id stringlengths 36 36 | embedding list | document stringlengths 10 1k | metadata stringlengths 595 830 |
|---|---|---|---|
f19b0a9a-bf82-49a5-90e4-e5d334dbf833 | [
-0.08829694241285324,
0.02000434324145317,
-0.04147969186306,
-0.020335357636213303,
0.041028205305337906,
-0.04179874435067177,
-0.01242870930582285,
0.0546516552567482,
-0.025787044316530228,
0.03582635521888733,
-0.02262037619948387,
-0.005812994670122862,
-0.07819050550460815,
0.024283... | science, it is unlikely that applied science could exist.
Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project, a study in which
each human chromosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise sequence of DNA subunits and the
exact location of each gene. (The gene is the bas... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 36, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "dow... |
58a78e81-70f5-42dd-9180-e60ab41a2e26 | [
-0.10517583042383194,
0.061002809554338455,
0.029894115403294563,
0.05261724814772606,
0.04792919009923935,
-0.011686285026371479,
-0.0711396187543869,
-0.033269673585891724,
-0.055235352367162704,
0.03860275819897652,
-0.021002493798732758,
-0.015880610793828964,
-0.11119700223207474,
-0.... | FIGURE 1.19 The Human Genome Project was a 13-year collaborative effort among researchers working in several different fields of
science. The project was completed in 2003. (credit: the U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs)
While research efforts in both basic science and applied science are usually carefully plan... | {"page_label": "36", "file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 615, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "batch_upload": true, "page": 36, "uploa... |
1c40f1d9-6ceb-49b6-ab0c-8136845075a1 | [
-0.08266766369342804,
-0.044538602232933044,
-0.005258967634290457,
0.00800876785069704,
0.02139226160943508,
0.0016041313065215945,
0.025065001100301743,
0.14978787302970886,
0.061228614300489426,
-0.03212153911590576,
0.04757225513458252,
0.06604711711406708,
0.00817130971699953,
0.01489... | Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish ofStaphylococcusbacteria
open. An unwanted mold grew, killing the bacteria. The mold turned out to bePenicillium, and a new critically
important antibiotic was discovered. In a similar manner, Percy Lavon Julian was an established... | {"creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "producer": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "page": 37, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b05... |
b653559f-2007-4cdb-92fd-6a7e4b41e75d | [
-0.019551683217287064,
0.03705943003296852,
0.004974664188921452,
0.08728671073913574,
0.043326251208782196,
-0.05891895294189453,
-0.018974266946315765,
0.08340070396661758,
0.04286457598209381,
0.029172934591770172,
-0.072458915412426,
0.03234069049358368,
-0.00970484223216772,
0.0343574... | people. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind
focused on the types of reasoning discussed above—can lead to unexpected breakthroughs.
Reporting Scientific Work
Whether scientific research is basic science or applied science, scientists must share their finding... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concept... |
0975ab36-21dd-4f2c-9ffd-e9d5b4522ef7 | [
-0.052474495023489,
0.04121049493551254,
-0.03324393182992935,
0.09540211409330368,
0.016288060694932938,
-0.0296896044164896,
-0.06635893881320953,
0.06247816979885101,
0.0786486342549324,
0.06061343103647232,
-0.06326407194137573,
0.05850648880004883,
-0.007404207717627287,
-0.0294112116... | Instead, most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed articles that are published in scientific journals.
Peer-reviewed articlesare scientific papers that are reviewed, usually anonymously by a scientist’s colleagues, or
peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, often experts in the same research are... | {"page_label": "37", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050ac... |
e04e9cf0-7bb0-4069-bbf7-2666516b06ea | [
-0.0328659825026989,
0.009750827215611935,
-0.05311073362827301,
0.06102960929274559,
0.06072310358285904,
-0.014931673184037209,
-0.006814331281930208,
0.06357887387275696,
0.044553808867931366,
0.04108456149697304,
-0.004346341360360384,
0.0483003593981266,
-0.017343832179903984,
-0.0230... | There are many journals and the popular press that do not use a peer-review system. A large number of online
open-access journals, journals with articles available without cost, are now available many of which use rigorous
peer-review systems, but some of which do not. Results of any studies published in these forums w... | {"producer": "PDFium", "page": 37, "batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biolo... |
262871c5-e124-426c-a19e-08be1bcd11eb | [
0.08130522817373276,
-0.03174169734120369,
0.004299069754779339,
-0.0214342400431633,
0.03973592072725296,
-0.06480543315410614,
0.003769529517740011,
0.05590971186757088,
0.0019378227880224586,
0.10790502279996872,
0.016858510673046112,
-0.12209996581077576,
-0.04529349505901337,
0.021338... | Key Terms
applied science a form of science that solves real-
world problems
atom a basic unit of matter that cannot be broken
down by normal chemical reactions
basic science science that seeks to expand
knowledge regardless of the short-term application
of that knowledge
biology the study of life
biosphere a collectio... | {"creator": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "38", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts... |
9dcb7dad-a172-499e-98be-7ebe4b345b1b | [
-0.005253827665001154,
-0.015595218166708946,
-0.016064688563346863,
0.013109824620187283,
0.060373999178409576,
-0.01801525428891182,
-0.025623947381973267,
0.042905647307634354,
0.039813850075006485,
0.09592151641845703,
-0.03146401047706604,
-0.11157494783401489,
-0.08367586880922318,
0... | together with the abiotic, nonliving parts of that
environment
eukaryote an organism with cells that have nuclei
and membrane-bound organelles
evolution the process of gradual change in a
population that can also lead to new species arising
from older species
falsifiable able to be disproven by experimental
results
hom... | {"page": 38, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "38", "total_pages": 615, "creator": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_size... |
e5be64b7-4eb9-43df-a636-d36c559776fd | [
0.06756582111120224,
-0.038956113159656525,
-0.06154875084757805,
0.03133276104927063,
-0.0138247050344944,
-0.06873943656682968,
-0.04883364588022232,
0.03425087779760361,
0.07522489875555038,
0.056861840188503265,
0.021005023270845413,
-0.1226811632514,
-0.07780962437391281,
0.0799449458... | the joining of smaller molecules
molecule a chemical structure consisting of at least
two atoms held together by a chemical bond
natural science a field of science that studies the
physical world, its phenomena, and processes
organ a structure formed of tissues operating
together to perform a common function
organ syst... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "page_label": "38", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "upload_t... |
0b0bfae5-568b-42ca-81d4-f36a6d587625 | [
-0.0063898577354848385,
0.005596525501459837,
-0.03492836281657219,
0.056689921766519547,
-0.008587650023400784,
-0.025288980454206467,
-0.004859753418713808,
-0.00753054628148675,
0.0404648557305336,
0.0892895758152008,
0.010216623544692993,
-0.13074006140232086,
-0.07162689417600632,
0.0... | physical science a field of science, such as
astronomy, physics, and chemistry, that studies
nonliving matter
population all individuals within a species living
within a specific area
prokaryote a unicellular organism that lacks a
nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle
science knowledge that covers general truth... | {"page": 38, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Con... |
93e1a58f-9ea0-4fd1-810b-e81a24d2e36f | [
0.02860461175441742,
-0.02160784602165222,
-0.01530879270285368,
-0.0131904985755682,
0.02155378647148609,
0.0030972082167863846,
-0.021303484216332436,
0.0096025001257658,
0.012172139249742031,
0.04856060445308685,
0.018769104033708572,
-0.06263384222984314,
-0.07949168235063553,
0.086787... | function
variable a part of an experiment that can vary or
change
Chapter Summary
1.1 Themes and Concepts of Biology
Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share
several key properties such as order, sensitivity or
response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, growth
and development, regulation, homeosta... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page... |
8f629958-ed96-4092-a518-ebbd3f058d3d | [
-0.017666256055235863,
0.03129854053258896,
-0.024701295420527458,
0.011686531826853752,
0.03937459737062454,
-0.07111414521932602,
-0.006185407750308514,
0.09237040579319,
0.039727553725242615,
0.13078181445598602,
-0.027286484837532043,
-0.06340634822845459,
-0.025343148037791252,
0.0628... | 1.2 The Process of Science
Biology is the science that studies living organisms and
their interactions with one another and their
environments. Science attempts to describe and
understand the nature of the universe in whole or in
part. Science has many fields; those fields related to
the physical world and its phenomen... | {"producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.p... |
8b6ee979-32e4-4542-92aa-6781a32a9905 | [
0.014608926139771938,
0.01356680877506733,
-0.0019290412310510874,
-0.016810869798064232,
0.03861690312623978,
-0.09194419533014297,
0.010887714102864265,
0.10013184696435928,
0.03788508102297783,
0.09850042313337326,
0.025578981265425682,
-0.09446150809526443,
0.009665796533226967,
0.0661... | reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts
results by applying general principles. The common
thread throughout scientific research is the use of the
scientific method. Scientists present their results in
peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific
journals.
Science can be basic or applied. The m... | {"creator": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "page": 39, "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb":... |
3b2176de-62db-470a-b4b8-66a195bc70ad | [
-0.03523842990398407,
-0.053771618753671646,
0.018427018076181412,
-0.035396602004766464,
0.02519134245812893,
-0.0006656649638898671,
-0.015748675912618637,
0.04450152814388275,
0.027591371908783913,
0.04595351591706276,
0.008549174293875694,
-0.14010950922966003,
-0.052927568554878235,
0... | tissues.
D. Communities exist within ecosystems which
exist in the biosphere.
2. Figure 1.18In the example below, the scientific
method is used to solve an everyday problem.
Which part in the example below is the hypothesis?
Which is the prediction? Based on the results of the
experiment, is the hypothesis supported? I... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "page": 39, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "39", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "fi... |
fec82a72-796b-48c4-91e8-ca12f2cb4211 | [
0.022616172209382057,
-0.06032184883952141,
0.016860397532582283,
-0.04129822179675102,
0.0389186255633831,
-0.02266652137041092,
0.020925747230648994,
0.09792711585760117,
0.05896880477666855,
0.08680332452058792,
0.01612349972128868,
-0.10113600641489029,
-0.023549970239400864,
0.0775567... | ________.
a. organ
b. organelle
c. cell
d. macromolecule
4. Which of the following sequences represents the
hierarchy of biological organization from the most
complex to the least complex level?
a. organelle, tissue, biosphere, ecosystem,
population
b. organ, organism, tissue, organelle, molecule
c. organism, community... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf"... |
477a5e9e-51b1-47a7-8828-7b3e551d8609 | [
0.007333955727517605,
0.04070001095533371,
0.0490892268717289,
-0.026274794712662697,
0.08598421514034271,
-0.007184071000665426,
0.06275725364685059,
0.12398167699575424,
-0.0817079246044159,
0.11624559760093689,
-0.05516701936721802,
-0.03498104587197304,
-0.053603317588567734,
-0.003257... | Critical Thinking Questions
7. Using examples, explain how biology can be studied
from a microscopic approach to a global approach.
8. Give an example of how applied science has had a
direct effect on your daily life.
26 1 • Critical Thinking Questions
Access for free at openstax.org | {"batch_upload": true, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "page_label": "40", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\a... |
16982839-a883-4ff1-be83-26ff2a8c0775 | [
-0.056298453360795975,
-0.047349389642477036,
-0.06785045564174652,
-0.009780194610357285,
0.09111721068620682,
0.07936014980077744,
0.05755417421460152,
0.019081559032201767,
-0.001399437664076686,
0.011287936940789223,
-0.0003720146487466991,
-0.10493359714746475,
-0.08604107797145844,
-... | INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
Chemistry of Life
2.1The Building Blocks of Molecules
2.2Water
2.3Biological Molecules
The elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus are
the key building blocks of the chemicals found in living things. They form the carbohydrates,
nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids (all... | {"page": 41, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "page_label": "41", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab038... |
e09f5d31-facd-4305-a4e1-68d5989eb8df | [
0.01636767014861107,
-0.09659265726804733,
-0.0020848726853728294,
-0.025489529594779015,
0.05174098163843155,
0.06796485185623169,
0.04973181337118149,
0.005139544606208801,
-0.03385000675916672,
0.03570595756173134,
0.004152866546064615,
-0.08427857607603073,
-0.13657939434051514,
-0.008... | nutrients come in the form of biological macromolecules, or large molecules necessary for life.
These macromolecules are built from different combinations of smaller organic molecules. What
specific types of biological macromolecules do living things require? How are these molecules
formed? What functions do they serve... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creation_date... |
5704ef60-ef06-4cb6-9e6f-0c1a8adf224d | [
-0.002845288021489978,
-0.08082081377506256,
-0.047392506152391434,
0.050747379660606384,
0.03626660257577896,
0.03372430056333542,
0.06602990627288818,
-0.007234144955873489,
0.025505438446998596,
0.07464586198329926,
0.010886230506002903,
-0.07476308941841125,
-0.029740726575255394,
-0.0... | 2.1 The Building Blocks of Molecules
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe matter and elements
• Describe the interrelationship between protons, neutrons, and electrons, and the ways in
which electrons can be donated or shared between atoms
At its most fundamental level, life i... | {"total_pages": 615, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creat... |
8d787437-499b-4e06-bc70-a10226b5f1c4 | [
0.026664160192012787,
-0.034598417580127716,
-0.0004172973276581615,
0.04973495379090309,
0.031190918758511543,
-0.014106761664152145,
-0.022014964371919632,
0.01371957641094923,
0.06172023341059685,
0.017495742067694664,
-0.029095739126205444,
-0.02537667192518711,
-0.06574393808841705,
-... | therefore, do not exist for very long or are theoretical and have yet to be detected.
Each element is designated by its chemical symbol (such as H, N, O, C, and Na), and possesses
unique properties. These unique properties allow elements to combine and to bond with each
other in specific ways.
Atoms
An atom is the smal... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdat... |
159033fe-1de2-4609-9efa-018d3c55b8b7 | [
0.014392276294529438,
-0.07182992249727249,
-0.03587372601032257,
0.054954905062913895,
0.009465343318879604,
-0.02298128604888916,
0.010736535303294659,
0.025590257719159126,
0.0404060073196888,
0.02664497308433056,
0.009748098440468311,
-0.11590750515460968,
-0.06373690068721771,
0.02090... | no longer have the properties of hydrogen.
At the most basic level, all organisms are made of a combination of elements. They contain atoms
that combine together to form molecules. In multicellular organisms, such as animals, molecules
can interact to form cells that combine to form tissues, which make up organs. These... | {"page_label": "42", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "total_pages": 615, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_type": ".pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "file_s... |
44d7d97f-8c74-40ac-ba2e-d00f8562082d | [
0.009931033477187157,
-0.035832129418849945,
-0.11077695339918137,
0.116384357213974,
0.04550551250576973,
0.017229808494448662,
0.08586572855710983,
0.04460401460528374,
0.08422183245420456,
0.013606593944132328,
0.10936291515827179,
-0.0912865623831749,
0.005974181927740574,
-0.010077381... | the space around the nucleus. In other words, it resides outside of the nucleus. It has a negligible
mass and has a charge of –1.
FIGURE 2.2 Atoms are made up of protons and neutrons located within the nucleus, and electrons surrounding the
nucleus.
Neutrons, like protons, reside in the nucleus of an atom. They have a ... | {"source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "producer": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downl... |
322e54cc-cf70-4c8f-814d-d20765fe8936 | [
0.04850471764802933,
-0.05663971230387688,
-0.003485922934487462,
0.10734295845031738,
-0.000725040677934885,
0.0385001040995121,
0.04077615588903427,
0.02710808999836445,
0.048570845276117325,
-0.006264030933380127,
-0.02557498961687088,
-0.06796915829181671,
0.05656857043504715,
-0.02861... | Because protons and neutrons each have a mass of 1, the mass of an atom is equal to the number of protons and
neutrons of that atom. The number of electrons does not factor into the overall mass, because their mass is so
small.
As stated earlier, each element has its own unique properties. Each contains a different num... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "43", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "page"... |
47969983-271d-4443-ba1c-de8347c7e841 | [
0.0372430719435215,
-0.06723261624574661,
-0.03432740271091461,
0.0485292449593544,
0.021795479580760002,
0.02051418460905552,
0.014230522327125072,
0.021229691803455353,
0.04552137106657028,
0.014104827307164669,
0.0029162412974983454,
-0.047085490077733994,
-0.007858829572796822,
-0.0359... | have different melting and boiling points, and are in different states (liquid, solid, or gas) at room temperature. They
also combine in different ways. Some form specific types of bonds, whereas others do not. How they combine is
based on the number of electrons present. Because of these characteristics, the elements ... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page": 43, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "cr... |
64755668-6ec4-4452-a1ba-64171066a209 | [
0.02922162227332592,
-0.01794649474322796,
-0.04407993331551552,
0.05153180658817291,
0.022264452651143074,
0.03770419955253601,
-0.01466015912592411,
0.04889274761080742,
0.01748085767030716,
0.0490083210170269,
0.0017110212938860059,
-0.044770147651433945,
-0.040758755058050156,
-0.03777... | neutrons. Some elements, such as carbon, potassium, and uranium, have naturally occurring isotopes. Carbon-12,
the most common isotope of carbon, contains six protons and six neutrons. Therefore, it has a mass number of 12
(six protons and six neutrons) and an atomic number of 6 (which makes it carbon). Carbon-14 conta... | {"page": 43, "producer": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "creator": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creati... |
8a3cfef2-43c3-4662-9036-7c06c8f7ae4a | [
-0.020321255549788475,
-0.02434253692626953,
-0.013649397529661655,
0.058772433549165726,
-0.02859431877732277,
0.01201492827385664,
-0.010470383800566196,
0.05948704108595848,
0.04231587052345276,
0.03261611610651016,
0.035231415182352066,
-0.13244923949241638,
-0.0006958655430935323,
0.0... | VISU AL CONNE CTION
FIGURE 2.3 Arranged in columns and rows based on the characteristics of the elements, the periodic table provides key information about
the elements and how they might interact with each other to form molecules. Most periodic tables provide a key or legend to the
information they contain.
How many n... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page": 44, "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "total_pages": 615, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71d... |
ac89ecb9-f670-46ac-be68-45f5aecbf64e | [
-0.04750566557049751,
0.08755150437355042,
0.03688685595989227,
0.040174439549446106,
0.05902127921581268,
-0.029763083904981613,
-0.11800796538591385,
0.033530931919813156,
0.014357863925397396,
0.06992137432098389,
0.020235665142536163,
-0.05628715083003044,
-0.06389245390892029,
0.06412... | After approximately 5,730 years, only one-half of the starting concentration of14C will have been converted to14N.
The time it takes for half of the original concentration of an isotope to decay to its more stable form is called its half-
life. Because the half-life of14C is long, it is used to age formerly living obje... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "batch_... |
9c2ce500-f3e5-4b01-bf29-ebf688b85255 | [
0.03190408647060394,
0.010310022160410881,
-0.022208483889698982,
0.06940852105617523,
-0.013797844760119915,
0.008406303822994232,
-0.04972374811768532,
0.037474725395441055,
-0.021612852811813354,
0.0066772159188985825,
-0.01708565466105938,
-0.07665065675973892,
-0.03803492709994316,
-0... | FIGURE 2.4 The age of remains that contain carbon and are less than about 50,000 years old, such as this pygmy mammoth, can be
determined using carbon dating. (credit: Bill Faulkner/NPS)
LINK T O LE ARNING
To learn more about atoms and isotopes, and how you can tell one isotope from another, visit thissite
(http://open... | {"page_label": "45", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 615, "producer": "PDFium", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002... |
d59ff7d8-55c8-402a-a0d6-78dc1825d9c8 | [
0.024076633155345917,
0.022942809388041496,
-0.03356392681598663,
0.06905680894851685,
-0.00642177602276206,
0.04457390308380127,
-0.030671166256070137,
0.029636835679411888,
-0.04865076020359993,
0.0007838885067030787,
-0.0747942328453064,
-0.04507354274392128,
-0.005251825787127018,
-0.0... | occupied within the lowest shell. Helium has two electrons; therefore, it can completely fill the lowest shell with its
two electrons. If you look at the periodic table, you will see that hydrogen and helium are the only two elements in
the first row. This is because they only have electrons in their first shell. Hydro... | {"creator": "PDFium", "page": 45, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "45", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_... |
4027152e-662a-4e14-bc80-c30e98911903 | [
0.019067445769906044,
-0.02693771943449974,
-0.10972562432289124,
0.06223173812031746,
0.025636902078986168,
-0.003932103049010038,
0.016684256494045258,
-0.004798668436706066,
0.013519756495952606,
0.0013653334463015199,
0.005346675869077444,
-0.045789673924446106,
0.057618074119091034,
-... | numbers of electrons as the columns proceed from left to right. Although each element has the same number of
shells, not all of the shells are completely filled with electrons. If you look at the second row of the periodic table,
you will find lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O... | {"page_label": "45", "page": 45, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "uplo... |
78bdb720-06ef-4cc0-8096-c4aac6746bc1 | [
0.018664326518774033,
-0.060273390263319016,
-0.03665996342897415,
0.049832310527563095,
-0.05249745771288872,
-0.0360596664249897,
-0.003674704348668456,
0.06090503931045532,
0.06246080622076988,
0.047159042209386826,
-0.032389748841524124,
-0.030995888635516167,
0.013356505893170834,
-0.... | formation ofchemical bonds, or interactions between two or more of the same or different elements that result in
the formation of molecules. To achieve greater stability, atoms will tend to completely fill their outer shells and will
bond with other elements to accomplish this goal by sharing electrons, accepting elect... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "45", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "batch_upload": true, "page": 45, "total_pages": 615, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "fi... |
26625e13-4b64-4ce2-980a-6989316ceb73 | [
-0.029883423820137978,
-0.013219124637544155,
-0.006554784718900919,
0.04459736496210098,
-0.03628348186612129,
-0.02136051282286644,
0.13662007451057434,
-0.017934972420334816,
0.09414678812026978,
0.03867790475487709,
0.029149716719985008,
-0.06882700324058533,
0.0849352702498436,
0.0742... | calcium, with atomic number 20) can hold eight electrons, this is referred to as theoctet rule. An element can
donate, accept, or share electrons with other elements to fill its outer shell and satisfy the octet rule.
When an atom does not contain equal numbers of protons and electrons, it is called anion. Because the ... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "page_label": "46", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "page": 46, "producer": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:2025110100... |
679867e2-396a-4805-8e4b-028ac6c45b30 | [
-0.02597631700336933,
0.010037479922175407,
-0.03587055206298828,
0.003382578259333968,
0.023113638162612915,
-0.011426242999732494,
0.11531127989292145,
-0.04858122393488884,
0.07002583891153336,
-0.012363627552986145,
-0.004294866230338812,
-0.11872797459363937,
0.11112251877784729,
0.05... | The chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer shell. Again, it is more energy-efficient for chlorine to gain one
electron than to lose seven. Therefore, it tends to gain an electron to create an ion with 17 protons and 18 electrons,
giving it a net negative (–1) charge. It is now called a chloride ion. This moveme... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Bi... |
9070ba94-084a-4917-9dbb-87f1897e449a | [
-0.01822289079427719,
-0.02966763824224472,
0.014058719389140606,
0.02631150558590889,
0.014659983105957508,
-0.029873546212911606,
0.09729482233524323,
-0.055961769074201584,
0.058470193296670914,
0.04735731706023216,
0.0407419353723526,
-0.05268846079707146,
0.05800769850611687,
0.067804... | longer equal to the number of protons, each is now an ion and has a +1 (sodium) or –1 (chloride) charge.
FIGURE 2.5 Elements tend to fill their outermost shells with electrons. To do this, they can either donate or accept electrons from other
elements.
Ionic Bonds
There are four types of bonds or interactions: ionic, c... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Co... |
4466f14e-a466-436d-971d-637faa6f033f | [
-0.030275514349341393,
-0.06323183327913284,
-0.06202763691544533,
-0.000013504278285836335,
0.008582287468016148,
-0.01850839890539646,
0.07432126998901367,
-0.04070155322551727,
0.04980698227882385,
0.0009218410705216229,
0.031657624989748,
-0.04217161238193512,
0.0394354872405529,
0.069... | one element staying predominantly with the other element. When Na+and Cl–ions combine to produce NaCl, an
electron from a sodium atom stays with the other seven from the chlorine atom, and the sodium and chloride ions
attract each other in a lattice of ions with a net zero charge.
Covalent Bonds
Another type of strong ... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "producer": "PDFium", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source"... |
f25a107b-e5c5-481d-8a66-ddd4df3fd1cf | [
-0.002277775201946497,
-0.01786351203918457,
-0.023256689310073853,
0.03928888216614723,
-0.0015419675037264824,
-0.07434302568435669,
0.0077506075613200665,
0.009454132057726383,
0.028685400262475014,
-0.006741304881870747,
-0.008990839123725891,
-0.008913029916584492,
-0.05373554676771164,... | ionic bonds, covalent bonds do not dissociate in water.
The hydrogen and oxygen atoms that combine to form water molecules are bound together by covalent bonds. The
electron from the hydrogen atom divides its time between the outer shell of the hydrogen atom and the incomplete
outer shell of the oxygen atom. To complet... | {"batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "upload... |
ed556b40-9bbe-4d14-855e-87aeb655db5c | [
-0.02786390483379364,
-0.06958100199699402,
-0.10293596237897873,
-0.013691124506294727,
-0.0279829241335392,
-0.055695995688438416,
-0.010103927925229073,
-0.026828091591596603,
0.07683683931827545,
-0.04406259208917618,
-0.01638304442167282,
-0.03237873688340187,
-0.016121353954076767,
0... | the same element or between different elements that share the electrons equally. For example, an oxygen atom can
bond with another oxygen atom to fill their outer shells. This association is nonpolar because the electrons will be
equally distributed between each oxygen atom. Two covalent bonds form between the two oxyg... | {"creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "page": 47, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pd... |
8d13b784-5050-4357-adf7-83fa4a58a975 | [
-0.014209228567779064,
-0.023254046216607094,
-0.06907504051923752,
0.03208007663488388,
0.0347665399312973,
-0.013102015480399132,
0.018122760578989983,
0.0031922366470098495,
0.08701460808515549,
0.0005200758459977806,
0.03248683735728264,
-0.03987661749124527,
-0.019281180575489998,
0.1... | atoms, each atom providing one. These elements all share the electrons equally, creating four nonpolar covalent
bonds (Figure 2.6).
In apolar covalent bond, the electrons shared by the atoms spend more time closer to one nucleus than to the
other nucleus. Because of the unequal distribution of electrons between the dif... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "page_label": "47", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creatio... |
16e11b2d-7727-4eb8-be91-28a8c0b8dba1 | [
-0.04738679155707359,
-0.04939040541648865,
-0.05290498957037926,
0.03928060084581375,
0.05968640372157097,
-0.03326791524887085,
-0.011687236838042736,
0.01878122054040432,
0.028693074360489845,
-0.002133353380486369,
0.008565427735447884,
-0.027209652587771416,
-0.048595260828733444,
0.0... | charge on the oxygen. Examples of nonpolar bonds include methane (middle) and oxygen (right).
Hydrogen Bonds
Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds that require considerable energy to break. However, not all bonds
between elements are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can also form. These are attractions that oc... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 615, "batch_upload": true, "page": 47, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "page_label": "47", "produce... |
5e863ce1-c7d8-412e-a640-68f77106a6e8 | [
-0.04526367038488388,
-0.013863272964954376,
-0.08738764375448227,
0.01795249804854393,
0.034259453415870667,
0.010184870101511478,
0.03824026510119438,
0.06272842735052109,
-0.0017468370497226715,
-0.002635023556649685,
0.042577359825372696,
-0.044082947075366974,
-0.01904883235692978,
0.... | hydrogen nucleus. Because the hydrogen atom is slightly positive (δ+), it will be attracted to neighboring negative
partial charges (δ–). When this happens, a weak interaction occurs between the δ+ charge of the hydrogen atom of
one molecule and the δ– charge of the other molecule. This interaction is called ahydrogen ... | {"page": 47, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload": true, "total_pages": 615, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "PDFium", "file_t... |
71ee04a0-b740-49f8-b742-edee43089fd6 | [
-0.04783133789896965,
-0.06704829633235931,
-0.0669495239853859,
0.021066440269351006,
0.05403227359056473,
0.03746388852596283,
0.025740431621670723,
0.03940533474087715,
0.0302865169942379,
0.00789158046245575,
0.03330014646053314,
-0.03524839133024216,
-0.011273144744336605,
0.078761786... | water would be a gas rather than a liquid at room temperature.
FIGURE 2.7 Hydrogen bonds form between slightly positive (δ+) and slightly negative (δ–) charges of polar covalent molecules, such as
water.
Hydrogen bonds can form between different molecules and they do not always have to include a water molecule.
Hydroge... | {"source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type":... |
1d304c76-4f76-45c8-91fa-329f6cb90f57 | [
0.0021419913973659277,
-0.02039068564772606,
-0.06437692791223526,
-0.012429988011717796,
0.05005279928445816,
-0.06558799743652344,
0.024089990183711052,
-0.00004367290603113361,
-0.04005857929587364,
-0.008028271608054638,
-0.03019397333264351,
-0.03158712387084961,
0.0336809977889061,
0... | temporary partial charges formed when electrons move around a nucleus. These weak interactions between
molecules are important in biological systems.
CAREER C ONNE CTION
Radiography Technician
Have you or anyone you know ever had a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, a mammogram, or an X-ray?
These tests produce ima... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 48, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "source_file": "do... |
8136a152-5913-4d17-8f8a-870ac13dc58b | [
0.02648536115884781,
-0.005224976688623428,
-0.007038732524961233,
-0.011332202702760696,
-0.03452007845044136,
-0.09053190797567368,
0.045629534870386124,
-0.010284504853188992,
-0.09552440047264099,
-0.05407780408859253,
-0.08228348195552826,
-0.019462084397673607,
0.07688265293836594,
0... | magnetic fields, which cause them to emit their own magnetic field. This signal is then read by sensors in the
machine and interpreted by a computer to form a detailed image.
Some radiography technologists and technicians specialize in computed tomography, MRI, and mammography. They
produce films or images of the body ... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "PDFium", "page_label": "48", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downlo... |
4a1b3eb9-4d4e-470f-85dc-52edc9cc59c2 | [
0.02625877410173416,
-0.010817816480994225,
-0.009489018470048904,
0.003070465987548232,
0.11499463766813278,
-0.04169795289635658,
0.06532469391822815,
-0.008573794737458229,
-0.039096634835004807,
0.03723502159118652,
-0.02997107245028019,
-0.09523460268974304,
-0.00661621056497097,
0.07... | bachelor’s degrees in radiography.
2.2 Water
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the properties of water that are critical to maintaining life
Do you ever wonder why scientists spend time looking for water on other planets? It is because water is essential to
life; even minut... | {"page_label": "48", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 48, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6... |
485422c0-5090-4a46-9033-8c83254c2a32 | [
-0.04803013801574707,
-0.055490702390670776,
-0.06752216815948486,
0.04198062792420387,
0.07229073345661163,
0.0037548609543591738,
0.08738549798727036,
0.028825946152210236,
0.06429019570350647,
0.04039406031370163,
0.025583259761333466,
-0.09465758502483368,
-0.030352964997291565,
0.0975... | the more abundant molecules in living cells and the one most critical to life as we know it. Approximately 60–70
percent of your body is made up of water. Without it, life simply would not exist.
Water Is Polar
The hydrogen and oxygen atoms within water molecules form polar covalent bonds. The shared electrons spend
mo... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page": 49,... |
bebd84e3-e6a9-4e0d-99a4-2970251df3f2 | [
-0.0565052293241024,
-0.1206895038485527,
0.023889800533652306,
0.07420343905687332,
0.039186060428619385,
0.018675806000828743,
-0.023122098296880722,
-0.025668663904070854,
0.005381110589951277,
-0.07087738811969757,
-0.005324540194123983,
0.01555898692458868,
0.019626280292868614,
-0.03... | hydrogen bonds. When a substance readily forms hydrogen bonds with water, it can dissolve in water and is referred
to ashydrophilic(“water-loving”). Hydrogen bonds are not readily formed with nonpolar substances like oils and
fats (Figure 2.8). These nonpolar compounds arehydrophobic(“water-fearing”) and will not disso... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "49", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "e... |
63cefa21-b70d-4eb1-83b4-125adfffb28b | [
-0.04146682843565941,
-0.0011637829011306167,
0.02436887100338936,
0.08936049789190292,
0.09752005338668823,
-0.03243066370487213,
0.05178351700305939,
0.010812765918672085,
0.04431738704442978,
0.05378612130880356,
-0.0003869498032145202,
-0.03802531212568283,
-0.012574717402458191,
-0.00... | disrupts the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Because these bonds can be created and disrupted rapidly,
water absorbs an increase in energy and temperature changes only minimally. This means that water moderates
temperature changes within organisms and in their environments. As energy input continues, the balanc... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "page_label": "49", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_ti... |
dfb5ad93-1ecd-48bf-aa1c-3a75d5a7506b | [
-0.07145217061042786,
-0.0063025387935340405,
0.026672709733247757,
0.0309576578438282,
0.06258030980825424,
0.05381953343749046,
0.02452658861875534,
0.006440914236009121,
0.07026892900466919,
0.06313995271921158,
0.0004472656291909516,
-0.0413159616291523,
0.021418588235974312,
-0.021971... | energy and takes heat away from the body.
Conversely, as molecular motion decreases and temperatures drop, less energy is present to break the hydrogen
bonds between water molecules. These bonds remain intact and begin to form a rigid, lattice-like structure (e.g.,
ice) (Figure 2.9a). When frozen, ice is less dense tha... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page": 49, "total_pages": 615, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a... |
944b58ac-8107-4867-98c7-e883d28af53e | [
-0.04073910415172577,
-0.09814216941595078,
0.012797138653695583,
0.005014060530811548,
0.07858356833457947,
0.010840464383363724,
0.07213578373193741,
0.022666532546281815,
0.05666728317737579,
-0.013339473865926266,
-0.033412348479032516,
0.013974761590361595,
0.084846131503582,
0.022514... | FIGURE 2.9 (a) The lattice structure of ice makes it less dense than the freely flowing molecules of liquid water. Ice's lower density enables
it to (b) float on water. (credit a: modification of work by Jane Whitney; credit b: modification of work by Carlos Ponte)
LINK T O LE ARNING
Clickhere(http://openstax.org/l/ice... | {"source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "bat... |
c8ebb93b-a07a-43f5-a5fe-d009a07b19a6 | [
-0.006920577492564917,
-0.039966557174921036,
-0.013777374289929867,
-0.012416540645062923,
0.07452953606843948,
-0.018546028062701225,
0.1200646311044693,
-0.020728349685668945,
0.052048467099666595,
0.025431018322706223,
0.033267542719841,
-0.0396437905728817,
0.08761626482009888,
0.0692... | of table salt (NaCl) mixed in water (Figure 2.10), the sodium and chloride ions separate, or dissociate, in the water,
and spheres of hydration are formed around the ions. A positively charged sodium ion is surrounded by the partially
negative charges of oxygen atoms in water molecules. A negatively charged chloride io... | {"producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "page": 50, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "50", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\... |
fff7c959-4d7a-402b-ab11-24d889b547a1 | [
-0.07456570118665695,
-0.061086010187864304,
0.011974326334893703,
0.014047063887119293,
0.05805705487728119,
-0.04224264249205589,
0.07503899186849594,
0.027144141495227814,
0.049926046282052994,
0.003418741747736931,
-0.07349390536546707,
0.05291648209095001,
-0.015827538445591927,
0.057... | Water Is Cohesive
Have you ever filled up a glass of water to the very top and then slowly added a few more drops? Before it overflows,
the water actually forms a dome-like shape above the rim of the glass. This water can stay above the glass because
of the property ofcohesion. In cohesion, water molecules are attracte... | {"page_label": "51", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts ... |
7ba79904-de84-4e9f-bd3d-e7fc91311fd5 | [
-0.05508619174361229,
-0.09039613604545593,
0.015946757048368454,
0.0015533813275396824,
0.014022701419889927,
0.0020030757877975702,
0.09635688364505768,
0.013481699861586094,
0.024908876046538353,
0.02151380106806755,
-0.07249027490615845,
-0.03490852937102318,
0.0060827238485217094,
0.0... | created by the water molecules. Cohesion and surface tension keep the water molecules intact and the item floating
on the top. It is even possible to “float” a steel needle on top of a glass of water if you place it gently, without
breaking the surface tension (Figure 2.11).
FIGURE 2.11 The weight of a needle on top of... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "total_pages": 615, "page": 51, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "51", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acd... |
ff25d0c9-c3a2-4ba2-8a5e-3c038a8da5bd | [
-0.015920091420412064,
-0.04352935403585434,
0.042802322655916214,
-0.061930421739816666,
0.09605783224105835,
-0.014045417308807373,
-0.007132355123758316,
0.07675305753946304,
0.0413387231528759,
0.06546586751937866,
-0.0044517177157104015,
-0.00671634403988719,
-0.016483644023537636,
0.... | notice that the water appears to be higher on the sides of the straw than in the middle. This is because the water
molecules are attracted to the straw and therefore adhere to it.
Cohesive and adhesive forces are important for sustaining life. For example, because of these forces, water can flow
up from the roots to th... | {"total_pages": 615, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 51, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a05... |
2243bbdc-a96d-455e-ac78-8652fa783c79 | [
0.02593492530286312,
-0.015330181457102299,
0.04187417030334473,
-0.018094578757882118,
0.05445783957839012,
0.010090415365993977,
0.010911348275840282,
0.09285794943571091,
0.014368937350809574,
-0.0012275974731892347,
0.04471739009022713,
-0.06914378702640533,
0.012764284387230873,
0.095... | (basicity) exists in a solution. You might have even used some to make sure the water in an outdoor swimming pool
is properly treated. In both cases, this pH test measures the amount of hydrogen ions that exists in a given solution.
High concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH, whereas low levels of hydrogen ion... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 51, "total_pages": 615, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_upload... |
95b6262a-ba9e-4bd1-974e-e931a92f9e00 | [
0.006211347412317991,
-0.0776088610291481,
-0.017099393531680107,
0.0050164684653282166,
0.009028959088027477,
0.023721998557448387,
0.02703341655433178,
0.05151897668838501,
-0.0035228782799094915,
-0.0438140332698822,
-0.030077911913394928,
-0.059898048639297485,
0.004377827048301697,
0.... | water is neutral. It is neither acidic nor basic, and has a pH of 7.0. Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is
acidic, and anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0) is alkaline. The blood in your veins is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.4).
The environment in your stomach is highly acidic (pH = 1 to 2). Orange juice is m... | {"producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "total_pages": 615, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "uploaded_via": "batc... |
d5431a04-5882-45f9-af43-eae175f496a7 | [
0.08477576822042465,
-0.01827852427959442,
0.02043013460934162,
-0.002381197875365615,
0.029140841215848923,
0.018842464312911034,
0.019114257767796516,
0.09417261928319931,
0.03487437963485718,
0.04835028946399689,
-0.060229793190956116,
0.022742383182048798,
0.004508893936872482,
0.04166... | donate OH–. The OH–ions combine with H+to produce water, which raises a substance’s pH. Sodium hydroxide and
many household cleaners are very alkaline and give up OH–rapidly when placed in water, thereby raising the pH.
Most cells in our bodies operate within a very narrow window of the pH scale, typically ranging only... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "page": 52, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page_label": "52", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:2025110... |
4e43cf2c-adac-4945-aa49-432a5d88288f | [
0.03815481811761856,
0.019323674961924553,
-0.02495471201837063,
0.00032939412631094456,
0.049428969621658325,
0.04921026527881622,
0.00041408257675357163,
0.0796533152461052,
0.043812111020088196,
0.0525035485625267,
-0.012851782143115997,
-0.04035634547472,
-0.03205966576933861,
0.001774... | Carbon dioxide is part of a prominent buffer system in the human body; it keeps the pH within the proper range. This
buffer system involves carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3–) anion. If too much H+enters the body,
bicarbonate will combine with the H+to create carbonic acid and limit the decrease in pH. Likewi... | {"total_pages": 615, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page": 52, "creator": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "52", "source_file"... |
88cfe2b0-0c1d-4848-b336-f2c2d73b4990 | [
0.09072990715503693,
-0.06035153567790985,
-0.009096282534301281,
-0.03630978986620903,
0.09505735337734222,
0.03743479773402214,
0.010543488897383213,
0.06915362179279327,
-0.03681536763906479,
0.08851597458124161,
-0.04321112111210823,
-0.10347343236207962,
-0.14788922667503357,
0.007365... | 2.3 Biological Molecules
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the ways in which carbon is critical to life
• Explain the impact of slight changes in amino acids on organisms
• Describe the four major types of biological molecules
• Understand the functions of the four major ty... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6... |
06c65c8d-660a-4742-8555-cabe8abc6579 | [
0.05387473478913307,
-0.0068894680589437485,
-0.0422622375190258,
-0.007543814834207296,
0.07122242450714111,
0.022185087203979492,
0.027236519381403923,
0.025470426306128502,
0.040631551295518875,
0.05231807008385658,
-0.03480251505970955,
-0.08480342477560043,
-0.08171974122524261,
0.060... | contain carbon and are bound to hydrogen, and may contain oxygen, nitrogen, and additional minor elements.
Carbon
It is often said that life is “carbon-based.” This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon atoms or other
elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules found uniqu... | {"total_pages": 615, "producer": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\B... |
f56eedd7-61a4-47c3-8551-67bb45ce6e92 | [
0.03289445489645004,
-0.0749436765909195,
-0.05903015658259392,
-0.02120431885123253,
0.03556104376912117,
0.006591098383069038,
-0.027473555877804756,
0.042751699686050415,
0.07310108095407486,
0.029024560004472733,
-0.0234153401106596,
-0.0450352318584919,
-0.09269862622022629,
0.0533855... | atom (Figure 2.13).
FIGURE 2.13 Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an organic molecule. The simplest carbon molecule is methane (CH4),
depicted here.
However, structures that are more complex are made using carbon. Any of the hydrogen atoms can be replaced with
another carbon atom covalently bonded to the fi... | {"producer": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page": 53, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "page_label": "53", "source":... |
5ab16c67-0cee-498c-9b73-82cf3d6f3e36 | [
0.0040174610912799835,
-0.036568500101566315,
-0.06344670057296753,
0.05446869879961014,
0.05628226697444916,
0.10209071636199951,
0.045734554529190063,
-0.01957455277442932,
0.01101992279291153,
-0.0227094367146492,
-0.04572267457842827,
-0.08769600838422775,
-0.07226775586605072,
-0.0421... | FIGURE 2.14 These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon atoms bonded in various ways to other
carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements. (a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms. (b) Glycine, a component
of proteins, contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "batch_upload": true, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "page": 54, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", ... |
f3a970fe-ba61-4a2e-a0ac-f4ceeddf114b | [
-0.008652032352983952,
-0.08863939344882965,
-0.07903962582349777,
0.029786771163344383,
-0.015272741205990314,
0.025986889377236366,
0.011428817175328732,
0.03857782855629921,
0.05963480845093727,
0.04277573153376579,
-0.03601294383406639,
-0.07697414606809616,
-0.09696397930383682,
-0.00... | body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans,
animals, and plants.
Carbohydrates can be represented by the formula (CH2O)n, wherenis the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carboh... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "54", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "total_pages": 615, "creatio... |
5fb26d91-59f4-4e51-9811-2c1668aa3e74 | [
-0.04048915207386017,
-0.02217567153275013,
-0.10217154771089554,
0.04532338306307793,
0.0009091644897125661,
0.024828527122735977,
0.0004019562329631299,
0.025444455444812775,
0.10472316294908524,
0.06896720081567764,
-0.034920912235975266,
0.007577929180115461,
-0.09263782948255539,
-0.0... | Monosaccharides may exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions, they are usually
found in the ring form.
The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In most living species, glucose is an important source of energy.
During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that en... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "page": 54, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", ... |
ce3a50f1-d04c-4006-8a88-62b5e5c8b688 | [
-0.01603502407670021,
-0.07957027852535248,
0.0078903092071414,
0.05587347596883774,
0.047156061977148056,
-0.01130512822419405,
0.003602593904361129,
0.018984872847795486,
0.14080333709716797,
0.01201324351131916,
0.14439575374126434,
-0.03351747989654541,
-0.07877205312252045,
-0.0153640... | chemically (and are known as isomers) because of differing arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain (Figure
2.15).
40 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tu... |
893b15ee-8b17-4bcf-8247-2691b42c8ecb | [
-0.03156505525112152,
-0.1165342926979065,
0.00653482973575592,
0.0285200085490942,
0.0032635312527418137,
0.012441493570804596,
0.03236876428127289,
0.024900661781430244,
0.062194038182497025,
0.001910625258460641,
-0.019804447889328003,
-0.008460208773612976,
-0.08133996278047562,
-0.014... | FIGURE 2.15 Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides, meaning that they have the same chemical formula but
slightly different structures.
Disaccharides(di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (a reaction in which
the removal of a water molecule occurs). During this... | {"batch_upload": true, "page_label": "55", "file_type": ".pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page": 55, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "... |
492ea183-8de6-4694-b45a-f282b699a12d | [
-0.08980721980333328,
-0.08028873056173325,
-0.0595751591026783,
0.020019957795739174,
-0.018125930801033974,
0.0034358359407633543,
0.07328671216964722,
-0.005149300675839186,
0.04306955263018608,
0.09474769979715347,
-0.017490549013018608,
0.0172276571393013,
-0.104806087911129,
-0.03070... | dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar,
which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose.
A long chain of monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds is known as apolysaccharide(poly- = “many”). The
chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may c... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "page_label": "55", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "creator": "PDFium", ... |
edc6445d-e8dc-43d3-b8e9-3c036676d445 | [
-0.0663030743598938,
-0.01883516274392605,
-0.031361836940050125,
0.0297847967594862,
0.03118981048464775,
0.01238657720386982,
0.034247029572725296,
0.01797061413526535,
0.019884640350937843,
0.05505731701850891,
-0.03339606523513794,
0.06546583771705627,
-0.12180794030427933,
0.001754232... | The cells can then absorb the glucose.
Glycogenis the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, and is made up of monomers of glucose.
Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle
cells. Whenever glucose levels decrease, glycogen is brok... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "total_pages": 615, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader"... |
970f9129-fd3a-4ae1-bb16-25cddf8a6df1 | [
-0.017620805650949478,
-0.03969894349575043,
-0.02235201932489872,
0.023206865414977074,
0.013575911521911621,
-0.0004944662796333432,
0.05113755539059639,
0.009245011955499649,
0.07413948327302933,
0.04599418491125107,
-0.0036458084359765053,
-0.005381334573030472,
-0.07776783406734467,
0... | cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells. Cellulose passing through our
digestive system is called dietary fiber. While the glucose-glucose bonds in cellulose cannot be broken down by
human digestive enzymes, herbivores such as cows, buffalos, and horses are able to digest g... | {"producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "55", "page": 55, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", ... |
1020ecdc-9402-4264-b54b-35b14c55e2ea | [
-0.06074708700180054,
-0.03932107985019684,
0.013416335918009281,
-0.0286310613155365,
0.05736093968153,
-0.06183148920536041,
0.0743129774928093,
0.06814581900835037,
0.03120449371635914,
0.1410636156797409,
0.035953275859355927,
-0.04463477060198784,
-0.009442263282835484,
0.023271720856... | outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts. This exoskeleton is made of the
2.3 • Biological Molecules 41 | {"total_pages": 615, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page": 55, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6... |
7cce0c5f-751f-4043-b78c-937ead225153 | [
-0.08422434329986572,
-0.07291759550571442,
-0.05179610475897789,
0.042776767164468765,
-0.008691517636179924,
0.07281529158353806,
0.04548221454024315,
0.07639829814434052,
0.005032118409872055,
-0.030148768797516823,
-0.07429073750972748,
-0.05279308184981346,
-0.10101640969514847,
-0.04... | biological macromoleculechitin, which is a nitrogenous carbohydrate. It is made of repeating units of a modified
sugar containing nitrogen.
Thus, through differences in molecular structure, carbohydrates are able to serve the very different functions of
energy storage (starch and glycogen) and structural support and pr... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFium", "pa... |
cc0cc98d-bac8-4094-be27-ffdf25f2ba6e | [
-0.0021167686209082603,
-0.08926430344581604,
0.02834712155163288,
0.0359795056283474,
-0.13329310715198517,
-0.009760052897036076,
-0.03784538432955742,
-0.007143102586269379,
-0.10027991980314255,
-0.11365611851215363,
-0.14546124637126923,
-0.08747047930955887,
-0.07841011136770248,
-0.... | advice. Registered dietitians help plan food and nutrition programs for individuals in various settings. They often
work with patients in health-care facilities, designing nutrition plans to prevent and treat diseases. For example,
dietitians may teach a patient with diabetes how to manage blood-sugar levels by eating ... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 56, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biolog... |
61233af1-597d-4201-aeb2-6baf0138efca | [
-0.08562273532152176,
-0.0428919643163681,
-0.029027678072452545,
0.04267561808228493,
0.044693171977996826,
0.05668191984295845,
-0.020004455000162125,
-0.03586288541555405,
0.03089980036020279,
0.0072033582255244255,
-0.051080383360385895,
-0.08673043549060822,
-0.1059495359659195,
-0.00... | biology, microbiology, and human physiology. Dietitians must become experts in the chemistry and functions of food
(proteins, carbohydrates, and fats).
Lipids
Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are united by a common feature.Lipidsare hydrophobic (“water-
fearing”), or insoluble in water, because they are... | {"source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 56, "page_label": "56", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp":... |
4a8b52c1-7496-4c81-b0b1-b1f2f02cf409 | [
0.0017984368605539203,
-0.07912181317806244,
-0.02434535138309002,
0.0036697082687169313,
0.010403141379356384,
0.07701337337493896,
0.021176353096961975,
-0.003074175212532282,
0.015649864450097084,
-0.05480969697237015,
0.0024392122868448496,
-0.12700220942497253,
-0.1156533807516098,
-0... | constituent of the plasma membrane. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
FIGURE 2.17 Hydrophobic lipids in the fur of aquatic mammals, such as this river otter, protect them from the elements. (credit: Ken
Bosma)
Afatmolecule, such as a triglyceride, consists of two main components—glycerol an... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "57", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db... |
6e152aea-b367-4fe1-99ab-4d3ab4adeeca | [
-0.034758660942316055,
-0.11002785712480545,
-0.0835750475525856,
-0.0151907317340374,
-0.051463332027196884,
0.032546527683734894,
-0.0036297121550887823,
-0.04127795249223709,
0.02855031192302704,
-0.018621791154146194,
0.02956310100853443,
-0.11895895004272461,
-0.0790465846657753,
-0.0... | with a covalent bond (Figure 2.18).
FIGURE 2.18 Lipids include fats, such as triglycerides, which are made up of fatty acids and glycerol, phospholipids, and steroids.
During this covalent bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in the fat may be
similar or dissimilar. These fats are a... | {"producer": "PDFium", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page_label": "57", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "creationdate": "D:202511010027... |
1523d3af-2cac-40da-aa0a-6b6268c30176 | [
-0.06422742456197739,
-0.07503478974103928,
-0.07295429706573486,
0.026423994451761246,
-0.011910631321370602,
0.0015724062686786056,
-0.08206930011510849,
0.046665847301483154,
0.011234917677938938,
-0.02673511952161789,
0.03366474807262421,
-0.01393651682883501,
-0.03702516853809357,
-0.... | have common names that specify their origin. For example, palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is derived from the
palm tree. Arachidic acid is derived fromArachis hypogaea, the scientific name for peanuts.
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds between
neig... | {"file_size_mb": 146.57, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "page": 58, "creator": "PDFium", "fi... |
09e516a9-30da-46b8-bb6a-0739602cdb0b | [
-0.07626171410083771,
-0.08843756467103958,
-0.05492105334997177,
0.06585929542779922,
0.03758862614631653,
0.05924616754055023,
-0.08268442749977112,
0.01097766775637865,
0.021889951080083847,
0.0032843472436070442,
-0.016353262588381767,
0.013169420883059502,
-0.10928216576576233,
-0.061... | molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one double bond, then
it is known as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).
Saturated fats tend to get packed tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats with stearic acid and
palmitic acid contained in meat, ... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creator": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creation... |
7ff07a6c-6d5b-4fa9-a737-371a7084549b | [
-0.10813390463590622,
-0.08874960243701935,
-0.03380235284566879,
0.030099205672740936,
0.010188802145421505,
-0.003299789736047387,
-0.08145787566900253,
0.05250190943479538,
-0.019394932314753532,
-0.08892504870891571,
0.0011473277118057013,
0.047918569296598434,
-0.09722556918859482,
-0... | oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help to improve blood
cholesterol levels, whereas saturated fats might contribute to plaque formation in the arteries, which increases the
risk of a heart attack.
In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to m... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "page": 58, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academ... |
adfc38c4-efc6-4c28-ba79-e6597ed2c685 | [
-0.07460594922304153,
-0.054464712738990784,
-0.06066581606864929,
0.06827767938375473,
0.013943878933787346,
0.050687313079833984,
-0.0687541738152504,
0.02840024046599865,
0.013163832947611809,
-0.09349865466356277,
0.011744135990738869,
0.008744324557483196,
-0.09059030562639236,
-0.109... | FIGURE 2.19 During the hydrogenation process, the orientation around the double bonds is changed, making atrans-fat from acis-fat. This
changes the chemical properties of the molecule.
Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenatedtrans-fats. Recent
studies have shown t... | {"creator": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "produ... |
53a0152d-602f-4f14-b5b6-3fe290f9ce02 | [
-0.01645515486598015,
-0.08334890007972717,
-0.03996356949210167,
0.012207280844449997,
0.06719424575567245,
0.057339973747730255,
-0.0851626843214035,
-0.03210604190826416,
-0.015948176383972168,
-0.08085399121046066,
0.008148971013724804,
-0.085177481174469,
-0.0992434099316597,
-0.07716... | must be supplemented through the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids fall into this category and are one of only two known
essential fatty acids for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acids). They are a type of polyunsaturated fat and
44 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org | {"total_pages": 615, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "58", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "page": 58, "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_name": "Concepts of... |
b6162ee5-6a75-4213-ac92-ef6757b03355 | [
-0.035208575427532196,
-0.05352625623345375,
-0.04481020197272301,
0.05602974072098732,
0.010274986736476421,
0.0573405846953392,
-0.01880362629890442,
-0.008000572212040424,
0.011235875077545643,
-0.045743558555841446,
-0.014779525808990002,
-0.05002309009432793,
-0.06953053176403046,
-0.... | are called omega-3 fatty acids because the third carbon from the end of the fatty acid participates in a double bond.
Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids are important in brain
function and normal growth and development. They may also prevent heart disease and reduce the... | {"file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 59, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1... |
738d60bd-3b19-46a6-9971-7a4c2c14d11b | [
-0.021236222237348557,
-0.06938385218381882,
-0.0521758496761322,
-0.04740617424249649,
-0.00944592710584402,
0.015614141710102558,
-0.017802130430936813,
-0.0008790377760306001,
0.03352504223585129,
-0.02010076306760311,
0.0369371734559536,
-0.010684097185730934,
-0.07232659310102463,
-0.... | attached to a glycerol or similar backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached, however, there are two fatty acids
and the third carbon of the glycerol backbone is bound to a phosphate group. The phosphate group is modified by
the addition of an alcohol.
A phospholipid has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. T... | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "page_label": "59", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload": true, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date"... |
f3412557-384e-4a05-aa57-97481fc5c377 | [
-0.058772776275873184,
-0.08314605802297592,
-0.004923696164041758,
-0.012270710431039333,
-0.047046322375535965,
0.03584231808781624,
-0.019724372774362564,
0.007668640930205584,
-0.0247025303542614,
0.031189706176519394,
0.024261459708213806,
-0.01617327146232128,
-0.08139592409133911,
-... | other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic. All steroids have four, linked carbon
rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail.
Cholesterol is a steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor of many steroid hormones,
such as testosterone a... | {"creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "creator": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 615, "batch_upload": true, "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "59", "page": 59, "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19... |
0cfd7fbc-ef6a-4387-932d-812379e75835 | [
-0.057004522532224655,
-0.10833418369293213,
0.044216401875019073,
-0.041263069957494736,
0.05356787145137787,
0.104243703186512,
0.02541050687432289,
0.041607409715652466,
0.03338299319148064,
0.038615211844444275,
0.03361552953720093,
-0.013532012701034546,
-0.0794634073972702,
0.0255824... | include beeswax and lanolin. Plants also have waxes, such as the coating on their leaves, that helps prevent them
from drying out.
LINK T O LE ARNING
For an additional perspective on lipids, watch this video abouttypes of fat(http://openstax.org/l/lipids).
Proteins
Proteinsare one of the most abundant organic molecules... | {"page_label": "59", "file_type": ".pdf", "page": 59, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-... |
6bded2ab-db2d-450c-a3ed-f53c9619ff59 | [
-0.02381388284265995,
-0.1295453906059265,
-0.029849493876099586,
-0.04967646300792694,
-0.0037446238566190004,
0.09464292228221893,
0.0014296594308689237,
-0.010815759189426899,
0.028467539697885513,
0.04085921868681908,
-0.027649426832795143,
0.017180996015667915,
-0.11100782454013824,
0... | are all, however, polymers of amino acids, arranged in a linear sequence.
The functions of proteins are very diverse because there are 20 different chemically distinct amino acids that form
long chains, and the amino acids can be in any order. For example, proteins can function as enzymes or hormones.
Enzymes, which ar... | {"producer": "PDFium", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page": 59, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFium", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\aca... |
6634c632-b4aa-4975-b8eb-1919330be8d2 | [
-0.021926898509263992,
-0.10125762969255447,
-0.05508967116475105,
0.0035936704371124506,
0.016799163073301315,
0.06715860217809677,
0.046000536531209946,
0.07673654705286026,
0.046325456351041794,
0.013562176376581192,
-0.022684864699840546,
0.018311085179448128,
-0.09592285752296448,
0.0... | metabolism, and reproduction. For example, insulin is a protein hormone that maintains blood glucose levels.
Proteins have different shapes and molecular weights; some proteins are globular in shape whereas others are
fibrous in nature. For example, hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our skin, is ... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page": 60, "page_label": "60", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creator": "PDFium", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:202511010027... |
4e1cfa61-468d-4f73-ba90-8d6bb756d41d | [
0.0368555411696434,
-0.12296907603740692,
-0.09343032538890839,
-0.03353503346443176,
0.08179686218500137,
0.11567805707454681,
-0.005381633061915636,
0.06997770816087723,
0.07403299957513809,
-0.004297001287341118,
-0.00998995266854763,
-0.0027875369414687157,
-0.038005147129297256,
0.046... | atom. Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms bonded to the central carbon atom known
as the R group. The R group is the only difference in structure between the 20 amino acids; otherwise, the amino
acids are identical (Figure 2.20).
FIGURE 2.20 Amino acids are made up of a central carbon bond... | {"batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "page_label": "60", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Conc... |
5954443a-2f8e-4c02-8a8e-79357f1f04a4 | [
-0.007441076450049877,
-0.12344863265752792,
-0.050821010023355484,
0.008331677876412868,
0.02398853562772274,
0.09941468387842178,
0.07477882504463196,
0.05501595512032509,
0.08831509947776794,
-0.03576214239001274,
0.08960410207509995,
-0.013859131373465061,
-0.08016768842935562,
0.01855... | acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which is formed by a
dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of a second amino acid combine,
releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond.
The products formed by such a linkag... | {"source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "batch_upload": true, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707"... |
b81f2063-9b26-4d83-8104-f7dbc8513678 | [
-0.13365119695663452,
-0.057885508984327316,
-0.08342855423688889,
-0.053410593420267105,
-0.03664075583219528,
0.10386534780263901,
0.01163459476083517,
0.05226066708564758,
0.053335804492235184,
-0.0211048386991024,
0.010768318548798561,
-0.08663102239370346,
-0.02395479939877987,
0.0342... | sometimes used interchangeably, apolypeptideis technically a polymer of amino acids, whereas the term protein is
used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that have combined together, have a distinct shape, and have a unique
function.
EVOLUTION C ONNE CTION
The Evolutionary Significance of Cytochrome c
Cytochrome c is an ... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\acad... |
daab8063-f4c2-4f65-a52c-a21d5f8a9156 | [
-0.12395331263542175,
-0.05407673865556717,
-0.02252698317170143,
-0.08337490260601044,
0.018332911655306816,
0.08510823547840118,
-0.044255759567022324,
0.07342314720153809,
0.03885830566287041,
0.026824545115232468,
0.04531770944595337,
-0.06172838807106018,
-0.05873304232954979,
0.02612... | various species’ protein sequences.
For example, scientists have determined that human cytochrome c contains 104 amino acids. For each cytochrome
c molecule that has been sequenced to date from different organisms, 37 of these amino acids appear in the same
position in each cytochrome c. This indicates that all of thes... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Bio... |
20a06a89-5710-4e68-ab27-2abb9894c73f | [
-0.008256443776190281,
-0.050435349345207214,
-0.047282855957746506,
-0.02930777706205845,
-0.019604481756687164,
0.03277892246842384,
-0.0007053749868646264,
0.09175661951303482,
0.13352736830711365,
-0.004802452865988016,
0.012444260530173779,
0.02956281416118145,
-0.03614749014377594,
-... | Protein Structure
As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. To understand how the protein gets its final
shape or conformation, we need to understand the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary (Figure 2.21).
The unique sequence and number of amino ... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 61, "page_label": "61", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "producer": "PDFium", "file_name"... |
5beb35d3-29ba-4a89-98e4-d3b936971dd6 | [
0.03693785518407822,
-0.09319861233234406,
-0.06789691746234894,
0.0012319798115640879,
-0.012862223200500011,
-0.0318896621465683,
0.014390616677701473,
0.13060647249221802,
0.0935191884636879,
-0.009976386092603207,
-0.027867423370480537,
0.051210734993219376,
-0.023651478812098503,
-0.0... | β chain has a single amino acid substitution, causing a change in both the structure and function of the protein.
What is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two beta
chains that each consist of about 150 amino acids. The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino ... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page_label": "61", "page": 61, "creation_date": "D:2025110100270... |
2c23b729-35c9-4d4b-9fed-5b09aab7c947 | [
-0.07101976126432419,
-0.1297653764486313,
-0.08659018576145172,
-0.07387705892324448,
0.049896240234375,
0.03157586604356766,
0.014747308567166328,
0.11724153161048889,
0.07214540988206863,
0.020843204110860825,
0.03619375079870224,
0.07702196389436722,
-0.11467517912387848,
0.10973356664... | Folding patterns resulting from interactions between the non-R group portions of amino acids give rise to the
secondary structure of the protein. The most common are the alpha (α)-helix and beta (β)-pleated sheet structures.
Both structures are held in shape by hydrogen bonds. In the alpha helix, the bonds form between... | {"creator": "PDFium", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "page": 61, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:202511... |
c6326f44-6dda-489b-98f0-ffb481c3e1f5 | [
-0.022468391805887222,
-0.12916387617588043,
-0.05602392926812172,
-0.08934792131185532,
0.023209698498249054,
-0.013806323520839214,
-0.011087337508797646,
0.020836347714066505,
0.12607282400131226,
0.0234015341848135,
-0.010098068974912167,
0.0005619361763820052,
-0.05912962183356285,
0.... | proteins.
The unique three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is known as its tertiary structure. This structure is caused
by chemical interactions between various amino acids and regions of the polypeptide. Primarily, the interactions
among R groups create the complex three-dimensional tertiary structure of a prot... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "total_pages": 615, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\... |
273b993b-b1ce-4d67-9518-fca488f0ae6e | [
-0.032336991280317307,
-0.10507038980722427,
-0.013917389325797558,
-0.0350310355424881,
0.048994190990924835,
0.014869827777147293,
0.04613145813345909,
0.10077214986085892,
0.07418376952409744,
-0.07074543088674545,
-0.03712386637926102,
-0.00024136269348673522,
-0.054364971816539764,
0.... | formed between R groups on different amino acids, or hydrogen bonding beyond that involved in the secondary
structure. When protein folding takes place, the hydrophobic R groups of nonpolar amino acids lay in the interior of
the protein, whereas the hydrophilic R groups lay on the outside. The former types of interacti... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "page_label": "62", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0... |
d68701a7-cfbe-472a-8fde-ef5d8ef9566f | [
-0.04286720231175423,
-0.09356386214494705,
0.0017587412148714066,
0.028526224195957184,
0.03188705816864967,
0.0014704547356814146,
0.016092408448457718,
0.004230822436511517,
0.005960565060377121,
-0.048308711498975754,
-0.012987949885427952,
0.04220476374030113,
-0.03948967903852463,
0.... | Genome Research Institute)
Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions. If the protein is subject
to changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may change, losing its shape in what
is known as denaturation as discussed earlier. Denaturation ... | {"creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concept... |
831f8b5b-62f5-434d-9a2e-67d297c00e8f | [
-0.00771810719743371,
-0.11786701530218124,
-0.03261231258511543,
0.030090363696217537,
0.0937010645866394,
0.036705709993839264,
0.029913948848843575,
-0.03758533298969269,
-0.027054904028773308,
0.026968911290168762,
0.04812762886285782,
0.006187706720083952,
-0.01406804658472538,
0.0497... | that survive in hot springs have proteins that are adapted to function at those temperatures.
LINK T O LE ARNING
For an additional perspective on proteins, explore “Biomolecules: The Proteins” through this interactiveanimation
(http://openstax.org/l/proteins).
48 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org | {"total_pages": 615, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050a... |
0c6291e1-0258-49ed-86c2-cffad0e3938e | [
-0.004552711732685566,
-0.10892124474048615,
-0.049193985760211945,
-0.04040427878499031,
0.04901236295700073,
0.07822474837303162,
-0.02085370384156704,
0.019224226474761963,
-0.02676808275282383,
0.022222746163606644,
-0.03134400397539139,
-0.008905329741537571,
-0.13155241310596466,
-0.... | Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are key macromolecules in the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry
instructions for the functioning of the cell.
The two main types ofnucleic acidsaredeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)andribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the
genetic material found in all living orga... | {"file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "total_pages": 615, "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 63, "creator": "PDFium", "file_type": ".pdf", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "file_name": "Conc... |
7810be3b-bd77-4871-a19d-5a54cd6c362f | [
-0.08265604823827744,
-0.09886617213487625,
-0.00528620695695281,
-0.06053430959582329,
-0.06093771383166313,
-0.022624356672167778,
-0.013796729035675526,
0.03379640728235245,
0.020136652514338493,
0.05626566335558891,
0.05988602712750435,
0.08010971546173096,
-0.09409652650356293,
0.0134... | carbon) sugar, and a phosphate group (Figure 2.22). Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar
molecule, which is attached to a phosphate group.
FIGURE 2.22 A nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
DNA Double-Helical Structure
DNA has a d... | {"page": 63, "page_label": "63", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050acdeab0389517de72c71db6", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_name": "Concepts of Biology.pdf", "creationdate": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "file_size_mb": 146.57, "creation_date": "D:20251101002... |
548eb361-0e43-4fbe-a953-d2b1609432d9 | [
-0.07041552662849426,
-0.06586117297410965,
-0.035946279764175415,
-0.07131006568670273,
-0.05391930043697357,
-0.0004678356635849923,
-0.03628741204738617,
0.049458641558885574,
-0.008999601006507874,
0.03866397961974144,
0.04705088958144188,
0.05889654532074928,
-0.05990943685173988,
-0.... | The alternating sugar and phosphate groups lie on the outside of each strand, forming the backbone of the DNA. The
nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like the steps of a staircase, and these bases pair; the pairs are bound
2.3 • Biological Molecules 49 | {"upload_timestamp": "2025-11-06T07:48:19.078368", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "page_label": "63", "creation_date": "D:20251101002707", "total_pages": 615, "creator": "PDFium", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "producer": "PDFium", "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concep... |
9dd1091c-7fcb-42ce-9593-b12cd7b94e95 | [
-0.019298778846859932,
-0.023636961355805397,
-0.12255445122718811,
-0.02909807488322258,
0.006168529856950045,
0.02456127665936947,
-0.03240193799138069,
0.043598275631666183,
0.057171519845724106,
-0.02031511627137661,
0.10848869383335114,
0.033123038709163666,
-0.04726649820804596,
0.00... | to each other by hydrogen bonds. The bases pair in such a way that the distance between the backbones of the two
strands is the same all along the molecule.
50 2 • Chemistry of Life
Access for free at openstax.org | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "page_label": "64", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\education\\academic_tutoring\\Biology\\Concepts of Biology.pdf", "page": 64, "producer": "PDFium", "total_pages": 615, "creator": "PDFium", "file_hash": "e0d8e64cc71418b4d6a1c0c5bd202a050d2c6b050... |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.