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] |
Key Terms
acid a substance that donates hydrogen ions and
therefore lowers pH
adhesion the attraction between water molecules
and molecules of a different substance
amino acid a monomer of a protein
anion a negative ion formed by gaining electrons
atomic number the number of protons in an atom
base a substance that absorbs hydrogen ions and
therefore raises pH
buffer a solution that resists a change in pH by
absorbing or releasing hydrogen or hydroxide ions
carbohydrate a biological macromolecule in which
the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1;
carbohydrates serve as energy sources and
structural support in cells
cation a positive ion formed by losing electrons
cellulose a polysaccharide that makes up the cell
walls of plants and provides structural support to
the cell
chemical bond an interaction between two or more
of the same or different elements that results in the
formation of molecules
chitin a type of carbohydrate that forms the outer
|
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] |
the cell
chemical bond an interaction between two or more
of the same or different elements that results in the
formation of molecules
chitin a type of carbohydrate that forms the outer
skeleton of arthropods, such as insects and
crustaceans, and the cell walls of fungi
cohesion the intermolecular forces between water
molecules caused by the polar nature of water;
creates surface tension
covalent bond a type of strong bond between two or
more of the same or different elements; forms when
electrons are shared between elements
denaturation the loss of shape in a protein as a result
of changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to
chemicals
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) a double-stranded
polymer of nucleotides that carries the hereditary
information of the cell
disaccharide two sugar monomers that are linked
together by a glycodsidic bond
electron a negatively charged particle that resides
outside of the nucleus in the electron orbital; lacks
functional mass and has a charge of –1
|
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] |
together by a glycodsidic bond
electron a negatively charged particle that resides
outside of the nucleus in the electron orbital; lacks
functional mass and has a charge of –1
electron transfer the movement of electrons from
one element to another
element one of 118 unique substances that cannot
be broken down into smaller substances and retain
the characteristic of that substance; each element
has a specified number of protons and unique
properties
enzyme a catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is
usually a complex or conjugated protein
evaporation the release of water molecules from
liquid water to form water vapor
fat a lipid molecule composed of three fatty acids and
a glycerol (triglyceride) that typically exists in a solid
form at room temperature
glycogen a storage carbohydrate in animals
hormone a chemical signaling molecule, usually a
protein or steroid, secreted by an endocrine gland or
group of endocrine cells; acts to control or regulate
specific physiological processes
|
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hormone a chemical signaling molecule, usually a
protein or steroid, secreted by an endocrine gland or
group of endocrine cells; acts to control or regulate
specific physiological processes
hydrogen bond a weak bond between partially
positively charged hydrogen atoms and partially
negatively charged elements or molecules
hydrophilic describes a substance that dissolves in
water; water-loving
hydrophobic describes a substance that does not
dissolve in water; water-fearing
ion an atom or compound that does not contain equal
numbers of protons and electrons, and therefore
has a net charge
ionic bond a chemical bond that forms between ions
of opposite charges
isotope one or more forms of an element that have
different numbers of neutrons
lipids a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar
and insoluble in water
litmus paper filter paper that has been treated with a
natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a pH
indicator
macromolecule a large molecule, often formed by
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] |
and insoluble in water
litmus paper filter paper that has been treated with a
natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a pH
indicator
macromolecule a large molecule, often formed by
polymerization of smaller monomers
mass number the number of protons plus neutrons in
an atom
matter anything that has mass and occupies space
monosaccharide a single unit or monomer of
carbohydrates
neutron a particle with no charge that resides in the
nucleus of an atom; has a mass of 1
nonpolar covalent bond a type of covalent bond that
forms between atoms when electrons are shared
equally between atoms, resulting in no regions with
partial charges as in polar covalent bonds
nucleic acid a biological macromolecule that carries
the genetic information of a cell and carries
instructions for the functioning of the cell
nucleotide a monomer of nucleic acids; contains a
pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base
nucleus (chemistry) the dense center of an atom
|
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] |
instructions for the functioning of the cell
nucleotide a monomer of nucleic acids; contains a
pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base
nucleus (chemistry) the dense center of an atom
made up of protons and (except in the case of a
hydrogen atom) neutrons
octet rule states that the outermost shell of an
element with a low atomic number can hold eight
2 • Key Terms 51
|
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electrons
oil an unsaturated fat that is a liquid at room
temperature
periodic table of elements an organizational chart of
elements, indicating the atomic number and mass
number of each element; also provides key
information about the properties of elements
pH scale a scale ranging from 0 to 14 that measures
the approximate concentration of hydrogen ions of a
substance
phospholipid a major constituent of the membranes
of cells; composed of two fatty acids and a
phosphate group attached to the glycerol backbone
polar covalent bond a type of covalent bond in which
electrons are pulled toward one atom and away
from another, resulting in slightly positive and
slightly negative charged regions of the molecule
polypeptide a long chain of amino acids linked by
peptide bonds
polysaccharide a long chain of monosaccharides;
may be branched or unbranched
protein a biological macromolecule composed of one
or more chains of amino acids
proton a positively charged particle that resides in
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] |
may be branched or unbranched
protein a biological macromolecule composed of one
or more chains of amino acids
proton a positively charged particle that resides in
the nucleus of an atom; has a mass of 1 and a
charge of +1
radioactive isotope an isotope that spontaneously
emits particles or energy to form a more stable
element
ribonucleic acid (RNA) a single-stranded polymer of
nucleotides that is involved in protein synthesis
saturated fatty acid a long-chain hydrocarbon with
single covalent bonds in the carbon chain; the
number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon
skeleton is maximized
solvent a substance capable of dissolving another
substance
starch a storage carbohydrate in plants
steroid a type of lipid composed of four fused
hydrocarbon rings
surface tension the cohesive force at the surface of a
body of liquid that prevents the molecules from
separating
temperature a measure of molecular motion
trans-fat a form of unsaturated fat with the hydrogen
|
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] |
body of liquid that prevents the molecules from
separating
temperature a measure of molecular motion
trans-fat a form of unsaturated fat with the hydrogen
atoms neighboring the double bond across from
each other rather than on the same side of the
double bond
triglyceride a fat molecule; consists of three fatty
acids linked to a glycerol molecule
unsaturated fatty acid a long-chain hydrocarbon that
has one or more than one double bonds in the
hydrocarbon chain
van der Waals interaction a weak attraction or
interaction between molecules caused by slightly
positively charged or slightly negatively charged
atoms
Chapter Summary
2.1 The Building Blocks of Molecules
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It
is made up of atoms of different elements. All of the 92
elements that occur naturally have unique qualities
that allow them to combine in various ways to create
compounds or molecules. Atoms, which consist of
protons, neutrons, and electrons, are the smallest units
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that allow them to combine in various ways to create
compounds or molecules. Atoms, which consist of
protons, neutrons, and electrons, are the smallest units
of an element that retain all of the properties of that
element. Electrons can be donated or shared between
atoms to create bonds, including ionic, covalent, and
hydrogen bonds, as well as van der Waals interactions.
2.2 Water
Water has many properties that are critical to
maintaining life. It is polar, allowing for the formation of
hydrogen bonds, which allow ions and other polar
molecules to dissolve in water. Therefore, water is an
excellent solvent. The hydrogen bonds between water
molecules give water the ability to hold heat better
than many other substances. As the temperature rises,
the hydrogen bonds between water continually break
and reform, allowing for the overall temperature to
remain stable, although increased energy is added to
the system. Water’s cohesive forces allow for the
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] |
and reform, allowing for the overall temperature to
remain stable, although increased energy is added to
the system. Water’s cohesive forces allow for the
property of surface tension. All of these unique
properties of water are important in the chemistry of
living organisms.
The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration
of hydrogen ions in the solution. A solution with a high
number of hydrogen ions is acidic and has a low pH
value. A solution with a high number of hydroxide ions
is basic and has a high pH value. The pH scale ranges
from 0 to 14, with a pH of 7 being neutral. Buffers are
solutions that moderate pH changes when an acid or
base is added to the buffer system. Buffers are
important in biological systems because of their ability
to maintain constant pH conditions.
2.3 Biological Molecules
Living things are carbon-based because carbon plays
such a prominent role in the chemistry of living things.
The four covalent bonding positions of the carbon atom
|
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] |
2.3 Biological Molecules
Living things are carbon-based because carbon plays
such a prominent role in the chemistry of living things.
The four covalent bonding positions of the carbon atom
can give rise to a wide diversity of compounds with
many functions, accounting for the importance of
52 2 • Chapter Summary
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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carbon in living things. Carbohydrates are a group of
macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the
cell, provide structural support to many organisms, and
can be found on the surface of the cell as receptors or
for cell recognition. Carbohydrates are classified as
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides,
depending on the number of monomers in the
molecule.
Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar
and hydrophobic in nature. Major types include fats
and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats and
oils are a stored form of energy and can include
triglycerides. Fats and oils are usually made up of fatty
acids and glycerol.
Proteins are a class of macromolecules that can
perform a diverse range of functions for the cell. They
help in metabolism by providing structural support and
by acting as enzymes, carriers or as hormones. The
building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Proteins
are organized at four levels: primary, secondary,
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] |
by acting as enzymes, carriers or as hormones. The
building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Proteins
are organized at four levels: primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary. Protein shape and function are
intricately linked; any change in shape caused by
changes in temperature, pH, or chemical exposure may
lead to protein denaturation and a loss of function.
Nucleic acids are molecules made up of repeating units
of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell
division and protein synthesis. Each nucleotide is made
up of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a
phosphate group. There are two types of nucleic acids:
DNA and RNA.
Visual Connection Questions
1. Figure 2.3How many neutrons do (K) potassium-39
and potassium-40 have, respectively?
Review Questions
2. Magnesium has an atomic number of 12. Which of
the following statements is true of a neutral
magnesium atom?
a. It has 12 protons, 12 electrons, and 12
neutrons.
b. It has 12 protons, 12 electrons, and six
|
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] |
the following statements is true of a neutral
magnesium atom?
a. It has 12 protons, 12 electrons, and 12
neutrons.
b. It has 12 protons, 12 electrons, and six
neutrons.
c. It has six protons, six electrons, and no
neutrons.
d. It has six protons, six electrons, and six
neutrons.
3. Which type of bond represents a weak chemical
bond?
a. hydrogen bond
b. ionic bond
c. covalent bond
d. polar covalent bond
4. An isotope of sodium (Na) has a mass number of
22. How many neutrons does it have?
a. 11
b. 12
c. 22
d. 44
5. Which of the following statements is not true?
a. Water is polar.
b. Water stabilizes temperature.
c. Water is essential for life.
d. Water is the most abundant atom in Earth’s
atmosphere.
6. Using a pH meter, you find the pH of an unknown
solution to be 8.0. How would you describe this
solution?
a. weakly acidic
b. strongly acidic
c. weakly basic
d. strongly basic
7. The pH of lemon juice is about 2.0, whereas tomato
juice's pH is about 4.0. Approximately how much of
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solution?
a. weakly acidic
b. strongly acidic
c. weakly basic
d. strongly basic
7. The pH of lemon juice is about 2.0, whereas tomato
juice's pH is about 4.0. Approximately how much of
an increase in hydrogen ion concentration is there
between tomato juice and lemon juice?
a. 2 times
b. 10 times
c. 100 times
d. 1000 times
8. An example of a monosaccharide is ________.
a. fructose
b. glucose
c. galactose
d. all of the above
2 • Visual Connection Questions 53
|
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] |
9. Cellulose and starch are examples of ________.
a. monosaccharides
b. disaccharides
c. lipids
d. polysaccharides
10. Phospholipids are important components of
__________.
a. the plasma membrane of cells
b. the ring structure of steroids
c. the waxy covering on leaves
d. the double bond in hydrocarbon chains
11. The monomers that make up proteins are called
_________.
a. nucleotides
b. disaccharides
c. amino acids
d. chaperones
Critical Thinking Questions
12. Why are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals
interactions necessary for cells?
13. Why can some insects walk on water?
14. Explain why water is an excellent solvent.
15. Explain at least three functions that lipids serve in
plants and/or animals.
16. Explain what happens if even one amino acid is
substituted for another in a polypeptide chain.
Provide a specific example.
54 2 • Critical Thinking Questions
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 3
Cell Structure and Function
3.1How Cells Are Studied
3.2Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
3.3Eukaryotic Cells
3.4The Cell Membrane
3.5Passive Transport
3.6Active Transport
Close your eyes and picture a brick wall. What is the basic building block of that
wall? It is a single brick, of course. Like a brick wall, your body is composed of basic building
blocks, and the building blocks of your body are cells.
Your body has many kinds of cells, each specialized for a specific purpose. Just as a home is made
from a variety of building materials, the human body is constructed from many cell types. For
example, epithelial cells protect the surface of the body and cover the organs and body cavities
within. Bone cells help to support and protect the body. Cells of the immune system fight invading
bacteria. Additionally, red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. Each of these cell types
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within. Bone cells help to support and protect the body. Cells of the immune system fight invading
bacteria. Additionally, red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. Each of these cell types
plays a vital role during the growth, development, and day-to-day maintenance of the body. In
spite of their enormous variety, however, all cells share certain fundamental characteristics.
3.1 How Cells Are Studied
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the roles of cells in organisms
• Compare and contrast light microscopy and electron microscopy
• Summarize the cell theory
A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, like you, is called an organism. Thus, cells
are the basic building blocks of all organisms.
FIGURE 3.1 (a) Nasal sinus cells (viewed with a light microscope), (b) onion cells (viewed with a light microscope),
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] |
are the basic building blocks of all organisms.
FIGURE 3.1 (a) Nasal sinus cells (viewed with a light microscope), (b) onion cells (viewed with a light microscope),
and (c)Vibrio tasmaniensisbacterial cells (viewed using a scanning electron microscope) are from very different
organisms, yet all share certain characteristics of basic cell structure. (credit a: modification of work by Ed Uthman,
MD; credit b: modification of work by Umberto Salvagnin; credit c: modification of work by Anthony D'Onofrio; scale-
bar data from Matt Russell)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
|
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In multicellular organisms, several cells of one particular kind interconnect with each other and
perform shared functions to form tissues (for example, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and
nervous tissue), several tissues combine to form an organ (for example, stomach, heart, or brain),
and several organs make up an organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or
nervous system). Several systems functioning together form an organism (such as an elephant, for
example).
There are many types of cells, and all are grouped into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic
and eukaryotic. Animal cells, plant cells, fungal cells, and protist cells are classified as eukaryotic,
whereas bacteria and archaea cells are classified as prokaryotic. Before discussing the criteria for
determining whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic, let us first examine how biologists study
cells.
Microscopy
|
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determining whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic, let us first examine how biologists study
cells.
Microscopy
Cells vary in size. With few exceptions, individual cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye,
so scientists use microscopes to study them. Amicroscopeis an instrument that magnifies an
object. Most images of cells are taken with a microscope and are called micrographs.
Light Microscopes
To give you a sense of the size of a cell, a typical human red blood cell is about eight millionths of a
meter or eight micrometers (abbreviated as µm) in diameter; the head of a pin is about two
thousandths of a meter (millimeters, or mm) in diameter. That means that approximately 250 red
blood cells could fit on the head of a pin.
The optics of the lenses of a light microscope changes the orientation of the image. A specimen
that is right-side up and facing right on the microscope slide will appear upside-down and facing
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] |
The optics of the lenses of a light microscope changes the orientation of the image. A specimen
that is right-side up and facing right on the microscope slide will appear upside-down and facing
left when viewed through a microscope, and vice versa. Similarly, if the slide is moved left while
looking through the microscope, it will appear to move right, and if moved down, it will seem to
move up. This occurs because microscopes use two sets of lenses to magnify the image. Due to
the manner in which light travels through the lenses, this system of lenses produces an inverted
image (binoculars and a dissecting microscope work in a similar manner, but include an additional
magnification system that makes the final image appear to be upright).
Most student microscopes are classified as light microscopes (Figure 3.2a). Visible light both
passes through and is bent by the lens system to enable the user to see the specimen. Light
|
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] |
Most student microscopes are classified as light microscopes (Figure 3.2a). Visible light both
passes through and is bent by the lens system to enable the user to see the specimen. Light
microscopes are advantageous for viewing living organisms, but since individual cells are generally
transparent, their components are not distinguishable unless they are colored with special stains.
Staining, however, usually kills the cells.
Light microscopes commonly used in the undergraduate college laboratory magnify up to
approximately 400 times. Two parameters that are important in microscopy are magnification and
resolving power. Magnification is the degree of enlargement of an object. Resolving power is the
ability of a microscope to allow the eye to distinguish two adjacent structures as separate; the
higher the resolution, the closer those two objects can be, and the better the clarity and detail of
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ability of a microscope to allow the eye to distinguish two adjacent structures as separate; the
higher the resolution, the closer those two objects can be, and the better the clarity and detail of
the image. When oil immersion lenses are used, magnification is usually increased to 1,000 times
for the study of smaller cells, like most prokaryotic cells. Because light entering a specimen from
below is focused onto the eye of an observer, the specimen can be viewed using light microscopy.
For this reason, for light to pass through a specimen, the sample must be thin or translucent.
LINK T O LE ARNING
For another perspective on cell size, try theHowBig(http://openstax.org/l/cell_sizes2)interactive.
A second type of microscope used in laboratories is the dissecting microscope (Figure 3.2b).
These microscopes have a lower magnification (20 to 80 times the object size) than light
56 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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microscopes and can provide a three-dimensional view of the specimen. Thick objects can be examined with many
components in focus at the same time. These microscopes are designed to give a magnified and clear view of tissue
structure as well as the anatomy of the whole organism. Like light microscopes, most modern dissecting
microscopes are also binocular, meaning that they have two separate lens systems, one for each eye. The lens
systems are separated by a certain distance, and therefore provide a sense of depth in the view of their subject to
make manipulations by hand easier. Dissecting microscopes also have optics that correct the image so that it
appears as if being seen by the naked eye and not as an inverted image. The light illuminating a sample under a
dissecting microscope typically comes from above the sample, but may also be directed from below.
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] |
dissecting microscope typically comes from above the sample, but may also be directed from below.
FIGURE 3.2 (a) Most light microscopes used in a college biology lab can magnify cells up to approximately 400 times. (b) Dissecting
microscopes have a lower magnification than light microscopes and are used to examine larger objects, such as tissues.
Electron Microscopes
In contrast to light microscopes, electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of a beam of light. Not only
does this allow for higher magnification and, thus, more detail (Figure 3.3), it also provides higher resolving power.
Preparation of a specimen for viewing under an electron microscope will kill it; therefore, live cells cannot be viewed
using this type of microscopy. In addition, the electron beam moves best in a vacuum, making it impossible to view
living materials.
In a scanning electron microscope, a beam of electrons moves back and forth across a cell’s surface, rendering the
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living materials.
In a scanning electron microscope, a beam of electrons moves back and forth across a cell’s surface, rendering the
details of cell surface characteristics by reflection. Cells and other structures are usually coated with a metal like
gold. In a transmission electron microscope, the electron beam is transmitted through the cell and provides details
of a cell’s internal structures. As you might imagine, electron microscopes are significantly more bulky and
expensive than are light microscopes.
3.1 • How Cells Are Studied 57
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] |
FIGURE 3.3 (a)Salmonellabacteria are viewed with a light microscope. (b) This scanning electron micrograph showsSalmonellabacteria
(in red) invading human cells. (credit a: modification of work by CDC, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Charles N. Farmer; credit b:
modification of work by Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
CAREER C ONNE CTION
Cytotechnologist
Have you ever heard of a medical test called a Pap smear (Figure 3.4)? In this test, a doctor takes a small sample of
cells from the uterine cervix of a patient and sends it to a medical lab where a cytotechnologist stains the cells and
examines them for any changes that could indicate cervical cancer or a microbial infection.
Cytotechnologists (cyto- = cell) are professionals who study cells through microscopic examinations and other
laboratory tests. They are trained to determine which cellular changes are within normal limits or are abnormal.
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laboratory tests. They are trained to determine which cellular changes are within normal limits or are abnormal.
Their focus is not limited to cervical cells; they study cellular specimens that come from all organs. When they notice
abnormalities, they consult a pathologist, who is a medical doctor who can make a clinical diagnosis.
Cytotechnologists play vital roles in saving people’s lives. When abnormalities are discovered early, a patient’s
treatment can begin sooner, which usually increases the chances of successful treatment.
58 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
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FIGURE 3.4 These uterine cervix cells, viewed through a light microscope, were obtained from a Pap smear. Normal cells are on the left.
The cells on the right are infected with human papillomavirus. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman; scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)
Cell Theory
The microscopes we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a
Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of his now-ancient lenses, van
Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protists (a type of single-celled organism) and sperm, which he
collectively termed “animalcules.”
In a 1665 publication calledMicrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term “cell” (from the
Latincella, meaning “small room”) for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens.
In the 1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses and microscope
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In the 1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses and microscope
construction enabled other scientists to see different components inside cells.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying tissues and proposed
theunified cell theory, which states that all living things are composed of one or more cells, that the cell is the
basic unit of life, and that all new cells arise from existing cells. These principles still stand today.
3.2 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Name examples of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
• Compare and contrast prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
• Describe the relative sizes of different kinds of cells
Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The predominantly single-celled organisms of
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] |
• Describe the relative sizes of different kinds of cells
Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The predominantly single-celled organisms of
the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro- = before; -karyon- = nucleus). Animal cells,
plant cells, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (eu- = true).
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior
from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell in which other
cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and 4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize
proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
Aprokaryotic cellis a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-
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proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
Aprokaryotic cellis a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-
bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is
found in the central part of the cell: a darkened region called the nucleoid (Figure 3.5).
3.2 • Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 59
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] |
FIGURE 3.5 This figure shows the generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell.
Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, comprised of sugars and amino
acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 3.5). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps
the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its
environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion, while most pili are
used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation.
Eukaryotic Cells
In nature, the relationship between form and function is apparent at all levels, including the level of the cell, and this
will become clear as we explore eukaryotic cells. The principle “form follows function” is found in many contexts.
For example, birds and fish have streamlined bodies that allow them to move quickly through the medium in which
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For example, birds and fish have streamlined bodies that allow them to move quickly through the medium in which
they live, be it air or water. It means that, in general, one can deduce the function of a structure by looking at its
form, because the two are matched.
Aeukaryotic cellis a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound compartments or sacs,
calledorganelles, which have specialized functions. The word eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true nucleus,”
alluding to the presence of the membrane-bound nucleus in these cells. The word “organelle” means “little organ,”
and, as already mentioned, organelles have specialized cellular functions, just as the organs of your body have
specialized functions.
Cell Size
At 0.1–5.0 µm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells, which have diameters
ranging from 10–100 µm (Figure 3.6). The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter
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ranging from 10–100 µm (Figure 3.6). The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter
them to quickly spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly
move out. However, larger eukaryotic cells have evolved different structural adaptations to enhance cellular
transport. Indeed, the large size of these cells would not be possible without these adaptations. In general, cell size
is limited because volume increases much more quickly than does cell surface area. As a cell becomes larger, it
becomes more and more difficult for the cell to acquire sufficient materials to support the processes inside the cell,
because the relative size of the surface area across which materials must be transported declines.
60 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
FIGURE 3.6 This figure shows the relative sizes of different kinds of cells and cellular components. An adult human is shown for
comparison.
3.3 Eukaryotic Cells
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the structure of eukaryotic plant and animal cells
• State the role of the plasma membrane
• Summarize the functions of the major cell organelles
• Describe the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
At this point, it should be clear that eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure than do prokaryotic cells.
Organelles allow for various functions to occur in the cell at the same time. Before discussing the functions of
organelles within a eukaryotic cell, let us first examine two important components of the cell: the plasma membrane
and the cytoplasm.
3.3 • Eukaryotic Cells 61
|
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] |
VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 3.7 This figure shows (a) a typical animal cell and (b) a typical plant cell.
What structures does a plant cell have that an animal cell does not have? What structures does an animal cell have
that a plant cell does not have?
62 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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The Plasma Membrane
Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have aplasma membrane(Figure 3.8) made up of a phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment. A
phospholipid is a lipid molecule composed of two fatty acid chains, a glycerol backbone, and a phosphate group.
The plasma membrane regulates the passage of some substances, such as organic molecules, ions, and water,
preventing the passage of some to maintain internal conditions, while actively bringing in or removing others. Other
compounds move passively across the membrane.
FIGURE 3.8 The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. There are other components, such as cholesterol
and carbohydrates, which can be found in the membrane in addition to phospholipids and protein.
The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli
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The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli
(singular = microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the plasma membrane. Such cells are typically
found lining the small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food. This is an excellent example of
form matching the function of a structure.
People with celiac disease have an immune response to gluten, which is a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye.
The immune response damages microvilli, and thus, afflicted individuals cannot absorb nutrients. This leads to
malnutrition, cramping, and diarrhea. Patients suffering from celiac disease must follow a gluten-free diet.
The Cytoplasm
Thecytoplasmcomprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope (a
structure to be discussed shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-likecytosol, the cytoskeleton,
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] |
structure to be discussed shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-likecytosol, the cytoskeleton,
and various chemicals (Figure 3.7). Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, it has a semi-
solid consistency, which comes from the proteins within it. However, proteins are not the only organic molecules
found in the cytoplasm. Glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids,
and derivatives of glycerol are found there too. Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, and many other elements are
also dissolved in the cytoplasm. Many metabolic reactions, including protein synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm.
The Cytoskeleton
If you were to remove all the organelles from a cell, would the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm be the only
components left? No. Within the cytoplasm, there would still be ions and organic molecules, plus a network of
|
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] |
components left? No. Within the cytoplasm, there would still be ions and organic molecules, plus a network of
protein fibers that helps to maintain the shape of the cell, secures certain organelles in specific positions, allows
cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to move independently.
Collectively, this network of protein fibers is known as thecytoskeleton. There are three types of fibers within the
cytoskeleton: microfilaments, also known as actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules (Figure 3.9).
3.3 • Eukaryotic Cells 63
|
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] |
FIGURE 3.9 Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules compose a cell’s cytoskeleton.
Microfilaments are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers and function in moving cellular components, for example,
during cell division. They also maintain the structure of microvilli, the extensive folding of the plasma membrane
found in cells dedicated to absorption. These components are also common in muscle cells and are responsible for
muscle cell contraction. Intermediate filaments are of intermediate diameter and have structural functions, such as
maintaining the shape of the cell and anchoring organelles. Keratin, the compound that strengthens hair and nails,
forms one type of intermediate filament. Microtubules are the thickest of the cytoskeletal fibers. These are hollow
tubes that can dissolve and reform quickly. Microtubules guide organelle movement and are the structures that pull
|
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] |
tubes that can dissolve and reform quickly. Microtubules guide organelle movement and are the structures that pull
chromosomes to their poles during cell division. They are also the structural components of flagella and cilia. In cilia
and flagella, the microtubules are organized as a circle of nine double microtubules on the outside and two
microtubules in the center.
The centrosome is a region near the nucleus of animal cells that functions as a microtubule-organizing center. It
contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a cylinder of nine
triplets of microtubules.
The centrosome replicates itself before a cell divides, and the centrioles play a role in pulling the duplicated
chromosomes to opposite ends of the dividing cell. However, the exact function of the centrioles in cell division is
not clear, since cells that have the centrioles removed can still divide, and plant cells, which lack centrioles, are
|
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not clear, since cells that have the centrioles removed can still divide, and plant cells, which lack centrioles, are
capable of cell division.
Flagella and Cilia
Flagella(singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and are used to
move an entire cell, (for example, sperm,Euglena). When present, the cell has just one flagellum or a few flagella.
Whencilia(singular = cilium) are present, however, they are many in number and extend along the entire surface of
the plasma membrane. They are short, hair-like structures that are used to move entire cells (such as paramecium)
or move substances along the outer surface of the cell (for example, the cilia of cells lining the fallopian tubes that
move the ovum toward the uterus, or cilia lining the cells of the respiratory tract that move particulate matter toward
the throat that mucus has trapped).
64 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
The Endomembrane System
Theendomembrane system(endo= within) is a group of membranes and organelles (Figure 3.13) in eukaryotic
cells that work together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nuclear envelope,
lysosomes, and vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which we will cover shortly. Although not
technicallywithinthe cell, the plasma membrane is included in the endomembrane system because, as you will see,
it interacts with the other endomembranous organelles.
The Nucleus
Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell (Figure 3.7). Thenucleus(plural = nuclei) houses the
cell’s DNA in the form of chromatin and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Let us look at it in more
detail (Figure 3.10).
FIGURE 3.10 The outermost boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. Notice that the nuclear envelope consists of two
|
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] |
detail (Figure 3.10).
FIGURE 3.10 The outermost boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. Notice that the nuclear envelope consists of two
phospholipid bilayers (membranes)—an outer membrane and an inner membrane—in contrast to the plasma membrane (Figure 3.8), which
consists of only one phospholipid bilayer. (credit: modification of work by NIGMS, NIH)
Thenuclear envelopeis a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus
(Figure 3.10). Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers.
The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the
nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
To understandchromatin, it is helpful to first consider chromosomes. Achromosomeis a structure within the
nucleus that is made up of DNA, the hereditary material, and proteins. This combination of DNA and proteins is
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nucleus that is made up of DNA, the hereditary material, and proteins. This combination of DNA and proteins is
called chromatin. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every species has a specific number of
chromosomes in the nucleus of its body cells. For example, in humans, the chromosome number is 46, whereas in
fruit flies, the chromosome number is eight.
Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one another when the cell is getting ready to divide. When
the cell is in the growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, the chromosomes resemble an unwound, jumbled
bunch of threads.
We already know that the nucleus directs the synthesis of ribosomes, but how does it do this? Some chromosomes
have sections of DNA that encode ribosomal RNA. A darkly staining area within the nucleus, called thenucleolus
(plural = nucleoli), aggregates the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that
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] |
(plural = nucleoli), aggregates the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that
are then transported through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
Theendoplasmic reticulum (ER)(Figure 3.13) is a series of interconnected membranous tubules that collectively
modify proteins and synthesize lipids. However, these two functions are performed in separate areas of the
endoplasmic reticulum: the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, respectively.
The hollow portion of the ER tubules is called the lumen or cisternal space. The membrane of the ER, which is a
phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, is continuous with the nuclear envelope.
3.3 • Eukaryotic Cells 65
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Therough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)is so named because the ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface
give it a studded appearance when viewed through an electron microscope.
The ribosomes synthesize proteins while attached to the ER, resulting in transfer of their newly synthesized proteins
into the lumen of the RER where they undergo modifications such as folding or addition of sugars. The RER also
makes phospholipids for cell membranes.
If the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined to stay in the RER, they will be packaged within vesicles
and transported from the RER by budding from the membrane (Figure 3.13). Since the RER is engaged in modifying
proteins that will be secreted from the cell, it is abundant in cells that secrete proteins, such as the liver.
Thesmooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)is continuous with the RER but has few or no ribosomes on its
cytoplasmic surface (seeFigure 3.7). The SER’s functions include synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids (including
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cytoplasmic surface (seeFigure 3.7). The SER’s functions include synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids (including
phospholipids), and steroid hormones; detoxification of medications and poisons; alcohol metabolism; and storage
of calcium ions.
The Golgi Apparatus
We have already mentioned that vesicles can bud from the ER, but where do the vesicles go? Before reaching their
final destination, the lipids or proteins within the transport vesicles need to be sorted, packaged, and tagged so that
they wind up in the right place. The sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins take place in
theGolgi apparatus(also called the Golgi body), a series of flattened membranous sacs (Figure 3.11).
FIGURE 3.11 The Golgi apparatus in this transmission electron micrograph of a white blood cell is visible as a stack of semicircular
flattened rings in the lower portion of this image. Several vesicles can be seen near the Golgi apparatus. (credit: modification of work by
|
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] |
flattened rings in the lower portion of this image. Several vesicles can be seen near the Golgi apparatus. (credit: modification of work by
Louisa Howard; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
The Golgi apparatus has a receiving face near the endoplasmic reticulum and a releasing face on the side away from
the ER, toward the cell membrane. The transport vesicles that form from the ER travel to the receiving face, fuse
with it, and empty their contents into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. As the proteins and lipids travel through the
Golgi, they undergo further modifications. The most frequent modification is the addition of short chains of sugar
molecules. The newly modified proteins and lipids are then tagged with small molecular groups to enable them to
be routed to their proper destinations.
Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite face of the Golgi.
|
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] |
be routed to their proper destinations.
Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite face of the Golgi.
While some of these vesicles, transport vesicles, deposit their contents into other parts of the cell where they will be
used, others, secretory vesicles, fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell.
The amount of Golgi in different cell types again illustrates that form follows function within cells. Cells that engage
in a great deal of secretory activity (such as cells of the salivary glands that secrete digestive enzymes or cells of the
immune system that secrete antibodies) have an abundant number of Golgi.
In plant cells, the Golgi has an additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides, some of which are incorporated into
the cell wall and some of which are used in other parts of the cell.
Lysosomes
|
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In plant cells, the Golgi has an additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides, some of which are incorporated into
the cell wall and some of which are used in other parts of the cell.
Lysosomes
In animal cells, thelysosomesare the cell’s “garbage disposal.” Digestive enzymes within the lysosomes aid the
breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. In single-celled
66 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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eukaryotes, lysosomes are important for digestion of the food they ingest and the recycling of organelles. These
enzymes are active at a much lower pH (more acidic) than those located in the cytoplasm. Many reactions that take
place in the cytoplasm could not occur at a low pH, thus the advantage of compartmentalizing the eukaryotic cell
into organelles is apparent.
Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy disease-causing organisms that might enter the cell. A good
example of this occurs in a group of white blood cells called macrophages, which are part of your body’s immune
system. In a process known as phagocytosis, a section of the plasma membrane of the macrophage invaginates
(folds in) and engulfs a pathogen. The invaginated section, with the pathogen inside, then pinches itself off from the
plasma membrane and becomes a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome. The lysosome’s hydrolytic enzymes
then destroy the pathogen (Figure 3.12).
|
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plasma membrane and becomes a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome. The lysosome’s hydrolytic enzymes
then destroy the pathogen (Figure 3.12).
FIGURE 3.12 A macrophage has phagocytized a potentially pathogenic bacterium into a vesicle, which then fuses with a lysosome within
the cell so that the pathogen can be destroyed. Other organelles are present in the cell, but for simplicity, are not shown.
Vesicles and Vacuoles
Vesiclesandvacuolesare membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport. Vacuoles are somewhat
larger than vesicles, and the membrane of a vacuole does not fuse with the membranes of other cellular
components. Vesicles can fuse with other membranes within the cell system. Additionally, enzymes within plant
vacuoles can break down macromolecules.
3.3 • Eukaryotic Cells 67
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VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 3.13 The endomembrane system works to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. (credit: modification of work by
Magnus Manske)
Why does thecisface of the Golgi not face the plasma membrane?
Ribosomes
Ribosomesare the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When viewed through an electron
microscope, free ribosomes appear as either clusters or single tiny dots floating freely in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes
may be attached to either the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or the cytoplasmic side of the endoplasmic
reticulum (Figure 3.7). Electron microscopy has shown that ribosomes consist of large and small subunits.
Ribosomes are enzyme complexes that are responsible for protein synthesis.
Because protein synthesis is essential for all cells, ribosomes are found in practically every cell, although they are
smaller in prokaryotic cells. They are particularly abundant in immature red blood cells for the synthesis of
|
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smaller in prokaryotic cells. They are particularly abundant in immature red blood cells for the synthesis of
hemoglobin, which functions in the transport of oxygen throughout the body.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria(singular = mitochondrion) are often called the “powerhouses” or “energy factories” of a cell because
they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy-carrying molecule. The
formation of ATP from the breakdown of glucose is known as cellular respiration. Mitochondria are oval-shaped,
double-membrane organelles (Figure 3.14) that have their own ribosomes and DNA. Each membrane is a
phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The inner layer has folds called cristae, which increase the surface
area of the inner membrane. The area surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and
the matrix have different roles in cellular respiration.
|
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area of the inner membrane. The area surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and
the matrix have different roles in cellular respiration.
In keeping with our theme of form following function, it is important to point out that muscle cells have a very high
concentration of mitochondria because muscle cells need a lot of energy to contract.
68 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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FIGURE 3.14 This transmission electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed with an electron microscope. Notice the inner and
outer membranes, the cristae, and the mitochondrial matrix. (credit: modification of work by Matthew Britton; scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomesare small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They carry out oxidation reactions that
break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. Alcohol is
detoxified by peroxisomes in liver cells. A byproduct of these oxidation reactions is hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, which
is contained within the peroxisomes to prevent the chemical from causing damage to cellular components outside
of the organelle. Hydrogen peroxide is safely broken down by peroxisomal enzymes into water and oxygen.
Animal Cells versus Plant Cells
Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells (seeTable
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] |
Animal Cells versus Plant Cells
Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells (seeTable
3.1). Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes (discussed under the cytoskeleton), and lysosomes, whereas plant
cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and plastids used for storage, and a large
central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.
The Cell Wall
InFigure 3.7b, the diagram of a plant cell, you see a structure external to the plasma membrane called the cell wall.
Thecell wallis a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell. Fungal
and protist cells also have cell walls.
While the chief component of prokaryotic cell walls is peptidoglycan, the major organic molecule in the plant cell
wall is cellulose, a polysaccharide made up of long, straight chains of glucose units. When nutritional information
|
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] |
wall is cellulose, a polysaccharide made up of long, straight chains of glucose units. When nutritional information
refers to dietary fiber, it is referring to the cellulose content of food.
Chloroplasts
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own DNA and ribosomes.Chloroplastsfunction in photosynthesis
and can be found in eukaryotic cells such as plants and algae. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and light
energy are used to make glucose and oxygen. This is the major difference between plants and animals: Plants
(autotrophs) are able to make their own food, like glucose, whereas animals (heterotrophs) must rely on other
organisms for their organic compounds or food source.
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast’s
inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids (Figure 3.15).
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inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids (Figure 3.15).
Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana). The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane and
surrounding the grana is called the stroma.
3.3 • Eukaryotic Cells 69
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] |
FIGURE 3.15 This simplified diagram of a chloroplast shows the outer membrane, inner membrane, thylakoids, grana, and stroma.
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the energy of sunlight for
photosynthesis. Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some bacteria also perform
photosynthesis, but they do not have chloroplasts. Their photosynthetic pigments are located in the thylakoid
membrane within the cell itself.
EVOLUTION C ONNE CTION
Endosymbiosis
We have mentioned that both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA and ribosomes. Have you wondered why?
Strong evidence points to endosymbiosis as the explanation.
Symbiosis is a relationship in which organisms from two separate species live in close association and typically
exhibit specific adaptations to each other. Endosymbiosis (endo-= within) is a relationship in which one organism
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exhibit specific adaptations to each other. Endosymbiosis (endo-= within) is a relationship in which one organism
lives inside the other. Endosymbiotic relationships abound in nature. Microbes that produce vitamin K live inside the
human gut. This relationship is beneficial for us because we are unable to synthesize vitamin K. It is also beneficial
for the microbes because they are protected from other organisms and are provided a stable habitat and abundant
food by living within the large intestine.
Scientists have long noticed that bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts are similar in size and have other similar
features. In the 1950s and 1960s, scientists discovered that mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA and
ribosomes, just as bacteria do. In 1967, Lynn Margulis used microbial evidence in her proposal of endosymbiotic
theory, which indicated that these organelles originated from separate organisms. Although Margulis’s work was
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theory, which indicated that these organelles originated from separate organisms. Although Margulis’s work was
met with resistance, this basic component of this once-revolutionary hypothesis is now widely accepted. Scientists
believe that host cells and bacteria formed a mutually beneficial endosymbiotic relationship when the host cells
ingested aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria but did not destroy them. Through evolution, these ingested bacteria
became more specialized in their functions, with the aerobic bacteria becoming mitochondria and the
photosynthetic bacteria becoming chloroplasts.
The Central Vacuole
Previously, we mentioned vacuoles as essential components of plant cells. If you look atFigure 3.7, you will see that
plant cells each have a large, central vacuole that occupies most of the cell. Thecentral vacuoleplays a key role in
regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental conditions. In plant cells, the liquid inside the
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] |
regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental conditions. In plant cells, the liquid inside the
central vacuole provides turgor pressure, which is the outward pressure caused by the fluid inside the cell. Have you
ever noticed that if you forget to water a plant for a few days, it wilts? That is because as the water concentration in
the soil becomes lower than the water concentration in the plant, water moves out of the central vacuoles and
cytoplasm and into the soil. As the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell wall unsupported. This loss of support
to the cell walls of a plant results in the wilted appearance. Additionally, this fluid has a very bitter taste, which
discourages consumption by insects and animals. The central vacuole also functions to store proteins in developing
70 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
seed cells.
Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
Most animal cells release materials into the extracellular space. The primary components of these materials are
glycoproteins and the protein collagen. Collectively, these materials are called theextracellular matrix(Figure
3.16). Not only does the extracellular matrix hold the cells together to form a tissue, but it also allows the cells
within the tissue to communicate with each other.
FIGURE 3.16 The extracellular matrix consists of a network of substances secreted by cells.
Blood clotting provides an example of the role of the extracellular matrix in cell communication. When the cells
lining a blood vessel are damaged, they display a protein receptor called tissue factor. When tissue factor binds with
another factor in the extracellular matrix, it causes platelets to adhere to the wall of the damaged blood vessel,
stimulates adjacent smooth muscle cells in the blood vessel to contract (thus constricting the blood vessel), and
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stimulates adjacent smooth muscle cells in the blood vessel to contract (thus constricting the blood vessel), and
initiates a series of steps that stimulate the platelets to produce clotting factors.
Intercellular Junctions
Cells can also communicate with each other by direct contact, referred to as intercellular junctions. There are some
differences in the ways that plant and animal cells do this.Plasmodesmata(singular = plasmodesma) are junctions
between plant cells, whereas animal cell contacts include tight and gap junctions, and desmosomes.
In general, long stretches of the plasma membranes of neighboring plant cells cannot touch one another because
they are separated by the cell walls surrounding each cell. Plasmodesmata are numerous channels that pass
between the cell walls of adjacent plant cells, connecting their cytoplasm and enabling signal molecules and
nutrients to be transported from cell to cell (Figure 3.17a).
3.3 • Eukaryotic Cells 71
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] |
FIGURE 3.17 There are four kinds of connections between cells. (a) A plasmodesma is a channel between the cell walls of two adjacent
plant cells. (b) Tight junctions join adjacent animal cells. (c) Desmosomes join two animal cells together. (d) Gap junctions act as channels
between animal cells. (credit b, c, d: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)
Atight junctionis a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells (Figure 3.17b). Proteins hold the cells tightly
against each other. This tight adhesion prevents materials from leaking between the cells. Tight junctions are
typically found in the epithelial tissue that lines internal organs and cavities, and composes most of the skin. For
example, the tight junctions of the epithelial cells lining the urinary bladder prevent urine from leaking into the
extracellular space.
Also found only in animal cells aredesmosomes, which act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells (Figure
|
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] |
extracellular space.
Also found only in animal cells aredesmosomes, which act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells (Figure
3.17c). They keep cells together in a sheet-like formation in organs and tissues that stretch, like the skin, heart, and
muscles.
Gap junctionsin animal cells are like plasmodesmata in plant cells in that they are channels between adjacent cells
that allow for the transport of ions, nutrients, and other substances that enable cells to communicate (Figure 3.17d).
Structurally, however, gap junctions and plasmodesmata differ.
72 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells and Their Functions
Cell
Component Function Present in
Prokaryotes?
Present
in
Animal
Cells?
Present
in Plant
Cells?
Plasma
membrane
Separates cell from external environment; controls
passage of organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen,
and wastes into and out of the cell
Yes Yes Yes
Cytoplasm Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic
reactions; medium in which organelles are found Yes Yes Yes
Nucleoid Location of DNA Yes No No
Nucleus Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis
of ribosomes and proteins No Yes Yes
Ribosomes Protein synthesis Yes Yes Yes
Mitochondria ATP production/cellular respiration No Yes Yes
Peroxisomes Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and amino
acids, and detoxifies poisons No Yes Yes
Vesicles and
vacuoles Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells No Yes Yes
Centrosome Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells;
organizing center of microtubules in animal cells No Yes No
|
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] |
vacuoles Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells No Yes Yes
Centrosome Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells;
organizing center of microtubules in animal cells No Yes No
Lysosomes Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out
organelles No Yes No
Cell wall Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell
shape
Yes, primarily
peptidoglycan
in bacteria but
not Archaea
No
Yes,
primarily
cellulose
Chloroplasts Photosynthesis No No Yes
Endoplasmic
reticulum Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids No Yes Yes
Golgi
apparatus
Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes lipids
and proteins No Yes Yes
TABLE 3.1
3.3 • Eukaryotic Cells 73
|
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] |
Cell
Component Function Present in
Prokaryotes?
Present
in
Animal
Cells?
Present
in Plant
Cells?
Cytoskeleton
Maintains cell’s shape, secures organelles in specific
positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move
within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to
move independently
Yes Yes Yes
Flagella Cellular locomotion Some Some
No,
except
for some
plant
sperm.
Cilia
Cellular locomotion, movement of particles along
extracellular surface of plasma membrane, and
filtration
No Some No
TABLE 3.1
This table provides the components of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and their respective functions.
3.4 The Cell Membrane
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Understand the fluid mosaic model of membranes
• Describe the functions of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in membranes
A cell’s plasma membrane defines the boundary of the cell and determines the nature of its contact with the
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• Describe the functions of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in membranes
A cell’s plasma membrane defines the boundary of the cell and determines the nature of its contact with the
environment. Cells exclude some substances, take in others, and excrete still others, all in controlled quantities.
Plasma membranes enclose the borders of cells, but rather than being a static bag, they are dynamic and constantly
in flux. The plasma membrane must be sufficiently flexible to allow certain cells, such as red blood cells and white
blood cells, to change shape as they pass through narrow capillaries. These are the more obvious functions of a
plasma membrane. In addition, the surface of the plasma membrane carries markers that allow cells to recognize
one another, which is vital as tissues and organs form during early development, and which later plays a role in the
“self” versus “non-self” distinction of the immune response.
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one another, which is vital as tissues and organs form during early development, and which later plays a role in the
“self” versus “non-self” distinction of the immune response.
The plasma membrane also carries receptors, which are attachment sites for specific substances that interact with
the cell. Each receptor is structured to bind with a specific substance. For example, surface receptors of the
membrane create changes in the interior, such as changes in enzymes of metabolic pathways. These metabolic
pathways might be vital for providing the cell with energy, making specific substances for the cell, or breaking down
cellular waste or toxins for disposal. Receptors on the plasma membrane’s exterior surface interact with hormones
or neurotransmitters, and allow their messages to be transmitted into the cell. Some recognition sites are used by
viruses as attachment points. Although they are highly specific, pathogens like viruses may evolve to exploit
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viruses as attachment points. Although they are highly specific, pathogens like viruses may evolve to exploit
receptors to gain entry to a cell by mimicking the specific substance that the receptor is meant to bind. This
specificity helps to explain why human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or any of the five types of hepatitis viruses
invade only specific cells.
Fluid Mosaic Model
In 1972, S. J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson proposed a new model of the plasma membrane that, compared to
earlier understanding, better explained both microscopic observations and the function of the plasma membrane.
This was called thefluid mosaic model. The model has evolved somewhat over time, but still best accounts for the
74 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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structure and functions of the plasma membrane as we now understand them. The fluid mosaic model describes
the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components—including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins,
and carbohydrates—in which the components are able to flow and change position, while maintaining the basic
integrity of the membrane. Both phospholipid molecules and embedded proteins are able to diffuse rapidly and
laterally in the membrane. The fluidity of the plasma membrane is necessary for the activities of certain enzymes
and transport molecules within the membrane. Plasma membranes range from 5–10 nm thick. As a comparison,
human red blood cells, visible via light microscopy, are approximately 8 µm thick, or approximately 1,000 times
thicker than a plasma membrane. (Figure 3.18)
FIGURE 3.18 The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane structure describes the plasma membrane as a fluid combination of
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
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] |
FIGURE 3.18 The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane structure describes the plasma membrane as a fluid combination of
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
The plasma membrane is made up primarily of a bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins, carbohydrates,
glycolipids, and glycoproteins, and, in animal cells, cholesterol. The amount of cholesterol in animal plasma
membranes regulates the fluidity of the membrane and changes based on the temperature of the cell’s
environment. In other words, cholesterol acts as antifreeze in the cell membrane and is more abundant in animals
that live in cold climates.
The main fabric of the membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules, and the polar ends of these
molecules (which look like a collection of balls in an artist’s rendition of the model) (Figure 3.18) are in contact with
aqueous fluid both inside and outside the cell. Thus, both surfaces of the plasma membrane are hydrophilic. In
|
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] |
aqueous fluid both inside and outside the cell. Thus, both surfaces of the plasma membrane are hydrophilic. In
contrast, the interior of the membrane, between its two surfaces, is a hydrophobic or nonpolar region because of the
fatty acid tails. This region has no attraction for water or other polar molecules.
Proteins make up the second major chemical component of plasma membranes. Integral proteins are embedded in
the plasma membrane and may span all or part of the membrane. Integral proteins may serve as channels or pumps
to move materials into or out of the cell. Peripheral proteins are found on the exterior or interior surfaces of
membranes, attached either to integral proteins or to phospholipid molecules. Both integral and peripheral proteins
may serve as enzymes, as structural attachments for the fibers of the cytoskeleton, or as part of the cell’s
recognition sites.
Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. They are always found on the exterior surface
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recognition sites.
Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. They are always found on the exterior surface
of cells and are bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids). These
carbohydrate chains may consist of 2–60 monosaccharide units and may be either straight or branched. Along with
peripheral proteins, carbohydrates form specialized sites on the cell surface that allow cells to recognize each other.
EVOLUTION C ONNE CTION
How Viruses Infect Specific Organs
Specific glycoprotein molecules exposed on the surface of the cell membranes of host cells are exploited by many
viruses to infect specific organs. For example, HIV is able to penetrate the plasma membranes of specific kinds of
3.4 • The Cell Membrane 75
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white blood cells called T-helper cells and monocytes, as well as some cells of the central nervous system. The
hepatitis virus attacks only liver cells.
These viruses are able to invade these cells, because the cells have binding sites on their surfaces that the viruses
have exploited with equally specific glycoproteins in their coats. (Figure 3.19). The cell is tricked by the mimicry of
the virus coat molecules, and the virus is able to enter the cell. Other recognition sites on the virus’s surface interact
with the human immune system, prompting the body to produce antibodies. Antibodies are made in response to the
antigens (or proteins associated with invasive pathogens). These same sites serve as places for antibodies to attach,
and either destroy or inhibit the activity of the virus. Unfortunately, these sites on HIV are encoded by genes that
change quickly, making the production of an effective vaccine against the virus very difficult. The virus population
|
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change quickly, making the production of an effective vaccine against the virus very difficult. The virus population
within an infected individual quickly evolves through mutation into different populations, or variants, distinguished
by differences in these recognition sites. This rapid change of viral surface markers decreases the effectiveness of
the person’s immune system in attacking the virus, because the antibodies will not recognize the new variations of
the surface patterns.
FIGURE 3.19 HIV docks at and binds to the CD4 receptor, a glycoprotein on the surface of T cells, before entering, or infecting, the cell.
(credit: modification of work by US National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases)
3.5 Passive Transport
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain why and how passive transport occurs
• Understand the processes of osmosis and diffusion
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3.5 Passive Transport
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain why and how passive transport occurs
• Understand the processes of osmosis and diffusion
• Define tonicity and describe its relevance to passive transport
Plasma membranes must allow certain substances to enter and leave a cell, while preventing harmful material from
entering and essential material from leaving. In other words, plasma membranes areselectively permeable
(semipermeable)—they allow some substances through but not others. If they were to lose this selectivity, the cell
would no longer be able to sustain itself, and it would be destroyed. Some cells require larger amounts of specific
substances than do other cells; they must have a way of obtaining these materials from the extracellular fluids. This
76 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
may happen passively, as certain materials move back and forth, or the cell may have special mechanisms that
ensure transport. Most cells expend most of their energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to create and
maintain an uneven distribution of ions on the opposite sides of their membranes. The structure of the plasma
membrane contributes to these functions, but it also presents some problems.
The most direct forms of membrane transport are passive.Passive transportis a naturally occurring phenomenon
and does not require the cell to expend energy to accomplish the movement. In passive transport, substances move
from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration in a process called diffusion. A physical space
in which there is a different concentration of a single substance is said to have aconcentration gradient.
Selective Permeability
Plasma membranes are asymmetric, meaning that despite the mirror image formed by the phospholipids, the
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] |
Selective Permeability
Plasma membranes are asymmetric, meaning that despite the mirror image formed by the phospholipids, the
interior of the membrane is not identical to the exterior of the membrane. Integral proteins that act as channels or
pumps work in one direction. Carbohydrates, attached to lipids or proteins, are also found on the exterior surface of
the plasma membrane. These carbohydrate complexes help the cell bind substances that the cell needs in the
extracellular fluid. This adds considerably to the selective nature of plasma membranes.
Recall that plasma membranes have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. This characteristic helps the movement
of certain materials through the membrane and hinders the movement of others. Lipid-soluble material can easily
slip through the hydrophobic lipid core of the membrane. Substances such as the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
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slip through the hydrophobic lipid core of the membrane. Substances such as the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
readily pass through the plasma membranes in the digestive tract and other tissues. Fat-soluble drugs also gain
easy entry into cells and are readily transported into the body’s tissues and organs. Molecules of oxygen and carbon
dioxide have no charge and pass through by simple diffusion.
Polar substances present problems for the membrane. While some polar molecules connect easily with the outside
of a cell, they cannot readily pass through the lipid core of the plasma membrane. Additionally, whereas small ions
could easily slip through the spaces in the mosaic of the membrane, their charge prevents them from doing so. Ions
such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride must have a special means of penetrating plasma membranes.
Simple sugars and amino acids also need help with transport across plasma membranes.
Diffusion
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] |
Simple sugars and amino acids also need help with transport across plasma membranes.
Diffusion
Diffusionis a passive process of transport. A single substance tends to move from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration until the concentration is equal across the space. You are familiar with diffusion of
substances through the air. For example, think about someone opening a bottle of perfume in a room filled with
people. The perfume is at its highest concentration in the bottle and is at its lowest at the edges of the room. The
perfume vapor will diffuse, or spread away, from the bottle, and gradually, more and more people will smell the
perfume as it spreads. Materials move within the cell’s cytosol by diffusion, and certain materials move through the
plasma membrane by diffusion (Figure 3.20). Diffusion expends no energy. Rather the different concentrations of
|
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] |
plasma membrane by diffusion (Figure 3.20). Diffusion expends no energy. Rather the different concentrations of
materials in different areas are a form of potential energy, and diffusion is the dissipation of that potential energy as
materials move down their concentration gradients, from high to low.
FIGURE 3.20 Diffusion through a permeable membrane follows the concentration gradient of a substance, moving the substance from an
area of high concentration to one of low concentration. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
3.5 • Passive Transport 77
|
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Each separate substance in a medium, such as the extracellular fluid, has its own concentration gradient,
independent of the concentration gradients of other materials. Additionally, each substance will diffuse according to
that gradient.
Several factors affect the rate of diffusion.
• Extent of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration, the more rapid the diffusion.
The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the slower the rate of diffusion becomes.
• Mass of the molecules diffusing: More massive molecules move more slowly, because it is more difficult for
them to move between the molecules of the substance they are moving through; therefore, they diffuse more
slowly.
• Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the movement of the molecules,
increasing the rate of diffusion.
• Solvent density: As the density of the solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The molecules slow
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increasing the rate of diffusion.
• Solvent density: As the density of the solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The molecules slow
down because they have a more difficult time getting through the denser medium.
LINK T O LE ARNING
For an animation of the diffusion process in action, viewthis short video(http://openstax.org/l/passive_trnsprt)on
cell membrane transport.
Facilitated transport
Infacilitated transport, also called facilitated diffusion, material moves across the plasma membrane with the
assistance of transmembrane proteins down a concentration gradient (from high to low concentration) without the
expenditure of cellular energy. However, the substances that undergo facilitated transport would otherwise not
diffuse easily or quickly across the plasma membrane. The solution to moving polar substances and other
substances across the plasma membrane rests in the proteins that span its surface. The material being transported
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substances across the plasma membrane rests in the proteins that span its surface. The material being transported
is first attached to protein or glycoprotein receptors on the exterior surface of the plasma membrane. This allows
the material that is needed by the cell to be removed from the extracellular fluid. The substances are then passed to
specific integral proteins that facilitate their passage, because they form channels or pores that allow certain
substances to pass through the membrane. The integral proteins involved in facilitated transport are collectively
referred to as transport proteins, and they function as either channels for the material or carriers.
Osmosis
Osmosisis the movement of free water molecules through a semipermeable membrane according to the water's
concentration gradient across the membrane, which is inversely proportional to the solutes' concentration. Whereas
|
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concentration gradient across the membrane, which is inversely proportional to the solutes' concentration. Whereas
diffusion transports material across membranes and within cells, osmosis transportsonly wateracross a membrane
and the membrane limits the diffusion of solutes in the water. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion. Water, like
other substances, moves from an area of high concentration of free water molecules to one of low free water
molecule concentration. Imagine a beaker with a semipermeable membrane, separating the two sides or halves
(Figure 3.21). On both sides of the membrane, the water level is the same, but there are different concentrations on
each side of a dissolved substance, orsolute, that cannot cross the membrane. If the volume of the water is the
same, but the concentrations of solute are different, then there are also different concentrations of water, the
solvent, on either side of the membrane.
78 3 • Cell Structure and Function
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] |
same, but the concentrations of solute are different, then there are also different concentrations of water, the
solvent, on either side of the membrane.
78 3 • Cell Structure and Function
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
FIGURE 3.21 In osmosis, water always moves from an area of higher concentration (of water) to one of lower concentration (of water). In
this system, the solute cannot pass through the selectively permeable membrane.
A principle of diffusion is that the molecules move around and will spread evenly throughout the medium if they can.
However, only the material capable of getting through the membrane will diffuse through it. In this example, the
solute cannot diffuse through the membrane, but the water can. Water has a concentration gradient in this system.
Therefore, water will diffuse down its concentration gradient, crossing the membrane to the side where it is less
concentrated. This diffusion of water through the membrane—osmosis—will continue until the concentration
gradient of water goes to zero. Osmosis proceeds constantly in living systems.
LINK T O LE ARNING
Watch thisvideo(http://openstax.org/l/dispersion)that illustrates diffusion in hot versus cold solutions.
Tonicity
|
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LINK T O LE ARNING
Watch thisvideo(http://openstax.org/l/dispersion)that illustrates diffusion in hot versus cold solutions.
Tonicity
Tonicitydescribes the amount of solute in a solution. The measure of the tonicity of a solution, or the total amount
of solutes dissolved in a specific amount of solution, is called itsosmolarity. Three terms—hypotonic, isotonic, and
hypertonic—are used to relate the osmolarity of a cell to the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid that contains the
cells. In ahypotonicsolution, such as tap water, the extracellular fluid has a lower concentration of solutes than the
fluid inside the cell, and water enters the cell. (In living systems, the point of reference is always the cytoplasm, so
the prefixhypo- means that the extracellular fluid has a lower concentration of solutes, or a lower osmolarity, than
the cell cytoplasm.) It also means that the extracellular fluid has a higher concentration of water than does the cell.
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] |
the cell cytoplasm.) It also means that the extracellular fluid has a higher concentration of water than does the cell.
In this situation, water will follow its concentration gradient and enter the cell. This may cause an animal cell to
burst, or lyse.
In ahypertonicsolution (the prefixhyper- refers to the extracellular fluid having a higher concentration of solutes
than the cell’s cytoplasm), the fluid contains less water than the cell does, such as seawater. Because the cell has a
lower concentration of solutes, the water will leave the cell. In effect, the solute is drawing the water out of the cell.
This may cause an animal cell to shrivel, or crenate.
In anisotonicsolution, the extracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the cell. If the concentration of solutes of
the cell matches that of the extracellular fluid, there will be no net movement of water into or out of the cell. Blood
|
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] |
the cell matches that of the extracellular fluid, there will be no net movement of water into or out of the cell. Blood
cells in hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions take on characteristic appearances (Figure 3.22).
3.5 • Passive Transport 79
|
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VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 3.22 Osmotic pressure changes the shape of red blood cells in hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions. (credit: modification
of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
A doctor injects a patient with what the doctor thinks is isotonic saline solution. The patient dies, and autopsy
reveals that many red blood cells have been destroyed. Do you think the solution the doctor injected was really
isotonic?
Some organisms, such as plants, fungi, bacteria, and some protists, have cell walls that surround the plasma
membrane and prevent cell lysis. The plasma membrane can only expand to the limit of the cell wall, so the cell will
not lyse. In fact, the cytoplasm in plants is always slightly hypertonic compared to the cellular environment, and
water will always enter a cell if water is available. This influx of water produces turgor pressure, which stiffens the
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