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science, it is unlikely that applied science could exist.
Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project, a study in which
each human chromosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise sequence of DNA subunits and the
exact location of each gene. (The gene is the basic unit of heredity represented by a specific DNA segment that
codes for a functional molecule.) Other organisms have also been studied as part of this project to gain a better
understanding of human chromosomes. The Human Genome Project (Figure 1.19) relied on basic research carried
out with non-human organisms and, later, with the human genome. An important end goal eventually became using
the data for applied research seeking cures for genetically related diseases.
FIGURE 1.19 The Human Genome Project was a 13-year collaborative effort among researchers working in several different fields of
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FIGURE 1.19 The Human Genome Project was a 13-year collaborative effort among researchers working in several different fields of
science. The project was completed in 2003. (credit: the U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs)
While research efforts in both basic science and applied science are usually carefully planned, it is important to note
that some discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, by means of a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise.
22 1 • Introduction to Biology
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish ofStaphylococcusbacteria
open. An unwanted mold grew, killing the bacteria. The mold turned out to bePenicillium, and a new critically
important antibiotic was discovered. In a similar manner, Percy Lavon Julian was an established medicinal chemist
working on a way to mass produce compounds with which to manufacture important drugs. He was focused on
using soybean oil in the production of progesterone (a hormone important in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy),
but it wasn't until water accidentally leaked into a large soybean oil storage tank that he found his method.
Immediately recognizing the resulting substance as stigmasterol, a primary ingredient in progesterone and similar
drugs, he began the process of replicating and industrializing the process in a manner that has helped millions of
people. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind
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people. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind
focused on the types of reasoning discussed above—can lead to unexpected breakthroughs.
Reporting Scientific Work
Whether scientific research is basic science or applied science, scientists must share their findings for other
researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries. Communication and collaboration within and between sub
disciplines of science are key to the advancement of knowledge in science. For this reason, an important aspect of a
scientist’s work is disseminating results and communicating with peers. Scientists can share results by presenting
them at a scientific meeting or conference, but this approach can reach only the limited few who are present.
Instead, most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed articles that are published in scientific journals.
|
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Instead, most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed articles that are published in scientific journals.
Peer-reviewed articlesare scientific papers that are reviewed, usually anonymously by a scientist’s colleagues, or
peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, often experts in the same research area, who judge whether or not
the scientist’s work is suitable for publication. The process of peer review helps to ensure that the research
described in a scientific paper or grant proposal is original, significant, logical, and thorough. Grant proposals, which
are requests for research funding, are also subject to peer review. Scientists publish their work so other scientists
can reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions to expand on the findings.
There are many journals and the popular press that do not use a peer-review system. A large number of online
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There are many journals and the popular press that do not use a peer-review system. A large number of online
open-access journals, journals with articles available without cost, are now available many of which use rigorous
peer-review systems, but some of which do not. Results of any studies published in these forums without peer
review are not reliable and should not form the basis for other scientific work. In one exception, journals may allow a
researcher to cite a personal communication from another researcher about unpublished results with the cited
author’s permission.
1.2 • The Process of Science 23
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Key Terms
applied science a form of science that solves real-
world problems
atom a basic unit of matter that cannot be broken
down by normal chemical reactions
basic science science that seeks to expand
knowledge regardless of the short-term application
of that knowledge
biology the study of life
biosphere a collection of all ecosystems on Earth
cell the smallest fundamental unit of structure and
function in living things
community a set of populations inhabiting a
particular area
control a part of an experiment that does not change
during the experiment
deductive reasoning a form of logical thinking that
uses a general statement to predict specific results
descriptive science a form of science that aims to
observe, explore, and find things out
ecosystem all living things in a particular area
together with the abiotic, nonliving parts of that
environment
eukaryote an organism with cells that have nuclei
and membrane-bound organelles
evolution the process of gradual change in a
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together with the abiotic, nonliving parts of that
environment
eukaryote an organism with cells that have nuclei
and membrane-bound organelles
evolution the process of gradual change in a
population that can also lead to new species arising
from older species
falsifiable able to be disproven by experimental
results
homeostasis the ability of an organism to maintain
constant internal conditions
hypothesis a suggested explanation for an event,
which can be tested
hypothesis-based science a form of science that
begins with a specific explanation that is then tested
inductive reasoning a form of logical thinking that
uses related observations to arrive at a general
conclusion
life science a field of science, such as biology, that
studies living things
macromolecule a large molecule typically formed by
the joining of smaller molecules
molecule a chemical structure consisting of at least
two atoms held together by a chemical bond
natural science a field of science that studies the
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the joining of smaller molecules
molecule a chemical structure consisting of at least
two atoms held together by a chemical bond
natural science a field of science that studies the
physical world, its phenomena, and processes
organ a structure formed of tissues operating
together to perform a common function
organ system the higher level of organization that
consists of functionally related organs
organelle a membrane-bound compartment or sac
within a cell
organism an individual living entity
peer-reviewed article a scientific report that is
reviewed by a scientist’s colleagues before
publication
phylogenetic tree a diagram showing the
evolutionary relationships among biological species
based on similarities and differences in genetic or
physical traits or both
physical science a field of science, such as
astronomy, physics, and chemistry, that studies
nonliving matter
population all individuals within a species living
within a specific area
|
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physical science a field of science, such as
astronomy, physics, and chemistry, that studies
nonliving matter
population all individuals within a species living
within a specific area
prokaryote a unicellular organism that lacks a
nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle
science knowledge that covers general truths or the
operation of general laws, especially when acquired
and tested by the scientific method
scientific law a description, often in the form of a
mathematical formula, for the behavior of some
aspect of nature under certain specific conditions
scientific method a method of research with defined
steps that include experiments and careful
observation
scientific theory a thoroughly tested and confirmed
explanation for observations or phenomena
tissue a group of similar cells carrying out the same
function
variable a part of an experiment that can vary or
change
Chapter Summary
1.1 Themes and Concepts of Biology
Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share
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function
variable a part of an experiment that can vary or
change
Chapter Summary
1.1 Themes and Concepts of Biology
Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share
several key properties such as order, sensitivity or
response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, growth
and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy
processing. Living things are highly organized following
a hierarchy that includes atoms, molecules, organelles,
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Organisms, in
turn, are grouped as populations, communities,
ecosystems, and the biosphere. Evolution is the source
of the tremendous biological diversity on Earth today. A
diagram called a phylogenetic tree can be used to
show evolutionary relationships among organisms.
Biology is very broad and includes many branches and
sub disciplines. Examples include molecular biology,
microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany,
among others.
24 1 • Key Terms
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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1.2 The Process of Science
Biology is the science that studies living organisms and
their interactions with one another and their
environments. Science attempts to describe and
understand the nature of the universe in whole or in
part. Science has many fields; those fields related to
the physical world and its phenomena are considered
natural sciences.
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an
observation. A generally accepted scientific theory is
thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set
of observations or phenomena. A scientific law is a
description, often in the form of a mathematical
formula, of the behavior of an aspect of nature under
certain circumstances. Two types of logical reasoning
are used in science. Inductive reasoning uses results to
produce general scientific principles. Deductive
reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts
results by applying general principles. The common
thread throughout scientific research is the use of the
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] |
reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts
results by applying general principles. The common
thread throughout scientific research is the use of the
scientific method. Scientists present their results in
peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific
journals.
Science can be basic or applied. The main goal of basic
science is to expand knowledge without any
expectation of short-term practical application of that
knowledge. The primary goal of applied research,
however, is to solve practical problems.
Visual Connection Questions
1. Figure 1.8Which of the following statements is
false?
A. Tissues exist within organs which exist within
organ systems.
B. Communities exist within populations which
exist within ecosystems.
C. Organelles exist within cells which exist within
tissues.
D. Communities exist within ecosystems which
exist in the biosphere.
2. Figure 1.18In the example below, the scientific
method is used to solve an everyday problem.
|
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|
3b2176de-62db-470a-b4b8-66a195bc70ad
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] |
tissues.
D. Communities exist within ecosystems which
exist in the biosphere.
2. Figure 1.18In the example below, the scientific
method is used to solve an everyday problem.
Which part in the example below is the hypothesis?
Which is the prediction? Based on the results of the
experiment, is the hypothesis supported? If it is not
supported, propose some alternative hypotheses.
1. My toaster doesn’t toast my bread.
2. Why doesn’t my toaster work?
3. There is something wrong with the electrical
outlet.
4. If something is wrong with the outlet, my
coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged
into it.
5. I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet.
6. My coffeemaker works.
Review Questions
3. The smallest unit of biological structure that meets
the functional requirements of “living” is the
________.
a. organ
b. organelle
c. cell
d. macromolecule
4. Which of the following sequences represents the
hierarchy of biological organization from the most
complex to the least complex level?
|
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________.
a. organ
b. organelle
c. cell
d. macromolecule
4. Which of the following sequences represents the
hierarchy of biological organization from the most
complex to the least complex level?
a. organelle, tissue, biosphere, ecosystem,
population
b. organ, organism, tissue, organelle, molecule
c. organism, community, biosphere, molecule,
tissue, organ
d. biosphere, ecosystem, community, population,
organism
5. A suggested and testable explanation for an event
is called a ________.
a. hypothesis
b. variable
c. theory
d. control
6. The type of logical thinking that uses related
observations to arrive at a general conclusion is
called ________.
a. deductive reasoning
b. the scientific method
c. hypothesis-based science
d. inductive reasoning
1 • Visual Connection Questions 25
|
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] |
Critical Thinking Questions
7. Using examples, explain how biology can be studied
from a microscopic approach to a global approach.
8. Give an example of how applied science has had a
direct effect on your daily life.
26 1 • Critical Thinking Questions
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
Chemistry of Life
2.1The Building Blocks of Molecules
2.2Water
2.3Biological Molecules
The elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus are
the key building blocks of the chemicals found in living things. They form the carbohydrates,
nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids (all of which will be defined later in this chapter) that are the
fundamental molecular components of all organisms. In this chapter, we will discuss these
important building blocks and learn how the unique properties of the atoms of different elements
affect their interactions with other atoms to form the molecules of life.
Food provides an organism with nutrients—the matter it needs to survive. Many of these critical
nutrients come in the form of biological macromolecules, or large molecules necessary for life.
These macromolecules are built from different combinations of smaller organic molecules. What
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nutrients come in the form of biological macromolecules, or large molecules necessary for life.
These macromolecules are built from different combinations of smaller organic molecules. What
specific types of biological macromolecules do living things require? How are these molecules
formed? What functions do they serve? In this chapter, we will explore these questions.
FIGURE 2.1 Foods such as bread, fruit, and cheese are rich sources of biological macromolecules. (credit:
modification of work by Bengt Nyman)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
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] |
2.1 The Building Blocks of Molecules
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe matter and elements
• Describe the interrelationship between protons, neutrons, and electrons, and the ways in
which electrons can be donated or shared between atoms
At its most fundamental level, life is made up of matter.Matteroccupies space and has mass. All
matter is composed ofelements, substances that cannot be broken down or transformed
chemically into other substances. Each element is made of atoms, each with a constant number of
protons and unique properties. A total of 118 elements have been defined; however, only 92 occur
naturally, and fewer than 30 are found in living cells. The remaining 26 elements are unstable and,
therefore, do not exist for very long or are theoretical and have yet to be detected.
Each element is designated by its chemical symbol (such as H, N, O, C, and Na), and possesses
|
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therefore, do not exist for very long or are theoretical and have yet to be detected.
Each element is designated by its chemical symbol (such as H, N, O, C, and Na), and possesses
unique properties. These unique properties allow elements to combine and to bond with each
other in specific ways.
Atoms
An atom is the smallest component of an element that retains all of the chemical properties of
that element. For example, one hydrogen atom has all of the properties of the element hydrogen,
such as it exists as a gas at room temperature, and it bonds with oxygen to create a water
molecule. Hydrogen atoms cannot be broken down into anything smaller while still retaining the
properties of hydrogen. If a hydrogen atom were broken down into subatomic particles, it would
no longer have the properties of hydrogen.
At the most basic level, all organisms are made of a combination of elements. They contain atoms
|
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no longer have the properties of hydrogen.
At the most basic level, all organisms are made of a combination of elements. They contain atoms
that combine together to form molecules. In multicellular organisms, such as animals, molecules
can interact to form cells that combine to form tissues, which make up organs. These
combinations continue until entire multicellular organisms are formed.
All atoms contain protons, electrons, and neutrons (Figure 2.2). The most common isotope of
hydrogen (H) is the only exception and is made of one proton and one electron with no neutrons. A
protonis a positively charged particle that resides in thenucleus(the core of the atom) of an atom
and has a mass of 1 and a charge of +1. Anelectronis a negatively charged particle that travels in
the space around the nucleus. In other words, it resides outside of the nucleus. It has a negligible
mass and has a charge of –1.
|
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the space around the nucleus. In other words, it resides outside of the nucleus. It has a negligible
mass and has a charge of –1.
FIGURE 2.2 Atoms are made up of protons and neutrons located within the nucleus, and electrons surrounding the
nucleus.
Neutrons, like protons, reside in the nucleus of an atom. They have a mass of 1 and no charge.
The positive (protons) and negative (electrons) charges balance each other in a neutral atom,
which has a net zero charge.
28 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
Because protons and neutrons each have a mass of 1, the mass of an atom is equal to the number of protons and
neutrons of that atom. The number of electrons does not factor into the overall mass, because their mass is so
small.
As stated earlier, each element has its own unique properties. Each contains a different number of protons and
neutrons, giving it its own atomic number and mass number. Theatomic numberof an element is equal to the
number of protons that element contains. Themass number, or atomic mass, is the number of protons plus the
number of neutrons of that element. Therefore, it is possible to determine the number of neutrons by subtracting
the atomic number from the mass number.
These numbers provide information about the elements and how they will react when combined. Different elements
have different melting and boiling points, and are in different states (liquid, solid, or gas) at room temperature. They
|
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have different melting and boiling points, and are in different states (liquid, solid, or gas) at room temperature. They
also combine in different ways. Some form specific types of bonds, whereas others do not. How they combine is
based on the number of electrons present. Because of these characteristics, the elements are arranged into the
periodic table of elements, a chart of the elements that includes the atomic number and relative atomic mass of
each element. The periodic table also provides key information about the properties of elements (Figure 2.2)—often
indicated by color-coding. The arrangement of the table also shows how the electrons in each element are
organized and provides important details about how atoms will react with each other to form molecules.
Isotopesare different forms of the same element that have the same number of protons, but a different number of
neutrons. Some elements, such as carbon, potassium, and uranium, have naturally occurring isotopes. Carbon-12,
|
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neutrons. Some elements, such as carbon, potassium, and uranium, have naturally occurring isotopes. Carbon-12,
the most common isotope of carbon, contains six protons and six neutrons. Therefore, it has a mass number of 12
(six protons and six neutrons) and an atomic number of 6 (which makes it carbon). Carbon-14 contains six protons
and eight neutrons. Therefore, it has a mass number of 14 (six protons and eight neutrons) and an atomic number of
6, meaning it is still the element carbon. These two alternate forms of carbon are isotopes. Some isotopes are
unstable and will lose protons, other subatomic particles, or energy to form more stable elements. These are called
radioactive isotopesor radioisotopes.
2.1 • The Building Blocks of Molecules 29
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] |
VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 2.3 Arranged in columns and rows based on the characteristics of the elements, the periodic table provides key information about
the elements and how they might interact with each other to form molecules. Most periodic tables provide a key or legend to the
information they contain.
How many neutrons do (K) potassium-39 and potassium-40 have, respectively?
EVOLUTION C ONNE CTION
Carbon Dating
Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope that is created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays. This is a
continuous process, so more14C is always being created. As a living organism develops, the relative level of14C in
its body is equal to the concentration of14C in the atmosphere. When an organism dies, it is no longer ingesting14C,
so the ratio will decline.14C decays to14N by a process called beta decay; it gives off energy in this slow process.
After approximately 5,730 years, only one-half of the starting concentration of14C will have been converted to14N.
|
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After approximately 5,730 years, only one-half of the starting concentration of14C will have been converted to14N.
The time it takes for half of the original concentration of an isotope to decay to its more stable form is called its half-
life. Because the half-life of14C is long, it is used to age formerly living objects, such as fossils. Using the ratio of the
14C concentration found in an object to the amount of14C detected in the atmosphere, the amount of the isotope
that has not yet decayed can be determined. Based on this amount, the age of the fossil can be calculated to about
50,000 years (Figure 2.4). Isotopes with longer half-lives, such as potassium-40, are used to calculate the ages of
older fossils. Through the use of carbon dating, scientists can reconstruct the ecology and biogeography of
organisms living within the past 50,000 years.
30 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
FIGURE 2.4 The age of remains that contain carbon and are less than about 50,000 years old, such as this pygmy mammoth, can be
determined using carbon dating. (credit: Bill Faulkner/NPS)
LINK T O LE ARNING
To learn more about atoms and isotopes, and how you can tell one isotope from another, visit thissite
(http://openstax.org/l/isotopes)and run the simulation.
Chemical Bonds
How elements interact with one another depends on how their electrons are arranged and how many openings for
electrons exist at the outermost region where electrons are present in an atom. Electrons exist at energy levels that
form shells around the nucleus. The closest shell can hold up to two electrons. The closest shell to the nucleus is
always filled first, before any other shell can be filled. Hydrogen has one electron; therefore, it has only one spot
occupied within the lowest shell. Helium has two electrons; therefore, it can completely fill the lowest shell with its
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occupied within the lowest shell. Helium has two electrons; therefore, it can completely fill the lowest shell with its
two electrons. If you look at the periodic table, you will see that hydrogen and helium are the only two elements in
the first row. This is because they only have electrons in their first shell. Hydrogen and helium are the only two
elements that have the lowest shell and no other shells.
The second and third energy levels can hold up to eight electrons. The eight electrons are arranged in four pairs and
one position in each pair is filled with an electron before any pairs are completed.
Looking at the periodic table again (Figure 2.3), you will notice that there are seven rows. These rows correspond to
the number of shells that the elements within that row have. The elements within a particular row have increasing
numbers of electrons as the columns proceed from left to right. Although each element has the same number of
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numbers of electrons as the columns proceed from left to right. Although each element has the same number of
shells, not all of the shells are completely filled with electrons. If you look at the second row of the periodic table,
you will find lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F), and neon (Ne).
These all have electrons that occupy only the first and second shells. Lithium has only one electron in its outermost
shell, beryllium has two electrons, boron has three, and so on, until the entire shell is filled with eight electrons, as is
the case with neon.
Not all elements have enough electrons to fill their outermost shells, but an atom is at its most stable when all of the
electron positions in the outermost shell are filled. Because of these vacancies in the outermost shells, we see the
formation ofchemical bonds, or interactions between two or more of the same or different elements that result in
|
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formation ofchemical bonds, or interactions between two or more of the same or different elements that result in
the formation of molecules. To achieve greater stability, atoms will tend to completely fill their outer shells and will
bond with other elements to accomplish this goal by sharing electrons, accepting electrons from another atom, or
donating electrons to another atom. Because the outermost shells of the elements with low atomic numbers (up to
2.1 • The Building Blocks of Molecules 31
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calcium, with atomic number 20) can hold eight electrons, this is referred to as theoctet rule. An element can
donate, accept, or share electrons with other elements to fill its outer shell and satisfy the octet rule.
When an atom does not contain equal numbers of protons and electrons, it is called anion. Because the number of
electrons does not equal the number of protons, each ion has a net charge. Positive ions are formed by losing
electrons and are calledcations. Negative ions are formed by gaining electrons and are calledanions.
For example, sodium only has one electron in its outermost shell. It takes less energy for sodium to donate that one
electron than it does to accept seven more electrons to fill the outer shell. If sodium loses an electron, it now has 11
protons and only 10 electrons, leaving it with an overall charge of +1. It is now called a sodium ion.
The chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer shell. Again, it is more energy-efficient for chlorine to gain one
|
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The chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer shell. Again, it is more energy-efficient for chlorine to gain one
electron than to lose seven. Therefore, it tends to gain an electron to create an ion with 17 protons and 18 electrons,
giving it a net negative (–1) charge. It is now called a chloride ion. This movement of electrons from one element to
another is referred to aselectron transfer. AsFigure 2.5illustrates, a sodium atom (Na) only has one electron in its
outermost shell, whereas a chlorine atom (Cl) has seven electrons in its outermost shell. A sodium atom will donate
its one electron to empty its shell, and a chlorine atom will accept that electron to fill its shell, becoming chloride.
Both ions now satisfy the octet rule and have complete outermost shells. Because the number of electrons is no
longer equal to the number of protons, each is now an ion and has a +1 (sodium) or –1 (chloride) charge.
|
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longer equal to the number of protons, each is now an ion and has a +1 (sodium) or –1 (chloride) charge.
FIGURE 2.5 Elements tend to fill their outermost shells with electrons. To do this, they can either donate or accept electrons from other
elements.
Ionic Bonds
There are four types of bonds or interactions: ionic, covalent, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals interactions. Ionic
and covalent bonds are strong interactions that require a larger energy input to break apart. When an element
donates an electron from its outer shell, as in the sodium atom example above, a positive ion is formed. The
element accepting the electron is now negatively charged. Because positive and negative charges attract, these ions
stay together and form anionic bond, or a bond between ions. The elements bond together with the electron from
one element staying predominantly with the other element. When Na+and Cl–ions combine to produce NaCl, an
|
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one element staying predominantly with the other element. When Na+and Cl–ions combine to produce NaCl, an
electron from a sodium atom stays with the other seven from the chlorine atom, and the sodium and chloride ions
attract each other in a lattice of ions with a net zero charge.
Covalent Bonds
Another type of strong chemical bond between two or more atoms is acovalent bond. These bonds form when an
electron is shared between two elements and are the strongest and most common form of chemical bond in living
organisms. Covalent bonds form between the elements that make up the biological molecules in our cells. Unlike
32 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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ionic bonds, covalent bonds do not dissociate in water.
The hydrogen and oxygen atoms that combine to form water molecules are bound together by covalent bonds. The
electron from the hydrogen atom divides its time between the outer shell of the hydrogen atom and the incomplete
outer shell of the oxygen atom. To completely fill the outer shell of an oxygen atom, two electrons from two
hydrogen atoms are needed, hence the subscript “2” in H2O. The electrons are shared between the atoms, dividing
their time between them to “fill” the outer shell of each. This sharing is a lower energy state for all of the atoms
involved than if they existed without their outer shells filled.
There are two types of covalent bonds: polar and nonpolar.Nonpolar covalent bondsform between two atoms of
the same element or between different elements that share the electrons equally. For example, an oxygen atom can
|
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the same element or between different elements that share the electrons equally. For example, an oxygen atom can
bond with another oxygen atom to fill their outer shells. This association is nonpolar because the electrons will be
equally distributed between each oxygen atom. Two covalent bonds form between the two oxygen atoms because
oxygen requires two shared electrons to fill its outermost shell. Nitrogen atoms will form three covalent bonds (also
called triple covalent) between two atoms of nitrogen because each nitrogen atom needs three electrons to fill its
outermost shell. Another example of a nonpolar covalent bond is found in the methane (CH4) molecule. The carbon
atom has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs four more to fill it. It gets these four from four hydrogen
atoms, each atom providing one. These elements all share the electrons equally, creating four nonpolar covalent
bonds (Figure 2.6).
|
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] |
atoms, each atom providing one. These elements all share the electrons equally, creating four nonpolar covalent
bonds (Figure 2.6).
In apolar covalent bond, the electrons shared by the atoms spend more time closer to one nucleus than to the
other nucleus. Because of the unequal distribution of electrons between the different nuclei, a slightly positive (δ+)
or slightly negative (δ–) charge develops. The covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water are
polar covalent bonds. The shared electrons spend more time near the oxygen nucleus, giving it a small negative
charge, than they spend near the hydrogen nuclei, giving these molecules a small positive charge.
FIGURE 2.6 The water molecule (left) depicts a polar bond with a slightly positive charge on the hydrogen atoms and a slightly negative
charge on the oxygen. Examples of nonpolar bonds include methane (middle) and oxygen (right).
Hydrogen Bonds
|
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charge on the oxygen. Examples of nonpolar bonds include methane (middle) and oxygen (right).
Hydrogen Bonds
Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds that require considerable energy to break. However, not all bonds
between elements are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can also form. These are attractions that occur
between positive and negative charges that do not require much energy to break. Two weak bonds that occur
frequently are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. These bonds give rise to the unique properties of
water and the unique structures of DNA and proteins.
When polar covalent bonds containing a hydrogen atom form, the hydrogen atom in that bond has a slightly positive
charge. This is because the shared electron is pulled more strongly toward the other element and away from the
hydrogen nucleus. Because the hydrogen atom is slightly positive (δ+), it will be attracted to neighboring negative
|
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hydrogen nucleus. Because the hydrogen atom is slightly positive (δ+), it will be attracted to neighboring negative
partial charges (δ–). When this happens, a weak interaction occurs between the δ+ charge of the hydrogen atom of
one molecule and the δ– charge of the other molecule. This interaction is called ahydrogen bond. This type of bond
is common; for example, the liquid nature of water is caused by the hydrogen bonds between water molecules
(Figure 2.7). Hydrogen bonds give water the unique properties that sustain life. If it were not for hydrogen bonding,
2.1 • The Building Blocks of Molecules 33
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] |
water would be a gas rather than a liquid at room temperature.
FIGURE 2.7 Hydrogen bonds form between slightly positive (δ+) and slightly negative (δ–) charges of polar covalent molecules, such as
water.
Hydrogen bonds can form between different molecules and they do not always have to include a water molecule.
Hydrogen atoms in polar bonds within any molecule can form bonds with other adjacent molecules. For example,
hydrogen bonds hold together two long strands of DNA to give the DNA molecule its characteristic double-stranded
structure. Hydrogen bonds are also responsible for some of the three-dimensional structure of proteins.
van der Waals Interactions
Like hydrogen bonds,van der Waals interactionsare weak attractions or interactions between molecules. They
occur between polar, covalently bound, atoms in different molecules. Some of these weak attractions are caused by
temporary partial charges formed when electrons move around a nucleus. These weak interactions between
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temporary partial charges formed when electrons move around a nucleus. These weak interactions between
molecules are important in biological systems.
CAREER C ONNE CTION
Radiography Technician
Have you or anyone you know ever had a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, a mammogram, or an X-ray?
These tests produce images of your soft tissues and organs (as with an MRI or mammogram) or your bones (as
happens in an X-ray) by using either radiowaves or special isotopes (radiolabeled or fluorescently labeled) that are
ingested or injected into the body. These tests provide data for disease diagnoses by creating images of your organs
or skeletal system.
MRI imaging works by subjecting hydrogen nuclei, which are abundant in the water in soft tissues, to fluctuating
magnetic fields, which cause them to emit their own magnetic field. This signal is then read by sensors in the
machine and interpreted by a computer to form a detailed image.
|
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magnetic fields, which cause them to emit their own magnetic field. This signal is then read by sensors in the
machine and interpreted by a computer to form a detailed image.
Some radiography technologists and technicians specialize in computed tomography, MRI, and mammography. They
produce films or images of the body that help medical professionals examine and diagnose. Radiologists work
directly with patients, explaining machinery, preparing them for exams, and ensuring that their body or body parts
are positioned correctly to produce the needed images. Physicians or radiologists then analyze the test results.
Radiography technicians can work in hospitals, doctors’ offices, or specialized imaging centers. Training to become a
radiography technician happens at hospitals, colleges, and universities that offer certificates, associate’s degrees, or
bachelor’s degrees in radiography.
2.2 Water
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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bachelor’s degrees in radiography.
2.2 Water
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the properties of water that are critical to maintaining life
Do you ever wonder why scientists spend time looking for water on other planets? It is because water is essential to
life; even minute traces of it on another planet can indicate that life could or did exist on that planet. Water is one of
34 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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the more abundant molecules in living cells and the one most critical to life as we know it. Approximately 60–70
percent of your body is made up of water. Without it, life simply would not exist.
Water Is Polar
The hydrogen and oxygen atoms within water molecules form polar covalent bonds. The shared electrons spend
more time associated with the oxygen atom than they do with hydrogen atoms. There is no overall charge to a water
molecule, but there is a slight positive charge on each hydrogen atom and a slight negative charge on the oxygen
atom. Because of these charges, the slightly positive hydrogen atoms repel each other and form the unique shape
seen inFigure 2.7. Each water molecule attracts other water molecules because of the positive and negative
charges in the different parts of the molecule. Water also attracts other polar molecules (such as sugars), forming
hydrogen bonds. When a substance readily forms hydrogen bonds with water, it can dissolve in water and is referred
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hydrogen bonds. When a substance readily forms hydrogen bonds with water, it can dissolve in water and is referred
to ashydrophilic(“water-loving”). Hydrogen bonds are not readily formed with nonpolar substances like oils and
fats (Figure 2.8). These nonpolar compounds arehydrophobic(“water-fearing”) and will not dissolve in water.
FIGURE 2.8 As this macroscopic image of oil and water show, oil is a nonpolar compound and, hence, will not dissolve in water. Oil and
water do not mix. (credit: Gautam Dogra)
Water Stabilizes Temperature
The hydrogen bonds in water allow it to absorb and release heat energy more slowly than many other substances.
Temperatureis a measure of the motion (kinetic energy) of molecules. As the motion increases, energy is higher
and thus temperature is higher. Water absorbs a great deal of energy before its temperature rises. Increased energy
disrupts the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Because these bonds can be created and disrupted rapidly,
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disrupts the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Because these bonds can be created and disrupted rapidly,
water absorbs an increase in energy and temperature changes only minimally. This means that water moderates
temperature changes within organisms and in their environments. As energy input continues, the balance between
hydrogen-bond formation and destruction swings toward the destruction side. More bonds are broken than are
formed. This process results in the release of individual water molecules at the surface of the liquid (such as a body
of water, the leaves of a plant, or the skin of an organism) in a process calledevaporation. Evaporation of sweat,
which is 90 percent water, allows for cooling of an organism, because breaking hydrogen bonds requires an input of
energy and takes heat away from the body.
Conversely, as molecular motion decreases and temperatures drop, less energy is present to break the hydrogen
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energy and takes heat away from the body.
Conversely, as molecular motion decreases and temperatures drop, less energy is present to break the hydrogen
bonds between water molecules. These bonds remain intact and begin to form a rigid, lattice-like structure (e.g.,
ice) (Figure 2.9a). When frozen, ice is less dense than liquid water (the molecules are farther apart). This means that
ice floats on the surface of a body of water (Figure 2.9b). In lakes, ponds, and oceans, ice will form on the surface of
the water, creating an insulating barrier to protect the animal and plant life beneath from freezing in the water. If this
did not happen, plants and animals living in water would freeze in a block of ice and could not move freely, making
life in cold temperatures difficult or impossible.
2.2 • Water 35
|
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] |
FIGURE 2.9 (a) The lattice structure of ice makes it less dense than the freely flowing molecules of liquid water. Ice's lower density enables
it to (b) float on water. (credit a: modification of work by Jane Whitney; credit b: modification of work by Carlos Ponte)
LINK T O LE ARNING
Clickhere(http://openstax.org/l/ice_lattice)to see a 3-D animation of the structure of an ice lattice.
Water Is an Excellent Solvent
Because water is polar, with slight positive and negative charges, ionic compounds and polar molecules can readily
dissolve in it. Water is, therefore, what is referred to as asolvent—a substance capable of dissolving another
substance. The charged particles will form hydrogen bonds with a surrounding layer of water molecules. This is
referred to as a sphere of hydration and serves to keep the particles separated or dispersed in the water. In the case
of table salt (NaCl) mixed in water (Figure 2.10), the sodium and chloride ions separate, or dissociate, in the water,
|
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of table salt (NaCl) mixed in water (Figure 2.10), the sodium and chloride ions separate, or dissociate, in the water,
and spheres of hydration are formed around the ions. A positively charged sodium ion is surrounded by the partially
negative charges of oxygen atoms in water molecules. A negatively charged chloride ion is surrounded by the
partially positive charges of hydrogen atoms in water molecules. These spheres of hydration are also referred to as
hydration shells. The polarity of the water molecule makes it an effective solvent and is important in its many roles
in living systems.
FIGURE 2.10 When table salt (NaCl) is mixed in water, spheres of hydration form around the ions.
36 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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Water Is Cohesive
Have you ever filled up a glass of water to the very top and then slowly added a few more drops? Before it overflows,
the water actually forms a dome-like shape above the rim of the glass. This water can stay above the glass because
of the property ofcohesion. In cohesion, water molecules are attracted to each other (because of hydrogen
bonding), keeping the molecules together at the liquid-air (gas) interface, although there is no more room in the
glass. Cohesion gives rise tosurface tension, the capacity of a substance to withstand rupture when placed under
tension or stress. When you drop a small scrap of paper onto a droplet of water, the paper floats on top of the water
droplet, although the object is denser (heavier) than the water. This occurs because of the surface tension that is
created by the water molecules. Cohesion and surface tension keep the water molecules intact and the item floating
|
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created by the water molecules. Cohesion and surface tension keep the water molecules intact and the item floating
on the top. It is even possible to “float” a steel needle on top of a glass of water if you place it gently, without
breaking the surface tension (Figure 2.11).
FIGURE 2.11 The weight of a needle on top of water pulls the surface tension downward; at the same time, the surface tension of the water
is pulling it up, suspending the needle on the surface of the water and keeping it from sinking. Notice the indentation in the water around
the needle. (credit: Cory Zanker)
These cohesive forces are also related to the water’s property ofadhesion, or the attraction between water
molecules and other molecules. This is observed when water “climbs” up a straw placed in a glass of water. You will
notice that the water appears to be higher on the sides of the straw than in the middle. This is because the water
molecules are attracted to the straw and therefore adhere to it.
|
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notice that the water appears to be higher on the sides of the straw than in the middle. This is because the water
molecules are attracted to the straw and therefore adhere to it.
Cohesive and adhesive forces are important for sustaining life. For example, because of these forces, water can flow
up from the roots to the tops of plants to feed the plant.
LINK T O LE ARNING
To learn more about water, visit the U.S. Geological Survey Water Science for Schools: All About Water!website.
(http://openstax.org/l/about_water)
Buffers, pH, Acids, and Bases
The pH of a solution is a measure of its acidity or bascicity. You have probably usedlitmuspaper, paper that has
been treated with a natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a pH indicator, to test how much acid or base
(basicity) exists in a solution. You might have even used some to make sure the water in an outdoor swimming pool
|
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(basicity) exists in a solution. You might have even used some to make sure the water in an outdoor swimming pool
is properly treated. In both cases, this pH test measures the amount of hydrogen ions that exists in a given solution.
High concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH, whereas low levels of hydrogen ions result in a high pH. The
overall concentration of hydrogen ions is inversely related to its pH and can be measured on thepH scale(Figure
2.12). Therefore, the more hydrogen ions present, the lower the pH; conversely, the fewer hydrogen ions, the higher
the pH.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A change of one unit on the pH scale represents a change in the concentration of
hydrogen ions by a factor of 10, a change in two units represents a change in the concentration of hydrogen ions by
a factor of 100. Thus, small changes in pH represent large changes in the concentrations of hydrogen ions. Pure
2.2 • Water 37
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water is neutral. It is neither acidic nor basic, and has a pH of 7.0. Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is
acidic, and anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0) is alkaline. The blood in your veins is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.4).
The environment in your stomach is highly acidic (pH = 1 to 2). Orange juice is mildly acidic (pH = approximately
3.5), whereas baking soda is basic (pH = 9.0).
FIGURE 2.12 The pH scale measures the amount of hydrogen ions (H+) in a substance. (credit: modification of work by Edward Stevens)
Acidsare substances that provide hydrogen ions (H+) and lower pH, whereasbasesprovide hydroxide ions (OH–)
and raise pH. The stronger the acid, the more readily it donates H+. For example, hydrochloric acid and lemon juice
are very acidic and readily give up H+when added to water. Conversely, bases are those substances that readily
donate OH–. The OH–ions combine with H+to produce water, which raises a substance’s pH. Sodium hydroxide and
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donate OH–. The OH–ions combine with H+to produce water, which raises a substance’s pH. Sodium hydroxide and
many household cleaners are very alkaline and give up OH–rapidly when placed in water, thereby raising the pH.
Most cells in our bodies operate within a very narrow window of the pH scale, typically ranging only from 7.2 to 7.6.
If the pH of the body is outside of this range, the respiratory system malfunctions, as do other organs in the body.
Cells no longer function properly, and proteins will break down. Deviation outside of the pH range can induce coma
or even cause death.
So how is it that we can ingest or inhale acidic or basic substances and not die? Buffers are the key.Buffersreadily
absorb excess H+or OH–, keeping the pH of the body carefully maintained in the aforementioned narrow range.
Carbon dioxide is part of a prominent buffer system in the human body; it keeps the pH within the proper range. This
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Carbon dioxide is part of a prominent buffer system in the human body; it keeps the pH within the proper range. This
buffer system involves carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3–) anion. If too much H+enters the body,
bicarbonate will combine with the H+to create carbonic acid and limit the decrease in pH. Likewise, if too much OH–
is introduced into the system, carbonic acid will rapidly dissociate into bicarbonate and H+ions. The H+ions can
combine with the OH–ions, limiting the increase in pH. While carbonic acid is an important product in this reaction,
its presence is fleeting because the carbonic acid is released from the body as carbon dioxide gas each time we
breathe. Without this buffer system, the pH in our bodies would fluctuate too much and we would fail to survive.
38 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
2.3 Biological Molecules
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the ways in which carbon is critical to life
• Explain the impact of slight changes in amino acids on organisms
• Describe the four major types of biological molecules
• Understand the functions of the four major types of molecules
The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called biological
macromolecules. There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids), and each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide array of functions. Combined,
these molecules make up the majority of a cell’s dry mass. Biological macromolecules are organic, meaning they
contain carbon and are bound to hydrogen, and may contain oxygen, nitrogen, and additional minor elements.
Carbon
|
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contain carbon and are bound to hydrogen, and may contain oxygen, nitrogen, and additional minor elements.
Carbon
It is often said that life is “carbon-based.” This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon atoms or other
elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules found uniquely in living things.
Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but carbon certainly qualifies as the “foundation”
element for molecules in living things. It is the bonding properties of carbon atoms that are responsible for its
important role.
Carbon Bonding
Carbon contains four electrons in its outer shell. Therefore, it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms or
molecules. The simplest organic carbon molecule is methane (CH4), in which four hydrogen atoms bind to a carbon
atom (Figure 2.13).
FIGURE 2.13 Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an organic molecule. The simplest carbon molecule is methane (CH4),
depicted here.
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atom (Figure 2.13).
FIGURE 2.13 Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an organic molecule. The simplest carbon molecule is methane (CH4),
depicted here.
However, structures that are more complex are made using carbon. Any of the hydrogen atoms can be replaced with
another carbon atom covalently bonded to the first carbon atom. In this way, long and branching chains of carbon
compounds can be made (Figure 2.14a). The carbon atoms may bond with atoms of other elements, such as
nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (Figure 2.14b). The molecules may also form rings, which themselves can link
with other rings (Figure 2.14c). This diversity of molecular forms accounts for the diversity of functions of the
biological macromolecules and is based to a large degree on the ability of carbon to form multiple bonds with itself
and other atoms.
2.3 • Biological Molecules 39
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] |
FIGURE 2.14 These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon atoms bonded in various ways to other
carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements. (a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms. (b) Glycine, a component
of proteins, contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. (c) Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydratesare macromolecules with which most consumers are somewhat familiar. To lose weight, some
individuals adhere to “low-carb” diets. Athletes, in contrast, often “carb-load” before important competitions to
ensure that they have sufficient energy to compete at a high level. Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our
diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to the
body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans,
|
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body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans,
animals, and plants.
Carbohydrates can be represented by the formula (CH2O)n, wherenis the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules. Carbohydrates are
classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides(mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars, the most common of which is glucose. In
monosaccharides, the number of carbon atoms usually ranges from three to six. Most monosaccharide names end
with the suffix -ose. Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the sugar, they may be known as trioses (three
carbon atoms), pentoses (five carbon atoms), and hexoses (six carbon atoms).
Monosaccharides may exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions, they are usually
found in the ring form.
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Monosaccharides may exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions, they are usually
found in the ring form.
The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In most living species, glucose is an important source of energy.
During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that energy is used to help make adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water by the process of photosynthesis, and
the glucose, in turn, is used for the energy requirements of the plant. The excess synthesized glucose is often stored
as starch that is broken down by other organisms that feed on plants.
Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other common monosaccharides. Although
glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), they differ structurally and
chemically (and are known as isomers) because of differing arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain (Figure
2.15).
|
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] |
chemically (and are known as isomers) because of differing arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain (Figure
2.15).
40 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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893b15ee-8b17-4bcf-8247-2691b42c8ecb
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] |
FIGURE 2.15 Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides, meaning that they have the same chemical formula but
slightly different structures.
Disaccharides(di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (a reaction in which
the removal of a water molecule occurs). During this process, the hydroxyl group (–OH) of one monosaccharide
combines with a hydrogen atom of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water (H2O) and forming a
covalent bond between atoms in the two sugar molecules.
Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers
glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from a
dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar,
which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose.
|
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dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar,
which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose.
A long chain of monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds is known as apolysaccharide(poly- = “many”). The
chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides may
be very large molecules. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are examples of polysaccharides.
Starchis the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of amylose and amylopectin (both polymers of glucose).
Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose is stored as starch in different plant parts, including
roots and seeds. The starch that is consumed by animals is broken down into smaller molecules, such as glucose.
The cells can then absorb the glucose.
Glycogenis the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, and is made up of monomers of glucose.
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The cells can then absorb the glucose.
Glycogenis the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, and is made up of monomers of glucose.
Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle
cells. Whenever glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose.
Celluloseis one of the most abundant natural biopolymers. The cell walls of plants are mostly made of cellulose,
which provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature. Cellulose is made up
of glucose monomers that are linked by bonds between particular carbon atoms in the glucose molecule.
Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over and packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives
cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells. Cellulose passing through our
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cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells. Cellulose passing through our
digestive system is called dietary fiber. While the glucose-glucose bonds in cellulose cannot be broken down by
human digestive enzymes, herbivores such as cows, buffalos, and horses are able to digest grass that is rich in
cellulose and use it as a food source. In these animals, certain species of bacteria reside in the digestive system of
herbivores and secrete the enzyme cellulase. The appendix also contains bacteria that break down cellulose, giving
it an important role in the digestive systems of some ruminants. Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose
monomers that can be used as an energy source by the animal.
Carbohydrates serve other functions in different animals. Arthropods, such as insects, spiders, and crabs, have an
outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts. This exoskeleton is made of the
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outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts. This exoskeleton is made of the
2.3 • Biological Molecules 41
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biological macromoleculechitin, which is a nitrogenous carbohydrate. It is made of repeating units of a modified
sugar containing nitrogen.
Thus, through differences in molecular structure, carbohydrates are able to serve the very different functions of
energy storage (starch and glycogen) and structural support and protection (cellulose and chitin) (Figure 2.16).
FIGURE 2.16 Although their structures and functions differ, all polysaccharide carbohydrates are made up of monosaccharides and have
the chemical formula (CH2O)n.
CAREER C ONNE CTION
Registered Dietitian
Obesity is a worldwide health concern, and many diseases, such as diabetes and heart disease, are becoming more
prevalent because of obesity. This is one of the reasons why registered dietitians are increasingly sought after for
advice. Registered dietitians help plan food and nutrition programs for individuals in various settings. They often
|
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advice. Registered dietitians help plan food and nutrition programs for individuals in various settings. They often
work with patients in health-care facilities, designing nutrition plans to prevent and treat diseases. For example,
dietitians may teach a patient with diabetes how to manage blood-sugar levels by eating the correct types and
amounts of carbohydrates. Dietitians may also work in nursing homes, schools, and private practices.
To become a registered dietitian, one needs to earn at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, nutrition, food
technology, or a related field. In addition, registered dietitians must complete a supervised internship program and
pass a national exam. Those who pursue careers in dietetics take courses in nutrition, chemistry, biochemistry,
biology, microbiology, and human physiology. Dietitians must become experts in the chemistry and functions of food
(proteins, carbohydrates, and fats).
Lipids
|
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biology, microbiology, and human physiology. Dietitians must become experts in the chemistry and functions of food
(proteins, carbohydrates, and fats).
Lipids
Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are united by a common feature.Lipidsare hydrophobic (“water-
fearing”), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar molecules. This is because they are hydrocarbons that
include only nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds. Lipids perform many different functions in a cell.
Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of lipids called fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the
environment for plants and animals (Figure 2.17). For example, they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry
because of their water-repelling nature. Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important
42 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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constituent of the plasma membrane. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
FIGURE 2.17 Hydrophobic lipids in the fur of aquatic mammals, such as this river otter, protect them from the elements. (credit: Ken
Bosma)
Afatmolecule, such as a triglyceride, consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an
organic compound with three carbon atoms, five hydrogen atoms, and three hydroxyl (–OH) groups. Fatty acids have
a long chain of hydrocarbons to which an acidic carboxyl group is attached, hence the name “fatty acid.” The
number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36; most common are those containing 12–18 carbons. In a
fat molecule, a fatty acid is attached to each of the three oxygen atoms in the –OH groups of the glycerol molecule
with a covalent bond (Figure 2.18).
FIGURE 2.18 Lipids include fats, such as triglycerides, which are made up of fatty acids and glycerol, phospholipids, and steroids.
|
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with a covalent bond (Figure 2.18).
FIGURE 2.18 Lipids include fats, such as triglycerides, which are made up of fatty acids and glycerol, phospholipids, and steroids.
During this covalent bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in the fat may be
similar or dissimilar. These fats are also calledtriglyceridesbecause they have three fatty acids. Some fatty acids
2.3 • Biological Molecules 43
|
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have common names that specify their origin. For example, palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is derived from the
palm tree. Arachidic acid is derived fromArachis hypogaea, the scientific name for peanuts.
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds between
neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is saturated.Saturated fatty acidsare saturated with
hydrogen; in other words, the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized.
When the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond, the fatty acid is anunsaturated fatty acid.
Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are calledoils. If there is one double bond in the
molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one double bond, then
it is known as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).
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molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one double bond, then
it is known as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).
Saturated fats tend to get packed tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats with stearic acid and
palmitic acid contained in meat, and the fat with butyric acid contained in butter, are examples of saturated fats.
Mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes, where globules of fat occupy most of the cell. In plants,
fat or oil is stored in seeds and is used as a source of energy during embryonic development.
Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain unsaturated fatty acids. The double bond causes a
bend or a “kink” that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature. Olive
oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help to improve blood
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] |
oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help to improve blood
cholesterol levels, whereas saturated fats might contribute to plaque formation in the arteries, which increases the
risk of a heart attack.
In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid, leading to less spoilage and
increased shelf life. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. During this
hydrogenation process, double bonds of thecis-conformation in the hydrocarbon chain may be converted to double
bonds in thetrans-conformation. This forms atrans-fatfrom acis-fat. The orientation of the double bonds affects
the chemical properties of the fat (Figure 2.19).
FIGURE 2.19 During the hydrogenation process, the orientation around the double bonds is changed, making atrans-fat from acis-fat. This
changes the chemical properties of the molecule.
|
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FIGURE 2.19 During the hydrogenation process, the orientation around the double bonds is changed, making atrans-fat from acis-fat. This
changes the chemical properties of the molecule.
Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenatedtrans-fats. Recent
studies have shown that an increase intrans-fats in the human diet may lead to an increase in levels of low-density
lipoprotein (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, which, in turn, may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in
heart disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently eliminated the use oftrans-fats, and U.S. food labels are
now required to list theirtrans-fat content.
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that are required but not synthesized by the human body. Consequently, they
must be supplemented through the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids fall into this category and are one of only two known
|
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must be supplemented through the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids fall into this category and are one of only two known
essential fatty acids for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acids). They are a type of polyunsaturated fat and
44 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
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are called omega-3 fatty acids because the third carbon from the end of the fatty acid participates in a double bond.
Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids are important in brain
function and normal growth and development. They may also prevent heart disease and reduce the risk of cancer.
Like carbohydrates, fats have received a lot of bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess of fried foods and other
“fatty” foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important functions. Fats serve as long-term energy
storage. They also provide insulation for the body. Therefore, “healthy” unsaturated fats in moderate amounts
should be consumed on a regular basis.
Phospholipidsare the major constituent of the plasma membrane. Like fats, they are composed of fatty acid chains
attached to a glycerol or similar backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached, however, there are two fatty acids
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attached to a glycerol or similar backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached, however, there are two fatty acids
and the third carbon of the glycerol backbone is bound to a phosphate group. The phosphate group is modified by
the addition of an alcohol.
A phospholipid has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and exclude
themselves from water, whereas the phosphate is hydrophilic and interacts with water.
Cells are surrounded by a membrane, which has a bilayer of phospholipids. The fatty acids of phospholipids face
inside, away from water, whereas the phosphate group can face either the outside environment or the inside of the
cell, which are both aqueous.
Steroids and Waxes
Unlike the phospholipids and fats discussed earlier,steroidshave a ring structure. Although they do not resemble
other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic. All steroids have four, linked carbon
|
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other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic. All steroids have four, linked carbon
rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail.
Cholesterol is a steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor of many steroid hormones,
such as testosterone and estradiol. It is also the precursor of vitamins E and K. Cholesterol is the precursor of bile
salts, which help in the breakdown of fats and their subsequent absorption by cells. Although cholesterol is often
spoken of in negative terms, it is necessary for the proper functioning of the body. It is a key component of the
plasma membranes of animal cells.
Waxes are made up of a hydrocarbon chain with an alcohol (–OH) group and a fatty acid. Examples of animal waxes
include beeswax and lanolin. Plants also have waxes, such as the coating on their leaves, that helps prevent them
from drying out.
LINK T O LE ARNING
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include beeswax and lanolin. Plants also have waxes, such as the coating on their leaves, that helps prevent them
from drying out.
LINK T O LE ARNING
For an additional perspective on lipids, watch this video abouttypes of fat(http://openstax.org/l/lipids).
Proteins
Proteinsare one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse range of
functions of all macromolecules. Proteins may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective; they may serve in
transport, storage, or membranes; or they may be toxins or enzymes. Each cell in a living system may contain
thousands of different proteins, each with a unique function. Their structures, like their functions, vary greatly. They
are all, however, polymers of amino acids, arranged in a linear sequence.
The functions of proteins are very diverse because there are 20 different chemically distinct amino acids that form
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are all, however, polymers of amino acids, arranged in a linear sequence.
The functions of proteins are very diverse because there are 20 different chemically distinct amino acids that form
long chains, and the amino acids can be in any order. For example, proteins can function as enzymes or hormones.
Enzymes, which are produced by living cells, are catalysts in biochemical reactions (like digestion) and are usually
proteins. Each enzyme is specific for the substrate (a reactant that binds to an enzyme) upon which it acts. Enzymes
can function to break molecular bonds, to rearrange bonds, or to form new bonds. An example of an enzyme is
salivary amylase, which breaks down amylose, a component of starch.
Hormonesare chemical signaling molecules, usually proteins or steroids, secreted by an endocrine gland or group
of endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes, including growth, development,
2.3 • Biological Molecules 45
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metabolism, and reproduction. For example, insulin is a protein hormone that maintains blood glucose levels.
Proteins have different shapes and molecular weights; some proteins are globular in shape whereas others are
fibrous in nature. For example, hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our skin, is a fibrous protein.
Protein shape is critical to its function. Changes in temperature, pH, and exposure to chemicals may lead to
permanent changes in the shape of the protein, leading to a loss of function ordenaturation(to be discussed in
more detail later). All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the same 20 kinds of amino acids.
Amino acidsare the monomers that make up proteins. Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which
consists of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a hydrogen
atom. Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms bonded to the central carbon atom known
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atom. Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms bonded to the central carbon atom known
as the R group. The R group is the only difference in structure between the 20 amino acids; otherwise, the amino
acids are identical (Figure 2.20).
FIGURE 2.20 Amino acids are made up of a central carbon bonded to an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a hydrogen
atom. The central carbon’s fourth bond varies among the different amino acids, as seen in these examples of alanine, valine, lysine, and
aspartic acid.
The chemical nature of the R group determines the chemical nature of the amino acid within its protein (that is,
whether it is acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar).
The sequence and number of amino acids ultimately determine a protein’s shape, size, and function. Each amino
acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which is formed by a
|
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acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which is formed by a
dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of a second amino acid combine,
releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond.
The products formed by such a linkage are called polypeptides. While the terms polypeptide and protein are
46 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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] |
sometimes used interchangeably, apolypeptideis technically a polymer of amino acids, whereas the term protein is
used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that have combined together, have a distinct shape, and have a unique
function.
EVOLUTION C ONNE CTION
The Evolutionary Significance of Cytochrome c
Cytochrome c is an important component of the molecular machinery that harvests energy from glucose. Because
this protein’s role in producing cellular energy is crucial, it has changed very little over millions of years. Protein
sequencing has shown that there is a considerable amount of sequence similarity among cytochrome c molecules of
different species; evolutionary relationships can be assessed by measuring the similarities or differences among
various species’ protein sequences.
For example, scientists have determined that human cytochrome c contains 104 amino acids. For each cytochrome
|
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daab8063-f4c2-4f65-a52c-a21d5f8a9156
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] |
various species’ protein sequences.
For example, scientists have determined that human cytochrome c contains 104 amino acids. For each cytochrome
c molecule that has been sequenced to date from different organisms, 37 of these amino acids appear in the same
position in each cytochrome c. This indicates that all of these organisms are descended from a common ancestor.
On comparing the human and chimpanzee protein sequences, no sequence difference was found. When human and
rhesus monkey sequences were compared, a single difference was found in one amino acid. In contrast, human-to-
yeast comparisons show a difference in 44 amino acids, suggesting that humans and chimpanzees have a more
recent common ancestor than humans and the rhesus monkey, or humans and yeast.
Protein Structure
As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. To understand how the protein gets its final
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Protein Structure
As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. To understand how the protein gets its final
shape or conformation, we need to understand the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary (Figure 2.21).
The unique sequence and number of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is its primary structure. The unique
sequence for every protein is ultimately determined by the gene that encodes the protein. Any change in the gene
sequence may lead to a different amino acid being added to the polypeptide chain, causing a change in protein
structure and function. William Warrick Cardozo showed that sickle-cell anemia is caused by a change in protein
strucure as a result of gene encoding, meaning that it is an inherited disorder. In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin
β chain has a single amino acid substitution, causing a change in both the structure and function of the protein.
|
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β chain has a single amino acid substitution, causing a change in both the structure and function of the protein.
What is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two beta
chains that each consist of about 150 amino acids. The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino acids. The
structural difference between a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle cell molecule—that dramatically
decreases life expectancy in the affected individuals—is a single amino acid of the 600.
Because of this change of one amino acid in the chain, the normally biconcave, or disc-shaped, red blood cells
assume a crescent or “sickle” shape, which clogs arteries. This can lead to a myriad of serious health problems,
such as breathlessness, dizziness, headaches, and abdominal pain for those who have this disease.
Folding patterns resulting from interactions between the non-R group portions of amino acids give rise to the
|
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2c23b729-35c9-4d4b-9fed-5b09aab7c947
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] |
Folding patterns resulting from interactions between the non-R group portions of amino acids give rise to the
secondary structure of the protein. The most common are the alpha (α)-helix and beta (β)-pleated sheet structures.
Both structures are held in shape by hydrogen bonds. In the alpha helix, the bonds form between every fourth
amino acid and cause a twist in the amino acid chain.
In the β-pleated sheet, the “pleats” are formed by hydrogen bonding between atoms on the backbone of the
polypeptide chain. The R groups are attached to the carbons, and extend above and below the folds of the pleat. The
pleated segments align parallel to each other, and hydrogen bonds form between the same pairs of atoms on each
of the aligned amino acids. The α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures are found in many globular and fibrous
proteins.
The unique three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is known as its tertiary structure. This structure is caused
|
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c6326f44-6dda-489b-98f0-ffb481c3e1f5
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] |
proteins.
The unique three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is known as its tertiary structure. This structure is caused
by chemical interactions between various amino acids and regions of the polypeptide. Primarily, the interactions
among R groups create the complex three-dimensional tertiary structure of a protein. There may be ionic bonds
2.3 • Biological Molecules 47
|
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formed between R groups on different amino acids, or hydrogen bonding beyond that involved in the secondary
structure. When protein folding takes place, the hydrophobic R groups of nonpolar amino acids lay in the interior of
the protein, whereas the hydrophilic R groups lay on the outside. The former types of interactions are also known as
hydrophobic interactions.
In nature, some proteins are formed from several polypeptides, also known as subunits, and the interaction of these
subunits forms the quaternary structure. Weak interactions between the subunits help to stabilize the overall
structure. For example, hemoglobin is a combination of four polypeptide subunits.
FIGURE 2.21 The four levels of protein structure can be observed in these illustrations. (credit: modification of work by National Human
Genome Research Institute)
Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions. If the protein is subject
|
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] |
Genome Research Institute)
Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions. If the protein is subject
to changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may change, losing its shape in what
is known as denaturation as discussed earlier. Denaturation is often reversible because the primary structure is
preserved if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation
is irreversible, leading to a loss of function. One example of protein denaturation can be seen when an egg is fried or
boiled. The albumin protein in the liquid egg white is denatured when placed in a hot pan, changing from a clear
substance to an opaque white substance. Not all proteins are denatured at high temperatures; for instance, bacteria
that survive in hot springs have proteins that are adapted to function at those temperatures.
LINK T O LE ARNING
|
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] |
that survive in hot springs have proteins that are adapted to function at those temperatures.
LINK T O LE ARNING
For an additional perspective on proteins, explore “Biomolecules: The Proteins” through this interactiveanimation
(http://openstax.org/l/proteins).
48 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are key macromolecules in the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry
instructions for the functioning of the cell.
The two main types ofnucleic acidsaredeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)andribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the
genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals.
The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules never leave the
nucleus, but instead use an RNA intermediary to communicate with the rest of the cell. Other types of RNA are also
involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.
DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known asnucleotides. The nucleotides combine with each other to form a
polynucleotide, DNA or RNA. Each nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-
carbon) sugar, and a phosphate group (Figure 2.22). Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar
|
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7810be3b-bd77-4871-a19d-5a54cd6c362f
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carbon) sugar, and a phosphate group (Figure 2.22). Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar
molecule, which is attached to a phosphate group.
FIGURE 2.22 A nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
DNA Double-Helical Structure
DNA has a double-helical structure (Figure 2.23). It is composed of two strands, or polymers, of nucleotides. The
strands are formed with bonds between phosphate and sugar groups of adjacent nucleotides. The strands are
bonded to each other at their bases with hydrogen bonds, and the strands coil about each other along their length,
hence the “double helix” description, which means a double spiral.
FIGURE 2.23 The double-helix model shows DNA as two parallel strands of intertwining molecules. (credit: Jerome Walker, Dennis Myts)
The alternating sugar and phosphate groups lie on the outside of each strand, forming the backbone of the DNA. The
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The alternating sugar and phosphate groups lie on the outside of each strand, forming the backbone of the DNA. The
nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like the steps of a staircase, and these bases pair; the pairs are bound
2.3 • Biological Molecules 49
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] |
to each other by hydrogen bonds. The bases pair in such a way that the distance between the backbones of the two
strands is the same all along the molecule.
50 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org
|
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|
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