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acid a substance that donates hydrogen ions and
therefore lowers pH
adhesion the attraction between water molecules
and molecules of a different substance
amino acid a monomer of a protein
anion a negative ion formed by gaining electrons
atomic number the number of protons in an atom
base a substance that abs... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\educatio... |
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chemical bond an interaction between two or more
of the same or different elements that results in the
formation of molecules
chitin a type of carbohydrate that forms the outer
skeleton of arthropods, such as insects and
crustaceans, and the cell walls of fungi
cohesion the intermolecular forces between water
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electron a negatively charged particle that resides
outside of the nucleus in the electron orbital; lacks
functional mass and has a charge of –1
electron transfer the movement of electrons from
one element to another
element one of 118 unique substances that cannot
be broken down into sma... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batc... |
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protein or steroid, secreted by an endocrine gland or
group of endocrine cells; acts to control or regulate
specific physiological processes
hydrogen bond a weak bond between partially
positively charged hydrogen atoms and partially
negatively charged elements or molecul... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page": 65, "file_type": ".pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "batch_uplo... |
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litmus paper filter paper that has been treated with a
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indicator
macromolecule a large molecule, often formed by
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mass number the number of protons plus neutrons in
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nucleotide a monomer of nucleic acids; contains a
pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base
nucleus (chemistry) the dense center of an atom
made up of protons and (except in the case of a
hydrogen atom) neutrons
octet rule states that the outermost shell of an... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "65", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "... |
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oil an unsaturated fat that is a liquid at room
temperature
periodic table of elements an organizational chart of
elements, indicating the atomic number and mass
number of each element; also provides key
information about the properties of elements
pH scale a scale ranging from 0 to 14 that measures
the appro... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "page_label": "66", "file_type": ".pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 66, "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Conce... |
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protein a biological macromolecule composed of one
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charge of +1
radioactive isotope an isotope that spontaneously
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separating
temperature a measure of molecular motion
trans-fat a form of unsaturated fat with the hydrogen
atoms neighboring the double bond across from
each other rather than on the same side of the
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triglyceride a fat molecule; consists of three fatty
acids l... | {"total_pages": 615, "page_label": "66", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\ed... |
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compounds or molecules. Atoms, which consist of
protons, neutrons, and electrons, are the smallest units
of an element that retain all of the properties of that
element. Electrons can be donated or shared between
atoms to create bonds, including ionic, covalent, and
... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "page": 66, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Bi... |
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0.045538... | and reform, allowing for the overall temperature to
remain stable, although increased energy is added to
the system. Water’s cohesive forces allow for the
property of surface tension. All of these unique
properties of water are important in the chemistry of
living organisms.
The pH of a solution is a measure of the con... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "total_pages": 615, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 66, "page_label": "66", "creationdate": "D:20251101002... |
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Living things are carbon-based because carbon plays
such a prominent role in the chemistry of living things.
The four covalent bonding positions of the carbon atom
can give rise to a wide diversity of compounds with
many functions, accounting for the importance of
52 2 • Chapter Summary
Access ... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "total_pages": 615, "page_label": "66", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "page": 66, "file_type": ".pdf", ... |
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macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the
cell, provide structural support to many organisms, and
can be found on the surface of the cell as receptors or
for cell recognition. Carbohydrates are classified as
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccha... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creationdate": "D:... |
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... | by acting as enzymes, carriers or as hormones. The
building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Proteins
are organized at four levels: primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary. Protein shape and function are
intricately linked; any change in shape caused by
changes in temperature, pH, or chemical exposure may
lead ... | {"page_label": "67", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size... |
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magnesium atom?
a. It has 12 protons, 12 electrons, and 12
neutrons.
b. It has 12 protons, 12 electrons, and six
neutrons.
c. It has six protons, six electrons, and no
neutrons.
d. It has six protons, six electrons, and six
neutrons.
3. Which type of bond represents a weak ... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "PDFium", "page": 67, "source": "downlo... |
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a. weakly acidic
b. strongly acidic
c. weakly basic
d. strongly basic
7. The pH of lemon juice is about 2.0, whereas tomato
juice's pH is about 4.0. Approximately how much of
an increase in hydrogen ion concentration is there
between tomato juice and lemon juice?
a. 2 times
b. 10 times
c. 100 times
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a. monosaccharides
b. disaccharides
c. lipids
d. polysaccharides
10. Phospholipids are important components of
__________.
a. the plasma membrane of cells
b. the ring structure of steroids
c. the waxy covering on leaves
d. the double bond in hydrocarbon chains
11. The m... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "page": 68, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page_label": "68", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\B... |
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CHAPTER 3
Cell Structure and Function
3.1How Cells Are Studied
3.2Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
3.3Eukaryotic Cells
3.4The Cell Membrane
3.5Passive Transport
3.6Active Transport
Close your eyes and picture a brick wall. What is the basic building block of that
wall? It is a single brick, of co... | {"producer": "PDFium", "page": 69, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.5... |
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0.0... | within. Bone cells help to support and protect the body. Cells of the immune system fight invading
bacteria. Additionally, red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. Each of these cell types
plays a vital role during the growth, development, and day-to-day maintenance of the body. In
spite of their enormous vari... | {"batch_upload": true, "page_label": "69", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf... |
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FIGURE 3.1 (a) Nasal sinus cells (viewed with a light microscope), (b) onion cells (viewed with a light microscope),
and (c)Vibrio tasmaniensisbacterial cells (viewed using a scanning electron microscope) are from very different
organisms, yet all share certain characteri... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "total_pages": 615, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "page_label": "69", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload":... |
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perform shared functions to form tissues (for example, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and
nervous tissue), several tissues combine to form an organ (for example, stomach, heart, or brain),
and several organs make up an ... | {"total_pages": 615, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 70, "creator": "PDFium", "page_label": "70", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "f... |
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0.076482... | determining whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic, let us first examine how biologists study
cells.
Microscopy
Cells vary in size. With few exceptions, individual cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye,
so scientists use microscopes to study them. Amicroscopeis an instrument that magnifies an
object. M... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload": true, "total_pages": 615, "page_label": "70", "source... |
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that is right-side up and facing right on the microscope slide will appear upside-down and facing
left when viewed through a microscope, and vice versa. Similarly, if the slide is moved left while
looking through the microsc... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page": 70, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "source": "downloads\... |
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passes through and is bent by the lens system to enable the user to see the specimen. Light
microscopes are advantageous for viewing living organisms, but since individual cells are generally
transparent, their components are... | {"page": 70, "batch_upload": true, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "70", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5b... |
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higher the resolution, the closer those two objects can be, and the better the clarity and detail of
the image. When oil immersion lenses are used, magnification is usually increased to 1,000 times
for the study of smaller ... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page_label": "70", "file_type": ".pdf", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_f... |
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components in focus at the same time. These microscopes are designed to give a magnified and clear view of tissue
structure as well as the anatomy of the whole organism. Like light microscopes, most modern diss... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "creator": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\... |
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FIGURE 3.2 (a) Most light microscopes used in a college biology lab can magnify cells up to approximately 400 times. (b) Dissecting
microscopes have a lower magnification than light microscopes and are used to examine larg... | {"page_label": "71", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "page": 71, "creator": "PDFium", "total_p... |
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In a scanning electron microscope, a beam of electrons moves back and forth across a cell’s surface, rendering the
details of cell surface characteristics by reflection. Cells and other structures are usually coated with a metal like
gold. In a transmission electron microscope, the electron beam is tr... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "page": 71, "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101... |
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0.068812... | FIGURE 3.3 (a)Salmonellabacteria are viewed with a light microscope. (b) This scanning electron micrograph showsSalmonellabacteria
(in red) invading human cells. (credit a: modification of work by CDC, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Charles N. Farmer; credit b:
modification of work by Rocky Mountain Laboratories,... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "page": 72, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page_label": "72", "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "PDFium", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "total_pages": 615, "file_name": ... |
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0.03... | laboratory tests. They are trained to determine which cellular changes are within normal limits or are abnormal.
Their focus is not limited to cervical cells; they study cellular specimens that come from all organs. When they notice
abnormalities, they consult a pathologist, who is a medical doctor who can make a clini... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\acade... |
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0.0845066... | FIGURE 3.4 These uterine cervix cells, viewed through a light microscope, were obtained from a Pap smear. Normal cells are on the left.
The cells on the right are infected with human papillomavirus. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman; scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)
Cell Theory
The microscopes we use today ar... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 73, "file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "p... |
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construction enabled other scientists to see different components inside cells.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying tissues and proposed
theunified cell theory, ... | {"batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "page_label": "73", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 73, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_siz... |
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0.03... | • Describe the relative sizes of different kinds of cells
Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The predominantly single-celled organisms of
the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro- = before; -karyon- = nucleus). Animal cells,
plant cells, fungi, and protis... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "page_label": "73", "creator": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of B... |
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0.... | proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
Aprokaryotic cellis a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-
bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is
found in the ce... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "... |
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Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, comprised of sugars and amino
acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 3.5). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps
the cell maint... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-0... |
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they live, be it air or water. It means that, in general, one can deduce the function of a structure by looking at its
form, because the two are matched.
Aeukaryotic cellis a cell that has a membrane-bound nu... | {"page_label": "74", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_type": ".pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\aca... |
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0.0531240... | ranging from 10–100 µm (Figure 3.6). The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter
them to quickly spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly
move out. However, larger eukaryotic cells have evolved different structural adaptations... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acde... |
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... | FIGURE 3.6 This figure shows the relative sizes of different kinds of cells and cellular components. An adult human is shown for
comparison.
3.3 Eukaryotic Cells
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the structure of eukaryotic plant and animal cells
• State the role of the pla... | {"source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "page": 75,... |
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FIGURE 3.7 This figure shows (a) a typical animal cell and (b) a typical plant cell.
What structures does a plant cell have that an animal cell does not have? What structures does an animal cell have
that a plant cell does not have?
62 3 • Cell Structure and Function
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Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have aplasma membrane(Figure 3.8) made up of a phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment. A
phospholipid is a lipid molecule composed of two fatty acid chains, a glycerol backbone, ... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "total_pages": 615, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education... |
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(singular = microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the plasma membrane. Such cells are typically
found lining the small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food. T... | {"producer": "PDFium", "page_label": "77", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "page"... |
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-0... | structure to be discussed shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-likecytosol, the cytoskeleton,
and various chemicals (Figure 3.7). Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, it has a semi-
solid consistency, which comes from the proteins within it. However, proteins are not the o... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "... |
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protein fibers that helps to maintain the shape of the cell, secures certain organelles in specific positions, allows
cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to move in... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\acad... |
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0.063015... | FIGURE 3.9 Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules compose a cell’s cytoskeleton.
Microfilaments are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers and function in moving cellular components, for example,
during cell division. They also maintain the structure of microvilli, the extensive folding of the plasma... | {"source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page": 78, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "uploaded_... |
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0.0296... | tubes that can dissolve and reform quickly. Microtubules guide organelle movement and are the structures that pull
chromosomes to their poles during cell division. They are also the structural components of flagella and cilia. In cilia
and flagella, the microtubules are organized as a circle of nine double microtubules... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 615, "uploa... |
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0.04047... | not clear, since cells that have the centrioles removed can still divide, and plant cells, which lack centrioles, are
capable of cell division.
Flagella and Cilia
Flagella(singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and are used to
move an entire cell, (for example, sperm,E... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page": 78, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "total_pages": 615, "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\... |
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0.... | The Endomembrane System
Theendomembrane system(endo= within) is a group of membranes and organelles (Figure 3.13) in eukaryotic
cells that work together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nuclear envelope,
lysosomes, and vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which ... | {"source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "page_label": "7... |
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... | detail (Figure 3.10).
FIGURE 3.10 The outermost boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. Notice that the nuclear envelope consists of two
phospholipid bilayers (membranes)—an outer membrane and an inner membrane—in contrast to the plasma membrane (Figure 3.8), which
consists of only one phospholipid bilayer. (c... | {"page": 79, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.... |
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0.0... | nucleus that is made up of DNA, the hereditary material, and proteins. This combination of DNA and proteins is
called chromatin. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every species has a specific number of
chromosomes in the nucleus of its body cells. For example, in humans, the chromosome number is 46, whe... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page_label": "79", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c... |
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0.03296... | (plural = nucleoli), aggregates the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that
are then transported through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
Theendoplasmic reticulum (ER)(Figure 3.13) is a series of interconnected membranous tubules that collectively
mo... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "page": 79, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tuto... |
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give it a studded appearance when viewed through an electron microscope.
The ribosomes synthesize proteins while attached to the ER, resulting in transfer of their newly synthesized proteins
into the lumen of the R... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page": 80, "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.p... |
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0.... | cytoplasmic surface (seeFigure 3.7). The SER’s functions include synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids (including
phospholipids), and steroid hormones; detoxification of medications and poisons; alcohol metabolism; and storage
of calcium ions.
The Golgi Apparatus
We have already mentioned that vesicles can bud from the ER... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "uploaded_via": ... |
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0.022... | flattened rings in the lower portion of this image. Several vesicles can be seen near the Golgi apparatus. (credit: modification of work by
Louisa Howard; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
The Golgi apparatus has a receiving face near the endoplasmic reticulum and a releasing face on the side away from
the ER, toward t... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 615, "creator": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", ... |
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0.0421... | be routed to their proper destinations.
Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite face of the Golgi.
While some of these vesicles, transport vesicles, deposit their contents into other parts of the cell where they will be
used, others, secretory vesicles, fuse with ... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page": 8... |
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0... | In plant cells, the Golgi has an additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides, some of which are incorporated into
the cell wall and some of which are used in other parts of the cell.
Lysosomes
In animal cells, thelysosomesare the cell’s “garbage disposal.” Digestive enzymes within the lysosomes aid the
breakdown of... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 80, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "total_pages": 615, "creator": "PDFium", "upload_t... |
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enzymes are active at a much lower pH (more acidic) than those located in the cytoplasm. Many reactions that take
place in the cytoplasm could not occur at a low pH, thus the advantage of compartmentalizing ... | {"batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "total_page... |
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0.0... | plasma membrane and becomes a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome. The lysosome’s hydrolytic enzymes
then destroy the pathogen (Figure 3.12).
FIGURE 3.12 A macrophage has phagocytized a potentially pathogenic bacterium into a vesicle, which then fuses with a lysosome within
the cell so that the pathogen can be d... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 615, "producer": "PDFium", "creator": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\educat... |
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0.... | VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 3.13 The endomembrane system works to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. (credit: modification of work by
Magnus Manske)
Why does thecisface of the Golgi not face the plasma membrane?
Ribosomes
Ribosomesare the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When viewe... | {"page": 82, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "82", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Bio... |
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... | smaller in prokaryotic cells. They are particularly abundant in immature red blood cells for the synthesis of
hemoglobin, which functions in the transport of oxygen throughout the body.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria(singular = mitochondrion) are often called the “powerhouses” or “energy factories” of a cell because
they ar... | {"page": 82, "page_label": "82", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_type": ".pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Bio... |
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0.... | area of the inner membrane. The area surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and
the matrix have different roles in cellular respiration.
In keeping with our theme of form following function, it is important to point out that muscle cells have a very high
concentration of mitochondria be... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", ... |
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-0.019... | FIGURE 3.14 This transmission electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed with an electron microscope. Notice the inner and
outer membranes, the cristae, and the mitochondrial matrix. (credit: modification of work by Matthew Britton; scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomesare small, round orga... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "page_label": "83", "total_pages": 615, "creator": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "producer": "PDFium", "creation_dat... |
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0.031823... | Animal Cells versus Plant Cells
Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells (seeTable
3.1). Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes (discussed under the cytoskeleton), and lysosomes, whereas plant
cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, ... | {"creator": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "page": 83, "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "c... |
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0.004... | wall is cellulose, a polysaccharide made up of long, straight chains of glucose units. When nutritional information
refers to dietary fiber, it is referring to the cellulose content of food.
Chloroplasts
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own DNA and ribosomes.Chloroplastsfunction in photosynthesis
and can... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 615, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page": 83, "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_name": "Concepts of Biolo... |
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0.022730879... | inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids (Figure 3.15).
Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana). The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane and
surrounding the grana is called the stroma.
3.3 • Eukaryotic Cells 69 | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "page": 83, "total_pages": 615, "creator": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\C... |
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0.00191475... | FIGURE 3.15 This simplified diagram of a chloroplast shows the outer membrane, inner membrane, thylakoids, grana, and stroma.
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the energy of sunlight for
photosynthesis. Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some bact... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 615, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "84", "page": 84, "producer": "PDFiu... |
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0.083... | exhibit specific adaptations to each other. Endosymbiosis (endo-= within) is a relationship in which one organism
lives inside the other. Endosymbiotic relationships abound in nature. Microbes that produce vitamin K live inside the
human gut. This relationship is beneficial for us because we are unable to synthesize vi... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "84", "page": 84, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.... |
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-0.03891... | theory, which indicated that these organelles originated from separate organisms. Although Margulis’s work was
met with resistance, this basic component of this once-revolutionary hypothesis is now widely accepted. Scientists
believe that host cells and bacteria formed a mutually beneficial endosymbiotic relationship w... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creator": "PDFium", "page_label": "84", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_... |
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-0.02... | regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental conditions. In plant cells, the liquid inside the
central vacuole provides turgor pressure, which is the outward pressure caused by the fluid inside the cell. Have you
ever noticed that if you forget to water a plant for a few days, it wilts? That i... | {"page": 84, "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\... |
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0.07995... | seed cells.
Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
Most animal cells release materials into the extracellular space. The primary components of these materials are
glycoproteins and the protein collagen. Collectively, these materials are called theextracellular matrix(Figure
3.16). Not only does the extracellular matrix h... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_up... |
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0.0... | stimulates adjacent smooth muscle cells in the blood vessel to contract (thus constricting the blood vessel), and
initiates a series of steps that stimulate the platelets to produce clotting factors.
Intercellular Junctions
Cells can also communicate with each other by direct contact, referred to as intercellular junct... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "page": 85, "page_label": "85", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via":... |
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plant cells. (b) Tight junctions join adjacent animal cells. (c) Desmosomes join two animal cells together. (d) Gap junctions act as channels
between animal cells. (credit b, c, d: modifi... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "86", "creator": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de... |
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Also found only in animal cells aredesmosomes, which act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells (Figure
3.17c). They keep cells together in a sheet-like formation in organs and tissues that stretch, like the skin, heart, and
muscles.
Gap junctionsin animal cells are like plasmodesmata in... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "total_pages": 615, "p... |
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0.01976310... | Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells and Their Functions
Cell
Component Function Present in
Prokaryotes?
Present
in
Animal
Cells?
Present
in Plant
Cells?
Plasma
membrane
Separates cell from external environment; controls
passage of organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen,
and wastes into and out of the cell
Ye... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "page": 87, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d... |
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0.05690... | vacuoles Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells No Yes Yes
Centrosome Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells;
organizing center of microtubules in animal cells No Yes No
Lysosomes Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out
organelles No Yes No
Cell wall Protection, structural suppor... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page": 87, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "page_label": "87", "creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 615, "source": "downloads\\... |
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0.04060849... | Cell
Component Function Present in
Prokaryotes?
Present
in
Animal
Cells?
Present
in Plant
Cells?
Cytoskeleton
Maintains cell’s shape, secures organelles in specific
positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move
within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to
move independently
Yes Yes Yes
Flagella Cellular loc... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_name": "Conce... |
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0.08... | • Describe the functions of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in membranes
A cell’s plasma membrane defines the boundary of the cell and determines the nature of its contact with the
environment. Cells exclude some substances, take in others, and excrete still others, all in controlled quantities.
Plasma membr... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_hash": "e0d8e64... |
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0.11... | one another, which is vital as tissues and organs form during early development, and which later plays a role in the
“self” versus “non-self” distinction of the immune response.
The plasma membrane also carries receptors, which are attachment sites for specific substances that interact with
the cell. Each receptor is s... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "total_pages": 615, "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academi... |
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0.07... | viruses as attachment points. Although they are highly specific, pathogens like viruses may evolve to exploit
receptors to gain entry to a cell by mimicking the specific substance that the receptor is meant to bind. This
specificity helps to explain why human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or any of the five types of hep... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page": 88, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "88", "producer": "PDFium", "file_type": ".... |
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0.... | structure and functions of the plasma membrane as we now understand them. The fluid mosaic model describes
the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components—including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins,
and carbohydrates—in which the components are able to flow and change position, while maintaining the ... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 89, "total_pages": 615, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "page_label": "89", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "... |
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0.0218... | FIGURE 3.18 The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane structure describes the plasma membrane as a fluid combination of
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
The plasma membrane is made up primarily of a bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins, carbohydrates,
glycolipids, and glycoprotein... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "89", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "total_pages": 615, "upload_time... |
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0.110... | aqueous fluid both inside and outside the cell. Thus, both surfaces of the plasma membrane are hydrophilic. In
contrast, the interior of the membrane, between its two surfaces, is a hydrophobic or nonpolar region because of the
fatty acid tails. This region has no attraction for water or other polar molecules.
Proteins... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 89, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "producer": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\B... |
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0.01543... | recognition sites.
Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. They are always found on the exterior surface
of cells and are bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids). These
carbohydrate chains may consist of 2–60 monosaccharide units and may be either str... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutori... |
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-0.00275210... | white blood cells called T-helper cells and monocytes, as well as some cells of the central nervous system. The
hepatitis virus attacks only liver cells.
These viruses are able to invade these cells, because the cells have binding sites on their surfaces that the viruses
have exploited with equally specific glycoprotei... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 90, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "90", "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_type": ".p... |
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0.05295... | change quickly, making the production of an effective vaccine against the virus very difficult. The virus population
within an infected individual quickly evolves through mutation into different populations, or variants, distinguished
by differences in these recognition sites. This rapid change of viral surface markers... | {"producer": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "90", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "... |
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0.05067... | 3.5 Passive Transport
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain why and how passive transport occurs
• Understand the processes of osmosis and diffusion
• Define tonicity and describe its relevance to passive transport
Plasma membranes must allow certain substances to enter and leav... | {"total_pages": 615, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 90, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", ... |
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0.... | may happen passively, as certain materials move back and forth, or the cell may have special mechanisms that
ensure transport. Most cells expend most of their energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to create and
maintain an uneven distribution of ions on the opposite sides of their membranes. The structur... | {"page_label": "91", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_type": ".pdf", "page": 91, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "source": "dow... |
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0.06... | Selective Permeability
Plasma membranes are asymmetric, meaning that despite the mirror image formed by the phospholipids, the
interior of the membrane is not identical to the exterior of the membrane. Integral proteins that act as channels or
pumps work in one direction. Carbohydrates, attached to lipids or proteins, ... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page_label": "91", "page": 91, "creator": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pd... |
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0.09... | slip through the hydrophobic lipid core of the membrane. Substances such as the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
readily pass through the plasma membranes in the digestive tract and other tissues. Fat-soluble drugs also gain
easy entry into cells and are readily transported into the body’s tissues and organs. Molecu... | {"producer": "PDFium", "page_label": "91", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page": 91, "file_t... |
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0.051001... | Simple sugars and amino acids also need help with transport across plasma membranes.
Diffusion
Diffusionis a passive process of transport. A single substance tends to move from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration until the concentration is equal across the space. You are familiar with diffusio... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 91, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creato... |
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0.082... | plasma membrane by diffusion (Figure 3.20). Diffusion expends no energy. Rather the different concentrations of
materials in different areas are a form of potential energy, and diffusion is the dissipation of that potential energy as
materials move down their concentration gradients, from high to low.
FIGURE 3.20 Diffu... | {"total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "upl... |
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0.072428613... | Each separate substance in a medium, such as the extracellular fluid, has its own concentration gradient,
independent of the concentration gradients of other materials. Additionally, each substance will diffuse according to
that gradient.
Several factors affect the rate of diffusion.
• Extent of the concentration gradi... | {"batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 92, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\B... |
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0.10189701... | increasing the rate of diffusion.
• Solvent density: As the density of the solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The molecules slow
down because they have a more difficult time getting through the denser medium.
LINK T O LE ARNING
For an animation of the diffusion process in action, viewthis short video(h... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "page": 92, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "p... |
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0.110314... | substances across the plasma membrane rests in the proteins that span its surface. The material being transported
is first attached to protein or glycoprotein receptors on the exterior surface of the plasma membrane. This allows
the material that is needed by the cell to be removed from the extracellular fluid. The sub... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "batch_upload": true, "page_label": "92", "page": 92, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source... |
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-0.00029999285470694304,... | concentration gradient across the membrane, which is inversely proportional to the solutes' concentration. Whereas
diffusion transports material across membranes and within cells, osmosis transportsonly wateracross a membrane
and the membrane limits the diffusion of solutes in the water. Osmosis is a special case of di... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 615, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "92", "producer": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:1... |
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0.02686... | same, but the concentrations of solute are different, then there are also different concentrations of water, the
solvent, on either side of the membrane.
78 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate"... |
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0.0449084... | FIGURE 3.21 In osmosis, water always moves from an area of higher concentration (of water) to one of lower concentration (of water). In
this system, the solute cannot pass through the selectively permeable membrane.
A principle of diffusion is that the molecules move around and will spread evenly throughout the medium ... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "93", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "total_pages": 615, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic... |
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0.0368... | LINK T O LE ARNING
Watch thisvideo(http://openstax.org/l/dispersion)that illustrates diffusion in hot versus cold solutions.
Tonicity
Tonicitydescribes the amount of solute in a solution. The measure of the tonicity of a solution, or the total amount
of solutes dissolved in a specific amount of solution, is called itso... | {"batch_upload": true, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 93, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "b... |
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0... | the cell cytoplasm.) It also means that the extracellular fluid has a higher concentration of water than does the cell.
In this situation, water will follow its concentration gradient and enter the cell. This may cause an animal cell to
burst, or lyse.
In ahypertonicsolution (the prefixhyper- refers to the extracellula... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "page_label": "93", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 93, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a0... |
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0.0... | the cell matches that of the extracellular fluid, there will be no net movement of water into or out of the cell. Blood
cells in hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions take on characteristic appearances (Figure 3.22).
3.5 • Passive Transport 79 | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_type": ".pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Bio... |
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... | VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 3.22 Osmotic pressure changes the shape of red blood cells in hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions. (credit: modification
of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
A doctor injects a patient with what the doctor thinks is isotonic saline solution. The patient dies, and autopsy
reveals that... | {"creator": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "page_label": "94", "file_type": ".pdf", "sour... |
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