much of the day-to-day administration was carried out by prisoners. Blockovas (elsewhere in the camp system called kapos) were put in charge of individual blocks to enforce discipline. Initially the Ravensbrück blockovas were largely a-socials, but eventually tended to be communists. Helm calls this takeover by the communists (heavily French) a “camp revolution.” Some of the blockovas were brutal, like their masters. Some actually tried to be ameliorative. In either case you didn’t want to be fired from that job!
Maguy wore the Jewish star but also a red triangle which identified her as a communist. This offended her; she was not a communist but a Gaullist, for which there was no badge. Always thin, she began to lose weight. There was never enough to eat; all of Germany was starving by 1944.
Ravensbrück had been a special project of Himmler’s. He had an estate near the camp, and came there periodically to see his mistress who was stashed there. He is said to have been the quintessential micro-manager, making decisions about such minutia as inmates’ diet and the number of strokes of the whip for various offenses. Did Maguy ever see Himmler during one of his camp inspections?
Much has been made of the medical experiments performed on prisoners by licensed doctors at Ravensbrück and other camps. They resulted in much suffering. Fortunately the numbers of these ‘rabbits,’ as they were called, were small and the deaths few. Because Ravensbrück was the only camp for women, there was also experimentation on methods of controlling – and exploiting – large numbers of female slave labor. Along with the often gratuitous cruelty, there were some SS administrators thinking about the future.
The highest camp administrators were generally SS careerists. The guards were women from neighboring villages. Neither had had had any training; they generally despised those they oversaw and frequently beat them out of frustration.
As it became more obvious that Germany was losing the war, individual inmates, guards, and administrators at Ravensbrück began to recalculate their strategies. For most inmates that involved obtaining food but also not running afoul of the camp administration. If you were an inmate who had collaborated with the administration, you would be worried about how to keep from being brutalized at war’s end by those inmates you had brutalized. If a guard, maybe fading into the rural German background from which you had been recruited. If an SS administrator, flight; but to where? Or you could deny what you were hearing about the Americans at the Rhine or the Russians only miles from Mecklenburg and await developments. |
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Corruption with USB Drives
During the 1990s, one of the most common problems was important documents becoming damaged or unreadable on dodgy floppy disks. Somehow people got the idea that using floppy disks as the primary store for their important documents would save them from hard drive failure, which is, of course, true, except that hard disks are always many times more reliable than floppies. So they lost their important documents to floppy disk failure instead.
Now that floppy disks have receded into the mists of ancient history, the most common form of small-scale removable storage is the USB drive (or USB key), which are available in sizes between 32Mb and 2Gb. But while these devices don't suffer from the same sorts of physical deterioration as floppy disks, they are equally likely to leave you without your precious documents. USB drives are made from a very low-end and cheap type of non-volatile flash memory, and consist of a few tiny solders to keep the electronics in place. They are designed to be inserted into all sorts of machines, sometimes needing a bit of manipulation to fit in between the keyboard and printer connectors, so they're always being stressed. If they break, they're not worth fixing.
Furthermore, they're not fault tolerant. Computers have always known that floppy disks can be removed at any moment, and act accordingly. If you eject a floppy disk too soon you might lose part of a document but not the entire disk. However, USB drives are not designed for instant removal. If the drive is being written to when you remove it, you might damage the file system in a way that can't be recovered. Floppy disks are much easier to recover than USB drives if they become corrupt.
Finally, the potential loss is much greater. A bad floppy disk can cost at most 1.38Mb, but a bad USB drive could potentially result in the loss of hundreds of megabytes of files.
Tips to prevent data loss:
• Only use USB drives as backup or to transport files between systems. Don't use them as the primary data store. Store your documents on a hard disk drive.
• Treat the USB drive gently.
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Question 1
Consider a class of 40 students whose average weight is 40 kgs.
m new students join this class whose average weight is n kgs. If it is known that m + n = 50,
what is the possible average weight of the class now?
Also given that a number x such that following operations are performed on it(576*261*x) + 4787 = y
If the sum of digits of y until we get a single digit as 9 then 40>new average else new average>40.
Comments on Question 1
Answer: b) 40.56 kgs
If the number is a multiple of 9 then sum of its digits = 9.Given 4787 is not a multiple of 9. So ‘new average’>40.
If the overall average weight has to increase after the new people are added, the averageweight of the new entrants has to be higher than 40.
So, n > 40
Consequently, m has to be < 10 (as n + m = 50).
We know that the total additional weight addedby m students would be (n - 40) each, above the already existing average of 40.
m*(n - 40) isthe total extra additional weight added, which is shared amongst 40 + m students.
So, m * (n-40)/(m+40) has to be maximum for the overall average to be maximum.
At this point, use the trial and error approach to arrive at the answer.
The maximum average occurs when m = 5,and n = 45 .
And the average is 40 + (45 - 40) * 5/45 .
= 40 + 5/9
= 40.56 kgs |
Economic Development Theory
The theory of economic development is essentially growth theory as applied to the world as a whole, consisting of nearly 200 countries ranging in population from China to nearly unpopulated islands like Nauru or tiny city-states like Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino or Andorra. The range of political and economic circumstances is nearly as great. To explain the developmental behavior of such a diverse group is obviously a daunting task. However, the task has attracted, and continues to attract, considerable attention from economists. Attempts to explain economic development have a long history. Early theories were more theoretically than empirically based. By the middle of the 19th century, growth was an obvious fact of economic life. At that time, it was attributed to labor force (that is, population) growth and capital accumulation. The latter was attributed to 'surplus' (profits) or savings.
The most influential models of the 1930s and 1940s were based on a formula attributed to Fel'dman (1928, 1964), equating the rate of growth of the economy to the savings rate divided by the capital-output ratio, or (equivalently) the ratio of annual savings to capital stock. The formula was rediscovered (independently) by Harrod and Domar (Harrod 1939; Domar 1946). These models, which emphasized the role of central planning (a relic of academic Marxism), dominated early postwar thinking about development economics.2 For instance, a well-known 1950s-era text on the subject by Arthur Lewis states, without qualification, that 'the central fact of development is rapid capital accumulation' (including knowledge and skills with capital) (Lewis 1955).
An influential theory of development known as the 'stage theory' was introduced in 1960 (Rostow 1960). Rostow's idea was, in brief, that economic growth 'takes off only when a certain level of capital investment has been achieved, along with other conditions. In effect, the rate of growth depends upon the level of current income, using a relationship - based on a scatter chart - that is very difficult, if not impossible, to quantify sufficiently for forecasting purposes. As a consequence, the exact model specification is essentially arbitrary, since both the theoretical and empirical bases are weak. However, the characteristic growth trajectory in the Rostow theory would be a sort of elongated S-curve, characterized by rapid growth after 'takeoff', followed by progressively slower growth thereafter, that is, 'the poor get richer and the rich slow down'.
Actually the Solow-Swan theory has a built-in tendency for declining productivity due to declining returns to capital investment (Solow 1956, 1957; Swan 1956). This feature of the Solow model implies that countries with a small capital stock should grow faster than countries with a large capital stock. The same feature also predicts a gradual convergence between poor and rich countries. In the late 1980s and early 1990s there was considerable interest in the theory of convergence, supported by a wide variety of examples, mostly regional. In fact, for a time, it appeared that a new regularity in empirical economics had been discovered, namely the existence of a common underlying convergence rate within 'convergence clubs' at the rate of 2 percent per annum (Baumol 1986; Baumol et al. 1989; Ben-David 1994; Barro and Sala-i-Martin 1992, 1995).
However, as the voluminous econometric evidence was digested, it emerged that the apparent statistical uniformity might be misleading. There is some evidence for convergence in East Asia, but not in Africa or Latin America. However, while 'convergence clubs' apparently exist at both ends of the economic spectrum, the rich clubs and the poor clubs are polarized and diverging from each other. This large-scale divergence dominates the apparent 2 percent convergence that had been accepted as conventional wisdom (Quah 1996). Others have confirmed this conclusion. The results of our work, presented below, can be regarded as supportive of the 'diverging convergence clubs' notion, although we have arrived at our results (discussed later) by a completely different route.
In any case, economic growth in the industrialized countries has not slowed down to the degree suggested by the Solow theory, while most developing countries (with some notable exceptions, as noted hereafter) have not been catching up (Barro and Sala-i-Martin 1995). The failure of the rich countries to slow down as the model implied was one of the reasons for widespread interest in 'endogenous growth theory' that emerged in the late 1980s (Romer 1986, 1990; Lucas 1988).
In response to this perceived difficulty, some theorists have suggested that capital and labor augmentation in the sense of quality improvements might enable the Solow-Swan model to account for the observed facts. For instance, education and training make the labor force more productive. Moreover, knowledge and skills presumably do not depreciate. Similarly, capital goods have become more productive as more advanced technology is embodied in more recent machines, thus compensating for depreciation. Augmentation of labor and capital are, in some degree, an observable and quantifiable fact. Allowing for it, a number of cross-sectional econometric studies were carried out in the 1990s to test this idea. Indeed, some of them seemed, at first, to provide empirical support for the idea that exogenous technological progress (TFP) can be eliminated from the theory and that factor accumulation alone adjusted for augmentation could, after all, explain the observed facts of economic development (Mankiw et al. 1992; Mankiw 1995; Young 1995; Barro and Sala-i-Martin 1995).
However more recent research has also undermined that tentative conclusion, based as it was on statistical analysis of imperfect data. Later results have essentially reinstated the original Solow view that factor accumulation is not the central feature of economic growth after all (Easterly and Levine 2001). Easterly and his colleagues, having extensively reviewed the published literature of economic development studies, argue - as Solow did - that 'something else' accounts for most of the observable differences between growth experiences in different countries. Easterly et al. adopt the standard convention of referring to this 'something else' as TFP.
The standard theory up to now also shares a significant and even bizarre feature: it does not consider natural resource consumption and use to have any role in the growth process. Yet, though most economic historians date the beginning of the industrial revolution to the innovations in textile spinning, carding and weaving, it is evident that later developments depended on the works of James Watt and the 'age of steam'. Similarly, most non-economists immediately grasp the historical importance of the substitution of machines driven by the combustion of fossil fuels for human and animal labor. It seems to follow, of course, that the availability - or nonavailability - of ever-cheaper fuels and sources of power will inevitably have a crucial impact on future economic growth.
Contemporary concerns about the price of petroleum are by no means irrelevant. It is simply not plausible that resource consumption is determined only by growth but not vice versa, or that GDP growth will continue indefinitely at a constant rate like manna from heaven. The rising price of petroleum will have very different effects on the growth trajectories of developing countries, depending on whether they are exporters or importers of oil, gas and coal. The failure of contemporary economic theory to recognize this 'disconnect' (as we see it) says more about the mind-set of contemporary economic theorists than it does about the real world.
Undoubtedly technological change, investment (and thus savings), capital accumulation, labor (workers and hours worked) and population growth are key driving forces of economic growth. These factors certainly differ widely across countries, and consistent long-term data series for some of the variables - especially technological change - are scarce or nonexistent. We therefore seek a proxy for the latter variable.
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People have been using aromatherapy in treating disease since the ancient times. Aromatherapy is an alternative medicinal therapy which involves which involves inhaling essential oils to relieve health disorders such as insomnia and anxiety. This type of treatment is very effective and has been in use for so many years.
Which are the benefits of aromatherapy
Healing properties
Aromatherapy is known for its potent healing properties. Some medical professionals have also supported the healing properties associated with aromatherapy. The essential oils used in this practice are very effective in treating mood disorders such as depression and anxiety.
Natural and safe
The essential oils used in aromatherapy are considered to be non-toxic and very safe for human inhalation. These oils are obtained from plants. Their processing is also done naturally to ensure that they are completely organic in nature. This makes aromatherapy to be an ideal alternative to the man-made pharmaceuticals. These pharmaceuticals contain substances and chemicals which are foreign to nature. The aromatherapy’s oil does not cause any harm t animals, humans or the environment.
Companies dealing with essential oils are easily accessible. The different types of oils are readily available. Additionally, they can be obtained at an affordable price which can fit your budget.
Ease of use
The therapeutic procedure involved is relatively simple. You do not require any professional supervision when using these products. One just needs to inhale the product from a container.
Which are the disadvantages of aromatherapy?
Some of the oils obtained from the citrus trees could be very sensitive when subjected to the harmful ultraviolet rays. They might cause severe sunburns. However, this issue arises only when these oils are applied directly on the skin. This calls for extra precautions once someone is through with the aromatherapy sessions. These citrus oils include lemon, grapefruit, and orange oil.
Oils are purely obtained from the natural plants. This means that individuals having seasonal allergies to certain plants might be affected by taking certain oils. Even though some allergic reactions are mild in nature, care should be taken when using certain oils.
Side effects
Some essential oils have si;oiuyhjkl;lkjjjoopjpjode effects although these cases are very rare since they are non-toxic and safe for use. Some of the possible side effects you should be aware of including the following: nausea, rash, headache, and breathing difficulties. Some might also be harmful to the growing foetus.
Insufficient medical research
A lot of research has not been carried out to determine the suitability of various oils. Some of the oils used do not meet the required standards. The components found in these oils might vary from time to time mainly due to the prevailing weather conditions, the method of extraction and harvest times. |
Wood Bison, North America's Largest Animal, to Be Reintroduced Into Alaska
"The boys and the girls are getting together now," Yeager tells Newsweek, with a wry smile. In the spring, the pregnant cows will then be flown to Shageluk, a village of about 80. This is apparently the easiest way to transport them; even so, moving animals that can weigh more than a Volkswagen bug is a "logistical nightmare," Yeager adds. The bison will be loaded into containers and packed onto C-135 aircraft, and then flown to Shageluk, where the runway can accommodate such larger aircraft.
As far as other physical differences, wood bison also have a taller hump which is farther forward on their body, and their beards are pointier than the buffalo's. ZZ Top would probably approve.
"We've had to deal with so much red tape," says Michaelis, who has a trace of a Montana accent.
One major concern was that the animals were listed as "endangered," meaning they carry certain protections. In some cases, if an endangered animal is found in a given land area, federal law curtails activities like mining in that area; some Alaskans worried that putting "endangered" animals back onto the land would interfere with resource development.
Years of compromise between conservationists, local and state politicians and the federal government led to wood bison being listed as a "nonessential experimental" population, Yeager says. This means that they don't carry the kind of protections an endangered animal does and thus their presence on land shouldn't interfere with mining or oil drilling or anything like that. And, in any case, there isn't mining or the like being done around Shageluk, and the native people want their wood bison back. The Athabascan people, who live in the area, are heavily in favor of the reintroduction, Yeager says. Prior the animals' extirpation, the beast was an intrinsic part of their way of life. In fact, wood bison are scientifically known as Bison bison athabascae, after the Athabascans.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service approved the bison's "nonessential experimental" designation in May 2013, which will allow for the animals to be reintroduced to the Innoko River area near Shageluk.
"You wouldn't want to be nose-to-nose with one of these guys this time of year," Yeager says. But in the spring, watching them run free should be quite a sight.
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Last Tuesday (April 12) marked the 150 year anniversary of the first shots being fired of the American Civil War.
Many news networks and websites ran stories about the progress that has happened and the controversy that still surrounds the war. What is most shocking to me is the fact that there are people still arguing about what the Civil War was really about. This includes the popular southern argument that the Civil War was about state rights.
The truth of the matter is that the only state rights being argued at the time were the rights to own slave property unimpeded and to be able to travel with them and spread slavery all over the United States.
In 2010, the governor of Virginia, Bob Mcdonald decided to make a statement of Confederate History Month where he didn’t mention slavery at all, but he did praise those who fought for their homes and communities in the ultimate ode to southern pride.
I have spent some time in the Deep South like South Carolina and Alabama, and I can assure you that there is still a great amount of racial tension. For instance, there is a very popular barbeque restaurant chain in South Carolina named Maurice’s BBQ Piggie Park that attracts thousands of visitors every year. They still fly the Confederate flag outside their restaurant, and inside the restaurant you can find literature propaganda about how slavery was ok and justified by the Bible.
Up until 2000, the Confederate flag was flown atop the South Carolina State Capitol dome along with the American Flag. The Confederate flag is still flown outside of the capitol next to a monument of the Civil War.
My main issue is with these southern pride people who feel that by flying the Confederate flag, they’re only supporting southern pride and their ancestors. The problem is that this southern pride is dividing and non-inclusive to southerners whose ancestors may have been slaves, or people who feel that slavery was altogether wrong. The Confederate flag and so called southern pride really represents to the rest of American one thing – racism.
There is no reason why anybody should be ok with these symbols remaining as sources of pride for anyone. The Civil War was about trying to right the many wrongs that had been committed against African American people. State rights are just a cover for people to avoid the central issue of slavery.
The idea that America has always believed that “All men are created equal” is a farce. America has many bruises in its history that show the exclusions of many different races and nationalities. As the future generation of this country, our job is to ensure that the truths about the issues of this terrible war are passed on to future generations. Hiding from the real issue and pretending that it never happened only creates more division in this country among its people.
So please, take down your Confederate flag symbols and acknowledge that the south was wrong and no amount of pride can make that symbol ok.
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One Testicle Swollen and Tender
Q: My son is 11 years old. His left testicle is slightly swollen and sensitive to touch.
-By Mr. Wilson
It is advisable to visit a doctor for examination at the earliest.
There can be many reasons for such a swelling. They are:
• Any injury or trauma in the groin area, such as a blow etc.
• There may be a hydrocele. This is a condition where fluid keeps collecting around the testicle, in the scrotal sac. An inguinal hernia is usually associated. The swollen scrotum is tender to touch. The child otherwise has no complains.
• Any infective conditions. Some infections like viral fevers may affect the scrotal region. This may cause swelling and pain. Redness of the scrotal sac is often noticeable. The child may need antibiotics in such cases.
• Allergic cause, mosquito bite etc. Antiallergics are given.
A diagnosis would be possible only after a physical exam.
Take Care,
Buddy M.D. |
Are Physical Characteristics More Important Than Emotional Traits Like Willpower?
Some people think that physical characteristics are more important than emotional traits like willpower. The quote “the difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength, not a lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will” states that people need inner strength more than outer strength. I personally agree with this statement, and a number of texts do as well.
“The Glass Castle” is a memoir written by Jeannette Walls. It details her struggles though her childhood battling poverty, injuries, homelessness, and some self-debilitating parents. It took all of her willpower to just stay positive, especially with not having food more times than not. When faced with her parents actions, such as her father and mother squandering what little money they had on booze and art supplies, respectively, she stayed tough and rooted through various dumpsters in her area for an apple or two. It could not have been physical strength that kept her alive, because she was extremely malnourished.
The quote’s author, American football coach Vince Lombardi, could have been referring to emotional strength, but I believe he was referring to physical strength. His team, the green bay packers, won the first two super bowls. They were a great team that won, due to sheer willpower, according to coach Lombardi. Many people believe that willpower is more important than other factors of strength.
Another example of sheer willpower winning over other physical aspects of your life is one Tinisheia Howard of New York City. Tinisheia was homeless throughout her first two years of high school, but didn’t want to tell anyone out of fear of being bullied. Getting up at five AM every weekday, just to catch the city bus across town to a flimsy high school where she barely had enough energy to get through her classes, even sometimes falling asleep at the end of the day, to graduate with a diploma and honor designations. She had failed her afternoon classes due to falling asleep and decided to talk to a counselor about her living in a shelter, and the counselor started driving her to school so Tinisheia could get 2 more hours of sleep.
While some people disagree with this quote, I do not. I think that no matter how hard you’ve tried, you can always try harder. This makes me believe that you can try to do almost anything and you can succeed. Willpower is an extraordinary feature to have, and I envy those who have more than me. |
Keyword for FE Group 8
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Khan, Choi, Acevedo, Alexander
Digital Divide- The gulf between those who have ready access to computers and the Internet, and those who do not.
Cognitive surplus- The free time people have to engage in collaborative activities.
Computer literate- Someone who has sufficient knowledge and skill using computers; familiar with the operation of computers.
Software- The programs and other operating information used by a computer.
Information technology- The study or use of systems (especially computers and telecommunications) for storing, retrieving, and sending information.
Data mining- The practice of examining large databases in order to generate new information.
Biomedical research- Relating to both biology and medicine.
Chip- A small piece of semiconducting material (usually silicon) on which an integrated circuit is embedded.
Computer forensics- Computer forensics is the practice of collecting, analyzing and reporting on digital data in a way that is legally admissible.
Affective computing- The study and development of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human affects.
Augmented reality- A technology that superimposes a computer-generated image on a user's view of the real world, thus providing a composite view.
Ergonomics- The study of people's efficiency in their working environment.
World Wide Web- An information system on the Internet that allows documents to be connected to other documents by hypertext links, enabling the user to search for information by moving from one document to another.
Webcast- A video broadcast of an event transmitted across the Internet.
LED- A display and lighting technology used in almost every electrical and electronic product on the market, from a tiny on/off light to digital readouts, flashlights, traffic lights and perimeter lighting.
Social networking- the use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users, or to find people with similar interests to oneself.
course management software- is a collection of software tools providing an online environment for course interactions
LinkedIn- is a social networking site designed specifically for the business community
e-mail etiquette- refers to the principles of behavior that one should use when writing or answering email messages
Wiki- a website that allows collaborative editing of its content and structure by its users.
social networking sites- is a web application that people use to build social networks or social relations with other people who share similar personal or career interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections.
Host- is a computer or other device connected to a computer network.
Browser- Also known as Webbrowser. A client software program that runs against a Web server or other Internet server and enables a user to navigate the World Wide Web (WWW) to access and display data.
Internet- is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure
CAD- software is used by architects, engineers, drafters, artists, and others to create precision drawings or technical illustrations. CADsoftware can be used to create two-dimensional (2-D) drawings or three-dimensional (3-D) models.
Desktop publishing- is the creation of documents using page layout skills on a personal computer primarily for print
Image editing- . Software that allows images to be edited and also converted to different graphics formats.
Client- a piece of computer hardware or software that accesses a service made available by a server
IP address- A unique set of numbers and/or letters that uniquely identifies every computer or device on the Internet
URL-a location or address identifying where documents can be found on the Internet
top level domain(TLD)-is the last segment of the domain name
computer network- or data network, is a digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources
architecture- describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer
Bandwidth- the amount of data that can be transmitted over a given amount of time
twisted-pair cable- A cable that consists of four pairs of wires that are twisted around each other
Wireless- describe any computer network where there is no physical wired connection
Router- A complex device that stores the routing information for networks. It looks at each packet's header to determine where the packet should go, then determines the best route for the packet to take toward its destination
packets- Pieces of a message broken down into small units by the sending device and reassembled by the receiving device in a network
Client/server- a software architecture model consisting of two parts, client systems and server systems, both communicating over a computer network or on the same computer
MAC address- Media Access Control address) is a unique number that identifies the actual device that is connected to the internet or network
Pretexting- Gaining someone's trust by pretending you are someone else
Trojan horse- A program that disguises itself as an interesting, useful, or desirable program in order to gain access to your system
BIT BYTE, mega giga - a unit of digital information - 8 Bit = 1 Byte, 1024 Byte = 1 Megabyte, 1024 Megabyte = 1 Gigabyte
DSL - Digital Subscriber Line - a high-speed Internet service for homes and businesses that competes with cable and other forms of broadband Internet.
WIFI - a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.
SSID - Service Set IDentifier - the primary name associated with an 802.11 wireless local area network (WLAN) including home networks and public hotspots
WEP WAP - Wired Equivalent Privacy - a security algorithm for IEEE 802.11 to provide data confidentiality comparable to that of a traditional wired network.
Wireless Application Protocol - a technical standard for accessing information over a mobile wireless network.
social media - websites and applications that enable users to create and share content or to participate in social networking.
B2B B2C - a situation where one business makes a commercial transaction with another business / consumer.
memristor - a hypothetical non-linear passive two-terminal electrical component relating electric charge and magnetic flux linkage
six degree of seperation - the idea that all living things and everything else in the world are Six or fewer steps away from each other so that a chain of "a friend of a friend" statements can be made
to connect any two people in a maximum of Six steps.
ASCII UNICODE - ASCII : character encoding standard for electronic communication / Unicode : a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed
in most of the world's writing systems.
fishing - the attempt to obtain sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details
L1, L2 MM SSD HD - L1 L2 - using in CPU, motherboard; small, expensive / MM - can be RAM or the primary storage. Cheaper than L1, L2 but slower. / SSD, HDD - slower than cache memory. HDD is cheaper than SSD
because it is slower with rotating magnetic to read/write data.
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Hyper Dictionary
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Search Dictionary:
Meaning of RHYTHM
Pronunciation: 'ridhum
WordNet Dictionary
2. [n] recurring at regular intervals
3. [n] the arrangement of spoken words alternating stressed and unstressed elements; "the rhythm of Frost's poetry"
5. [n] an interval during which a recurring sequence of events occurs; "the neverending cycle of the seasons"
RHYTHM is a 6 letter word that starts with R.
Synonyms: beat, calendar method, calendar method of birth control, cycle, musical rhythm, regular recurrence, rhythm method, rhythm method of birth control, round, speech rhythm
See Also: backbeat, cardiac rhythm, cyclicity, downbeat, guide, heart rhythm, inflection, interval, musical time, natural family planning, periodicity, phase, phase angle, prosody, syncopation, template, templet, time interval, upbeat
Webster's 1913 Dictionary
\Rhythm\, n. [F. rhythme, rythme, L. rhythmus, fr. Gr.
??? measured motion, measure, proportion, fr. "rei^n to flow.
See {Stream}.]
regular succession of motions, impulses, sounds, accents,
the dance, or the like.
2. (Mus.) Movement in musical time, with periodical
recurrence of accent; the measured beat or pulse which
marks the character and expression of the music; symmetry
of movement and accent. --Moore (Encyc.)
3. A division of lines into short portions by a regular
succession of arses and theses, or percussions and
remissions of voice on words or syllables.
4. The harmonious flow of vocal sounds. |
where (generic type constraint) (C# Reference)
The where clause in a generic definition specifies constraints on the types that are used as arguments for type parameters in a generic type, method, delegate, or local function. Constraints can specify interfaces, base classes, or require a generic type to be a reference, value or unmanaged type. They declare capabilities that the type argument must possess.
public class AGenericClass<T> where T : IComparable<T> { }
For more information on the where clause in a query expression, see where clause.
The where clause can also include a base class constraint. The base class constraint states that a type to be used as a type argument for that generic type has the specified class as a base class (or is that base class) to be used as a type argument for that generic type. If the base class constraint is used, it must appear before any other constraints on that type parameter. Some types are disallowed as a base class constraint: Object, Array, and ValueType. Prior to C# 7.3, Enum, Delegate, and MulticastDelegate were also disallowed as base class constraints. The following example shows the types that can now be specified as a base class:
public class UsingEnum<T> where T : System.Enum { }
public class UsingDelegate<T> where T : System.Delegate { }
public class Multicaster<T> where T : System.MulticastDelegate { }
The where clause can specify that the type is a class or a struct. The struct constraint removes the need to specify a base class constraint of System.ValueType. The System.ValueType type may not be used as a base class constraint. The following example shows both the class and struct constraints:
class MyClass<T, U>
where T : class
where U : struct
{ }
The where clause may also include an unmanaged constraint. The unmanaged constraint limits the type parameter to types known as unmanaged types. An unmanaged type is a type that isn't a reference type and doesn't contain reference type fields at any level of nesting. The unmanaged constraint makes it easier to write low-level interop code in C#. This constraint enables reusable routines across all unmanaged types. The unmanaged constraint can't be combined with the class or struct constraint. The unmanaged constraint enforces that the type must be a struct:
class UnManagedWrapper<T>
where T : unmanaged
{ }
The where clause may also include a constructor constraint, new(). That constraint makes it possible to create an instance of a type parameter using the new operator. The new() Constraint lets the compiler know that any type argument supplied must have an accessible parameterless--or default-- constructor. For example:
public class MyGenericClass<T> where T : IComparable<T>, new()
// The following line is not possible without new() constraint:
T item = new T();
The new() constraint appears last in the where clause. The new() constraint can't be combined with the struct or unmanaged constraints. All types satisfying those constraints must have an accessible parameterless constructor, making the new() constraint redundant.
With multiple type parameters, use one where clause for each type parameter, for example:
public interface IMyInterface { }
namespace CodeExample
class Dictionary<TKey, TVal>
where TKey : IComparable<TKey>
where TVal : IMyInterface
public void Add(TKey key, TVal val) { }
You can also attach constraints to type parameters of generic methods, as shown in the following example:
public void MyMethod<T>(T t) where T : IMyInterface { }
Notice that the syntax to describe type parameter constraints on delegates is the same as that of methods:
delegate T MyDelegate<T>() where T : new();
For information on generic delegates, see Generic Delegates.
For details on the syntax and use of constraints, see Constraints on Type Parameters.
C# language specification
See also |
Encyclopedia of Systems and Control
Living Edition
| Editors: John Baillieul, Tariq Samad
Learning Theory
• Mathukumalli VidyasagarEmail author
Living reference work entry
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-5102-9_227-1
How does a machine learn an abstract concept from examples? How can a machine generalize to previously unseen situations? Learning theory is the study of (formalized versions of) such questions. There are many possible ways to formulate such questions. Therefore, the focus of this entry is on one particular formalism, known as PAC (probably approximately correct) learning. It turns out that PAC learning theory is rich enough to capture intuitive notions of what learning should mean in the context of applications and, at the same time, is amenable to formal mathematical analysis. There are several precise and complete studies of PAC learning theory, many of which are cited in the bibliography. Therefore, this article is devoted to sketching some high-level ideas.
Problem Formulation
In the PAC formalism, the starting point is the premise that there is an unknown set, say an unknown convex polygon, or an unknown half-plane. The unknown set cannot be completely unknown; rather, something should be specified about its nature, in order for the problem to be both meaningful and tractable. For instance, in the first example above, the learner knows that the unknown set is a convex polygon, though it is not known which polygon it might be. Similarly, in the second example, the learner knows that the unknown set is a half-plane, though it is not known which half-plane. The collection of all possible unknown sets is known as the concept class, and the particular unknown set is referred to as the “target concept.” In the first example, this would be the set of all convex polygons and in the second case it would be the set of half-planes. The unknown set cannot be directly observed of course; otherwise, there would be nothing to learn. Rather, one is given clues about the target concept by an “oracle,” which informs the learner whether or not a particular element belongs to the target concept. Therefore, the information available to the learner is a collection of “labelled samples,” in the form \(\{(x_{i},I_{T}(x_{i}),i = 1,\ldots,m\}\), where m is the total number of labelled samples and I t ( ⋅) is the indicator function of the target concept T. Based on this information, the learner is expected to generate a “hypothesis” H m that is a good approximation to the unknown target concept T.
One of the main features of PAC learning theory that distinguishes it from its forerunners is the observation that, no matter how many training samples are available to the learner, the hypothesis H m can never exactly equal the unknown target concept T. Rather, all that one can expect is that H m converges to T in some appropriate metric. Since the purpose of machine learning is to generate a hypothesis H m that can be used to approximate the unknown target concept T for prediction purposes, a natural candidate for the metric that measures the disparity between H m and T is the so-called generalization error, defined as follows: Suppose that, after m training samples that have led to the hypothesis H m , a testing sample x is generated at random. One can now ask: what is the probability that the hypothesis H m misclassifies x? In other words, what is the value of \(\Pr \{I_{H_{m}}(x)\neq I_{T}(x)\}\)? This quantity is known as the generalization error, and the objective is to ensure that it approaches zero as m → .
The manner in which the samples are generated leads to different models of learning. For instance, if the learner is able to choose the next sample x m + 1 on the basis of the previous m labelled samples, which is then passed on to the oracle for labeling, this is known as “active learning.” More common is “passive learning,” in which the sequence of training samples \(\{x_{i}\}_{i\geq 1}\) is generated at random, in an independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) fashion, according to some probability distribution P. In this case, even the hypothesis H m and the generalization error are random, because they depend on the randomly generated training samples. This is the rationale behind the nomenclature “probably approximately correct.” The hypothesis H m is not expected to equal to unknown target concept T exactly, only approximately. Even that is only probably true, because in principle it is possible that the randomly generated training samples could be totally unrepresentative and thus lead to a poor hypothesis. If we toss a coin many times, there is a small but always positive probability that it could turn up heads every time. As the coin is tossed more and more times, this probability becomes smaller, but will never equal zero.
Example 1.
Consider the situation where the concept class consists of all half-planes in \({\mathbb{R}}^{2}\), as indicated in the left side of Fig. 1. Here the unknown target concept T is some fixed but unknown half-plane. The symbol T is next to the boundary of the half-plane, and all points to the right of the line constitute the target half-plane. The training samples, generated at random according some unknown probability distribution P, are also shown in the figure. The samples that belong to T are shown as blue rectangles, while those that do not belong to T are shown as red dots. Knowing only these labelled samples, the learner is expected to guess what T might be.
Fig. 1
Examples of learning problems. (a) Learning half-planes. (b) Learning convex polygons
A reasonable approach is to choose some half-plane that agrees with the data and correctly classifies the labelled data. For instance, the well-known support vector machine (SVM) algorithm chooses the unique half-plane such that the closest sample to the dividing line is as far as possible from it; see the paper by Cortes and Vapnik (1997).
The symbol H denotes the boundary of a hypothesis, which is another half-plane. The shaded region is the symmetric difference between the two half-planes. The set \(T\Delta H\) is the set of points that are misclassified by the hypothesis H. Of course, we do not know what this set is, because we do not know T. It can be shown that, whenever the hypothesis H is chosen to be consistent in the sense of correctly classifying all labelled samples, the generalization error goes to zero as the number of samples approaches infinity.
Example 2.
Now suppose the concept class consists of all convex polygons in the unit square, and let T denote the (unknown) target convex polygon. This situation is depicted in the right side of Fig. 1. This time let us assume that the probability distribution that generates the samples is the uniform distribution on X. Given a set of positively and negatively labelled samples (the same convention as in Example 1), let us choose the hypothesis H to be the convex hull of all positively labelled samples, as shown in the figure. Since every positively labelled sample belongs to T, and T is a convex set, it follows that H is a subset of T. Moreover, P(T ∖ H) is the generalization error. It can be shown that this algorithm also “works” in the sense that the generalization error goes to zero as the number of samples approaches infinity.
Vapnik-Chervonenkis Dimension
Given any concept class \(\mathcal{C}\), there is a single integer that offers a measure of the richness of the class, known as the Vapnik-Chervonenkis (or VC) dimension, after its originators.
Definition 1.
A set \(S\subseteq X\) is said to be shattered by a concept class \(\mathcal{C}\) if, for every subset \(B\subseteq S\), there is a set \(A \in \mathcal{C}\) such that \(S \cap A = B\). The VC dimension of \(\mathcal{C}\) is the largest integer d such that there is a finite set of cardinality d that is shattered by \(\mathcal{C}\).
Example 3.
It can be shown that the set of half-planes in \({\mathbb{R}}^{2}\) has VC dimension two. Choose a set S = { x, y, z} consisting of three points that are not collinear, as in Fig. 2. Then there are 23 = 8 subsets of S. The point is to show that for each of these eight subsets, there is a half-plane that contains precisely that subset, nothing more and nothing less. That this is possible is shown in Fig. 2. Four out of the eight situations are depicted in this figure, and the remaining four situations can be covered by taking the complement of the half-plane shown. It is also necessary to show that no set with four or more elements can be shattered, but that step is omitted; instead the reader is referred to any standard text such as Vidyasagar (1997). More generally, it can be shown that the set of half-planes in \({\mathbb{R}}^{k}\) has VC dimension k + 1.
Example 4.
The set of convex polygons has infinite VC dimension. To see this, let S be a strictly convex set, as shown in Fig. 2b. (Recall that a set is “strictly convex” if none of its boundary points is a convex combination of other points in the set.) Choose any finite collection of boundary points, call it \(S =\{ x_{1},\ldots,x_{n}\}\). If B is a subset of S, then the convex hull of B does not contain any other point of S, due to the strict convexity property. Since this argument holds for every integer n, the class of convex polygons has infinite VC dimension.
Two Important Theorems
Out of the many important results in learning theory, two are noteworthy.
Fig. 2
VC dimension illustrations. (a) Shattering a set of three elements. (b) Infinite VC dimension
Theorem 1 (Blumer et al. (1989)).
A concept class is distribution-free PAC learnable if and only if it has finite VC dimension.
Theorem 2 (Benedek and Itai (1991)).
Suppose P is a fixed probability distribution. Then the concept class \(\mathcal{C}\) is PAC learnable if and only if, for every positive numberε, it is possible to cover \(\mathcal{C}\) by a finite number of balls of radius ε, with respect to the pseudometric d P .
Now let us return to the two examples studied previously. Since the set of half-planes has finite VC dimension, it is distribution-free PAC learnable. The set of convex polygons can be shown to satisfy the conditions of Theorem 2 if P is the uniform distribution and is therefore PAC learnable. However, since it has infinite VC dimension, it follows from Theorem 1 that it is not distribution-free PAC learnable.
Summary and Future Directions
This brief entry presents only the most basic aspects of PAC learning theory. Many more results are known about PAC learning theory, and of course many interesting problems remain unsolved. Some of the known extensions are:
• Learning under an “intermediate” family of probability distributions \(\mathcal{P}\) that is not necessarily equal to \({\mathcal{P}}^{{\ast}}\), the set of all distributions (Kulkarni and Vidyasagar 1997)
• Relaxing the requirement that the algorithm should work uniformly well for all target concepts and requiring instead only that it should work with high probability (Campi and Vidyasagar 2001)
• Relaxing the requirement that the training samples are independent of each other and permitting them to have Markovian dependence (Gamarnik 2003; Meir 2000) or β-mixing dependence (Vidyasagar 2003)
There is considerable research in finding alternate sets of necessary and sufficient conditions for learnability. Unfortunately, many of these conditions are unverifiable and amount to tautological restatements of the problem under study.
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Copyright information
© Springer-Verlag London 2014
Authors and Affiliations
1. 1.University of Texas at DallasRichardsonUSA |
Why Tube Amplifiers
After decades of solid state amplifier innovations, tube amplifiers have staged a powerful comeback in the last ten years, due to their sonic merits.
Simpler, purer circuits
At Ayon Audio, we feel that tubes are the sonically superior technology for audio, as their generally simpler circuits and smaller number of components provide for a purer signal path and consequently more truthful signal handling. This is because fewer components provide for fewer elements in a circuit to degrade the signal, distort and muddle the sound. Simple circuits also provide for inherently higher reliability, since there are fewer parts which can fail. Tubes are also more tolerant of circuit drifts and deviations in component specifications, and thus can be used in simpler, purer circuits.
More benign overload and distortion behaviour
A lot of music features great dynamic signal swings, and it has been well established that in tube amplifiers the onset of clip/overload as maximum power is reached is gradual and rising distortion is of predominately low even-order harmonic nature. In comprehensive listening tests, even high levels of even-order harmonic distortion has been found to be significantly less offensive to the ear than even small levels of the harsh, odd order harmonic distortion produced by solid-state circuits when their reach their power limit and enter clipping. In transistor amplifiers, the distortion rise very quickly as the maximum power level is reached, showing almost square wave characteristics, and a high DC component, - which can destroy easily loudspeaker drivers if not stopped to do so.
Vacuum tubes and “Tone”
The difference in the distortion characteristics between the two technologies can be well illustrated by looking at their effects in guitar amplifier design.
Tube guitar amplifier manufacturers have traditionally designed their circuits to drive the output stages into overload distortion, using the resultant distortion to achieve their trademark “tone”. In a tube amplifier, this tone contributes to the amplifier's sound, but in a solid-state amplifier this distortion is audibly intolerable and easily destroys the speakers.
When transistors overload (in a discrete circuit or in an OP amp), the dominant distortion product is the third harmonic. The third harmonic "produces a sound many musicians refer to as blanketed”. Instead of making the tone fuller, a strong third actually makes the tone thin and hard. On the other hand, with tubes (particularly triodes) the dominant distortion product is the second harmonic: “Musically the second is an octave above the fundamental and is almost inaudible, yet it adds body to the sound, making it fuller”. Tubes sound better because their distortion products are more musical. Tubes provide a more appropriate load to transducers. Those are the fundamental reasons why tubes simply sound better.
Vacuum tubes are the more linear and require less feedback
Tubes are voltage amplifiers as opposed to transistors which are current amplification devices. As a consequence, tubes are a more linear amplification technology, requiring less overall negative feedback to make the circuit linear. Negative feedback re-injects a sample of the amplifier’s output signal back into the input, 180 degrees out of phase, in an attempt to reduce amplifier non-linearity and distortion. In practice, negative feedback tends to slow the amplifier down and sucks the emotion and life out of the music. High feedback designs usually sound sterile, boring and lifeless, while low or zero feedback designs provide for a more immediate and natural sound. Depending on technology and type of the used output device, transistor amplifiers generally require the use of over 40dB of local loop or global negative feedback.
Superior dynamic capabilities
The higher working voltages present in tube amplifiers generally allow for wider voltage swings and better signal headroom before entering into overload territory. Higher working voltages yield higher audible energy storage* with lower value capacitors. ~ 500 volts working voltage in a tube amplifier approximate about ~ 80 volts in a transistor circuit. This is most likely why many listeners feel that tubes sound more powerful.
*Audible energy storage is voltage squared divided by 2 multiplied by capacitance |
Last edited 26 Apr 2017
Prairie School style
[Robie house, Chicago by Frank Lloyd Wright]
The Prairie style (c. 1900-1920) was developed by an American architectural legend, Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright was part of an impressive group of talented architects known as the Prairie School working in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century.
As a student of Louis Sullivan, Wright was part of a creative force that at the time was changing the world of architectural design. The period was one of great change and growth, and this was reflected in the emerging new building styles.
Wright was especially interested in the design of houses, rather than public buildings, and he became the master of the Prairie style; a new domestic architectural form designed to complement the terrain and temperament of the mid-western prairies.
In describing the style Wright said: "The prairie has a beauty of its own and we should recognise and accentuate this natural beauty, its quiet level. Hence gently sloping roofs, low proportions, quiet sky lines, suppressed heavy-set chimneys and sheltering overhangs, low terraces and out-reaching walls sequestering private gardens."
Many other notable architects in Chicago and the Midwest generally designed well-executed Prairie style houses, mostly in that region. The shape and form of the Prairie style house was distinctly different than previous domestic architecture. Wright wanted to create organic homes with strong horizontal emphasis that did not resemble the traditional, revival style houses popular in the past.
The main vernacular form of the Prairie style seen most often is also known as the 'American Foursquare' or 'American Basic'.
American Foursquare houses are generally two storeys in height, square in shape, and have low-pitched, hipped roofs with broad overhangs and symmetrical façades with broad front porches with square columns.
Their connection to the Prairie style is seen in the horizontal emphasis created by the roofline of the dominant front porch and the overhanging eaves of the roof itself. These vernacular buildings may also incorporate details from other styles, like Spanish Revival tiled roofs, or Italianate cornice brackets which make their association with the Prairie style more difficult to identify.
As with all vernacular building forms, designation as examples of a specific style may not be appropriate. Like the bungalow-style houses popular in the same period, American Foursquare houses could be ordered in prefabricated kits through mail-order catalogues. This American Foursquare building form, like the bungalow, was a popular and affordable housing choice in the growing suburbs at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Some of the most identifiable features of the Prairie style include:
This article was written by PHMC.
--Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission
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Fairy Tale Ending to a Real Disney Story
It was 1922 and the beginning of Disney's dream to make films that would tell stories and compete in the growing animation industry. But this and other early animated fairy tale ventures failed--a dubious start to the kingdom he would come to build.
But earlier this summer, the Disney studio was given access to the rarity by a British collector, who years ago quite accidentally stumbled upon the reel in a London film library and purchased it for the astonishing sum of 2 pounds--about $3.
Walt Disney Co. now possesses a copy of the priceless cultural artifact--which in 1980 was included on the American Film Institute list of the "10 Most Wanted Films for Archival Preservation"--and has just finished restoring this missing link to its storied past and to animation history.
'The Acorn That Grew Into the Oak'
Peter Schneider, the president of Walt Disney Feature Animation, called the rediscovery "thrilling," adding: "To go back and look at Walt's own work and to be inspired by it is a special joy."
"It's a very exciting discovery of an example of Walt Disney's own animation, which is extremely rare," said historian and filmmaker John Canemaker, author of "Before the Animation Begins: The Art and Lives of Disney Inspirational Sketch Artists." "It's also our first chance to see the origins of what would become the Disney empire and style.
"It's a bit like finding the acorn that grew into the oak."
And for buffs devoted to ferreting out the obscure and seemingly extinct links to film history, its discovery is typically serendipitous.
"They showed me this huge room full of 16-millimeter films, and I went quietly bananas," Wyatt recalled in an interview this week. "I don't think I realized the films were rare, but the fact that they were titles from Disney made them interesting."
Wyatt says he didn't know he had bought two lost pieces of animation history until he met, in the early '90s, film scholar Russell Merritt, who was at work on "Walt in Wonderland: The Silent Films of Walt Disney."
Wyatt screened "Cinderella" for Merritt, but he didn't realize how rare "Red Riding Hood" was until earlier this year. The long-lost film he had purchased had a different title, "Grandma Steps Out," which wasn't listed in any books or studio histories.
Scott McQueen, senior manager of library restoration at the Disney studio, had been preparing material this year for a CD-ROM biography of Walt Disney. "When I talked to Russ Merritt, I discovered Wyatt had 'Little Red Riding Hood,' and we didn't have anything on it, which I hadn't realized," McQueen said. "I contacted him, and he allowed us to copy it."
The studio has not yet announced any plans to publicly screen or release the film, though it is reportedly considering several possibilities.
A Humble Beginning in Kansas City
The monetary value of the discovery is hard to pin down, collectors and animation experts say. The film "could have some value," said Burbank-based animation art dealer Howard Lowery, "if it were packaged as part of a Disney retrospective that was intended to be historical, rather than entertainment--'the first movie Walt Disney completed on his own, never before released.' "
A typical early '20s cartoon, "Little Red Riding Hood" is more interesting for what it anticipates than what it is. Little Red's mother makes doughnuts to take to Grandma while a cat (who looks suspiciously like the already famous Felix) shoots the holes into them. Red goes to Grandma's house in a cart pushed by her little dog; on the way, she meets the wolf. Grandma has left a note reading, "Gone to the Movies," so the wolf sneaks into her house and waylays Red. An aviator, summoned by her dog, rescues her.
Although most of the animation is rudimentary, the film contains a few ambitious touches, such as having a character walk away from the camera in perspective. A daisy does a comic shimmy dance, probably animated by Ub Iwerks, a close friend and fellow animator of Disney who later collaborated on the design of Mickey Mouse.
In 1921, Disney had persuaded Frank Newman, who ran a chain of theaters in Kansas City, to show a series of films Disney tactfully dubbed the Newman Laugh-O-Grams. These one-minute shorts consisted of a photograph of Walt's hand holding a pen that seemed to draw still cartoons about current fashions, streets needing repair and other local concerns.
By 1922, theaters across the country were playing seven-minute silent cartoons with plots, including the wildly popular "Felix the Cat" shorts. With the help of high school student Rudy Ising, who later co-founded the Warner Bros. and MGM cartoon studios, and, probably, Iwerks, Disney worked at night for six months on "Little Red Riding Hood," doing most of the animation himself.
Like countless other silent shorts, Disney's fledgling effort was consigned to oblivion after the advent of sound film.
McQueen, who did the restoration work on "Riding Hood," said Wyatt's find was a print on black and white French-manufactured safety stock.
"We don't know where the print was made or when--it could have been done in the '30s, '40s or '50s," McQueen said. "But it was copied from a 35-millimeter nitrate print that had already suffered some decomposition and wear."
For McQueen, working on the film gave him the invaluable sense of a personal connection with Walt Disney.
"All of the layers of production values and artists and machinery that existed during the studio's heyday were removed. I was one on one with Disney when he was just a lone man working at night with a bottle of India ink, making the marks on paper himself. That was a very exciting feeling."
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Also found in: Thesaurus, Medical, Legal, Encyclopedia.
a. Causing or designed to cause fires: an incendiary device.
c. Intentionally started or set: an incendiary fire.
2. Tending to arouse strong emotion or conflict; inflammatory: an incendiary speech.
3. Causing a strong burning sensation in the mouth; very hot: incendiary wasabi.
n. pl. in·cen·di·ar·ies
1. An incendiary bomb, bullet, or device.
2. A person who intentionally starts a fire with the purpose of causing damage or injury.
3. One who creates or stirs up conflict; an agitator.
in·cen′di·a·rism (-ə-rĭz′əm) n.
1. (Law) the act or practice of illegal burning; arson
2. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) (esp formerly) the creation of civil strife or violence for political reasons
(ɪnˈsɛn di əˌrɪz əm)
1. the act or practice of an arsonist.
2. inflammatory behavior; agitation.
the deliberate destruction of property by fire; arson. — incendiary, n., adj.
See also: Fire
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
Noun1.incendiarism - malicious burning to destroy propertyincendiarism - malicious burning to destroy property; "the British term for arson is fire-raising"
burning, combustion - the act of burning something; "the burning of leaves was prohibited by a town ordinance"
References in classic literature ?
Even if there was any arson (which is very doubtful, for no one had any reason to burn the houses- in any case a troublesome and dangerous thing to do), arson cannot be regarded as the cause, for the same thing would have happened without any incendiarism.
Meanwhile, after newspapers spread the groundless rumor that Joseon people had committed incendiarism and murder a massive massacre of Joseon people was conducted by the Japanese.
Rural laborers attacked threshing machines, wrote threatening letters, and engaged in incendiarism on a large scale.
In a shocking development, a suspect, who is currently in the custody of paramilitary force, Rangers, confessed to perpetrating incendiarism that killed near 300 factory workers on the night of September 11, 2012.
32) For an application of Massumi's work to the dangers of bush life during the summer, see Grace Moore, '"The Heavens Were on Fire": Incendiarism and the Defence of the Settler Home," in Tamara S.
Andrews, who in 1894 was charged with advocating incendiarism and murder in defence of the rights of the working class.
In the broadcast, Wang condemned the Chongqing government for the scorched earth policy and for the incendiarism executed by fleeing GMD soldiers in Guangzhou, which "merely destroyed the lives, properties, and the livelihood of the Cantonese people themselves" and caused "haphazard sacrifices and unnecessary sufferings" of the people of Guangzhou during the brief and futile defense of the city (Boyle 1972, 188, 251). |
John F. Kennedy
Back in the day
The New York Times Begins Publication of the Pentagon Papers
The Pentagon Papers were top secret government documents detailing US involvement in SE Asia from WWII to 1968. In 1971, a former government employee leaked portions of the 47-volume study, which revealed both miscalculation and deception on the part of US policymakers, to The New York Times, which began publishing articles about it. Citing national security, the Justice Department obtained an injunction against further publication, and the case went to the Supreme Court. How did it rule?
The Book of Martyrs
Popularly known as The Book of Martyrs, The Actes and Monuments of These Latter and Perilous Dayes was published by English Protestant clergyman John Foxe in the 16th century to praise Protestants martyred during the reign of Catholic monarch Mary I, who earned the nickname "Bloody Mary" for her religious persecutions. Lavishly illustrated, it was widely read and influenced popular opinion about Roman Catholicism for several centuries. How much did the book's first edition cost?
Born on a day like today
Gnaeus Julius Agricola
Agricola was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain, where he was made consul and governor after a distinguished military and political career. He pacified most of the territory, conquering North Wales and advancing far into Scotland, and also circumnavigated the island. His biography, the De Vita et Moribus Lulii AgricolaeThe Life and Character of Julius Agricola—was the first published work of his son-in-law, what Roman historian?
Last updated on Monday, 13th June 2011
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Karl Benz's "Velo" model (1894) entered into the first automobile race
An automobile (or motor car) is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to seven people, typically have four wheels and are constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods. However, the term is far from precise.
2005 MINI Cooper
The automobile is one of the technologies—along with such others as distributed electricity, the electric motor, the electric light bulb, and the telephone—that played a pivotal role in effecting wholesale change in twentieth century society. These changes range from the development of suburbs and the death of many public transit systems to the growth of malls, the replacement of traditional courtship patterns with modern dating practices, and the trend toward smaller families with the elderly segregated into assisted living facilities and nursing homes.
An automobile powered by the Otto gasoline engine was invented in Germany by Karl Benz in 1885. Benz was granted a patent dated January 29, 1886, in Mannheim for that automobile. Even though Benz is credited with the invention of the modern automobile, several other German engineers worked on building automobiles at the same time. In 1886, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart patented the first motor bike, built and tested in 1885, and in 1886 they built a converted horse-drawn stagecoach. In 1870, German-Austrian inventor Siegfried Marcus assembled a motorized handcart, though Marcus' vehicle did not go beyond the experimental stage.
Internal combustion engine powered vehicles
Animation of a 4-stroke overhead-cam internal combustion engine
Etienne Lenoir produced the first successful stationary internal combustion engine in 1860, and within a few years, about four hundred were in operation in Paris. About 1863, Lenoir installed his engine in a vehicle. It seems to have been powered by city lighting-gas in bottles, and was said by Lenoir to have "travelled more slowly than a man could walk, with breakdowns being frequent." Lenoir, in his patent of 1860, included the provision of a carburetor, so liquid fuel could be substituted for gas, particularly for mobile purposes in vehicles. Lenoir is said to have tested liquid fuel, such as alcohol, in his stationary engines; but it does not appear that he used them in his own vehicle. If he did, he most certainly did not use gasoline, as this was not well-known and was considered a waste product.
The next innovation occurred in the late 1860s, when Siegfried Marcus, a German working in Vienna, developed the idea of using gasoline as a fuel in a two-stroke internal combustion engine. In 1870, using a simple handcart, he built a crude vehicle with no seats, steering, or brakes, but it was remarkable for one reason: it was the world's first vehicle using an internal combustion engine fueled by gasoline. It was tested in Vienna in September of 1870 and put aside. In 1888 or 1889, he built a second automobile, this one with seats, brakes, and steering, and included a four-stroke engine of his own design. That design may have been tested in 1890. Although he held patents for many inventions, he never applied for patents for either design in this category.
Most historians agree that Nikolaus Otto of Germany built the world's first four-stroke engine although his patent was voided. He knew nothing of Beau de Rochas's patent or idea, and invented the concept independently. In fact, he began thinking about the concept in 1861, but abandoned it until the mid-1870s.
Production of automobiles begins
Karl Benz
Replica of the Benz Patent Motorwagen built in 1886
Internal combustion engine automobiles were first produced in Germany by Karl Benz in 1885-1886, and Gottlieb Daimler between 1886-1889.
In 1886, Gottlieb Daimler fitted a horse carriage with his four-stroke engine. In 1889, he built two vehicles from scratch as automobiles, with several innovations. From 1890 to 1895, about 30 vehicles were built by Daimler and his assistant, Wilhelm Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after falling out with their backers. Benz and Daimler, seem to have been unaware of each other's early work and worked independently. Daimler died in 1900. During the First World War, Benz suggested a cooperative effort between the two companies, but it was not until 1926 that they united under the name of Daimler-Benz with a commitment to remain together under that name until the year 2000.
In Britain there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860.[1] One of the major problems was the poor state of the road network. Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol powered car in the country in 1894 followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both prototypes.[2] The first production vehicles came from the Daimler Motor Company, founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, and making their first cars in 1897.[2]
1927 Ford Model T
Some sources suggest that Ferdinand Verbiest, whilst a member of a Jesuit mission in China, may have built the first steam powered automobile around 1672.[3][4] Another early self-propelled vehicle was that built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, a French inventor, in 1765. The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789 for his "Amphibious Digger." It was a harbor dredge scow designed to be powered by a steam engine and he built wheels to attach to the bow. In 1804 Evans demonstrated his first successful self-propelled vehicle, which not only was the first automobile in the U.S. but was also the first amphibious vehicle, as his steam-powered vehicle was able to travel on wheels on land as he demonstrated once, and via a paddle wheel in the water. It was not successful and was eventually sold as spare parts.
The Benz Motorwagen, built in 1885, was patented on January 29, 1886, by Karl Benz as the first automobile powered by an internal combustion engine. In 1888, a major breakthrough came when Bertha Benz drove an automobile that her husband had built for a distance of more than 106 kilometers (about 65 miles). This event demonstrated the practical usefulness of the automobile and gained wide publicity, which was the promotion she thought was needed to advance the invention. The Benz vehicle was the first automobile put into production and sold commercially. Bertha Benz's historic drive is celebrated as an annual holiday in Germany with rallies of antique automobiles.
In 1892, Rudolf Diesel got a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine" by modifying the Carnot Cycle. And in 1897 he built the first diesel engine.
On November 5, 1895, George B. Selden was granted a United States patent for a two-stroke automobile engine (U.S. Patent 549160 (PDF)). This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the United States. Steam, electric, and gasoline powered autos competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.
Model changeover and design change
The automobile industry is dominated by relatively few large corporations (not to be confused with the much more numerous brands), the biggest of which (by numbers of cars produced) are currently General Motors, Toyota and Ford Motor Company. The most profitable per-unit car-maker of recent years has been Porsche due to its premium price tag.
Large free trade areas like European Union, NAFTA and MERCOSUR attract manufacturers worldwide to produce their products within them reducing currency risks and customs controls and additionally being close to their customers. Much, if not most, of Third World countries car production uses Western technology and car models, and sometimes complete Western factories are shipped to such countries.
The 1955 Citroën DS; revolutionary visual design and technological innovation
The design of modern cars is typically handled by a large team of designers and engineers from many different disciplines. As part of the product development effort the team of designers will work closely with teams of design engineers responsible for all aspects of the vehicle. These engineering teams include: chassis, body and trim, powertrain, electrical and production. The design team under the leadership of the design director will typically comprise of an exterior designer, an interior designer (usually referred to as stylists) and a color and materials designer. A few other designers will be involved in detail design of both exterior and interior. For example, a designer might be tasked with designing the rear light clusters or the steering wheel. The color and materials designer will work closely with the exterior and interior designers in developing exterior color paints, interior colors, fabrics, leathers, carpet, wood trim and so on.
In 1924 the American national automobile market began reaching saturation. To maintain unit sales, General Motors instituted annual model-year design changes in order to convince car owners that they needed to buy a new replacement each year. Since 1935 automotive form has been driven more by consumer expectations than by engineering improvement.
Automobile accidents are almost as old as automobiles themselves. Early examples include Joseph Cugnot, who crashed his steam-powered "Fardier" against a wall in 1771, Mary Ward, who became one of the first documented automobile fatalities on August 31, 1869, in Parsonstown, Ireland, and Henry Bliss, one of the United State's first pedestrian automobile casualties on September 13, 1899, in New York City.
Cars have many basic safety problems—for example, they have human drivers who make mistakes, wheels that lose traction when the braking or turning forces are too high. Some vehicles have a high center of gravity and therefore an increased tendency to roll over. When driven at high speeds, collisions can have serious or even fatal consequence.
There are standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the USNCAP[5] tests. There are also tests run by organizations such as the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS)[6] and backed by the insurance industry.
Acceleration, braking, and measures of turning or agility vary widely between different makes and models of automobile. The automotive publication industry has developed around these performance measures as a way to quantify and qualify the characteristics of a particular vehicle.
The automobile and modern society
The automobile is one of the key technologies in the cluster of major technologies that began transforming modern life in the first decades of the twentieth century. In 1929 the U.S. automotive industry produced 5.5 million vehicles, making it the largest manufacturing industry in the world. Employing tens of thousands of workers, the industry itself was a major contributor to the rise of the middle class in the United States; but perhaps even more significantly, the cars were a genie unleashed in a land of ambitious and creative people.
Whereas people at first had bought cars to simplify such tasks as traveling from the farm to the nearby town, they soon began using them for touring to see the country, bringing a new commercial vitality to many previously remote locations. As young people discovered the mobile private space of the car, this new mode of transportation became a great facilitator of the new practice of dating, which largely displaced traditional patterns of chaperoned courtship.
As the cars became less expensive to buy and easier to operate, and as the infrastructure of roads, traffic lights, and refueling stations proliferated, the automobile was ready to serve the long-standing predilection, especially in the United States, toward individual freedom of movement, action, and living. Lacking clarity about the responsibilities necessarily associated with freedom and without any higher guiding principle of how to live together as a people, Americans got into their cars and spread out away from the city centers, creating huge suburban areas where each family had its own private territory of a house surrounded by a green grass lawn. Soon state and local zoning laws were enforcing separation of commercial and residential areas, sealing a trend already underway that was making it increasingly impossible to walk to work or the corner grocery store.
The proliferation of the car meant the death of many of the trolley systems that had developed early in the twentieth century in urban centers and it also contributed to the separation of classes in which those who could afford the car and the costs of suburban living (and who were usually white) moved to the suburbs, leaving behind a poorer class. With the flight to the suburbs, small stores throughout the cities lost many of their customers who needed new shopping areas in the suburbs catering to customers driving cars. And so, over time, the car played midwife to the birth of the suburban shopping center, and later the warehouse discount stores, shopping malls, and mega-malls of the late twentieth century.
With the necessity of driving being built into the suburbs, and with the car's limitation on the number of people it could carry, the car would have been one of the many factors pushing toward the smaller and separate nuclear family of parents with no more than 3 or 4 children—and no grandparents. Large suburbs with no walking access to shopping areas were particularly unsuited to aging grandparents, so the car must be considered as one of the strong factors leading to the network of assisted living facilities and nursing homes in the United States now housing millions of aged and incapacitated grandparents separated from their families.
Future of the car
The future of the car is controversial.
There have been many efforts to innovate automobile design funded by the NHTSA. Recent efforts include the highly publicized DARPA race held in 2007.[7]
Relatively high transportation fuel prices have not seriously reduced car usage but do make it more expensive. One environmental benefit of high fuel prices is that it is an incentive for the production of more efficient (and hence less polluting) car designs and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel prices provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to simply not drive. These changes are resisted by those with an interest in maintaining the massive economy of car culture. Individual mobility is highly prized in dominant societies so the demand for automobiles is still strong. Alternative individual modes of transport, such as personal rapid transit, cycling, walking, skating, and organized cargo movement, could serve as an alternative to automobiles if they prove to be socially accepted.
Alternative technologies
Increasing costs of oil-based fuels and tightening environmental laws with the possibility of further restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for automobiles.
Many diesel-powered cars can run with little or no modifications on 100 percent pure biodiesel. The main benefit of diesel combustion engines is its 50 percent fuel burn efficiency compared with 23 percent in the best gasoline engines. Most modern gasoline engines are capable of running with up to 15 percent ethanol mixed into the gasoline fuel—older vehicles may have seals and hoses that could be harmed by ethanol. With a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85 percent. One-hundred percent ethanol is used in some parts of the world using vehicles that must be started on pure gasoline and switched over to ethanol once the engine is running. Most gasoline-fueled cars can also run on LPG with the addition of an LPG tank for fuel storage and carburation modifications to add an LPG mixer. LPG produces fewer toxic emissions and is a popular fuel for forklift trucks that have to operate inside buildings.
Autonomous cars
A robotic Volkswagen Passat shown at Stanford University is a driverless car
Fully autonomous vehicles, also known as driverless cars, already exist in prototype (such as the Google driverless car), but have a long way to go before they are in general use. They have a number of advantages, but safety concerns also need to be addressed.[9]
See also
1. D. Burgess Wise, Veteran and Vintage Cars (London: Hamlyn, 1970, ISBN 0600002837).
2. 2.0 2.1 N. Georgano, Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile (London: HMSO, 2000, ISBN 1579582931).
3. Jason Torchinsky, The First Automobile Of Any Type Was Built By This Flemish Priest In China Encyclopedia Automobilia. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
4. L.J.K. Setright, Drive On!: A Social History of the Motor Car (Granta Books, 2004, ISBN 1862076987)
5. SaferCar National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
6. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety Retrieved June 12, 2019.
7. DARPA Urban Challenge Retrieved June 12, 2019.
8. Kashyap Vyas, This New Material Can Transform the Car Manufacturing Industry Interesting Engineering, October 3, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
9. Self-Driving Cars Explained Union of Concerned Scientists, February 21, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
• Burgess Wise, D. Veteran and Vintage Cars. London: Hamlyn, 1970. ISBN 0600002837
• Georgano, N. Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile. London: HMSO, 2000. ISBN 1579582931
• Ingrassia, Paul, and Joseph B. White. Comeback: The Fall and Rise of the American Automobile Industry. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002. ISBN 0684804379
• Montgomery, Andrew. The Great Book of American Automobiles. Osceola, WI: Motorbooks International, 2002. ISBN 0760314764
• Newton, Tom. How Cars Work. Vallejo, CA: Black Apple Press, 1999. ISBN 0966862309
• Setright, L.J.K. Drive On!: A Social History of the Motor Car. Granta Books, 2004. ISBN 1862076987
External links
All links retrieved June 12, 2019.
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Rainbow sybmol hashes starting 0135
Rainbow tables developed to look at the hash, get the value of the password. This technology uses hashing chains for a specific sequence of characters starting at 0135 and provide a solution to a problem called chain collisions.
MD5 = a2a68c298479b64a8536d0fd7c479ee1
SHA1 = 9b569564c9a9ac7bcc855c106ee9377ed1b5ad19
Select combinations for hash format: |
What Is JSON and What Is JSON Used For?
Whether you are a front end or back end developer, understanding the purpose and uses of JSON will enable you to easily add stunning functionality to your web applications.
Knowing when to use JSON is practically a prerequisite for any web development position.
JSON stands for JavaScript Object Notation. JSON is a lightweight data-interchange format. We can represent any data in the JSON format if we can boil down the data to its core attributes.
Suppose we’re developing software for a grocery store. We’ve been tasked with periodically sending the store’s inventory to a centralized server. The store’s inventory consists of “products”. And each product has the following attributes:
product name
number in stock
Data for a few example products are listed below:
• 2 Liter Dr. Pepper
Price: $1.99
Quantity in stock: 10
• Snickers
Price: $0.99
Quantity in stock: 5
• Bottled Water
Price: $1.49
Quantity in stock: 8
Here’s how that data would look represented as JSON
"inventory": {
"products": [
"name": "Dr. Pepper 2 Liter",
"price": 1.99,
"quantity": 10
"name": "Snickers",
"price": 0.99,
"quantity": 5
"name": "Bottled Water",
"price": 1.49,
"quantity": 8
JSON is language-agnostic. Even though JSON stands for JavaScript Object Notation, many languages beyond JavaScript understand JSON. There are numerous languages that contain libraries for not only representing data in the JSON format (known as JSON encoding), but also for taking JSON and converting the JSON into data within the program (known as JSON decoding). Some languages with JSON support (either natively or through libraries) that come to mind include:
• JavaScript
• Python
• Ruby
• Go
• C/C++
• Java
• And wayyyyyyyy more!
Consequently, it’s easy to have programs written in different languages communicate with each other. If a server written in Python wants to send data to a server written in Java, the Python server just has to JSON encode any data it wants to send. Then the Java Server, upon receiving the JSON, only has to JSON decode the string in order to have access to the data items within the JSON. Generally, the encoding and decoding processes are extremely simple.
In Python, for example, the process for converting a JSON string into its associated data takes only a couple of lines of code!
var json_str = '{"x": 15,"y": 30}'
var data = json.loads(json_str)
var data['x'] + data['y']
//=> 45
Here’s the same operation in PHP
JSON can be used in nearly any scenario where two services are communicating with each other. All that’s required is that
the service sending the data can represent the data in the JSON format
the service receiving the data can convert data represented at JSON into data usable throughout the application.
In web development, JSON is used to facilitate communication to both internal and external services.
Internal communication
In order to create a fluid user experience, web applications generally use JavaScript to fetch data from an internal server and live-update the page with the retrieved data. This strategy is known as AJAX. To quote the Mozilla Developer documentation regarding AJAX,
[When AJAX is used], web applications are able to make quick, incremental updates to the user interface without reloading the entire browser page. This makes the application faster and more responsive to user actions.
External communication
Many REST APIs, which provide awesome functionality to web applications, use JSON as the primary means of communication. Take Stripe for example. Stripe uses JSON as the way to send responses to application developers about the status of credit card transactions. In the Stripe documentation, stripe provides an example credit card charge response so developers can predict the JSON structure their applications will receive.
As another example, Twilio is an SMS gateway provider that provides a simple REST API so developers can make their applications send text messages or make phone calls. In the Twilio documentation, you can see an example JSON response developers can expect once they’ve requested that Twilio send a text message to a phone.
Thus the combination of REST APIs and JSON means you don’t have to know how the financial sector works in order to make your application accept credit cards, nor do you need insight into the intricacies of the Telecom industry to make your application send text messages to users - you just have to understand how to send JSON and receive JSON!
JSON REST API directory
The folks over at ProgrammableWeb have curated a list of REST APIs that communicate via JSON. Check out their directory to see the functionality you can add to your application just by sending and receiving JSON!
XML is an alternative mechanism for describing data. XML was the previously technology of choice for sending data through web services. As JSON’s simplicity caused its popularity to rise, many developers realized XML’s capabilities were overkill for the task of simply sending and receiving small amounts of data.
The Udemy Blog has a great article covering the similarities and differences between XML and JSON
Thanks to the simplicity of JSON, it’s now easier than ever to facilitate communication between different web applications - regardless of what programming languages were used to write the applications. |
The Morality Of Birth Control Essay
1028 words - 5 pages
The Morality of Birth control originally surfaced as a pamphlet in 1918, which questioned the morality of denying knowledge surrounding a drug which could prevent pregnancy women. In 1913 Margaret Sanger worked as a nurse in a New York. There Sanger watched one woman fall ill from a household abortion. The doctor told this women to avoid pregnancy she should “have her husband sleep on the roof” (Richmond Edu, Par. 7). A few months later Sanger found the same women dead after a second self-inflicted abortion. This horrendous event pushed Sanger to advocate a right she believed all woman should have.
By 1921 Sanger had established the American Birth Control League which America now know as the Planned Parenthood Organization of America. In the same year Sanger delivered an activist speech called The Morality of Birth Control in Park Theatre New York on November 18.
In the 1921 women's rights were just developing a serious persona in society. It was not until August 26 of 1920 that women were given the same rights and responsibilities of citizenship as men. And although these rights were legal by 1921, many religious groups did not believe women should have the freedom to make their own decisions about reproduction. It was believed that if a woman had this “freedom” that she would lose her morality, on the basis that freedom from pregnancy would evoke higher levels of promiscuity.
Sanger makes direct and specific remarks about the churches opinion on this topic
When women asked for franchise it was said that this would lower her standard of morals, that it was not fit that she should meet with and mix with members of the opposite sex, but we notice there is no objection to her meeting with the same members of the opposite sex when she went to church (Sanger).
This direct remark toward the church and members of the church would have been very offensive, because it clearly stated the churches bias toward women and their freedoms. It stated this bias on an offensive level, suggesting that women deserved more respect than the church was providing.
In the preceding paragraph Sanger specifically states that its has been a consistent ideal that women’s freedom would ultimately lead to immorality. She continues to explain how the church maintains morality through the promotion of fear and ignorance. She addresses the crowd with a bond, stating “And ours [pro-child birth supporters] is the morality of knowledge” (Sanger). Not only is it used to state what the church believes, but it also uses antithesis to directly state what Sanger and all other pro- knowledge American’s believed.
Toward the middle of the speech it is stated “conscious control of offspring is now becoming the ideal and the custom in all civilized countries” (Sanger). This would have infuriated the members of the church because Sanger's syntax emphasizes that all civilized countries look at birth control as a custom of life. This indirectly states that if...
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On the whole, the income elasticity of demand for most commodities varies as income changes
depending on the nature of the commodity. If the income elasticity of demand (E I) is negative,
the commodity is inferior. If the income elasticity of demand (EI) is positive, the commodity is
normal (either luxury or necessity). A normal good is usually a luxury if E I > 1, and a necessity if
Depending on the level of income, the income elasticity of demand (E I) for a commodity is likely
to vary considerably. Thus, a commodity may be a luxury at low level of income; a necessity at
intermediate level of income; and inferior at high level of income.
2.3. Theory of production
Technically defined, production is the process of transforming factors of production (inputs)
into output. Inputs are the physical, human, material, financial, and information resources
that enter the transformation process. Transformation process comprises the technologies
used to convert inputs into output.
If we take a university as a production process, transformation process includes technologies
such as lectures, reading assignments, laboratory experiments, term papers and tests/
examinations. Inputs at the university comprise students, faculty, building, etc. Graduating
students from universities are regarded as output.
Inputs are classified into fixed inputs, the supply (quantity) of which cannot be changed over
a short period of time and variable inputs, the quantity of which can be varied in the short-
run. The most important fixed inputs in the short-run are land and capital whereas labour and
raw materials are instances of variable inputs in the short-run. Output is defined as any final
good or service that comes out of the production process.
Thus, the description of the technical relationship between inputs and output is called
production function. Stated differently, production function describes the combination of
inputs and the maximum attainable output that can be produced using that combination of
inputs. Production function is defined for a given technology because as technology
improves the maximum attainable output for a given cost increases and a new production
function is formed.
The distinction between the momentary-run, short-run and the long-run period is based on
the difference between fixed inputs and variable inputs. The momentary - run is the period
of time so short that no change in production an take place. The short-run is the period of
time in which the quantity of some factors of production cannot be varied. The long run is the
period of time in which it would be possible to increase the quantity of all factors.
Consequently, therefore, all inputs are variable in the long-run.
The time period varies from firm to firm and from industry to industry. The short-run may be
a matter of eight or ten months for some firms while for others it may extend to years.
Production in the short-run
The short-run is the period of time in which variable inputs such as labour and raw materials
can be adjusted while fixed factors such as plant and equipment cannot be fully modified or
At any point in time, for instance, the production of teff requires inputs of labour, land,
fertilizer and available technical knowledge, which can be portrayed in the form of the
production function as follows:
Qt = f (L, Ld, F, T,) Where:
QT = Quantity of teff produced
L = labour input
Ld = land input
F = fertilizer
T = technical knowledge
The above production function states that the output of teff depends on the inputs listed in the
parenthesis. A real production function is very complex. However, economists have
simplified it by reducing the number of variable inputs used in the production function to a
manageable number.
Thus, given land input, fertilizer and available technical knowledge, the output of teff in the
above production function depends on the labour input (L) in the short-run. Hence, the
production function boils down to:
QT = f (L, Ld*, F*, T)
QT = f (L)
Note that all other inputs in the bracket with the asterisk are assumed to be constant in the short- |
JavaScript: The Definitive GuideJavaScript: The Definitive GuideSearch this book
3.4. Functions
A function is a piece of executable code that is defined by a JavaScript program or predefined by the JavaScript implementation. Although a function is defined only once, a JavaScript program can execute or invoke it any number of times. A function may be passed arguments, or parameters, specifying the value or values upon which it is to perform its computation, and it may also return a value that represents the results of that computation. JavaScript implementations provide many predefined functions, such as the Math.sin( ) function that computes the sine of an angle.
JavaScript programs may also define their own functions with code that looks like this:
function square(x) // The function is named square. It expects one argument, x.
{ // The body of the function begins here.
return x*x; // The function squares its argument and returns that value.
} // The function ends here.
Once a function is defined, you can invoke it by following the function's name with an optional comma-separated list of arguments within parentheses. The following lines are function invocations:
y = Math.sin(x);
y = square(x);
d = compute_distance(x1, y1, z1, x2, y2, z2);
move( );
An important feature of JavaScript is that functions are values that can be manipulated by JavaScript code. In many languages, including Java, functions are only a syntactic feature of the language -- they can be defined and invoked, but they are not data types. The fact that functions are true values in JavaScript gives a lot of flexibility to the language. It means that functions can be stored in variables, arrays, and objects, and it means that functions can be passed as arguments to other functions. This can quite often be useful. We'll learn more about defining and invoking functions, and also about using them as data values, in Chapter 7.
Since functions are values just like numbers and strings, they can be assigned to object properties just like other values can. When a function is assigned to a property of an object (the object data type and object properties are described in Section 3.5), it is often referred to as a method of that object. Methods are an important part of object-oriented programming. We'll see more about them in Chapter 8.
3.4.1. Function Literals
In the preceding section, we saw the definition of a function square( ). The syntax shown there is used to define most functions in most JavaScript programs. However, ECMAScript v3 provides a syntax (implemented in JavaScript 1.2 and later) for defining function literals. A function literal is defined with the function keyword, followed by an optional function name, followed by a parenthesized list of function arguments and the body of the function within curly braces. In other words, a function literal looks just like a function definition, except that it does not have to have a name. The big difference is that function literals can appear within other JavaScript expressions. Thus, instead of defining the function square( ) with a function definition:
function square(x) { return x*x; }
We can define it with a function literal:
Functions defined in this way are sometimes called lambda functions in homage to the LISP programming language, which was one of the first to allow unnamed functions to be embedded as literal data values within a program. Although it is not immediately obvious why one might choose to use function literals in a program, we'll see later that in advanced scripts they can be quite convenient and useful.
There is one other way to define a function: you can pass the argument list and the body of the function as strings to the Function( ) constructor. For example:
var square = new Function("x", "return x*x;");
Defining a function in this way is not often useful. It is usually awkward to express the function body as a string, and in many JavaScript implementations, functions defined in this way will be less efficient than functions defined in either of the other two ways.
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Simian foamy virus
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Simian foamy virus
Virus classification
Group VI (ssRNA-RT)
Simian foamy virus
The simian foamy virus (SFV) is species of the genus Spumavirus, which belongs to the family of Retroviridae. It has been identified in a wide variety of primates, including pro-simians, New World and Old World monkeys as well as apes, and each species has been shown to harbor a unique (species-specific) strain of SFV, including African green monkeys, baboons, macaques and chimpanzees.[1] As it is related to the more well-known retrovirus Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), its discovery in primates has led to some speculation that HIV may have been spread to the human species in Africa through contact with blood from apes, monkeys, and other primates, most likely through bushmeat hunting practices.
Although the simian foamy virus is endemic in African apes and monkeys, there are extremely high infection rates in captivity, ranging from 70% to 100% in adult animals.[1] As humans are in close proximity to infected individuals, people who have had contact with primates can become infected with SFV, making SFV a zoophytic virus.[2] Its ability to cross over to humans was proven in 2004 by a joint United States and Cameroonian team which found the retrovirus in gorillas, mandrills, and guenons; unexpectedly, they also found it in 10 of 1,100 local Cameroon residents. Of those found infected, the majority are males who had been bitten by a primate. While this only accounts for 1% of the population, this detail alarms some who fear the outbreak of another zoonotic epidemic.[3]
SFV causes cells to fuse with each other to form syncytia, whereby the cell becomes multi-nucleated and many vacuoles form, giving it a "foamy" appearance.
An electron micrograph of foamy virus particles in an unknown sample.
The SFV is a spherical, enveloped virus that ranges from 80-100 nm in diameter. The cellular receptors have not been characterized, but it is hypothesized that it has a molecular structure with near ubiquitous prevalence, since a wide range of cells are permissible to infection.[4]
As a retrovirus, SFV poses the following structural characteristics:
• Envelope: Composed of phospholipids taken from a lipid bilayer, in this case the endoplasmic reticulum. Additional glycoproteins are synthesized from the env gene. The envelope protects the interior of the virus from the environment, and enables entry by fusing to the membrane of the permissive cell.
• RNA: The genetic material that carries the code for protein production to create additional viral particles.
• Proteins: consisting of gag proteins, protease (PR), pol proteins, and env proteins.
• Group-specific antigen (gag) proteins are major components of the viral capsid.
• Protease performs proteolytic cleavages during virion maturation to make mature gag and pol proteins.
• Pol proteins are responsible for synthesis of viral DNA and integration into host DNA after infection.
• Env proteins are required for the entry of virions into the host cell. The ability of the retrovirus to bind to its target host cell using specific cell-surface receptors is given by the surface component (SU) of the Env protein, while the ability of the retrovirus to enter the cell via membrane fusion is imparted by the membrane-anchored trans-membrane component (TM). Lack of or imperfections in Env proteins make the virus non-infectious.[5]
As a retrovirus, the genomic material is monopartite, linear, positive single strand RNA that forms a double stranded DNA intermediate through the use of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. The RNA strand is approximately 12kb's in length, with a 5'-cap and a 3’poly-A tail. The first full genome annotation of a proviral SFV isolated from cynomolgus macaque (Macaca fascicularis) had been performed in December 2016, where it revealed two regulatory sequences, tas and bet, in addition to the structural sequences of gag, pol and env.[6] There are two long terminal repeats (LTRs) of about 600 nucleotides long at the 5' and 3' ends that function as promoters, with an additional internal promoter (IP) located near the 3' end of env.[7] The LTRs contain the U3, R, and U5 regions that are characteristic of retroviruses. There is also a primer binding site (PBS) at the 5’end and a polypurine tract (PPT) at the 3’end.[8]
Whereas gag, pol, and env are conserved throughout retroviruses, the tas gene is unique and found only in Spumaviridae. It encodes for a trans-activator protein required for transcription from both the LTR promoter and the IP. The synthesized Tas protein, which was initially known as Bel-1, is a 36-kDa phosphoprotein which contains an acidic transcription activation domain at its C-terminus and a centrally located DNA binding domain.[7]
The Bet protein is required for viral replication, as it counteracts the innate antiretroviral activity of APOBEC3 family defense factors by obstructing their incorporation into virions.[9]
Replication cycle[edit]
Entry into cell[edit]
The virus attaches to host receptors through the SU glycoprotein, and the TM glycoprotein mediates fusion with the cell membrane. The entry receptor that triggers viral entry has not been identified, but the absence of heparan sulfate in one study resulted in a decrease of infection, acknowledging it as an attachment factor that assists in mediating the entry of the viral particle.[4] It is not clear if the fusion is pH-dependent or independent, although some evidence has been provided to indicate that SFV does enter cells through a pH-dependent step.[10] Once the virus has entered the interior of the cell, the retroviral core undergoes structural transformations through the activity of viral proteases. Studies have revealed that there are three internal protease-dependent cleavage sites that are critical for the virus to be infectious. One mutation within the gag gene had caused a structural change to the first cleavage site, preventing subsequent cleavage at the two other sites by the viral PR, reflecting its prominent role.[11] Once disassembled, the genetic material and enzymes are free within the cytoplasm to continue with the viral replication. Whereas most retroviruses deposit ssRNA(+) into the cell, SFV and other related species are different in that up to 20% of released viral particles already contains dsDNA genomes. This is due to a unique feature of spumaviruses in which the onset of reverse transcription of genomic RNA occurs before release rather than after entry of the new host cell like in other retroviruses.[8]
Replication and transcription[edit]
As both ssRNA(+) and dsDNA enter the cell, the remaining ssRNA is copied into dsDNA through reverse transcriptase. Nuclear entry of the viral dsDNA is covalently integrated into the cell's genome by the viral integrase, forming a provirus. The integrated provirus utilizes the promoter elements in the 5’LTR to drive transcription. This gives rise to the unspliced full length mRNA that will serve as genomic RNA to be packaged into virions, or used as a template for translation of gag.[8] The spliced mRNAs encode pol (PR, RT, RnaseH, IN) and env (SU, TM) that will be used to later assemble the viral particles.
The Tas trans-activator protein augments transcription directed by the LTR through cis-acting targets in the U3 domain of the LTR.[12] The presence of this protein is crucial, as in the absence of Tas, LTR-mediated transcription cannot be detected. Foamy viruses utilize multiple promoters, which is a mechanism observed in no other retrovirus except Spumaviridae. The IP is required for viral infectivity in tissue culture, as this promoter has a higher basal transcription level than the LTR promoter, and its use leads to transcripts encoding Tas and Bet. Once levels of Tas accumulate, it begins to make use of the LTR promoter, which binds Tas with lower affinity than the IP and leads to accumulation of gag, pol, and env transcripts.[7]
Assembly and release[edit]
The SFV capsid is assembled in the cytoplasm as a result of multimerization of Gag molecules, but unlike other related viruses, SFV Gag lacks an N-terminal myristylation signal and capsids are not targeted to the plasma membrane (PM). They require expression of the envelope protein for budding of intracellular capsids from the cell, suggesting a specific interaction between the Gag and Env proteins. Evidence for this interaction was discovered in 2001 when a deliberate mutation for a conserved arginine (Arg) residue at position 50 to alanine of the SFVcpz inhibited proper capsid assembly and abolished viral budding even in the presence of the envelope glycoproteins.[13] Analysis of the glycoproteins on the envelope of the viral particle indicate that it is localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and that once it buds from the organelle, the maturation process is finalized and can leave to infect additional cells. A dipeptide of two lysine residues (dilysine) was the identified motif that determined to be the specific molecule that mediated the signal, localizing viral particles in the ER.[14]
Modulation and interaction of host cell[edit]
There is little data on how SFV interacts with the host cell as the infection takes its course. The most obvious effect that can be observed is the formation of syncytia that results in multinucleated cells. While the details for how SFV can induce this change are not known, the related HIV does cause similar instances among CD4+ T cells. As the cell transcribes the integrated proviral genome, glycoproteins are produced and displayed at the surface of the cell. If enough proteins are at the surface with other CD4+ T cells nearby, the glycoproteins will attach and result in the fusion of several cells.[15]
Foamy degeneration, or vacuolization is another observable change within the cells, but it is unknown how SFV results in the formation of numerous cytoplasmic vacuoles. This is another characteristic of retroviruses, but there are no studies or explanations on why this occurs.[16]
Transmission and pathogenicity[edit]
The transmission of SFV is believed to spread through saliva, because large quantities of viral RNA, indicative of SFV gene expression and replication, are present in cells of the oral mucosa.[1] Aggressive behaviors such as bites, to nurturing ones such as a mother licking an infant all have the ability to spread the virus.[7] Studies of natural transmission suggest that infants of infected mothers are resistant to infection, presumably because of passive immunity from maternal antibodies, but infection becomes detectable by three years of age.[17] Little else is known about the prevalence and transmission patterns of SFV in wild-living primate populations.
The first case of a spumavirus being isolated from a primate was in 1955 (Rustigan et al., 1955) from the kidneys.[18] What is curious about the cytopathology of SFV is that while it results in rapid cell death for cells in vitro, it loses its highly cytopathic nature in vivo.[7] With little evidence to suggest that SFV infection causes illness, some scientists believe that it has a commensal relationship to simians.[19]
In one study to determine the effects of SFV(mac239) on rhesus macaques that were previously infected with another type of the virus, the experiment had provided evidence that previous infection can increase the risk viral loads reaching unsustainable levels, killing CD4+ T cells and ultimately resulting in the expiration of the doubly infected subjects. SFV/SIV models have since been proposed to replicate the relationship between SFV and HIV in humans, a potential health concern for officials.[20]
SFV can infect a wide range of cells, with in vitro experiments confirming that fibroblasts, epithelial cells, and neural cells all showed extensive cytopathology that is characteristic of foamy virus infection. The cytopathic effects in B lymphoid cells and macrophages was reduced, where reverse transcriptase values were lower when compared to fibroblasts and epithelial cells. Cells that expressed no signs of cytopathy from SFV were the Jurkat and Hut-78 T-cell lines.[21]
Cospeciation of SFV and primates[edit]
Phylogenic Tree reveals distant relationship of spumaviruses to other retroviridae.
The phylogenetic tree analysis of SFV polymerase and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit II (COII has been shown as a powerful marker used for primate phylogeny) from African and Asian monkeys and apes provides very similar branching order and divergence times among the two trees, supporting the cospeciation. Also, the substitution rate in the SFV gene was found to be extremely slow, i.e. the SFV has evolved at a very low rate (1.7×10−8 substitutions per site per year). These results suggest SFV has been cospeciated with Old World primates for about 30 million years, making them the oldest known vertebrate RNA viruses.[22]
The SFV sequence examination of species and subspecies within each clade of the phylogenetic tree of the primates indicated cospeciation of SFV and the primate hosts, as well. A strong linear relationship was found between the branch lengths for the host and SFV gene trees, which indicated synchronous genetic divergence in both data sets.[22]
By using the molecular clock, it was observed that the substitution rates for the host and SFV genes were very similar. The substitution rates for host COII gene and the SFV gene were found out to be (1.16±0.35)×10−8 and (1.7±0.45)×10−8 respectively. This is the slowest rate of substitution observed for RNA viruses and is closer to that of DNA viruses and endogenous retroviruses. This rate is quite different from that of exogenous RNA viruses such as HIV and influenza A virus (10−3 to 10−4 substitutions per site per year).[22]
Researchers in Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, France, Gabon, Germany, Japan, Rwanda, the United Kingdom, and the United States have found that simian foamy virus is widespread among wild chimpanzees throughout equatorial Africa.[23]
Humans exposed to wild primates, including chimpanzees, can acquire SFV infections.[2][24] Since the long-term consequences of these cross-species infections are not known, it is important to determine to what extent wild primates are infected with simian foamy viruses. In this study, researchers tested this question for wild chimpanzees by using novel noninvasive methods. Analyzing over 700 fecal samples from 25 chimpanzee communities across sub-Saharan Africa, the researchers obtained viral sequences from a large proportion of these communities, showing a range of infection rates from 44% to 100%.
1. ^ a b c Liu, Weimin; Worobey, Michael; Li, Yingying; Keele, Brandon F.; Bibollet-Ruche, Frederic; Guo, Yuanyuan; Goepfert, Paul A.; Santiago, Mario L.; Ndjango, Jean-Bosco N. (2008-07-04). "Molecular Ecology and Natural History of Simian Foamy Virus Infection in Wild-Living Chimpanzees". PLOS Pathogens. 4 (7): e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000097. ISSN 1553-7374. PMC 2435277. PMID 18604273.
2. ^ a b Wolfe ND, Switzer WM, Carr JK, et al. (March 2004). "Naturally acquired simian retrovirus infections in central African hunters". Lancet. 363 (9413): 932–7. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15787-5. PMID 15043960.
3. ^ Specter, Michael (20 December 2010). "The Doomsday Strain". Letter from Cameroon. New Yorker.
4. ^ a b Plochmann, Kathrin; Horn, Anne; Gschmack, Eva; Armbruster, Nicole; Krieg, Jennifer; Wiktorowicz, Tatiana; Weber, Conrad; Stirnnagel, Kristin; Lindemann, Dirk (2012-09-15). "Heparan Sulfate Is an Attachment Factor for Foamy Virus Entry". Journal of Virology. 86 (18): 10028–10035. doi:10.1128/JVI.00051-12. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 3446549. PMID 22787203.
5. ^ Coffin, John (1992). Structure and Classification of Retroviruses. New York: Plenum Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-306-44074-8.
6. ^ Sakai, Koji; Ami, Yasushi; Suzaki, Yuriko; Matano, Tetsuro (2016-12-29). "First Complete Genome Sequence of a Simian Foamy Virus Isolate from a Cynomolgus Macaque". Genome Announcements. 4 (6): e01332–16. doi:10.1128/genomeA.01332-16. ISSN 2169-8287. PMC 5137406. PMID 27908992.
7. ^ a b c d e Linial, Maxine L. (1999-03-01). "Foamy Viruses Are Unconventional Retroviruses". Journal of Virology. 73 (3): 1747–1755. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 104413. PMID 9971751.
8. ^ a b c "Spumavirus". SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2017-11-02.
9. ^ "bet - Protein Bet - Simian foamy virus (isolate chimpanzee) (SFVcpz) - bet gene & protein". Retrieved 2017-11-03.
10. ^ Picard-Maureau, Marcus; Jarmy, Gergely; Berg, Angelika; Rethwilm, Axel; Lindemann, Dirk (2003-04-15). "Foamy Virus Envelope Glycoprotein-Mediated Entry Involves a pH-Dependent Fusion Process". Journal of Virology. 77 (8): 4722–4730. doi:10.1128/JVI.77.8.4722-4730.2003. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 152125. PMID 12663779.
11. ^ Lehmann-Che, Jacqueline; Giron, Marie-Lou; Delelis, Olivier; Löchelt, Martin; Bittoun, Patricia; Tobaly-Tapiero, Joelle; Thé, Hugues de; Saïb, Ali (2005-07-01). "Protease-Dependent Uncoating of a Complex Retrovirus". Journal of Virology. 79 (14): 9244–9253. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.14.9244-9253.2005. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 1168774. PMID 15994819.
12. ^ Campbell, M.; Renshaw-Gegg, L.; Renne, R.; Luciw, P. A. (1994-08-01). "Characterization of the internal promoter of simian foamy viruses". Journal of Virology. 68 (8): 4811–4820. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 236420. PMID 8035481.
13. ^ Eastman, Scott W.; Linial, Maxine L. (2001-08-01). "Identification of a Conserved Residue of Foamy Virus Gag Required for Intracellular Capsid Assembly". Journal of Virology. 75 (15): 6857–6864. doi:10.1128/JVI.75.15.6857-6864.2001. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 114413. PMID 11435565.
14. ^ Goepfert, P. A.; Shaw, K. L.; Ritter, G. D.; Mulligan, M. J. (1997-01-01). "A sorting motif localizes the foamy virus glycoprotein to the endoplasmic reticulum". Journal of Virology. 71 (1): 778–784. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 191117. PMID 8985416.
15. ^ Huerta, Leonor; López-Balderas, Nayali; Rivera-Toledo, Evelyn; Sandoval, Guadalupe; Gómez-Icazbalceta, Guillermo; Villarreal, Carlos; Lamoyi, Edmundo; Larralde, Carlos (2009). "HIV-Envelope–Dependent Cell-Cell Fusion: Quantitative Studies". The Scientific World Journal. 9: 746–763. doi:10.1100/tsw.2009.90. PMC 5823155. PMID 19705036.
16. ^ "Cytopathic Effects of Viruses Protocols". 2012-06-02. Archived from the original on 2012-06-02. Retrieved 2017-11-03.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
17. ^ Stenbak, Carolyn R.; Craig, Karen L.; Ivanov, Sergei B.; Wang, Xiaoxing; Soliven, Khanh C.; Jackson, Dana L.; Gutierrez, Gustavo A.; Engel, Gregory; Jones-Engel, Lisa (January 2014). "New World Simian Foamy Virus Infections In Vivo and In Vitro". Journal of Virology. 88 (2): 982–991. doi:10.1128/JVI.03154-13. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 3911628. PMID 24198412.
18. ^ Loh, Philip C. (1993). "Spumaviruses". The Retroviridae. The Viruses. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 361–397. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1627-3_6. ISBN 9781489916297.
19. ^ Switzer, William M.; Salemi, Marco; Shanmugam, Vedapuri; Gao, Feng; Cong, Mian-er; Kuiken, Carla; Bhullar, Vinod; Beer, Brigitte E.; Vallet, Dominique; Gautier-Hion, Annie; Tooze, Zena; Villinger, Francois; Holmes, Edward C.; Heneine, Walid (2005). "Foamy Virus (Spumavirus) Infection | CARTA". Nature. 434 (7031): 376–380. doi:10.1038/nature03341. PMID 15772660. Retrieved 2017-11-03.
20. ^ Choudhary, Anil; Galvin, Teresa A.; Williams, Dhanya K.; Beren, Joel; Bryant, Mark A.; Khan, Arifa S. (2013-06-06). "Influence of naturally occurring simian foamy viruses (SFVs) on SIV disease progression in the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) model". Viruses. 5 (6): 1414–1430. doi:10.3390/v5061414. ISSN 1999-4915. PMC 3717714. PMID 23744104.
21. ^ Mergia, Ayalew; Leung, Nancy J.; Blackwell, Jeanne (1996-01-01). "Cell tropism of the simian foamy virus type 1 (SFV-1)". Journal of Medical Primatology. 25 (1): 2–7. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0684.1996.tb00185.x. ISSN 1600-0684. PMID 8740945.
22. ^ a b c Switzer WM, Salemi M, Shanmugam V, et al. (March 2005). "Ancient co-speciation of simian foamy viruses and primates". Nature. 434 (7031): 376–80. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..376S. doi:10.1038/nature03341. PMID 15772660.
23. ^ Liu W, Worobey M, Li Y, Keele BF, Bibollet-Ruche F, Guo Y, Goepfert PA, Santiago ML, Ndjango JB, Neel C, Clifford SL, Sanz C, Kamenya S, Wilson ML, Pusey AE, Gross-Camp N, Boesch C, Smith V, Zamma K, Huffman MA, Mitani JC, Watts DP, Peeters M, Shaw GM, Switzer WM, Sharp PM, Hahn BH (2008). "Molecular ecology and natural history of simian foamy virus infection in wild-living chimpanzees". PLoS Pathog. 4 (7): e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000097. PMC 2435277. PMID 18604273.
24. ^ Switzer WM, Bhullar V, Shanmugam V, et al. (March 2004). "Frequent simian foamy virus infection in persons occupationally exposed to nonhuman primates". J. Virol. 78 (6): 2780–9. doi:10.1128/JVI.78.6.2780-2789.2004. PMC 353775. PMID 14990698.
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The tale of the trojan war hero odysseus in the odyssey
Odyssey, The
Many days did he wander with the oar in hand seeking for people who would not know what it was but wherever he went, people recognized it as an oar. But Odysseus wants to hear that famous song and still survive. The suitors sought their weapons and began to put up some resistance, but when Odysseus ran out of arrows Telemachus brought him armor, spears, and swords.
The other ran for his life and the entire race of giants that inhabited the land gave chase to him. There he found an old beggar who suddenly revealed himself to be Odysseus. The winds tossed the ships about and blew them back to the island of Aeolus.
However, the sailors foolishly open the bag while Odysseus sleeps, thinking that it contains gold. Many modern and ancient scholars take this to be the original ending of the Odyssey, and the rest to be an interpolation. Thus they wheeled the wooden horse into their city and started revelry to celebrate the end of the war.
The Sirens Leaving Hades, Odysseus and his men sailed for many days without sight of land. Nestor suggests that they allow the captive Trojans decide the winner. Circe then invited Odysseus and his men to remain as her guests. Odysseus proceeds to reveal his identity.
Book 22, wherein Odysseus kills all the Suitors, has been given the title Mnesterophonia: After setting sail, however, his men became curious about the bag. He then begins to tell the story of his return from Troy. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own former slaves, the swineherd Eumaeusand also meets up with Telemachus returning from Sparta.
The following morning, Odysseus and his men strapped themselves to the belly of the sheep and in this manner they escaped when Polyphemus let his flocks out of his lair to graze. Odysseus and other envoys of Agamemnon travel to Scyros to recruit Achilles because of a prophecy that Troy could not be taken without him.
Curious, the warriors entered the cave and found it to be the habitation of some gigantic being. Penelope needs no further proof: Odysseus has been a captive of the beautiful nymph Calypsowith whom he has spent seven of his ten lost years.
The Odyssey Reading Test
Further on, they found flocks of sheep inside the cave and being hungry, they slaughtered a few of them and feasted on their flesh. Ogygia was inhabited by the nymph Calypso, who welcomed Odysseus and made him her lover. Polyphemus cries, "Nobody has blinded me! Odysseus also talks to his fallen war comrades and the mortal shade of Heracles.
As early as the 15th century BC, 22 confederated Anatolian states called the Assuwa League had pitched rebellions against Wilusa and their Hittite allies.
Circe invited him to eat, but her spell was ineffective, and Odysseus compelled her to restore the swine to human shape. Without revealing their identity or mission, Odysseus told Polyphemus they were sea-farers who had lost their way and had come ashore looking for food.
Odysseus and the Sirens
The city was destroyed continuously through fires, sieges, and other disasters. Now, at last, Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope.Thematically, it uses Odysseus' backstory and struggle as a metaphor for dealing with the aftermath of war (the novel being written immediately after the end of the Second World War).
Odysseus is the hero of The Luck of Troy () by Roger Lancelyn Green, whose title refers to the theft of the funkiskoket.coms: Laërtes, Anticlea. Jan 09, · Odysseus is the chief of the surviving heroes of the Trojan War, and the story of his adventures and return is the most famous of many.
He himself is an enlarged and elaborated version of what he is in The Iliad. During the funeral games, contest for armour of Achilles, was awarded to Odysseus as the hero who did the greatest services to the Greek causes in the war. This would result in the death of Ajax. it took him ten years to reach home.
Homer's Odyssey tells this tale in full. Trojan War, Odyssey, Death of Iphitus. For centuries, readers have been thrilled by tales of the Trojan War in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
The exploits of Achilles, Odysseus, Hector, and the other heroes are exciting, but they’re acknowledged today as legends, and it can be hard to separate history from myth.
The first is an otherwise obscure incident of the Trojan War, the "Quarrel of Odysseus and Achilles"; the second is the amusing tale of a love affair between two Olympian gods, J. Odysseus, Hero of Practical Intelligence. Deliberation and Signs in Homer's Odyssey. Odyssey from the Translated by Robert Fitzgerald HOMER He asks her help in telling the tale of Odysseus.
Sing in me, Muse,1 and through me tell the story of that man skilled in all ways of contending, the wanderer, harried for years on end, Ten years after the Trojan War, Odysseus departs from the goddess Calypso’s island. He arrives.
The tale of the Trojan Horse. Download
The tale of the trojan war hero odysseus in the odyssey
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Are Creative Commons licenses enforceable?
CC licenses come from Creative Commons, a non-profit organization. (Image courtesy Creative Commons)
With the widespread use of the Internet, it’s never been easier to exchange information and share art, music and a host of ideas online. For those that want to protect their ideas, there are copyrights. For those who want to offer up their content to the public for use, there are Creative Commons licenses that grant certain terms and protections.
But, what are Creative Commons (CC) licences and are they enforceable?
CC licenses come from Creative Commons, an international non-profit organization that holds ground globally since they have affiliates worldwide. So, there’s no need to worry if the CC licence won’t be applicable in your country. The system operates as a self-serving entity, where people are able to access tools and can add a CC license to an existing copyright. It’s a source for all things CC, minus the legal advice.
The rights granted under licenses range from full public use (public domain), a selection of uses with acceptable uses of the material (some rights reserved) and for the creator to maintain all rights (all rights reserved).
Under CC, there are six specific licences: Attribution, Attribution-ShareAlike, Attribution-NoDerivs, Attribution-NonCommercial, Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike and Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs. Materials that are licensed under CC are indicated with a “CC” symbol and the type of license the material holds posted on the web page.
These licenses could be applied to a myriad of things like photography, royalty-free music and more. It’s also free to use.
Depending on what the license says, this dictates the way users are authorized to utilize the given content, and yes, those guidelines are enforceable by a court of law in Canada and internationally.
Examples of CC licenses being used in court decisions range from a variety of countries, including Israel, the United States, Germany and Spain.
However, CC licenses contain something called a severability clause, which allows the court, depending on the jurisdiction, to render parts of the agreement unenforceable but enforce the remaining requirements covered by the license.
Rather than breaking the rules, if a person wants to use the CC-licensed content, the Creative Commons website recommends that they ask the rights holder for permission. If permission isn’t requested to use the content in a way that violates the licence and it’s used in the violated method, the person taking the content could be liable for copyright infringement.
So when it comes to copyrights and CC licenses, it’s always better to err on the side of caution and be sure to follow and respect the permissions of the content.
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Write about group discussion definition
For this reason the term "group selection" adds little to what we have always called "history. Debates include representation of two contrasting viewpoints while GD can include multiple views. Open their attachment and save it to your desktop; review and add comments to your downloaded copy and attach your edited copy as an attachment to your reply to this student.
US Bureau of Land Management collaborative stakeholder engagement[ edit ] The United States Bureau of Land Management 's policy is to seek to use collaborative stakeholder engagement as standard operating practice for natural resources projects, plans, and decision-making except under unusual conditions such as when constrained by law, regulation, or other mandates or when conventional processes are important for establishing new, or reaffirming existing, precedent.
Recommendations and tips for writing good discussion questions, including examples. Modern production[ edit ] As ofthe United States is the world's leading producer and consumer of gravel.
Usually, the topmost email is the latest one. Adding the "-el" suffix in Breton denotes the component parts of something larger. In Public Speaking,the speaker is evaluated by the audience;however there is not much interaction between audience and speaker. A participant needs to be aware of needs of other group members and overall objectives of the discussion.
If a group is annihilated, all the people in it, together with their genes, are annihilated. Some decision-making bodies use a modified version of the colored card system with additional colors, such as orange to indicate a non-blocking reservation stronger than a stand-aside.
What is education? A definition and discussion
I lived for a while in Florence. For example, did you use mouse pups or adults? Most often it is not.
What is teaching? A definition and discussion
Once again, a vast amount of human cooperation is elegantly explained by this theory. But unless the traits arose from multiple iterations of copying of random errors in a finite pool of replicators, the theory of natural selection adds nothing to ordinary cause and effect.
Studies of effective consensus process usually indicate a shunning of unanimity or "illusion of unanimity" [43] that does not hold up as a group comes under real-world pressure when dissent reappears.
Seizing the Initiative Through Creative Thinking Versus Reacting to the Enemy local copyby Grothe, SAMS paper, Leadership must be committed to learning, underwrite experimentation, and create an environment that generates creative thought and innovation. A job-seeker may be required to face selection GDs as part of the selection process.
Other useful hand signs include: Others include reproductive versus somatic effort, mating versus parenting, and present versus future offspring. Roles[ edit ] The consensus decision-making process often has several roles designed to make the process run more effectively.
It evolved because any genes that encouraged such feelings toward genetic relatives would be benefiting copies of themselves inside those relatives. Group discussion may be defined as — a form of systematic and purposeful oral process characterized by the formal and structured exchange of views on a particular topic,issue,problem or situation for developing information and understanding essential for decision making or problem solving.
Subsequent experiments have shown that most of the behavior in these and similar games can be explained by an expectation of reciprocity or a concern with reputation. Team Management skills are important for a leader to manage the members of varied interests.
This includes giving the 1 source supplier or where and how the orgranisms were collected2 typical size weight, length, etc3 how they were handled, fed, and housed before the experiment, 4 how they were handled, fed, and housed during the experiment.Appoquinimink Schools and Offices will be closed on Monday.
Your copy is here – ASD's Annual Report! Our Annual Report to the Community offers a look at the people, places and things shaping the school year and our performance on a variety of measures including the state’s standardized testing program, AP testing, SAT results, and college persistence.
Consensus decision-making
Examples of Good Discussion Questions Filed under: discussion, instructor, v10, general Recommendations and tips for writing good discussion questions, including examples. After much discussion of the plan, the idea was rejected entirely. During the period under discussion, the town grew in size.
The first few moments in focus group discussion are critical. In a brief time the moderator must create a thoughtful, permissive atmosphere, provide ground rules, and discussions and we can't write fast enough to get them all down.
We will be on a first name basis tonight, and we won't use any names in our reports. You may be assured of.
Write about group discussion definition
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Natural Health Tips for Better Health
Taking good care of both your mental and physical wellness can be challenging for anybody. There are particular things you should consider if you would like to have good health in the long term and have a life full of energy and vitality. Exercise and proper diet should be the first things to think about, however, you shouldn't overlook the value of learning to manage mental stress. To learn more about Better Health, click here! Here are some simple that you can use for better health and fitness:.
Taking more whole foods.
It can hard to fully avoid junk and processed foods but you can minimize your consumption of them. Many restaurants offer healthy food options in their menus and you can opt for those since they are generally in regards to nutritional value compared to other foods on the menu. Carry packed lunch to work and utilize whole food ingredients which you cooked yourself since these are free chemicals such as preservatives which are in most processed foods.
Proper exercise.
Without doubt, exercise is vital in maintaining optimal health. You should do cardiovascular and aerobic exercise to burn calories efficiently and keep good muscle mass. Aerobic exercise can be done in many ways including having bike or a treadmill in the home, taking a walk or joining a gym.To learn more about Better Health, view here. It's advisable to have some fitness equipment because that makes it easier and more convenient to follow your work out regime, resulting in better outcomes.
Weight training will assist in building and maintaining muscle mass, and remember that muscles are very effective in burning calories so women should weight train to be able to maintain healthy weight for as long as you can. In case you have never trained with weights, then it's necessary that you think about taking a couple of personal training sessions in a gym to get familiar with the exercises and the equipment in order to prevent unnecessary injury.
Stress management.
Mental stress can impact your health a negative way. Your brain can release chemicals into your body according to the way you think and in the event that you are always angry or worried, then your brain will release potentially harmful chemicals to your body.
Learn how to control your mind via meditation and calm your thoughts since this will supply you with good stress relief and can help you resolve problems in your life quicker as being calm often helps find solutions faster than if you're worrying too much and also have a lot of ideas racing through your mind. There are many ways to learn meditation, the simplest being to take a yoga class or buying a book. Make it a habit to devote some time each day to meditation and practice what you learn even when you are not meditating. You should put these tips it consideration and apply them for a stronger and healthier body. Learn more from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health.
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What’s the Link Between Melasma and Hormones?
In some ways, melasma — a condition that causes gray or brown patches on the face — is a mystery. Far more women than men have melasma, and experts have long believed that there is some connection between the condition and hormonal changes. Balcones Dermatology & Aesthetics in Austin, Texas, offers a range of treatments for the uneven pigmentation of melasma, regardless of the cause.
Although experts are not sure what causes melasma, some things are clear:
Melasma is common during pregnancy
When a mother-to-be has melasma, the condition is sometimes called chloasma, or the mask of pregnancy. Melasma occurs fairly frequently during pregnancy — in fact, half of all melasma cases initially develop during pregnancy.
Most pregnant women experience some hyperpigmentation of the skin, but in 10-15% of them, that hyperpigmentation develops into melasma. This association between pregnancy — when there are big hormonal changes — and melasma supports the link between melasma and hormones.
Hormones in oral contraceptives may lead to melasma
About 10-25% of women who take oral contraceptives develop melasma, so if you are taking oral birth control and have noticed changes in the pigmentation of your skin, see a dermatologist to determine if you may have melasma. Some studies have shown that the skin of people with melasma is more responsive to the hormone estrogen than the skin of people who don’t have melasma. The same is true for progesterone, another hormone common in oral contraceptives.
One of the earliest studies on melasma and oral contraceptives was conducted in 1967. In that study, about a quarter of the participants taking oral contraceptives developed melasma, leading the researchers to believe there was a link between the hormones in the oral contraceptives and the development of melasma, although they were not able to identify exactly how the two were associated.
The connection between thyroid disorder and melasma
If you have a thyroid disorder, you are about four times more likely to develop melasma than a person without a thyroid disorder. A recent study found that there’s a strong association between hypothyroidism and melasma, and both conditions involve hormonal imbalances. Scientists are still investigating how thyroid disorder and melasma are connected.
Other considerations
Although it seems likely that hormones can play a role in melasma, other factors may also be important. For example, sun exposure and the amount of melanin in the skin are risk factors for melasma. There are people who develop melasma without experiencing hormonal changes, and in those cases, UV exposure and genetics are likely implicated.
Treatment for melasma
Melasma during pregnancy usually resolves on its own as hormonal levels return to normal and doesn’t usually require treatment. When oral contraceptives are the cause, the condition generally clears up when you stop taking the medication — but it can take months or even years to fully resolve.
In cases where you need to keep taking oral contraceptives or the melasma is due to some other cause, there are other treatments. Some of them include:
You should discuss all treatments with your dermatologist. At Balcones Dermatology & Aesthetics, we know that the appropriate treatment method depends on a number of factors, including your age, any other conditions you may have, and your skin type.
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Baileys Harbor Range Lights Rascal
About the Book:
Willie and Charlie Larson lived at the Baileys Harbor Range Lights from 1882-1888. Their father, Captain George Larson, was the Lighthouse Keeper. Their mother, Gertrude, was originally from Racine, WI, and the family returned there after their time in Baileys Harbor. In this book, Baileys Harbor Range Lights Rascal, the boys find an injured crow they name “Rascal,” who follows the boys activities and becomes an important part of their adventures in Baileys Harbor. This fictitious tale takes our readers back to the 1880’s in Baileys Harbor and is a fun adventure with a happy ending. The Baileys Harbor Range Lights are located at what is now known as The Ridges.
Thank you — and enjoy Baileys Harbor Range Lights Rascal!
In 1848 Captain Justice Bailey came in along the western shore of Lake Michigan to find shelter from a storm. He landed in a small harbor which was later named for him. His men explored the area and discovered lots of pine, cedar and mixed hardwoods and limestone. When Captain Bailey returned to his home port of Milwaukee, he reported to his employer Alanson Sweet about the plentiful supply of lumber and stone south of death’s door.
In the years that followed Alanson Sweet invested in the area. A pier and sawmill were constructed and a stone quarry was opened. Log homes were built and the settlement named Bailey’s Harbor became established. Mr. Sweet petitioned the Federal Government to construct a lighthouse to help direct mariners to the dock in the newly formed village. The Baileys Harbor Lighthouse, also known as the “birdcage” lighthouse, was built in 1852 in a location that made it difficult for ships to safely enter the harbor. In 1867, the Lighthouse Service inspector recommended erecting range lights to guide ships into the harbor more easily. The Baileys Harbor Upper and Lower Range Lights were built in 1869 at a cost of $6,000 to replace the Baileys Harbor Lighthouse. |
| Feb 02, 2006
Feature Article - February 2, 2006
Feature Article
February 2, 2006
Discovering Natural Processes: beauty in nature's ways
book review by Jeff Green
It’s rare that a coffee table book features pictures of deer droppings, skulls of dead animals and worms boring into rotten wood, but along with idyllic landscape photography, these are some of the images that are included in a new book by ecologist Gray Merriam and photographer Jeff Amos.
The book is made up of series of photographs punctuated by several short chapters on related topics. Readers of the Frontenac News are no doubt familiar with Gray Merriam’s style of writing. In “Discovering Natural Processes” he uses more scientific terminology than in the short articles he publishes in the News, but the book is anything but a dry scientific treatise. It was developed in order to broaden the understanding of natural processes for the general public, as is explained in the opening sentence.
“We want to guide you on a journey of discovery. We want to help you to discover the beauty and the meaning of natural processes on your terms, no matter what your background.”
Merriam employs day-to-day language. He talks, for example, about how different species of plants and animals are able to “make their living” by drawing nutrients from different habitats.
The book expands on the now familiar concept that all things in nature are inter-related so that we must take an ecosystem-based approach as we consider the impacts of human behaviour on what we broadly call ‘the environment’. It starts by discussing the increasingly important role the Canadian Shield plays in maintaining global carbon levels.
“As tropical forests are degraded the value of the Shield to the planet increases. The huge area of the Canadian Shield and ecological zones north of it make one of the largest contributions to the total of all ecologically productive areas on earth.”
The chapter on “Green Magic” points to the primary role plants play in making life on earth possible.
“For practical folks, the magic in ‘Green Magic’ is that we have never been able to do it; only green plants can. For students of thermodynamics, it is magical because plants have the unique ability to capture the very small packets of light energy called photons and accumulate them in blocks of energy big enough to make energy-rich chemical bonds in carbon compounds such as sugars. … Without energy captured by green plants, all living things would be without power. There would be no vital forces anywhere. Green magic indeed!”
In the subsequent chapter, “Restocking: decomposition and nutrient recycling”, the processes which need to be in place in order for the land to continually generate enough nutrients for Green Magic to take place is described, and the role played by species ranging from insects to large carnivores is outlined.
Chapters on habitat, biodiversity and water follow. Each chapter builds on the information in previous chapters, and fosters a deepening sense of wonder at how diverse and complex natural processes are, and how they vary according to climactic and geological factors.
There is a two-fold impact from reading Discovering Natural Processes and allowing the rich black and white photographs to bring a poetic impulse to the more prosaic narrative. Firstly, one is filled with a sense of wonder at the intricate beauty, economy, and inherent logic of natural processes. Secondly one feels a deepening concern about the impact of short-sighted human development on a vulnerable ecological system that has developed over a very long period of time.
The long-term health of the planet is not really at issue. The rocks contain the stuff of life. They will be able to replenish the earth, in time, no matter what humans do to the planet. However, if the workings of ‘Green Magic’ are so disrupted by human activity that the planet becomes unliveable for humans and other species, it could take a very long time for the earth to re-establish itself.
Gray Merriam and Jeff Amos have plans for a second book, Special Places, which will present images from a selection of places from each of Canada’s different ecological zones.
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Superior Semi-Circular Canal Dehiscence
Superior Semi-circular Canal Dehiscence Syndrome (SSCD) is a very rare medical condition where a thinning or complete absence of a portion of the temporal bone overlying the superior semicircular canal of the inner ear causes hypersensitivity to sound and balance disorders. For unclear reasons, bone of the skull base slowly dissolves exposing the superior balance canal. This allows sound to “escape” from the inner ear resulting in hearing loss. Computed Tomographic scanning (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) may be used to diagnose SSCD, and distinguish it from more common diseases with similar symptoms such as Meniere’s disease.
Symptoms of SSCD include dizziness and balance problems which increases with activity and which is relieved by rest. A cardinal symptom of this disorder is vertigo produced with a loud sound. Other symptoms may include hearing loss, tinnitus and a fullness of the ear. The symptoms of SSCD can get worse with extended episodes of coughing, sneezing, or blowing of the nose. Sometimes the use of ones’ own voice or a musical instrument can also aggravate SSCD.
A specialized CT scan of the ear is needed to accurately diagnose the condition. Once the condition has been diagnosed, surgery may be an option in order to repair the defect in the superior semi-circular canal, and relieve patients of their hearing and balance symptoms. There is no effective medical management of this condition. |
Tajikistan Independence Day around the world in 2019
Tajikistan Independence Day around the world in 2019
How long until Tajikistan Independence Day?
This holiday next takes place in 84 days.
Dates of Tajikistan Independence Day around the world
2020TajikistanSep 9
Tajikistan Wed, Sep 9National Holiday
2019TajikistanSep 9
Tajikistan Mon, Sep 9National Holiday
2018TajikistanSep 9, Sep 10
Tajikistan Mon, Sep 10National Holiday (in lieu)
Tajikistan Sun, Sep 9National Holiday
When is Tajikistani Independence Day?
Independence Day is a public holiday in Tajikistan observed on 9th September. If 9th September falls on a weekend, a public holiday will be observed on the following Monday.
Also known as the Independence Day of Tajik Republic, this is the National Day of Tajikistan and marks independence from the Soviet Union on 9 September 1991.
History of Tajikistani Independence Day
The Tajiks emerged in Central Asia as a distinct ethnic group in the 8th century. Over the centuries the region had long periods under foreign control from the Persians, the Mongols, the Uzbeks, and the Afghans. In 1860, Russian conquests in Central Asia brought most of modern-day Tajikistan under Tsarist control.
Did you know?
The capital of Tajikistan is Dushanbe; the name means Monday in the Tajik languages. It is believed that it got this name as grew from a village that originally had a popular market on Mondays.
In 1924, Tajikistan was consolidated into a newly formed Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which was administratively part of the Uzbek SSR until the Tajik ASSR gained full-fledged republic status in 1929 when it acquired the territory of Khujand from Uzbek SSR.
During the Soviet period, and despite the efforts of the USSR to establish a Soviet collective culture, the Tajiks maintained a fierce sense of nationalism and pride in their own history and culture.
Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of 'glasnost' in the late 1980s led to the formation of unofficial political groups and a renewed interest in Tajik culture with the Tajik Supreme Soviet (legislature) declaring Tajik to be official state language in 1989.
As the Soviet Union started to unravel in 1990, a state of emergency was declared, with 5,000 Soviet troops deployed to suppress pro-democracy protests. On 9 September 1991, the Supreme Soviet declared Tajikistan's independence from the Soviet Union.
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Academic Word List
A Project for Teaching and Learning Academic English Vocabulary
Monday, 06 17th
Last updateFri, 05 Sep 2014 10am
Fundamental Data Structure
Fundamental Data Structures
Abstract data type
In computer science, an abstract data type (ADT) is a mathematical model for a certain class of data structures that have similar behavior; or for certain data types of one or more programming languages that have similar semantics. An abstract data type is defined indirectly, only by the operations that may be performed on it and by mathematical constraints on the effects (and possibly cost) of those operations.[1]
For example, an abstract stack data structure could be defined by three operations: push, that inserts some data item onto the structure, pop, that extracts an item from it (with the constraint that each pop always returns the most recently pushed item that has not been popped yet), and peek, that allows data on top of the structure to be examined without removal. When analyzing the efficiency of algorithms that use stacks, one may also specify that all operations take the same time no matter how many items have been pushed into the stack, and that the stack uses a constant amount of storage for each element.
The term abstract data type can also be regarded as a generalized approach of a number of algebraic structures, such as lattices, groups, and rings.[2] This can be treated as part of subject area of artificial intelligence. The notion of abstract data types is related to the concept of data abstraction, important in object-oriented programming and design by contract methodologies for software development.
Defining an abstract data type (ADT)
Imperative abstract data type definitions
In the "imperative" view, which is closer to the philosophy of imperative programming languages, an abstract data structure is conceived as an entity that is mutable meaning that it may be in different states at different times.
Abstract data type 2
Abstract variable
fetch(V), that yields a value;with the constraint that
Instance creation
• the result of create() is distinct from any instance S in use by the algorithm. This axiom may be strengthened to exclude also partial aliasing with other instances. On the other hand, this axiom still allows implementations of create() to yield a previously created instance that has become inaccessible to the program.
Abstract data type 3
Preconditions, post-conditions, and invariants
Example: abstract stack (imperative)
pop(S), that yields a value as a result; with the constraint that
• For any value x and any abstract variable V, the sequence of operations { push(S,x); V pop(S) } is equivalent to { V x }; Since the assignment { V x }, by definition, cannot change the state of S, this condition implies that { V ← pop(S) } restores S to the state it had before the { push(S,x) }. From this condition and from the properties of abstract variables, it follows, for example, that the sequence { push(S,x); push(S,y); U pop(S); push(S,z); V pop(S); W pop(S); } where x,y, and z are any values, and U, V, W are pairwise distinct variables, is equivalent to { U y; V z; W x } Here it is implicitly assumed that operations on a stack instance do not modify the state of any other ADT instance, including other stacks; that is,
create() S for any stack S (a newly created stack is distinct from all previous stacks)
Single-instance style
Functional ADT definitions
Example: abstract stack (functional)
top: takes a stack state, returns a value;
pop: takes a stack state, returns a stack state; with the following axioms:
top(push(s,x)) = x (pushing an item onto a stack leaves it at the top)
pop(push(s,x)) = s (pop undoes the effect of push)
push(Λ,x) Λ
Abstract data type 5
Advantages of abstract data typing
• Encapsulation
• Localization of change
• Flexibility
Typical operations
print(s) or show(s), that produces a human-readable representation of the structure's state. In imperative-style ADT definitions, one often finds also
clone(t), that performs s new(), copy(s,t), and returns s;
• Container
• Deque
• List
• Map
• Multimap
• Multiset
• Priority queue
• Queue Abstract data type 6
• Set
• Stack
• String
• Tree
Implementing an ADT means providing one procedure or function for each abstract operation. The ADT instances are represented by some concrete data structure that is manipulated by those procedures, according to the ADT's specifications. Usually there are many ways to implement the same ADT, using several different concrete data structures. Thus, for example, an abstract stack can be implemented by a linked list or by an array. An ADT implementation is often packaged as one or more modules, whose interface contains only the signature (number and types of the parameters and results) of the operations. The implementation of the module namely, the bodies of the procedures and the concrete data structure used can then be hidden from most clients of the module. This makes it possible to change the implementation without affecting the clients. When implementing an ADT, each instance (in imperative-style definitions) or each state (in functional-style definitions) is usually represented by a handle of some sort.[3] Modern object-oriented languages, such as C++ and Java, support a form of abstract data types. When a class is used as a type, it is an abstract type that refers to a hidden representation. In this model an ADT is typically implemented as a class, and each instance of the ADT is an object of that class. The module's interface typically declares the constructors as ordinary procedures, and most of the other ADT operations as methods of that class. However, such an approach does not easily encapsulate multiple representational variants found in an ADT. It also can undermine the extensibility of object-oriented programs. In a pure object-oriented program that uses interfaces as types, types refer to behaviors not representations.
Example: implementation of the stack ADT
Imperative-style interface
An imperative-style interface might be: typedef struct stack_Rep stack_Rep; /* Type: instance representation (an opaque record). */
Abstract data type 7 int stack_empty(stack_T ts); /* Check whether stack is empty. */
This implementation could be used in the following manner:#include <stack.h> /* Include the stack interface. */
Functional-style interface
Functional-style ADT definitions are more appropriate for functional programming languages, and vice-versa. However, one can provide a functional style interface even in an imperative language like C. For example:
ADT libraries
Built-in abstract data types
[1] Barbara Liskov, Programming with Abstract Data Types, in Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Very High Level Languages, pp. 50--59, 1974, Santa Monica, California
• Mitchell, John C.; Plotkin, Gordon (July 1988). "Abstract Types Have Existential Type" (http:/ / theory. stanford. edu/ ~jcm/ papers/ mitch-plotkin-88. pdf). ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems 10 (3).
External links
• Abstract data type (http:/ / www. nist. gov/ dads/ HTML/ abstractDataType. html) in NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures Data structure
Data structure
• A set is an abstract data structure that can store specific values, without any particular order, and no repeated values. Values themselves are not retrieved from sets, rather one tests a value for membership to obtain a Boolean "in" or "not in".
• An object contains a number of data fields, like a record, and also a number of program code fragments for accessing or modifying them. Data structures not containing code, like those above, are called plain old data structure.Many others are possible, but they tend to be further variations and compounds of the above.
Data structure
Basic principles
Language support
Most assembly languages and some low-level languages, such as BCPL(Basic Combined Programming Language), lack support for data structures. Many high-level programming languages, and some higher-level assembly languages, such as MASM, on the other hand, have special syntax or other built-in support for certain data structures, such as vectors (one-dimensional arrays) in the C language or multi-dimensional arrays in Pascal. Most programming languages feature some sorts of library mechanism that allows data structure implementations to be reused by different programs. Modern languages usually come with standard libraries that implement the most common data structures. Examples are the C++ Standard Template Library, the Java Collections Framework, and Microsoft's .NET Framework. Modern languages also generally support modular programming, the separation between the interface of a library module and its implementation. Some provide opaque data types that allow clients to hide implementation details. Object-oriented programming languages, such as C++, Java and .NET Framework may use classes for this purpose. Many known data structures have concurrent versions that allow multiple computing threads to access the data structure simultaneously.
[1] Paul E. Black (ed.), entry for data structure in Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures. U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 15 December 2004. Online version (http:/ / www. itl. nist. gov/ div897/ sqg/ dads/ HTML/ datastructur. html) Accessed May 21, 2009.
[2] Entry data structure in the Encyclop.dia Britannica (2009) Online entry (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 152190/data-structure) accessed on May 21, 2009.
Further reading
• Peter Brass, Advanced Data Structures, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
• Donald Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, vol. 1. Addison-Wesley, 3rd edition, 1997.
• Dinesh Mehta and Sartaj Sahni Handbook of Data Structures and Applications, Chapman and Hall/CRC Press, 2007.
• Niklaus Wirth, Algorithms and Data Structures, Prentice Hall, 1985. Data structure 11
External links
• UC Berkeley video course on data structures (http:/ / academicearth. org/ courses/ data-structures)
• Descriptions (http:/ / nist. gov/ dads/ ) from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures
• (http:/ / www. cse. unr. edu/ ~bebis/ CS308/ )
• Data structures course with animations (http:/ / www. cs. auckland. ac. nz/ software/ AlgAnim/ ds_ToC. html)
• Data structure tutorials with animations (http:/ / courses. cs. vt. edu/ ~csonline/ DataStructures/ Lessons/ index.html)
• An Examination of Data Structures from .NET perspective (http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ en-us/ library/aa289148(VS. 71). aspx)
• Schaffer, C. Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis (http:/ / people. cs. vt. edu/ ~shaffer/ Book/ C+ +3e20110915. pdf)
Analysis of algorithms
Cost models
• the logarithmic cost model, also called logarithmic-cost measurement (and variations thereof), assigns a cost to every machine operation proportional to the number of bits involved The latter is more cumbersome to use, so it's only employed when necessary, for example in the analysis of arbitrary-precision arithmetic algorithms, like those used in cryptography. A key point which is often overlooked is that published lower bounds for problems are often given for a model of computation that is more restricted than the set of operations that you could use in practice and therefore there are algorithms that are faster than what would naively be thought possible.[6]
Run-time analysis
Shortcomings of empirical metrics
n (list size) Computer A run-time (in nanoseconds) Computer B run-time (in nanoseconds)
15 7 100,000
65 32 150,000
250 125 200,000
1,000 500 250,000
15 7 100,000
65 32 150,000
250 125 200,000
Orders of growth
Empirical orders of growth
Assuming the execution time follows power rule, k na, the coefficient a can be found [8] by taking empirical measurements of run time at some problem-size points , and calculating so that . If the order of growth indeed follows the power rule, the empirical value of a will stay constant at different ranges, and if not, it will change - but still could serve for comparison of any two given algorithms as to their empirical local orders of growth behaviour. Applied to the above table: Analysis of algorithms 14
n (list size) Computer A run-time (in nanoseconds) Local order of growth (n^_) Computer B run-time (in nanoseconds) Local order of growth (n^_)
15 7 100,000
65 32 1.04 150,000 0.28
250 125 1.01 200,000 0.21
It is clearly seen that the first algorithm exhibits a linear order of growth indeed following the power rule. The empirical values for the second one are diminishing rapidly, suggesting it follows another rule of growth and in any case has much lower local orders of growth (and improving further still), empirically, than the first one.
Evaluating run-time complexity
The run-time complexity for the worst-case scenario of a given algorithm can sometimes be evaluated by examining the structure of the algorithm and making some simplifying assumptions. Consider the following pseudocode: 1 get a positive integer from input
2 if n > 10
3 print "This might take a while..."
4 for i = 1 to n
5 for j = 1 to i
A given computer will take a discrete amount of time to execute each of the instructions involved with carrying out this algorithm. The specific amount of time to carry out a given instruction will vary depending on which instruction is being executed and which computer is executing it, but on a conventional computer, this amount will be deterministic.[9] Say that the actions carried out in step 1 are considered to consume time T1, step 2 uses time T2, and so forth. In the algorithm above, steps 1, 2 and 7 will only be run once. For a worst-case evaluation, it should be assumed that step 3 will be run as well. Thus the total amount of time to run steps 1-3 and step 7 is: The loops in steps 4, 5 and 6 are trickier to evaluate. The outer loop test in step 4 will execute ( n + 1 ) times (note that an extra step is required to terminate the for loop, hence n + 1 and not n executions), which will consume T4( n +1 ) time. The inner loop, on the other hand, is governed by the value of i, which iterates from 1 to n. On the first pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 1: The inner loop makes one pass, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes T6 time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 2T5 time. During the next pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 2: the inner loop makes two passes, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes 2T6 time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 3T5 time. Altogether, the total time required to run the inner loop body can be expressed as an arithmetic progression: Analysis of algorithms 15 which can be factored[10] as The total time required to run the inner loop test can be evaluated similarly: which can be factored as Therefore the total running time for this algorithm is: which reduces to As a rule-of-thumb, one can assume that the highest-order term in any given function dominates its rate of growth and thus defines its run-time order. In this example, n² is the highest-order term, so one can conclude that f(n) = O(n²). Formally this can be proven as follows: Prove that (for n 0) Let k be a constant greater than or equal to [T1..T7] (for n 1) Therefore for A more elegant approach to analyzing this algorithm would be to declare that [T1..T7] are all equal to one unit of time greater than or equal to [T1..T7]. This would mean that the algorithm's running time breaks down as follows:[11] (for n 1)
Growth rate analysis of other resources
The methodology of run-time analysis can also be utilized for predicting other growth rates, such as consumption of memory space. As an example, consider the following pseudocode which manages and reallocates memory usage by a program based on the size of a file which that program manages: while (file still open) let n = size of file for every 100,000 kilobytes of increase in file size double the amount of memory reserved Analysis of algorithms 16
[2] Juraj Hromkovič (2004). Theoretical computer science: introduction to Automata, computability, complexity, algorithmics, randomization, communication, and cryptography (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KpNet-n262QC& pg=PA177). Springer. pp. 177178. ISBN 978-3-540-14015-3. .
[3] Giorgio Ausiello (1999). Complexity and approximation: combinatorial optimization problems and their approximability properties (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=Yxxw90d9AuMC& pg=PA3). Springer. pp. 38. ISBN 978-3-540-65431-5. .
[4] Wegener, Ingo (2005), Complexity theory: exploring the limits of efficient algorithms (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=u7DZSDSUYlQC& pg=PA20), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 20, ISBN 978-3-540-21045-0,
[5] Robert Endre Tarjan (1983). Data structures and network algorithms (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JiC7mIqg-X4C& pg=PA3).
SIAM. pp. 37. ISBN 978-0-89871-187-5. .
[6] Examples of the price of abstraction? (http:/ / cstheory. stackexchange. com/ questions/ 608/ examples-of-the-price-of-abstraction),cstheory.stack
[7] The term lg is often used as shorthand for log2
[8] How To Avoid O-Abuse and Bribes (http:/ / rjlipton. wordpress. com/ 2009/ 07/ 24/ how-to-avoid-o-abuse-and-bribes/ ), at the blog "Godels Lost Letter and P=NP" by R. J. Lipton, professor of Computer Science at Georgia Tech, recounting idea by Robert Sedgewick
[9] However, this is not the case with a quantum computer
[10] It can be proven by induction that
[12] Note that this is an extremely rapid and most likely unmanageable growth rate for consumption of memory resources
• Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L. & Stein, Clifford (2001). Introduction to Algorithms. Chapter 1: Foundations (Second ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. pp. 3122. ISBN 0-262-03293-7.
Amortized analysis
In computer science, amortized analysis is a method of analyzing algorithms that considers the entire sequence of operations of the program. It allows for the establishment of a worst-case bound for the performance of an algorithm irrespective of the inputs by looking at all of the operations. At the heart of the method is the idea that while certain operations may be extremely costly in resources, they cannot occur at a high-enough frequency to weigh down the entire program because the number of less costly operations will far outnumber the costly ones in the long run, "paying back" the program over a number of iterations.[1] It is particularly useful because it guarantees worst-case performance rather than making assumptions about the state of the program.
Amortized analysis initially emerged from a method called aggregate analysis, which is now subsumed by amortized analysis. However, the technique was first formally introduced by Robert Tarjan in his paper Amortized Computational Complexity, which addressed the need for a more useful form of analysis than the common probabilistic methods used. Amortization was initially used for very specific types of algorithms, particularly those involving binary trees and union operations. However, it is now ubiquitous and comes into play when analyzing many other algorithms as well.[1]
The method requires knowledge of which series of operations are possible. This is most commonly the case with data structures, which have state that persists between operations. The basic idea is that a worst case operation can alter the state in such a way that the worst case cannot occur again for a long time, thus "amortizing" its cost. There are generally three methods for performing amortized analysis: the aggregate method, the accounting method, and the potential method. All of these give the same answers, and their usage difference is primarily circumstantial and due to individual preference.[2]
• Aggregate analysis determines the upper bound T(n) on the total cost of a sequence of n operations, then calculates the average cost to be T(n) / n.[2]
• The accounting method determines the individual cost of each operation, combining its immediate execution time and its influence on the running time of future operations. Usually, many short-running operations accumulate a "debt" of unfavorable state in small increments, while rare long-running operations decrease it drastically.[2]
• The potential method is like the accounting method, but overcharges operations early to compensate for undercharges later.[2]
Common use
• In common usage, an "amortized algorithm" is one that an amortized analysis has shown to perform well.
• Online algorithms commonly use amortized analysis.
Accounting method
In the field of analysis of algorithms in computer science, the accounting method is a method of amortized analysis based on accounting. The accounting method often gives a more intuitive account of the amortized cost of an operation than either aggregate analysis or the potential method. Note, however, that this does not guarantee such analysis will be immediately obvious; often, choosing the correct parameters for the accounting method requires as much knowledge of the problem and the complexity bounds one is attempting to prove as the other two methods. The accounting method is most naturally suited for proving an O(1) bound on time. The method as explained here is for proving such a bound.
The method
Preliminarily, we choose a set of elementary operations which will be used in the algorithm, and arbitrarily set their cost to 1. The fact that the costs of these operations may in reality differ presents no difficulty in principle. What is important, is that each elementary operation has a constant cost. Each aggregate operation is assigned a "payment". The payment is intended to cover the cost of elementary operations needed to complete this particular operation, with some of the payment left over, placed in a pool to be used later. The difficulty with problems that require amortized analysis is that, in general, some of the operations will require greater than constant cost. This means that no constant payment will be enough to cover the worst case cost of an operation, in and of itself. With proper selection of payment, however, this is no longer a difficulty; the expensive operations will only occur when there is sufficient payment in the pool to cover their costs.
Examples A few examples will help to illustrate the use of the accounting method.
Table expansion
It is often necessary to create a table before it is known how much space is needed. One possible strategy is to double the size of the table when it is full. Here we will use the accounting method to show that the amortized cost of an insertion operation in such a table is O(1). Before looking at the procedure in detail, we need some definitions. Let T be a table, E an element to insert, num(T) the number of elements in T, and size(T) the allocated size of T. We assume the existence of operations create_table(n), which creates an empty table of size n, for now assumed to be free, and elementary_insert(T,E), which inserts element E into a table T that already has space allocated, with a cost of 1. The following pseudocode illustrates the table insertion procedure:
function table_insert(T,E)
if num(T) = size(T)
U := create_table(2 × size(T))
for each F in T
T := U elementary_insert(T,E) Without amortized analysis, the best bound we can show for n insert operations is O(n2) this is due to the loop at line 4 that performs num(T) elementary insertions. Accounting method 19 For analysis using the accounting method, we assign a payment of 3 to each table insertion. Although the reason for this is not clear now, it will become clear during the course of the analysis. Assume that initially the table is empty with size(T) = m. The first m insertions therefore do not require reallocation and only have cost 1 (for the elementary insert). Therefore, when num(T) = m, the pool has (3 - 1).m = 2m. Inserting element m + 1 requires reallocation of the table. Creating the new table on line 3 is free (for now). The loop on line 4 requires m elementary insertions, for a cost of m. Including the insertion on the last line, the total cost for this operation is m + 1. After this operation, the pool therefore has 2m + 3 - (m + 1) = m + 2. Next, we add another m - 1 elements to the table. At this point the pool has m + 2 + 2.(m - 1) = 3m. Inserting an additional element (that is, element 2m + 1) can be seen to have cost 2m + 1 and a payment of 3. After this operation, the pool has 3m + 3 - (2m + 1) = m + 2. Note that this is the same amount as after inserting element m + 1. In fact, we can show that this will be the case for any number of reallocations. It can now be made clear why the payment for an insertion is 3. 1 goes to inserting the element the first time it is added to the table, 1 goes to moving it the next time the table is expanded, and 1 goes to moving one of the elements that was already in the table the next time the table is expanded. We initially assumed that creating a table was free. In reality, creating a table of size n may be as expensive as O(n). Let us say that the cost of creating a table of size n is n. Does this new cost present a difficulty? Not really; it turns out we use the same method to show the amortized O(1) bounds. All we have to do is change the payment. When a new table is created, there is an old table with m entries. The new table will be of size 2m. As long as the entries currently in the table have added enough to the pool to pay for creating the new table, we will be all right. We cannot expect the first entries to help pay for the new table. Those entries already paid for the current table. We must then rely on the last entries to pay the cost . This means we must add to the payment for each entry, for a total payment of 3 + 4 = 7.
• Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 17.2: The accounting method, pp. 410412. Potential method 20
Potential method
In computational complexity theory, the potential method is a method used to analyze the amortized time and space complexity of a data structure, a measure of its performance over sequences of operations that smooths out the cost of infrequent but expensive operations.[1][2]
Definition of amortized time
In the potential method, a function Φ is chosen that maps states of the data structure to non-negative numbers. If S is a state of the data structure, Φ(S) may be thought of intuitively as an amount of potential energy stored in that state;[1][2] alternatively, Φ(S) may be thought of as representing the amount of disorder in state S or its distance from an ideal state. The potential value prior to the operation of initializing a data structure is defined to be zero. Let o be any individual operation within a sequence of operations on some data structure, with Sbefore denoting the state of the data structure prior to operation o and Safter denoting its state after operation o has completed. Then, once Φ has been chosen, the amortized time for operation o is defined to be where C is a non-negative constant of proportionality (in units of time) that must remain fixed throughout the analysis. That is, the amortized time is defined to be the actual time taken by the operation plus C times the difference in potential caused by the operation.[1][2]
Relation between amortized and actual time
Despite its artificial appearance, the total amortized time of a sequence of operations provides a valid upper bound on the actual time for the same sequence of operations. That is, for any sequence of operations , the total amortized time is always at least as large as the total actual time . In more detail, where the sequence of potential function values forms a telescoping series in which all terms other than the initial and final potential function values cancel in pairs, and where the final inequality arises from the assumptions that and . Therefore, amortized time can be used to provide accurate predictions about the actual time of sequences of operations, even though the amortized time for an individual operation may vary widely from its actual time.
Amortized analysis of worst-case inputs
Typically, amortized analysis is used in combination with a worst case assumption about the input sequence. With this assumption, if X is a type of operation that may be performed by the data structure, and n is an integer defining the size of the given data structure (for instance, the number of items that it contains), then the amortized time for operations of type X is defined to be the maximum, among all possible sequences of operations on data structures of size n and all operations oi of type X within the sequence, of the amortized time for operation oi. With this definition, the time to perform a sequence of operations may be estimated by multiplying the amortized time for each type of operation in the sequence by the number of operations of that type. Potential method 21
A dynamic array is a data structure for maintaining an array of items, allowing both random access to positions within the array and the ability to increase the array size by one. It is available in Java as the "Array List" type and in Python as the "list" type. A dynamic array may be implemented by a data structure consisting of an array A of items, of some length N, together with a number n N representing the positions within the array that have been used so far. With this structure, random accesses to the dynamic array may be implemented by accessing the same cell of the internal array A, and when n < N an operation that increases the dynamic array size may be implemented simply by incrementing n. However, when n = N, it is necessary to resize A, and a common strategy for doing so is to double its size, replacing A by a new array of length 2n.[3] This structure may be analyzed using a potential function Φ = 2n N. Since the resizing strategy always causes A to be at least half-full, this potential function is always non-negative, as desired. When an increase-size operation does not lead to a resize operation, Φ increases by 2, a constant. Therefore, the constant actual time of the operation and the constant increase in potential combine to give a constant amortized time for an operation of this type. However, when an increase-size operation causes a resize, the potential value of n prior to the resize decreases to zero after the resize. Allocating a new internal array A and copying all of the values from the old internal array to the new one takes O(n) actual time, but (with an appropriate choice of the constant of proportionality C) this is entirely cancelled by the decrease of n in the potential function, leaving again a constant total amortized time for the operation. The other operations of the data structure (reading and writing array cells without changing the array size) do not cause the potential function to change and have the same constant amortized time as their actual time.[2] Therefore, with this choice of resizing strategy and potential function, the potential method shows that all dynamic array operations take constant amortized time. Combining this with the inequality relating amortized time and actual time over sequences of operations, this shows that any sequence of n dynamic array operations takes O(n) actual time in the worst case, despite the fact that some of the individual operations may themselves take a linear amount of time.[2]
The potential function method is commonly used to analyze Fibonacci heaps, a form of priority queue in which removing an item takes logarithmic amortized time, and all other operations take constant amortized time.[4] It may also be used to analyze splay trees, a self-adjusting form of binary search tree with logarithmic amortized time per operation.[5]
1] Goodrich, Michael T.; Tamassia, Roberto (2002), "1.5.1 Amortization Techniques", Algorithm Design: Foundations, Analysis and Internet examples, Wiley, pp. 3638.
[2] Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E., Rivest, Ronald L., Stein, Clifford (2001) [1990]. "17.3 The potential method". Introduction to Algorithms (2nd ed.). MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. pp. 412416. ISBN 0-262-03293-7.
[3] Goodrich and Tamassia, 1.5.2 Analyzing an Extendable Array Implementation, pp. 139141; Cormen et al., 17.4 Dynamic tables, pp. 416424.
[4] Cormen et al., Chapter 20, "Fibonacci Heaps", pp. 476497.
[5] Goodrich and Tamassia, Section 3.4, "Splay Trees", pp. 185194. 22 Sequences
Array data type
In computer science, an array type is a data type that is meant to describe a collection of elements (values or variables), each selected by one or more indices (identifying keys) that can be computed at run time by the program. Such a collection is usually called an array variable, array value, or simply array.[1] By analogy with the mathematical concepts of vector and matrix, array types with one and two indices are often called vector type and matrix type, respectively. Language support for array types may include certain built-in array data types, some syntactic constructions (array type constructors) that the programmer may use to define such types and declare array variables, and special notationfor indexing array elements.[1] For example, in the Pascal programming language, the declaration type My Table = array [1..4,1..2] of integer, defines a new array data type called MyTable. The declaration var A: MyTable then defines a variable A of that type, which is an aggregate of eight elements, each being an integervariable identified by two indices. In the Pascal program, those elements are denoted A[1,1], A[1,2], A[2,1],A[4,2].[2] Special array types are often defined by the language's standard libraries.Array types are distinguished from record types mainly because they allow the element indices to be computed at runtime, as in the Pascal assignment A[I,J] := A[N-I,2*J]. Among other things, this feature allows a single iterative statement to process arbitrarily many elements of an array variable.
Assembly languages and low-level languages like BCPL[3] generally have no syntactic support for arrays. Because of the importance of array structures for efficient computation, the earliest high-level programming languages, including FORTRAN (1957), COBOL (1960), and Algol 60 (1960), provided support for multi-dimensional arrays.
Abstract arrays
An array data structure can be mathematically modeled as an abstract data structure (an abstract array) with two operations get(A, I): the data stored in the element of the array A whose indices are the integer tuple I. set(A,I,V): the array that results by setting the value of that element to V. These operations are required to satisfy the axioms[4] get(set(A,I, V), I) = V get(set(A,I, V), J) = get(A, J) if I J
Array data type 23 for any array state A, any value V, and any tuples I, J for which the operations are defined.
Language support
Multi-dimensional arrays
Indexing notation
Index types
Bounds checking
Index origin
Some languages, such as C, provide only zero-based array types, for which the minimum valid value for any index is 0. This choice is convenient for array implementation and address computations. With a language such as C, a pointer to the interior of any array can be defined that will symbolically act as a pseudo-array that accommodates negative indices. This works only because C does not check an index against bounds when used. Other languages provide only one-based array types, where each index starts at 1; this is the traditional convention in mathematics for matrices and mathematical sequences. A few languages, such as Pascal, support n-based array types, whose minimum legal indices are chosen by the programmer. The relative merits of each choice have been the subject of heated debate. Neither zero-based nor one-based indexing has any natural advantage in avoiding off-by-one or fencepost errors. See comparison of programming languages (array) for the base indices used by various languages. The 0-based/1-based debate is not limited to just programming languages. For example, the elevator button for the ground-floor of a building is labeled "0" in France and many other countries, but "1" in the USA.
Highest index
Array algebra
Some programming languages (including APL, Matlab, and newer versions of Fortran) directly support array programming, where operations and functions defined for certain data types are implicitly extended to arrays of elements of those types. Thus one can write A+B to add corresponding elements of two arrays A and B. The multiplication operation may be merely distributed over corresponding elements of the operands (APL) or may be Array data type 25 interpreted as the matrix product of linear algebra (Matlab).
String types and arrays
Array index range queries
[1] Robert W. Sebesta (2001) Concepts of Programming Languages. Addison-Wesley. 4th edition (1998), 5th edition (2001), ISBN 0-201-38596-1 ISBN13: 9780201385960
[2] K. Jensen and Niklaus Wirth, PASCAL User Manual and Report. Springer. Paperback edition (2007) 184 pages, ISBN 3-540-06950-X ISBN 978-3540069508
[3] John Mitchell, Concepts of Programming Languages. Cambridge University Press.
[5] see the definition of a matrix
External links
• NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Array (http:/ / www. nist. gov/ dads/ HTML/ array. html)
Array data structure
In computer science, an array data structure or simply an array is a data structure consisting of a collection of elements (values or variables), each identified by at least one array index or key. An array is stored so that the position of each element can be computed from its index tuple by a mathematical formula.[1][2][3] For example, an array of 10 integer variables, with indices 0 through 9, may be stored as 10 words at memory addresses 2000, 2004, 2008, 2036, so that the element with index i has the address 2000 + 4 . i.[4] Arrays are analogous to the mathematical concepts of vectors, matrices, and tensors. Indeed, arrays with one or two indices are often called vectors or matrices, respectively. Arrays are often used to implement tables, especially lookup tables; the word table is sometimes used as a synonym of array. Arrays are among the oldest and most important data structures, and are used by almost every program. They are also used to implement many other data structures, such as lists and strings. They effectively exploit the addressing logic of computers. In most modern computers and many external storage devices, the memory is a one-dimensional array of words, whose indices are their addresses. Processors, especially vector processors, are often optimized for array operations.
Array element identifier and addressing formulas
When data objects are stored in an array, individual objects are selected by an index that is usually a non-negative scalar integer. Indices are also called subscripts. An index maps the array value to a stored object. There are three ways in which the elements of an array can be indexed:
n-based indexing also allow negative index values and other scalar data types like enumerations, or characters may be used as an array index. Arrays can have multiple dimensions, thus it is not uncommon to access an array using multiple indices. For example a two dimensional array A with three rows and four columns might provide access to the element at the 2nd row and 4th column by the expression: A[1, 3] (in a row major language) and A[3, 1] (in a column major language) in the case of a zero-based indexing system. Thus two indices are used for a two dimensional array, three for a three dimensional array, and n for an n dimensional array. The number of indices needed to specify an element is called the dimension, dimensionality, or rank of the array. In standard arrays, each index is restricted to a certain range of consecutive integers (or consecutive values of some enumerated type), and the address of an element is computed by a "linear" formula on the indices. Array data structure 28
One-dimensional arrays
A one-dimensional array (or single dimension array) is a type of linear array. Accessing its elements involves a single subscript which can either represent a row or column index. As an example consider the C declaration int an Array Name[10];Syntax : datatype anArrayname[sizeofArray];
In the given example the array can contain 10 elements of any value available to the int type. In C, the array element indices are 0-9 inclusive in this case. For example, the expressions anArrayName[0], and an ArrayName[9] are the first and last elements respectively.
that element "zeroth" rather than "first". However, one can choose the index of the first element by an appropriate choice of the base address B. For example,
if the array has five elements, indexed 1 through 5, and the base address B is replaced by B 30c, then the indices of those same elements will be 31 to 35. If the numbering does not start at 0, the constant B may not be the address of any element.
Multidimensional arrays
For a two-dimensional array, the element with indices i,j would have address B + c · i + d · j, where the coefficients c and d are the row and column address increments, respectively.More generally, in a k-dimensional array, the address of an element with indices i1, i2, , ik is
B + c1 · i1 + c2 · i2 + + ck · ik.
For example: int a[3][2];
This means that array a has 3 rows and 2 columns, and the array is of integer type. Here we can store 6 elements they are stored linearly but starting from first row linear then continuing with second row. The above array will be stored as a11, a12, a13, a21, a22, a23. This formula requires only k multiplications and k1 additions, for any array that can fit in memory. Moreover, if any coefficient is a fixed power of 2, the multiplication can be replaced by bit shifting. The coefficients ck must be chosen so that every valid index tuple maps to the address of a distinct element. If the minimum legal value for every index is 0, then B is the address of the element whose indices are all zero. As in the one-dimensional case, the element indices may be changed by changing the base address B. Thus, if a two-dimensional array has rows and columns indexed from 1 to 10 and 1 to 20, respectively, then replacing B by B +c1 - 3 c1 will cause them to be renumbered from 0 through 9 and 4 through 23, respectively. Taking advantage of this feature, some languages (like FORTRAN 77) specify that array indices begin at 1, as in mathematical tradition; while other languages (like Fortran 90, Pascal and Algol) let the user choose the minimum value for each index.
Dope vectors
The addressing formula is completely defined by the dimension d, the base address B, and the increments c1, c2, ,ck. It is often useful to pack these parameters into a record called the array's descriptor or stride vector or dope vector.[2][3] The size of each element, and the minimum and maximum values allowed for each index may also beincluded in the dope vector. The dope vector is a complete handle for the array, and is a convenient way to passarrays as arguments to procedures. Many useful array slicing operations (such as selecting a sub-array, swapping indices, or reversing the direction of the indices) can be performed very efficiently by manipulating the dope Array data structure 29 vector.[2]
Compact layouts
Often the coefficients are chosen so that the elements occupy a contiguous area of memory. However, that is not necessary. Even if arrays are always created with contiguous elements, some array slicing operations may create non-contiguous sub-arrays from them. There are two systematic compact layouts for a two-dimensional array. For example, consider the matrix in the row-major order layout (adopted by C for statically declared arrays), the elements in each row are stored in consecutive positions and all of the elements of a row have a lower address than any of the elements of a consecutive row:1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
In column-major order (traditionally used by Fortran), the elements in each column are consecutive in memory and all of the elements of a columns have a lower address than any of the elements of a consecutive column:1 4 7 2 5 8 3 6 9
Array resizing
Non-linear formulas
Both store and select take (deterministic worst case) constant time. Arrays take linear (O(n)) space in the number of elements n that they hold. In an array with element size k and on a machine with a cache line size of B bytes, iterating through an array of n elements requires the minimum of ceiling(nk/B) cache misses, because its elements occupy contiguous memorylocations. This is roughly a factor of B/k better than the number of cache misses needed to access n elements atrandom memory locations. As a consequence, sequential iteration over an array is noticeably faster in practice thaniteration over many other data structures, a property called locality of reference (this does not mean however, thatusing a perfect hash or trivial hash within the same (local) array, will not be even faster - and achievable in constant time). Libraries provide low-level optimized facilities for copying ranges of memory (such as memcpy) which can be used to move contiguous blocks of array elements significantly faster than can be achieved through individual element access. The speedup of such optimized routines varies by array element size, architecture, and implementation.
Meaning of dimension
Dynamic array
Several values are inserted at the end of a dynamic array using geometric expansion. Grey cells indicate space reserved for expansion. Most insertions are fast (constant time), while some are slow due to the need for reallocation (Θ(n) time, labelled with turtles). The logical size and capacity of the final array are shown. In computer science, a dynamic array, growable array, resizable array, dynamic table, mutable array, or array list is a randomaccess, variable-size list data structure that allows elements to be addedor removed. It is supplied with standard libraries in many modern
mainstream programming languages. A dynamic array is not the same thing as a dynamically allocated array, which is a fixed-size array whose size is fixed when the array is allocated, although a dynamic array may use such a fixed-size array as a back end.[1]
Bounded-size dynamic arrays and capacity The simplest dynamic array is constructed by allocating a fixed-sizearray and then dividing it into two parts: the first stores the elements of the dynamic array and the second is reserved, or unused. We can then add or remove elements at the end of the dynamic array in constant time by using the reserved space, until this space is completely consumed. The number of elements used by the dynamic array contents is its logical size or size, while the size of the underlying array is called the dynamic array's capacity, which is the maximum possible size without relocating data.
In applications where the logical size is bounded, the fixed-size data structure suffices. This may be short-sighted, when problems with the array filling up turn up later. It is best to put resize code into any array, to respond to new conditions. Then choosing initial capacity is optimization, not getting the program to run. Resizing the underlying array is an expensive task, typically involving copying the entire contents of the array.
Geometric expansion and amortized cost
To avoid incurring the cost of resizing many times, dynamic arrays resize by a large amount, such as doubling in size, and use the reserved space for future expansion. The operation of adding an element to the end might work as follows:
As n elements are inserted, the capacities form a geometric progression. Expanding the array by any constant proportion ensures that inserting n elements takes O(n) time overall, meaning that each insertion takes amortized constant time. The value of this proportion a leads to a time-space tradeoff: the average time per insertion operation Dynamic array 33
is about a/(a1), while the number of wasted cells is bounded above by (a1)n. The choice of a depends on the library or application: some textbooks use a = 2,[2][3] but Java's ArrayList implementation uses a = 3/2[1] and the C implementation of Python's list data structure uses a = 9/8.[4] Many dynamic arrays also deallocate some of the underlying storage if its size drops below a certain threshold, such as 30% of the capacity. This threshold must be strictly smaller than 1/a in order to support mixed sequences of insertions and removals with amortized constant cost. Dynamic arrays are a common example when teaching amortized analysis.[2][3] Compared to linked lists, dynamic arrays have faster indexing (constant time versus linear time) and typically faster iteration due to improved locality of reference; however, dynamic arrays require linear time to insert or delete at an arbitrary location, since all following elements must be moved, while linked lists can do this in constant time. This disadvantage is mitigated by the gap buffer and tiered vector variants discussed under Variants below. Also, in a highly fragmented memory region, it may be expensive or impossible to find contiguous space for a large dynamic array, whereas linked lists do not require the whole data structure to be stored contiguously. A balanced tree can store a list while providing all operations of both dynamic arrays and linked lists reasonably efficiently, but both insertion at the end and iteration over the list are slower than for a dynamic array, in theory and in practice, due to non-contiguous storage and tree traversal/manipulation overhead. Dynamic array 34
Gap buffers are similar to dynamic arrays but allow efficient insertion and deletion operations clustered near the same arbitrary location. Some deque implementations use array deques, which allow amortized constant time insertion/removal at both ends, instead of just one end. Goodrich[9] presented a dynamic array algorithm called Tiered Vectors that provided O(n1/2) performance for order preserving insertions or deletions from the middle of the array.
Hashed Array Tree (HAT) is a dynamic array algorithm published by Sitarski in 1996.[10] Hashed Array Tree wastes order n1/2 amount of storage space, where n is the number of elements in the array. The algorithm has O(1) amortized performance when appending a series of objects to the end of a Hashed Array Tree. In a 1999 paper,[8] Brodnik et al. describe a tiered dynamic array data structure, which wastes only n1/2 space for n elements at any point in time, and they prove a lower bound showing that any dynamic array must waste this muchspace if the operations are to remain amortized constant time. Additionally, they present a variant where growing and shrinking the buffer has not only amortized but worst-case constant time. Bagwell (2002)[11] presented the VList algorithm, which can be adapted to implement a dynamic array.
Language support
C++'s std::vector is an implementation of dynamic arrays, as are the ArrayList[12] classes supplied with the Java API and the .NET Framework. The generic List<> class supplied with version 2.0 of the .NET Framework is also implemented with dynamic arrays. Smalltalk's Ordered Collection is a dynamic array with dynamic start and end-index, making the removal of the first element also O(1). Python's list datatype implementation is a dynamic array. Delphi and D implement dynamic arrays at the language's core. Ada's Ada.Containers.Vectors generic package provides dynamic array implementation for a given subtype. Many scripting languages such as Perl and Ruby offer dynamic arrays as a built-in primitive data type. Several cross-platform frameworks provide dynamic array implementations for C: CFArray and CFMutableArray in Core Foundation; GArray and GPtrArray in GLib.
Linked list
The principal benefit of a linked list over a conventional array is that the list elements can easily be inserted or removed without reallocation or reorganization of the entire structure because the data items need not be stored contiguously in memory or on disk. Linked lists allow insertion and removal of nodes at any point in the list, and can do so with a constant number of operations if the link previous to the link being added or removed is maintained during list traversal. On the other hand, simple linked lists by themselves do not allow random access to the data, or any form of efficient indexing. Thus, many basic operations such as obtaining the last node of the list (assuming that the last node is not maintained as separate node reference in the list structure), or finding a node that contains a given datum, or locating the place where a new node should be inserted may require scanning most or all of the list elements.
Basic concepts and nomenclature
Each record of a linked list is often called an element or node. The field of each node that contains the address of the next node is usually called the next link or next pointer. The remaining fields are known as the data, information, value, cargo, or payload fields. The head of a list is its first node. The tail of a list may refer either to the rest of the list after the head, or to the last node in the list. In Lisp and some derived languages, the next node may be called the cdr (pronounced could-er) of the list, while the payload of the head node may be called the car. Linked list 37 Bob (bottom) has the key to box 201, which contains the first half of the book and a key to box 102, which contains the rest of the book.
Post office box analogy
The concept of a linked list can be explained by a simple analogy to real-world post office boxes. Suppose Alice is a spy who wishes to give a codebook to Bob by putting it in a post office box and then giving him the key. However, the book is too thick to fit in a single post office box, so instead she divides the book into two halves and purchases two post office boxes. In the first box, she puts the first half of the book and a key to the second box, and in the second box she puts the second half of the book. She then gives Bob a key to the first box. No matter how large the book is, this scheme can be extended to any number of boxes by always putting the key to the next box in the previous box. In this analogy, the boxes correspond to elements or nodes, the keys correspond to pointers, and the book itself is the data. The key given to Bob is the head pointer, while those stored in the boxes are next pointers. The scheme as described above is a singly linked list (see below).
Linear and circular lists
In the last node of a list, the link field often contains a null reference, a special value used to indicate the lack of further nodes. A less common convention is to make it point to the first node of the list; in that case the list is said to be circular or circularly linked; otherwise it is said to be open or linear. A circular linked list
Singly, doubly, and multiply linked lists
Singly linked lists contain nodes which have a data field as well as a next field, which points to the next node in the linked list. A singly linked list whose nodes contain two fields: an integer value and a link to the next node In a doubly linked list, each node contains, besides the next-node link, a second link field pointing to the previous node in the sequence. The two links may be called forward(s) and backwards, or next and prev(ious). A doubly linked list whose nodes contain three fields: an integer value, the link forward to the next node, and the link backward to the previous node A technique known as XOR-linking allows a doubly linked list to be implemented using a single link field in eachnode. However, this technique requires the ability to do bit operations on addresses, and therefore may not be available in some high-level languages. Linked list 38 In a multiply linked list, each node contains two or more link fields, each field being used to connect the same set of data records in a different order (e.g., by name, by department, by date of birth, etc.). (While doubly linked lists can be seen as special cases of multiply linked list, the fact that the two orders are opposite to each other leads to simpler and more efficient algorithms, so they are usually treated as a separate case.) In the case of a circular doubly linked list, the only change that occurs is that end, or "tail", of the said list is linked back to the front, or "head", of the list and vice versa.
Sentinel nodes
Empty lists
Hash linking
List handles
Combining alternatives
Linked lists vs. dynamic arrays
A dynamic array is a data structure that allocates all elements contiguously in memory, and keeps a count of the current number of elements. If the space reserved for the dynamic array is exceeded, it is reallocated and (possibly) copied, an expensive operation. Linked lists have several advantages over dynamic arrays. Insertion or deletion of an element at a specific point of a list, assuming that we have a pointer to the node (before the one to be removed, or before the insertion point) already, is a constant-time operation, whereas insertion in a dynamic array at random locations will require moving half of the elements on average, and all the elements in the worst case. While one can "delete" an element from an array in constant time by somehow marking its slot as "vacant", this causes fragmentation that impedes the performance of iteration.
Another disadvantage of linked lists is the extra storage needed for references, which often makes them impractical for lists of small data items such as characters or boolean values, because the storage overhead for the links may exceed by a factor of two or more the size of the data. In contrast, a dynamic array requires only the space for the data itself (and a very small amount of control data).[5] It can also be slow, and with a naive allocator, wasteful, to allocate memory separately for each new element, a problem generally solved using memory pools. Some hybrid solutions try to combine the advantages of the two representations. Unrolled linked lists store several elements in each list node, increasing cache performance while decreasing memory overhead for references. CDR coding does both these as well, by replacing references with the actual data referenced, which extends off the end of the referencing record.
However, it is exceptionally easy to find the nth person in the circle by directly referencing them by their position in the array. The list ranking problem concerns the efficient conversion of a linked list representation into an array. Although trivial for a conventional computer, solving this problem by a parallel algorithm is complicated and has been the subject of much research. A balanced tree has similar memory access patterns and space overhead to a linked list while permitting much more efficient indexing, taking O(log n) time instead of O(n) for a random access. However, insertion and deletion operations are more expensive due to the overhead of tree manipulations to maintain balance. Efficient schemes exist for trees to automatically maintain themselves in almost-balanced state, like AVL trees or red-black trees.
Singly linked linear lists vs. other lists
While doubly linked and/or circular lists have advantages over singly linked linear lists, linear lists offer some advantages that make them preferable in some situations. For one thing, a singly linked linear list is a recursive data structure, because it contains a pointer to a smaller object of the same type. For that reason, many operations on singly linked linear lists (such as merging two lists, or enumerating the elements in reverse order) often have very simple recursive algorithms, much simpler than any solution using iterative commands. While one can adapt those recursive solutions for doubly linked and circularly linked lists, the procedures generally need extra arguments and more complicated base cases.
Linear singly linked lists also allow tail-sharing, the use of a common final portion of sub-list as the terminal portion of two different lists. In particular, if a new node is added at the beginning of a list, the former list remains available as the tail of the new one a simple example of a persistent data structure. Again, this is not true with the other variants: a node may never belong to two different circular or doubly linked lists. In particular, end-sentinel nodes can be shared among singly linked non-circular lists. One may even use the same end-sentinel node for every such list. In Lisp, for example, every proper list ends with a link to a special node, denoted by nil or (), whose CAR and CDR links point to itself. Thus a Lisp procedure can safely take the CAR or CDR of any list. Indeed, the advantages of the fancy variants are often limited to the complexity of the algorithms, not in their efficiency. A circular list, in particular, can usually be emulated by a linear list together with two variables that point to the first and last nodes, at no extra cost.
Doubly linked vs. singly linked
Circularly linked vs. linearly linked
Using sentinel nodes
Another example is the merging two sorted lists: if their sentinels have data fields set to +, the choice of the next output node does not need special handling for empty lists. However, sentinel nodes use up extra space (especially in applications that use many short lists), and they may complicate other operations (such as the creation of a new empty list). However, if the circular list is used merely to simulate a linear list, one may avoid some of this complexity by adding a single sentinel node to every list, between the last and the first data nodes. With this convention, an empty list consists of the sentinel node alone, pointing to itself via the next-node link. The list handle should then be a pointer to the last data node, before the sentinel, if the list is not empty; or to the sentinel itself, if the list is empty.
Linked list operations
Linearly linked lists
Singly linked lists
record Node { data; // The data being stored in the node Node next // A reference to the next node, null for last node}
record List { Node firstNode // points to first node of list; null for empty list } Traversal of a singly linked list is simple, beginning at the first node and following each next link until we come to the end: node := list.firstNode
while node not null (do something with
node :=
list.firstNode := newNode
Linked list 43
function removeAfter(node node) // remove node past this one
obsoleteNode := := destroy obsoleteNode
function removeBeginning(List list) // remove first node
obsoleteNode := list.firstNode
list.firstNode := // point past deleted node
destroy obsoleteNode
Thus, if two linearly linked lists are each of length , list appending has asymptotic time complexity of . In the Lisp family of languages, list appending is provided by the append procedure.
the list. This ensures that there are no special cases for the beginning of the list and renders both insert Beginning() and removeBeginning() unnecessary. In this case, the first useful data in the list will be found at
Linked list 44
Circularly linked list
Circularly linked lists can be either singly or doubly linked.
function iterate(someNode)
if someNode null
node := someNode
do something with node.value node :=
while node someNode
Notice that the test "while node someNode" must be at the end of the loop. If the test was moved to the beginning of the loop, the procedure would fail whenever the list had only one node.
function insertAfter(Node node, Node newNode)
if node = null := newNode
else := := newNode
insertAfter(L, newNode)
L := newNode
insertAfter(L, newNode)
if L = null
L := newNode
Linked list 45
Linked lists using arrays of nodes
As an example, consider the following linked list record that uses arrays instead of pointers: record Entry {
integer next; // index of next entry in array
string name;
real balance;
integer listHead
Entry Records[1000]
field within a given element. For example:
Index Next Prev Name Balance
0 1 4 Jones, John 123.45
1 -1 0 Smith, Joseph 234.56
2 (listHead) 4 -1 Adams, Adam 0.00
3 Ignore, Ignatius 999.99
4 0 2 Another, Anita 876.54
i := listHead
while i 0 // loop through the list
i := Records[i].next
Linked list 46
This leads to the following issues:
• It increase complexity of the implementation.
node in a large, general memory pool may be easier.
Language support
Internal and external storage
Linked list 47
Example of internal and external storage
record member { // member of a family
member next;
string firstName;
integer age;
record family { // the family itself
family next;
string lastName;
string address;
member members // head of list of members of this family
aFamily := Families // start at head of families list
while aFamily null // loop through list of families
print information about family
while aMember null // loop through list of members
print information about member
aMember :=
aFamily :=
Using external storage, we would create the following structures:
record node { // generic link structure
About AWL
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Word Study
centifidous | centifolious | centigrade | centigrade scale | centigrade thermometer | centigram | centigramme | centile | centiliter | centilitre | centiloquy
centigramn. [F. centigramme; centi- (L. centum) + gramme. See Gram.].
The hundredth part of a gram; a weight equal to .15432 of a grain. See Gram. [1913 Webster]
centigram, n. (also centigramme) a metric unit of mass, equal to one-hundredth of a gram.
N gravity, gravitation, weight, heaviness, specific gravity, pondorosity, pressure, load, burden, burthen, ballast, counterpoise, lump of, mass of, weight of, lead, millstone, mountain, Ossa on Pelion, weighing, ponderation, trutination, weights, avoirdupois weight, troy weight, apothecaries' weight, grain, scruple, drachma, ounce, pound, lb, arroba, load, stone, hundredweight, cwt, ton, long ton, metric ton, quintal, carat, pennyweight, tod, gram, centigram, milligram, microgram, kilogram, nanogram, picogram, femtogram, attogram, balance, scale, scales, steelyard, beam, weighbridge, spring balance, piezoelectric balance, analytical balance, two-pan balance, one-pan balance, postal scale, baby scale, statics, weighty, weighing, heavy as lead, ponderous, ponderable, lumpish, lumpy, cumbersome, burdensome, cumbrous, unwieldy, massive, incumbent, superincumbent.
For further exploring for "centigram" in Webster Dictionary Online
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The Dark Origins of Human Sacrifice in Society Today
Article by Leo Zagami
The custom of human sacrifice is evident in a multitude of cultures and regions around the world. Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans, usually as an offering to a deity. Past physical evidence of such evil practice came prevalently from Mesopotamia, the Shang dynasty era China, and the Aztec world of Mesoamerica. Ancient Jews did not forbid human sacrifice, but they banned unnecessary blood effusions, such as inflicted by Mesopotamian worshippers of Baal (who, for example, sacrificed themselves to please their alien-like divinity). Patriarch Abraham was stopped from carrying out the sacrificial throat-cutting of his beloved young son, Isaac, by the “Word of God.” God solely intended to test Abraham’s obeisance and trust, and a surrogate sacrifice was made with an immaculate white raminstead, caught in nearby bushes.
The purpose and reasoning for human sacrificing remains a great mystery for the majority of researchers. It becomes difficult for scholars to pinpoint the origins and rationale for such rituals because they have not been initiated into the secret sects and mystery schools, controlling the established cults and religions that perpetrated them. Due to the emotional and moral dilemma of studying human sacrifice, much of the data and interpretations can be tainted by the personal feelings of the researcher. The majority of people often broadly label human sacrifice as evil and barbaric, having no interest in why such ceremonies occurred and ignore the existence of such ceremonies in today’s society.
Aztec people of Mesoamerica constituted the most well-known civilization for the practice of human sacrifice. Although perhaps the most infamous method of human sacrifice in the Aztec civilization is the excision of the heart, many other methods existed like decapitation, cutting of the throat, being thrown into a fire, being shot with arrows, drowned, being buried alive, or hurled down from the top of a pole or pyramid. Human sacrifice is still practiced to this day around the world and not only by the dark side of the Illuminati.
On January 7, 2016 a teenage boy’s headless body was found near a cremation ground on the road to Bhagwanpur village in the Raigarh district of Chhattisgarh. Next to the headless corpse, earthen lamps, incense sticks, sindoor (vermillion), flowers and a bhoj-patra (plate) were strewn about. The father later admitted beheading his own son after reading a black magic manual.
“After reading the book, I was convinced that this special puja was the only way to end my miseries. So I beheaded my son,” Bharti admitted to the startled police.
A few months later, in October 2016, again in India, an 18-month-old baby girl was allegedly sacrificed for a black magic ritual in the southern province of Karnataka. So why are such rituals still practiced in India? Black magic rituals are regularly practiced by the Hindu community in various parts of the country for personal gains, property dispute, treasure hunting, and male childbirth. Many Hindus believe in the use of black magic in curing diseases, taking revenge, acquiring wealth, or attracting an unwilling companion. This doesn’t happen only in India, as the practice of ritual killing and human sacrifice continues to take place in several African countries in contravention of the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights and other human rights instruments.
In the 21st-century human beings are still being hunted down, mutilated, murdered, or sacrificed for ritual purposes across the region to help the corrupt African elite maintain their positions. Several cases of kidnapping and disappearance of persons are traced to the vicious schemes and activities of ritualists often working with the dark side of the Illuminati. In most cases, those targeted for ritual sacrifice are vulnerable members of the population — the poor, women, children,the elderly, and people with disabilities.
Ritualists and magicians from certain secret societies hunt for and harvest human body parts to prepare charms and magical concoctions. In some cases, desperate ritualists invade cemeteries and exhume dead bodies to extract body parts. Ritual killing and related human rights abuse take place because many people still believe that the use of charms and the performance of ritual sacrifice can fortify them spiritually, enhance their fortune in business and during elections, or protect them from harm, disease, poverty, accident, death, and destruction. Africa and India have a truly dark side that is present in contemporary Western civilization even if mostly hidden.
The only Satanic sect that appears to condone human sacrifice and “human culling” out in the open these days is the Lilin Society, founded in 2013, in the United States. The Lilin Society presents itself as targeting the “serious practitioners” in search of “Luciferian Gnosis.” The society’s founder, Massachusetts native Asha’Shedim, describes the Church of Satan as “plastic” and says Lilins neither recognize them or the Temple of Set.
“Human sacrifice in the Lilin Society has many methods. There is the physical act through occult ritual, assassinations or staged accidents,”according to Asha’Shedim’s writings, “human sacrifice should only be practiced on those who are adversaries of Satan, and their death should be of benefit to Satan.”
According to Asha’Shedim’s blog, Lilins do not see Satan as the one god, but one of many “dark gods”. They do not worship Satan because “no Satanist shall bow to any god or man.” Instead, Lilins has “a profound appreciation of the acausal entities known as gods or demons. They are something we aspire to become one day.” Besides human sacrifice, Satan and his power can also be experienced through “sorcery” and “living sinister lives”, according to Asha’Shedim (aka Reverend Elijah Lawless, aka Aka Paimon, aka John Putignano) who seems to have well-established links with the dark side of the Illuminati dedicated to Voodoo, the Quimbanda, The Cult of Santa Muerte and to Qliphothic magic…
Leo Zagamy Confessions 666
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Last updateSun, 21 Oct 2018 6pm
The vicious physiology of stress - CNN (article link)
When we experience something threatening or stressful, two things happen immediately. The first thing is what we call the "fight or flight" arousal response. The whole body is gearing up to move quickly to get out danger. And the second thing is that the body releases the stress hormone cortisol. The body gears up immediately in the face of stressful stimuli. It goes to our energy stores, and releases glucose and insulin so that our muscles have the energy to deal with the stress.
see also: Cushing's syndrome, fight or flight, acid-base imbalance |
If you are a sports scientist, you have to make detailed observations of the movement and activities of athletes in a range of solo and team sports. Measuring and improving performance often requires combining physiological, biomechanical and behavioral data to provide a complete picture of performance.
As a trainer, you are aware of the need to provide immediate, specific feedback – whatever the sport. This will most likely include video playback to illustrate errors in technique, to motivate or to summarize improvement over several sessions.
Since hand and eye coordination is the key issue here, eye tracking can play a major role in allowing both scientists and trainers to evaluate and measure the progress of their athletes. In this way, you can effectively train such skills as reaction times, alertness and precision.
In sports involving aircraft, for example, it is important to evaluate fixation duration on cockpit instruments as opposed to the time spent looking outside the plane. In ball sports, on the other hand, research is concentrating on whether professionals focus more on the ball itself or on the target area.
Eye and gaze tracking technology can prove effective in analyzing the following sports:
• Gliding
• Golf
• Tennis
• Basketball
• Cricket
• Shooting
Due to the demanding environments and situations found in most sports, the productive use of eye tracking with real-world tasks requires robust technology that is still easy to wear and non-invasive. It also needs to be fast and easy to configure, comprising a minimum number of components |
Naval history of Japan
The naval history of Japan can be said to begin in early interactions with states on the Asian continent in the early centuries of the 1st millennium, reaching a pre-modern peak of activity during the...
Naval history of Japan - Wikipedia
The Kamikaze Pilot Who Took His Wife On His Last Flight
Even though World War Two had come to an end, the story of a Japanese couple who met their death in a deliberate kamikaze suicide flight against Soviet troops has come to light and has been turned int...
The Remains Of Nearly 400 US Servicemen Killed At Pearl Harbor Are To Be Exhumed
The remains of nearly 400 US servicemen killed at Pearl Harbor are to be exhumed so they may be identified and given individual burials, the US says. The sailors and Marines were aboard the battleship...
Microsoft co-founder: I found sunken Japan battleship
A resarch team led by Microftsoft co-founder Paul Allen says it found a the Japanese battleship Musashi, which sunk off the Philippines during WWII.
Naval history of Japan
The Glorious Imperial Japanese Navy.
Mongol invasions of Japan
The Mongols sent a large amphibious force at Takata Bay. At first were victorious but a typhoon named Kamikaze destroyed their fleet.
Battle of Midway - Video
The Battle of Midway Documentary.
Sky samurais -
Battle of Baekgang
The Battle of Baekgang, also known as Battle of Baekgang-gu or by the Japanese name Battle of Hakusukinoe (白村江の戦い Hakusuki-no-e no Tatakai or Hakusonkō no Tatakai), was a battle between Baekje restora...
Battle of Dan-no-ura
The battle of Dan-no-ura (壇ノ浦の戦い, Dan-no-ura no tatakai) was a major sea battle of the Genpei War, occurring at Dan-no-ura, in the Shimonoseki Strait off the southern tip of Honshū. On March 2...
Battle of Dan-no-ura - Wikipedia
Mongol invasions of Japan
The Mongol invasions of Japan (元寇, Genkō) of 1274 and 1281 were major military efforts undertaken by Kublai Khan to conquer the Japanese islands after the submission of Goryeo (Korea) to vassa...
Mongol invasions of Japan - Wikipedia
Wokou (Chinese: 倭寇; pinyin: Wōkòu; Japanese: わこう Wakō; Korean: 왜구 Waegu), which literally translates to "Japanese pirates" or "dwarf pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China, ...
Wokou - Wikipedia
Nanban trade period
The Nanban trade (南蛮貿易, Nanban bōeki, "Southern barbarian trade") or the Nanban trade period (南蛮貿易時代, Nanban bōeki jidai, "Southern barbarian trade period") in the history of Japan ext...
Nanban trade period - Wikipedia
Red seal ships
Red-seal ships (朱印船, Shuinsen) were Japanese armed merchant sailing ships bound for Southeast Asian ports with a red-sealed letter patent issued by the early Tokugawa shogunate in the first ha...
Red seal ships - Wikipedia
Sakoku (鎖国, "locked country") was the foreign relations policy of Japan under which no foreigner could enter nor could any Japanese leave the country on penalty of death. The policy was enacted b...
Sakoku - Wikipedia
Black Ships
The Black Ships (in Japanese, 黒船, kurofune, Edo Period term) was the name given to Western vessels arriving in Japan in the 16th and 19th centuries.In 1543 Portuguese initiated the first contacts, est...
Black Ships - Wikipedia
Imperial Japanese Navy
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) (Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國海軍 Shinjitai: 大日本帝国海軍 Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun or 日本海軍 Nippon Kaigun, literally "Navy of the Great Japanese Empire") was the navy of the E...
Imperial Japanese Navy - Wikipedia
Battles of the Imperial Japanese Navy
The following are some of the battles of the Imperial Japanese Navy:
Battle of Tsushima
The Battle of Tsushima (Russian: Цусимское сражение, Tsusimskoye srazheniye), commonly known as the “Sea of Japan Naval Battle” (Japanese: 日本海海戦, nihonkai-kaisen) in Japan and the “Battle of Tsush...
Battle of Tsushima - Wikipedia
Imperial Japanese Navy of World War II
The Imperial Japanese Navy in World War II, at the beginning of the Pacific War in December 1941, was the third most powerful navy in the world. During the first years of the war the Imperial Japanese...
Imperial Japanese Navy of World War II - Wikipedia
Purple (cipher machine)
In the history of cryptography, 97-shiki ōbun inji-ki (九七式欧文印字機, "System 97 Printing Machine for European Characters") or Angōki B-kata (暗号機B型, "Type B Cipher Machine"), codenamed Purple by th...
Purple (cipher machine) - Wikipedia
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Attack on Pearl Harbor - Wikipedia
Battle of Midway
The Battle of Midway was a crucial and decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theatre of World War II. Between 4 and 7 June 1942, only six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, and one month aft...
Battle of Midway - Wikipedia
The Kamikaze (神風, [kamikaꜜze]; "Divine" or "spirit wind"), officially Tokubetsu Kōgekitai (特別攻撃隊, "Special Attack Unit"), abbreviated as Tokkō Tai (特攻隊), and used as a verb as Tokkō...
Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II
During the last weeks of World War II, warships of the United States Navy, British Royal Navy, and the Royal New Zealand Navy bombarded several cities and industrial facilities in Japan. Most of these...
Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II - Wikipedia
Japanese Navy
Japanese Navy - Wikipedia
Japanese destroyer Hanazuki
Hanazuki (花月) was an Akizuki-class destroyer of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Her name means "(another name of) March". In June 1947, Hanazuki was turned over to United States as "DD-934", and was ...
Japanese destroyer Hanazuki - Wikipedia |
Fog Collectors: turning fog into drinking water
Climate Adaptation
The German water foundation and Aqualonis are working collaboratively on a large-scale fog-harvesting project in Morocco. A collector called CloudFisher is used to convert fog into water to improve long-term drought. The collector is equipped with fine triangular meshes. When fog passes through the meshes, it will condense into droplets, and then, the collected water will flow into the reservoir through a trough and eventually become drinking water. The device is more robust than other similar systems and can withstand wind speeds of up to 120 kph. Moreover, it is easy to assemble and repair, making it ideal for places where resources are scarce.
One square meter of a net can collect 10-22 liters of water on a fog day depending on region and season. There is a pilot project in Morocco having 31 collectors installed which is capable to produce 37,000 liters of water for residents on a fog day. Thanks to the device, women in Morocco no longer have to go to remote places to get water, they can spend more time learning instead. With more water for irrigation, a stable supply of crops is guaranteed, which helps improve both the health and income of the residents. |
Opioid Addiction
What You Need to Know About Opioids
There are two sides to opioids, the positive and the negative sides. Opioids are medications created initially to help people ease their physical pains. Doctors prescribe opioids most times to people who have an injury or going through dental work or surgery. Opioids are an effective pain reliever, but has a downside to it; it is addictive; it can lead to an overdose crisis, and dangerous when used without the doctor’s counsel. According to the Director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, Nora D Volkow, 2.14 million people from the ages of 12 had an opioid use disorder in 2016.
How Opioids works
Opioids medications pass through the blood and attach to the opioid receptors in the brain cells, then the cells release signals, which mute the perception of pain, and increase the feelings of pleasure. In addition, opioids come in various forms of natural pain-relieving drugs such as morphine (Ms Contin, Kadian, etc.) or synthesized in a laboratory such as fentanyl (Duragesic, Actiq, etc.)
Opioids and Heroin
Heroin is another form of opioids; it relieves pains, it has the same pain relieving components as pain relievers medications, but it is usually injected directly into the vein with a needle. Furthermore, pain relievers and heroin can be addictive and can result in deadly opioid overdoses.
Furthermore, heroin is made from natural substance gotten from the seedpod of opium poppy plants (morphine) in Southeast, and Southwest Asia, Colombia and Mexico. It can enter into the bloodstream through injecting, sniffing, snorting, or smoking. The most common names for heroin include Hell Dust, Big H, Smack, and Horse.
Unfortunately, younger people can easily access heroin in some communities because it is cheaper to get; they opt for heroin instead of opioids, and those who are addicted to opioids later switch to heroin. Nonetheless, less than four percent of people who abuse prescription pain medicines started using heroin with five years. However, we (the society) can prevent the misuse of opioids and reduce the number of people using heroin by ensuring opioids or heroin addicts get the proper treatment.
Why are opioid medications dangerous?
There is a fine line between the benefits and the risks of using the medications. Lower doses of opioids make you sleepy, but it can slow your breathing and heart rate if the patient takes a higher dose, which can lead to death. In addition, the medication gives a pleasurable feeling; this is the reason why it is addictive.
What are the dangers of heroin?
The effects of heroin are the same as opioids medications; it binds to the opioid receptors in the brain and body, which send a rush of dopamine and extreme happiness through the body. Some short-term effects are nausea, severe itching, dry mouth, clouded thinking, and vomiting. In some cases, it can stop breathing, which leads to death while the long term effects include heart infection, collapsed veins (people who inject heroin), insomnia, addiction, and depression.
Furthermore, people who inject drugs have a high chance of getting deadly diseases such as hepatitis C and HIV. These diseases are transmitted through blood and other bodily fluids.
What can be done?
It is highly advisable to follow the doctor’s instructions when taking medications strictly. Also, ensure your doctor knows other drugs and supplements you are on to avoid opioids overdose.Learn more about the NationalDrugAbuse/Opioids
We live in an era where people especially the youths do not want to go through the process of healing; they would rather take or do anything that will ease out the pain in a flash. This is why a lot of youths as stated above are more likely to abuse the use of opioids. Nonetheless, creating awareness of opioids and the dangers of using it without the doctor’s prescription will help many of us to make the right choices and live a healthy lifestyle.
Opioids are powerful medications that can safely help to control acute pain, especially after-surgical operation pains. But it can cause death if taken incorrectly. Encouragement to help you with various forms of addictions.
Encourage Yourself: For help check out this site; Pedialink.com. For an immediate crisis or emergency call 911. DON’T FORGET TO PRAY.
One comment
1. It’s so sad that this crisis is continuing and I’m saddened by the lack luster efforts of politicians to do something about it. I look forward to God’s Kingdom when these issues will be a thing of the past (Daniel 2:44; Revelation 21:3,4). I hope the pharmaceutical companies, doctors and prescribers involved in starting and worsening this epidemic get what they deserve.
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Allopathic medicine, or allopathy, is a term which refers to science-based, modern medicine,[1] such as the use of medications or surgery to treat or suppress symptoms or the ill effects of disease.[2][3] There are regional variations in usage of the term. In the United States, the term is used to contrast with osteopathic medicine, especially in the field of medical education.
The expression was coined in 1810 by the creator of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann.[4] As originally used among homeopaths in the nineteenth century, it was a derogatory term used to refer to traditional medicine of the time which attempted to cure disease by attacking the symptoms, rather than treating their underlying cause. Among homeopaths and other alternative medicine advocates, the expression "allopathic medicine" is still used to refer to "the broad category of medical practice that is sometimes called Western medicine, biomedicine, evidence-based medicine, or modern medicine."[5]
Allopathic medicine and allopathy (from the Greek prefix ἄλλος, állos, "other," "different" + the suffix πάϑος, páthos, "suffering") are terms coined in the early 19th century[6] by Samuel Hahnemann,[4][7] the inventor of homeopathy, as a synonym for the European heroic medicine, the mainstream medicine of the time. Heroic medicine was based on balance of the four "humours" (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) where disease was caused by an excess of one humour, and would thus be treated with its opposite.[8] This description continued to be used to describe anything that was not homeopathy.[8]
The practice of medicine in both Europe and North America during the early 19th century is sometimes referred to as heroic medicine because of the extreme measures (such as bloodletting) sometimes employed in an effort to treat diseases.[9] The term allopath was used by Hahnemann and other early homeopaths to highlight the difference they perceived between homeopathy and the "conventional" heroic medicine of their time.
With the term allopathy (meaning "other than the disease"), Hahnemann intended to point out how physicians with conventional training employed therapeutic approaches that, in his view, merely treated symptoms and failed to address the disharmony produced by underlying disease.[clarification needed] Homeopaths saw such symptomatic treatments as "opposites treating opposites" and believed these methods were harmful to patients.[4]
Practitioners of alternative medicine have used the term "allopathic medicine" to refer to the practice of conventional medicine in both Europe and the United States since the 19th century. In that century, the term allopath was used most often as a derogatory name for the practitioners of heroic medicine,[10][11] a precursor to modern medicine that itself did not rely on evidence of effectiveness.
James Whorton discusses this historical pejorative usage:
As used by homeopaths, the term allopathy has always referred to the principle of curing disease by administering substances that produce other symptoms (when given to a healthy human) than the symptoms produced by a disease. For example, part of an allopathic treatment for fever may include the use of a drug which reduces the fever, while also including a drug (such as an antibiotic) that attacks the cause of the fever (such as a bacterial infection). A homeopathic treatment for fever, by contrast, is one that uses a diluted dosage of a substance that in an undiluted form would induce fever in a healthy person. These preparations are typically diluted so heavily that they no longer contain any actual particles of the original substance. Hahnemann used this term to distinguish medicine as practiced in his time from his use of infinitesimally small (or nonexistent) doses of substances to treat the spiritual causes of illness.
The Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine states that "[Hahnemann] gave an all-embracing name to regular practice, calling it 'allopathy'. This term, however imprecise, was employed by his followers and other unorthodox movements to identify the prevailing methods as constituting nothing more than a competing 'school' of medicine, however dominant in terms of number of practitioner proponents and patients."[14]
Contrary to the present usage, Hahnemann reserved the term "allopathic medicine" to the practice of treating diseases by means of drugs inducing symptoms unrelated (i.e., neither similar nor opposite) to those of the disease. He called the practice of treating diseases by means of drugs producing symptoms opposite to those of the patient "enantiopathic" or "antipathic medicine."[15] After Hahnemann's death, the term "enantiopathy" fell into disuse and the two concepts of allopathy and enantiopathy have been more or less unified. Both, however, indicate what Hahnemann thought about the medical practices of his time, rather than the ideas of the present. Conventional physicians of the 19th century had never assumed that the therapeutic effects of drugs were necessarily related to the symptoms they caused in the healthy (e.g. James Lind systematically tested several common substances and foods for their effect in treating scurvy in 1747 and discovered that lemon juice was specifically effective. He did not conduct any studies of these substances in healthy volunteers).
Use of the term remains common among homeopaths and has spread to other alternative medicine practices. The meaning implied by the label has never been accepted by conventional medicine and is still considered pejorative by some.[16] William Jarvis, an expert on alternative medicine and public health,[17] states that "although many modern therapies can be construed to conform to an allopathic rationale (e.g., using a laxative to relieve constipation), standard medicine has never paid allegiance to an allopathic principle" and that the label "allopath" was "considered highly derisive by regular medicine."[18]
Most modern science-based medical treatments (antibiotics, vaccines, and chemotherapeutics, for example) do not fit Samuel Hahnemann's definition of allopathy, as they seek to prevent illness, or remove the cause of an illness by acting on the cause of disease.[19][20]
The term is used in the modern era to differentiate between two types of US medical schools (both of which teach aspects of science-based medicine and neither of which teach homeopathy): Allopathic (granting the MD title) and Osteopathic (granting the DO title).[21][22]
1. ^ Weatherall, Mark W. (1996-08-01). "Making Medicine Scientific: Empiricism, Rationality, and Quackery in mid-Victorian Britain". Social History of Medicine. 9 (2): 175–194. doi:10.1093/shm/9.2.175. ISSN 0951-631X.
2. ^ Roy, Vandana (2015). "Time to sensitize medical graduates to the Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy". Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 47 (1): 1–3. doi:10.4103/0253-7613.150301. PMC 4375800. PMID 25821302.
4. ^ a b c Whorton JC (2004). Oxford University Press US (ed.). Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America (illustrated ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 18, 52. ISBN 978-0-19-517162-4.
6. ^ Hahnemann S (1810), Organon der Heilkunst, first edition.
10. ^ Bates, DG (September 2002). "Why Not Call Modern Medicine "Alternative"?". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 583 (1): 12–28. doi:10.1177/000271620258300102.
11. ^ Cuellar NG (2006). Conversations in complementary and alternative medicine: insights and perspectives from leading practitioners. Boston: Jones and Bartlett. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7637-3888-4.
13. ^ Whorton, JC (2002). Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517162-4.
14. ^ Bynum, W. F. (2013). Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine. Routledge. p. 608. ISBN 9781136110368.
15. ^ e.g., see Organon, VI edition, paragraphs 54-56
20. ^ Federspil G; Presotto F; Vettor R (2003). "A critical overview of homeopathy". Annals of Internal Medicine. 139 (8): W-75. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-139-8-200310210-00026-w3. Archived from the original on 2003-12-30. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
21. ^ "Two Kinds of Physicians - Health Professions and Prelaw Center - Indiana University - University Division". Retrieved 27 February 2019.
22. ^ Prep, Veritas. "How to Decide Between an M.D. and a D.O." US News and World Report. Retrieved 27 February 2019.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In most contexts, the concept of good denotes the conduct that should be preferred when posed with a choice between possible actions. Good is generally considered to be the opposite of evil, and is of interest in the study of morality, ethics, religion and philosophy. The specific meaning and etymology of the term and its associated translations among ancient and contemporary languages show substantial variation in its inflection and meaning depending on circumstances of place, history, religious, or philosophical context.
History of ideas on the topic[edit]
Plato and Aristotle[edit]
Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum
Although the history of the origin of the use of the concept and meaning of 'good' are diverse, the notable discussions of Plato and Aristotle on this subject have been of significant historical effect. The first references that are seen in Plato's The Republic to the Form of the Good are within the conversation between Glaucon and Socrates (454c–d). When trying to answer such difficult questions pertaining to the definition of justice, Plato identifies that we should not “introduce every form of difference and sameness in nature” instead we must focus on "the one form of sameness and difference that was relevant to the particular ways of life themselves” which is the form of the Good. This form is the basis for understanding all other forms, it is what allows us to understand everything else. Through the conversation between Socrates and Glaucon (508a–c) Plato analogizes the form of the Good with the sun as it is what allows us to see things. Here, Plato describes how the sun allows for sight. But he makes a very important distinction, “sun is not sight” but it is “the cause of sight itself.” As the sun is in the visible realm, the form of Good is in the intelligible realm. It is “what gives truth to the things known and the power to know to the knower”. It is not only the “cause of knowledge and truth, it is also an object of knowledge”.
Plato identifies how the form of the Good allows for the cognizance to understand such difficult concepts as justice. He identifies knowledge and truth as important, but through Socrates (508d–e) says, “good is yet more prized”. He then proceeds to explain “although the good is not being” it is “superior to it in rank and power”, it is what “provides for knowledge and truth” (508e).[2]
In contrast to Plato, Aristotle discusses the Forms of Good in critical terms several times in both of his major surviving ethical works, the Eudemian and Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle argues that Plato's Form of the Good does not apply to the physical world, for Plato does not assign “goodness” to anything in the existing world. Because Plato's Form of the Good does not explain events in the physical world, humans have no reason to believe that the Form of the Good exists and the Form of the Good is thereby irrelevant to human ethics.[3]
Plato and Aristotle were not the first contributors in ancient Greece to the study of the 'good' and discussion preceding them can be found among the pre-Socratic philosophers. In Western civilisation, the basic meanings of κακός and ἀγαθός are "bad, cowardly" and "good, brave, capable", and their absolute sense emerges only around 400 BC, with Pre-Socratic philosophy, in particular Democritus.[4] Morality in this absolute sense solidifies in the dialogues of Plato, together with the emergence of monotheistic thought (notably in Euthyphro, which ponders the concept of piety (τὸ ὅσιον) as a moral absolute). The idea is further developed in Late Antiquity by Neoplatonists, Gnostics, and Church Fathers.
Ancient religions[edit]
Aside from ancient Greek studies of the 'good', the eastern part of ancient Persia almost five thousand years ago a religious philosopher called Zoroaster simplified the pantheon of early Iranian gods[5] into two opposing forces: Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) and Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit) which were in conflict.
This development from the relative or habitual to the absolute is also evident in the terms ethics and morality both being derived from terms for "regional custom", Greek ἦθος and Latin mores, respectively (see also siðr).
Medieval period[edit]
Medieval Christian philosophy was founded on the work of the Bishop Augustine of Hippo and theologian Thomas Aquinas who understood evil in terms of Biblical infallibility and Biblical inerrancy, as well as the influences of Plato and Aristotle in their appreciation of the concept of the Summum bonum. Silent contemplation was the route to appreciation of the Idea of the Good.[8]
Many medieval Christian theologians both broadened and narrowed the basic concept of Good and evil until it came to have several, sometimes complex definitions[9] such as:
Modern ideas[edit]
A significant enlightenment context for studying the 'good' has been its significance in the study of "the good, the true and the beautiful" as found in Immanuel Kant and other Enlightenment philosophers and religious thinkers. These discussion were undertaken by Kant particularly in the context of his Critique of Practical Reason.
Good and evil[edit]
In religion, ethics, and philosophy, "good and evil" is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaean and Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the antagonistic opposite of good. Good is that which should prevail and evil should be defeated.[10] In cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, this antagonistic duality itself must be overcome through achieving Śūnyatā, or emptiness. This is the recognition of good and evil not being unrelated, but two parts of a greater whole; unity, oneness, a Monism.[10]
As a religious concept, basic ideas of a dichotomy between good and evil has developed so that today:
Goodness and morality in biology[edit]
See also[edit]
2. ^ Plato (1992). Republic. Translated by C.D.C. Reeve (2nd ed.). Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Publ. Co. ISBN 978-0-87220-136-1.
3. ^ Fine, Gail (2003). Plato on Knowledge and Forms. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 350. ISBN 0-19-924559-2.
5. ^ Boyce 1979, pp. 6–12.
8. ^ A. Kojeve, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel (1980) p. 108
16. ^ de Waal, Frans (2012). Moral behavior in animals.
Further reading[edit]
• Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge/Kegan Paul 1979; Corrected repr. 1984; repr. with new foreword 2001.
• Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature. 2000. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Ross, W. D. The Right and the Good. 1930. Oxford University Press. |
What are Sustainable Lifestyles? Sustainable lifestyles is a new concept and there are a variety of definitions. This project is using the definition developed by Dr. Lewis Akenji at IGES for the UN Environment report “A framework for shaping sustainable lifestyles: Determinants and Strategies”.
A “sustainable lifestyle” is a cluster of habits and patterns of behaviour embedded in a society and facilitated by institutions, norms and infrastructures that frame individual choice, in order to minimize the use of natural resources and generation of wastes, while supporting fairness and prosperity for all.
What governs these behaviours and choices are a group of diverse and complex drivers reflecting basic needs and desires, the personal situation, socio-technical conditions and physical and natural boundaries. The drivers cover a varied range and show that lifestyle and consumption decision making is determined by many overlapping constraining or liberating factors such as cognitive abilities, psychological, social, economic, policy and institutional frameworks.
Sustainable lifestyles are not then simply a matter of consumer choice, improved awareness and behavioural change, but involve the development of supporting frameworks to ensure sustainable lifestyles in the long term.
This project is devoted to understanding what the current situation is for sustainable lifestyles and the pathways towards future sustainability. During this initial stage of the project we are focused on gathering examples of sustainable lifestyle solutions.
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After a 33-Year Absence, a Lost Beach Returns to Ireland
Source: Atlas Obscura
Top Secret Unmanned Air Force Spaceplane Lands After Two Years in Orbit
‘The US Air Force’s secretive X-37B spaceplane landed yesterday after 718 days in orbit—just twelve days shy of a full two years. What was it doing up there in the sky? The government won’t say. Even the spaceplane’s budget is a secret. But the X-37B’s landing wasn’t so stealth. The spaceplane caused a sonic boomthat woke up people living near NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
The secret, reusable spaceplane is made by Boeing and is unmanned, allowing it to conduct extended missions, even if the public has no idea what those missions might be. This was the X-37B’s fourth mission (all secret, of course) and the spaceplane typically lands in California, not Florida. Again, we don’t know enough about the spaceplane’s purpose to speculate about why it landed in Florida and woke up the neighbors this time around…’
Source: Gizmodo |
18 Matching Annotations
1. May 2019
• 3:25 - some create alternate identities or fake accounts
• 7:30 how should we teach this?
• 7:52 - media are constructed;
• 7:55 - they have commercial considerations;
• 7:58 they have social and political implications;
• 8:00 that audiences negotiate meaning;
2. Jan 2019
1. conversation with each other
key concept - open is a conversation; open pedagogy relates people, ideas, concepts, arguments through conversation - not just vocal but text, annotations, comments
3. May 2018
1. he activity itself (the mental operations and knowledge involved in understanding and writing
links to learning by doing; actions to create knowledge and build understanding
2. (1) the principal functions of note taking: “writing to learn”; (2) the main note taking strategies used by students; (3) the different factors involved in the comprehension and learning of knowledge through note taking; (4) the learning contexts that allow effective note taking: “learning to write.
1. writing to learn
2. strategies
3. comprehension = knowledge building
4. learning to write
4. Nov 2016
1. working openly is a new skill, with unlimited potential for mobilizing knowledge within the education system. We don’t yet value it in the education system.
mobilizing knowledge - important notion. Building collective knowledge and working collaboratively has not always been of value in education. When marks, grades and individual learning are the measured outcome at the end of the process, this will remain the 'coin' upon which learning is banked.
2. the ‘weight’ of the words they might make public
Acknowledging this and recognizing the impact of putting words and work into open/public spaces needs to be a primary consideration for education leaders. These words carry more weight than many realize - weighing each blog post or tweet to ensure that human dignity or security is not disparaged or breached is time consuming and anxiety producing.
3. scaffolded approach to help develop an understanding of digital literacies and support in developing that open practice.
This is essential insight from experience. Everyone needs this scaffolding and support to move from stasis into iterative practice. Fear is an inhibitor to being open. Taking small steps or large leaps toward open educational practice is best done with others - having models and mentors to support and 'push' the practice.
5. Aug 2016
1. edtech startups are unpacking the degree
Not just edtech startups either, some of the big publishing companies are involved.... and it's all for sale! micro-credentialed and granular.
It's so much easier to pick up on the learner focused element and collect analytics for that focus alone. Going with all the other elements is messy and complex - not so easy to pick up on the intricacies between, among these 'stakeholders'.
6. Jan 2016
1. think through
many aren't to this point yet, more thinking about 'how' vs 'why' due to FOMO!
2. ultural experiences are mediated by digital technologies
connecting beyond borders via social media
1. the main advantage of Hypothes.is
it's about choice and voice - shared or silent. I can pick which works for me!
2. I've been asking myself this question and was hesitant to investigate or try it out until this article!
3. What I Like About Hypothes.is
This is the first note attached here! Let's talk about these options together. |
recently I purchased a grammar book to help me prepare for the JLPT N3. One of the constructions I have come across is "〜てからでないと・・・." And I understand it's basic function (I think...). From what I understand it means something like "Unless A occurs B will/can not occur." I have come up with a few example sentences I'll place below. Please feel free to tell me if I have made any mistakes in my usage.
However, after a few days of letting this grammar pattern mull around in my head I started to wonder if there are any inherent difference between the above grammar pattern and using a negative conditional followed by a negative main clause. For example is there a (big) difference between my first example sentence above and the following sentence:
I've tried doing some preliminary research on this grammar point but have not been able to find much online in the way of explaining its nuances. If you know of any resources that got into this further I would greatly appreciate them.
One thing I was also wondering is if this grammar would be something used in spoken language or is it more for written language? Also, if anyone knows a site the clearly identifies which grammar points are mainly used in written and spoken language that would be awesome.
And finally if anyone could help me understand the construction of this grammar point that would be wonderful. From a literal perspective it seems like it means something like "(〜てから) after doing some verb (でないと) if it is not" or rearranged "if it is not after doing some verb." Like I think I can see where the are going with this but it is just not coming to me that intuitively.
Again, any help you can provide is completely welcome and appreciated. :-)
I believe that the ～てからでないと pattern has more chronological order implied. The basic meanings are similar.
Both have the same basic meaning of "If you don't study you won't pass". But the first one has a nuance of "taking the test once you have studied".
Similar idea to 勉強してから、試験を受けないと合格できない vs 勉強しないと、合格できない。
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Petra Herrera
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Women of the Mexican Revolution ("adelitas" or "soldaderas") with crossed bandoliers.
Colonel Petra Herrera, also known as "Pedro Herrera", was a Mexican "soldadera". She fought as a revolutionary in the Mexican Revolution.[1]
Life[change | change source]
Petra Herrera changed herself into "Pedro" Herrera and joined the revolutionary troops of Pancho Villa. She changed her looks and became more masculine. She invented tricks like saying she shaved at dawn before the other soldiers were awake. She was known for her courage, and for her specialty of blowing up bridges.[2]
As "Pedro" Herrera, she was well-liked. She was accepted as a leader. She decided to reveal that she was a woman, but the revolutionary leaders would not give her a military rank.[2]
Fight in Torreón[change | change source]
Herrera decided to leave Pancho Villa's group. She created a group of women who, like her, wanted to fight at the front. Sources say there were tens of thousands of them.[2]
Herrera was in the biggest fight of the war to that date, the second battle of Torreón in 1914.[1] With 400 other women, she took the city on May 30, 1914. Cosme Mendoza Chavira, another follower of Villa, said "Ella fue quien tomo Torreón y apago las luces cuando entraron en la ciudad" (She was the one who took Torreón and turned out the lights when they entered the city.") Conventional history does not say anything about the participation of Petra Herrera. Villa gave the role of Petra Herrera in the revolution to an unknown woman.[3]
The end of her days[change | change source]
At the end of the fighting, she asked to be a general and to continue to fight, but they only gave her a promotion to colonel.[4] Later, the women under her command were disbanded. It is not clear how Herrera died. Some say she finished her military days as a spy. They say she was attacked by bandits and died from the wounds.[2] Others say she died in the cross fire between the federal soldiers and the revolutionaries in Zacatecas. Others say she formed her own brigade of 25,000 women and lived in a camp where men could not enter without being attacked. Still others say she ended her existence as a waitress in the city of Juarez in Chihuahua.[3]
References[change | change source]
1. 1.0 1.1 Briana Madden. "7 Female Revolutionaries That You Didn't Learn About in History Class". U.S. Uncut.
2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Mujeres en la historia: La soldadera, Petra Herrera (Siglo XX)".
3. 3.0 3.1 "La valiente Petra Herrera". Imagen de Zacatecas, el periódico de los zacatecanos.
4. "Petra Herrera". Rejected Princesses. |
What Are the Functions of an Organizational Structure?
by George N. Root III
Organizational structure is made of the different elements that create a flow of communication and ideas throughout a company. The employee hierarchy helps to create a chain of command and responsibility. The communication structure of an organization helps ideas and information to flow from one department to the next. Each of these forms of organizational structure serves a function that allows the company to move forward and continue to grow.
A company hierarchy serves as a vehicle for accountability within the organization. When something goes wrong within a company, the management structure allows the executive team to determine who was accountable for the issue, and then the company can set out to solve the problem. By the same token, a hierarchy structure also allows the company to see where productive ideas are coming from and work to encourage that flow of positive information.
Revenue Growth
The structure of an organization dictates how the company will grow. When a dynamic structure is in place, an organization can grow quickly and accommodate all of the changes that may be associated with fast revenue growth. When the organizational structure in place is not equipped to handle rapid revenue growth, it can be overwhelmed and problems will arise. When a company with a good organizational structure increases revenue the company bills get paid on time, invoices are issued to customers without problem and the company is able to make payroll for its employees. A weak structure could mean bills are paid late, invoices are lost and payroll is delayed.
Product Development
A strong communication structure can help to facilitate the development of new products that can keep a company competitive. When communication through the various departments is structured properly, engineers are given the information they need in a timely manner to help bring new products to market. When the structure is weak, development gets slowed down and new products take too long to get released. A weak product development structure can leave a company constantly chasing the competition and falling behind in market share.
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Freedom: Web censorship in schools
A free school has been opened in Manchester which has very conservative religious values. They want to censor all text books and online content that have images of women with uncovered shoulders. Should a school be allowed to censor online content? Click here to view the related teaching resource.
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A short article on mass surveillance, written by the President of the Open Source Initiative, Simon Phipps. |
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3 Important Questions to Ask Before You Use Deep Learning
Do you think artificial intelligence is the answer to your R&D woes? Not so fast. Here are a few things you should know beforehand.
(Image source: Pixabay)
The decision to use deep learning in your research and development can be a good one. But only if you carefully consider the outcome. With so much hype surrounding AI, and deep learning in particular, it's hard not to jump on the train and think that AI will solve all of your data analysis problems. Speaking at the 2019 Pacific Design and Manufacturing Show, Jesse Livezey, a postdoctoral researcher in the Neural Systems and Engineering Lab at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, said that this is not necessarily the case. Deep neural networks (DNNs) can offer some powerful computing benefits to researchers, but it is not something everyone necessarily needs.
In Livezey's own research, he and his team were able to apply deep learning to speech recognition for brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). The object is to create a BCI that can accurately interpret speech from brainwave patterns to assist the disabled. Livezey's research has found that when deep learning neural networks make errors in correlating consonant vowel sounds, it corresponds to what physical structure (the lips, tongue, etc.) are associated with making that sound. Since different sub-regions of the brain control structures like the lips, jaw, tongue, and larynx, it gives researchers more insight into where in the brain their BCI should be gathering speech signals from.
That's just one specific example. But Livezey was quick to caution the audience that while deep learning offers many benefits, it also has downsides that don't make it the one-size-fits-all solution that many are tempted to look at it as.
1. ) Do You Really Need Deep Learning?
Let's get the most obvious concern out of the way first. Is deep learning even the best solution for you?
“Have you done something simpler and more interpretable first?” Livezey asked. He said researchers need to figure out what type of result the end user is looking for. Just having really good performance is not necessarily what's needed.
He said the big advantage of DNNs is they offer “high accuracy, high targeting, and high precision.” In some use cases, that might be all that you care about it. But in other areas, such as as scientific or medical research, you might want to understand what the algorithm is doing (more on this in a bit) and you don't need to be as performative as possible. That's where you may want to look at other methods.
Moreover, there is the issue of understanding the right neural network or combination for your task. Are you using a CNN? An RNN? An MNN? Some combination of those? Something else entirely? You'll want to look at the best options for your task at hand, and the work of programming and training a neural network may not necessarily provide the best end result in the most optimal time frame.
2.) Is There Bias?
Algorithms are only as good as the data that's fed into them. Training a neural network on biased data can lead to all sorts of adverse effects. It can lead the AI to solve the wrong problem or draw an incorrect conclusion. At worst, you get AI that practices predatory lending and demonstrates racial bias.
“You want to know if biases exist in your dataset, and are they being used by your machine learning algorithm to make decisions?” Livezey said. “You have to make sure your algorithm is generalizing correctly by pulling pieces out of the dataset that you think are important.”
3. ) Do the Pros Outweigh the Cons?
DNNs excel at performance, however Livezey cautioned performance isn't necessarily the end-all-be-all.
Deep networks are very flexible and you can have many different types of input and output mappings. “Deep networks really do scale to larger datasets better than traditional methods like linear regression,” Livezey said.
The downside to this is it also means there are many more design choices for researchers and engineers to sort through. It can mean a lot more work on the front end with planning, and unless the DNN offers significant benefits, all of that work may not be worth it.
The biggest downside to neural networks, however, is the lack of transparency. Like the human neurons they mimic, deep neural networks are somewhat of a mystery in how they actually perform their functions in many respects. “We don't have great ways of interpreting what these deep networks are doing,” Livezey said. If you're used to using methods such as regression or decision trees, the inner workings are pretty clear and straightforward. Not so much with DNNs. “There's still lot of research into how deep networks are working and making the decisions they do,” he added.
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English to Gujarati Meaning :: cowling
Cowling :
વિમાન-એંજિનનું ઢાંકણ
- વિમાન-એંજિનનું ઢાંકણ
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(1) Similarly, there is a trio of panels atop the cowling and just aft of the firewall that provide access to avionics.(2) Was a tool left by accident in the engine cowling ?(3) In many cases, we can't even do a thorough inspection of the engine compartment because the cowling only has an oil door.(4) Vassilli's aim was true, and the plane went down trailing smoke from the engine cowling .(5) The Pitts S - 1C had damage to its propeller tips, engine cowling , and the leading edge of its top left wing.(6) With no immediate effect happening, James swerved his plane a bit and fired another burst, this time at the engine cowling .(7) As I approached, I noticed that my student seemed fascinated by the engine cowling .(8) Erroneously though, he also states that the ‘Section Leader’ band on the fuselage is painted Red as is the engine cowling .(9) High strength composites are used for the windscreen, the upper cowling and parts of the tail fin and tail plane.(10) It had several holes in the cowling to allow more air to flow through the engine compartment.(11) The huge cowling and four-blade propeller gave a hint of the power available from the R - 4360.(12) The new aircraft would, obviously, need a new cowling to house the Wasp Major while the cockpit was also redesigned.(13) The carburetor on the Velie engine hung beneath the engine and was completely exposed below the cowling .(14) The sergeant ordered his mechanics to pull off the engine cowlings , remove the selfsealing fuel hoses and cut them in sections.(15) The props were missing, but the wings and engine cowlings were still in place.(16) The engines were covered with three-piece NACA anti-drag cowlings , and the aft nacelles were streamlined into the wing.
Related Words
(1) engine cowling ::
એન્જિન વિમાન-એંજિનનું ઢાંકણ
1. cowl ::
કાન ટોપી
2. bonnet ::
3. hood ::
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Polarization of Indian Politics
By Sunit Kumar Mondal, GNLU
Editor’s Note: This research paper aims to discuss and analyse the Indian Political scenario by making a critical scrutiny of the two major political parties and their ever changing ideologies. The Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) contesting for the Lok Sabha elections 2014, is by far anticipated to be the most entertaining elections in the history. As on one hand, Mr. Narendra Modi is confident about reaching the threshold 272+ Lok Sabha seats and on the other hand Mr. Arvind Kejriwal being optimistic about the swift development in the country lost his very hard earned position as the Chief Minister of New Delhi. Whatever be the outcome of the longest election in the country’s history, from 7 April to 12 May 2014, it will be the about the responsible decision making by the one’s in majority which will result in progress of the nation and not of any individual political association or individual.
We will start from the very grassroots, i.e. what exactly is a political ideology? Many political parties base their political action and program on an ideology. In social studies, a political ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths, or symbols of a social movement, institution, class, or large group that explains how society should work, and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends it should be used. Some parties follow a certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them.1
Political ideologies have two dimensions:
• Goals: how society should work
• Methods: the most appropriate ways to achieve the ideal arrangement
An ideology is a collection of ideas. Typically, each ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers to be the best form of government (e.g. democracy, theocracy, caliphate etc.), and the best economic system (e.g. capitalism, socialism, etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, “socialism” may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology which supports that economic system.
Ideologies also identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (such as the left, the center or the right), though this is very often controversial. Finally, ideologies can be distinguished from political strategies (e.g. populism) and from single issues that a party may be built around (e.g. legalization of marijuana). Philosopher Michael Oakeshott provides a good definition of ideology as “the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in the tradition”.2
Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under the name of systematic ideology.Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society, some of which are: the economy, education, health care, labour law, criminal law, the justice system, the provision of social security and social welfare, trade, the environment, minors, immigration, race, use of the military, patriotism, and established religion. There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies, each of these different methods generate a specific political spectrum.Today, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age,3 in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed, and this is often associated with Francis Fukuyama’s writings on “the end of history”.4
In India, a dominant symbol in the ideologies of the major political parties like the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has been Swaraj and in Hindutva respectively. Historically, Swaraj lays stress on governance not by a hierarchical government, but self governance through individuals and community building. The focus is on political decentralization.5 While on the other hand, Hindutva is understood as a way of life or a state of mind and is not to be equated with or understood as religious Hindu fundamentalism. A Hindu may embrace a non-Hindu religion without ceasing to be a Hindu and since the Hindu is disposed to think synthetically and to regard other forms of worship, strange gods and divergent doctrines as inadequate rather than wrong or objectionable, he tends to believe that the highest divine powers complement each other for the well-being of the world and mankind.6 In India the majority of the population possess low standard of living, and more importantly, because of their low level of self and political awareness, the function of ideology in general and political ideology in particular is of special significance.
It’s hard to believe that the commencement of extremist ideology in Indian Politics was due the divide in the Indian National Congress that occurred in Surat, Gujarat, in 1907 between the so-called Extremists and the Moderates of the organization is perhaps the oldest political split in modern Indian history. It set the tone for subsequent splits in terms of language use and ideologies. This split offers an insight into the dynamics of political splits in modern India.7 On 26 December 1907 the separation of congress party men into moderates and extremists led to a widespread discontent which finally came to an end on December 29 and December 31, 1916 respectively during the Lucknow Pact which was an important landmark in India’s struggle for freedom as it brought the Extremist and Moderate sections of Indian National Congress together under one common interest for obtaining self-rule for the Indians. Indeed, the split in Surat revolved around the conduct of two individuals, Gopala Krishna Gokhale and Bala Gangadhar Tilak, who represented respectively the so-called moderate and extremist viewpoints in the Congress in relation to what should be done to annul the partition of Bengal and to win ultimately the self-governing status for India. Both had made heavy sacrifices in life. But their temperaments were widely different from each other. Gokhale was a “Moderate” and Tilak was an “Extremist,” if one may use the language in vogue at the time. Gokhale’s plan was to improve the existing constitutions (of the Congress); Tilak’s was to re-construct it. Gokhale had necessarily to work with the bureaucracy; Tilak had necessarily to fight it. Gokhale stood for co-operation wherever possible and opposition wherever necessary; Tilak inclined towards a policy of obstruction. Gokhale’s prime consideration was with the administration and its improvement; Tilak’s was service and suffering. Gokhale’s method sought to win the foreigner; Tilak’s to replace him. Gokhale depended upon others help, Tilak upon self-help. Gokhale looked to the classes and the intelligential, Tilak to the masses and the millions; Gokhale’s arena was the council’s chamber; Tilak’s forum was the village mandap. Gokhale’s medium of expression was English; Tilak’s was Marathi. Gokhale’s objective was self-government for which the people had to fit themselves by answering the tests prescribed by the English; Tilak’s objective was Swaraj which is the birth right of every Indian and which he shall have without let or hindrance from the foreigner. Gokhale was on a level with his age; Tilak was in advance of his times.8 It can be said that the Moderates were the brain of Congress while the Extremist were the heart; the former was the law and the latter was the impulse. The split in Surat brought out the divergence in the style of thinking, speaking and the manner politics was practiced. As a result, many ideologies evolved during and after the independence phase.
The Janata Party came into existence by a process of merger of several political parties. The Indian National Congress (Organization), Bharatiya Lok Dal, Bharatiya Janasangh and the Socialist Party merged into one political organization called the Janata Party, but within a few years Janata Party was split into the Bharatiya Janata Party, the Janata Party and Janata Party (S). The Janata Party (S) split into two groups, one of which finally became Lok Dal once again. This Lok Dal split again into two parties. Then we had the Janata Dal, which was a merger of the Janata Party and Lok Dal. At present the Janata party is once again split into numerous groups. Many political parties that had influence only in certain states or regions had also gone through splits. It is indeed very difficult to keep track of the political splits in India since the splits also lead to dynamic mergers sometimes very much similar to the conditions prevailing before the splits.9
Hindutva as an Ideology
“Hindutva is not a word but a history. Not only the spiritual or religious history of our people as at times it is mistaken to be by being cofounded with the other cognate term Hinduism.”10
Of all major political ideologies in India, Hindutva remains the most frequently misused. It has often been weaponized as a way to harness communal passions and incite Hindus against other religions. The idea of putting the “faith” of the majority community above that of the minorities and the mobilisation that finally led to the demolition of the Babri Masjid are clear illustrations of the majoritarian agenda. Mr. Advani himself and his colleagues in the BJP are firmly wedded to this agenda and the assurance on the floor of the Rajya Sabha against any attempt to turn India into a theocratic state is for this reason no cause for rejoicing. Ironically, there are more ideological similarities between Savarkar and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh’s political offshoot and the BJP than between the RSS and the Savarkar himself. Initially, the BJP was just as much a hard line organisation as the RSS and consequently just as distant from Savarkar. However, in recent times the party has abandoned the Hindu chauvinist rhetoric of its parent organisation in favour of a more moderate stand advocating the cultural element of Hindutva while at the same time emphasising that it supports peaceful coexistence of separate communities. While this has largely been done for reasons of political expediency, it still serves to bring the modern version of Hindutva in consonance with what Savarkar originally envisioned. The gradual moderation of RSS’s extremist views on Hindutva by the BJP is beneficial, in that it is gradually allowing for a return to the true all inclusive nationalist character of the ideology.
The way in which Savarkar viewed Hindutva may be summed up in a statement made by former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee – ‘there is no difference between such Hindutva and Bharatiya, since both are expression of the same thought. Both affirm that India belongs to all, and all belong to India. It means that all Indians have equal rights and equal responsibilities. It entails recognition of our common nation culture, which is enriched by all the diverse culture.
Hindutva is now Communalism
Savarkar, whose name has lately become synonymous with communalism thanks to the BJP corruption of his beliefs, was himself an atheist. Not only this, but he publicly and on multiple occasions proclaimed himself as a “Hindu Atheist”, showing that his ideology was totally divorced from religion. Any question of his ideas being based on, or acting in furtherance of religious considerations is immediately negated by this fact. The difference between Hindutva and Hinduism was best elucidated by Savarkar himself in ESSENTIALS OF HINDUISM.11 Dedicating a passage to outlining what separates Hindutva from Hinduism, he writes: Here it is enough to point out that Hindutva is not identical with what is vaguely indicated by the term Hinduism. By an ‘ism’ it is generally meant a theory or a code more or less based on spiritual or religious dogma or creed. Had not linguistic usage stood in our way then ‘Hinduness’ would have certainly been a better word than Hinduism as a near parallel to Hindutva. Hindutva embraces all the departments of thought and activity of the whole being of our Hindu race. Therefore, to understand the significance of this term Hindutva, we must first understand the essential meaning of the word Hindu itself and realize how it came to exercise such imperial sway over the hearts of millions of mankind and won a loving allegiance from the bravest and best of them. But before we can do that, it is imperative to point out that we are by no means attemption a definition or even a description of the more limited, less satisfactory and essentially sectarian term Hinduism. How far we can succeed or are justified in doing that would appear as we proceed.12
Enemies and Allies
Indian National Congress was being considered as an internal enemy ever since dawn of extremism and constant allegations have been produced against them. The major one being that the Congress Party cannot muster sufficient votes on its own and it needs to ally itself with the Muslims, Communists and other anti-Hindu minorities in order to keep the Hindu majority down and out of power. There were situations where the Bharatiya Janata Party have alleged that the Congress party was not truly interested in the Unity of India, or else it would logically ally itself with the pro-Hindu parties and obtain an absolute majority as a legitimate representative of the Indian Nation the majority of which is Hindu. They BJP continues to allege that India being ruled by a coalition of minority vote banks whose sole common interest is to keep the Hindu majority down and accelerate the decline of Indian culture and civilisation so that it can be finally replaced by Westernization.13 While Congress plays the same card of communal and vote bank politics against Mr. Narendra Modi and the Bharatiya Janata Party.14
Individualistic Approach
‘I, Me, Mine’ is the running theme of Narendra Modi’s election campaign in which he was pushing an agenda based on Majoritarianism.17 Majoritarianism is a traditional political philosophy or agenda which asserts that a majority (sometimes categorized by religion, language, social class or some other identifying factor) of the population is entitled to a certain degree of primacy in society, and has the right to make decisions that affect the society. This traditional view has come under growing criticism and democracies have increasingly included constraints in what the parliamentary majority can do, in order to protect citizens’ fundamental rights.18
We have encountered Mr. Narendra Modi’s individualistic approach to any situation before, but now again during his Prime Ministerial campaigning we have encountered similar instances during his speeches. Let’s talk about the 272+ rallies he has planned to attend for campaigning of his prime ministerial candidature. Even though, he had the slightest idea of the problems of the state he had claimed betterment of the same, even by criticising every ruling party of the state. During this electoral campaign every rally he has been to, there was a positive response from the citizens.19 With the rings of Modi Sarkar ringing throughout the nation it feels like there is only one party contesting the elections. That indeed is not a good sign of a democratic government as stated before.
Communal Thinking
‘I am a nationalist, I am patriotic, nothing wrong in that, so Yes, you can say I am a Hindu Nationalist”– Mr. Narendra Modi
The above statement was made by him in an interview at his residence in Gandhinagar, Gujarat.
Even though he has received a clean chit from the Supreme Court regarding the Godhra riots of 2002 in Gujarat but still it remains a controversy with the new dimensions added to the facts one in a while. For instance, D.G Vanzara former DIG, ATS, Gujarat Police have brought a whole new aspect of the story through his letter to the Gujarat Government. Vanzara is the same person who is serving sentence for the fake encounters of Sohrabuddin (Sheikh), Tulasiram (Prajapati), Sadiq Jamal and Ishrat Jahan. In the letter he have mentioned that he being a field officer, have simply implemented the conscious policy of the state government, and thus directed towards the prime ministerial candidate Mr. Narendra Modi.20 He also claims that the reason for his silence is his loyalty towards the Modi Government.
More similar statement have been made by Vanzara in his letter, but the question here would be that whether it would act as a threat towards the ministerial prospects. Vanzara’s letter is both revealing and disturbing. Revealing because he claims that he implemented what the authorities asked him to do, disturbing because those authorities are the ones who happen to be in power in Gujarat.
Whether it was genocide, whether it was cold-blooded murder, whether it was in the name of encounter, whether it was hushing up those cases and trying to promote those who were involved in it from beginning to end? Still remains a mystery.
Power Hungry
India’s 176 million Muslims are generally considered to be an important “vote bank” that can help or deny victory to competing political parties. A vote-bank refers to a loyal bloc of voters from a single community, who, en masse, back a political party during an election. Mr. Narendra Modi with very well knowledge about that is acting as a mature politician, by keeping his communal thinking aside and attending rallies in both Hindu and Muslim dominated areas of the country and giving them the assurance of a better government. This is the same individual who did not give party ticket to any Muslim individual during his 2007 State Election.21 This indeed shows the power hungry approach he has adopted during this presidential election. He has grown as a politician and as an individual, and with the developed attitude his hunger for power has amplified.
Vibrant for all?
Vibrant Gujarat, something which has been popularised throughout the nation is limited to the urban areas of the city, with capitalism playing a major role in the state. But is Gujarat Vibrant for all? Mr. Modi’s extensive connections with the capitalist class of the economy within the national barriers as well as internationally in which Israel tops the list, may act as a blessing for the economy with their huge amounts of foreign investment.22 But is it really uplifting the community which needs the needs the help of the state. Gujarat for instance has distinguished and designated areas of residence for every individual working class.
One of the wealthiest and most industrialized states in India, Gujarat serves as a kind of crown jewel of Modi’s campaign, which calls for a resurgence of the nation’s overall moribund economy. Although, as per the statistics go, the infant mortality rate and the malnutrition affected citizens is increasing at a minimal rate due to failure of the newly introduced Maternal Health Scheme.23
Following this would be an analysis of the Mr. Modi’s better half i.e. his opposition in this year’s presidential election. They emerged from a social group and within the time span of an year have challenged the dream of attaining 272+ majority seats of Bharatiya Janata Party in the Lok Sabha. They are none other than the Aam Aadmi Party.
Aam Aadmi party has emerged as the most recent party which is known to be formed by the advent of civil society groups. It began with the coming together of middle class people who were determined to launch a campaign to mobilise the masses to support their demand of
getting a corruption free nation. The main leaders of which were Anna Hazare and Arvind Kejriwal, which later split resulting in Kejriwal’s formation of Aam Aadmi Party with the
ideology of Swaraj. This mobilisation of groups and turning against corruption can be recalled from the two major anti-corruption movements in the past decades both swapped the whole country. One was the Jayaprakash Narayan movement in the 1970s which toppled Indira Gandhi and the other was VP Singh movement in the 1980s which toppled Rajiv Gandhi. This AAP movement can be seen as the third such movement of the same kind.24
Civil Society Movements
Jaiprakash Narayan’s work is considered as the most efficient in bringing a revolution by launching a civil society movement. He was a deep supporter of Socialism and considered it as his ideology. After completing his studies in United States, he came back India and joined Indian National Congress in 1929. During the Indian Independence Movement, he was arrested and tortured by the British. After his release, with the help of other national leader, he formed Congress Socialist Party (CSP) which was a left-wing group within the Congress.
But working in Nehru’s party, he got deeply disillusioned by his experience of socialism in India. So he led CSP out of Congress and led it as an opposition party with the name Praja Socialist Party. His contribution in the party didn’t last much as he left the party because the tickets were distributed on caste bases. He got deeply discouraged as the party didn’t follow its ideology. In 1957, he pursued Sarvodey and Lokniti (polity of the people) and opposed Rajniti (polity of the state). His ideology of Sarvodaya and Lokniti became popular wide across the nation. He described Sarvodaya as a consensus based, class-less, participatory democracy.25 He formed a student’s movement for the widespread of his ideology, which came to be known as JP movement.
A sudden turn appeared when Allahabad High Court found Indira Gandhi guilty of violating electoral laws. JP immediately called Indira Gandhi to resign, but she announced emergency. JP asked police and military people to disregard these unconstitutional and immoral orders. He attracted a gathering of 10 lakh at Ramlila ground, which shows his power and ability to attract people against any wrong in the society. Throughout his life he sticked to his ideology, without any fail and even promoted other to follow his ideology. After Indira Gandhi revoked emergency, JP under his guidance formed Janata Party which came into power and formed first non-Congress party to form a government in centre.
JP’s movement describes the power and the role of civil society in transforming the nation by letting the common people to form political party. A similar wave is seen in the present time, with the formation of Aam Aadmi Party but the question arises is that, whether AAP is sticking to its ideology as Jayaprakash Narayan did?
Another instance when civil society came together and transformed the nation was the formation of India against Corruption (IAC) and a similar movement of 2011-anti corruption movement. It is an organisation affiliated to the Hindustan Republican Association, founded on Oct 3, 1924 at Kanpur26. It is still working on its ideology of Poorna Swaraj. Further, the 2011-anti corruption movement was a campaign to mobilize the masses against corruption in India. The movement was launched by middle class people with the help of attractive faces such as of Baba Ramdev, a popular yogi who has a million supporters, but his connection to the Sangh Parivar; lead the downfall of his popularity. The next popular face who headed the movement was Anna Hazare, a social reformer, who had a history of undertaking fast in support of his cause. Further a team came up of renowned people such as Arvind Kejriwal, Kiran Bedi, Shanti Bhusan, Justice Santosh Hedge and many more.27 They made all their efforts to force, request, persuade, pressurize the government to pass the Jan Lokpal Bill, which is considered as an effective deterrence against corruption. Anna Hazare followed by Arvind Kejriwal did several fast , peaceful protest, courting arrest and several negotiations
with the government to pass the Jan Lokpal Bill, but all their efforts gone in vain and the government didn’t passed the Jan Lokpal Bill. Further Arvind Kejriwal took the step to clean the dirty politics by directly forming a people party, known as Aam Aadmi Party. Anna Hazare was never in support of Mr. Arvind Kejriwal’s decision therefore from this juncture both of them split and Kejriwal moved with AAP and Anna with Janatantra Morcha.
Hope for a transformation
Arvind Kejriwal leaded his party with the ideology of Swaraj and Anti-corruption i.e. the complete participation of the people in politics or people’s democracy. With the first election which AAP contested, resulted in its victory and AAP formed its government in Delhi with the alliance of its rival Congress Party. This brought a hope for a change in the minds of the people and their perception towards the Indian Politics. Since, AAP encouraged the participation of the general public on the political pitch; people expected transparency in the procedure of the system. This sudden advent actually created a sense of nationalism along the entire country as a whole and people started believing the methodology adopted by the AAP in every possible field. In addition, the good thing with AAP is that it apparently is showing that it cares for Aam Aadmi and is fighting against corruption.
Advent of the Aam Aadmi Party
26 November 2012, Aam Aadmi Party was formally launched. Appearing as a 3rd option, AAP got a huge public support which resulted in its rapid increase in its popularity. With no wastage of time, the party members began its promotion, Arvind Kejriwal as the Chief Ministerial candidate of the party did several promises to the people of Delhi which are to be fulfilled if the party wins the election. AAP made its debut by contesting the 2013 Delhi State Government elections. The result of Delhi elections came as a shock to the two leading parties INC and BJP as the third option AAP emerged as the second highest majority party by winning 28 seats out of the total 70. Further AAP made a minority government with the support of their rivals Indian National Congress. Unfortunately the AAP government lasted for only a period of 49 days, with the resignation of the then Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal.
Now we’ll cite several instances where the AAP took decisions which over-ruled their own ideology i.e. the decisions which violated the ideology of Swaraj or the participation of people in politics. Before contesting the Delhi elections, AAP declared that they’ll not take support of any other political parties as all of them are corrupt. With the result of the election, when no party was in complete majority, BJP leading with 31 seats, followed by AAP with 28 seats and Congress with 8 seats, to form the government either of the party had to come in alliance with the other party to cross the hurdle of 35 seats. BJP and AAP stood on their premise of not taking any support of other party. But all of a sudden, a U-turn was seen in AAP as they organised a self determined poll in Delhi, asking the Delhi people the question of forming the government with the support of Congress or not?28 The survey was performed of a few lakh people of whom the majority voted in support of AAP’s formation of government with coalition with Congress. To begin with, the population of Delhi is over 2 crore of which the survey was done of a few lakh people, the mere show of hands survey is not the process of election of a government as it is not transparent in itself or accountable in its own. This raised the question on the majority opinion of the Delhi people. Coalition with Congress means no adherence with their own ideology, be it Swaraj or Non coalition politics or even ousting the corrupt ruling Government. This decision of AAP was against their own ideology as they took the support of the party which was in itself corrupt, for forming a government against corruption. This shows that Arvind Kejriwal rendered the people without a democratically elected government.
The second instance was of the dharna protest, which Arvind Kejriwal did as a CM against the Delhi police. The issue raised was of the raid commenced by the AAP law minister Somnath Bharti of the two Ugandan women’s of running a sex racket in the Khirki ext. This act committed by the then Law minister was unlawful as he committed the raid without any warrant. The reason why police was unwilling to make a raid was that they were having no warrant against the Ugandan ladies. This was the instance when the law minister took law in his own hands.29 On this, the CM Arvind Kejriwal did a dharna protest in support of the act of his law minister Somnath Bharti, which resulted in disruption of law and order. All the other works which a CM is supposed to do were on stake. The police on whom the question arose was present as a security of Arvind Kejriwal, leaving the whole city unattended. The normal life of people was affected and over all there was a loss of public property and public revenue. The issue on which this whole act was performed was an individual issue, which could have been solved by local executive body. This act of AAP was not for the people but against the people.
The third instance was of the resignation of Arvind Kejriwal from the Chief Ministers position. With the failure of tabling the Jan Lokpal Bill in the assembly, Arvind Kejriwal left his CM position which can also be referred as running away from his responsibility. The reason for the resignation which Arvind Kejriwal gave was the unconstitutional act of the MLA’s of Delhi assembly i.e. asking the central government to pass an act in the UT of Delhi.30 With just a passage of 48 days, Arvind Kejriwal left his post was a wrong decision. There were further negotiations required with the Central Government for the passing of the Jan Lokpal Bill, what the government did is that it acted hastily. It should have taken other remedies to take the Central government in the confidence inter alia.31
Effect of the fall
The most drastic effects of Mr. Kejriwal’s resignation were the policy confusion caused in the state. In the course of AAP’s government Mr. Arvind Kejriwal did launched few schemes such as 667 litres of free water was made available for the Delhi citizens on daily bases32, people consuming electricity of 1-400 units were provided electricity with half rates33, a 50% electricity waiver was announced by the government for all the defaulter in the period October 2012 to April 2013 and several helpline numbers were launched34 but all of it went in vain as there is a policy confusion that whether the schemes launched by Mr. Arvind Kejriwal will still continue after his resignation or not? Even the Delhi High Court puts a stay on AAP’s 50% electricity waiver policy as it did not allocated the funds to the Delhi Government.35
All the above instances lead to the violation of the ideology of Aam Aadmi Party by themselves. Most of the policies of AAP went against general people, there was a show-off of peoples democracy as most of the decisions of AAP was arbitrary.
Following this section would be the conclusion of our research paper.
Hindutva as an ideology is secular and liberal in nature but various Hindu nationalist forces such as Bharatiya Janata Party is distorting the ideology into Hindu fanatism, Mr. Narendra Modi claims to be a Hindu nationalist and glorifies the Hindu religion in all his rallies and speeches but what these organisations are undermining is the essence of the ideology of Hindutva. Savarkar wanted to unite the whole country under one banner that is Hindutva. He wanted regionalism to come to an end along with caste system. He wanted to reform the hindu society so as to make it a collective force that he believed one day could make India the most powerful nation in the world. Further, his idea of Hindustan has been distorted and contemporary politics in India by political parties like BJP and AAP are dividing the country on the basis of region and caste.
As India’s 2014 election looms, the question is whether the so-called Indian Muslim vote bank can look beyond Narendra Modi’s political record and the nationalist pro-Hindu proclamations of certain members of his party, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). While on the other hand, Aam Aadmi Party Leader Arvind Kejriwal had worked hastily or in urgency, they skipped from its ideology and ran on the path of the dirty politics which the other parties are doing. During the 49 days tenure, the work of AAP didn’t seem for the people but all they did was for their own populism. Just after the fall of Delhi government, AAP started to spread its ambit all across the country by announcing to contest the Lok Sabha election of 2014 on major number of seats. This clearly shows the urgency of Arvind Kejriwal as he is practicing opportunism for the sake of reaching the threshold of 272+ Lok Sabha seats and not for the overall development of the country.
We often claim that political parties will do anything for power. True enough. But this claim is not incompatible with the efficacy of ideology. Many of the constituents attached to particular parties feel profoundly empowered by their access to the state. This sense of empowerment is rooted in ideological assumptions about the importance of state power to securing justice and a sense of self-esteem alike. The presence of corruption is cited as evidence of declining ideology. But often corruption itself is a product of ideological assumptions about politics. What often the middle class sees as the corruption of a Laloo or a Mulayam, their constituents see as a necessary step to creating a different social order.
We complain that politicians will sacrifice principle for votes. This complaint is more of an indictment of the people who vote than the politicians who court them. But this complaint tacitly acknowledges the efficacy of ideology. If politics depends upon mobilising people, there has to be a set of shared ideas that brings people together. Often this idea may be the ruling ideas of our politics are burdened with so many limitations that they are unable to give our world any degree of coherence, but the most enduring sources of ideology, a continual struggle to define the relations between the privileged and the dispossessed, and an anxiety over our collective identities, remain central to Indian politics.
The contemporary Indian political scenario is that the parties although having different ideologies, practice opportunism for the sake of reaching the threshold of 272+ Lok Sabha seats and not for the overall development of the country.
Edited by Hariharan Kumar
1Ideology. Last accessed on Saturday, 15 March 2014, 5:30PM http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology#Political_ideologies
2 Michael Oakeshott. Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays. (1991) Indianapolis: Liberty Press. Pp. 224
4. Fukuyama, F. (1992)The End of History and the Last Man. USA: The Free Press, XI
5. Parel, Anthony. Hind Swaraj and other writings of M. K. Gandhi. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 1997
6. The Hindutva Judgement, 1995, Supreme Court of India
7. Mazumdar, A.C., 1915 The Indian National Evo1ution. Reprint by Michiko “&” Panjathan, New Delhi, 1974.
8 Pande B.N. (Ed.) 1985. Concise History of the Indian National Congress 1885-1941. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi.
9. Sitaramayya, P. B. 1947. The History of the Indian National Congress (1935-1947). Vol. 2. Padma Publications, Bombay
10 V.D Savarkar, Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923; reprint New Delhi: Bharatiya Sahitya Sadan, 1989), Pp.- 7
11. D Savarkar, Essentials of Hinduism, 1928
12. D Savarkar, Essentials of Hinduism, 1928
13. http://www.sunday-guardian.com/analysis/congress-secularism-is-a-myth (Last Accessed on 20-03-2014. 9 P.M)
14. http://www.firstpost.com/politics/its-modi-who-indulges-in-votebank-politics-maha-congress-chief-1221849.html (Last Accessed on 20-03-2014. 9 P.M)
15. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x5W3RCpOGbQ
16. http://www.vedicvision.org/conceptofrajdharmaid18.html (Last Accessed 20-03-2014. 9 P.M)
17. http://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/modi-running-i-me-mine-campaign-says-chidambaram/ (Last Accessed 20-03-2014. 9 P.M)
19. https://www.india272.com/narendra-modi/ (Last Accessed 20-03-2014)
20http://www.tehelka.com/why-dg-vanzaras-letter-matters-and-why-it-should-bother-narendra-modi/ (Last accessed on 20-03-2014. 9 P.M)
21http://www.hindustantimes.com/specials/coverage/gujarat-assembly-elections-2012/chunk-ht-ui-gujaratassemblyelections2012-electionanalysis/no-muslim-face-modi-core-team/sp-article10-970437.aspx (Last Accessed on 20-03-2014. 9 P.M)
22http://www.ibtimes.com/india-2014-elections-narendra-modi-israels-best-friend-south-asia-1561837 (Last accessed on 20-03-2014. 9 P.M)
23http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Gujarats-maternal-health-scheme-is-a-failure-Study/articleshow/28118995.cms (Last Accessed on 20-03-2014. 9 P.M)
24. Swaminathan S Anklesaria Aiyar, “AAP can scale up like JP, VP Singh movement”, Dec 22, 2013, The Economics Times. http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-22/news/45475847_1_aap-vp-singh-movements
25 Real Classic Hero Bharat Ratna “Loknayak Jaiprakash Narayan Ji” 16 March 2014, 4:00 PM https://leadbihar.wordpress.com/tag/jp-movement/
26. http://www.indiaagainstcorruption.org.in/index.php?n=Main.HomePage (Last Accessed 19 March 2014, 9:30pm)
27. http://iacmumbai.org/about_us.php (Last Accessed 19 Mar. 14, 9:50pm)
28. http://www.firstpost.com/politics/aam-aadmi-wants-aap-party-to-form-delhi-govt-with-congress-1298039.html last visited 21 Mar. 14, 6:00 pm
29. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Somnath-Bharti-activist-charged-with-rioting-molestation/articleshow/29075836.cms last visited 21 Mar. 14, 6:15pm
30. http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/arvindkejriwalacommonmaninpolitics/delhi-cm-arvind-kejriwal-announces-his-resignation-over-jan-lokpal-bill/article1-1183997.aspx last visited 21 Mar. 14 7:00 pm
31. http://qz.com/178378/arvind-kejriwal-is-a-bigger-threat-to-indias-political-system-now-thats-hes-resigned/ last visited 21 Mar. 14 7: 15 pm
32. http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/aap-keeps-promise-delhi-to-get-20-kilolitres-free-water-for-3-months/1/333638.html last visited 21 Mar. 14 7:20 pm
33. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/states/aaps-promise-to-cut-power-tariff-by-half-may-not-be-doable/article5501506.ece last visited 21 Mar. 14 7:20 pm
34. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/AAP-govt-launches-anti-graft-helpline-for-Delhi-citizens/articleshow/28558663.cms last visited 21 Mar. 14 7:25 pm
35. http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/aam-aadmi-party-arvind-kejriwal-power-bills-bijli-pani-satyagraha/1/350097.html last visited 21 Mar. 14 7:30 pm
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5G Signal Generation and Analysis
Why testing for 5G?
Two key features in 5G New Radio (5G NR) are especially important for the realization of higher data rates than in LTE: the use of millimeter wave (mmWave) frequencies (up to 100 GHz) and support for significantly higher signal bandwidths. 5G NR supports signal bandwidths up to 100 MHz for carrier frequencies below 6 GHz, and up to 400 MHz for frequencies in the mmWave range.
Similar to LTE, 5G NR employs orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)-based waveforms in both the uplink and downlink to utilize the wide carrier bandwidths efficiently; however, it allows more flexibility in subcarrier spacing for deployment in different frequency bands. It is expected that up to 16 carriers can be aggregated, making it possible to offer bandwidths in the gigahertz range to a single device. 5G NR also employs massive MIMO and beamforming techniques that rely on massive antenna arrays to combat the effects of higher attenuation at higher frequencies.
5G signal generation and analysis challenges
The circuitry needed to generate frequencies in the mmWave range requires careful design and selection of components in order to reduce the effects of phase noise introduced by mixers and multipliers. These high frequencies intensify the challenges for test and measurement (T&M) methods. The short wavelengths and higher losses in circuits necessitate tight integration, making it impractical to supply connector ports for testing. At the same time, the effects of connectors and test fixtures become non-negligible, potentially affecting the validity of conducted measurements.
Rohde & Schwarz 5G test solutions
Up-to-date test and measurement equipment from Rohde & Schwarz can help the industry quickly bring 5G NR solutions to market. developers need flexible T&M solutions to generate and analyze such 5G wideband signals in order to develop and optimize their designs. A signal generator for 5G NR needs to be able to generate extremely clean wideband signals with excellent EVM over a wide frequency range. This requires the signal generator to exhibit outstanding spectral, phase and amplitude characteristics. To overcome high path loss at mmWave frequencies, very high RF output power is also necessary. Additionally, signal analysis bandwidths of at least 1 GHz become necessary in order to capture the interaction of multiple component carriers.
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Everything You Need to Know About Catch Basins
What Are Catch Basins?
Catch basins are the main component in a landscape drainage system. They are boxes available in various sizes and materials that are placed in the ground near areas of standing water to help facilitate proper water drainage and avoid property damage.
The top of the box features a grate through which excess water and solids drain into the underground box. The solid particles then settle at the bottom of the box while the water collects until it reaches the outlet trap. The outlet trap is connected to an underground piping system that leads the water to a local sewage plant or stream.
Once the solids accumulate and account for one-third of the basin’s contents, you must remove the top grate and clean out the catch basin so it can continue to function properly.
The Importance of Your Catch Basins
Keeping up with your catch basin to make sure that it is functioning properly is the best thing that you can do for your landscape and your home. Standing water is not only unsightly, but it’s also damaging and can be dangerous.
If you don’t have catch basins, the standing water on your lawn is likely promoting the growth and multiplication of bacteria and insects, putting your family and neighbors at risk for disease and illnesses. Standing water occurs because the ground is oversaturated with water and can no longer soak any more of it up. That’s bad news for your plants that may drown and die under excess water.
Most importantly, water can be detrimental to the foundation of your home. When a proper drainage system is not installed or well-maintained, water may begin leaking into your home through pressure cracks in your foundation or siding. Once the water makes its way into your home, it becomes a breeding ground for mold and bacteria.
How to Keep Your Catch Basins Clean
Once your catch basins are installed, you’ll want to learn proper plumbing maintenance for them to keep the water draining freely from your landscape and away from your home. This becomes especially important during rainy seasons when storm runoff is more prevalent.
The purpose of a catch basin is not just to facilitate in water drainage on your property, but also to maintain a clean and freely flowing plumbing system from the yard to the end site. The drain could flow directly through pipes to the local landfill or water source, but it would often become backed up with additional debris and sediment. The bottom of the catch basin solves this problem.
This is the area where the solid particles collect so they don’t block up the outlet pipes. Regularly cleaning this sediment out of the catch basin is the most important aspect of landscape drainage plumbing maintenance.
To have a catch basin installed in your yard to protect your landscaping, your home foundation and the health of your family, contact your local Mr. Rooter Plumbing for a quote today. |
Momento Espírita
Curitiba, 17 de Junho de 2019
title | text
ícone The dried fig tree
This known passage of the Gospel narrates that Jesus was hungry and went to look for food at a far standing fig tree.
After getting closer to the fig tree, Jesus noticed that it had only leaves, as it was not fig season.
Then, the Messiah told the fig tree that no one should ever eat any fruit from it.
On the next day, Jesus and the Apostles passed by the same place and noticed that the fig tree was dried to its roots.
This part of the Gospel causes perplexity.
After all, it is surprising that the loving and wise Messiah had taken issue with a tree, especially because it was not fruit season.
However, it is possible to extract coherent reasoning according to christian teachings.
The main question does not seem to be a vegetable without its free will.
The key point to consider is the so common human habit of waiting for the perfect situation to do good, as if men - like the tree - waited for the perfect season to give fruits.
Until all factors are in place, men - like the tree - remain useless.
Some wait to become rich to give some to the poor.
Others are bitter for not having found a big love.
Only after finding exactly what corresponds to their ideals some will be able to comprehend others.
Those with kids say that they can only help others after their kids are grown up.
The employed ones do not do charity for lack of time.
The unemployed, despite having time, say they cannot get peace of mind.
There is always a reason to justify not helping others.
However, maybe the perfect occasion will never present itself.
In the meantime, time goes by.
The risk is to find yourself one day dried, like the tree.
The risk is to become useless and profoundly selfish after running away from work opportunities so often.
The Divine Providence moves so many resources in favor of His creatures!
Before you decline the opportunity to help, count your blessings.
Many times you do not even notice the number of blessings that you ordinarily receive: health, family, work, intelligence, friends...
There are so many treasures in your hands!
Think of the needy people in the world and be thankful for being in a position to serve.
Manifest this thankfulness by helping others.
However and wherever possible, move your hands to do good.
If you look for excuses to remain inert, you will certainly find them.
But if you decide to be helpful, the opportunities will multiply in front of you.
Do not resemble the fig tree in the Gospel passage.
You have your free will and can create the best conditions to support, understand and forgive.
Think about this.
Spiritist Moment Team.
June 08. 2009. |
Human Rights
The John H. Evans lecture
What is a Human? The American Public's Views and the Impact on Human Rights
What a human “is” has probably been debated for as long as humans have had critical self-consciousness. Scholars in this debate have also long claimed that if someone uses the “wrong” definition of a human, they will treat people less humanely.
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• Geopolitics
Hi everybody!
Today, in this article, I will present you the geopolitical situation in England.
First of all, we must remember that there is in England a constitutional monarchy commonly referred to as British monarchy. The hereditary monarch is at the head of State and the Prime Minister is at the head of the government. Today, the monarch is Queen Elizabeth II and the prime minister is David Cameron who has been respectively operational since 1952 and 2010. Under the reign of Queen Elizabeth II, the prime minister is at the head of the Conservative Party.
The Conservative Party is the British right-wing party founded in 1834. The Conservative Party is opposed to the regionalist or separatist tendencies which sometimes occur in Northern Ireland, Wales or Scotland (most recently). The conservative party has counted among its members some personalities such as Winston Churchill or Margaret Thatcher.
The distribution of powers:
Executive power: exercised by the Queen’s government. The members of the government are chosen by the Prime minister.
Legislative power: exercised by the government and the Parliament (both House of Lords and House of Commons).
Judicial power: exercised independently from the other powers.
What can the Queen do? What are her powers?
The British monarch the chief of the Commonwealth (composed by 15 different countries). However, each country of the Commonwealth are independent and legally distinct. Queen Elizabeth is also the governor of the Church of England. Nowadays, the role of the monarch is mainly constitutional and limited to ceremonial functions. Moreover, the ultimate executive authority is under the royal prerogative of the monarch. These powers include the dissolution of the Parliament and the enactment of rules for the government and the regulation of the civil services and the armed forces.
Lancaster is located in the Lancashire region, in the North West England. There are fourteen districts in Lancashire and its population is about 1,170,000. The council ofGeopolitics Lancashire is represented by 84 councilors. 39 of them are as part of the Labour Party, 35 are as part of the Conservatives Party and 6, 3 and 1 of them are respectively as part of the Liberal Democrats party, the Independent party and the Green party. There are elections every 4 years.
Internal Conflicts or tensions
For more than 7 centuries and after several independence wars and religious conflicts, we can say that England and Scotland maintain tumultuous relationships. There were 2 independence wars; the first independent war occurred in 1296 and the second in 1332. Therefore, it’s been a long time that Scotland want to proclaim its independence.
On September the 18th, a referendum was held in Scotland. Differing opinions exist on the question of the independence of Scotland and I will try to explain why. The pro-independence supporters say that vote “yes” to the independence of Scotland is a guarantee to never be ruled by the Conservative Party of London. Indeed, it’s important to know that the major party of Scotland votes left for decades. Moreover, they proclaim that the independence of Scotland will save the health care system and will maintain the gratuity of universities. They also promise a greener society, more pacifist and more involved in the European Union.
Conversely, proponents of “no” argue that Scotland benefits from England which is a powerful country. The strong currency and the big domestic market are both good reasons to say that England is economically powerful. If Scotland become independent, the country would not benefit anymore from the currency.
On September, the 18th in 2014, Scotland decided the future of its country. The major party of the country voted “no” for the independence of Scotland. But the referendum will be organized again (maybe after the Scottish elections in 2020) and Scottish are going to be called again to vote.
External current Conflict which include England
Currently, England is involved in a military intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Since the beginning of its intervention, the United Kingdom lost 2 civilians and 1 volunteer. The operation given to the British participation to the intervention against ISIL was called the Operation Shader. This operation began on August, the 7th in 2014. First, the United Kingdom sent humanitarian aids thanks to airdrops. As the conflict intensified, the British airforce sent reconnaissance aircraft. Before undertaking armed mission, several debates took place in the United Kingdom. After a vote, the large majority said “yes” to undertake armed mission against ISIL. The first armed mission against ISIL took place on September, the 27th. On that date, the number of airstrikes conducted by the United Kingdom average 194.
This is the end of the article, I hope you learnt more about England and its current situation. See you in my next article :)
Bibliography :
The Guardian
History of England
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What is the Benefit of Ditching Meat out of Your Food.
Make sure that you can follow a few guidelines which can make it possible for you to live a healthy life. Consider refraining from anything that has nicotine. For you to stay healthy, you should quit from drinking alcohol. Meat is not the best meal for anyone who is concerned about their health. There are people who opt to consume vegetable only. One can choose to become a vegetarian for the sake of their health.
If you are able to get rid the meat in your plate, you will reduce chances of contracting cancer. You can be sure that as long as you have started eating vegetables instead of meat, your body will benefit from the fiber in the vegetables and the amount of fat that gets into your body will be low. There is very minimal chance for vegetarians to get cancer because they are not exposed to the risk. Whenever you decide to stop eating meat, you lower the quantity of saturated fat that would accumulate in your body if you ate meat. Nonetheless, you will have an opportunity to reduce the quantity of saturated fat that is already in your body if at all you are willing to take vegetables. Exercising, avoiding stress and keeping away from cigarettes is very crucial for you if at all you want to lie a healthy life. There is no doubt that you will not contract any of these illnesses including heart problem.
You can be sure that if you switch to a vegetarian diet, you will have low blood sugar. People who have skills pertaining diet say that if you are a vegetarian, you have are likely to maintain low blood pressure. Anyone who does this can comfortably say that they have taken pressure medication. People who don’t eat meat have reduced risk of developing diabetes. You should be advised to make sure that you eat foods which do not contain saturated fats because it will increase the effect of diabetes. For you to say that you are healthy, you should make sure that you are exercising as much as possible.
If you are a vegetarian you will be at an advantage because it is not easy to get osteoporosis. You can be sure that you are not at risk of developing asthma. You should search more about the benefits of taking vegetables. This product is very, and therefore you should not hesitate to take it. You should know that you can eat a healthy diet even without consuming meat. It is essential for you to gather more info about vegetables. You can be sure that you will learn more from the internet regarding vegetables. The final decision will be yours on whether you will stop eating meat or not. |
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SterlingBrown's blog
Fourth of July Fireworks
Fireworks Safety
In just a couple more weeks it'll be the 4 July holiday and in addition to hot dogs and hamburgers there always seems to be fireworks.
In America, fireworks have become an intricate part of the day’s celebration, but not without some real inherent hazards.
Every Fourth of July, there are literally hundreds and hundreds of people injured by both accidents with fireworks and injuries from improper use of fireworks.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Sat, 06/15/2019 - 12:16
Aluminum Wiring
About that Aluminum Wiring…
A little background information on aluminum electrical wiring is important. Many homes around were wired with aluminum beginning in 1965. It was later discovered that some aluminum wiring was causing fires and its use on the 15- and 20-amp circuits was discontinued in the mid 1970s. 15- and 20-amp circuits typically serve lighting and receptacles.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Thu, 06/13/2019 - 14:10
Safe Fireplace Use
Fireplace Safety
Wood-burning fireplaces create an ambiance it’s hard to beat with any other heating method. There’s something about sitting in front of a wood-burning fireplace with its colorful display of flame and aroma of burning wood that seems to fulfill a basic human need.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Sun, 06/09/2019 - 12:40
Septic systems
Many of the homes outside of cities and at our many lakes are served by septic systems to handle waste water.
A septic system is simply a device designed to handle the wastewater your home generates when city sewers are not available. A septic system breaks down the impurity in the wastewater and then allows the water to re-enter the ground.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Sat, 06/08/2019 - 12:31
What is Radon and why should you care? Where are you likely to encounter it? How is it tested for and if it's a concern how to mitigate it?
What exactly is radon? Radon is a radioactive gas know to cause cancer. Radon is invisible and has no smell or taste it but it may be a problem in your home. Radon causes several thousand deaths each year that's because when you breathe air containing radon you can get lung cancer. The Surgeon General has warned that radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Fri, 06/07/2019 - 20:43
Deck Safety
Decks provide a great place to relax during warmer months but do have a few requirements to help assure your family's safety. Remember to check each of the following at the start of warmer weather so that nothing interferes with the sun and fun.
1) Look for cracks, holes or signs of decay. Probe places where water might accumulate such as depressions and cracks. Holes may indicate insects are setting up home. Check with your local pest control expert.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Wed, 05/29/2019 - 13:16
Water fun and Electrical Safety
Summer safety advice from your local home inspector and the National Fire Protection Association
There is hope that the weather will be warm enough soon in the Fargo Moorhead and the west central Minnesota Lakes Region to start to pursue water activities. Being blessed as we are with many beautiful lakes and rivers to play in, it sometimes difficult to remember that spas, pools and hot tubs are being used more as the weather warms.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Thu, 05/09/2019 - 12:26
Being cool!
In Fargo Morehead and the lakes region including Alexandria, Wadena, Detroit Lakes and Fergus Falls it is still hard to believe that will be using our air conditioning units very soon to provide indoor comfort we desire. But the National Weather Service does assure us that there will be a warm day before fall, maybe, or at least it’s not impossible.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Wed, 05/08/2019 - 07:17
Costs vs. Returns in North Dakota and Minnesota
Improving and remodeling your home and the cost versus return on some important efforts
For the home buying public a comfortable home is number one on most people’s lists. Everyone’s definition of what that means, however, differs considerably but one common thread is a question, if I do X, Y or Z will I recover any of my costs when I sell?
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Thu, 04/25/2019 - 15:47
Forced air filters
Clean up your act, or least your furnace filters.
Springtime has been slow arriving this year. In our part of the country, eastern North Dakota and western Minnesota, there are still remnants of snow in shaded areas of woodlands and along the edges of parking lots where the snow was piled. But spring is here, things are starting to green and that brings the spring cleaning bug to many of us.
Submitted by SterlingBrown on Mon, 04/22/2019 - 10:36
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The FLU season is here. INNOCULATE NOW!
The flu season usually runs from November through March. Some years, cases continue into April and May. For the last 25 years, the heaviest flu activity has occurred in February.
Each year in the United States, on average, 5 to 20 percent of the population gets the flu. More than 250,000 people require hospitalization while about 36,000 die.
Influenza viruses can cause disease among people of any age, but rates of infection are highest among children. Serious illness and death are highest among persons ages 65 or older, and children ages 2 and younger. People of any age with certain medical conditions (e.g., congestive heart failure, asthma, diabetes), or who live in some type of long-term care facility are at risk for serious complications.
There are two types of influenza vaccine. The trivalent inactivated (killed) influenza vaccine, or TIV, may be used on any person age 6 months or older. This flu shot, an injection into muscle, usually is in the upper arm. The other is a live, attenuated (weakened) influenza vaccine, or LAIV, which is sprayed into the nostrils.
For most people, vaccination will prevent serious influenza-related illnesses. Vaccination will not prevent “flu-like” illnesses caused by other viruses. It takes two weeks for protection to develop after vaccination. So, vaccine that is given early in the flu season will provide a longer period of protection. Influenza vaccines can reduce infection in 70 to 90 percent of healthy adults under the age of 65.
Experts agree that hand-washing can help prevent viral infections, including ordinary influenza and the swine flu virus. Also not touching your eyes, nose or mouth with your hands helps to prevent the flu.Influenza can spread in coughs or sneezes, but an increasing body of evidence shows small droplets containing the virus can linger on tabletops, telephones and other surfaces and be transferred via the fingers to the eyes, nose or mouth.
In all cases, please consult with your physician to determine which vaccine will be best suited for you. |
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Antitrust Laws and Governmental Agencies for Enforcing Laws
Antitrust laws and the agencies involved in enforcing such acts seem to be confusing. Please outline, concisely, the basic acts or laws concerning antitrust, the specific governmental agencies in charge of enforcing each law, the limits of responsibility of these agencies, and your suggestions on simplifying the process.
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The Sherman Act was created in 1890 and serves as the first law that aims to preserve free and unfettered competition within the rules of trade. The Sherman Act does not prohibit ever single area concerning the restraint of trade, only those that are considered to be unreasonable. The violation of the Sherman Act can be civil or criminal and is prosecuted by the Department of Justice (DOJ). Prosecution usually takes place if there is a clear and intentional violation of the law and penalties can be up to $100 million for a corporation and $1 million for an individual to include up to ten years in prison. Federal law allows the fine to be increased a maximum of twice the amount of what the violator gained from the act or what was lost by the victims.
The Federal Trade Commission Act bans unfair methods of competition and also unfair or deceptive acts or ...
Solution Summary
This solution discusses the basic acts/laws concerning antitrust and the specific governmental agencies in charge of enforcing laws. |
View Full Version : Good vectors/planes book
11-18-2005, 07:47 PM
Looking for a book that covers the math of vectors and planes, and their relations with each other (such as intersections, reflecting vectors across a point on a plane, etc.)
I'm looking for something that describes these things in great detail in a math sense. If you know of a good book like this, feel free to divulge. Thanks.
11-18-2005, 09:16 PM
Well, wait I thought you've already had some games programming books that detail this?
Also, are you looking for something in a university context or a graphical/games programming context?
Every University calculus book I've personally comes across details the math for doing vector/plane analysis (which includes projecting/rotating vectors)...same story with any university physics book. I thought you were already doing both of these at waterloo?
For a game/graphics programming book, I have several that do this math. Mathematics for 3D game programming and computer graphics is excellent in terms of the amount that it covers, but I've found that if I wasn't already somewhat familiar with the material I had a hard time picking it up with that as my source. Also, there are various versions of this, the second having recently been released. It is by eric lengyel.
From a game physics programming perspective I have 'Game Physics' by David Eberly...it has a huge math reference in the back, detailed enough that it should work for anybody (even if you weren't interested in game physics).
Engineering Mathematics is somethign else to look into (I don't remember the latest edition). It discusses pretty much anything you'd ever need to know about, with a lot on vector/plane analysis (but it comes more from physics/statics point of view, mostly with integration).
11-19-2005, 12:33 AM
Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton 0-471-66960-1
11-19-2005, 02:07 AM
So far, what I'm trying to do is make some simple OpenGL demos for colliding lines with planes. I've currently got it so I can shoot a line through a plane and plot the interception point. I can also determine if it's actually inside the plane (with a triangle so far).
Other stuff I'm hoping to do is reflecting on planes, sliding across planes, all that good stuff. I found some info in my calc book about vectors but it only covered the stuff I already knew (dot product, cross product).
And at bob: no, we haven't done any vector stuff at all, sadly. Just a review of high school calculus and some really crazy algebra stuff with proofs (blegh).
11-19-2005, 02:43 PM
Everything you have described can be done with vector projections, which just requires unit vectors (typically the plane normal) and a dotproduct, and in the case of determining if a point lays inside a triangle it requires dot products and crossproducts (I can show you my implementation of that if you want).
For instance, sliding across a plane requires that you remove the component of your velocity vector in the same direction of the plane normal.
Reflecting a vector off a plane is the same thing, except you remove twice the component of the vector in the same direction of the plane normal.
Incidentally, a better source for doing these types of things can actually be found in a mechanics book, look for 'coefficient of restitution' for both reflecting and sliding across planes are really just two manifestations of the coefficient of restitution. This information can be found in probably all of the books mentioned thusfar except a calculus book.
Physics for Game Developers is a watered-down physics book which contains this information (david bourg). |
As far as I know, when a soccer player commits a foul, the referee penalizes him / her. But when I google the self-made sentence: "The referee penalized that player" I get only 5 results. I guess there is another verb for this purpose. What is the common verb which a native speaker would use instead of the bold verb below:
The referee penalized that player and gave him a yellow card.
He fouled and was / got penalized.
• 1
The player got yellow carded. The referee yellow-carded him. – Teacher KSHuang Jan 23 '17 at 10:23
• 2
The phrase "that player" is unlikely in sports commentary. Also, you're far more likely to find a passive construction, the player was penalized, which is very common across a variety of sports, than a construction in the active voice: The referee penalized the player. – Tᴚoɯɐuo Jan 23 '17 at 10:52
The language used in sports reports can be quite specialised. As a UK resident who visits the US quite frequently I am amused by the different idioms used by UK and US media to report on football/soccer matches. I'm answering this question from a UK perspective. You may find it helpful to read online match reports to see how the games are reported; the BBC website is an example of a pretty standard UK site.
In every-day speech, and in match reports the focus seems to be on the award of a free kick or penalty to the team against whom the foul was commited.
A few minutes later, Morgan was flummoxed by the pace of Shane Long, who was hauled down in the area. Referee Michael Oliver rightly pointed to the spot.
You see there that we don't need to say that Morgan (or his team) were penalised, just that the referee awarded a penalty to the opponents.
You will see phrases such as
The referee blew for a foul.
Jone mistimed his tackle and the referee gave City a free kick on the edge of the area
One specific example of penalising a player occurs when the referee gives the player a yellow card. We then use the verb book, as in the past the referee would write the player's name in his notebook (these days they seem to write the name on the yellow card they brandish.)
So we see
Mark Clattenburg booked him for dissent in the 76th minute.
As a North American speaker, I would say the more common way of saying this is that a player can 'get a penalty' rather than 'get penalized'. I suspect the explanation is first that to 'get penalized' is less specific than to 'get a penalty', since you could theoretically 'get penalized' with things other than a 'penalty', like if a goal was refused; and second, your example has 'the referee' as a subject and phrases the sentence in the active voice, with the referee as the agent. Since it's obvious that it's the referee giving a penalty, I would say this is an atypical construction, unless for some reason the referee is important in the story. Usually it's the penalized player that's important, so you would say "[player-name] got a penalty" or "was penalized".
Of course if it's specifically soccer/football you are concerned with, indeed it's likely to be phrased as "[player-name] got a foul/yellow card/red card". In ice hockey for example, it would be "[player-name] got a penalty" or to be more specific, "got a 2 minute penalty" if it's the more typical minor penalty.
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Laminating is the process of gluing a thin layer of plastic to a paper with the help of heat. It is used to seal and preserve posters, menus, magazine covers and much more. Lamination provides strength and flexibility to the paper, changes the texture to glossy or matt and creates various effects to catch the eye of the customer. All of those products are meant to be used for a year, a month, or a week, yet they can last for a 100 years. Not only is the production of plastic damaging to nature but the fact that it’s almost impossible to separate from the paper makes it really hard to recycle.
LAM’ON is basically made from corn. The film is based on bio-polymers while the glue layer is completely non-toxic and suited for the needs of the printing industry.
Moreover, during our prototyping phase we established that there are no VOC emissions (it actually smells a bit like caramel), allowing us to provide a healthier environment for the people producing or using LAM’ON. Finally, because of its biodegradability, depending on the type of paper that is laminated, the end product can be recycled or even composted. All components used in the film are 100% biodegradable and certified. |
Insulation and Temp
All Jefferson Electric transformers are designed and manufactured with the best quality insulation available. There are classes of insulation systems for different temperatures as defined by NEMA and ANSI. Insulation classes are rated in °C rise above a specific ambient of 40°C maximum. A transformer having a specific class of insulation, for example Class 220, can have an average winding temperature rise of 150°C with a maximum hot spot temperature rise of 180°C. If the room ambient temperature is 40°C, then the total temperature of the hottest spot would be 220°C. Jefferson Electric transformers are designed to operate at rated load and voltage in maximum room ambient temperatures of 40°C, average room ambient temperature not to exceed 30°C, and at altitudes not to exceed 3300 feet in accordance with NEMA standards.
The designations for insulation systems are numerical classifications based on temperature ratings. Transformer ratings are based on temperature rise. The accompanying table shows the designations.
Overloads exceeding the maximum allowable insulation temperature can be tolerated, provided the overload is of short duration and is preceded and followed by a period of operation at less than rated kVA (refer to ANSI C57.96-1989, Tables 5,6,7). Overloading should be avoided unless approval is obtained from the Jefferson Electric engineering department.
Ambient temperatures above 30°C average over a 24-hour period and 40°C maximum require either a larger kVA rating or a special low temperature rise transformer. A 150°C rise air cooled transformer can also be derated using the formula of .4% kVA reduction for each degree centigrade above 30°C ambient temperature.
For transformers above 3300 feet, reduce the kVA rating .3% for each 330 feet above 3300 feet. |
Chapter 16, a summary: Sebastian Barry’s ‘A Long, Long Way’
The 16th find themselves back in the line in a quiet sector. It is the frozen winter of 1917, and the front is frigid with snow. The composition of the regiment is changing; fewer Irishmen are volunteering now, and the regiment sees an influx of English volunteers. Willie finds that the new men are much alike his Irish fellows.
The platoon has a new leader, second lieutenant Biggs, who proves an efficient leader. Willie meets a young Londoner named Timmy Weekes, who introduces himself with a funny joke about his surname. A Hampstead boy, Weekes is well read, and introduces the other men to Dostoevsky and Whitman. Willie, like the other men particularly enjoys Dostoevesky’s ‘the Idiot’. For Willie, however, the murderous destruction of the war weighs ever heavier upon him, and the winter is prolonged and awful.
Eventually spring arrives and the men are moved once more in preparation for a new attack. Willie receives more letters from home, but still awaits a letter from Gretta. Before decamping, Father Buckley takes confession from Willie about his visit to the prostitute in Amiens. He then talks to Buckley his troubles with his father, and witnessing the shooting of the Rebel soldier on the streets of Dublin. Buckley is a Redmondite, and explains the war to Willie as a fight for Ireland and Home Rule. Willie is doubtful and upset by his variance with his father on the matter. He receives his penance, and with a word of good luck for the following day’s attack, is dismissed.
Chapter 15, a summary: Sebastian Barry’s ‘A Long, Long Way’
Willie and company find themselves stationed well behind the front lines. Willie receives an unsettling letter from his sister Maud informing his that his father is angry with Willie. He is disturbed by the news, knowing his father’s probable dislike of the sense of disquiet that he expressed in his letter about the execution of nationalists at home. Willie feels a sense of distance growing between himself and his father, and between himself and Gretta.
An inter-regimental boxing match is held between two Irishmen in what is informally billed ‘The Battle of the Micks’. The fight is between an Ulsterman of the 36th Ulster regiment, and a Southerner of 16th. Both regiments were once originally comprised of volunteers, Unionist Ulstermen on the one hand and Nationalist Volunteers on the other, and the pull of these two conflicting Irish political traditions adds spice to the competition. Willie, like the other men, is excited by the prospect of the boxing match.
The boxing match is held in the divisional hall. Line officers sit with their men while Staff officers watch in their own segregated section. It is an even contest, and the crowd is pleased. Some of the political tensions underlying the fight come to the surface in sectarian cheering from the crowd. Cuddy, the Southern champion, is floored and takes the count, but composes himself and fights again. There is a brief melee in the crowd, where jeers like ‘rebel cunts’ and ‘Ulster bollockses’ are heard, but the atmosphere remains excited but genial. Swinging wildly at the Ulsterman, the Southerner slips on the canvas and falls to the floor; remarkably, he is helped up by his opponent. The brutal fight continues until the partisanship of the crowd is softened by admiration. Finally, to acclamation, the Southerner swings a blow to the temple of the Ulsterman, and wins by a knockout.
Other entertainments follow, including ‘The Rising of the Moon’, a play about an Irish rebellion in which, ironically, Major Stokes plays the role of the Rebel.
A month later, the men attend a dance in which only soldiers participate, and despite the absence of women, the men raucously dance with each other. At the end of the night Joe Kiely (a champion Irish dancer) dances to the acclaim of all present.
Willie talks to Kielty later and Kielty tells Willie what led to his joining up. Once, walking in Ballina, a young women presented him with a white feather. Willie is amazed at the slightness of this motivation; and as the men fall asleep he begins to cry. He measures his own naïve impulse to join against the absurd reality and magnitude of death on the front, and realising the change wrought within him, is distraught.
Chapter 14, a summary: Sebastian Barry’s ‘A Long, Long Way’
Willie’s company return to the front line. The war is in its darkest months yet. With great loss of life, sections of the regiment have gained ground at Guillemont. Captain Sheridan tells the men they are press on to Guinchy. Once again, the men gather before Father Buckley for mass, but this time they do so in a field fought over just days before, still strewn with the unburied dead. As Buckley speaks, Willie thinks upon the nature of words, finding them a kind of natural music, and rallies.
The company make their way up to the line through smashed fragments of humanity. The shelling is intense. Ever more anguished, Willie recognises the corpse of Quigley amongst the hundreds of bodies as he passes. He sets about cutting barbed wire with his fellows, preliminary to pushing forward. The men, seeking distraction, argue good-naturedly about the type of crop they work amongst. The talk cheers them.
Moving up to the captured German lines, the company eventually come to a battlefield, the scene of vicious fighting. Dead German and Irishmen are everywhere. The sight of dismembered corpses is terrifying, and the smell of death lingers. Men retch as they walk. When the men reach Guillamont they find Chinese workers building a makeshift road. In the midst of terrible shelling, the diggers are struck by shellfire as they work. Willie and his company finally stop at the foremost trench line. There they eat stew and sleep before the planned attack on Guinchy.
The men are ready to attack at four in the morning, awaiting the movement of a creeping barrage intended to supress German fire as the men march across no-man’s land. Pitying the new recruits, Willie hears with terror the British shelling commence: he wets himself as the barrage begins. The men are given their orders, and climb the trench ladders. They march across no man’s land. The barbed wire is scattered and at first the men walk unimpeded towards the German line. Soon however the British artillery barrage overreaches them, allowing German machine guns to commence firing. The Irish advance is cut to pieces. Captain Sheridan is immediately hit. The company marches on through the murderous gunfire. The Irish soldiers reach the enemy trenches and engage once more in hand to hand fighting with German soldiers, who swiftly surrender.
Willie and the company spend the rest of the day in a cold panic, awaiting a counter attack. Finally they are relieved by others in the 16th and begin the march back to British lines. Reaching the safety of occupied ground, they find the body of Captain Sheridan as it is being transported back to the line. They follow its progress to Guillemont. As they go, they are cheered by fellow soldiers who have learnt of the capture of Guinchy. Willie and his comrades feel traumatised and empty, however- knowing as they do the hideous carnage they have left behind them.
Chapter 13, a summary: Sebastian Barry’s ‘A Long, Long Way’
Kirwan is executed for cowardice the next month. Major Stokes declares the sentence, and the Irishman is shot at dawn. Willie helps dig Kirwan’s grave, and attends his funeral, where Buckley tells Willie of Kirwan’s family past. Kirwan’s mother, Willie is told, left her millenarian sect to be with his father, and in doing so was forever expelled from the fold. Their union together, Buckley tells, gave them Jesse Kirwan. Willie is upset to be told this, and remembers the tale until his own life ends. That night, Willie sneaks out of billets, and sings ‘Ave Maria’ over Kirwan’s grave.
Willie tells O’Hara this sad story, and O’Hara responds with his own confessional. He tells of moving through a Belgian village at the start of the war and discovering a maimed and raped Belgian woman tied down in a church. The men release her and lead her away to be treated but come under fire from a wood and take cover in a ditch. A young lieutenant strikes her as they seek cover, and then proceeds to rape her in the same ditch. O’Hara confesses that he held her down while the rape happened. Willie is revolted and strikes O’Hara, who is surprised by Willie’s reaction. O’Hara remonstrates with Willie about the brutality of the war, but Willie is horrified and goes to bed, desperately questioning the nature of man.
Chapter 12, a summary: Sebastian Barry’s ‘A Long, Long Way’
It is late spring in Flanders in 1916, and Willie’s company are performing fatigues while behind the lines. News continues to filter through of more executions back in Ireland. The men realise that some sort of big push is imminent. The French bloodshed at Verdun continues unabated.
Jessie Kirwan awaits court martial for disobeying orders, and is refusing food. This is relayed to Willie by Father Buckley, who has been ministering to the Corkman. When asked for a character reference, Kirwan gives Buckley Willie’s name, and Buckley asks Willie to visit the prisoner. At first Willie means to refuse, his compassion worn away by time and events. Yet Buckley’s fond request and a curiosity about Kirwan leads to Willie agreeing to see the man in spite of himself.
The Battle of the Somme begins. News of the massacre of the 36th Ulster Division reaches the men, who are awed and horrified. Willie goes to see Kirwan where he is held, in a working abbatoir, on the 3rd of July. A bullock is being slaughtered as Willie arrives: Kirwan is being held in a toilet adjacent to the killing floor. While Buckley goes to see his charge, Willie talks to the Irish corporal guarding the room. Kirwan is a nice enough man, the corporal declares, but became deeply upset after the execution of the rebel leaders. He is not sympathetic to Kirwan’s politics, but does note with some concern that Major Stokes’ hostility to the Irish means that at court martial Kirwan’s life stands in the balance.
Willie goes in to see Kirwan. He is emaciated and withdrawn, but greets Willie from his bed. He announces his intention to be shot. He does not intend open protest, but refuses as an Irishman to fight in the British Army. He has chosen Willie as the single witness to his intentions. Willie tries to talk him out of his intention, but Kirwan is firm. Willie then gives Kirwan his Bible. Kirwan protests that he has one: Willie reminds him of their first meeting, and notes that his own isn’t stained with urine. After leaving Kirwan in his cell, Willie walks out with Father Buckley, privately ruing his friend’s seemingly suicidal ethical course.
Chapter 11, a summary: Sebastian Barry’s ‘A Long, Long Way’
Willie writes home to his father, expressing his relief that Dublin is returning to normal, and his love for the men of his battalion. News of the events at home stir the beginnings of debate among the Irishmen. While general opinion is still hostile to the rebels, the news that the leaders of the rebellion are to be shot causes some disquiet. O’Hara does not like the gleeful tone of one of the newspaper reports, despite himself voicing some indignation that, as soldiers in the British army, they are thought as enemies of Irish freedom. Keilty and Willie also express regret that the men are to be shot: and in a further letter Willie tells his father this. He also writes a postcard to Gretta, for whom he once again struggles to adequately express his love and affection.
Willie and the rest of his company are billeted in a suit-making factory. Suit outlines for manufacture hang eerily from the ceilings in the main production room. As Willie sleeps with his company in the anteroom adjacent, he dreams of the man he killed. Across no man’s land, the dead German captures a pigeon, and Willie is excited by the thought that the man will now kill and eat the bird. To his surprise, the man releases the pigeon, which flies up into the sky. Willie then awakes.
Chapter 10, a summary: Sebastian Barry’s ‘A Long, Long Way’
The men are now behind the lines. In a glass house laid out with enamel baths, the men communally bathe and enjoy the luxury of hot water. They joke together and ease into the silent pleasure of company. Willie, however, remains troubled by thoughts of death.
Later, the Irishmen retire to an impromptu theatre and a singing party begins. Members of the battalion volunteer to sing for the others. The sings stir profound feelings and memories from the gathered men. Willie’s friend O’Hara, an amateur musician, plays ‘Roses of Picardy’, a sentimental music hall number, and the performance brings many to tears. Willie then is encouraged to step up, and he sings the song he once sang in competition, ‘Ave Maria’. Willie’s marvellous singing and the Catholic mystery of the song enraptures the crowd. Willie remembers a long-supressed memory of singing the hymn over his dead mother’s body as she lay at home after his sister Dolly’s birth. He sings for her and for the audience of Irishmen before him- themselves so close to death. |
Pharmacogenetic Testing: Personalized Medicine
Pharmacogenetic testing involves testing a person’s genetics to find out how a certain drug would work in that person. Learn the pros and cons of this testing.
I’ve recently seen increasing numbers of parents who want testing to decide which medication to use for their child’s condition before trying any medicines. Many admit that they don’t know much about it and want to learn more. Pharmacogenetic testing involves testing a person’s genetics to find out how a certain drug would work in that person. While that sounds like it would be fantastic to know, it has many limitations. We’ll talk about the pros and cons below.
Traditional dosing of medicines
Before they can be approved to be used, drugs are tested in large groups of people.
Dosing schedules are determined based on safety and efficacy of the medicine, but this is in a group. It relies on information gathered from a mass of people, and majority rules. This means that whatever works for most people is what becomes the recommendations.
Although this works for most people, any individual can have a variation that is not seen with the large numbers in a group. We all know people that can’t tolerate certain medicines. In the past we use family patterns to help predict tolerability. If a family member (or especially if multiple family members) report that certain medicines require lower or higher doses to be tolerated and effective, then we use that in our decision making for prescribing medicines. Of course it isn’t a perfect way to do things, but it can help.
What is pharmacogenetic testing?
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genes affect a person’s response to drugs. It’s a growing field that involves using what we know about the person’s genetic make up and how they will metabolize a medication. This can allow the prescriber to use certain medicines and not others, or begin with overall higher or lower doses than standard recommendations suggest.
It is personalized to a person’s genetic makeup, so it’s often called personalized medicine or precision medicine.
Many medicines work well for most people, but there are people who will metabolize certain things slowly, allowing the medicine to build up to toxic levels when dosed per standard amounts. Other people may require higher doses due to a very rapid metabolism. Some people should avoid certain medications all together. Knowing these dose adjustments and risks before even starting a medicine could be very beneficial!
Certain proteins affect how drugs work. Pharmacogenetic testing looks at differences in genes for these proteins. These proteins include liver enzymes that chemically change drugs. These changes can make the drugs more or less active. Even small differences in the genes for these liver enzymes can have a significant impact on a drug’s safety or effectiveness.
What are some uses in general pediatrics?
I’m limiting this discussion to uses that a general physician would use this type of testing. There are other uses for chronic diseases that are managed by specialists and beyond my scope.
Please realize that these are the commonly requested uses, not recommended uses.
The most common time that I’m asked about this type of testing is for kids with ADHD.
Many parents are afraid of side effects of stimulants and have heard of other children who needed many adjustments of medication, both type of drug and dosing.
Starting a new stimulant medication can be frustrating, especially if it takes weeks or months to find what works. Parents would like to avoid that and start with the best.
Unfortunately the tests currently available do not predict which medicine will be most effective. They test how it will be metabolized.
Many people who show best tolerability for a certain drug may find that drug ineffective in managing their symptoms. This is due to many factors, but in the end still leaves us with the need to do a trial of various medicines to find the best one.
Failure to find a beneficial medicine based on these trials may lead to reassessment to be sure the diagnosis is correct. Proper diagnosis is not tested with the pharmocogenetic tests.
Anxiety and depression
Anxiety and depression medications are another type of medicine that has many options, and some respond to one better than another.
The traditional way to start is to look at family history (which is also a study of genetics, although included in the cost of your visit and doesn’t include a lab). Unfortunately, many people do not know of family member’s specific health details, especially what medicines they were on and what their reactions were.
When we pick a medicine, we start with low doses, and increase as tolerated and needed. If the first medication doesn’t work or isn’t tolerated, it is stopped and another is tried. This can prolong the time it takes to feel better, which is significant, and likely the reason people want a quick answer with a lab test.
Unfortunately, much like the ADHD testing mentioned above, the tests don’t predict which medicine will manage symptoms best. They only predict how they will be metabolized.
Should you get tested?
I am excited for the future of personalized medicine.
We may no longer need to try multiple medicines to be able to see which are better tolerated. Starting near the target dose, rather than starting at a low dose and titrating up, which prolongs the time it takes to get to an effective dose, would be welcomed in many people.
Unfortunately, I think psychopharmalogical testing is not yet for prime time.
The FDA agrees. They’ve sent out warnings that these tests should not be used to help choose a medicine.
Just because your body will metabolize a medicine more slowly or rapidly doesn’t predict if it will be effective to treat your symptoms.
It is still very costly and insurance companies resist paying for it. With high deductible plans, many people must pay the cost. With the new FDA warning, it is unlikely that insurance companies will cover the cost of these tests anytime soon.
It is being widely used in cancer and HIV patients and has helped to prevent significant side effects that often lead to hospitalization. From an insurance company standpoint, they’re saving money by covering the test for these purposes. From a patient standpoint, they have added security that they will respond well to the treatment.
For more:
Pharmacogenomics and Personalized Medicine By: Jill U. Adams, Ph.D. (Freelance science writer in Albany, NY) © 2008 Nature Education Citation: Adams, J. (2008) Pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine. Nature Education1(1):194
ADHD Medicines: Starting out and titrating
Can pharmacogenetic testing save time and money when choosing a new medicine? Personalized medicine is exciting, but is it ready for prime time?
Final Thoughts on ADHD Medicines
My last post was how to start and titrate ADHD medicines. Today I’d like to discuss more of the fine-tuning issues, such as what happens if medicine isn’t taken every day, how to remember it, what to do if parents disagree about medicine, and even how to plan for travel.
Time Off ADHD Medicines
starting ADHD medicinesOnce a good dose is found, parents often ask if medicines need to be taken every day.
Stimulants work when they work, but they don’t build up in the body or require consistent use. (This is not true for the non-stimulants, which are often not safe to suddenly start and stop.)
Some kids fail to gain weight adequately due to appetite suppression on stimulants, so parents will take drug holidays to allow better eating.
Days off the medicine also seems help to slow down the need for repeated increases in dosing for people who are rapid metabolizers.
Drug holidays off stimulants were once universally recommended to help kids eat better and grow on days off school. Studies ultimately did not show a benefit to this, so it is not necessary. Some kids suffer if they are not on medications. Behavior issues, including safety issues while playing (or driving for older kids) can be a significant problem when not medicated. Self esteem can also suffer when kids are not medicated.
Despite the fact that some kids need daily medicine, others don’t. When kids can manage their safety and behavior adequately, it isn’t wrong to take days off. Many kids want to gain better weight, and taking a drug holiday can help with appetite.
Talk to your child’s doctor if you plan on not giving your child the medicine daily to be sure that is the right choice for your child.
Remembering the medicine
It’s difficult to get into the habit of giving medicine to a child every day. Tomorrow’s post will be about how to remember medicines
My favorite tip is to put the pills in a weekly pill sorter at the beginning of each week. This allows you to see if you’re running low before you run out and allows you to see if it was given today or not. These medicines should not be kept where kids who are too young to understand the responsibility of taking the medicine have access.
Controlled substances
Controlled substances, such as stimulants, cannot be called in or faxed to a pharmacy. Many physicians now have the ability to e-prescribe these.
Controlled substance prescriptions cannot have refills, but a prescriber can write for either three 30 day prescriptions or one 90 day prescription when they feel a patient is stable on a dose.
Stimulants are not controlled substances because of increased risks and side effects. Some of the more significant side effects of ADHD medicines are seen in non-stimulant medicines.
They are controlled substances because they have a street value. Teens often buy them from other teens as study drugs. This can be very dangerous since it isn’t supervised by a physician and the dose might not be safe for the purchaser. It is of course illegal to sell these medicines.
The DEA does monitor these prescriptions more closely than others. If the prescription is over 90 days old, many pharmacists cannot fill it (this will vary by state), so do not attempt to hold prescriptions to use at a later time.
Acids and Stimulants
It has been recommended that you shouldn’t take ascorbic acid or vitamin C (such as with a glass of orange juice) an hour before and after you take medication.
The theory is that ADHD stimulants are strongly alkaline and cannot be absorbed into the bloodstream if these organic acids are present at the same time.
High doses of vitamin C (1000 mg) in pill or juice form, can also accelerate the excretion of amphetamine in the urine and act like an “off” switch on the med.
In reality have never seen this to be an issue.
If anyone has noticed a difference in onset of action or effectiveness of their medicine if they take it with ascorbic acid or vitamin C, please post your comment below.
When Mom and Dad disagree
It is not uncommon that one parent wants to start a medication for their child, but the other parent does not.
It’s important to agree on a plan, whatever the plan is.
Have a time frame for each step of the plan before a scheduled re-evaluation.
If the plan isn’t working, then change directions.
Be cautious of how you talk about this with your child. If kids know it is a disagreement, they might fear the medicine or think that needing it makes them inferior or bad.
Do not talk about the diagnosis as if it’s something the child can control. They can’t.
Don’t make the child feel guilty for having this disorder. It isn’t fair to the child and it only makes the situation worse.
Having the medicine when you need it
There is nothing more frustrating for a parent and child than to realize that there’s a big test tomorrow and you have no medicine left and you’re out of refills.
Technically none of the stimulant medicines can have refills, but a prescription covering 90 days at a time can be given. This can be done with a 90 day prescription or three 30 day prescriptions.
The technicality of this is sometimes difficult. You cannot call your pharmacy to request a refill. You must ask to have the next prescription filled if your physician provided 3 prescriptions for 3 months.
Be sure to know the procedure for refills at your doctor’s office.
It’s very important to plan ahead prior to travel if your travel involves the timeframe of needing new medication.
You must plan ahead so that if a refill will be needed during the trip you will either be able to fill a prescription you have on vacation or you will need to fill the prescription in advance.
Most people can get a prescription 7 days prior to the 30 day supply running out but not sooner, so you might need to fill a couple prescriptions a few days earlier in the month each to have enough on hand to make it through your vacation. It takes planning!
Sometimes you can work with your physician and pharmacist to get medicines early prior to travel. Talk to your pharmacist to see if they can help arrange this.
If you are out of town and you realize you forgot your child’s non-stimulant, call your doctor to see if they can e-prescribe it. Many of the non-stimulants are not safe to suddenly stop, so they are likely to send in a prescription. Insurance is not likely to pay for these extra pills if it was recently filled.
International travel will require that you find the laws in the other country to find out if you can bring controlled substances into the country. If you will need additional medicine while you are in that country, you will need to find a way to get the medicine.
Mail order
Some insurance companies will allow mail order 90 day prescriptions.
There are insurance companies that not only allow, but require them on daily medicines.
Others do not allow it.
In general I advise against a 90 day prescription if the dose is not established or if there are any concerns that it might not be the perfect dose. If there is any concern that it might need to be changed, a 30 day prescription is a better option.
If you will need to do a mail order, be sure you schedule your appointment to get the prescription early enough to account for the lost time mailing.
Looking for more?
The Autism Society has an extensive list of resources.
Learning Disabilities
Tourette’s Syndrome and Tic Disorders
General Support Group List
School information
Midwest ADHD Conference – April 2018
Midwest ADHD Conference
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Database internet technologies
The Database Technologies of the Future
Provide support for an extensible but relational compatible schema by allowing Database internet technologies to be represented broadly by a relational model, but also allowing for application-extensible schemas, possibly by supporting embedded JSON data types.
Blockchains arguably represent a new sort of shared distributed database. This in spite of the fact that tools may exist to help migration between specific DBMSs. Typically, an appropriate general-purpose DBMS can be selected to be used for this purpose.
A mobile database can be carried on or synchronized from a mobile computing device. End-users who only access the Internet when needed to perform a function or obtain information, represent the bottom of the routing hierarchy. Possible uses include security monitoring, alerting, statistics gathering and authorization.
Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a. Physical design is driven mainly by performance requirements, and requires a good knowledge of the expected workload and access patterns, and a deep understanding of the features offered by the chosen DBMS.
However, the Blockchain represents a complete paradigm shift in how permissions are managed within the database. This process is often called logical database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema.
Techniques such as indexing may be used to improve performance. In some cases, the database becomes operational while empty of application data, and data are accumulated during its operation. A deductive database combines logic programming with a relational database.
On the programming side, libraries known as object-relational mappings ORMs attempt to solve the same problem. Increasingly, the expectation will be that data backups happen constantly, in real time, so that data never gets lost.
It largely replaces XML as the format for data with complex structures, such as web pages or user profiles. Another popular approach is the Unified Modeling Language. Tools or hooks for database design, application programming, application program maintenance, database performance analysis and monitoring, database configuration monitoring, DBMS hardware configuration a DBMS and related database may span computers, networks, and storage units and related database mapping especially for a distributed DBMSstorage allocation and database layout monitoring, storage migration, etc.
His areas of interests include machine learning, data science, legacy systems modernization and open source technologies. Another aspect of physical database design is security.
Note for MSIS students: This model negates the costly capital expenditure and management required for an on-premise data warehouse. Whether you are an IT practitioner or a business stakeholder, we encourage you to consider participating in this exciting conference.This page focuses on the course J Database, Internet, and Systems Integration Technologies as it was taught by Dr.
Database Trends and Applications delivers news and analysis on big data, data science, analytics and the world of information management. various software modules, such as web servers, application servers, and database servers (Figure 1), as well as Internet entities, such as proxy servers.
Web site performance is a key differentiation point among companies and e-commerce. Database, Internet and Systems Integration Technologies: Course Description. The Internet has sparked an explosion of technology development.
Database, Internet, and Systems Integration Technologies
Keeping pace with Internet technology is the storage of information in databases. A natural byproduct of the variety of Internet and database technologies is the need to seamlessly integrate these technologies in useful and unique ways.
The database and internet technologies certificate focuses on a set of skills that allows students to function in the roles of designer, analyst, project manager or administrator — not just in the current database development environment but also in future dynamic computing environments.
Database internet technologies
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Pediatricians, General helps professionals in general pediatrician careers find better opportunities across all specialties and locations.
Also known as: General Pediatrician, Paediatrician, Pediatrist, Primary Care Pediatrician
Caring for the young takes a special kind of doctor, called pediatricians. They are trained to treat the specific needs of infants, children, and teens. Pediatricians are responsible for overseeing all the health and medical needs of their young patients.
This is usually done through regular ...
check-ups. They'll look at the weight and height to make sure the patient is growing at the proper rate. They'll also look for telltale signs of problems, such as the early stages of a disease. Having a warm, caring personality is an asset. Visiting the doctor can be stressful for children, so a soothing voice and a gentle manner are important, especially when it comes to giving shots.
Pediatricians usually work in private offices or clinics and are assisted by a small staff of nurses and other administrative personnel. Pediatricians need to be able to make quick decisions, often under pressure. If there's an injury, such as from a bad fall, patients will make an emergency visit to the pediatrician. The doctor must be able to determine if the injury can be treated in the office or if the child needs to go to the hospital for more specialized treatment.
It takes many years of education and training to be a physician. All doctors must finish college and four years of medical school. Depending on their specialty, they then complete between three and eight years of training called residency.
Training is expensive - most medical students borrow money to pay for their education. And the studying doesn't end there - physicians must continue studying throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. Few careers are as demanding and as rewarding. After all, the future is in their care.
Critical decision making
Level of responsibilities
Job challenge and pressure to meet deadlines
Dealing and handling conflict
Competition for this position
Communication with others
Work closely with team members, clients etc.
Comfort of the work setting
Exposure to extreme environmental conditions
Exposure to job hazards
Physical demands
Want to pursue a career as General Pediatrician? Create a job alert, and get new job listings in your area sent directly to you.
Provide consulting services to other physicians.
Monitor patients' conditions and progress and reevaluate treatments as necessary.
Refer patient to medical specialist or other practitioner when necessary.
Examine children regularly to assess their growth and development.
Science Using scientific rules and methods to solve problems.
Speaking Talking to others to convey information effectively.
Reading Comprehension Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work related documents. |
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Young people will be more affected by climate change than any adult they might know. While climate change is happening now, projects 40, 50, and 100 years out indicate that the changes will grow in severity and intensity. Therefore, every student should learn as much as they can about what climate change means, how it happens, and what can be done about it.
This year, Cool Science poses three important prompts:
• The "Greenhouse Effect" warms the surface of the Earth. Greenhouse gases absorb heat energy that would otherwise leave the surface of the Earth. Burning of fossil fuels enhances this effect by increasing Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere leading to increasing surface temperatures. Create an image that explains how the Greenhouse Effect works.
• Fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil all produce carbon dioxide when they are burned to produce energy. What energy sources lead to fewer carbon dioxide emissions than fossil fuels?
• Hurricanes are generated over warm oceans and travel towards land. When they hit land (the East Coast of the US for example), they can cause destruction of homes, flooding, and disruption of everyday life. How can your community prepare for more frequent and/or more intense hurricanes?
Understanding the concepts or ideas related to these prompts will help you become a scientifically literate member of society. Why do you need to be literate in science? If you are knowledgeable about the basic science of climate change, then you will be able to make informed decisions that reflect what you think is best for you, your friends, and family. As an adult, you will decide what products to buy, where to live, which type of car to drive (if you want a car), and who to vote into office. As an individual who understands science, you will be in a better position to understand the complexity of a problem and the means to find a solution. Check out the following sites as they are all good places to start. Also, don’t forget to check out some of the really cool (no pun intended) videos in the resources section. We recommend you watch the SpongeBob Squarepants video first!
• A Student's Guide to Global Climate Change - Here is a complete and easy to navigate site from the Environmental Protection Agency that is designed for students. It is a great place to get some basic information, see some cool videos, and examine interesting diagrams/images.
• Climate Kids is a fantastic site for kids designed and hosted by NASA. While good for students of all ages, younger learners will probably enjoy it the most.
• Hot Earth is presented by Tiki the Penguin and is characterized by many colorful and entertaining cartoon images. Tiki the Penguin has a way of explaining complex science terms in simple and easy to understand ways! |
Kinds of Literature
They express their outcomes through the formula of a experiment record while student experts participate in technological findings. This document is made up of variety of regular aspects. The objective of an experiment document is to inform other professionals of the analysis you undertook and reveal the method that your test was executed by you so that they may either build upon your results by altering your procedure or copy your test. It’s critical that test reviews incorporate the elements all necessary so that outsiders may understand the research that you produced and conducted and follow a prescribed form. Directions Reveal the purpose. The very first section of a test statement is the objective part. In this portion, why they began the experiment, the survey author has to quickly explain. The explanation within the objective segment should be succinct.
Then, when utilizing this subject technique, make sure your assurance is delivered on by you.
Include just the most critical data. Write a hypothesis. They create a theory, or qualified guess, as to what may happen given the elements concerned before experts tackle a research. Listing the speculation that the purpose section was made below by you. Be sure to record your initial hypothesis, whether or not it had been demonstrated or disproved from your experiment’s results. Identify the process in more detail. Inside the treatment segment, you have to clarify that which you did through your research experiment. Include substantial detail, thereby letting others to copy your experiment in the foreseeable future. Your treatment must be defined clearly enough, in a-by- step vogue, to ensure that others is capable of doing the exact same research that you just executed, allowing them to test the results’ applicability.
But whatsoever type it’s, it is there.
Report research data. Below your technique, list all of the knowledge that you just document during the experiment’s completion. Examine the data. Include maps, any pictorial representation of the numerical knowledge that you just gathered and maps. The supplement of this analysis assists each you who see the report. You are able to successfully acquire an understanding of the meaning of your info, by generating images and graphs. Likewise, these evaluation resources help it become easier for others to understand the natural data you offered.
Apart from this, scottish and welsh are also applied.
affordable college paper Write a finish. Produce a conclusion consequently of the information that you simply gathered. Explain in paragraph form whether you are feeling that the theory that is unique was tested or disproved from the info you collected through your experiment. Near the end of your summary, describe ways that the experiment would be modified by you should you were to perform it again, or everything you intend to do to give the research in the foreseeable future.
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Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino
Native peoples > Tehuelche
Settlement patterns
The Tehuelche were a nomadic hunter-gatherer society whose groups traveled around from season to season across a wide range, following the same routes for centuries, making them into actual roads. Along these routes the people had their traditional hunting grounds and established rest stops (aiken), giving them names such as Pali Aike, Juniaike, and so on. Their traditional tent-like dwellings were simple and easy to dismantle and transport. They were made of wooden frames covered with layers of waterproofed hides, originally of guanaco skin and later horse skin. One of these tents could house from 8 to 10 people, large enough for a nuclear family and a few close relatives. The sleeping spaces were located in the back, though the single women slept in the center of the dwelling, near the fire, accompanied by the children and dogs. The Tehuelche usually wintered in one camp and moved around more in summer, mainly for reasons of food supply, water or health. The introduction of horses intensified the Tehuelche’s nomadic way of life, expanding their geographic range. |
Discourse Toolbox - Context
Imagine a politician who spends the day debating new farming regulations in Parliament. She calls into the supermarket for some groceries on the way home, and then goes to a restaurant for a meal later. The politician will have approached food in 3 entirely different ways - at work as a matter for regulation, in the supermarket in terms of price and attractiveness, and in the restaurant in terms of service and sophistication.
These three different contexts have involved the same food - the contents of the shopping basket are the same as the food on the plate in the restaurant, and the same subject of the regulations. The same food is evaluated in different ways, and different discourses are used about it in the different contexts.
Another approach is that a person takes on different roles (or sub-personalities) regarding food: e.g. as historian, investor, politician, consumer, gardener, etc.
• A historian would look at how food and food production has developed (or remember previous decades of their personal history).
• An investor would look at the investment potential of companies in the food sector.
• A politician may look at campaigns, trends and public opinion
• A consumer might approach food in terms of price or health, or as a gourmet.
• A farmer or gardener would see the work involved in growing crops, and consider the dangers of pests and diseases
We step in and out of these roles during the day, and collectively, we step into similar roles as members of organisations, lobbies and businesses, for example, these corporate entities look at their "markets" and "operations", differently to the way individuals do. We subordinate ourselves to the organisation, and think on its behalf.
There are 3 main approaches to organising and understanding these fields of context:-
1. van Dijk and other academics look at Context as an inner cognitive device, describing how we organise our minds and thoughts. I summarise this Cognitive Context approach on the attached pages.
2. These collective mental maps are externalised in the printed and broadcast media, and most clearly of all in the internet, which now contains nearly all of our discourses. The internet can be described as an expression of ALL the elements of ALL our minds, and it can be used to map our consensus reality. I described a Context Survey method, and then applied it to a widescale survey of food and farming, and then interpreted the survey.
3. The context can also be imagined as a Landscape with a variety of actors who take up positions in relation to each other, and which relate to the Context Landscape in a variety of ways. It can be very valuable to map a landscape and imagine a drama in this way, and I also give examples of this in the Integration Section.
In particular, my Context Survey technique can be used for any topic of interest. My case study of the context of food and farming includes 60 web pages from a wide range of organisations, and some interesting conclusions are drawn from the patterns revealed. The web pages include an overview of recent developments in food production, web pages from different organisations, which together form a "map" of the food sector, drawing all their different perspectives into one system of "the field and the players". This can be examined for patterns and further information.
Context analysis is the key to using my other techniques - without a rigorous examination of the context, it is easy to stay in a for - against discourse about any topic. Examination of the context helps to shift from this to a more inclusive overview.
Please contact me at george@whatever-will.be if you are interested in the above
(0044)(0) 1372-749803
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Amel Soname Contact
Sunday, December 9, 2012
Assalam oalaikum,
The Arabic word qisas means equal retaliation/revenge. Before we discuss about this term in the light of Islam let us first delve into history so that we may understand the Islamic law on qisas better.
During the period of Jahilliyah lawlessness prevailed in the Arab society. The powerful tribes used to oppress the weaker ones and they used to take revenge mercilessly. If a man from a powerful tribe got killed by someone from a weak tribe, his tribesmen used to avenge his death by killing numerous innocent people from the weak tribe. Sometimes they used to go to the extent of destroying the entire tribe. In case a woman from a powerful tribe got killed by a person from a weak tribe, they used to avenge her death by killing a man from the weak tribe and if a slave was killed they used to avenge his death by killing a free man from the enemy’s tribe. In other words, there was a state of anarchy during that period which was ultimately put to an end by the advent of Islam.
Islam replaced the unfair and unequal ways of taking revenge with the law of qisas (law on equality in punishment). Allah (swt) commanded in the Holy Quran that it is only the murderer himself who will get killed by the victim’s heirs, according to the law on qisas. For example, if the criminal is a free man, then that particular free man will be killed in qisas or if the criminal is a slave then that particular slave will be killed in qisas. So these examples make it clear that the law on qisas is based on equality. The high social position of a criminal cannot possibly shield him from getting killed by the heirs of the victim.
In my next post I shall discuss about the Quranic verses on which the law of qisas is based and the Divine wisdom behind this law.
Keep Me In Your Prayers.
Amel Soname
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How is retinal detachment treated?
This light that strikes the retina causes a complex biochemical change within the layers of the retina and this, in turn, stimulates an electrical response at other layers of the retina. The nerve endings in the retina transmit these electrical signals to the brain via the optic nerve. Within specific areas of the brain, this electrical energy is processed for us to see and understand what we are seeing. The retina has been compared to a film camera. However, the film, when used, has a permanent image on it. The retina, however, is constantly renewed chemically and electrically, and this allows us to see millions of different images every day, without being overlapped. The retina is the size of a postage stamp and is composed of two zones:
• The central part, called the macula
• part much more peripheral
The cells of the light receptors in the retina are of two types:
• Rods, to see in low light conditions
• Cones, for sharpness of vision and see the colors
The peripheral retina allows us to see objects on both sides (peripheral vision) and, therefore, provides the vision necessary for a person to move in a safe manner. However, since this part of the retina contains a lower concentration of cones, does not allow the perception of visual details. Its highest concentration of rods provides a better vision in dark conditions. On the contrary, the macula is a small central area of the retina that science news contains a high concentration of cones. Consequently, the macula allows the clear central vision of the details in activities such as reading or threading a needle. The macula is particularly sensitive to changes in circulation, in particular those that occur with aging, such as the reduction of blood flow. The retina contains: |
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Those Computer Parts Into Something New
Did your last computer break? Have you been looking for something constrictive and environmentally-friendly to do with the leftover parts? If so, then you may want to consider recycling those parts, or in this case, upcycling them. Upcycling is the process of creating a brand new product out of parts of old products, and it is growing in popularity. When you upcycle a product, you reduce the amount of parts you have to throw away, and thus, you also reduce the impact you will make on the environment. If you are looking for fun ways to reduce your impact, reuse old computer parts, and recycle them into something new, then consider one of the following ideas:
A Computer Shell Bookcase
If you have a desktop computer that you are trying to recycle, consider making a bookcase out of the exterior shell. You can attach some wood to the bottom to help the shell stand upright, and then you can put wood at the top and on the back to enclose the books inside the case. Then you can just start putting books next to each other inside of this little bookcase you've made. You may only be able to fit three to five books at a time in there, but if you have multiple computers, you can repeat the above process, attaching the bottom of one "shelf" to the top of the next one until you have a towering bookcase that stands several feet tall and can accommodate books of various sizes.
Hard Drive Coaster
For the overly ambitious person, one of the best ways to upcycle old computer parts may be to turn the hard drive into a coaster. Once you pull the hard drive out of your computer, you can then take a piece of steel or aluminum and weld it over the top of the hard drive, rendering it all one flat, closed piece. Then, you can just set this on a table somewhere and set your drink glass on it if you need a place to set your beverage without staining the table.
LCD Monitor Mirror
You can be classy, stylish, and environmentally-friendly by turning your old LCD monitor into a mirror. Using the utmost care, remove the LCD panel and all of the internal parts from the outer casing of your monitor. Dispose of the LCD panel immediately, as there is really no safe way for you to reuse this. Then, get a glass panel that is cut to the same size as the interior of the monitor casing or the same size as the LCD panel. Insert this glass into the monitor casing, then reattach the back of the monitor to the casing. Make sure all of the screws and connections are tightened, and make any reinforcements as necessary. Then, put the monitor back on its stand and place it on a dresser or table where you will see it often and can use it as a mirror.
If you've been looking for responsible ways of recycling your old computer parts without having to throw them all out and without harming the environment, then consider making one of the three projects above. Not only will you be acting friendly towards the earth, but you will also end up with some pretty cool items that you may not otherwise have had. Contact a company like Computer Backup Inc for more information. |
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Meaning of BICKERING
Pronunciation: 'bikuring
WordNet Dictionary
[n] petty quarrel
BICKERING is a 9 letter word that starts with B.
Synonyms: bicker, fuss, spat, squabble, tiff
See Also: dustup, quarrel, row, run-in, words, wrangle
Webster's 1913 Dictionary
\Bick"er*ing\, n.
1. A skirmishing. ``Frays and bickerings.'' --Milton.
2. Altercation; wrangling.
Thesaurus Terms
Related Terms: aflicker, aggressive, aggressiveness, altercation, apologetics, apologia, apology, argument, argumentation, bellicose, bellicosity, belligerence, belligerent, bicker, blinking, boggling, captious, captiousness, casuistry, cat-and-dog life, caviling, chicane, chicanery, choplogic, combat, combative, combativeness, conflict, contention, contentiousness, contest, contestation, controversy, cut and thrust, dancing, debate, defense, disputation, disputatious, dispute, dissension, dissent, dissidence, divisive, dodging, embroilment, enmity, equivocation, equivocatory, eristic, evasion, evasive, faction, factional, factious, factiousness, fencing, fighting, flak, flashing, flickering, flickery, flicky, fluttering, fluttery, flyting, hairsplitting, hassle, hedging, hostility, hubbub, infighting, irascibility, irascible, irritability, irritable, Kilkenny cats, lambent, litigation, litigious, litigiousness, logic-chopping, logomachy, nit-picking, paltering, paper war, parrying, partisan, partisan spirit, partisanship, passage of arms, pettifoggery, petty, picayune, playing, polarizing, polemic, polemics, prevarication, pugnacious, pugnacity, pussyfooting, quarrel, quarreling, quarrelsome, quarrelsomeness, quibbling, quivering, quivery, rhubarb, row, run-in, scrapping, set-to, shifting, shrewish, shrewishness, shuffling, sidestepping, spat, squabble, squabbling, strife, stroboscopic, struggle, subterfuge, tergiversation, trichoschistic, trichoschistism, trifling, trivial, verbal engagement, war, war of words, warfare, wavering, wavery, words, wrangle, wrangling |
We all have our own ways of wanting things done; I’m obsessed with symmetry and no-one is allowed to pack the dishwasher but me! However, if your child is showing patterns of obsessive behaviour which seem to dictate their day, take a great deal of time, or cause them to feel excessively anxious, then it’s time to talk to them. It may be part of a wider issue, which needs addressing or it could be a phase your child is going through. Either way the advice and strategies outlined here will help you give your child the support they need to work through their challenges.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder is an anxiety disorder, which is characterised by intrusive and obsessional thoughts, which can be followed by repetitive compulsions, impulses or urges.
An important first step is to explain to your child experiencing stress / anxiety is normal. It is adaptive and it is our body’s way of alerting us to possible danger, so we can keep ourselves safe. The activation of our alarm system sets off a physiological chain reaction which prepares our body to fight or ran away from the danger. Stress / anxiety becomes an issue when our body’s internal alarm system is triggered and there is no real danger.
Keeping this in mind at all times is key, as all the strategies outlined either focus on ‘standing down’ the false alarm and reducing the body’s heightened physiological response, or they focus on changing your child’s perception of the threat and their ability to cope with it.
1. Name the ‘alarm’ system
I often make the analogy that our body’s alarm system is an ancient warrior which is woken to fight on our behalf and our job is to tell it to ‘stand down’ as it’s a false alarm. Another analogy, which, works particularly well for OCD is to think of it is as a bully, which is trying to control you. Giving the warrior or bully a name takes the perceived shame away from your child and gives them the vocabulary to have an open dialogue with you dialogue wth you about keeping the warrior or bully in check.
2. Press ‘pause’
Encouraging your child to delay their rituals or ‘press pause’, even if it’s for 1 minute helps them regain control of the warrior or bully. Your child is likely to find this particularly difficult at first so it’s a case of short pauses in the beginning and then make them lengthier as they grow in confidence. Also encourage your child to ‘play around’ with the ritual, for example if they typically have to do something with their right then left hand, ask them to do it the other way around sometimes.
Pausing, and playing around with the ritual not only gives back control to your child but it also serves as evidence that bad things do not happen when the rituals are not performed.
3. ‘Take-three’
Encouraging your child to practice taking three deep breathes as soon as they notice their warrior or bully has started. This serves as another way to pause and reflect before acting. To help your child make the take-three a habit it is best to encourage your child to do this regularly throughout the day, whether they are feeling anxious or not.
The idea is to take a deep breath in through the nose, expanding your diaphragm, rather than puffing out your chest, and to then take a longer slower outbreath through the mouth. I have found visualising a mug of hot chocolate with marshmallows and cream on top can really help. The deep in-breath is to smell the deliciously sweet marshmallow and cream, and the out-breath is to slowing blow and cool the hot chocolate so it can be drunk.
4. Challenging their negative thoughts
It is really important to start by explaining to your child the thoughts we have are not always true or that they will happen, for example we might think a dog will bite us because they are growling as we walk past but this might not actually happen. It is therefore important to teach your child to challenge their thoughts to make sure they are not falling into a ‘thought trap’.
They might ask themselves these questions:
• Have I fallen into a ‘thought trap’?
• How do I know this thought is true?
• What is the evidence that this thought is not true?
• What would I tell a friend if he or she had this thought?
• Am I 100% sure this will happen?
• How many times has this happened before?
• What is the worst that could happen?
• If it did happen, what can I do to cope or handle it?
5. Changing their internal dialogue
Sit down with your child and create a number of positive / coping statements which your child can use when they find themselves thinking negative thoughts. Encourage the words to come from your child, not you. If the statements make use of their own language they are much more likely to be effective.
Here are some possible examples:
• I can do this
• I am much stronger than I think
• I will take some deep breaths to help me
• Only I decide what I will or won’t do
• I’m in control
• 90% of the time I do well in tests
• I have lots of friends
6. Daily practice of gratitude
Whilst this strategy doesn’t directly target the anxiety associated with OCD it has been shown to improve mental health, which is turn is likely to reduce your child’s anxiety and increase their perceived ability to cope.
I find it is best to use a diary or notebook, as it formalises the process, and allows your child to reflect back on their gratitude when things become challenging. I also find it best to do this in the morning as it sets a more positive intention for the day than doing it at night. However, it can be helpful for your child to reflect on what they have been grateful for in the evening also.
The practice asks your child to write down three things each day, which they are grateful for. This doesn’t necessarily have to be anything substantive, just something impactful. For example, they may be grateful for the sunshine as they had a games lesson outside, their friend sat next to them in a lesson, and so on.
7. Daily mindfulness
Encourage your child to take 5-10 minutes each day to practice mindfulness. There is a very useful app called HeadSpace, which is free for the first 10 sessions, allowing your child to trial it and experience the benefits. The key benefit of mindfulness for OCD is that it teaches children that thoughts come and go all the time and to sit back and observe, rather than chase after them. This can help the ‘pressing pause’ strategy work more effectively and give back control of the warrior / bully to your child.
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You are a real boy. At least as real as I’ve ever made one.
– Prof. Hobby to his AI robot, David (Characters from 2002 Hollywood movie A.I.: Artificial Intelligence)
Infusing emotions into machines and making robots behave humanlike has been an on-going process since quite some time now. At this stage, technology can distinguish between a yes and no, true and false, right and wrong. The AI technology has just scratched the surface of sentiment analysis sphere and only a handful of players in the tech industry claimed to have mastered it. Sentiment is commonly defined as a view or an opinion that is held or expressed. There is a sentiment attached to every action that we are performing in our day to day lives. These could be in various forms such as happiness, gratitude, fear, anger, sadness, disgust, surprise, trust, etc. For simplification, let us group them as positive, negative and neutral sentiments.
By observing the behavioral pattern of the humans, we can make sense of the person’s mental and emotional condition at any given time. This will then influence our response, appropriate to the best of our knowledge. Consider the following sentence:
My bank rejected my loan request. Amazing!
Clearly, to any human, the above statement is in a bad taste. The word ‘amazing’ makes the statement sarcastic, which is again a negative emotion. Most humans can apply contextual understanding to this statement and comprehend the true sentiment behind the expression. For a machine though, it will catch the word ‘amazing’ and term the statement as a positive one.
This is the difference between humans and machines.
Imagine the customer’s frustration if he gets an automated reply saying, “We are delighted to know about your amazing experience with our services, and we look forward to serving you again!
The past year has witnessed a lot of hype and exponential growth in the implementation of artificial intelligence in various sectors. Machine learning algorithms are created to automate various processes within the Sales, Marketing and HR functions. The implementation of AI technology has certainly helped organizations in improving the top line.
Deep learning has improved the machine’s ability to understand a query and give an appropriate response. The companies can find the opinions and views of their customers on various social media channels such as Twitter, Facebook, Youtube, etc. This data is fed through machine learning algorithms to understand the customer sentiment (positive, negative or neutral) to provide an appropriate response. This happens so smoothly in the background that a customer posting the query might not know that he is speaking to a Bot unless explicitly mentioned.
As mentioned in the example above, it is evident that the customer’s feedback on getting his loan rejected is a negative one and the situation could go down south if it is not handled properly.
Apart from the quick response functionality and the ability to give accurate resolutions, the companies have shifted their focus on AI tech to make the automation smarter. The most basic use case would be an intelligent auto response to an irate customer posting negative statements on chat or social media. While most of these comments can be handled correctly by the automated systems using an IF-THEN algorithm, it is the sarcastic comments that could be tricky. So, the system needs to ‘understand’ that if a loan is rejected, it is not a pleasant experience for the customer regardless of the adjectives that follow. The machine learning techniques and natural language processing have an important role in identifying sentiments from the customer’s contextual statements. Using text mining, i.e. extracting high-quality information from text and through text analysis, systems can be trained to handle mocking or sardonic queries with the right approach.
Beyond everything else, realistically the human sentiments cannot be divided into just three buckets of Positive, Negative and Neutral. With the advancement of technology and social platforms, language is evolving faster than ever before, and the AI must keep up with the pace. Exponentia DataLabs is an AI tech provider that understands the importance of building an intelligent system that not only makes automation smarter but also acknowledges the human expressions. |
Potassium – getting enough?
CarrotSelfPortraitSept28Are you getting muscle cramps? Palpitations? Constipated? There are a number of causes for such symptoms, but one of them may be a common and easy-to-fix culprit: potassium deficiency.
Potassium is an essential mineral, and one of the electrolytes upon which our bodies depend to convey electrical messages across our cell membranes. They are essential in muscle and nerve function. Other electrolytes include sodium, calcium, bicarbonate, magnesium, chloride, hydrogen phosphate and hydrogen carbonate. For good health, electrolytes, like so much in our bodies, must be in balance, and the best sources are from food. Deficiencies and excesses are common in these ill-fed times.
Electrolyte imbalances can occur with age, dehydration (from exercise, heat exhaustion or inadequate fluid intake), eating disorders, vomiting and diarrhea, or chronic conditions such as kidney disease, diabetes and high blood pressure. Because of the link to muscle function, heart disease and stroke have a strong association with electrolyte imbalances, and potassium deficiency in particular.
Imbalances in sodium and potassium are the most common in North American diets, where we typically consume more sodium than we need, and too little potassium. Because we rely on our kidneys to filter out excess electrolytes, people with kidney disease or impaired kidney function – such as the elderly, people with high blood pressure and/or diabetes – are at particular risk of imbalances. People on blood pressure medications such as ACE inhibitors or beta blockers as well as over-the-counter painkillers such as Ibuprofen or Aspirin may have excess potassium, while thiazide diuretics, steroids and laxatives deplete it.
Overall, potassium is needed for proper function of the heart, kidneys, muscles, nerves, and digestive system, and helps to regulate fluid balance, the body’s acid-base balance, bone health, and blood pressure.
It seems few adults reach the RDA of 4700 mg potassium/day. This will be particularly true for those eating diets high in processed foods and low in fresh fruits and vegetables, since processing depletes foods of potassium, and it’s not commonly added to processed foods. Moreover, there’s a gender gap. According to the World Health Organization,
Women consistently have lower levels of potassium intake than men, but both groups commonly consume a level that is below current recommendations.
Getting the balance of all electrolytes right is, as usual, down to eating a balanced, varied diet, and drinking enough water. Supplementation isn’t normally recommended, because you may not know if your kidneys are under-performing, and because of the complicating factors of medications and undiagnosed conditions.
Potassium-rich foods
Most people know that bananas are a good source of potassium (an average of 422 mg for a medium-sized one) but PotatoTeddyeven better sources are potatoes (610 mg for a smallish one) or sweet potatoes (694 mg) – both with skin – or a cup of butternut squash (600 mg). A large raw carrot is around 233 mg, while a cup of avocado has 727 mg.
Fish/animal protein sources are relatively high too: 3 ounces (=84g) of fish such as salmon (528 mg) or halibut (490 mg) or chicken (around 550 mg); a pork loin chop (700 mg) or 6oz rib eye steak (around 600 mg). A cup of plain, full-fat yogurt is 380 mg;
Vegans and vegetarians can depend on protein sources such as beans; pinto (616 mg/cup) are highest (tofu is pretty low, at 121 mg per 100g). 100g of hazelnuts (about 2/3 cup) is 755 mg; same amount of almonds is around 700 mg.
A cup of tomato juice is around 430 mg, half a cup of prunes is about 700 mg, and a large fresh peach is 333 mg. Best of all, you’ll get 500-700 mg from a 100g bar of chocolate (dark – with >72% cocoa solids – has more than milk chocolate, and of course adding nuts will increase the value further!) |
Can fleas affect cat behavior?
YES, is the likely answer but it depends on the cat and the extent of this parasitic infestation. But let’s think about it. Do you think it would affect your behaviour if you had an infestation of fleas crawling over you, biting you, sucking your blood, giving you tapeworms, possibly causing an allergic reaction resulting in intense itching and possible anaemia. Yep, you’d feel miserable. Although often a cat will only have a few fleas and tolerate them.
how to keep fleas away from the home
Horrible things which can affect cat behavior
Also domestic cats don’t show their discomfort as much as we do (and are probably more tolerant of pain and discomfort) but they do have emotions and can become depressed or have a low mood. An unhappy cat will behave differently to a content cat.
Level of infestation
And the ill-health caused by fleas will probably affect behaviour. Taking it to extremes, a heavy flea infestation can kill a cat. That is the ultimate example of fleas affecting cat behaviour – no behavior.
Cat fleas affect behavior
As implied, some cats experience hypersensitivity to flea saliva producing intense itching and a skin reaction. The cat scratches and injures herself. Constant scratching and self-injury is a form of behaviour that a cat owner positively does not want to see. A cat allergic to the flea bite will be miserable.
Fleas are an intermediate host of tapeworm. The flea has the immature tapeworm, Dipylidium caninum in its intestines. They are ingested by the flea when eating tapeworm eggs. The cat bites or swallows the flea and becomes infested that way. Worms can affect behaviour if it’s a bad infestation. There will be a decline in general health and decreased appetite.
Very common
Fleas are arguably the most common health problem for domestic cats in the world. They lower the health status of cats. Depending on the cat and the extent of the infestation they also lower the cat’s mood. A cat with a lower mood will be less likely to interact with their owner. They are more likely to find a quiet place to put up with their discomfort and became more passive.
Cat owners want an interactive, confident cat brimming with good health. Cats fleas work against this. Cat fleas also affect the behavior of a good cat owner because she should be concerned for her cat’s health. It is distressing to see a cat with a flea infestation even a minor one.
Above 5,000 feet
Deal with them urgently and vigorously. Cats living indoors can have fleas year round. Cats living above 5,000 feet don’t have fleas because fleas don’t live above 5,000 feet. Move into the mountains 😉
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A Virtual Assistant can be either tapping into the Artificial Intelligence world or employing a third party to cater to your other business functions. Although the use of AI as Virtual Assistants gain more fame in our present time, it is also proven that real life VA’s are also very reliable in terms of customer related engagements and task oriented job functionalities.
Artificial Intelligence VS Real Life Humans
Artificial Intelligence (AI Assistants)
Apple was the first one to release Siri in the recent years. Today, other competitors have one by one introduced their own versions of AI Assistants. Amazon has now “Alexa”, Google has “Google Now” and Microsoft has “Cortana”.
These AI Assistants are typically cloud based which require the use of the internet to function. Incorporating Virtual Assistants into our present technology requires a great amount of Data storage. These data are the ones responsible in bringing AI assistants into life. Empowered by data driven logistics, when people interact with AI assistants, certain AI programming uses algorithms to process the data and predict the people’s demand.
These AI assistants does simple daily tasks like:
• Adding tasks to your calendars.
• Giving certain information which can be found in the internet.
• Controlling different types of smart home devices such as: cameras, lights and thermostats.
Real Life Humans (Virtual Assistants)
Real life VA’s are the ones performing businesses day-to-day tasks. These VA’s are often home based and are also exposed to different types of business focus. These people don’t just help marketers run their daily functions smoothly, they also help their daily lives. As a result, they are able to live a less stressed and less pressured life.
VA’s perform their jobs depending on their tasks, these people perform a wide array of tasks on a daily basis. Nevertheless, there are also specific skill set or job specifications which they usually are experts on:
• VA’s are widely known for having such an exemplary organizational skills. In fact, the reason why most marketers would rather hire a VA is for the sole purpose of having their travel itineraries organized, set up meeting venues, arrange their calendars and so on.
• These people are also experts in content creation such as blogs, contents for different types of websites, including research. As you may all know, content creation is one of the important tools in establishing your own name not just in the online world but digital as well.
• Since VA’s are commonly home-based, their primary source of almost everything is the internet. Aside from organizational skills, these people are also quite known for being experts in Social Media Marketing.
Since they have already worked with different businesses with different brands, they have already established wider connections in terms of online marketing. Meaning, it is more likely for them to help you make your name.
Whether AI or real life humans, these Virtual Captives make it easier for marketers to perform their daily jobs smoothly and effectively. Over the recent years Virtual Captives have proven to be more effective and helpful in performing different components of businesses. |
by Marion Nestle
Dec 9 2015
Arsenic in rice: another food safety worry?
I am often asked about the potential dangers of arsenic in rice. As with all such questions, I start with the FDA.
The FDA says the amounts of arsenic it finds in foods do not pose a risk at current levels of consumption. Brown rice, it finds, has levels of arsenic much higher than those in white rice.
Consumer Reports also tested rice samples. It recommends against feeding rice cereals to children. It calls on the FDA to set standards for arsenic levels in rice products. These, according to the tests, vary widely. Basmati rice from California, India and Pakistan and U.S.-grown sushi rice are “better choices.” Just one serving of rice cereal or rice pasta could put a child over CR’s recommended weekly limit
On this basis, Congresswoman Rosa DeLauro (D-CT) introduced legislation— The R.I.C.E (Reducing food-based Inorganic Compounds Exposure) Act— to limit the amount of inorganic arsenic, the most toxic form of arsenic in rice foods. The act would require the FDA to set limits on arsenic in rice.
Politico reported that the US Rice Federation questioned the science behind the Consumer Reports story:
Arsenic in our food supply is a challenging, yet unavoidable, situation which is why we support the FDA studying the issue carefully,” said Betsy Ward, president and CEO of the USA Rice Federation. “But CR’s new consumption recommendations aren’t supported by any science that we’ve seen.”
How does arsenic get into rice? Lots of ways, apparently: naturally occurring, but also from arsenic pesticides that persist in soil. The flooding makes rice especially susceptible.
What to do while waiting for a resolution to safety questions? Prepare rice in a coffee percolator says a recent study. This flushes out a lot of the arsenic.
And everything in moderation, of course. |
Thursday, April 18, 2013
Learning To Reflect Before Responding
In summary of the two verses below:
Proverbs 29:11
"Fools vent their anger openly, but a wise and sensible person will quietly hold it back.”
Proverbs 19:11
Bottom Line:
Foolish people lose their tempers, but wise people control theirs. Sensible people control their temper; they earn respect by overlooking wrongs.
What this means to me:
These verses remind me that when situations arise that raise my frustrations/temper it would be more sensible for me to control it and hold back rather than vent it openly. In practice when I’m angry I shouldn’t respond impulsively, rather I should opt to delay (at least for 5 minutes) take a "time-out', and give myself some time to reflect and think it through, even to look at the situation from God’s point of view. The Bible says a wise man lets his anger cool down. (Proverbs 29:11) If I don't stop and think, I’m likely to do the wrong thing. So I need to reflect before responding. While I’m cooling down, I can reflect on three questions; Why am I angry? What do I really want? How can I get it? Understanding the answers to these three questions will give me greater patience and perhaps the ability to overlook an offense. |
Study Skills
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Study Skills by Mind Map: Study Skills
1. Personal Development
1.1. Time Management
1.1.1. Develop and use a schedule
1.1.2. Teach students at the beginning of year so they are prepared.
1.2. Personal Discipline
1.2.1. Schedule helps keep appropriate break length
1.3. Self-Monitoring
1.3.1. Am I comprehending?
1.4. Reinforcement of Concepts
1.5. Increase Participation in Class
1.5.1. SLANT- Sit up, Lean forward, Activate thinking, Name key info, Track the talker.
2. Process Skills
2.1. Note-Taking
2.1.1. Increases retention, even without review
2.1.2. Use columns, categories.
2.1.3. Skip lines for new ideas
2.1.4. Disregard punctuation/grammar
2.1.5. Label/Date for referral
2.1.6. Paraphrase, don't write every word
2.2. Outlining
2.3. Extract Information from Text
2.3.1. SQR3 Survey the text Question-turn headings to questions Read, Recite, Review
2.3.2. Multipass Look over the chapter in several passes, focusing on different aspects (Titles, pictures, summaries, questions/exercises)
2.4. Research/Library Skills
3. Expression Skills
3.1. Retain & Demonstrate Learning
3.1.1. Mnemonics Create a systematic procedure for enhancing memory
3.1.2. Organize & Associate Form associations between prior knowledge and the content being learned Make connections between concepts
3.1.3. Acronyms & Acrostics Develop your own
3.1.4. Visualization/Key Word Method Use word-play, show images that look how the word sounds
3.1.5. Verbal Rehearsal Repeatedly practice pronunciation of unfamiliar terms, define terms.
3.2. Test Taking
3.2.1. Manage Study Time Daily review, no "cramming" Make study aids Learn about the test (content, format, time allotted) Predict questions Think positive, expect to do well
3.2.2. Strategies Choose easy questions first Estimate, round up (math) Rephrase questions in own words Eliminate ridiculous answers Substitute possible answers into the question Write down mnemonics before forgetting |
5 ways artificial intelligence will impact learning
19th October 2017, by , in Blog, e-Learning Advice
artificial-intelligenceAutomation is big news at the moment. Rapidly advancing technology is increasingly promising a world in which many tasks traditionally performed by humans can be taken over by artificial intelligence.
What does this mean for teaching and learning? It seems unlikely that we’ll see robots replacing teachers at the front of the classroom any time soon, but in what ways could automation, and particularly artificial intelligence, impact the education sector? We’ve looked at a few areas which we think would most clearly benefit from a helping hand from our AI friends.
Data analysis
One area where computers excel in relation to humans is their ability to quickly analyse large data sets. With the amount of data being produced by current e-learning technology rising, it can be a challenge for teachers and administrators to make sense of it all. Where artificial intelligence could really make a difference is in spotting patterns or trends and highlighting these to an appropriate user, who can then interpret the data and decide on a course of action.
One example would be an automated system which monitors student data to alert staff to individuals who might be experiencing problems, whether that’s falling behind in assessments, changing patterns of behaviour or issues around attendance. This would allow staff to intervene earlier, potentially avoiding a problem becoming more serious.
Personalised learning
Most modern learning management systems allow teachers to create conditional activities, which present different options to the student depending on their achievement in previous tasks. Advanced AI systems would be able to take this further, creating new activities on the fly, according to a students achievement so far, as well as curating and signposting content for further revision.
As well as acting as a personal assistant for the student, the AI system could also report back to teachers and parents on any areas of concern, allowing them to target their support to the areas where it was most needed.
Grading assessments
We’re already seeing schools take advantage of simple automation in grading, such as the self marking quizzes popular with Moodle users, and many schools and universities are successfully deploying software to detect plagiarism in student submissions.
As artificial intelligence develops further, it’s likely that we’ll see the automation of more complex tasks, such as grading written submissions such as essays and presentations, and providing feedback to students on how they might improve their work.
Breaking down barriers
Around the world, many students still suffer from a shortage of qualified teachers. We’ve seen innovations such as MOOCs open up virtual classrooms to learners around the world, but without guidance, even the most motivated learners will struggle to take advantage of the content on offer. Artificial intelligence could plug this gap by providing a more directed learning approach, which is personalised to each student.
Unlike human teachers, of course, AI assistants can be avilable 24/7, and support thousands or hundreds of thousands of learners simultaneously. While this is not an exact replacement for face-to-face teaching, it could provide an important level of support where access to educational infrastructure is difficult.
Freeing up teachers’ time
Recently many column inches have been devoted to the issues surrounding automation – particularly the threat to people’s jobs. The teaching profession, however, is generally identified as being at little risk of replacement by AI. A 2015 study by researchers at Oxford University and Deloitte, reported by the BBC, found that the likelihood of teachers’ jobs being automated is among the lowest (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-34066941).
What artificial intelligence does have the potential to do is to change the way teaching is done, and to free up time for teachers to spend on the more ‘human’ side of the profession. Many teachers we speak to express frustration at the amount of their day which is taken up with administrative tasks, preventing them from teaching effectively. If artificial intelligence can increasingly shoulder some of that burden, then that balance can shift in the right direction.
To learn more about how Titus Learning is helping schools streamline learning by integrating systems and promoting automation, please get in touch.
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Reducing emissions will save us…hmmm perhaps not
The warmists bang on about reducing emissions…they talk of taxes, of bans and of controls to reduce emissions, particularly the evil methane and poisonous CO2.
Except it turns out that like almost everything else they have claimed is harming us the reserve is true.
Recently, attention has been given to the idea that reducing emissions of methane and black carbon (the latter is commonly found in soot) will help prevent global temperatures from rising. In 2011, the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) reported that curbing such emissions will keep the Earth cooler by 0.5 degrees Celsius by 2050.
This makes sense on face value. Methane and black carbon both trap significantly more heat than carbon dioxide. However, there are other factors to consider. For example, methane only stays in the atmosphere for a decade, while black carbon only stays there for a few weeks. Carbon dioxide is a much different beast. Though 65-80% of it dissolves into the ocean after around 5 to 200 years, the remaining amount can persist for thousands of years as it’s gradually dissipated by slower earthly processes. Moreover, the carbon dioxide sequestered in the oceans can be re-released over time
That is the theory…but is it right? Turns out, not really.
With these facts in mind, a new study from researchers at the Joint Global Change Research Institute in College Park, Maryland has found that reducing methane and black carbon emissions would only have a modest effect on global warming. Even if methane emissions were reduced by the maximally feasible extent by 2030, all residential coal and wood use was phased out by 2035, and strict particulate controls on all light cars, light trucks, and heavy trucks were enforced in all regions by 2035, global mean temperatures would only likely be cooler by 0.16 degrees Celsius by 2050. That’s hardly anything to cheer about.
I am starting to come to the belief that we ned some sort of inquiry to haul the warmist, scare-mongering scientists before to get them to recant their bullshit and apologise.
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How to Choose Your First Computer
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So you want to buy your first computer? This will show you how to find the right computer for you. You have to buy a computer that fits your budget, your needs. You may or may not need a powerful computer depending on your needs.
1. 1
Make a budget. Think about how much money you are willing to pay for a computer.
2. 2
What purpose will it serve. If it is for basic applications like word processing, then look for a cheap model. If you want to play games, you'll need something with a fast processor, lots of RAM, a large hard drive, and good sound and graphics cards.
3. 3
Where will it be used. If you need to take it all over the place, you'll need a laptop. If you intend to leave it in the office or at home on the desk, then buy a desktop.
4. 4
Who is going to use it? If it's for an office and you have to share it, you might need one with more memory and Windows 7 Professional or Ubuntu. If you will be the only one using it, and mostly for playing games, then Windows 10 or Windows 7 will serve you well.
5. 5
Choose an operating system.
6. 6
Choose the hardware. Decide whether you want a desktop machine, a laptop that you can take with you, or a netbook. A netbook is a smaller version of the laptop but more portable and with fewer built-in devices such as CD and DVD drives.
7. 7
Decide on the amount of memory. Decide how much RAM memory you want your computer to have. Many software have a minimum RAM requirement in order to run. So if your software say it requires 2 GB of memory, and your computer has only one GB of memory, it will not run. The more RAM the better, but it will be more expensive. You should at least have 2 GB or more RAM, unless the only thing you are using the computer for is connecting to the internet (in which case you can do with only 1 GB).
8. 8
Research. Scan the Internet, and become more knowledgeable. Compare prices, and whether the computer can be upgraded as needed. Then you are ready to order, either online, or in a computer store.
9. 9
Community Q&A
Ask a Question
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• If you find a computer you like, compare all the prices. You don't want to pay £700 and find the same thing on eBay for £300.
• If you're only doing basic things like word processing, see if you can use a friend's computer, or go to a library.
• The different OS's each have their own general use. Windows is usually bought by gamers as many PC games are made for Windows, however Windows is sometimes considered bloated. Also, if you do not have an antivirus program installed, Windows is vulnerable to many viruses. Macs are generally used for multimedia or for people who just want something simpler, however it only legally works on Mac computers, which are more expensive usually. Linux is very open and free, making it great for those who want the computer to surf the internet and edit documents; however it can get technically involved, which is great if you want to learn more about your computer but not so good if you don't really know about computers.
• Never pay any money for something unless you are a 100% percent sure you need it.
• Always buy from a trusted vendor, and always check return policies before buying.
• The computer techs guide - a directory on all computer problems
Article Info
Categories: Selecting and Buying a Computer
In other languages:
Português: Escolher seu Primeiro Computador
Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 38,477 times.
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