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0123811461c07911793950c1a636e73a | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Maria-de-Areilza | José Maria de Areilza | José Maria de Areilza
… and the new foreign minister, José Maria de Areilza, who wished to “open” the regime by limited democratization from above, and the “bunker” mentality of nostalgic Francoists. Although Arias Navarro promised liberalization in a February 1974 speech, he eventually sided with the hard-line Francoists, and his Law of Associations proved…
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2627492c2020315fba1e325b3d0b513c | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Maria-de-Eca-de-Queiros | José Maria de Eça de Queirós | José Maria de Eça de Queirós
José Maria de Eça de Queirós, shared pseudonym Carlos Fradique Mendes, (born November 25, 1845, Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal—died August 16, 1900, Paris, France), novelist committed to social reform who introduced naturalism and realism to Portugal. He is considered to be one of the greatest Portuguese novelists and is certainly the leading 19th-century Portuguese novelist. His works have been translated into many languages.
Eça de Queirós was the illegitimate son of a prominent magistrate. He received a degree in law in 1866 from the University of Coimbra and then settled in Lisbon. There his father helped the young man make a start in the legal profession. Eça de Queirós’s real interest lay in literature, however, and soon his short stories—ironic, fantastic, macabre, and often gratuitously shocking—and essays on a wide variety of subjects began to appear in the Gazeta de Portugal.
By 1871 he had become closely associated with a group of rebellious Portuguese intellectuals committed to social and artistic reform and known as the Generation of ’70. Eça de Queirós denounced contemporary Portuguese literature as unoriginal and hypocritical.
He served as consul, first in Havana (1872–74), then in England—in Newcastle upon Tyne (1874–79) and in Bristol (1879–88). During this time he wrote the novels for which he is best remembered, attempting to bring about social reform in Portugal through literature by exposing what he held to be the evils and the absurdities of the traditional conservative social order. His first novel, O Crime do Padre Amaro (1876; The Sin of Father Amaro), was influenced by the writing of Honoré de Balzac and Gustave Flaubert. It describes the destructive effects of celibacy on a priest of weak character and the dangers of fanaticism in a provincial Portuguese town. A biting satire on the romantic ideal of passion and its tragic consequences appears in his next novel, O Primo Basílio (1878; Cousin Bazilio).
Caustic satire characterizes the novel that is generally considered Eça de Queirós’s masterpiece, Os Maias (1888; The Maias), a detailed depiction of upper-middle-class and aristocratic Portuguese society. Its theme is the degeneration of a traditional family whose last offspring are led into a series of tangled sexual relationships by the actions of their parents, who are symbols of the decadence of Portuguese society.
His last novels are sentimental, unlike his earlier work. A Cidade e as Serras (1901; The City and the Mountains) extols the beauty of the Portuguese countryside and the joys of rural life. Eça de Queirós was appointed consul in Paris in 1888, where he served until his death.
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7126578472ba5d5cc8167339e2f2131e | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Maria-Lemus | José María Lemus | José María Lemus
José María Lemus (1956–60), continued these programs, but there was no improvement in the living standards of workers. When faced with open discontent, Lemus resorted to repressive measures, and a military coup deposed him in October 1960.
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80b9f2bb60a26d434897d8e52a9ccb11 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Maria-Reina-Barrios | José María Reina Barrios | José María Reina Barrios
His nephew José María Reina Barrios was president of Guatemala from 1892 until his assassination in 1898.
When President José María Reina Barrios was assassinated in 1898, Estrada Cabrera was appointed provisional president and then elected president. He served his first term respecting the constitution but then had it changed in order to ensure his repeated “reelections.”
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b4ebc60c85f2499fda7ac11638368de5 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Martinez-de-Hoz | José Martínez de Hoz | José Martínez de Hoz
…civilian from an old family, José Martínez de Hoz, became economy minister, but, keen as he was to deregulate the economy, the armed forces were equally determined to keep control. Annual inflation dropped in 1976–82 from about 600 to 138 percent—a more manageable but still distended level. Argentina’s balance of…
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138239df53ef2d58d6b06ca28e9d8804 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Miguel-Gomez | José Miguel Gómez | José Miguel Gómez
…government to the Liberal president, José Miguel Gómez. Meanwhile, Cuba’s economy grew steadily, and sugar prices rose continually until the 1920s.
They were José Miguel Gómez (1909–13), Mario García Menocal (1913–21), and Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso (1921–25). During this period the U.S. interfered twice in Cuba and threatened to intervene several more times. During the Gómez administration the country prospered, but charges of corruption in the government rose.…
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97da6b4818349421917fc9ae84bc6c77 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Pedro-Crisologo-Marmol | José Mármol | José Mármol
José Mármol, (born Dec. 2, 1817, Buenos Aires, Arg.—died Aug. 9, 1871, Buenos Aires), Argentine poet and novelist whose outspoken denunciation in verse and prose of the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas earned him the title of “verdugo poético de Rosas” (“poetic hangman of Rosas”), and whose best-known work, Amalia (1851–55; Amalia: A Romance of the Argentine, 1919), is considered by many critics to be the first Argentine novel. He was highly influential on the development of the realistic novel in Latin America.
Mármol, outspoken from his youth in his opposition to Rosas and to tyranny in any form, was imprisoned in 1839 for his political views and eventually was forced to flee the country. He wrote most of his works during his years of exile in Montevideo and in Rio de Janeiro. Amalia dramatically depicts the horrors of the Rosas regime with a highly romantic plot of love set against a background of contemporary events. In poetry such as Rosas: El 25 de mayo de 1850 (1850) Mármol also spoke out against the dictator with a forcefulness that made him the hero of liberals throughout Latin America.
In 1852, after the overthrow of Rosas, Mármol returned home to Argentina as a national hero. An important public figure, he served as a senator and as director of the National Library, a post he held from 1858 until his death.
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249f407f202c47f72f64b6d152bd0ba0 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Santos-Zelaya | José Santos Zelaya | José Santos Zelaya
José Santos Zelaya, (born Nov. 1, 1853, Managua, Nicaragua—died May 17, 1919, New York, N.Y., U.S.), Nicaraguan politician and dictator from 1893 to 1910, noted for his hostility toward the United States and for his effort to unify Central America in 1907. During his rule he all but monopolized his country’s economic resources.
In 1893 Zelaya came to power through a successful Liberal revolt that ended 30 years of Conservative dominance. In 1906 he refused to send delegates to the San José conference convened for the purpose of maintaining peace in Central America; instead he invaded Honduras, overthrowing its government, and then tried to start a revolution in El Salvador. His efforts brought the area to the verge of war, prompting both Mexico and the United States to intervene. The Washington Conference of 1907 ensued, at which all five Central American states signed an agreement pledging to maintain peace among themselves. Zelaya, however, quickly broke the treaty.
Zelaya’s attitude was based on his fear of U.S. economic domination and of the alleged U.S. intention to separate Nicaragua’s eastern coast from the rest of the country. In 1909 the U.S. government supported a Conservative effort to unseat Zelaya; and when, in December of that year, the dictator executed U.S. soldiers of fortune for serving in the revolutionary army, the United States broke off diplomatic relations. Early in 1910 Zelaya was finally forced to flee to Mexico.
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788dab7fa40c926178c0fbabe3706484 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Sarria | José Sarria | José Sarria
José Sarria, in full José Julio Sarria, also called Absolute Empress I, the Widow Norton, Empress José I, and the Nightingale of Montgomery Street, (born December 12, 1922, San Francisco, California, U.S.—died August 19, 2013, Los Ranchos de Albuquerque, New Mexico), Latino American drag performer and political activist who was the first openly gay person to run for public office in the United States. (He ran unsuccessfully for a seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors—the legislative body of the city and county—in 1961).
Sarria was the only child of a Colombian mother; his father was a San Franciscan who had no role in his life. As a young man, Sarria served in World War II, becoming a staff sergeant. When he returned to the United States, he trained to become a teacher, but a morals charge closed that career path to him. Eventually he took a job as a waiter at the Black Cat Cafe in the North Beach neighbourhood of San Francisco. There he began singing while waiting tables and shortly thereafter started his long career as a drag performer. Soon his campy one-man versions of notable operas, peppered with local references and humorous commentary, changed the Black Cat from a bohemian venue into a world-famous gay bar and a place of community for gay men. As the political remarks in his shows increased and became more pointed, Sarria was revealed as a pioneer in gay political theatre and a full-blown political activist, outdoors as well as indoors. During a time of significant police harassment of the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) community, Sarria encouraged his followers to stand up for themselves and to reject second-class status. He was known for the slogan “United we stand, divided they arrest us one by one.” He encouraged his friends and admirers to fight back against police harassment—to demand a jury trial rather than seem to admit to guilt and pay a fine.
Sarria helped found a number of homophile organizations (use of the word homophile was intended to place emphasis on love, rather than on sexual pathology), including the League for Civil Education (1960; later, SIR, the Society for Individual Rights) and the Tavern Guild of San Francisco (1962). Although as a candidate Sarria did not win a seat on the Board of Supervisors in 1961, his quiet campaign drew attention to the potential political strength of the gay community. His activism paved the way for later successful campaigns by openly gay candidates such as Harvey Milk, who was elected to the Board of Supervisors 16 years after Sarria’s bid.
In the mid-1960s, at San Francisco’s first public drag ball, Sarria was named the Queen of the Ball, but, declaring himself “already a queen,” he preferred to claim the grander title “Empress” and the broader territory of San Francisco. He also appropriated the legend of the Emperor Joshua Abraham Norton, an eccentric 19th-century San Franciscan miner and rice baron who in 1858 had proclaimed himself the Emperor of the United States and Canada and Protector of Mexico.
In 1965 Sarria founded the Imperial Court of San Francisco (now the International Court System), an association of charitable organizations that raises money primarily for gay causes. With nearly 70 chapters in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, it is one of the largest LGBTQ organizations in the world.
Sarria appeared as a judge of the drag-queen ball in the opening sequence of the 1995 film To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar. His legacy was honoured by the city of San Francisco with the renaming of a section of Castro Street (in the middle of San Francisco’s Castro District, one of the first largely gay neighbourhoods in the United States) as José Sarria Court. The city also placed a plaque that notes Sarria’s contributions in the sidewalk in front of the Harvey Milk Memorial Branch of the San Francisco Public Library, located at 1 José Sarria Court.
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d8ebac274406586eb17abfa64cf1dec1 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Tadeo-Monagas | José Tadeo Monagas | José Tadeo Monagas
José Tadeo Monagas; he was imprisoned and forced into exile in 1850. He returned to Venezuela during another period of civil unrest in the late 1850s, and in 1861–63 he ruled as a severely repressive dictator, only to be forced again into exile. Páez spent…
…head in 1848 by General José Tadeo Monagas. Although elected president as a Conservative in 1846, he soon gravitated toward the Liberals. He intimidated the Conservative congress and appointed Liberal Party ministers. When Páez rebelled in 1848, Monagas defeated him and forced him into exile.
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894c25b73b772cf9ee5b0b2b5ebf37a9 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Tomas-Boves | José Tomás Boves | José Tomás Boves
…the llaneros (cowboys) led by José Tomás Boves into an undisciplined but savagely effective cavalry that Bolívar was unable to repulse. Boves subjected Creole patriots to terrible atrocities, and his capture of Caracas and other principal cities ended the second Venezuelan republic. Narrowly escaping Miranda’s fate, Bolívar fled to New…
The army led by loyalist José Tomás Boves demonstrated the key military role that the llaneros (cowboys) came to play in the region’s struggle. Turning the tide against independence, these highly mobile, ferocious fighters made up a formidable military force that pushed Bolívar out of his home country once more.
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5b1e12a70bd8049e7909a5f44163b8a1 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Torres | José Torres | José Torres
José Torres, byname Chegui, (born May 3, 1936, Ponce, Puerto Rico—died Jan. 19, 2009, Ponce), Puerto Rican professional boxer, world light heavyweight (175 pounds) champion, 1965–66.
Torres was a member of the 1956 U.S. Olympic boxing team and a silver medalist in the light middleweight (71 kg, or 156.5 pounds) division before turning professional in 1958. He won the light heavyweight title by knocking out American Wilfred (“Willie”) Pastrano in the ninth round on March 30, 1965. In 1966 Torres defended his title four times, losing the last bout on December 16 in a 15-round decision (a fight whose outcome is determined by judges’ scoring) to Dick Tiger of Nigeria. On May 16, 1967, Torres lost a championship rematch with Tiger on another 15-round decision. Torres retired in 1969 with a record of 41 wins (29 by knockouts), 3 losses, and 1 draw.
Following his retirement, Torres stayed active in the sport, working as a journalist for boxing publications. He wrote biographies of Muhammad Ali (Sting Like a Bee: The Muhammad Ali Story; 1971) and Mike Tyson (Fire and Fear; 1987). Torres was a member from 1983 and chairman from 1984 of the New York State Athletic Commission, from which he retired in 1988. He was president of the World Boxing Organization (WBO) from 1990 to 1995. Torres was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1997.
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27bd283ed35e8e713f13b6fcd29eb1f4 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Zorrilla-y-Moral | José Zorrilla y Moral | José Zorrilla y Moral
José Zorrilla y Moral, (born Feb. 21, 1817, Valladolid, Spain—died Jan. 23, 1893, Madrid), poet and dramatist, the major figure of the nationalist wing of the Spanish Romantic movement. His work was enormously popular and is now regarded as quintessentially Spanish in style and tone.
After studying law at Toledo and Valladolid, Zorilla y Moral left the university and went to Madrid to devote himself to literature. In 1837 he became an overnight success with his recitation of an elegy at the funeral of the poet Mariano José de Larra. He ran away from his wife and financial distress and was abroad from 1855 to 1866, where he wrote prolifically but remained insolvent. In 1889 he was crowned as the national poet and was granted a government pension.
Zorrilla wrote effortlessly: he was an improviser who made his name with his leyendas (“legends”), which told of remote times and places. His first collection of verse legends, Cantos del trovador (1841), however, suffered—like much of his other poetry—from its carelessness and verbosity.
Zorrilla’s greatest success was achieved with his version of the Don Juan story, the play Don Juan Tenorio (1844). Written while he was in his 20s and later despised by him as a failure, it was the most popular play of 19th-century Spain and is still frequently performed. Like his other works, it exhibits those typically Spanish qualities that have made Zorrilla a uniquely national author: picturesque characters, intrigues and coincidences in its plot, lyrical flights, and great Romantic colouring.
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306fd176a6e5a1bcff8f3225ab59318b | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josef-Albers | Josef Albers | Josef Albers
Josef Albers, (born March 19, 1888, Bottrop, Ger.—died March 25, 1976, New Haven, Conn., U.S.), painter, poet, sculptor, teacher, and theoretician of art, important as an innovator of such styles as Colour Field painting and Op art.
From 1908 to 1920 Albers studied painting and printmaking in Berlin, Essen, and Munich and taught elementary school in his native town of Bottrop. In 1920 he enrolled at the newly formed Bauhaus, which was to become the most important design school in Germany. His most important creations of that period included compositions made of coloured glass, as well as examples of furniture design, metalwork, and typography. After 1925, when he became a “master” at the Bauhaus, Albers explored a style of painting characterized by the reiteration of abstract rectilinear patterns and the use of primary colours along with white and black.
In 1933, when the Nazi government closed the Bauhaus, Albers left Germany for the United States. On the recommendation of architect Philip Johnson, Albers organized the fine-arts curriculum at Black Mountain College in North Carolina, where he taught until 1949. The next year he began a 10-year tenure as chairman of the art department of Yale University. Over the course of his time at these two schools, he counted among his students Eva Hesse, Robert Rauschenberg, and Kenneth Noland.
After moving to the United States, Albers concentrated on several series of works that systematically explored the effects of perception. In his series of engravings on plastic Transformations of a Scheme (1948–52) and in the series of drawings Structural Constellations (1953–58), he created complex linear designs, each subject to many possible spatial interpretations. His best-known series of paintings, Homage to the Square (begun in 1950 and continued until his death), restricts its repertory of forms to coloured squares superimposed onto each other. The arrangement of these squares is carefully calculated so that the colour of each square optically alters the sizes, hues, and spatial relationships of the others. These works were exhibited worldwide and formed the basis of the first solo exhibition given to a living artist at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, in 1971.
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10df0e4f07ee38cd726b95a90fc3a9fe | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josef-Guggenmos | Josef Guggenmos | Josef Guggenmos
…multitalented James Krüss, and especially Josef Guggenmos, whose lyric simplicity at times recalls Blake. Guggenmos also has to his credit a translation of A Child’s Garden of Verses, in itself an original work of art.
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785373ae693262719b57d7265bb403cc | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josef-Johann-Mildner | Josef Johann Mildner | Josef Johann Mildner
…glassware decorated by Johann Josef Mildner (1763–1808) in the Zwischengoldgläser (q.v.) technique of bonding gold-leaf engravings or etchings between two layers of glass, one of which fits precisely into the other. Mildner, who worked at the Gutenbrunn glasshouse in Austria, is best known for his gift tumblers featuring a medallion…
Mildner employed it with notable success, making gift tumblers decorated with medallions of etched gold or silver leaf (often backed with red pigment) and sometimes also engraved on the wheel or with the diamond point.
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0bd10289140c5184325f2ef44cc693fc | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josef-Jungmann | Josef Jungmann | Josef Jungmann
Josef Jungmann set out to extend and modernize the Czech vocabulary through his translations (including John Milton’s Paradise Lost, 1811) and his monumental Czech-German dictionary (1835–39). The revival was also furthered by the Moravian historian František Palacký and the Slovak archaeologist Pavel Josef Šafařík. The…
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6564d597b45734c43eb41d90439dde3d | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josef-Koudelka | Josef Koudelka | Josef Koudelka
Josef Koudelka, (born January 10, 1938, Boskovice, Moravia, Czechoslovakia [now Czech Republic]), Czech-born French photographer known best for his black-and-white images of Europe’s itinerant Roma people.
Koudelka graduated from the Czech Technical University in Prague in 1961 with a degree in aeronautical engineering. He pursued a career in engineering but was also an active amateur photographer, having been introduced to the medium as a teenager. His photographs from the early to mid-1960s include the Prague theatre for the magazine Divadlo (“Theatre”) and the Roma people (Gypsies) of Czechoslovakia. The Roma became a lifelong interest for Koudelka, who was drawn to their music and culture. He spent extended periods living with them. The more time Koudelka spent with the Roma, the more nomadic and simple his own life became. By 1967 he had abandoned his engineering career to pursue photography full-time.
When the Soviets led an invasion of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia in 1968, Koudelka documented the chaos as it unfolded in Prague. He smuggled his photographs out of the country and published them anonymously, credited to P.P. (“Prague Photographer”), in order to protect himself and his family. (He did not publish them with his name until 1984, after his father died.) Though lacking a named photographer, the series was recognized by the Overseas Press Club’s Robert Capa Gold Medal (1969), awarded for the best published photographic reporting from abroad. Koudelka was granted asylum in England in 1970. Soon after, he joined the Magnum Photo Agency.
Though he officially became a French citizen in 1987, Koudelka spent his life traveling and photographing disappearing landscapes and lifestyles, often capturing vast expanses in panoramic format. He also photographed destruction, chaos, and war wrought during the fall of the Berlin Wall and its aftermath (1988–91) and the war and its aftermath in Beirut (1991). He was the recipient of many awards and honours such as the French Prix Nadar (1978), the Grand Prix National de la Photographie (1989), the Henri Cartier-Bresson Award (1991), the Hasselblad Prize (1992), a Centenary Medal from the Royal Photographic Society (1998), and the International Center of Photography Infinity Award (2004). He became a Chevalier of the Order of Arts and Letters in 1992. Koudelka produced numerous books, including Gypsies (1975), Exiles (1988), Black Triangle (1994), and Chaos (1999).
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f70a62b89e2c4a5ce9cd691855b24616 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josef-Kramer | Josef Kramer | Josef Kramer
Josef Kramer, byname Beast of Belsen, German Bestie von Belsen, (born 1906—died Dec. 13, 1945, Hameln, Ger.), German commander of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (1944–45), notorious for his cruelty.
Joining the Nazi Party on Dec. 1, 1931, Kramer volunteered for the SS the following year. He served at various camps, including Auschwitz, Mauthausen, and Dachau, and commanded Birkenau compound, one of the biggest of Germany’s mass murder camps, before being transferred to Bergen-Belsen in December 1944. In the last weeks of the war, thousands of new prisoners arrived at Bergen-Belsen, and overcrowding produced mass starvation and disease, to which Kramer added beatings and torture, setting dogs on prisoners and machine-gunning others at burial pits. Captured by the British in April 1945, he was tried by a British military court, sentenced on November 17, and hanged.
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7b8d74d8fe1dd28a8b6c2e7e6e283f71 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josep-Maria-Sert | Josep Maria Sert | Josep Maria Sert
Josep Maria Sert, in full Josep Maria Sert i Badia, Spanish José María Sert y Badía, (born Dec. 21, 1874, Barcelona, Spain—died Nov. 27, 1945, Barcelona), Catalan painter whose modern Baroque murals achieved international recognition. His work adorns the walls of buildings including the assembly hall of the League of Nations (Geneva), the RCA Building in Rockefeller Center, and the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel (both in New York City).
With the Barcelona artists Miguel Utrillo, Ramón Casas, and Santiago Rusiñol, Sert became part of the thriving Catalan avant-garde. After a period in Rome studying the works of the Italian Renaissance masters, he went to Paris in 1899, having decided to dedicate himself to murals and decorative art. Through his friendship with the bishop of Vic (Vich), he was commissioned to decorate the cathedral of Vic, a project that took more than 30 years to complete. When the finished murals were destroyed by fire in 1936, he painted a second version of his decoration. As his fame spread, he began to travel all over the world, painting murals for large halls in Buenos Aires, London, Barcelona, Paris, Venice, and New York City.
Initially Sert was influenced by Art Nouveau, but his work became more and more visually conservative. His murals for numerous hotels and cocktail lounges across the world are in an extravagant Baroque style. Dazzling and energetic, they make a strong first impression.
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6390145914e010329655ebe9fed46d27 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Achille-Le-Bel | Joseph-Achille Le Bel | Joseph-Achille Le Bel
Joseph-Achille Le Bel, (born Jan. 21, 1847, Péchelbronn, France—died Aug. 6, 1930, Paris), French chemist whose explanation of why some organic compounds rotate the plane of polarized light helped to advance stereochemistry.
Le Bel studied at the École Polytechnique in Paris and was an assistant to A.-J. Balard and C.-A. Wurtz. He perceived that a molecule in which four different atoms or groups were linked to a carbon atom would exist in two forms, mirror images that could not be superimposed. Either of the pair would be dissymmetric and thus optically active. He published his ideas independently of, but almost simultaneously with, those of Jacobus van’t Hoff (1874). He also predicted correctly that other elements also would give rise to optically active compounds.
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d339b4596afdb2f5fea799ff1e56e3d7 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Antoine-Ferdinand-Plateau | Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau | Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau
…devices, invented by the Belgian Joseph Plateau in 1832, was the phenakistoscope, a spinning cardboard disk that created the illusion of movement when viewed in a mirror. In 1834 William George Horner invented the zoetrope, a rotating drum lined by a band of pictures that could be changed. The Frenchman…
…for the blind Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau, who demonstrated in 1849 that the minimal surface can be obtained by immersing a wire frame, representing the boundaries, into soapy water. The German architect Frei Otto famously used Plateau’s minimal surface techniques to design a lightweight and spacious covering for the West…
The blind Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau (using an assistant as his eyes) spent many years observing the form of soap films and bubbles. He found that if a wire frame in the form of some curve is dipped in a soap solution, then the film forms beautiful curved surfaces.…
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ece443351c8a7bc9948de891646a4e10 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Babalola | Joseph Babalola | Joseph Babalola
…expansion occurred when a prophet-healer, Joseph Babalola (1906–59), became the centre of a mass divine-healing movement in 1930. Yoruba religion was rejected, and pentecostal features that had been suppressed under U.S. influence were restored. Opposition from traditional rulers, government, and mission churches led the movement to request help from the…
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63b53b6885c479cf048ff4f4dfb6f153 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-biblical-figure | Joseph | Joseph
Joseph, in the Old Testament, son of the patriarch Jacob and his wife Rachel. As Jacob’s name became synonymous with all Israel, so that of Joseph was eventually equated with all the tribes that made up the northern kingdom. According to tradition, his bones were buried at Shechem, oldest of the northern shrines (Joshua 24:32). His story is told in Genesis (37–50).
Joseph, most beloved of Jacob’s sons, is hated by his envious brothers. Angry and jealous of Jacob’s gift to Joseph, a resplendent “coat of many colours,” the brothers seize him and sell him to a party of Ishmaelites, or Midianites, who carry him to Egypt. There Joseph eventually gains the favour of the pharaoh of Egypt by his interpretation of a dream and obtains a high place in the pharaoh’s kingdom. His acquisition of grain supplies enables Egypt to withstand a famine. Driven by the same famine, his brothers journey from Canaan to Egypt to obtain food. They prostrate themselves before Joseph but do not recognize him. After Joseph achieves a reconciliation with his brothers, he invites Jacob’s whole household to come to Goshen in Egypt, where a settlement is provided for the family and their flocks. His brothers’ sale of Joseph into slavery thus proves providential in the end, since it protected the family from famine. The family’s descendants grew and multiplied into the Hebrews, who would eventually depart from Egypt for Israel.
The story of Joseph, often called a novella, is a carefully wrought piece of literary craftsmanship. Though it features the personality of Joseph, it is introduced (Genesis 37:2) as the “history of the family of Jacob.” Authorities agree that parts of the story show dependence upon the ancient Egyptian “Tale of Two Brothers,” but in characteristically Hebraic fashion, the narrator in Genesis has ignored the mythical and magical motifs in the Egyptian tale, and the focus of the outcome is placed on its meaning for the whole house of Israel.
The purpose of the story is to relate the preservation of Israel. Its people survive despite their own foolishness and wickedness, indeed, ironically, in part because of these. The story is told as a testimony to the operation of divine providence: “. . . you meant evil against me; but God meant it for good . . .” (Genesis 50:20) sums up its moral. But while the Lord had turned the provocations of the spoiled son and the jealousy and deceptions of his brothers to good account, he had realized his end through the faithfulness of Joseph, true to Israel’s ideals under all circumstances and ever mindful of his obligations to his people. Joseph has served throughout the ages as the model for the “court Jew,” the Israelite in a position of power who acts to rescue and help his people.
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6944e6d1ea659be55b3f5c7412cb2440 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Black | Joseph Black | Joseph Black
Joseph Black, (born April 16, 1728, Bordeaux, France—died Nov. 10, 1799, Edinburgh, Scot.), British chemist and physicist best known for the rediscovery of “fixed air” (carbon dioxide), the concept of latent heat, and the discovery of the bicarbonates (such as bicarbonate of soda). Black lived and worked within the context of the Scottish Enlightenment, a remarkable flourishing of intellectual life in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen during the latter half of the 18th century. He could count the philosopher David Hume, economist Adam Smith, and geologist James Hutton among his friends.
Black was the son of expatriate Ulster merchant John Black and his Aberdeen-born wife, Margaret Gordon. At age 12 Black was sent to school in Belfast, and a few years later he moved to the University of Glasgow to study art. Black’s father later required him to choose a course of study leading to a profession. Because he chose medicine, Black came under the influence of an innovative teacher of chemistry, William Cullen, and, unusual for a young student, he started to conduct chemical experiments in his professor’s laboratory. Black did not graduate in medicine at Glasgow because he was attracted to the University of Edinburgh, where the medical school enjoyed more prestige. In order to graduate, students had to prepare a thesis. Black was particularly assiduous (many students did not take their work seriously), and he conducted a series of experiments on the chemical properties of an alkali—in particular, magnesia alba, now known as magnesium carbonate. The work had to have a medical connection, so Black described the application of this substance to minor digestive disorders. His medical degree was awarded in 1754.
The research on the nature of alkalinity, which Black conducted for his thesis, laid the basis for the most important paper of his career, “Experiments upon Magnesia Alba, Quicklime, and Some Other Alcaline Substances,” given to the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh in 1755. The earlier series of experiments for his thesis were conducted on magnesium salt and, for the first time, consisted of a planned cyclic series of quantitative experiments in which a balance was used at all stages. He found that with acids, magnesia alba behaved in a similar way to chalk (calcium carbonate), giving off a gas. He then heated a sample of the starting compound and found that the product, magnesia usta (now known as magnesium oxide), like quicklime (calcium oxide), did not effervesce with acids. Unlike quicklime, however, it was not caustic or soluble in water. Black hypothesized that the weight lost during heating was due to the gas generated. He then added a solution of potash (potassium carbonate) to the magnesia usta and showed that the product weighed the same as his original sample of magnesia alba. The difference between the alba and usta was therefore the gas, which Black called “fixed air.” It could be introduced to the latter to re-create the former by means of the potash.
Black broadened his experiments and took his conclusions to a higher stage in his 1756 paper to the Philosophical Society. He concentrated on calcium rather than magnesium salts, showing that, when chalk is heated strongly to quicklime, a gas is given off, and he concluded that this gas derives from the chalk and not from the fire in the furnace; this had been a point of contention among Edinburgh professors. The gas could be replaced by adding potash solution to the quicklime, which demonstrated that the fixed air is contained in the alkali. Black then showed that the gas is not a version of atmospheric air. He was thus the first chemist to show that gases could be chemical substances in themselves and not, as had been thought beforehand, atmospheric air in different states of purity. After Black’s seminal experiments, various other gases were chemically characterized in the second half of the 18th century, including oxygen (which he called dephlogisticated air) by the English clergyman and scientist Joseph Priestley, nitrogen by Daniel Rutherford (a pupil of Black), and hydrogen by the English physicist and chemist Henry Cavendish.
Black spent a couple of years following graduation working as a physician. In 1756 Cullen was appointed to the chemistry chair in Edinburgh, and Black filled the vacancy created in Glasgow, becoming professor of anatomy and lecturer in chemistry. Cullen had been particularly interested in the lowering of temperature that results from the evaporation of liquids. Black turned his attention to heat phenomena too, asking such questions as: Why does water not boil away suddenly when the temperature reaches boiling point? Why does ice not suddenly melt when the temperature exceeds the freezing point?
Black distinguished between the quantity of heat in a body and its intensity, or temperature, realizing that thermometers can be used to determine the quantity of heat if temperature is measured over a period of time while the body is heated or cooled. He took two similar glass flasks, pouring the same quantity of water into both and placing them in a freezing mixture. In one he had added a little alcohol to prevent freezing. They were then removed from the bath, one frozen and the other liquid, though at the same temperature. They were allowed to warm up naturally. The temperature of the water plus alcohol warmed up several degrees, while the ice remained at its freezing point. As the flasks had to be absorbing heat at the same rate, Black showed that the heat absorbed by the ice in 10 hours would have raised the temperature of the same quantity of water by 78 °C (140 °F). This was the latent heat of fusion of water. The experiments were extended to measure the latent heat of vaporization of water.
During his time at Glasgow, Black was in contact with the Scottish inventor James Watt, who was employed as instrument maker to the university. Watt worked on developing improvements to the steam engine, and his double-cylinder version essentially recognized the phenomena of latent heat. The two men, who became firm friends, were at pains to declare that their researches were conducted independently, however. Watt went on to develop the Soho Manufactory for steam engines and other products at Birmingham in partnership with Matthew Boulton. Although Black and Watt saw little of each other after Black’s Glasgow period, their separation resulted in a rich correspondence between them, much of which survives.
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27e3461d5952501963fd3182ede519ed | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Bodin-de-Boismortier | Joseph Bodin de Boismortier | Joseph Bodin de Boismortier
Joseph Bodin de Boismortier, (born Dec. 23, 1689, Thionville, France—died Oct. 28, 1755, Roissy-en-Brie), prolific French composer of instrumental and vocal music. He spent his late childhood and early adult years in Metz and Perpignan, France, then moved to Paris about 1723. In 1724 he secured a royal privilege as engraver and began publishing his music; by 1747 he had published more than 100 works in a variety of vocal and instrumental combinations.
His music was extremely popular, and he became rich without the aid of patrons. He wrote for amateur musicians and the instruments they played, as well as for voice. Boismortier wrote the first French solo concerto for any instrument, a concerto for cello, viol, or bassoon (1729). His many works for the transverse flute greatly expanded the repertoire of the instrument; he also wrote a flute instruction method (now lost).
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231d9f3799f6257c302c185c793fc222 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Bonaparte | Joseph Bonaparte | Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph Bonaparte, original Italian Giuseppe Buonaparte, (born January 7, 1768, Corte, Corsica—died July 28, 1844, Florence, Tuscany, Italy), lawyer, diplomat, soldier, and Napoleon I’s eldest surviving brother, who was successively king of Naples (1806–08) and king of Spain (1808–13).
Like his brothers, Joseph embraced the French republican cause and, with the victory of Corsican patriot Pasquale Paoli, was forced to leave Corsica to seek refuge in France. In 1796 he accompanied Napoleon in the early part of his Italian campaign and had some part in the negotiations with Sardinia that led to the armistice of Cherasco. He then took part in the French expedition for the recovery of Corsica and assisted in the reorganization of the island. He was appointed by the Directory minister to the court of Parma (1797) and then to Rome. Late in 1797 he returned to Paris and became one of the members for Corsica in the Council of Five Hundred.
Joseph did little in the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799). He was a member of the Council of State and of the Corps Législatif, and he concluded at Mortfontaine a convention with the United States (1800). He also presided over negotiations leading to the Treaty of Lunéville with Austria (1801); and he was one of those who represented France in discussions with the British envoy, Lord Cornwallis, that led to the treaty of Amiens (1802), which marked Napoleon’s total pacification of Europe. A year later, however, relations between England and France were severed, and Joseph’s diplomatic efforts proved to have been in vain.
On the question of the consolidation of Napoleon’s power as first consul for life (August 1, 1802) with the power to nominate his own successor, the brothers disagreed. As Napoleon had no heir, Joseph as eldest brother claimed to be recognized as heir, while Napoleon wished to recognize the son of Louis Bonaparte. On the proclamation of the French empire (May 1804) the friction became acute. Joseph refused Napoleon’s offer to make him king of Lombardy if he would waive all claim of succession to the French throne.
After acting for a year as chief of the French government while Napoleon was in Germany, Joseph was sent to Naples to expel the Bourbon dynasty (1806). Proclaimed king of Naples by imperial decree later the same year, he abolished the relics of feudalism, reformed the monastic orders, and reorganized the judicial, financial, and educational systems.
From 1808 Napoleon became increasingly dissatisfied with Joseph’s conduct. Called away from Naples to become king of Spain, Joseph was forced to leave Madrid hastily when Spanish insurgents defeated French forces at Baylen. He was reinstated by Napoleon at the close of 1808 and thereafter was kept in a subordinate position that led him on four occasions to offer to abdicate.
On March 30, 1814, when the troops of the allies reached Paris, Joseph fled, having left Marshal Marmont to make a truce with the assailants of Paris if they should be in overpowering strength. He played only an insignificant role in the Hundred Days (1815). After Napoleon’s surrender at Rochefort, Joseph went to the United States and in 1830 pleaded for the recognition of the claims of Napoleon’s son, the duke of Reichstadt, to the French throne. He afterward visited England and for a time resided in Genoa and then in Florence, where he died.
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28190f50fa0e45e95999c962527c939a | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Booth | Joseph Booth | Joseph Booth
…of an egalitarian fundamentalist missionary, Joseph Booth. Though proud and independent-minded, Chilembwe was eager to learn from whites and to believe the best of them. In 1897 Booth took him to the United States, where Chilembwe received a degree from a black theological college. When he returned to Nyasaland in…
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9d8cf9eed47b0fc655ed86d14ce3f0ad | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Caillaux | Joseph Caillaux | Joseph Caillaux
Joseph Caillaux, in full Joseph-marie-auguste Caillaux, (born March 30, 1863, Le Mans, France—died Nov. 22, 1944, Mamers), French statesman who was an early supporter of a national income tax and whose opposition to World War I led to his imprisonment for treason in 1920.
The son of Eugène Caillaux, who was twice a conservative minister (1874–75 and 1877), he obtained his law degree in 1886 and then joined the Finance Ministry as a deputy inspector. After an initial failure he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies from the Sarthe département in 1898.
Having acquired a reputation as a fiscal expert, Caillaux twice served as minister of finance (1899–1902, 1906–09). Although he failed in his attempt to establish an income tax, he was successful with other important financial reforms.
After six weeks in the government of Ernest Monis, Caillaux was named premier (June 27, 1911). In an attempt to defuse a crisis over Morocco, he negotiated a settlement that gave France a protectorate over the North African territory in exchange for generous concessions to Germany in central Africa—a compromise that brought a massive public attack upon his patriotism. The hostility of a Senate investigating commission proved so embarrassing that he was forced to resign (January 1912). Gaston Calmette, editor of the influential Le Figaro, led a press campaign against him. When Calmette threatened to publish love letters between Caillaux and his mistress, who was now Madame Caillaux, she fatally shot him. The trial—in which she was acquitted—dominated French public life and even provoked clashes between leftist and right-wing street gangs.
With the outbreak of World War I, Caillaux, having moved to the left, spoke out in opposition to the war. This and his friendships with German agents led to formal charges of treason. On Dec. 22, 1917, his parliamentary immunity was removed, and on Jan. 4, 1918, he was imprisoned. After a long delay, he was brought to trial (February 1920) and found innocent of treason but guilty of committing “damage to the external security of the state.” His three-year prison sentence was commuted, but he was deprived of his civil rights for 10 years.
After an amnesty (July 14, 1924), however, he was called to head the Finance Ministry by Paul Painlevé (April 1925). In January 1927 Caillaux was elected to the Senate and, as head of the Commission of Finance, quickly became a dominant figure in the upper house. He did return briefly to the Finance Ministry (June 1–7, 1935), but by this time the Great Depression was severe, and he had moved back to the political centre.
Caillaux supported Édouard Daladier’s attempts to negotiate with Hitler in 1938–39, and, when France fell in 1940, he retired to his estate, where he resisted attempts by the Vichy regime to win his support.
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161c9c5feeae27ce156760313b6be471 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Canteloube | Joseph Canteloube | Joseph Canteloube
Joseph Canteloube, (born October 21, 1879, Annonay, France—died November 4, 1957, Paris), French composer, pianist, and folk-song collector best known for his compositions that evoke the landscape of his native region.
Cantaloube studied with Vincent d’Indy from 1901; under this influence he traveled through France collecting folk songs, making arrangements of many of them for voice and instrumental accompaniment, and publishing them. Of these arrangements the most widely admired are the Chants d’Auvergne (1923–30), scored for voice with orchestra.
Although his folk-song settings have won a degree of popularity, Canteloube’s original works, which include the operas Le Mas and Vercingétorix (performed at the Paris Opéra in 1929 and 1933, respectively), have been neglected. He also edited the Anthologie des chants populaires français (1939–44).
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85cdb38c6f36d8ae787da1455bf7070e | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Chamberlain | Joseph Chamberlain | Joseph Chamberlain
Joseph Chamberlain, (born July 8, 1836, London, Eng.—died July 2, 1914, London), British businessman, social reformer, radical politician, and ardent imperialist. At the local, national, or imperial level, he was a constructive radical, caring more for practical success than party loyalty or ideological commitment. The ideas with which he is most closely associated—tariff reform and imperial unity—were in advance of his time and pointed the direction that British policy would take in the 20th century.
Chamberlain, the son of a prosperous shoe manufacturer in London, was reared in an atmosphere of political Liberalism and Nonconformist religion and, eschewing a university career, entered the family business at age 16. Two years later he moved to Birmingham to join his cousin’s screw-making concern, and there his tycoon characteristics came to the fore. His relentless energy and organizational genius drove out his competitors, and in 1874, at age 38, he was able to retire with a substantial fortune.
Meanwhile, he had become involved in civic affairs and had been elected mayor of Birmingham in 1873. His pioneer efforts in educational reform, slum clearance, improved housing, and municipalization of public utilities vaulted him into national prominence. At the age of 40, the “gas-and-water Socialist,” widely caricatured for his spare frame, incisive features, and ribboned monocle, was one of the most successful men in England.
Wasting no time, in 1876 he was elected to Parliament, where he was distrusted as a Dissenter and an upstart, and his genuinely radical speeches, delivered with a haughty confidence, frightened the Conservatives. Yet his industrial middle-class constituency in Birmingham adored him, and his efficient party organization there (the “caucus”) turned out big Liberal votes in the Midlands. Known as a wire puller, he became Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone’s lieutenant in the House of Commons and in 1882 was appointed president of the Board of Trade in Gladstone’s second ministry (1880–85). Chamberlain, along with his fellow radical Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, led the left wing of the Liberal Party, and in 1885 they stumped the country in support of their “unauthorized programme,” calling for a graduated income tax, free education, improved housing for the poor, local government reform, and “three acres and a cow” for agricultural labourers.
During the 1880s, when Irish demands for land reform and an autonomous parliament (Home Rule) increasingly bedeviled British politics and caused a deep rift in the Liberal Party, Chamberlain favoured Irish reform, especially at the local level, and stood with Gladstone in opposition to the use of repressive force in quashing Irish agitation. Chamberlain’s instincts, however, were already on the side of imperial unity, and he could not go along with Gladstone in 1885, when the latter committed the party to Home Rule for Ireland. In 1886, when the Home Rule issue came to a vote in Commons, Chamberlain joined with other dissident Liberals (Liberal Unionists) to defeat the government.
The split in the Liberal Party proved permanent; the Conservatives, supported by the Liberal Unionists, dominated British politics for most of the period from 1886 until 1906. Chamberlain used his control of the Liberal Unionists to pressure the Conservatives into adopting a more progressive social policy; before 1892 he had the satisfaction of seeing the Conservatives pass various measures of social reform.
The Conservative hegemony reflected a growing disenchantment with social reform in the country and marked a new emphasis upon empire and foreign affairs. Chamberlain, too, began to abandon his radicalism and turned increasingly to imperialist rhetoric, popular with the increasingly jingoistic industrial masses. In 1895 he joined the Conservative Cabinet of Robert Cecil, 3rd marquess of Salisbury, asking to be made secretary of state for the colonies.
In that office Chamberlain quickly became involved in South African affairs and was accused of complicity in the Jameson Raid, an abortive invasion of the Boer republic of Transvaal by British settlers from the neighbouring Cape Colony (December 1895). Though he was later cleared by a Commons investigation, his anti-Boer stance was evident. When worsening Anglo-Boer relations erupted in the South African War (1899–1902), Chamberlain supported it enthusiastically.
This war, in which Great Britain was roasted in world opinion as a bully, brought home to Chamberlain the fact that Britain was militarily vulnerable and diplomatically isolated in Europe. Germany, with which he had always wanted an alliance, had proved particularly hostile. In view of Britain’s isolation, Chamberlain looked to the self-governing colonies, which had given encouraging support to Britain during the war. Returning from his negotiation of the peace settlement in South Africa in 1902, Chamberlain announced a new tariff scheme that he hoped would draw Britain and its dependencies together in a kind of common market. Protected by stiff tariffs without and united by preferential tariffs within, the new union would add to Britain’s international security, protect manufactures threatened by new competition from the United States and Germany, and raise revenue for social projects at home.
Characteristically, Chamberlain energetically set out to convert his party to the new scheme. When Conservative leader Arthur Balfour (later 1st earl of Balfour) refused to commit himself, Chamberlain resigned his cabinet post and from 1903 to 1906 conducted a forceful private campaign, exhorting his listeners to “think imperially.” But protection was a political bombshell. Free trade (which to the English meant cheap imported food) had been the touchstone of Britain’s conventional wisdom for more than a half century. Liberals everywhere raised the cry of cheap bread, and Conservatives split as irrevocably as the Liberals had 20 years earlier over Home Rule. In the general elections of 1906 the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists went down to a resounding defeat, in great part because of Chamberlain’s abandonment of free trade. Chamberlain, however, was reelected in his native Birmingham by an astonishing majority.
It was his last political victory, for shortly after, in July 1906, he suffered a paralytic stroke that left him a helpless invalid for the rest of his life.
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352ca340c70757106117a49a47037357 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Charles-Marin | Joseph-Charles Marin | Joseph-Charles Marin
…included the sculptors Joseph Chinard, Joseph-Charles Marin, Antoine-Denis Chaudet, and Baron François-Joseph Bosio. The early sculpture of Ingres’s well-known contemporary François Rude was Neoclassical.
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d167a3509ce39f9becec55a2332c8db1 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Colombo | Joseph Colombo | Joseph Colombo
Joseph Colombo, in full Joseph A. Colombo, Sr., (born June 16, 1923, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.—died May 22, 1978, Newburgh, New York), major organized crime boss in Brooklyn who founded an Italian-American Civil Rights League to deflect government investigations of his activities.
Brooklyn-born, Colombo was still a teenager when his father, Anthony, was killed in 1938 in a gangland war. After service in the Coast Guard during World War II, he drifted into a life of petty crime. Gradually he rose in the ranks of organized crime to become head of one of New York’s Five Families in 1964, inheriting the leadership once held by Joseph Profaci and temporarily quelling a gang war within the ranks. Colombo’s activities included numbers and sports gambling, hijacking, fencing stolen goods, and loansharking and also included interests in at least 20 legitimate businesses in New York City.
Angered by the FBI’s harassment of him and his family, he began protesting publicly and helped found the Italian-American Civil Rights League in 1970; his son Andrew was its vice president. On June 28, 1971, Colombo, speaking at an Italian-American rally in Columbus Circle, was shot by a young black man, who was himself immediately slain. Colombo was probably the target of the followers of Joseph Gallo, with whom Colombo had fought gang wars for a decade.
Colombo, almost totally paralyzed by the gun wound, died seven years later, after declining into a coma.
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e3f69cce30038609c5496c639720a9db | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-De-Mambro | Joseph De Mambro | Joseph De Mambro
…and New Age lecturer, and Joseph De Mambro. Its headquarters was later moved to Zürich, where a leadership council of 33 members presided, and regional lodges were set up to perform initiation ceremonies and other rites in Switzerland, Canada, and elsewhere.
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ca68d329b910ad833549173077391680 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Dennie | Joseph Dennie | Joseph Dennie
Joseph Dennie, (born Aug. 30, 1768, Boston, Mass. [U.S.]—died Jan. 7, 1812, Philadelphia, Pa.), essayist and editor who was a major literary figure in the United States in the early 19th century.
Dennie graduated from Harvard College in 1790 and spent three years as a law clerk before being admitted to the bar in 1794. His practice failed to flourish, however, and in the meantime he had turned to writing. He and Royall Tyler formed a literary partnership under the pseudonyms Colon and Spondee, and together they began contributing satirical pieces to local newspapers. Between 1792 and 1802 Dennie wrote his periodical “Farrago” essays. For the Farmer’s Weekly Museum, a well-known newspaper of Walpole, N.H., he wrote the series of graceful, moralizing “Lay Preacher” essays that established his literary reputation. He served as editor of the Farmer’s Weekly from 1796 to 1798.
The strong pro-Federalist bias of Dennie’s editorship and of his “Lay Preacher” essays secured him an appointment as personal secretary to Secretary of State Timothy Pickering in 1799. He thus moved to Philadelphia, but his job ended when Pickering was dismissed by President John Adams in 1800. Undaunted, Dennie, with Asbury Dickins, began in 1801 a politico-literary periodical called The Port Folio, which became the most distinguished literary weekly of its time in America. He contributed his own “Lay Preacher” essays and commissioned original manuscripts from Thomas Campbell, Leigh Hunt, and Thomas Moore, among other prominent writers and poets. As the founder of the Tuesday Club, Dennie was the centre of the aristocratic literary circle in Philadelphia and was for a time the leading literary arbiter in the country. He derided native American rusticity and crudity and opposed all democratic innovations while praising English literature, manners, and sophistication. He also advocated sound critical standards and encouraged such talented younger writers as Washington Irving.
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120aa94debf0ebbee2c96c705ef789e2 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Estrada | Joseph Estrada | Joseph Estrada
Joseph Estrada, original name Joseph Ejercito, (born April 19, 1937, Manila, Philippines), Filipino actor and politician who served as president of the Philippines (1998–2001) and later mayor of Manila (2013–19).
The son of a government engineer, Estrada entered the Mapua Institute of Technology with the intention of following in his father’s footsteps, but he eventually dropped out to become a film actor. Forbidden by his parents to use the family name, he adopted the screen name Erap Estrada. He played the lead in more than 100 movies, usually portraying a swashbuckling tough guy who defends the poor against the corrupt establishment. He also produced some 75 films.
In 1968 Estrada entered politics, successfully running for the mayorship of the Manila suburb of San Juan, a post he retained until 1986. In 1969 he was elected to the Senate. In 1992 he ran for vice president on the National People’s Coalition ticket. Although the party’s presidential candidate, Eduardo Cojuangco, Jr., lost the election to Fidel Ramos, Estrada won the vice presidential contest.
In 1998 Estrada ran for president, though his candidacy faced significant opposition. Ramos, who was constitutionally barred from running for a second term, endorsed House Speaker José de Venecia, and many of the country’s powerful businessmen opposed Estrada’s populist proposals. The Roman Catholic Church denied Estrada its support because he had admitted to having fathered four children by women other than his wife. However, he did have the support of Imelda Marcos, the widow of former president Ferdinand Marcos and then a member of Congress, and he enjoyed a devoted following among the country’s poor. Estrada managed to capture nearly 40 percent of the vote, handily defeating his nearest rival, de Venecia, who garnered only 15.9 percent. The margin of victory was the largest in a free election in the history of the Philippines, and Estrada was officially declared president by Congress on May 29, 1998.
Estrada’s tenure as president was short-lived, however, as a corruption scandal erupted in October 2000 when a fellow politician claimed that Estrada had accepted millions of dollars worth of bribes. In November the Philippine Senate began an impeachment trial, but it was abandoned after some senators blocked the admission of evidence. On January 20, 2001, Estrada was ousted amid mass protests, and his vice president, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, ascended to the presidency. Later that year Estrada was brought to trial on charges of plunder (large-scale corruption) and accused of having procured more than $80 million through bribes and corrupt dealings. Estrada denied the accusations, calling them politically motivated, and he remained relatively popular in the Philippines despite the charges. In September 2007 he was convicted of plundering and sentenced to a maximum of 40 years in prison. The following month, however, Estrada was pardoned by Arroyo. In October 2009 he announced his candidacy for president, but he was defeated in the May 2010 elections by Benigno S. Aquino III (son of Benigno Aquino, Jr., and Corazon Aquino).
In 2013 Estrada ran for mayor of Manila and defeated the incumbent, Alfredo Lim. After taking office later that year, he faced a number of issues, notably the city’s debt and inability to pay for basic services. In order to raise revenue, he sharply raised property taxes. Estrada faced a serious challenge from Lim in the 2016 race but narrowly won reelection. He ran for a third term in 2019 but was defeated.
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79f9ef2b728e3d6e1042f83b5d18b4fe | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Farwell-Glidden | Joseph Farwell Glidden | Joseph Farwell Glidden
Joseph Farwell Glidden, (born Jan. 18, 1813, Charlestown, N.H., U.S.—died Oct. 9, 1906, De Kalb, Ill.), American inventor of the first commercially successful barbed wire, which was instrumental in transforming the Great Plains of western North America.
Glidden attended Middlebury (Vt.) Academy and a seminary at Lima, N.Y., then taught school for several years before returning to his father’s farm (1834–42) in Orleans county, N.Y. Working his way west as an itinerant thresher, he settled in De Kalb, Ill., where he acquired his own farm. After seeing a sample of barbed wire at a fair in 1873, he devised improvements upon it. Shortly after receiving patents on the wire in 1874, Glidden joined Isaac L. Ellwood in forming the Barb Fence Company of De Kalb, to manufacture their product, which became widely used to protect crops, water supplies, and livestock from the uncontrolled movement of cattle. The validity of Glidden’s patents was upheld during long litigation, and he prospered from the sale of his share of the business to a manufacturing firm in Massachusetts.
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50d2529476d2a7ef4aa5d85b96956c54 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Ferdinand | Joseph Ferdinand | Joseph Ferdinand
…death of Charles II, Prince Joseph Ferdinand, son of the elector of Bavaria, should inherit Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and the Spanish colonies. Spain’s Italian dependencies would be detached and partitioned between Austria (to be awarded the Duchy of Milan) and France (Naples and Sicily). In February 1699, however, Joseph…
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710099441e78c3d754b19f9ea0ec8084 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Glanvill | Joseph Glanvill | Joseph Glanvill
Joseph Glanvill, Glanvill also spelled Glanvil, (born 1636, Plymouth, Devon, Eng.—died Nov. 4, 1680, Bath, Somerset), English self-styled Skeptic and apologist for the Royal Society who defended the reality of witchcraft and ghosts and the preexistence of the soul. Thereby, according to some, he initiated psychical research.
Glanvill was educated at Exeter and Lincoln Colleges, Oxford, and served as rector of Frome Selwood and Streat before transferring (1666) to the Abbey Church, Bath. In 1678 he was installed prebendary of Worcester and acted as chaplain to Charles II from 1672.
The Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Confidence in Opinions (1661) attacked scholastic dogmatism, to which Glanvill opposed the experimental method. He admitted that universal laws could not be established in this way, but for him a scientific approach was the best available method for gaining knowledge and control over nature. His Plus Ultra or the Progress and Advancement of Knowledge Since the Days of Aristotle (1668) defended the Royal Society’s experimental method as religious in nature because it revealed the workings of God. Glanvill’s effort to prove scientifically that witches and ghosts exist was viewed as a refutation of atheism. Essays on Several Important Subjects (1676) contains some of his more mature thinking on religion and reason.
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14e4573fa11b7cba99fdf7488371b9cf | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Gordon-Levitt | Joseph Gordon-Levitt | Joseph Gordon-Levitt
…task: longtime associate Arthur (Joseph Gordon-Levitt), master manipulator Eames (Tom Hardy), chemist Yusuf (Dileep Rao), and “architect” Ariadne (Ellen Page), who is in charge of creating the dreamscapes the team will occupy. In order to plant the idea, Cobb and his crew must descend through several layers of dreaming…
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d330e15bc8a00b8f80346c6031c8350f | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-H-Woodger | Joseph H. Woodger | Joseph H. Woodger
Woodger has done in The Axiomatic Method in Biology (1937) and Clark Hull (for psychology) in Principles of Behaviour (1943). See also axiom.
…the British biologist and logician Joseph Woodger (1894–1981), attempted to formalize the principles of biology—to derive them by deduction from a limited number of basic axioms and primitive terms—using the logical apparatus of the Principia Mathematica (1910–13) by Whitehead and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970).
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7b69a08eace01ec84f5913b9b68dff99 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Hall | Joseph Hall | Joseph Hall
Joseph Hall, (born July 1, 1574, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire, Eng.—died Sept. 8, 1656, Higham, Norfolk), English bishop, moral philosopher, and satirist, remarkable for his literary versatility and innovations.
Hall’s Virgidemiarum: Six Books (1597–1602; “A Harvest of Blows”) was the first English satire successfully modeled on Latin satire, and its couplets anticipated the satiric heroic couplets of John Dryden in the late 17th century. Hall was also the first writer in English to emulate Theophrastus, an ancient Greek philosopher who wrote a book of characters, with Characters of Vertues and Vices (1608). As a moral philosopher he achieved a European reputation for his Christianization of Stoicism.
Educated under Puritan influences at the Ashby School and the University of Cambridge (from 1589), he was elected to the university lectureship in rhetoric. He became rector of Hawstead, Suffolk, in 1601 and concentrated chiefly on writing books for the money “to buy books.” Mundus Alter et Idem (c. 1605; “The World Different and the Same”), an original and entertaining Latin satire that influenced Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1726), dates from this period, as does Heaven upon Earth (1606), a book of moral philosophy. Hall later became domestic chaplain to Prince Henry (James I’s eldest son). He was made dean of Worcester in 1616 and accompanied King James to Scotland in 1617. He was a royal representative at the Synod of Dort (1618–19), an assembly of the Reformed Church of the Netherlands, and became bishop of Exeter in 1627. Suspected of Puritan leanings by William Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, he counterattacked Puritans on episcopacy’s behalf.
Hall took part in the literary campaign between Anglicans and Puritans at the opening (1642) of the English Civil War. John Milton, poet and Puritan, wrote Animadversions against a Defence of Hall’s, but amid the ensuing exchange of invective Hall pleaded for unity and tolerance among Christians. In 1641 Hall was given the bishopric of Norwich but was imprisoned for four months by an anti-episcopalian House of Commons before arriving at his new see. Deprived of his episcopal revenues in 1643, he was finally ejected from his palace and retired to Higham.
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14675f612f3b46c0e8110c624376e1ba | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Hansen | Joseph Hansen | Joseph Hansen
Joseph Hansen, (born July 19, 1923, Aberdeen, South Dakota, U.S.—died November 24, 2004, Laguna Beach, California), American writer, author of a series of crime novels featuring the homosexual insurance investigator and detective Dave Brandstetter.
Hansen, who also wrote under the pseudonyms Rose Brock and James Colton, began his career as an editor, novelist, and journalist in the 1960s. He taught writing at the University of California in Los Angeles from 1977 to 1986.
In Fadeout (1970), the first novel to feature Brandstetter, the detective falls in love with a man whom he clears of murder charges. Death Claims (1973) explores surviving the death of a lover. Brandstetter investigates the murder of the owner of a bar for homosexuals in Troublemaker (1975). In Early Graves (1987) he comes out of retirement to trace a serial killer who murders men who have AIDS. The Brandstetter series featured 12 novels and concluded with A Country of Old Men (1991). Brandstetter also appears in several other novels and in Brandstetter and Others (1984), a collection of short stories.
In addition to the Brandstetter series, Hansen wrote the novels A Smile in His Lifetime (1981), Backtrack (1982), Job’s Year (1983), and Jack of Hearts (1995), as well as the short-story collections The Dog and Other Stories (1979), Bohannon’s Book (1988), and Bohannon’s Country (1993).
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b053a64d364c04938491e2fa2e549cb5 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Haydn | Joseph Haydn | Joseph Haydn
Joseph Haydn, in full Franz Joseph Haydn, (born March 31, 1732, Rohrau, Austria—died May 31, 1809, Vienna), Austrian composer who was one of the most important figures in the development of the Classical style in music during the 18th century. He helped establish the forms and styles for the string quartet and the symphony.
Joseph Haydn was an Austrian composer who was one of the most important figures in the development of the Classical style in music during the 18th century. He helped establish the forms and styles for the string quartet and the symphony.
Haydn was an extremely prolific composer, and some of his most well-known works include the London Symphonies, The Creation, Trumpet Concerto, and Cello Concerto No. 2 in D Major. His compositions are often characterized as light, witty, and elegant.
Haydn was the second son of humble parents: his father was a wheelwright, and his mother, before her marriage, was a cook. His younger brother, Michael, also became a composer and was highly regarded for his church music. Hayden married Maria Anna Keller in 1760, but the couple had no children.
When Haydn was a child, he received a basic music education from his cousin. He later served as a chorister for St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna, where he gained practical music skills but little instruction in theory. After being expelled when his voice changed, Haydn largely taught himself through the study of musical works.
Haydn died peacefully in his home in Vienna in 1809 at the age of 77.
Haydn was the second son of humble parents. His father was a wheelwright, his mother, before her marriage, a cook for the lords of the village. Haydn early revealed unusual musical gifts, and a cousin who was a school principal and choirmaster in the nearby city of Hainburg offered to take him into his home and train him. Haydn, not yet six years old, left home, never to return to the parental cottage except for rare brief visits.
The young Haydn sang in the church choir, learned to play various instruments, and obtained a good basic knowledge of music. But his life changed decisively when he was eight years old. The musical director of St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna had observed the boy on a visit to Hainburg and invited him to serve as chorister at the Austrian capital’s most important church. Haydn’s parents accepted the offer, and thus in 1740 Haydn moved to Vienna. He stayed at the choir school for nine years, acquiring an enormous practical knowledge of music by constant performances but, to his disappointment, receiving little instruction in music theory. He had to work hard to fulfill his obligations as a chorister, and when his voice changed, he was expelled from both the cathedral choir and the choir school.
With no money and few possessions, Haydn at 17 was left to his own devices. He found refuge for a while in the garret of a fellow musician and supported himself “miserably” with odd musical jobs. He meanwhile undertook an arduous course of self-instruction through the study of musical works—notably those of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach—and of leading manuals of musical theory. A fortunate chance brought him to the attention of the Italian composer and singing teacher Nicola Porpora, who accepted him as accompanist for voice lessons and corrected Haydn’s compositions.
With persistence and energy, Haydn made progress. He was eventually introduced to the music-loving Austrian nobleman Karl Joseph von Fürnberg, in whose home he played chamber music. For the instrumentalists there he wrote his first string quartets.
Through the recommendation of Fürnberg, in 1758 Haydn was engaged as musical director and chamber composer for the Bohemian count Ferdinand Maximilian von Morzin. Haydn was put in charge of an orchestra of about 16 musicians, and for this ensemble he wrote his first symphony as well as numerous divertimenti for wind band or for wind instruments and strings. These early musical compositions were still conventional in character, yet a certain freshness of melodic invention and sparkle marked them as the work of a future master.
Haydn stayed only briefly with von Morzin, as financial difficulties forced his patron to dismiss the orchestra. Soon Haydn was invited to enter the service of Prince Pál Antal Esterházy. The Esterházys were one of the wealthiest and most-influential families of the Austrian empire and boasted a distinguished record of supporting music. Prince Pál Antal had a well-appointed orchestra performing regularly in his castle at Eisenstadt, a small town some 30 miles (48 km) from Vienna. Because his aged music director was ailing, the prince appointed the relatively unknown Haydn to be assistant conductor in 1761. While the music director oversaw church music, Haydn conducted the orchestra and coached the singers in almost daily rehearsals, composed most of the music required, and served as chief of the musical personnel. Haydn carried out his duties extremely well and revealed tact, good nature, and skill in dealing with people. From his first symphonies written for the Esterházys, Haydn amply displayed his characteristic good humour and wit, as well as the dependable freshness of his musical ideas, although full maturity would come much later. His employment by the Esterházy family proved decisive for his career, and he remained in their service until his death.
In 1766 Haydn became musical director at the Esterházy court. He raised the quality and increased the size of the prince’s musical ensembles by appointing many choice instrumentalists and singers. His ambitious plans were supported by Prince Miklós, who, on the death of his brother in 1762, had become head of the Esterházy family. He was able to appreciate Haydn’s musical contributions and created an atmosphere conducive to the development and maturing of Haydn’s art. In addition to composing operas for the court, Haydn composed symphonies, string quartets, and other chamber music. The prince was a passionate performer on the baryton, and Haydn provided for his patron more than 150 compositions featuring this now-obsolete cellolike instrument.
Haydn served Prince Miklós for nearly 30 years. He frequently visited Vienna in the prince’s retinue, and on these visits a close friendship developed between himself and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The two composers felt inspired by each other’s work. Mozart declared that he had learned from Haydn how to write quartets and dedicated a superb set of six such works to his “beloved friend.” Haydn’s music, too, shows the impact of his young friend. The mature composer was by no means set in his ways; he was flexible and receptive to new ideas.
During the 1760s Haydn’s fame began to spread throughout Europe. The Austrian and Czech monasteries did much to disseminate his church music as well as his symphonies, divertimenti, sonatas, and concertos. Aristocratic patrons in south Germany, Italy, and the Austrian empire assiduously collected his music, and their libraries would eventually become important sources for copies of his work.
The period from 1768 to about 1774 marks Haydn’s maturity as a composer. The music written then, from the Stabat Mater (1767) to the large-scale Missa Sancti Nicolai (1772), would be sufficient to place him among the chief composers of the era. The many operas he wrote during these years did much to enhance his own reputation and that of the Esterházy court. Among his other important works from this period are the string quartets of Opus 20, the Piano Sonata in C Minor, and the symphonies in minor keys, especially the so-called Trauersymphonie in E Minor, No. 44 (“Mourning Symphony,” so named because its slow movement, which was a particular favourite of the composer, was performed at a memorial service for Haydn) and the “Farewell” Symphony, No. 45. For reasons that have no historical grounding, this has come to be known as Haydn’s Sturm-und-Drang (“storm and stress”) period, after a literary movement that came somewhat later; however inapt historically, the term does describe the character of many of these works and in fact has come to stand for the turgid style they so often exhibit.
The following decade and a half did even more to enhance Haydn’s fame. His operatic output continued strong until 1785, notwithstanding the destruction of the Esterházy opera house by fire in 1779. Increasingly, however, his audience lay outside his employer’s court. In 1775 he composed his first large-scale oratorio, Il ritorno di Tobia, for the Musicians’ Society in Vienna; for unknown reasons, relations between Haydn and the Viennese musicians cooled considerably a few years later. By the early 1780s, though, things seemed much improved, and the Viennese firm Artaria published his six Opus 33 quartets. These important works quickly set a new standard for the genre, putting many of his competitors in this increasingly lucrative market out of business. (Mozart was a notable exception, but even he took several years to complete his own set of six quartets.) In 1784 Haydn revised Tobia for another Viennese performance, adding choral numbers and cutting back on some of the extended da capo structures, a clear sign that he was well aware of changing sensibilities. In mid-decade as well came a commission from Paris to compose a set of symphonies, and Haydn’s resulting “Paris” symphonies are a landmark of the genre. It was also about this time that he received the commission to compose the Seven Last Words of Our Saviour on the Cross; for the incorrigibly cheerful Haydn, writing seven successive dour movements was a particularly difficult undertaking, but the effort resulted in one of his most-admired works.
Haydn’s professional success was not matched in his personal life. His marriage to Maria Anna Keller in 1760 produced neither a pleasant, peaceful home nor any children. Haydn’s wife did not understand music and showed no interest in her husband’s work. Her disdain went to the extremes of using his manuscripts for pastry pan linings or curl papers. Haydn was not insensitive to the attractions of other women, and for years he carried on a love affair with Luigia Polzelli, a young Italian mezzo-soprano in the prince’s service.
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7da615026af6acfddead88c0a94f5fff | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Jacques-Cesaire-Joffre | Joseph-Jacques-Césaire Joffre | Joseph-Jacques-Césaire Joffre
Joseph-Jacques-Césaire Joffre, (born Jan. 12, 1852, Rivesaltes, Fr.—died Jan. 3, 1931, Paris), commander in chief (1914–16) of the French armies on the Western Front in World War I, who won fame as “the Victor of the Marne.”
After graduating from the École Polytechnique, he took part as a subaltern in the siege of Paris (1870–71) and later served in Indochina, West Africa, and Madagascar. Promoted to general of division in 1905, he was appointed chief of the French general staff in 1911 and thereby commander in chief in the event of war. Joffre was responsible for the French Army’s calamitous plan of campaign with which it began operations in 1914 against Germany, calling for mass attacks across the Franco-German frontier. The plan’s futility became apparent when a massive German encircling movement through Belgium caught Joffre and the rest of the French high command unawares and threatened to outflank the Allied forces and capture Paris. Once convinced of the developing German threat on the French left flank, Joffre shifted his forces and created a new French army, the 6th, under his direct authority, to counter the threat of German envelopment. In this moment of supreme trial his best qualities came to the fore; his imperturbability, force of character, and courage saved the situation. Constantly threatened by greatly superior German forces wheeling in a great northern arc on Paris, the French retreated steadily until their left flank was fighting just outside the city by September 5. Joffre then issued the order that on September 6 launched the Allied counterstroke, the first of the battles of the Marne. The encounter resulted in the partial repulse of the German advance and the ruin of German hopes for a swift victory on the Western Front.
By the end of 1914 the Western Front had settled into the heavily entrenched lines that existed until 1918. Throughout 1915 the French armies under Joffre attempted to burst through the German positions at ruinous cost, and failed. Joffre’s prestige began to wane, and the evident lack of French preparation for the German attack on Verdun in 1916, for which he was held responsible, prepared his downfall. After being stripped of the power of direct command, Joffre resigned on Dec. 26, 1916, and the same day was created a marshal of France. His Mémoires, in two volumes, were published in 1932.
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69c89b761567862bde1762c41002873c | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Kabila | Joseph Kabila | Joseph Kabila
Joseph Kabila, (born June 4, 1971, Sud-Kivu province, Democratic Republic of the Congo), army official and politician who was president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 2001 until 2019.
Kabila, the son of Congolese rebel leader Laurent Kabila, was largely raised and educated in Tanzania. He fought as part of the rebel forces that helped his father depose Pres. Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire in 1997. Laurent then assumed the presidency and restored the country’s former name, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Joseph was sent to China for additional military training. Upon his return, he became head of the country’s armed forces, with the rank of major general.
The elder Kabila’s rule was soon challenged in 1998 with a small rebellion that later expanded and involved troops from several African countries. Shortly after Laurent was assassinated, Joseph was inaugurated as the country’s president on January 26, 2001. He inherited a country that was still engulfed in war and that, for the most part, was without a functioning government or basic services and whose economy had largely been ruined from years of conflict.
Little was known about Kabila, and the first assessment was that his father’s advisers had chosen him as a figurehead. During the following months, however, Kabila surprised many people by taking initiative and turning the policies of the government in a different direction. Less than a week after being sworn in, Kabila made his first trip abroad as president. He conferred with government leaders in France and Belgium and also traveled to the United States, where he met with Secretary of State Colin Powell and with officials of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the United Nations. While in the United States, he also met with Paul Kagame, the president of Rwanda, who had been one of his father’s principal opponents. In a meeting in Zambia in February 2001, Kabila agreed to begin the implementation of a cease-fire agreement that had been signed in July 1999 but had not been honoured. He held talks with rebel groups, and the governments of five countries—Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia—that had troops in Congo agreed to begin their withdrawal. UN peacekeepers arrived at the end of March to monitor the cease-fire and the pullback of troops. In April Kabila dismissed the cabinet that had been held over from his father’s administration and named his own group of ministers. In December 2002 he signed an agreement with rebels to end the war and to form a power-sharing transitional government. The agreement was ratified in April 2003; later that year an interim government was formed that kept Kabila as president and named rebel leaders to vice presidential and cabinet posts.
Though Kabila made strides toward peace, his actions were not without opposition. In 2004 there were alleged coup attempts against him, but loyalist forces prevailed. Undeterred, Kabila continued in his attempts to unify the country. In 2006 a new constitution was promulgated and the country held its first multiparty elections in more than four decades. Kabila failed to secure a majority of the vote, but he easily defeated Jean-Pierre Bemba in the runoff held in October 2006. In early 2008 Kabila signed a peace agreement with more than 20 rebel groups who had been fighting in the eastern part of the country, but the truce unraveled later that year when some rebels resumed their attacks.
Kabila stood for reelection in 2011, facing 10 other candidates in the November 28 poll. His strongest challenger was former prime minister Étienne Tshisekedi. Kabila’s reelection bid was bolstered by his well-organized political campaign as well as a January 2011 constitutional amendment that eliminated the second round of voting in the presidential race, therefore allowing a candidate to win without necessarily having a majority of the vote. However, many Congolese were disgruntled over Kabila’s failure to keep all of his 2006 election campaign promises, and Tshisekedi was a popular opposition figure with considerable support. The climate leading up to the election was tense and punctuated with violence, because of tensions between the parties, as well as legitimate concerns that logistical challenges would interfere with voting in remote parts of the country. Still, the elections were held as scheduled, and provisional results showed that Kabila was the winner, with 49 percent of the vote; Tshisekedi followed, with 32 percent. Several international monitoring groups characterized the polls as being poorly organized and noted many irregularities, but the results were confirmed by the Supreme Court and Kabila was inaugurated on December 20, 2011.
In his new term, Kabila faced several challenges, including postelection disputes that persisted into the next year and ongoing violence throughout parts of the country from numerous militias fighting each other as well as attacking Congolese troops and civilians. He was pressured by the international community and opposition groups to promote reform in the areas of human rights and democracy.
Kabila was the target of protests when there were suspicions as early as 2013 that he would not step down at the end of his term in late 2016 and would instead try to find a way to extend his time in office. These suspicions were bolstered after the Constitutional Court ruled in May 2016 that in the event that elections were delayed, Kabila could remain in office until a successor could be elected and installed; months later the court granted a request from the electoral commission to postpone the 2016 elections.
A presidential election was eventually scheduled for December 23, 2018. After years of speculation about Kabila’s intentions, it was confirmed in August 2018 that he would not be standing in the election and would instead support the candidacy of Emmanuel Ramazani Shadary. Against the backdrop of security concerns and a mysterious fire that destroyed a considerable amount of voting materials only 10 days before the polls, on December 20 the electoral commission announced that the presidential election—along with legislative, provincial, and local elections also scheduled for December 23—would be postponed until December 30. Although the elections were held that day in most parts of the country and in generally peaceful conditions, there were problems reported regarding the voting process and tabulation of votes. When the results were announced a week and a half later, Félix Tshisekedi—son of Étienne Tshisekedi, who had died in 2017—was declared the winner, followed closely by Martin Fayulu, another opposition candidate; Shadary came in third. The results, however, disagreed with a preelection poll, the tallies compiled by an election monitoring group, and leaked voting data, all of which showed Fayulu as being firmly in the lead. Fayulu and others accused Tshisekedi and Kabila of having made a deal to secure the former’s election victory in exchange for protecting the interests of the latter and his associates; representatives of both men denied the accusations. Fayulu challenged the results at the Constitutional Court, but the court upheld Tshisekedi’s victory.
Kabila stepped down on January 24, 2019, handing power to Tshisekedi—the first peaceful transition of power in Congo since the country became independent in 1960.
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94d77860b877fb8805e2a841eb02f63e | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Keppler | Joseph Keppler | Joseph Keppler
Joseph Keppler, (born February 1, 1838, Vienna, Austria—died February 19, 1894, New York, New York, U.S.), Austria-born American caricaturist and founder of Puck, the first successful humorous weekly in the United States.
Keppler studied art in Vienna. Following the Revolution of 1848, his father emigrated to the United States and settled in Missouri, where Joseph joined him in 1867. Two years later he established his first humorous weekly newspaper in St. Louis. It failed, and in 1870 he founded Puck, a German-language weekly that was also short-lived.
Keppler then moved to New York City, and by 1875 he was drawing cover cartoons for Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper. He broke with Leslie in 1876 and founded a second German-language Puck, which was so successful that in 1877 an English-language version was begun. The English version lasted until 1918, 22 years longer than the German. Initially Keppler drew all the cartoons for Puck, and, although later many other artists contributed, his influence remained strong. His cartoon “Forbidding the Banns,” published on behalf of anti-Garfield forces in the Garfield-Hancock presidential campaign of 1880, attracted widespread attention.
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cf83c7eb4b32808807734f942dc7c3a9 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Kimhi | Joseph Kimhi | Joseph Kimhi
Joseph Kimhi, Kimhi also spelled Kimchi, Kimḥi, or Qimḥi, also called Maistre Petit, or Rikham (an acronym of Rabbi Joseph Kimhi), (born c. 1105, Spain—died c. 1170, Narbonne?, Fr.), European grammarian, biblical exegete, and poet who, with his sons, Moses and David, made fundamental contributions to establishing Hebrew-language studies.
Through his many translations into Hebrew of works written in Arabic by Spanish Jews, Kimhi came to play a principal part in introducing Hebraic studies to the rest of Europe. His acquaintance with Latin grammar led him to divide the previously acknowledged seven Hebrew vowels into five long and five short vowels. His comprehensive grammatical text, Sefer ha-zikkaron (“Book of Remembrance”), introduced a classification of verb stems for Hebrew that remains in use. Another work, Sefer ha-galui (“Book of the Demonstration”), dealing with lexicography and questions of exegesis, served as a vehicle for criticizing the work of Jacob ben Meir Tam, the leading Talmudic scholar of the time. Among his critical commentaries on various books of the Old Testament, those on Proverbs and Job were published. Those that became lost are known, however, to have had important exegetic worth. Kimhi’s work on Jewish apologetics, Sefer ha-Berit (“Book of the Covenant”), is important for its historical information on the position of the Jews in Provence. He also established himself as a poet of considerable merit and was frequently quoted by later generations. His Shekel hakodesh (“The Holy Shekel”) was published with an English translation in 1919.
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6988c0ea7c107c2e256c9a69f87abfb3 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-L-Goldstein | Joseph L. Goldstein | Joseph L. Goldstein
Joseph L. Goldstein, in full Joseph Leonard Goldstein, (born April 18, 1940, Sumter, S.C., U.S.), American molecular geneticist who, along with Michael S. Brown, was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their elucidation of the process of cholesterol metabolism in the human body.
Goldstein received his B.S. degree from Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va., in 1962 and obtained his medical degree from the Southwestern Medical School of the University of Texas at Dallas in 1966. Goldstein became friends with Brown when they were both working as interns at Massachusetts General Hospital from 1966 to 1968. Goldstein then conducted research under the auspices of the National Institutes of Health from 1968 to 1972, studying genetically predisposing factors that caused the accumulation of blood cholesterol in people prone to heart attacks. He returned to teach at the Southwestern Medical School in Dallas in 1972 and was there reunited with his colleague Brown.
The two men then began a concerted study of the processes affecting the accumulation of cholesterol in the bloodstream. In the course of their research they discovered that low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which are primary cholesterol-carrying particles, are withdrawn from the bloodstream into the body’s cells by receptors on the cells’ surface. The genetic absence of these LDL receptors was found to be the cause of familial hypercholesterolemia, a disorder in which the body’s tissues are incapable of removing cholesterol from the bloodstream. The new understanding of cells receptors’ role in the regulation of cholesterol levels in the bloodstream spurred the successful use of drugs and the manipulation of diet in lowering blood cholesterol levels.
From 1976 Goldstein was professor of medicine and from 1977 chairman of the department of molecular genetics at the University of Texas Health Science Center in Dallas; he was named regental professor of the University of Texas in 1985. In addition to the Nobel Prize, Goldstein and Brown have received numerous awards for their research on cholesterol and lipoproteins, including the Louisa Gross Horowitz Prize for Biology or Biochemistry (1984), the Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award (1985), and the National Medal of Science (1988).
In the 1990s the two scientists made another groundbreaking advance in cholesterol research when they discovered a new family of transcription factors called sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs). Goldstein and Brown found that SREBPs controlled the synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids, and in subsequent studies they elucidated the mechanism of activation that enables SREBPs to regulate lipid metabolism. In 2003 Goldstein and Brown were honoured with an Albany Medical Center Prize for their work on SREBPs.
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9d5e7394ee2cfa3982e0f89c6422c9cc | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Lauder | Joseph Lauder | Joseph Lauder
She married Joseph Lauter (last name later changed to Lauder), whom she divorced in 1939 and remarried in 1942. Together they founded Estée Lauder, Inc., in 1946. Their first six beauty products included skin treatments, a rouge, and a makeup base. When no agency would handle their…
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3af19ff7b872c34f3267c9a6359cc052 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Louis-Cardinal-Bernardin | Joseph Louis Cardinal Bernardin | Joseph Louis Cardinal Bernardin
…to John Cardinal Cody and Joseph Cardinal Bernardin. He was ordained auxiliary bishop of Chicago on December 13, 1982, and installed as bishop of Belleville, Illinois, on February 10, 1994.
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c8649ebdf8a6c215f5071dbfcbf95c9e | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Mallalieu | Joseph Mallalieu | Joseph Mallalieu
Joseph Mallalieu, in full Sir Joseph Percival William Mallalieu, (born June 18, 1908, Delph, Yorkshire, England—died March 13, 1980, Boarstall, Buckinghamshire), British politician who was successively minister of defense for the Royal Navy (1966–67), minister of state at the Board of Trade (1967–68), and minister of state at the Ministry of Technology (1968–69) in Harold Wilson’s Labour government of 1964–70.
Mallalieu was educated at the University of Oxford (where he was president of the Oxford Union in 1930) and the University of Chicago. He entered the field of journalism and in World War II served in the Royal Navy, first as ordinary seaman and later as lieutenant. During 1945–50 he sat in the House of Commons as a Labour member for Huddersfield, and from 1950 to 1979 he sat for Huddersfield East. Mallalieu was parliamentary secretary to the minister of food from 1946 to 1949, but his first major appointment was that of undersecretary of state for defense (Royal Navy) in 1964.
Mallalieu wrote throughout his life. In addition to journalism, he published several works, including Rats! (1941; under the pseudonym “the Pied Piper”); “Passed to You, Please”: Britain’s Red-Tape Machine at War (1942); the novel Very Ordinary Seaman (1944); two collections of sports essays, Sporting Days (1955) and Very Ordinary Sportsman (1957); and Extraordinary Seaman (1957), a biography of Thomas Cochrane, 10th earl of Dundonald. While Labour was in opposition, Mallalieu also was a frequent broadcaster. He was knighted in 1979.
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d50f4a4d5f0aab37dd50eb40c785eac6 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Marie-Vien | Joseph-Marie Vien | Joseph-Marie Vien
…placed in the studio of Joseph-Marie Vien, a history painter who catered to the growing Greco-Roman taste without quite abandoning the light sentiment and the eroticism that had been fashionable earlier in the century. At age 18, the obviously gifted budding artist was enrolled in the school of the Royal…
…well as being a painter, Joseph-Marie Vien was a friend of the archaeologist Caylus and a director of the French Academy in Rome. That generation also included Jean-Baptiste Greuze, who painted a few Classical history subjects as well as the scenes from contemporary life for which he is best known;…
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a0d531a67830b268eefef602bdfb8e5c | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Redlich | Joseph Redlich | Joseph Redlich
Joseph Redlich, (born June 18, 1869, Göding, Bohemia [now Hodonín, Czech Republic]—died Nov. 12, 1936, Vienna, Austria), Austrian statesman and historian who was an influential politician before and during World War I (1914–18) and wrote important works on local government and parliamentary institutions.
Redlich, the son of a prominent Jewish industrialist, studied law and history at the University of Vienna, after which he was appointed professor of constitutional law there in 1906. He served as a German Liberal representative in the imperial Reichsrat of Austria-Hungary (1907–18), and in June 1917 he was asked to head a reform cabinet in the vain hope of establishing a constitutional democracy within the empire as a precondition for a peace settlement. His hopes for democratic reform were crushed with an imperial reorganization after the war. He remained in Vienna as an Austrian citizen, refusing further political participation except for brief service as finance minister in 1931.
Redlich’s best-known work on Austria was his uncompleted Das österreichische Staats- und Reichsproblem (1920–26; “Austrian State and Imperial Problems”), a valuable history of Austrian domestic policy after 1848. His political diaries, entitled Schicksalsjahre Österreichs, 1908–1919 (“Austria’s Fateful Years, 1908–1919”), were published in 1953–54; also important is his biography of the emperor Francis Joseph (1929).
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0729d5f9e9968d0d0db37652980ef57b | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Valentin-Boussinesq | Joseph Valentin Boussinesq | Joseph Valentin Boussinesq
…space by the French mathematician Joseph Valentin Boussinesq and the Italian mathematician Valentino Cerruti. The Prussian mathematician Leo August Pochhammer analyzed the vibrations of an elastic cylinder, and Lamb and the Prussian physicist Paul Jaerisch derived the equations of general vibration of an elastic sphere in the 1880s, an effort…
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0df55d86734c990d0b8a8009a59c0596 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Weber | Joseph Weber | Joseph Weber
American physicist Joseph Weber announced in 1969 that he detected gravity waves by measuring the change in length of two aluminum bars. Gravity waves are a disturbance in space-time and thus change distances when they pass by. However, no one could replicate Weber’s result. Weiss believed that…
…gravity waves by American physicist Joseph Weber in the early 1970s were refuted. However, Thorne believed that gravity-wave astronomy was a promising field and in 1979 recruited Scottish physicist Ronald Drever to Caltech. Drever had been working on laser interferometers to detect gravity waves. The interferometer is shaped like an…
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aae0090789751449ce74c7b7eee3b4c1 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Wheeler | Joseph Wheeler | Joseph Wheeler
Joseph Wheeler, (born September 10, 1836, near Augusta, Georgia, U.S.—died January 25, 1906, Brooklyn, New York), Confederate cavalry general during the American Civil War.
Wheeler entered the U.S. cavalry from West Point in 1859 but soon resigned to enter the Confederate service. He commanded a brigade at the Battle of Shiloh (April 6–7, 1862), but soon afterward he returned to the cavalry arm, in which he won a reputation second only to Gen. Jeb Stuart’s. After the action of Perryville he was promoted to brigadier general and, in 1863, to major general. Throughout the campaigns of Chickamauga, Chattanooga, and Atlanta, he commanded the cavalry of the Confederate army in the west and was given the task of harassing Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman’s army during its march to the sea. In the closing operations of the war, with the rank of lieutenant general, he commanded the cavalry of Gen. Joseph Johnston’s weak army in North Carolina and was included in its surrender.
In 1898, during the Spanish-American War, Wheeler commanded the cavalry in the actions of Guasimas and San Juan. He wrote The Santiago Campaign (1898).
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fdc9623d5cc1d9714124736880bdf567 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Williamson-British-publisher | Sir Joseph Williamson | Sir Joseph Williamson
Along with Sir Joseph Williamson, publisher of the London Gazette, Muddiman for several years had a virtual monopoly on news publishing under King Charles II.
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43d13459fb8b501ee1e38fa452a31265 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Wiseman | Joseph Wiseman | Joseph Wiseman
No (Joseph Wiseman), who owns a bauxite mine off the island’s coast. After arriving in Kingston, Bond meets CIA agent Felix Leiter (Jack Lord), who, with the help of local boatman Quarrel (John Kitzmiller), has been investigating Dr. No. After several attempts on Bond’s life, he…
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8e3b70954abccf67e2102afd40a8cdb9 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Wolpe | Joseph Wolpe | Joseph Wolpe
…by the South African psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe of his technique of systematically desensitizing patients with phobias, beginning by exposing them to the least-feared object or situation and gradually progressing to the most-feared. Behavioral therapies were more quickly adopted in Europe than in the United States, where psychoanalytic precepts had exercised…
As described by Joseph Wolpe in The Practice of Behavior Therapy (1973),
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f2b731aa1de42a0b783d9c855d054679 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Wood-Krutch | Joseph Wood Krutch | Joseph Wood Krutch
Joseph Wood Krutch, (born Nov. 25, 1893, Knoxville, Tenn., U.S.—died May 22, 1970, Tucson, Ariz.), American naturalist, conservationist, writer, and critic.
Krutch attended the University of Tennessee (B.A., 1915) and Columbia University, N.Y. (M.A., 1916; Ph.D., 1923). He served in the army (1918) and spent a year (1919–20) in Europe with his fellow student Mark Van Doren. Upon his return to the United States, he taught at Brooklyn Polytechnic and began to contribute book reviews and essays to periodicals. From 1924 through 1952, during which time he was drama critic for The Nation, he taught and lectured at various schools in the area and wrote a number of books, including The Modern Temper (1929). In the 1940s he wrote two critical biographies, Samuel Johnson (1944) and Henry David Thoreau (1948), which reflected his growing interest in common-sense philosophy and natural history. In 1952 Krutch moved to Arizona and wrote several nature books in addition to the essays he continued to publish. His later work included The Measure of Man (1954), The Great Chain of Life (1956), and his autobiography, More Lives Than One (1962).
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cab9e97dd0e2afe41c9900f783ef3597 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Yozel-Baron-Gunzburg | Joseph, Baron Günzburg | Joseph, Baron Günzburg
Joseph, Baron Günzburg, (born 1812, Vitebsk, Russia—died Jan. 12, 1878, Paris), Jewish philanthropist, banker, and financier who contributed much to the industrialization of 19th-century Russia and who successfully fought some of the discriminatory measures against Jews in Russia. His son Horace carried on his philanthropic work, and his grandson David was a well-known Orientalist and bibliophile.
After an early career as a contractor for the government, he founded a banking firm in 1859 in St. Petersburg. Along with other wealthy Russian Jewish families, he also financed the building of much of Russia’s railroad network. He was created a baron in the early 1870s.
Günzburg is best remembered for his activities on behalf of his persecuted coreligionists. In 1863 he helped found the Society for the Promotion of Culture Among the Jews of Russia, of which he was the first president, to “disseminate among the Jews the knowledge of the Russian language and other useful subjects” in the hope that thereby “the Jews will become full-fledged citizens of the country.” The society thrived, sponsoring translations of the Bible and other works into Russian and founding a number of Jewish cultural societies. Günzburg also succeeded in having discriminatory laws against Jews in military service removed and in gaining greater freedom of movement for Jewish merchants and artisans.
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252f942aa0ee6231e019953039464d7f | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josephine | Joséphine | Joséphine
Joséphine, original name Marie-Josèphe-Rose Tascher de La Pagerie, also called (1779–96) vicomtesse de Beauharnais or (1796–1804) Joséphine Bonaparte, (born June 23, 1763, Trois-Îlets, Martinique—died May 29, 1814, Malmaison, France), consort of Napoleon Bonaparte and empress of the French.
Joséphine, the eldest daughter of Joseph Tascher de La Pagerie, an impoverished aristocrat who had a commission in the navy, lived the first 15 years of her life on the island of Martinique. In 1779 she married a rich young army officer, Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, and moved to Paris. Although she bore him two children, Hortense and Eugène, the vain Alexandre was ashamed of her provincial manners and lack of sophistication and declined to present her at the court of Marie-Antoinette at Versailles; his indifference grew so great that in March 1785 she obtained a separation. She remained in Paris three years, learning the ways of the fashionable world, and went back to Martinique in 1788.
In 1790 a slave uprising on the island forced Joséphine to return to Paris, which was then in the throes of the Revolution. She frequented high society, but her life was endangered when her husband, who had been serving in the Revolutionary army, fell out of favour with the left-wing Jacobins and was guillotined in June 1794. Joséphine herself was imprisoned, but, after the coup d’état of 9 Thermidor (July 27) put an end to the Terror, she was released and by the time of the inauguration of the Directory was a leader of Paris society.
No longer unsophisticated, Joséphine was able to catch the fancy of Bonaparte, then a rising young army officer. She agreed to marry him after he had been appointed commander of the Italian expedition. Married in a civil ceremony on March 9, 1796, Joséphine was an indifferent wife, declining to answer the future emperor’s passionate love letters and, while he was campaigning in Egypt in 1798–99, flirting with another army officer in a most compromising manner. Bonaparte threatened to divorce her, but her children dissuaded him, and he eventually forgave her, even agreeing to pay the enormous debts she had accumulated. During the Consulate (1799–1804) she was careful to cause no more scandals and used her social position to advance her husband’s political fortunes. After Napoleon became emperor of the French in May 1804, she persuaded him to marry her anew with religious rites; the ceremony, which the emperor arranged most reluctantly, took place on December 1, 1804. The following day she attended Napoleon’s coronation by Pope Pius VII in Notre-Dame as empress.
Joséphine’s place in the world now seemed secure. The marriages of her children Hortense (to Napoleon’s brother Louis) and Eugène (to the daughter of the king of Bavaria) seemed to establish her position, but her extravagance and, above all, her inability to give Napoleon a son put a strain on their marriage. Hoping to make a politically convenient marriage with Marie-Louise, daughter of Emperor Francis I of Austria, Napoleon in January 1810 arranged for the nullification of his 1804 marriage on the grounds that a parish priest had not been present at the ceremony. This slight technical irregularity, which seems to have been premeditated, enabled him to dispose of Joséphine without having to resort to a divorce, which would have displeased both the church and the Austrian emperor.
Joséphine retreated to her private residence at Malmaison, outside Paris, where she continued to entertain lavishly, with the emperor paying the bills. After Napoleon’s abdication she won the protection of the Russian emperor Alexander I but died soon after.
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84a74e15626809293dc635a492128dca | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josephine-Wilson | Josephine Wilson | Josephine Wilson
…founder (with his wife, actress Josephine Wilson) of the Mermaid Theatre, the first new theatre to open in the City of London since the 17th century.
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8c63223bf82d3e4afcdc17aa1dddf3b7 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josh-White | Josh White | Josh White
Guthrie, Muddy Waters, Josh White, and Burl Ives. In 1938 he made a series of recordings with the jazz pianist Jelly Roll Morton. From 1951 to 1958 he was in Europe, recording hundreds of folk songs in Great Britain, Italy, and Spain.
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433547c1e165953a89f8d86b0bb76ce0 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joshua-Bell | Joshua Bell | Joshua Bell
Joshua Bell, (born December 9, 1967, Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.), American musician whose technical accomplishments and versatility in classical and popular music made him one of the most successful and critically lauded violinists in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
Bell received his first violin at age four from his parents after they found he was making music by stretching rubber bands to different lengths on dresser drawers. His violin studies became serious when at age 12 he attended the Meadowmount music camp in Westport, New York. There he met the renowned teacher Josef Gingold of Indiana University, who later became his mentor. Bell made his orchestral debut at age 14 with Riccardo Muti and the Philadelphia Orchestra—becoming the orchestra’s youngest-ever soloist—and he made his first recording at age 18. In appearances as a soloist, with small groups and orchestras, and as a conductor, Bell began to earn a number of honours. He received a Grammy Award for his performance in the first recording of Nicholas Maw’s Violin Concerto (2000)—which was written for him—and his album Romance of the Violin won Billboard’s 2004 Classical Album of the Year.
In 2007 Bell received the prestigious Avery Fisher Prize and subsequently accepted a post as senior lecturer at Indiana University’s Jacobs School of Music. His recordings that year included the two-CD album The Essential Joshua Bell and (with pianist Jeremy Denk and the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Marin Alsop) The Red Violin Concerto, a concert version of the Academy Award-winning music composed by John Corigliano for the film The Red Violin (1998), for which Bell had performed the violin solos. In 2011 Bell was named music director of the acclaimed Academy of St. Martin in the Fields chamber ensemble, established by British violinist and conductor Neville Marriner.
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17df75b77f5375424b31efabe840a247 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joshua-Logan | Joshua Logan | Joshua Logan
Joshua Logan, in full Joshua Lockwood Logan III, (born October 5, 1908, Texarkana, Texas, U.S.—died July 12, 1988, New York, New York), American stage and motion-picture director, producer, and writer. Best known as the stage director who brought to Broadway such classics as Charley’s Aunt (1940), Annie Get Your Gun (1946), Mister Roberts (1948), South Pacific (1949), and Fanny (1954)—the last three of which he coauthored—Logan also carved out a small but significant place for himself in Hollywood during the 1950s and ’60s.
Logan attended but did not graduate from Princeton University (1927–31), where he was active in the Triangle Club, the university’s venerable musical theatre troupe. He was also a member of the University Players, the summer-stock retinue on Cape Cod that helped launch the careers of James Stewart, Margaret Sullavan, and Henry Fonda, among others. During his last year at Princeton, Logan earned a scholarship that allowed him to study acting under Konstantin Stanislavsky in Moscow.
Logan made his Broadway debut as an actor in 1932 and soon began working as an assistant stage manager and then as a director. His Hollywood career began in the mid-1930s, when he worked as a dialogue director on a pair of films starring Charles Boyer. In 1938 Logan and Arthur Ripley codirected Fonda in I Met My Love Again. Shortly thereafter Logan chose to return to Broadway, where his initial successes as a director included On Borrowed Time (1938), I Married an Angel (1938), Knickerbocker Holiday (1938), and Charley’s Aunt (1940). On the musicals Higher and Higher (1940) and By Jupiter (1942), he worked with composer Richard Rodgers and lyricist Lorenz Hart.
After serving in the U.S. Air Force during World War II, Logan directed the highly successful musical Annie Get Your Gun (1946), which was produced by Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein, with music and lyrics by Irving Berlin. Logan cowrote and directed Mister Roberts (1948) and then cowrote and coproduced (with Rodgers and Hammerstein) as well as directed the classic musical South Pacific (1949), which won the Pulitzer Prize for drama. Among other popular plays that he directed were Happy Birthday (1945), John Loves Mary (1946), Fanny (1954), and The World of Suzie Wong (1958).
Logan returned to filmmaking as the director of Picnic (1955), the film version of William Inge’s play of the same name, which Logan had also directed. Another Inge play provided the basis for Logan’s next film, Bus Stop (1956), in which the director coaxed from Marilyn Monroe what some critics believe to be one of her best performances while guiding Don Murray to an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actor. Even better received was Sayonara (1957), a story of interracial love and institutional bigotry involving U.S. soldiers on leave in Japan during the Korean War. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for best picture, Logan was nominated for best director, Marlon Brando was nominated for best actor, and Red Buttons and Miyoshi Umeki won the awards for best supporting actor and best supporting actress. Logan was then given the opportunity to make South Pacific (1958), a big-budget film version of the musical that had been a Broadway blockbuster for years. Although the film was eagerly anticipated by moviegoers, it was not well received by many critics, some of whom disparaged Logan’s use of filters to suffuse the screen with dominant colours that he felt reflected the moods of musical numbers.
Logan’s next film, the romantic comedy Tall Story (1960)—starring Anthony Perkins and Ray Walston and adapted from the Howard Lindsay–Russel Crouse play—was notable primarily for being Jane Fonda’s film debut. Having adapted Marcel Pagnol’s comedy Fanny as a stage musical in 1954, Logan transferred the musical to film in 1961, with Boyer, Leslie Caron, and Maurice Chevalier in the lead roles. Both the film and the score were nominated for Academy Awards. Produced, directed, and cowritten by Logan, Ensign Pulver (1964) was less likable than its predecessor, Mister Roberts (1955), the screenplay for which Logan had cowritten.
In the meantime Logan did not completely forsake stage work: he directed All American (1962), Tiger, Tiger, Burning Bright (1962), and Ready When You Are, C.B. (1964), among other productions. He was back behind the camera for Camelot (1967), the film version of the popular Broadway musical of the same name by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe, which was based on Theodore H. White’s novel The Once and Future King (1958). Although the film, which starred Richard Harris and Vanessa Redgrave, was a favourite of many fans of traditional musicals, it was a box-office disappointment and was widely regarded by critics as ponderous and overlong.
Logan closed out his film career with Paint Your Wagon (1969), a lumbering, expensive ($20 million) musical western, with unlikely co-stars Clint Eastwood and Lee Marvin, a script by Paddy Chayefsky, and Lerner-and-Loewe songs (from the 1951 stage musical on which it was based). Like Paint Your Wagon, Logan’s late-career stage productions failed to find significant audiences.
On a couple of occasions in his life, Logan had been hospitalized for mental illness, and, after becoming aware that he suffered from bipolar disorder and that it could be controlled with medication, he became a vocal spokesman for those who suffered from the malady.
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5bf01f14ea9ac1dd7f4026f1031684be | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joshua-Nkomo | Joshua Nkomo | Joshua Nkomo
Joshua Nkomo, in full Joshua Mqabuko Nyongolo Nkomo, (born June 19, 1917, Semokwe Reserve, Matabeleland, Rhodesia [now Zimbabwe]—died July 1, 1999, Harare, Zimbabwe), Black nationalist in Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia), who, as leader of the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), was Prime Minister and then President Robert Mugabe’s longtime rival.
Nkomo was the son of a teacher and lay preacher in Matabeleland, residing among the Ndebele (formerly called Matabele) and the Kalanga peoples. (Most members of his ZAPU party belonged to the Ndebele, who form the dominant ethnic group in the southern part of the country.) After primary schooling in Rhodesia, he went to South Africa to complete his education in Natal and Johannesburg. Upon returning home in 1945, he worked for the Rhodesian Railways and by 1951 had become a leader in the trade union of the Black Rhodesian railway workers. In 1951 he also obtained an external B.A. degree from the University of South Africa, Johannesburg.
Nkomo became increasingly political, and in 1957 he was elected president of the African National Congress (ANC), the leading Black nationalist organization in Rhodesia. When the ANC was banned early in 1959, Nkomo went to England to escape imprisonment. He returned in 1960 and founded the National Democratic Party (NDP); in 1961, when the NDP was banned in turn, he founded ZAPU. The white-minority government of Rhodesia held Nkomo in detention from 1964 until 1974. After his release he traveled widely in Africa and Europe to promote ZAPU’s goal of Black majority rule in Rhodesia. Nkomo helped lead the guerrilla war against white rule in Rhodesia, but his forces played a relatively minor role compared with those of Mugabe, who headed the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU). The two groups were joined in an uneasy alliance known as the Patriotic Front after 1976.
After white-ruled Rhodesia became Black-ruled Zimbabwe in 1979–80, Nkomo and his Ndebele-supported ZAPU were increasingly eclipsed by Mugabe’s ZANU, whose base of support was the majority Shona people. ZANU resoundingly defeated Nkomo’s ZAPU in the 1980 parliamentary elections. The parties’ relationship remained strained, and overt ethnic strife broke out between the Shona and the Ndebele peoples after Mugabe dismissed Nkomo from the cabinet in 1982. After a complete breach between the two leaders for a few years, they agreed in 1987 to merge their respective parties in order to try to achieve ethnic unity in their country. In 1990 Nkomo became a vice president under Mugabe, but Nkomo was only a figurehead in this position; genuine political power was wielded by Mugabe, who remained Zimbabwe’s chief executive. In 1996 Nkomo was diagnosed with prostate cancer. His deteriorating health forced him to retreat from public life, although he continued to hold the title of vice president until his death in 1999. An autobiography, Nkomo, the Story of My Life, was published in 1984.
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8161fcd85633ccb4b8522f10e2e30607 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joshua-Slocum | Joshua Slocum | Joshua Slocum
Joshua Slocum, (born Feb. 20, 1844, Wilmot, Nova Scotia, Can.—died 1909/10, at sea), Canadian seaman and adventurer who was the first man in recorded history to sail around the world singlehandedly.
Slocum joined the crew of a merchant vessel at 16 and from that time on spent most of his life at sea. In 1889 he wrote Voyage of the Liberdade about one of his passages and in 1894 Voyage of the Destroyer about another. In April 1895 he set sail from Boston in the 36-foot 9-inch (11.1-metre) Spray, an old fishing boat built about 1800 that he had rebuilt. He sailed alone, following a route that took him to Nova Scotia, the Azores, Gibraltar, South America, Samoa, Australia, South Africa, the West Indies, and finally, in June 1898, to Newport, R.I., to complete his circumnavigation. He had sailed 46,000 miles (74,000 km) in three years, two months, and two days. In 1899 he wrote Sailing Alone Around the World, which became a classic in the literature of the sea. In 1909 he set sail from New England in the Spray to spend the winter in Grand Cayman and was lost at sea. He was assumed to have been the victim of a collision; he and the Spray were never found, and in 1924 he was declared legally dead.
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0e1e9bf3b6227636a112abda0cd24e0d | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josiah | Josiah | Josiah
Josiah, also spelled Josias, (born c. 648 bce—died 609), king of Judah (c. 640–609 bce), who set in motion a reformation that bears his name and that left an indelible mark on Israel’s religious traditions (2 Kings 22–23:30).
Josiah was the grandson of Manasseh, king of Judah, and ascended the throne at age eight after the assassination of his father, Amon, in 641. For a century, ever since Ahaz, Judah had been a vassal of the Assyrian empire. Imperial policy imposed alien cults on Judah that suppressed or obscured the Israelite religious identity. After the death of King Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire fell into chaos; it could no longer assert its authority in Jerusalem. Egypt also was weak, and Judah thus obtained an unusual degree of independence from foreign powers. About 621 Josiah launched a program of national renewal, centred on the Temple in Jerusalem. A book believed to have contained provisions relating to covenantal traditions of premonarchic times deeply impressed him and gave a decisive turn to his reforms. The Temple was purged of all foreign cults and dedicated wholly to the worship of Yahweh, and all local sanctuaries were abolished, sacrifice being concentrated at Jerusalem.
In Assyria, Babylonia, which had long been a restive province, led a coalition that sacked Nineveh. The empire was in desperate straits; the Babylonians seemed about to displace it. Hoping to keep Mesopotamia divided, Necho II, the Egyptian pharaoh, set out to aid the hard-pressed Assyrians. He landed a force on the territory of the northern kingdom of Israel. King Josiah had hopes of a reunification of Judah and Israel, making the latter territory part of his own realm under the aegis of Babylonia. Consequently he challenged the pharaoh to battle; but it is reported that “Necho slew him at Megiddo, when he saw him” (2 Kings 23:29). Soon thereafter Assyria was completely eliminated, the Egyptians retreated, and Josiah’s son, Jehoiakim, whom Necho had placed on the throne of Judah as a vassal, had to submit to Babylonia, the new Mesopotamian empire.
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aba1ac323c839103066f8bf42a7612bf | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josiah-Gorgas | Josiah Gorgas | Josiah Gorgas
Josiah Gorgas, (born July 1, 1818, Dauphin county, Pennsylvania, U.S.—died May 15, 1883, Tuscaloosa, Alabama), army officer who directed the production of armaments for the Confederacy during the American Civil War.
Born and raised in poverty, Gorgas had to put work before education as a youth. He won an appointment to West Point, however, and graduated sixth in his class in 1841. For the next 20 years Gorgas belonged to the ordnance service of the U.S. Army and was stationed at a number of posts. He eventually rose to the rank of captain and married an Alabama woman.
Motivated by his wife’s sympathies and his own intense dislike of the abolitionists, Gorgas chose the Confederacy when the South seceded. In early April 1861 he resigned his commission, moved to Montgomery, Alabama, and was appointed chief of ordnance in the Confederate army. Within a week the North and South were at war.
Gorgas’s fame rests on his outstanding performance in providing arms and ammunition for the Confederate forces. At the outbreak of the Civil War, the South had few modern weapons and virtually no manufacturing facilities for making them. Gorgas simultaneously sought arms from abroad while laying the groundwork for internal production of rifles, small arms, bullets, powder, and cannons.
An extraordinary administrator, Gorgas by 1863 had several factories producing weapons, mills making powder, and mines supplying needed raw materials. And despite the Confederacy’s constant financial and political problems, Gorgas kept the ordnance service running at high efficiency. In recognition of his ability to keep Southern soldiers supplied, Gorgas rose from major to lieutenant colonel to colonel to brigadier general by the end of the war.
After the collapse of the Confederacy in 1865, Gorgas took a job as manager of an Alabama ironworks and remained there until 1869. He then joined the teaching staff of the University of the South, in Tennessee, where he became vice-chancellor in 1872. In 1878 he was elected president of the University of Alabama, but he resigned a year later because of ill health.
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a610efd347480ad58963ad76a91c276a | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Josiah-Winslow | Josiah Winslow | Josiah Winslow
Josiah Winslow, (born c. 1629, Plymouth colony [now Plymouth, Mass., U.S.]—died December 18, 1680, Marshfield, Plymouth colony), British-American military leader and governor of the Plymouth colony who established the colony’s first public school.
Josiah Winslow was the son of Governor Edward Winslow, an original founder of the Plymouth colony in 1620. After attending Harvard College, Josiah accompanied his father on a journey to England in 1651. When he returned to Plymouth the next year, he was appointed militia commander of Marshfield, and in 1657 he was appointed assistant governor of the Plymouth colony. In 1658 he became one of the colony’s commissioners in the New England Confederation’s directorate, and later he was chosen commander-in-chief of Plymouth’s military forces, succeeding Myles Standish. As commander, he laboured to prevent Indian uprisings. In 1672 he became a signatory to the new governing articles of the New England Confederation.
Winslow was elected governor of Plymouth in 1673, and in one of his early administrative actions, he established the first public school in the colony. When King Philip’s War erupted in 1675, he became commander-in-chief of the forces of the New England Confederation. Although he defeated the rebellious Indians in a battle and burned many of their villages, his losses were high and illness obliged him to relinquish his command to Captain Benjamin Church in February 1676. Winslow continued as governor of Plymouth, nevertheless, and in 1677 he successfully satisfied the inquiries into the colony’s activities by Edward Randolph, investigative agent for the Lords of Trade. He was in the process of negotiating a new charter from crown officials in England at the time of his death.
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1bc3f720b98b24d146dc4da47aa7abc9 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jovian | Jovian | Jovian
Jovian, Latin in full Flavius Jovianus, (born c. 331, Singidunum, Moesia Superior [now Belgrade, Serb.]—died Feb. 17, 364, Dadastana, Bithynia [in present-day Turkey]), Roman emperor from 363 to 364.
Jovian took part in the expedition of the emperor Julian against Sāsānian Persia. He held the rank of senior staff officer and was proclaimed emperor by his troops after Julian was killed on June 26, 363. To extricate his army from Persia, the new ruler immediately concluded a peace, ceding to the Persians all Roman territory east of the Tigris River, together with the cities of Singara (modern Sinjār, Iraq) and Nisibis (modern Nusaybin, Turkey). Some of Jovian’s contemporaries, believing that the army could have fought its way out, considered this treaty to be dishonourable.
As a Christian, Jovian disapproved of paganism, which had been encouraged under his predecessor. Magical practices were forbidden and gifts to churches restored. While still on his way from the frontier to Constantinople he died at Dadastana on the borders of Bithynia and Galatia and was buried in the church of the Holy Apostles in the capital. He was succeeded as emperor by Valentinian I.
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afe87eff8013620a1cc3d6963d91034e | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joy-Adamson | Joy Adamson | Joy Adamson
Joy Adamson, née Joy-Friederike Victoria Gessner, (born Jan. 20, 1910, Troppau, Silesia, Austria-Hungary [now Opava, Czech Republic]—died Jan. 3, 1980, Shaba National Reserve, Kenya), conservationist who pioneered the movement to preserve African wildlife.
Following an education in Vienna, she relocated to Kenya (1939), where she married George Adamson (1944), a British game warden who had worked in Kenya as a gold prospector, goat trader, and safari hunter from 1924. She won international renown with her African wildlife books, especially the trilogy describing how the couple raised a lion cub, Elsa, and returned it to its natural habitat: Born Free: A Lioness of Two Worlds (1960), Living Free: The Story of Elsa and Her Cubs (1961), and Forever Free: Elsa’s Pride (1962). All three were best sellers that were later developed into films and condensed into one volume as The Story of Elsa (1966). Her other books included The Peoples of Kenya (1967), The Searching Spirit: An Autobiography (1978), and Queen of Shaba: The Story of an African Leopard (1980).
In 1961 Adamson founded the Elsa Wild Animal Appeal (later renamed the Elsa Conservation Trust), an international group that financed conservation and education projects. At age 69 she was murdered by a disgruntled employee. George Adamson was killed by animal poachers in 1989.
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442018671b4ed9c678f6e57c7a766491 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joy-Batchelor | Joy Batchelor | Joy Batchelor
After art school Batchelor became a commercial artist and met Halas in 1936 while working on Music Man (1938). They later married and in 1940 established Halas and Batchelor Animation, Ltd., which became the largest cartoon film studio in Great Britain.
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3142114f16e6b0f02c4ece2971f96ad2 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joyce-Kilmer | Joyce Kilmer | Joyce Kilmer
Joyce Kilmer, (born Dec. 6, 1886, New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.—died July 30, 1918, near Seringes, Fr.), American poet known chiefly for his 12-line verse entitled “Trees.”
He was educated at Rutgers and Columbia universities. His first volume of verse, Summer of Love (1911), showed the influence of William Butler Yeats and the Irish poets. After his conversion to Catholicism, Kilmer attempted to model his poetry upon that of Coventry Patmore and the 17th-century Metaphysical poets. His most famous poem, “Trees,” appeared in Poetry magazine in 1913. Its immediate and continued popularity has been attributed to its combination of sentiment and simple philosophy. His books include Trees and Other Poems (1914); The Circus and Other Essays (1916); Main Street and Other Poems (1917); and Literature in the Making (1917), a series of interviews with writers. Kilmer joined the staff of The New York Times in 1913. In 1917 he edited Dreams and Images, an anthology of modern Catholic poetry. Kilmer was killed in action during World War I and was posthumously awarded the Croix de Guerre.
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4369fb5a3b8d109fe41077f2633c4d35 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joyce-Wethered | Joyce Wethered | Joyce Wethered
Joyce Wethered, married name Lady Heathcoat-Amory, (born November 17, 1901, Brook, Surrey, England—died November 18, 1997, London), golfer who was widely regarded as the greatest British woman player of her day.
Wethered and her brother Roger, who tied for the British Open title in 1921 but lost the play-off, learned the game as children. She was British Ladies’ Open champion four times (1922, 1924, 1925, and 1929) and English Ladies’ champion for five consecutive years (1920–24), playing undefeated for 33 matches. In addition to success in numerous mixed foursome events, she was a regular international tournament choice and played on the first Curtis Cup team in 1929, against France in 1931, and against the United States in 1932. Representing a London store, she toured the United States as a professional in 1935, winning against Babe Zaharias.
In 1937 she married Sir John Heathcoat-Amory, with whom, at their home at Knightshayes Court, near Tiverton, Devon, she created a notable garden that was one of the leading British botanical collections, for which she was awarded the Royal Horticultural Society’s Victoria Medal of Honour. Even after her retirement, Wethered remained an important figure in ladies’ golf; she became the first president of the English Ladies’ Golf Association in 1951 and was inducted into the Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA) of America World Golf Hall of Fame in 1975.
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dd3eedc3144215b688eef660e922f9d4 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jozef-Cardinal-Glemp | Jozef Cardinal Glemp | Jozef Cardinal Glemp
…auspices of the church—Józef Cardinal Glemp succeeded Wyszyński as primate—resulted in a “negotiated revolution.” Solidarity was restored and participated in partly free elections in June 1989 that brought it a sweeping victory.
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6f826d0fb053e98241a014b7d88adeb2 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jozef-Chlopicki | Józef Chłopicki | Józef Chłopicki
Józef Chłopicki, in full Grzegorz Józef ChŁopicki, (born March 14, 1771, Kapustynie, Volhynia, Pol. [now in Ukraine]—died Sept. 30, 1854, Kraków, Pol., Austrian Empire [now in Poland]), general who served with distinction with the armies of Napoleon and was briefly the dictator of Poland after the November Insurrection of 1830.
Chłopicki enlisted in the Polish army in 1785 and fought in the campaigns of 1792–94 before and after the Second Partition of Poland. He then took service under the French in the new Polish legions and distinguished himself in the Italian campaigns of 1797 and 1805. He commanded Napoleon’s First Vistula Regiment in Poland in 1807 and from 1808 served in the Peninsular War in Spain, receiving the Legion of Honour for heroism at Epila and in the storming of Saragossa. He accompanied Napoleon’s Grande Armée into Russia in 1812. On the reconstruction of the Polish army under Russia in 1814, he was made general of a division but resigned his commission after a quarrel in 1818 with Grand Duke Constantine of Russia.
Chłopicki at first kept aloof from the November Insurrection of 1830 but accepted the dictatorship at his countrymen’s request on Dec. 5, 1830. Lacking faith in the war’s success, he clung to the hope of negotiation with Russia and acted purely on the defensive until he was forced to resign on Jan. 17, 1831, and became nominally a private soldier. Actually, he retained his military command until he was seriously wounded during the Battle of Grochów (near Warsaw) on Feb. 25, 1831, and was forced to retire from public life.
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4f81d915270c330247966572dd582e2a | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jozef-Pilsudski | Józef Piłsudski | Józef Piłsudski
Józef Piłsudski, in full Józef Klemens Piłsudski, (born December 5, 1867, Żułów, Poland, Russian Empire [now in Lithuania]—died May 12, 1935, Warsaw, Poland), Polish revolutionary and statesman, the first chief of state (1918–22) of the newly independent Poland established in November 1918. After leading a coup d’état in 1926, he rejected an offer of the presidency but remained politically influential while serving as minister of defense until 1935.
Piłsudski was the second son of an impoverished Polish nobleman. His mother, née Maria Billewicz, inspired him with hatred for the Russian imperial regime, which was treating the Poles with great harshness after their insurrection of 1863. On leaving the secondary school in Wilno (modern Vilnius), Piłsudski studied medicine at Kharkov in 1885 but was suspended as politically suspect in 1886. Returning to Wilno, he consorted with young socialists. Piłsudski was arrested in March 1887 on a false charge of plotting the assassination of the tsar Alexander III and was banished to eastern Siberia for five years.
Piłsudski returned in 1892, determined to organize an insurrection and to work for the reestablishment of Poland’s independence. He joined the newly founded Polish Socialist Party (PPS), of which he soon became a leader. He started a clandestine newspaper, Robotnik (“The Worker”), in Wilno. In July 1899 he married, in a Protestant church, the beautiful Maria Juszkiewicz, the divorced wife of a Polish civil engineer, and moved to Łódź, where he continued to edit and print his paper.
In February 1900 he was incarcerated by the Russians in the Warsaw citadel. He feigned insanity so successfully that he was transferred to a military hospital in St. Petersburg, from which he escaped in May 1901. He took refuge in Kraków in Austrian Poland, but in April 1902 he was back in Russian Poland looking after the party organization.
When the Russo-Japanese War broke out in February 1904, Piłsudski went to Tokyo to solicit Japanese assistance for an insurrection in Poland. He had been preceded by Roman Dmowski, his rival in the nationalist movement, who had told the Japanese that Piłsudski’s plan was impracticable. The two Polish leaders agreed to disagree. Piłsudski returned clandestinely to Russian Poland to help direct the revolutionary movement that was spreading throughout the empire. After the Russian revolution was put down late in 1905, a split occurred within the PPS: the left wing, which proposed to delete from the party’s program the stipulation that its main aim was an independent Poland, broke with Piłsudski’s group, which insisted on that stipulation.
Aware of the Russian Empire’s structural weakness and foreseeing a European war, Piłsudski concluded that it was imperative to organize the nucleus of a future Polish army. In 1908 he formed a secret Union of Military Action—financed with a sum of money stolen from a Russian mail train by an armed band led by Piłsudski himself. In 1910, with the help of the Austrian military authorities, he was able to convert his secret union into a legal Union of Riflemen, actually a school for Polish officers. At a meeting of Polish sympathizers in Paris in 1914, he declared that war was imminent and that
World War I justified Piłsudski’s prediction. Until 1916 the three brigades of the Polish Legion, technically under Austro-Hungarian command, distinguished themselves against the Russians. On November 5, 1916, Germany and Austria-Hungary, short of manpower, proclaimed the independence of Poland, hoping that Polish divisions could be deployed on the Eastern Front so that German divisions could be moved to the west. Piłsudski, appointed head of the military department of the newly created Polish council of state, accepted the idea of a Polish army on condition that it be part of a sovereign Polish state. His position was unexpectedly reinforced by the Russian Revolution of March 1917. The German government, however, refused to bind itself as to Poland’s future, demanding instead that the existing Polish units should swear “fidelity in arms with the German and Austrian forces.” Piłsudski, refusing to comply, was arrested in July 1917 and imprisoned in Magdeburg.
Released after the German collapse in the west, Piłsudski arrived in Warsaw on November 10, 1918, as a national hero. Four days later he was unanimously accepted as head of state and commander in chief of the Polish army. From that moment he ceased to be the man of a party, though his main support came from the left and from the centre; the right saw its leader in Dmowski, who had been heading the Polish National Committee in Paris and was now appointed by Piłsudski to be Poland’s first delegate at the peace conference, together with Ignacy Paderewski.
Piłsudski devoted himself to protecting Poland against the Russian Red Army, which was trying to fight its way into Germany in order to consolidate the revolution there. He led the Polish forces far to the east, occupying large areas that had belonged to Poland before the 18th-century partitions. He envisioned a federal state comprising Poles, Lithuanians, and Ukrainians, whereas Dmowski argued that these areas should simply be incorporated within a unitary Poland. In 1920 a counteroffensive by the Red Army forced the Poles to retreat westward almost to the suburbs of Warsaw, but Piłsudski, made marshal of Poland on March 19, conceived and directed a maneuver that in August brought victory to Poland.
After the adoption of a democratic constitution and a new general election, Piłsudski transmitted his powers on December 14, 1922, to his friend Gabriel Narutowicz, the newly elected president of the republic, who two days later was assassinated. Stanisław Wojciechowski, another of Piłsudski’s old colleagues, was next elected president, the marshal agreeing to serve as chief of the general staff. When a right-wing government assumed power, Piłsudski resigned gradually from the functions he held and in 1923 went into retirement at Sulejówek, near Warsaw, with his second wife, née Aleksandra Szczerbińska, and his two daughters.
Piłsudski became disillusioned with the working of the parliamentary system. On May 12, 1926, during a time of political crisis and economic depression, he marched on Warsaw at the head of a few regiments, causing the government, including President Wojciechowski, to resign two days later. The parliament elected Piłsudski president of the republic on May 31, but he refused the honour, and another of his old friends, Ignacy Mościcki, was elected instead. In the new government Piłsudski assumed the Ministry of Defense, which he held until his death. During the ensuing years he was the major influence behind the scenes in Poland, especially in the field of foreign policy.
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0f753bb97096d71012780d59b5ab1247 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jozef-Wittlin | Józef Wittlin | Józef Wittlin
Józef Wittlin, (born August 17, 1896, Dmytrów, Austria-Hungary [now Dmytriv, Ukraine]—died February 28, 1976, New York, New York, U.S.), Polish novelist, essayist, and poet, an Expressionist noted for his humanist views.
Having graduated from a classical gimnazjum in Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine), Wittlin studied philosophy at the University of Vienna. Mobilized in 1914 in the Austro-Hungarian army as a soldier, he took part in a few battles on the Russian front but two years later was freed from military service because of his poor health. He started writing, and in his early poetry collection Hymny (1920; “Hymns”) he voiced a humanistic protest against the debasement of individuals by powerful states and social systems. In 1924 he published a new Polish translation of Homer’s Odyssey.
The work that ensured Wittlin a place in Polish literature is Sól ziemi (1936; Salt of the Earth). The book is a tale of a “patient infantryman,” an illiterate Polish peasant who is unwillingly drafted into the Austrian army to fight a war he does not understand. The novel treats not war itself but the bewilderment of a man involved in fighting against his will and national interest. Wittlin left Poland a few weeks before World War II began; he stopped in Paris and then in London. From 1941 he lived in New York City, where he wrote a warm book of yearning for his native city, Mój Lwów (1946; “My Lwów”). He became a U.S. citizen in 1949. His essays discussing the state of man and culture in the modern world were published as Orfeusz w piekle XX wieku (1963; “Orpheus in the Hell of the 20th Century”).
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e128beccd7b30c87a2c0cf4475bfb977 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jozef-Zachariasz-Bem | Józef Zachariasz Bem | Józef Zachariasz Bem
Józef Zachariasz Bem, also called Murad Pasha, (born March 14, 1794, Tarnów, Galicia [now in Poland]—died Dec. 10, 1850, Aleppo, Syria), Polish army general whose military feats in Transylvania and the region of Banat made him a hero of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848–49. He was the author of treatises on artillery, mathematics, and history.
Educated at the Warsaw Military School, he distinguished himself with a Polish artillery regiment in Napoleon’s Russian campaign (1812) and in the defense of Danzig (1813). He returned to Polish service in 1815 and fought with distinction in the rebellion against Russia (1830–31).
In 1848 he offered his services to the Hungarian leader Lajos Kossuth and was assigned the defense of Transylvania. With a small army he performed prodigiously against the Austrians, especially in his stand at the bridge of Piski (Feb. 9, 1849), where he repulsed superior forces. Bem occupied the Banat region but had to return to the defense of Transylvania when the Russians invaded. Finally, on July 31, overwhelming forces wiped out his army. Bem escaped only by feigning death.
On the collapse of the Hungarian rebellion he fled to Turkey, adopted Islām, and, as Murad Pasha, became governor of Aleppo, where, at the risk of his life, he saved the Christian population from being massacred.
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4d035cbe8426ba29e27f192b6ab531cf | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jozsef-Antall | József Antall | József Antall
József Antall, (born April 8, 1932, Budapest, Hung.—died Dec. 12, 1993, Budapest), politician and prime minister of Hungary from 1990 until his death in 1993.
Antall was the son of a government official who aided Polish refugees and Jews during World War II. Trained as a history teacher, archivist, librarian, and museologist, Antall taught for a time in a Budapest grammar school. For the active role he played in the Hungarian uprising of 1956, he was barred from teaching and publishing. After the latter ban was lifted in 1963, he published hundreds of studies and articles. From 1964 to 1990 he worked at the Semmelweis Medical Historical Museum, Library, and Archives, becoming its general director.
In the late 1980s, as democratic organizations began to re-emerge in Hungary, he first made contact with the Independent Smallholders’ Party, the leading noncommunist party of the postwar period. He then joined the Hungarian Democratic Forum (Magyar Demokrata Fórum; MDF), a newly organized movement that soon became the most influential independent political force outside the ruling communist party. Antall led the MDF delegation at the talks preparing the country for the transition to democracy, and on October 21, 1989, he was voted president of the MDF. He strove to turn the movement into a centre-right party patterned after those of western Europe.
When the MDF won the free parliamentary elections of 1990, Antall became prime minister at the head of a coalition with the Smallholders and the Christian Democrats. His goal was to create a democratic state that acknowledged and incorporated Hungary’s distinctive characteristics. He placed primary importance on political stability, the revival of the historical continuity that the communist era had interrupted, the improvement of relations with Hungarians living outside Hungary, and party unity. In 1990 he was awarded the Robert Schuman Prize for his work in promoting European unity.
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ad67c1dfaf47efc57bf997f5783b0d54 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jozsef-Katona | József Katona | József Katona
József Katona, (born Nov. 11, 1791, Kecskemét, Hung., Austrian Habsburg domain [now in Hungary]—died April 16, 1830, Kecskemét), Hungarian lawyer and playwright whose historical tragedy Bánk bán achieved its great reputation only after his death.
A lawyer, Katona was also interested in the stage and wrote several plays of little literary merit. In 1815 he wrote Bánk bán, which, though he entered it for a literary prize and in 1820 had it printed, remained unnoticed until the mid-1830s. Disappointed by his failure to achieve literary success, Katona turned to law and spent his last years as attorney general of his native town.
Bánk bán is the finest Hungarian drama of the 19th century, and an opera based on it has remained popular in Hungary. The play’s central figure, Bánk, the highest dignitary (bán) at the court of Andrew II (1205–35), tries, in the king’s absence, to prevent a rebellion against the German-born queen Gertrude. Meanwhile the queen’s brother Otto tries to seduce Bánk’s wife and finally rapes her. Bánk unjustly suspects the queen of connivance in this and kills her. Bánk’s tragic revenge is motivated by the sight of his wife’s madness and by the bitter complaints of the serf Tiborc, the victim of exploitation by the queen’s German entourage. Bánk’s complex character and the conflict between duty and personal grief make Bánk bán a tense and poignant drama.
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dda09e45710291f4a4700fc82965cbf4 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Alfonso-de-Baena | Juan Alfonso de Baena | Juan Alfonso de Baena
…the king by the poet Juan Alfonso de Baena, anthologized 583 poems (mostly courtly lyrics) by 55 poets from the highest nobles to the humblest versifiers. The collection showed not merely the decadence of Galician-Portuguese troubadours but also the stirrings of more-intellectual poetry incorporating symbol, allegory, and Classical allusions in…
…of 583 poems made by Juan Alfonso Baena that shows the influence of the Portuguese lyric but is more intellectual, using symbol, allegory, and classical allusion in the treatment of themes of high moral, philosophical, or political intent; and the Cancionero general (1511), a collection of late medieval lyrics made…
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77f4e1aeb6d41a3de21b12a2b6f9b893 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Alvarez | Juan Álvarez | Juan Álvarez
Juan Álvarez, (born 1790, Concepción de Atoyac, Mex.—died Aug. 21, 1867, Acapulco), revolutionary leader for more than 40 years, before and after the end of Spanish rule, and provisional president of Mexico in 1855.
A landowner of mestizo ancestry, Álvarez in 1811 joined José María Morelos in an unsuccessful campaign for independence from Spain. He was prominent in Antonio López de Santa Anna’s revolt of 1822–23, which overthrew the first ruler of independent Mexico, Agustín de Iturbide.
In 1847 Álvarez fought in the war against the United States. Two years later he became governor of the new state of Guerrero, ostensibly as a liberal. When Santa Anna reestablished his dictatorship in 1853, however, Álvarez accommodated himself to this situation as long as his hegemony in Guerrero was not threatened. In 1854, when Santa Anna tried to secure direct rule over Guerrero, Álvarez started a rebellion at Ayutla. After Santa Anna had gone into exile, Álvarez assumed control of the government and soon resigned in favour of Ignacio Comonfort, his ally in the fight against Santa Anna. The work of Álvarez and Comonfort resulted in the liberal trend known as La Reforma (“The Reform”), which culminated in the constitution of 1857.
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aa67717aa9e2c6c8a7a2cf3210d89b91 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Bautista-Alberdi | Juan Bautista Alberdi | Juan Bautista Alberdi
Juan Bautista Alberdi, (born August 29, 1810, San Miguel de Tucumán, Río de la Plata [now in Argentina]—died June 19, 1884, Paris, France), Argentine political thinker whose writings influenced the assembly that drew up the constitution of 1853.
Alberdi was one of the best-known of the “Generation of ’37,” an intellectual movement of university students who debated politics, social theories, and philosophy. An opponent of the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, Alberdi went into exile in 1838, studying law in Uruguay and also living in Chile and in Europe. After the overthrow of Rosas in 1852, Alberdi wrote his major book, Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina (“Bases and Starting Points for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic”), which was the decisive influence on the Argentine constitution of 1853. It emphasized the need for a federal government and argued for attracting foreign capital and immigrants; his approach was encapsulated by his dictum “Gobernar es poblar” (“To govern is to populate”).
In the 1850s Alberdi was Argentine plenipotentiary in Paris, Madrid, Washington, and London. He lost official favour in the 1860s, partly because of his opposition to the Paraguayan War (1864–70). He spent his last years in semi-exile in Europe.
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03a19cfb2662a2601eadde1d1db0cdb3 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Bautista-Egidiano | Juan Bautista Egidiano | Juan Bautista Egidiano
…project, which was attributed to Juan Bautista Egidiano, a Flemish Jesuit active in Cuzco from 1642 to 1676, created a typology that was the origin of what was later designated the Cuzco style. This style is defined by the placement of twin bell towers on an austere square base that…
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edf56b0283eb4ea6b316544435e09878 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Borgia | Juan Borgia | Juan Borgia
His son Juan was made duke of Gandía (Spain) and was married to Maria Enriquez, the cousin of King Ferdinand IV of Castile; Jofré was married to Sancia, the granddaughter of the king of Naples; and Lucrezia was given first to Giovanni Sforza of Milan, and, when…
…gone to his younger brother Juan, and it was he who was made commander of the papal army in 1496 for the first of Alexander’s campaigns against his rebellious nobility, the Orsini. Cesare was reputed to have been extremely jealous of his brother, and, when Juan was mysteriously murdered in…
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44d737e6b1ad0e6c4103ed59f24b598a | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Boscan | Juan Boscán | Juan Boscán
Juan Boscán, original name Joan Boscà I Almogàver, (born c. 1490, Barcelona, Aragon [Spain]—died Sept. 21, 1542, Barcelona), Catalan poet who wrote exclusively in Castilian and adapted the Italian hendecasyllable to that language.
Though a minor poet, Boscán is of major historical importance because of his naturalizing of Italian metres and verse forms, an experiment that induced one of the greatest of all Spanish poets, Boscán’s younger friend Garcilaso de la Vega, to follow his example. Their works appeared together posthumously in 1543, and the tide of Petrarchianism dominated over Spanish poetry for the next century and a half.
Boscán had published in 1534 a translation of Baldassare Castiglione’s Il cortegiano (The Courtier). His prose was greatly superior to his verse, and El Cortesano is not only one of the influential books of the Spanish Renaissance but a work of art in its own right.
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2e93f6e55264c9816862eac18f7363c5 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-de-Ayolas | Juan de Ayolas | Juan de Ayolas
…party from Buenos Aires under Juan de Ayolas and Domingo Martínez de Irala, lieutenants of Mendoza, pushed a thousand miles up the Plata and Paraguay rivers. Ayolas was lost on an exploring expedition, but Irala founded Asunción (now in Paraguay) among the Guaraní, a largely settled agricultural people. In 1541…
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3ed6309010b160462d2d7ba35cd69ee1 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-de-Herrera | Juan de Herrera | Juan de Herrera
Juan de Herrera, (born c. 1530, Mobellán, Spain—died January 15, 1597, Madrid), architect, principal designer of the monumental Escorial, a structure that expressed the ideals of imperial Spain in the 16th century. Serving as the royal inspector of monuments, he witnessed the imitation of the Herreran style in churches and palaces throughout Spain.
After studying at the University of Valladolid, Herrera accompanied King Philip II of Spain to Italy and Brussels (1547–51) as a courtier, and from 1551 to 1559 he was with the king in Italy and at Yuste, Spain. In 1563 he was appointed assistant to Juan Bautista de Toledo at El Escorial, and in 1572 he was appointed head architect. Herrera reorganized the workshops, completed the roofs, added a section to the west facade, designed the church (1574–82), and built the infirmary. He later worked at the summer palace at Aranjuez (after 1567), at the Exchange in Sevilla (after 1582), and at the Cathedral of Valladolid (after 1585).
Herrera’s designs have been called cold, academic, and monotonous by his detractors. While agreeing that they are severe, other critics have found them to be of harmonious proportions and, perhaps most important, expressed in a style suitable to the particular building. His addition to the west facade of El Escorial relieves the monotony of Toledo’s original plan, and his church there is a marked improvement on the latter’s earlier design. Herrera’s design for Valladolid cathedral became the model for cathedrals in Mexico and in Lima.
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5f126d33bd843c45748bfdefe96c582e | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-de-la-Cierva | Juan de la Cierva | Juan de la Cierva
Juan de la Cierva, in full Juan de la Cierva Codorniu, (born September 21, 1895, Murcia, Spain—died December 19, 1936, London, England), Spanish aeronautical engineer who invented the autogiro, an aircraft in which lift is provided by a freely rotating rotor and which served as the forerunner of the helicopter.
Although trained as a civil engineer, Cierva became interested in aviation early in his youth. Between 1912 and 1919 he designed and built gliders and airplanes. The crash of his trimotor plane in 1919 led him to develop the autogiro as a more stable form of aircraft. In 1923 at Getafe, Spain, he made his first successful flight in an autogiro, and in 1925 he went to England to continue his work. Cierva-type autogiros were used widely in France, Germany, Japan, and the United States prior to World War II, when they were supplanted by helicopters. Cierva was killed in an airliner crash at the Croydon aerodrome, near London.
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c9d19f64f18982582cbc382b553bca7c | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-de-Padilla | Juan de Padilla | Juan de Padilla
Juan de Padilla, (born 1490?, Toledo, Castile—died April 24, 1521, Villalar, Spain), aristocratic Spanish military leader of the Castilian Comunidades (Comuneros) in their unsuccessful revolt (1520–21) against the government of the Habsburg emperor Charles V (King Charles I of Spain).
Padilla was a member of an ancient noble family of Toledo. Charles, who came to the Spanish throne in 1516, had inflamed national opinion by appointing to high posts foreigners who carried out arbitrary and exploitative actions. Demands soon arose for the imposition of traditional Castilian constitutional checks on royal power. Padilla had personal grievances against Charles as well and took part in dissident activities in Toledo in late 1519 and early 1520. Summoned in April 1520 to appear before the king at Santiago, Padilla instead took up arms in support of a popular uprising in Toledo.
A circular letter from Toledo to other Castilian cities in revolt invited them to meet at Avila. When the municipalities, supported by the nobles and clergy, set up the Junta Santa (a revolutionary junta) there in July 1520, Padilla was named captain general of its forces, and on August 29 he took Tordesillas, thereby assuring the junta’s control over Charles’s mother, the hereditary queen Joan the Mad, who had been living there since she had gone insane in 1506.
The junta soon alienated the nobility by its popular demands, and Charles cleverly moved to secure the nobility’s loyalty. The junta also courted defeat in the field by replacing Padilla with Don Pedro Girón, an important nobleman. After Charles’s troops had recovered Tordesillas (December 5) and Girón had defected, the Junta Santa recalled Padilla. Padilla’s reappointment was received with a great outpouring of popular enthusiasm. He occupied Torrelobatón on February 28, 1521. Seven weeks later, however, on the advance of royal forces, he attempted to retreat but was defeated and captured at Villalar (April 23, 1521). He was executed the next day along with other leaders of the revolt.
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6799e87f3220a2768ba12eb6e8828e94 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Goytisolo | Juan Goytisolo | Juan Goytisolo
Juan Goytisolo, (born January 5, 1931, Barcelona, Spain—died June 4, 2017, Marrakech, Morocco), Spanish novelist, short-story writer, and essayist whose early Neorealist work evolved into avant-garde fiction using structuralist and formalist techniques.
A young child when his mother was killed during the Spanish Civil War, Goytisolo grew up hating the fascist dictatorship and the country’s conservative religious values. From 1948 to 1952 he attended the universities of Barcelona and Madrid. From the late 1950s he lived in self-imposed exile in Paris and later in Marrakech, Morocco.
His highly praised first novel, Juegos de manos (1954; The Young Assassins), concerns a group of students who are intent on murdering a politician and who kill the student they have chosen as the assassin. Duelo en el paraíso (1955; Children of Chaos), set just after the Spanish Civil War, is about the violence that ensues when children gain power over a small town. After the publication of Fin de fiesta (1962; The Party’s Over), four stories about marriage, his style grew more experimental. The novel Señas de identidad (1966; Marks of Identity) is the first of a trilogy that presents a fictionalized account of Goytisolo’s life and celebrates the Moorish roots of contemporary Spain. Reivindicación del Conde don Julián (1970; Count Julian), which is considered his masterwork, experiments with transforming the Spanish language, seen as a tool of political power. The novel excoriates Spain for its hypocrisy and cruelty. The trilogy concludes with Juan sin tierra (1975; Juan the Landless).
Later novels by Goytisolo include Makbara (1980); En los reinos de taifa (1986; Realms of Strife); La saga de los Marx (1993; The Marx Family Saga); El sitio de los sitios (1995; State of Siege), a postmodern exploration of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the early 1990s; Carajicomedia (2000; A Cock-Eyed Comedy), a vicious (and humorous) attack on the Roman Catholic Church in Spain and Opus Dei; Telón de boca (2003; The Blind Rider); and El exiliado de aquí y allá (2008; Exiled from Almost Everywhere), in which a recently deceased man is introduced to a hereafter of limitless access to cyberspace and then uses it to explore the grisly aspects of the modern world. Goytisolo also wrote travel narratives, critical essays, and a personal memoir, Coto vedado (1985; Forbidden Territory). In 2014 Goytisolo was awarded the Cervantes Prize, the most-coveted literary award in the Spanish-speaking world.
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81a94d1100d46cb1892cb44ce11878ac | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Guas | Juan Guas | Juan Guas
Juan Guas, Guas also spelled Was, (born, Lyon—died c. 1496, Toledo, Spain), architect, the central figure of the group of Spanish architects who developed the Isabelline (q.v.) style, a combination of medieval structure, Mudéjar (Spanish Muslim) ornament, and Italian spatial design. Considered the finest architect of late 15th-century Spain, he originated designs for churches and residences that set the pattern for generations of later Spanish architects.
After training in Brussels, Guas settled in Toledo, accompanied by his Flemish assistants. From 1459 to 1469 he assisted Annequin de Egas on the Puerta de los Leones of Toledo cathedral, and in 1494 he was appointed official architect of the cathedral. His major works were San Juan de los Reyes in Toledo (begun around 1478), the Infantado Palace in Guadalajara (1480–83), and the chapel of San Gregorio in Valladolid (1488).
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65a0f595d724da578ef7ea463342b11d | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Idiarte-Borda | Juan Idiarte Borda | Juan Idiarte Borda
…ended when the Colorado president, Juan Idiarte Borda, was killed by an assassin not associated with the Blancos. Although conflicts between Colorados and Blancos continued to impede economic development, by 1900 Uruguay’s population grew to one million—a 13-fold increase over the level of 1830. The Colorado leader José Batlle y…
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4bfb201f263bdbd7ff79b1e8c6a173e2 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Jose-de-Austria | Juan José de Austria | Juan José de Austria
Juan José de Austria, English John Joseph of Austria, (born April 7, 1629, Madrid, Spain—died September 17, 1679, Madrid), the most famous of the illegitimate children of King Philip IV of Spain. He served with some success as a Spanish military commander and from 1677 until his death was chief minister to King Charles II.
Juan José was the son of King Philip IV of Spain and María Calderón, a celebrated actress. He received a princely education and a large income and obtained his first military command in 1647, when he was sent to the Spanish-ruled kingdom of Naples to crush a popular uprising. In 1651 he led the royal forces besieging Barcelona, capital of the rebellious province of Catalonia, and negotiated the terms for its surrender (October 1652). From 1656 to 1658, as governor of the Netherlands, he enjoyed varying success as a military commander. Recalled to campaign against the rebellious Portuguese, he was initially victorious but was ultimately defeated at Amexial (June 8, 1663) and relieved of his command. His offensive intimation of his ambition to succeed his father scandalized the king, and he was out of favour at the time of Philip’s death in September 1665.
Juan José played an active part in the political intrigues that marked the minority of the feeble new king, his half brother, Charles II. In 1669 he headed a military uprising that forced the queen regent, Mariana, to dismiss her favourite and confessor, Father John Nithard. In early 1677, he drove Mariana and her new favourite, Fernando de Valenzuela, from court and established himself as first minister.
Although highly popular and widely regarded as the saviour of his country, the arrogant and paranoid Juan José soon lost support by his intrigues and his attempts to advance his own prestige at the expense of the compelling needs of the public. During his tenure the Treaty of Nijmegen was signed with France (1678), which resulted in territorial losses and marked a further decline in Spain’s international standing. Shortly before his death, Juan José arranged the ill-fated marriage of Charles II to Marie-Louise of Orléans, niece of the French king Louis XIV, but when he died Juan José’s influence was declining, and his reputation badly tarnished.
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ba0b7acb2636ecc04969dfb38f52f53f | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Lavalle | Juan Lavalle | Juan Lavalle
…Rosas opposed the new governor, Juan Lavalle. Rosas reconvened the former legislature, which elected him governor on Dec. 5, 1829. As head of the Federalist Party, Rosas was opposed by Lavalle’s unitarios (centralists). Although it appeared that he could remain in office after his three-year term, he decided to leave…
…overthrew Dorrego and installed General Juan Lavalle in his place; Dorrego was executed.
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9384bb81b6d37795521251effb000eec | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Lechin | Juan Lechín | Juan Lechín
…alliance brought the labour leader Juan Lechín into the MNR. After several unsuccessful revolts, each more violent than the preceding one, the MNR finally overthrew the military regime in April 1952. During this struggle armed workers, civilians, and peasants almost totally destroyed the army.
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