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Concepts of Biology SENIOR CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS SAMANTHA FOWLER, CLAYTON STATE UNIVERSITY REBECCA ROUSH, SANDHILLS COMMUNITY COLLEGE JAMES WISE, HAMPTON UNIVERSITY
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written consent of Rice University.
978-1-938168-11-6
978-1-50669-653-9
978-1-947172-03-6
2013
HARDCOVER BOOK ISBN-13
B&W PAPERBACK BOOK ISBN-13
DIGITAL VERSION ISBN-13
ORIGINAL PUBLICATION YEAR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 RS 23 13
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OPENSTAX OpenStax provides free, peer-reviewed, openly licensed textbooks for introductory college and Advanced Placement® courses and low-cost, personalized courseware that helps students learn. A nonprofit ed tech initiative based at Rice University, we’re committed to helping students access the tools they need to complete their courses and meet their educational goals. RICE UNIVERSITY OpenStax is an initiative of Rice University. As a leading research university with a distinctive commitment to undergraduate education, Rice University aspires to path-breaking research, unsurpassed teaching, and contributions to the betterment of our world. It seeks to fulfill this mission by cultivating a diverse community of learning and discovery that produces leaders across the spectrum of human endeavor.
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PHILANTHROPIC SUPPORT OpenStax is grateful for the generous philanthropic partners who advance our mission to improve educational access and learning for everyone. To see the impact of our supporter community and our most updated list of partners, please visit openstax.org/impact. Arnold Ventures Chan Zuckerberg Initiative Chegg, Inc. Arthur and Carlyse Ciocca Charitable Foundation Digital Promise Ann and John Doerr Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Girard Foundation Google Inc. The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation The Hewlett-Packard Company Intel Inc. Rusty and John Jaggers The Calvin K. Kazanjian Economics Foundation Charles Koch Foundation Leon Lowenstein Foundation, Inc. The Maxfield Foundation
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Burt and Deedee McMurtry Michelson 20MM Foundation National Science Foundation The Open Society Foundations Jumee Yhu and David E. Park III Brian D. Patterson USA-International Foundation The Bill and Stephanie Sick Fund Steven L. Smith & Diana T. Go Stand Together Robin and Sandy Stuart Foundation The Stuart Family Foundation Tammy and Guillermo Treviño Valhalla Charitable Foundation White Star Education Foundation Schmidt Futures William Marsh Rice University
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] |
Contents
Preface 1
UNIT 1 THE CELL ULAR FOUNDATION OF LIFE
CHAP TER 1
Introduction to Biology 5
Introduction 5
1.1Themes and Concepts of Biology 5
1.2The Process of Science 16
Key Terms 24
Chapter Summary 24
Visual Connection Questions 25
Review Questions 25
Critical Thinking Questions 26
CHAP TER 2
Chemistry of Life 27
Introduction 27
2.1The Building Blocks of Molecules 28
2.2Water 34
2.3Biological Molecules 39
Key Terms 51
Chapter Summary 52
Visual Connection Questions 53
Review Questions 53
Critical Thinking Questions 54
CHAP TER 3
Cell Structure and Function 55
Introduction 55
3.1How Cells Are Studied 55
3.2Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 59
3.3Eukaryotic Cells 61
3.4The Cell Membrane 74
3.5Passive Transport 76
3.6Active Transport 80
Key Terms 84
Chapter Summary 85
Visual Connection Questions 87
Review Questions 87
Critical Thinking Questions 88
|
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CHAP TER 4
How Cells Obtain Energy 89
Introduction 89
4.1Energy and Metabolism 90
4.2Glycolysis 100
4.3Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation 101
4.4Fermentation 105
4.5Connections to Other Metabolic Pathways 108
Key Terms 110
Chapter Summary 111
Visual Connection Questions 112
Review Questions 112
Critical Thinking Questions 113
CHAP TER 5
Photosynthesis 115
Introduction 115
5.1Overview of Photosynthesis 115
5.2The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis 120
5.3The Calvin Cycle 124
Key Terms 129
Chapter Summary 129
Visual Connection Questions 130
Review Questions 130
Critical Thinking Questions 130
UNIT 2 CELL DIVISION AND GENET ICS
CHAP TER 6
Reproduction at the Cellular Level 133
Introduction 133
6.1The Genome 133
6.2The Cell Cycle 135
6.3Cancer and the Cell Cycle 141
6.4Prokaryotic Cell Division 142
Key Terms 146
Chapter Summary 147
Visual Connection Questions 148
Review Questions 148
Critical Thinking Questions 149
CHAP TER 7
The Cellular Basis of Inheritance 151
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] |
Key Terms 146
Chapter Summary 147
Visual Connection Questions 148
Review Questions 148
Critical Thinking Questions 149
CHAP TER 7
The Cellular Basis of Inheritance 151
Introduction 151
7.1Sexual Reproduction 152
7.2Meiosis 155
7.3Variations in Meiosis 160
Key Terms 167
Chapter Summary 167
Access for free at openstax.org
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] |
Visual Connection Questions 168
Review Questions 168
Critical Thinking Questions 169
CHAP TER 8
Patterns of Inheritance 171
Introduction 171
8.1Mendel’s Experiments 172
8.2Laws of Inheritance 176
8.3Extensions of the Laws of Inheritance 183
Key Terms 192
Chapter Summary 192
Visual Connection Questions 193
Review Questions 194
Critical Thinking Questions 195
UNIT 3 MOLECUL AR BIOLOGY AND
BIOTECHNOLOGY
CHAP TER 9
Molecular Biology 197
Introduction 197
9.1The Structure of DNA 198
9.2DNA Replication 202
9.3Transcription 209
9.4Translation 212
9.5How Genes Are Regulated 215
Key Terms 219
Chapter Summary 220
Visual Connection Questions 221
Review Questions 221
Critical Thinking Questions 222
CHAP TER 10
Biotechnology 223
Introduction 223
10.1Cloning and Genetic Engineering 223
10.2Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture 231
10.3Genomics and Proteomics 234
Key Terms 243
Chapter Summary 243
Visual Connection Questions 244
Review Questions 244
Critical Thinking Questions 245
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10.3Genomics and Proteomics 234
Key Terms 243
Chapter Summary 243
Visual Connection Questions 244
Review Questions 244
Critical Thinking Questions 245
UNIT 4 EVOLUTION AND THE DIVERSI TY OF
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] |
LIFE
CHAP TER 11
Evolution and Its Processes 247
Introduction 247
11.1Discovering How Populations Change 248
11.2Mechanisms of Evolution 254
11.3Evidence of Evolution 256
11.4Speciation 259
11.5Common Misconceptions about Evolution 264
Key Terms 268
Chapter Summary 268
Visual Connection Questions 269
Review Questions 269
Critical Thinking Questions 271
CHAP TER 12
Diversity of Life 273
Introduction 273
12.1Organizing Life on Earth 273
12.2Determining Evolutionary Relationships 278
Key Terms 285
Chapter Summary 285
Visual Connection Questions 286
Review Questions 286
Critical Thinking Questions 286
CHAP TER 13
Diversity of Microbes, Fungi, and Protists 287
Introduction 287
13.1Prokaryotic Diversity 288
13.2Eukaryotic Origins 298
13.3Protists 300
13.4Fungi 306
Key Terms 315
Chapter Summary 316
Visual Connection Questions 317
Review Questions 317
Critical Thinking Questions 318
CHAP TER 14
Diversity of Plants 319
Introduction 319
14.1The Plant Kingdom 320
14.2Seedless Plants 326
|
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] |
Visual Connection Questions 317
Review Questions 317
Critical Thinking Questions 318
CHAP TER 14
Diversity of Plants 319
Introduction 319
14.1The Plant Kingdom 320
14.2Seedless Plants 326
14.3Seed Plants: Gymnosperms 333
14.4Seed Plants: Angiosperms 338
Key Terms 347
Chapter Summary 348
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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Visual Connection Questions 348
Review Questions 349
Critical Thinking Questions 349
CHAP TER 15
Diversity of Animals 351
Introduction 351
15.1Features of the Animal Kingdom 352
15.2Sponges and Cnidarians 357
15.3Flatworms, Nematodes, and Arthropods 363
15.4Mollusks and Annelids 370
15.5Echinoderms and Chordates 376
15.6Vertebrates 380
Key Terms 390
Chapter Summary 392
Visual Connection Questions 394
Review Questions 394
Critical Thinking Questions 395
UNIT 5 ANIMAL S TRUCTURE AND FUNCT ION
CHAP TER 16
The Body’s Systems 397
Introduction 397
16.1Homeostasis and Osmoregulation 398
16.2Digestive System 402
16.3Circulatory and Respiratory Systems 408
16.4Endocrine System 414
16.5Musculoskeletal System 420
16.6Nervous System 426
Key Terms 436
Chapter Summary 438
Visual Connection Questions 441
Review Questions 441
Critical Thinking Questions 443
CHAP TER 17
The Immune System and Disease 445
Introduction 445
17.1Viruses 446
17.2Innate Immunity 453
17.3Adaptive Immunity 456
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] |
Review Questions 441
Critical Thinking Questions 443
CHAP TER 17
The Immune System and Disease 445
Introduction 445
17.1Viruses 446
17.2Innate Immunity 453
17.3Adaptive Immunity 456
17.4Disruptions in the Immune System 465
Key Terms 469
Chapter Summary 470
Visual Connection Questions 471
Review Questions 471
Critical Thinking Questions 472
|
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] |
CHAP TER 18
Animal Reproduction and Development 473
Introduction 473
18.1How Animals Reproduce 474
18.2Development and Organogenesis 478
18.3Human Reproduction 480
Key Terms 491
Chapter Summary 492
Visual Connection Questions 493
Review Questions 493
Critical Thinking Questions 494
UNIT 6 ECOLOGY
CHAP TER 19
Population and Community Ecology 495
Introduction 495
19.1Population Demographics and Dynamics 496
19.2Population Growth and Regulation 500
19.3The Human Population 506
19.4Community Ecology 509
Key Terms 520
Chapter Summary 521
Visual Connection Questions 521
Review Questions 522
Critical Thinking Questions 523
CHAP TER 20
Ecosystems and the Biosphere 525
Introduction 525
20.1Waterford's Energy Flow through Ecosystems 526
20.2Biogeochemical Cycles 533
20.3Terrestrial Biomes 543
20.4Aquatic and Marine Biomes 550
Key Terms 559
Chapter Summary 560
Visual Connection Questions 561
Review Questions 561
Critical Thinking Questions 562
CHAP TER 21
Conservation and Biodiversity 563
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20.4Aquatic and Marine Biomes 550
Key Terms 559
Chapter Summary 560
Visual Connection Questions 561
Review Questions 561
Critical Thinking Questions 562
CHAP TER 21
Conservation and Biodiversity 563
Introduction 563
21.1Importance of Biodiversity 564
21.2Threats to Biodiversity 571
21.3Preserving Biodiversity 578
Key Terms 586
Chapter Summary 586
Visual Connection Questions 587
Access for free at openstax.org
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Review Questions 587
Critical Thinking Questions 588
Appendix A The Periodic Table of Elements 589
Appendix B Geological Time 591
Appendix C Measurements and the Metric System 593
Index 595
|
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PREFACE
About OpenStax
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|
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lives. Rather than being mired down with facts and
vocabulary, the typical non-science major student
needs information presented in a way that is easy to
read and understand. Even more importantly, the
content should be meaningful. Students do much
better when they understand why biology is relevant to
their everyday lives. For these reasons,Concepts of
Biologyis grounded on an evolutionary basis and
includes exciting features that highlight careers in the
biological sciences and everyday applications of the
concepts at hand. We also strive to show the
interconnectedness of topics within this extremely
broad discipline. In order to meet the needs of today’s
instructors and students, we maintain the overall
organization and coverage found in most syllabi for this
course. A strength ofConcepts of Biologyis that
instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the
approach that works best in their classroom. Concepts
of Biology also includes an innovative art program that
|
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instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the
approach that works best in their classroom. Concepts
of Biology also includes an innovative art program that
incorporates critical thinking and clicker questions to
help students understand—and apply—key concepts.
Preface 1
|
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Coverage and Scope
OurConcepts of Biologytextbook adheres to the scope
and sequence of most one-semester non-majors
courses nationwide. We also strive to make biology, as
a discipline, interesting and accessible to students. In
addition to a comprehensive coverage of core concepts
and foundational research, we have incorporated
features that draw learners into the discipline in
meaningful ways. Our scope of content was developed
after surveying over a hundred biology professors and
listening to their coverage needs. We provide a
thorough treatment of biology’s fundamental concepts
with a scope that is manageable for instructors and
students alike.
• Unit 1:The Cellular Foundation of Life. Our
opening unit introduces students to the sciences,
including the process of science and the
underlying concepts from the physical sciences
that provide a framework within which learners
comprehend biological processes. Additionally,
students will gain solid understanding of the
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underlying concepts from the physical sciences
that provide a framework within which learners
comprehend biological processes. Additionally,
students will gain solid understanding of the
structures, functions, and processes of the most
basic unit of life: the cell.
• Unit 2:Cell Division and Genetics. Our genetics
unit takes learners from the foundations of cellular
reproduction to the experiments that revealed the
basis of genetics and laws of inheritance.
• Unit 3:Molecular Biology and Biotechnology.
Students will learn the intricacies of DNA, protein
synthesis, and gene regulation and current
applications of biotechnology and genomics.
• Unit 4:Evolution and the Diversity of Life. The
core concepts of evolution are discussed in this
unit with examples illustrating evolutionary
processes. Additionally, the evolutionary basis of
biology reappears throughout the textbook in
general discussion and is reinforced through
special call-out features highlighting specific
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processes. Additionally, the evolutionary basis of
biology reappears throughout the textbook in
general discussion and is reinforced through
special call-out features highlighting specific
evolution-based topics. The diversity of life is
explored with detailed study of various organisms
and discussion of emerging phylogenetic
relationships between and among bacteria, protist
kingdoms, fungi, plants, and animals.
• Unit 5:Animal Structure and Function. An
introduction to the form and function of the animal
body is followed by chapters on the immune
system and animal development. This unit touches
on the biology of all organisms while maintaining
an engaging focus on human anatomy and
physiology that helps students connect to the
topics.
• Unit 6:Ecology. Ecological concepts are broadly
covered in this unit, with features highlighting
localized, real-world issues of conservation and
biodiversity.
Pedagogical Foundation and Features
Because of the impact science has on students and
|
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covered in this unit, with features highlighting
localized, real-world issues of conservation and
biodiversity.
Pedagogical Foundation and Features
Because of the impact science has on students and
society, an important goal of science education is to
achieve a scientifically literate population that
consistently makes informed decisions. Scientific
literacy transcends a basic understanding of scientific
principles and processes to include the ability to make
sense of the myriad instances where people encounter
science in day-to-day life. Thus, a scientifically literate
person is one who uses science content knowledge to
make informed decisions, either personally or socially,
about topics or issues that have a connection with
science. Concepts of Biology is grounded on a solid
scientific base and designed to promote scientific
literacy. Throughout the text, you will find features that
engage the students in scientific inquiry by taking
selected topics a step further.
|
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b110e56a-3828-4fab-9ce5-82d8043e0cba
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scientific base and designed to promote scientific
literacy. Throughout the text, you will find features that
engage the students in scientific inquiry by taking
selected topics a step further.
• Evolution Connectionfeatures uphold the
importance of evolution to all biological study
through discussions like “Global Decline of Coral
Reefs” and “The Red Queen Hypothesis.”
• Career Connectionfeatures present information
on a variety of careers in the biological sciences,
introducing students to the educational
requirements and day-to-day work life of a variety
of professions, such as forensic scientists,
registered dietitians, and biogeographers.
• Everyday Connectionfeatures tie biological
concepts to emerging issues and discuss science
in terms of everyday life. Topics include “Invasive
Species” and “Photosynthesis at the Grocery
Store.”
Answers to Questions in the Book
Answers to Visual Connection Questions, Review
Questions, and Critical Thinking Questions are provided
|
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Species” and “Photosynthesis at the Grocery
Store.”
Answers to Questions in the Book
Answers to Visual Connection Questions, Review
Questions, and Critical Thinking Questions are provided
in the Instructor Answer Guide via the Instructor
Resources page. Select answers to these questions are
provided for students via the Student Resources page.
Art and Animations that Engage
Our art program takes a straightforward approach
designed to help students learn the concepts of biology
through simple, effective illustrations, photos, and
micrographs. Concepts of Biology also incorporates
links to relevant animations and interactive exercises
that help bring biology to life for students.
• Visual Connectionfeatures call out core figures in
each chapter for student attention. Questions
about key figures, including clicker questions that
can be used in the classroom, engage students’
2 Preface
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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critical thinking and analytical abilities to ensure
their genuine understanding of the concept at
hand.
• Link to Learningfeatures direct students to online
interactive exercises and animations to add a fuller
context and examples to core content.
About Our Team
Concepts of Biologywould not be possible if not for the
tremendous contributions of the authors and
community reviewing team
Senior Contributing Authors
Samantha Fowler, Clayton State University
Rebecca Roush, Sandhills Community College
James Wise, Hampton University
Contributing Authors and Reviewers
Mark Belk, Brigham Young University
Lisa Boggs, Southwestern Oklahoma State University
Sherryl Broverman, Duke University
David Byres, Florida State College at Jacksonville
Aaron Cassill, The University of Texas at San Antonio
Karen Champ, College of Central Florida
Sue Chaplin, University of St. Thomas
Diane Day, Clayton State University
Jean DeSaix, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
|
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] |
Karen Champ, College of Central Florida
Sue Chaplin, University of St. Thomas
Diane Day, Clayton State University
Jean DeSaix, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
David Hunnicutt, St. Norbert College
Barbara Kuehner, Hawaii Community College
Brenda Leady, University of Toledo
Bernie Marcus, Genesee Community College
Flora Mhlanga, Lipscomb University
Madeline Mignone, Dominican College
Elizabeth Nash, Long Beach City College
Mark Newton, San Jose City College
Diana Oliveras, University of Colorado Boulder
Ann Paterson, Williams Baptist College
Joel Piperberg, Millersville University
Nick Reeves, Mt. San Jacinto College
Ann Reisenauer, San Jose State University
Lynn Rumfelt, Gordon College
Michael Rutledge, Middle Tennessee State University
Edward Saiff, Ramapo College of New Jersey
Brian Shmaefsky, Kingwood College
Gary Shultz, Marshall University
Donald Slish, SUNY Plattsburgh
Anh-Hue Tu, Georgia Southwestern State University
Elena Zoubina, Bridgewater State University
|
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] |
Brian Shmaefsky, Kingwood College
Gary Shultz, Marshall University
Donald Slish, SUNY Plattsburgh
Anh-Hue Tu, Georgia Southwestern State University
Elena Zoubina, Bridgewater State University
Learning Resources
Wiley Plus for Biology-Fall 2013 PilotWileyPLUS
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Concepts of Biology Powerpoint Slides (faculty only)
The PowerPoint slides are based on the extensive
|
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Please let us know if you would like to participate in a
Fall 2013 Pilot.
Concepts of Biology Powerpoint Slides (faculty only)
The PowerPoint slides are based on the extensive
illustrations from College Physics. They can be edited,
incorporated into lecture notes, and you are free to
share with anyone in the community. This is a
restricted item requiring faculty registration. NOTE:
This file is very large and may take some time to
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SimBio (Laboratory)SimBio’s interactive modules
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provide engaging, discovery-based learning tools that
complement many of the chapters of Concepts of
Biology. SimBio is best known for their EcoBeaker® and
EvoBeaker® suites of simulated ecology and evolution
laboratories that guide students through the
“discovery” of important concepts via a mix of
structured and open-ended experimentation on
simulated systems. In response to popular demand,
SimBio has begun applying the same powerful
|
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“discovery” of important concepts via a mix of
structured and open-ended experimentation on
simulated systems. In response to popular demand,
SimBio has begun applying the same powerful
approaches to topics in cell biology, genetics, and
neurobiology. All of SimBio’s modules include instant-
feedback questions that enhance student
comprehension and auto-graded questions that
facilitate implementation.
Additional Resources
Student and Instructor Resources
We’ve compiled additional resources for both students
and instructors, including Getting Started Guides, an
instructor’s answer guide, test bank, and image slides.
Instructor resources require a verified instructor
account, which you can apply for when you log in or
create your account on OpenStax.org. Take advantage
of these resources to supplement your OpenStax book.
Instructor’s answer guide.Each component of the
instructor’s guide is designed to provide maximum
guidance for delivering the content in an interesting
|
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] |
Instructor’s answer guide.Each component of the
instructor’s guide is designed to provide maximum
guidance for delivering the content in an interesting
and dynamic manner.
PowerPoint lecture slides.The PowerPoint slides
provide learning objectives, images and descriptions,
feature focuses, and discussion questions as a starting
place for instructors to build their lectures.
Preface 3
|
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Academic Integrity
Academic integrity builds trust, understanding, equity,
and genuine learning. While students may encounter
significant challenges in their courses and their lives,
doing their own work and maintaining a high degree of
authenticity will result in meaningful outcomes that will
extend far beyond their college career. Faculty,
administrators, resource providers, and students
should work together to maintain a fair and positive
experience.
We realize that students benefit when academic
integrity ground rules are established early in the
course. To that end, OpenStax has created an
interactive to aid with academic integrity discussions in
your course.
Visit our academic integrity slider (https://www.openstax.org/
r/academic-integrity-slider). Click and drag icons along the
continuum to align these practices with your institution and
course policies. You may then include the graphic on your
syllabus, present it in your first course meeting, or create a
|
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4 Preface
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INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Biology
1.1Themes and Concepts of Biology
1.2The Process of Science
Viewed from space, Earth (Figure 1.1) offers few clues about the diversity of life
forms that reside there. The first forms of life on Earth are thought to have been microorganisms
that existed for billions of years before plants and animals appeared. The mammals, birds, and
flowers so familiar to us are all relatively recent, originating 130 to 200 million years ago. Humans
have inhabited this planet for only the last 2.5 million years, and only in the last 300,000 years
have humans started looking like we do today.
1.1 Themes and Concepts of Biology
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Identify and describe the properties of life
• Describe the levels of organization among living things
• List examples of different sub disciplines in biology
Biologyis the science that studies life. What exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question
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] |
• List examples of different sub disciplines in biology
Biologyis the science that studies life. What exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question
with an obvious answer, but it is not easy to define life. For example, a branch of biology called
virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others.
It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce,
FIGURE 1.1 This NASA image is a composite of several satellite-based views of Earth. To make the whole-Earth
image, NASA scientists combine observations of different parts of the planet. (credit: modification of work by NASA)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
|
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] |
they do not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life.
From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with four questions: What are the shared
properties that make something “alive”? How do those various living things function? When faced
with the remarkable diversity of life, how do we organize the different kinds of organisms so that
we can better understand them? And, finally—what biologists ultimately seek to understand—how
did this diversity arise and how is it continuing? As new organisms are discovered every day,
biologists continue to seek answers to these and other questions.
Properties of Life
All groups of living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or
response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation/homeostasis,
energy processing, and evolution. When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to
define life.
Order
|
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energy processing, and evolution. When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to
define life.
Order
Organisms are highly organized structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple,
single-celled organisms are remarkably complex. Inside each cell, atoms make up molecules.
These in turn make up cell components or organelles. Multicellular organisms, which may consist
of millions of individual cells, have an advantage over single-celled organisms in that their cells
can be specialized to perform specific functions, and even sacrificed in certain situations for the
good of the organism as a whole. How these specialized cells come together to form organs such
as the heart, lung, or skin in organisms like the toad shown inFigure 1.2will be discussed later.
FIGURE 1.2 A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
(credit: "Ivengo(RUS)"/Wikimedia Commons)
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli
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] |
FIGURE 1.2 A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
(credit: "Ivengo(RUS)"/Wikimedia Commons)
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli
Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source of light or
respond to touch (Figure 1.3). Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a
process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a
positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.
6 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
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] |
FIGURE 1.3 The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly droop and fold when touched. After a few minutes, the plant
returns to its normal state. (credit: Alex Lomas)
LINK T O LE ARNING
Watch thisvideo(http://openstax.org/l/thigmonasty)to see how the sensitive plant responds to a touch stimulus.
Reproduction
Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, which is the genetic material, and then dividing it
equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Many multicellular organisms (those made up of more
than one cell) produce specialized reproductive cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, DNA
containing genes is passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes are the reason that the offspring will
belong to the same species and will have characteristics similar to the parent, such as fur color and blood type.
Adaptation
|
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belong to the same species and will have characteristics similar to the parent, such as fur color and blood type.
Adaptation
All living organisms exhibit a “fit” to their environment. Biologists refer to this fit as adaptation and it is a
consequence of evolution by natural selection, which operates in every lineage of reproducing organisms. Examples
of adaptations are diverse and unique, from heat-resistant Archaea that live in boiling hot springs to the tongue
length of a nectar-feeding moth that matches the size of the flower from which it feeds. Adaptations enhance the
reproductive potential of the individual exhibiting them, including their ability to survive to reproduce. Adaptations
are not constant. As an environment changes, natural selection causes the characteristics of the individuals in a
population to track those changes.
Growth and Development
Organisms grow and develop according to specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes provide
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population to track those changes.
Growth and Development
Organisms grow and develop according to specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes provide
instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young (Figure 1.4) will grow
up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents.
1.1 • Themes and Concepts of Biology 7
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] |
FIGURE 1.4 Although no two look alike, these kittens have inherited genes from both parents and share many of the same characteristics.
(credit: Pieter & Renée Lanser)
Regulation/Homeostasis
Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal
functions, such as the transport of nutrients, response to stimuli, and coping with environmental stresses.
Homeostasis(literally, “steady state”) refers to the relatively stable internal environment required to maintain life.
For example, organ systems such as the digestive or circulatory systems perform specific functions like carrying
oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body.
To function properly, cells require appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and concentrations of
diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to
|
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diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to
maintain homeostatic internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes,
by activation of regulatory mechanisms. For example, many organisms regulate their body temperature in a process
known as thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear (Figure 1.5), have body
structures that help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. In hot climates, organisms have
methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.
FIGURE 1.5 Polar bears and other mammals living in ice-covered regions maintain their body temperature by generating heat and reducing
heat loss through thick fur and a dense layer of fat under their skin. (credit: "longhorndave"/Flickr)
Energy Processing
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] |
heat loss through thick fur and a dense layer of fat under their skin. (credit: "longhorndave"/Flickr)
Energy Processing
All organisms (such as the California condor shown inFigure 1.6) use a source of energy for their metabolic
activities. Some organisms capture energy from the Sun and convert it into chemical energy in food; others use
chemical energy from molecules they take in.
8 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
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] |
FIGURE 1.6 A lot of energy is required for a California condor to fly. Chemical energy derived from food is used to power flight. California
condors are an endangered species; scientists have strived to place a wing tag on each bird to help them identify and locate each individual
bird. (credit: Pacific Southwest Region U.S. Fish and Wildlife)
Evolution
The diversity of life on Earth is a result of mutations, or random changes in hereditary material over time. These
mutations allow the possibility for organisms to adapt to a changing environment. An organism that evolves
characteristics fit for the environment will have greater reproductive success, subject to the forces of natural
selection.
Levels of Organization of Living Things
Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy on a scale from small to large. Theatomis
the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. It consists of a nucleus
|
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the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. It consists of a nucleus
surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. Amoleculeis a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms
held together by a chemical bond. Many molecules that are biologically important aremacromolecules, large
molecules that are typically formed by combining smaller units called monomers. An example of a macromolecule is
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 1.7), which contains the instructions for the functioning of the organism that
contains it.
1.1 • Themes and Concepts of Biology 9
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] |
FIGURE 1.7 A molecule, like this large DNA molecule, is composed of atoms. (credit: "Brian0918"/Wikimedia Commons)
LINK T O LE ARNING
To see an animation of this DNA molecule, clickhere(http://openstax.org/l/rotating_DNA2).
Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these are calledorganelles.
Organelles are small structures that exist within cells and perform specialized functions. All living things are made of
cells; thecellitself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement
is why viruses are not considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to invade and
hijack a living cell; only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce.) Some organisms consist of a
single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.Prokaryotesare single-
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single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.Prokaryotesare single-
celled organisms that lack organelles surrounded by a membrane and do not have nuclei surrounded by nuclear
membranes; in contrast, the cells ofeukaryotesdo have membrane-bound organelles and nuclei.
In most multicellular organisms, cells combine to maketissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying out the
same function.Organsare collections of tissues grouped together based on a common function. Organs are present
not only in animals but also in plants. Anorgan systemis a higher level of organization that consists of functionally
related organs. For example vertebrate animals have many organ systems, such as the circulatory system that
transports blood throughout the body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood
vessels.Organismsare individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled
|
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vessels.Organismsare individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled
prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as
microorganisms.
10 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
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VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 1.8 From an atom to the entire Earth, biology examines all aspects of life. (credit "molecule": modification of work by Jane
Whitney; credit "organelles": modification of work by Louisa Howard; credit "cells": modification of work by Bruce Wetzel, Harry Schaefer,
National Cancer Institute; credit "tissue": modification of work by "Kilbad"/Wikimedia Commons; credit "organs": modification of work by
Mariana Ruiz Villareal, Joaquim Alves Gaspar; credit "organisms": modification of work by Peter Dutton; credit "ecosystem": modification of
work by "gigi4791"/Flickr; credit "biosphere": modification of work by NASA)
Which of the following statements is false?
a. Tissues exist within organs which exist within organ systems.
1.1 • Themes and Concepts of Biology 11
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b. Communities exist within populations which exist within ecosystems.
c. Organelles exist within cells which exist within tissues.
d. Communities exist within ecosystems which exist in the biosphere.
All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called apopulation. For example, a forest
may include many white pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the population of white pine trees in this forest.
Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes
populations of flowering plants and also insects and microbial populations. Acommunityis the set of populations
inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the
forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. Anecosystemconsists of all the living things in a particular
|
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forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. Anecosystemconsists of all the living things in a particular
area together with the abiotic, or non-living, parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rainwater. At
the highest level of organization (Figure 1.8), thebiosphereis the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the
zones of life on Earth. It includes land, water, and portions of the atmosphere.
The Diversity of Life
The science of biology is very broad in scope because there is a tremendous diversity of life on Earth. The source of
this diversity isevolution, the process of gradual change during which new species arise from older species.
Evolutionary biologists study the evolution of living things in everything from the microscopic world to ecosystems.
In the 18th century, a scientist named Carl Linnaeus first proposed organizing the known species of organisms into a
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In the 18th century, a scientist named Carl Linnaeus first proposed organizing the known species of organisms into a
hierarchical taxonomy. In this system, species that are most similar to each other are put together within a grouping
known as a genus. Furthermore, similar genera (the plural of genus) are put together within a family. This grouping
continues until all organisms are collected together into groups at the highest level. The current taxonomic system
now has eight levels in its hierarchy, from lowest to highest, they are: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum,
kingdom, domain. Thus species are grouped within genera, genera are grouped within families, families are grouped
within orders, and so on (Figure 1.9).
FIGURE 1.9 This diagram shows the levels of taxonomic hierarchy for a dog, from the broadest category—domain—to the most
specific—species.
The highest level, domain, is a relatively new addition to the system since the 1970s. Scientists now recognize three
|
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specific—species.
The highest level, domain, is a relatively new addition to the system since the 1970s. Scientists now recognize three
domains of life, the Eukarya, the Archaea, and the Bacteria. The domain Eukarya contains organisms that have cells
with nuclei. It includes the kingdoms of fungi, plants, animals, and several kingdoms of protists. The Archaea, are
single-celled organisms without nuclei and include many extremophiles that live in harsh environments like hot
springs. The Bacteria are another quite different group of single-celled organisms without nuclei (Figure 1.10). Both
the Archaea and the Bacteria are prokaryotes, an informal name for cells without nuclei. The recognition in the
1970s that certain “bacteria,” now known as the Archaea, were as different genetically and biochemically from
other bacterial cells as they were from eukaryotes, motivated the recommendation to divide life into three domains.
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other bacterial cells as they were from eukaryotes, motivated the recommendation to divide life into three domains.
This dramatic change in our knowledge of the tree of life demonstrates that classifications are not permanent and
will change when new information becomes available.
12 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
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] |
In addition to the hierarchical taxonomic system, Linnaeus was the first to name organisms using two unique names,
now called the binomial naming system. Before Linnaeus, the use of common names to refer to organisms caused
confusion because there were regional differences in these common names. Binomial names consist of the genus
name (which is capitalized) and the species name (all lower-case). Both names are set in italics when they are
printed. Every species is given a unique binomial which is recognized the world over, so that a scientist in any
location can know which organism is being referred to. For example, the North American blue jay is known uniquely
asCyanocitta cristata. Our own species isHomo sapiens.
FIGURE 1.10 These images represent different domains. The scanning electron micrograph shows (a) bacterial cells belong to the domain
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] |
asCyanocitta cristata. Our own species isHomo sapiens.
FIGURE 1.10 These images represent different domains. The scanning electron micrograph shows (a) bacterial cells belong to the domain
Bacteria, while the (b) extremophiles, seen all together as colored mats in this hot spring, belong to domain Archaea. Both the (c) sunflower
and (d) lion are part of domain Eukarya. (credit a: modification of work by Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH; credit b: modification
of work by Steve Jurvetson; credit c: modification of work by Michael Arrighi; credit d: modification of work by Frank Vassen)
EVOLUTION C ONNE CTION
Carl Woese and the Phylogenetic Tree
The evolutionary relationships of various life forms on Earth can be summarized in a phylogenetic tree. A
phylogenetic treeis a diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among biological species based on
similarities and differences in genetic or physical traits or both. A phylogenetic tree is composed of branch points, or
|
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similarities and differences in genetic or physical traits or both. A phylogenetic tree is composed of branch points, or
nodes, and branches. The internal nodes represent ancestors and are points in evolution when, based on scientific
evidence, an ancestor is thought to have diverged to form two new species. The length of each branch can be
considered as estimates of relative time.
In the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria. The
pioneering work of American microbiologist Carl Woese in the early 1970s has shown, however, that life on Earth
has evolved along three lineages, now called domains—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Woese proposed the
domain as a new taxonomic level and Archaea as a new domain, to reflect the new phylogenetic tree (Figure 1.11).
Many organisms belonging to the Archaea domain live under extreme conditions and are called extremophiles. To
|
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] |
Many organisms belonging to the Archaea domain live under extreme conditions and are called extremophiles. To
construct his tree, Woese used genetic relationships rather than similarities based on morphology (shape). Various
genes were used in phylogenetic studies. Woese’s tree was constructed from comparative sequencing of the genes
that are universally distributed, found in some slightly altered form in every organism, conserved (meaning that
these genes have remained only slightly changed throughout evolution), and of an appropriate length.
1.1 • Themes and Concepts of Biology 13
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] |
FIGURE 1.11 This phylogenetic tree was constructed by microbiologist Carl Woese using genetic relationships. The tree shows the
separation of living organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are organisms without a nucleus
or other organelles surrounded by a membrane and, therefore, are prokaryotes. (credit: modification of work by Eric Gaba)
Branches of Biological Study
The scope of biology is broad and therefore contains many branches and sub disciplines. Biologists may pursue one
of those sub disciplines and work in a more focused field. For instance, molecular biology studies biological
processes at the molecular level, including interactions among molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well
as the way they are regulated. Microbiology is the study of the structure and function of microorganisms. It is quite a
broad branch itself, and depending on the subject of study, there are also microbial physiologists, ecologists, and
|
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broad branch itself, and depending on the subject of study, there are also microbial physiologists, ecologists, and
geneticists, among others.
Another field of biological study, neurobiology, studies the biology of the nervous system, and although it is
considered a branch of biology, it is also recognized as an interdisciplinary field of study known as neuroscience.
Because of its interdisciplinary nature, this sub discipline studies different functions of the nervous system using
molecular, cellular, developmental, medical, and computational approaches.
FIGURE 1.12 Researchers work on excavating dinosaur fossils at a site in Castellón, Spain. (credit: Mario Modesto)
14 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
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Paleontology, another branch of biology, uses fossils to study life’s history (Figure 1.12). Zoology and botany are the
study of animals and plants, respectively. Biologists can also specialize as biotechnologists, ecologists, or
physiologists, to name just a few areas. Biotechnologists apply the knowledge of biology to create useful products.
Ecologists study the interactions of organisms in their environments. Physiologists study the workings of cells,
tissues and organs. This is just a small sample of the many fields that biologists can pursue. From our own bodies to
the world we live in, discoveries in biology can affect us in very direct and important ways. We depend on these
discoveries for our health, our food sources, and the benefits provided by our ecosystem. Because of this,
knowledge of biology can benefit us in making decisions in our day-to-day lives.
The development of technology in the twentieth century that continues today, particularly the technology to
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] |
knowledge of biology can benefit us in making decisions in our day-to-day lives.
The development of technology in the twentieth century that continues today, particularly the technology to
describe and manipulate the genetic material, DNA, has transformed biology. This transformation will allow
biologists to continue to understand the history of life in greater detail, how the human body works, our human
origins, and how humans can survive as a species on this planet despite the stresses caused by our increasing
numbers. Biologists continue to decipher huge mysteries about life suggesting that we have only begun to
understand life on the planet, its history, and our relationship to it. For this and other reasons, the knowledge of
biology gained through this textbook and other printed and electronic media should be a benefit in whichever field
you enter.
CAREER C ONNE CTION
Forensic Scientist
|
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biology gained through this textbook and other printed and electronic media should be a benefit in whichever field
you enter.
CAREER C ONNE CTION
Forensic Scientist
Forensic science is the application of science to answer questions related to the law. Biologists as well as chemists
and biochemists can be forensic scientists. Forensic scientists provide scientific evidence for use in courts, and their
job involves examining trace material associated with crimes. Interest in forensic science has increased in the last
few years, possibly because of popular television shows that feature forensic scientists on the job. Also, the
development of molecular techniques and the establishment of DNA databases have updated the types of work that
forensic scientists can do. Their job activities are primarily related to crimes against people such as murder, rape,
and assault. Their work involves analyzing samples such as hair, blood, and other body fluids and also processing
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and assault. Their work involves analyzing samples such as hair, blood, and other body fluids and also processing
DNA (Figure 1.13) found in many different environments and materials. Forensic scientists also analyze other
biological evidence left at crime scenes, such as insect parts or pollen grains. Students who want to pursue careers
in forensic science will most likely be required to take chemistry and biology courses as well as some intensive math
courses.
FIGURE 1.13 This forensic scientist works in a DNA extraction room at the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Laboratory. (credit: U.S. Army
1.1 • Themes and Concepts of Biology 15
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CID Command Public Affairs)
Scientific Ethics
Scientists must ensure that their efforts do not cause undue damage to humans, animals, or the environment. They
also must ensure that their research and communications are free of bias and that they properly balance financial,
legal, safety, replicability, and other considerations. Bioethics is an important and continually evolving field, in which
researchers collaborate with other thinkers and organizations. They work to define guidelines for current practice,
and also continually consider new developments and emerging technologies in order to form answers for the years
and decades to come.
Unfortunately, the emergence of bioethics as a field came after a number of clearly unethical practices, where
biologists did not treat research subjects with dignity and in some cases did them harm. In the 1932 Tuskegee
syphilis study, 399 African American men were diagnosed with syphilis but were never informed that they had the
|
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syphilis study, 399 African American men were diagnosed with syphilis but were never informed that they had the
disease, leaving them to live with and pass on the illness to others. Doctors even withheld proven medications
because the goal of the study was to understand the impact of untreated syphilis on Black men.
While the decisions made in the Tuskegee study are unjustifiable, some decisions are genuinely difficult to make.
For example, bioethicists may examine the implications of gene editing technologies, including the ability to create
organisms that may displace others in the environment, as well as the ability to “design” human beings. In that
effort, ethicists will likely seek to balance the positive outcomes -- such as improved therapies or prevention of
certain illnesses -- with negative outcomes.
Bioethics are not simple, and often leave scientists balancing benefits with harm. In this text and course, you will
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certain illnesses -- with negative outcomes.
Bioethics are not simple, and often leave scientists balancing benefits with harm. In this text and course, you will
discuss medical discoveries that, at their core, have what many consider an ethical lapse. In 1951, Henrietta Lacks,
a 30-year-old African American woman, was diagnosed with cervical cancer at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Unique
characteristics of her illnesses gave her cells the ability to divide continuously, essentially making them “immortal.”
Without her knowledge or permission, researchers took samples of her cells and with them created the immortal
HeLa cell line. These cells have contributed to major medical discoveries, including the polio vaccine and work
related to cancer, AIDS, cell aging, and even very recently in COVID-19 research. For the most part, Lacks has not
been credited for her role in those discoveries, and her family has not benefited from the billions of dollars in
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] |
been credited for her role in those discoveries, and her family has not benefited from the billions of dollars in
pharmaceutical profits obtained partly through the use of her cells.
Today, harvesting tissue or organs from a dying patient without consent is not only considered unethical but also
illegal, regardless of whether such an act could save other patients’ lives. Part of the role of ethics in scientific
research is to examine similar issues before, during, and after research or practice takes place, as well as to adhere
to established professional principles and consider the dignity and safety of all organisms involved or affected by the
work.
1.2 The Process of Science
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Identify the shared characteristics of the natural sciences
• Understand the process of scientific inquiry
• Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning
• Describe the goals of basic science and applied science
|
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• Understand the process of scientific inquiry
• Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning
• Describe the goals of basic science and applied science
16 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
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] |
FIGURE 1.14 Formerly called blue-green algae, the (a) cyanobacteria seen through a light microscope are some of Earth’s oldest life forms.
These (b) stromatolites along the shores of Lake Thetis in Western Australia are ancient structures formed by the layering of cyanobacteria
in shallow waters. (credit a: modification of work by NASA; scale-bar data from Matt Russell; credit b: modification of work by Ruth Ellison)
Like geology, physics, and chemistry, biology is a science that gathers knowledge about the natural world.
Specifically, biology is the study of life. The discoveries of biology are made by a community of researchers who
work individually and together using agreed-on methods. In this sense, biology, like all sciences is a social
enterprise like politics or the arts. The methods of science include careful observation, record keeping, logical and
mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others. Science also
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mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others. Science also
requires considerable imagination and creativity; a well-designed experiment is commonly described as elegant, or
beautiful. Like politics, science has considerable practical implications and some science is dedicated to practical
applications, such as the prevention of disease (seeFigure 1.15). Other science proceeds largely motivated by
curiosity. Whatever its goal, there is no doubt that science, including biology, has transformed human existence and
will continue to do so.
FIGURE 1.15 Biologists may choose to studyEscherichia coli(E. coli), a bacterium that is a normal resident of our digestive tracts but which
is also sometimes responsible for disease outbreaks. In this micrograph, the bacterium is visualized using a scanning electron microscope
and digital colorization. (credit: Eric Erbe; digital colorization by Christopher Pooley, USDA-ARS)
The Nature of Science
|
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and digital colorization. (credit: Eric Erbe; digital colorization by Christopher Pooley, USDA-ARS)
The Nature of Science
Biology is a science, but what exactly is science? What does the study of biology share with other scientific
disciplines?Science(from the Latinscientia,meaning "knowledge") can be defined as knowledge about the natural
world.
Science is a very specific way of learning, or knowing, about the world. The history of the past 500 years
demonstrates that science is a very powerful way of knowing about the world; it is largely responsible for the
1.2 • The Process of Science 17
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technological revolutions that have taken place during this time. There are however, areas of knowledge and human
experience that the methods of science cannot be applied to. These include such things as answering purely moral
questions, aesthetic questions, or what can be generally categorized as spiritual questions. Science cannot
investigate these areas because they are outside the realm of material phenomena, the phenomena of matter and
energy, and cannot be observed and measured.
Thescientific methodis a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation.
The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this
method is the testing of hypotheses. Ahypothesisis a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested.
Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are generally produced within the context of ascientific theory. A generally
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Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are generally produced within the context of ascientific theory. A generally
accepted scientific theory is thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set of observations or phenomena.
Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific knowledge. In addition, in many scientific disciplines (less so in
biology) there arescientific laws, often expressed in mathematical formulas, which describe how elements of
nature will behave under certain specific conditions. There is not an evolution of hypotheses through theories to
laws as if they represented some increase in certainty about the world. Hypotheses are the day-to-day material that
scientists work with and they are developed within the context of theories. Laws are concise descriptions of parts of
the world that are amenable to formulaic or mathematical description.
Natural Sciences
|
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the world that are amenable to formulaic or mathematical description.
Natural Sciences
What would you expect to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits about
how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or maybe all of the above? Science includes such
diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics (Figure
1.16). However, those fields of science related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes are
considerednatural sciences. Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain any of the items listed above.
FIGURE 1.16 Some fields of science include astronomy, biology, computer science, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics.
(credit: "Image Editor"/Flickr)
There is no complete agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include. For some experts, the
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(credit: "Image Editor"/Flickr)
There is no complete agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include. For some experts, the
natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics. Other scholars choose to divide
natural sciences intolife sciences, which study living things and include biology, andphysical sciences, which
study nonliving matter and include astronomy, physics, and chemistry. Some disciplines such as biophysics and
biochemistry build on two sciences and are interdisciplinary.
Scientific Inquiry
One thing is common to all forms of science: an ultimate goal “to know.” Curiosity and inquiry are the driving forces
for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the way it operates. Two methods of
18 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
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logical thinking are used: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoningis a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion.
This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist such as a biologist makes observations and
records them. These data can be qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (consisting of numbers), and the raw data
can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer
conclusions (inductions) based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from
careful observation and the analysis of a large amount of data. Brain studies often work this way. Many brains are
observed while people are doing a task. The part of the brain that lights up, indicating activity, is then demonstrated
to be the part controlling the response to that task.
|
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observed while people are doing a task. The part of the brain that lights up, indicating activity, is then demonstrated
to be the part controlling the response to that task.
Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reasoning, the
pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to inductive reasoning.Deductive reasoningis a
form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to predict specific results. From those general principles,
a scientist can deduce and predict the specific results that would be valid as long as the general principles are valid.
For example, a prediction would be that if the climate is becoming warmer in a region, the distribution of plants and
animals should change. Comparisons have been made between distributions in the past and the present, and the
many changes that have been found are consistent with a warming climate. Finding the change in distribution is
|
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many changes that have been found are consistent with a warming climate. Finding the change in distribution is
evidence that the climate change conclusion is a valid one.
Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science and
hypothesis-based science.Descriptive(or discovery)scienceaims to observe, explore, and discover, while
hypothesis-based sciencebegins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or solution that can be
tested. The boundary between these two forms of study is often blurred, because most scientific endeavors
combine both approaches. Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a hypothesis as a possible
answer to those questions, and then the hypothesis is tested. Thus, descriptive science and hypothesis-based
science are in continuous dialogue.
Hypothesis Testing
Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science-based responses. This approach
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] |
science are in continuous dialogue.
Hypothesis Testing
Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science-based responses. This approach
is common to other sciences as well and is often referred to as the scientific method. The scientific method was
used even in ancient times, but it was first documented by England’s Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) (Figure 1.17),
who set up inductive methods for scientific inquiry. The scientific method is not exclusively used by biologists but
can be applied to almost anything as a logical problem-solving method.
FIGURE 1.17 Sir Francis Bacon is credited with being the first to document the scientific method.
1.2 • The Process of Science 19
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The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a problem to be solved) that leads to a question.
Let’s think about a simple problem that starts with an observation and apply the scientific method to solve the
problem. One Monday morning, a student arrives at class and quickly discovers that the classroom is too warm. That
is an observation that also describes a problem: the classroom is too warm. The student then asks a question: “Why
is the classroom so warm?”
Recall that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that can be tested. To solve a problem, several hypotheses may
be proposed. For example, one hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because no one turned on the air
conditioning.” But there could be other responses to the question, and therefore other hypotheses may be
proposed. A second hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because there is a power failure, and so the air
conditioning doesn’t work.”
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proposed. A second hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because there is a power failure, and so the air
conditioning doesn’t work.”
Once a hypothesis has been selected, a prediction may be made. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis but it
typically has the format “If . . . then . . . .” For example, the prediction for the first hypothesis might be, “Ifthe
student turns on the air conditioning,thenthe classroom will no longer be too warm.”
A hypothesis must be testable to ensure that it is valid. For example, a hypothesis that depends on what a bear
thinks is not testable, because it can never be known what a bear thinks. It should also befalsifiable, meaning that
it can be disproven by experimental results. An example of an unfalsifiable hypothesis is “Botticelli’sBirth of Venus
is beautiful.” There is no experiment that might show this statement to be false. To test a hypothesis, a researcher
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is beautiful.” There is no experiment that might show this statement to be false. To test a hypothesis, a researcher
will conduct one or more experiments designed to eliminate one or more of the hypotheses. This is important. A
hypothesis can be disproven, or eliminated, but it can never be proven. Science does not deal in proofs like
mathematics. If an experiment fails to disprove a hypothesis, then we find support for that explanation, but this is
not to say that down the road a better explanation will not be found, or a more carefully designed experiment will be
found to falsify the hypothesis.
Each experiment will have one or more variables and one or more controls. Avariableis any part of the experiment
that can vary or change during the experiment. Acontrolis a part of the experiment that does not change. Look for
the variables and controls in the example that follows. As a simple example, an experiment might be conducted to
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the variables and controls in the example that follows. As a simple example, an experiment might be conducted to
test the hypothesis that phosphate limits the growth of algae in freshwater ponds. A series of artificial ponds are
filled with water and half of them are treated by adding phosphate each week, while the other half are treated by
adding a salt that is known not to be used by algae. The variable here is the phosphate (or lack of phosphate), the
experimental or treatment cases are the ponds with added phosphate and the control ponds are those with
something inert added, such as the salt. Just adding something is also a control against the possibility that adding
extra matter to the pond has an effect. If the treated ponds show lesser growth of algae, then we have found
support for our hypothesis. If they do not, then we reject our hypothesis. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis
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support for our hypothesis. If they do not, then we reject our hypothesis. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis
does not determine whether or not the other hypotheses can be accepted; it simply eliminates one hypothesis that
is not valid (Figure 1.18). Using the scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data
are rejected.
In recent years a new approach of testing hypotheses has developed as a result of an exponential growth of data
deposited in various databases. Using computer algorithms and statistical analyses of data in databases, a new field
of so-called "data research" (also referred to as "in silico" research) provides new methods of data analyses and
their interpretation. This will increase the demand for specialists in both biology and computer science, a promising
career opportunity.
20 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
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VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 1.18 The scientific method is a series of defined steps that include experiments and careful observation. If a hypothesis is not
supported by data, a new hypothesis can be proposed.
In the example below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Which part in the example below
is the hypothesis? Which is the prediction? Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis supported? If it
is not supported, propose some alternative hypotheses.
1. My toaster doesn’t toast my bread.
2. Why doesn’t my toaster work?
3. There is something wrong with the electrical outlet.
4. If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged into it.
5. I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet.
6. My coffeemaker works.
In practice, the scientific method is not as rigid and structured as it might at first appear. Sometimes an experiment
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5. I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet.
6. My coffeemaker works.
In practice, the scientific method is not as rigid and structured as it might at first appear. Sometimes an experiment
leads to conclusions that favor a change in approach; often, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions
to the puzzle. Many times, science does not operate in a linear fashion; instead, scientists continually draw
inferences and make generalizations, finding patterns as their research proceeds. Scientific reasoning is more
complex than the scientific method alone suggests.
Basic and Applied Science
The scientific community has been debating for the last few decades about the value of different types of science. Is
it valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific knowledge only have worth
1.2 • The Process of Science 21
|
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if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or bettering our lives? This question focuses on the differences
between two types of science: basic science and applied science.
Basic scienceor “pure” science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term application of that
knowledge. It is not focused on developing a product or a service of immediate public or commercial value. The
immediate goal of basic science is knowledge for knowledge’s sake, though this does not mean that in the end it
may not result in an application.
In contrast,applied scienceor “technology,” aims to use science to solve real-world problems, making it possible,
for example, to improve a crop yield, find a cure for a particular disease, or save animals threatened by a natural
disaster. In applied science, the problem is usually defined for the researcher.
Some individuals may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.” A question these people
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disaster. In applied science, the problem is usually defined for the researcher.
Some individuals may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.” A question these people
might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge acquisition would be, “What for?” A careful look at the history of
science, however, reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications of great value. Many
scientists think that a basic understanding of science is necessary before an application is developed; therefore,
applied science relies on the results generated through basic science. Other scientists think that it is time to move
on from basic science and instead to find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that
there are problems that demand immediate attention; however, few solutions would be found without the help of
the knowledge generated through basic science.
|
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there are problems that demand immediate attention; however, few solutions would be found without the help of
the knowledge generated through basic science.
One example of how basic and applied science can work together to solve practical problems occurred after the
discovery of DNA structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing DNA replication.
Strands of DNA, unique in every human, are found in our cells, where they provide the instructions necessary for life.
During DNA replication, new copies of DNA are made, shortly before a cell divides to form new cells. Understanding
the mechanisms of DNA replication enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are now used to
identify genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a crime scene, and determine paternity. Without basic
science, it is unlikely that applied science could exist.
Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project, a study in which
|
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|
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