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C O N C E P T S I N P R A C T I C E Tax Cuts and Jobs Act In 2017, the US government enacted the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act. As a result, financial stakeholders needed to resolve several issues surrounding the standards from GAAP principles and the FASB. The issues were as follows: “Current Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) requires that deferred tax liabilities and assets be adjusted for the effect of a change in tax laws or rates,” and “implementation issues related to the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act and income tax reporting.”[4] In response, the FASB issued updated guidance on both issues. You can explore these revised guidelines at the FASB website (https://www.fasb.org/taxcutsjobsact#section_1). The Accounting Equation Introduction to Financial Statements briefly discussed the accounting equation, which is important to the study of accounting because it shows what the organization owns and the sources of (or claims against) those
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study of accounting because it shows what the organization owns and the sources of (or claims against) those resources. The accounting equation is expressed as follows: 4 Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). “Accounting for the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act.” https://www.fasb.org/taxcutsjobsact#section_1 122 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Recall that the accounting equation can be thought of from a “sources and claims” perspective; that is, the assets (items owned by the organization) were obtained by incurring liabilities or were provided by owners. Stated differently, everything a company owns must equal everything the company owes to creditors (lenders) and owners (individuals for sole proprietors or stockholders for companies or corporations). In our example in Why It Matters, we used an individual owner, Mark Summers, for the Supreme Cleaners discussion to simplify our example. Individual owners are sole proprietors in legal terms. This distinction
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discussion to simplify our example. Individual owners are sole proprietors in legal terms. This distinction becomes significant in such areas as legal liability and tax compliance. For sole proprietors, the owner’s interest is labeled “owner’s equity.” In Introduction to Financial Statements, we addressed the owner’s value in the firm as capital or owner’s equity. This assumed that the business is a sole proprietorship. However, for the rest of the text we switch the structure of the business to a corporation, and instead of owner’s equity, we begin using stockholder’s equity, which includes account titles such as common stock and retained earnings to represent the owners’ interests. The primary reason for this distinction is that the typical company can have several to thousands of owners, and the financial statements for corporations require a greater amount of complexity.
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The primary reason for this distinction is that the typical company can have several to thousands of owners, and the financial statements for corporations require a greater amount of complexity. As you also learned in Introduction to Financial Statements, the accounting equation represents the balance sheet and shows the relationship between assets, liabilities, and owners’ equity (for sole proprietorships/ individuals) or common stock (for companies). You may recall from mathematics courses that an equation must always be in balance. Therefore, we must ensure that the two sides of the accounting equation are always equal. We explore the components of the accounting equation in more detail shortly. First, we need to examine several underlying concepts that form the foundation for the accounting equation: the double-entry accounting system, debits and credits, and the “normal” balance for each account that is part of a formal accounting system. Double-Entry Bookkeeping
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“normal” balance for each account that is part of a formal accounting system. Double-Entry Bookkeeping The basic components of even the simplest accounting system are accounts and a general ledger. An account is a record showing increases and decreases to assets, liabilities, and equity—the basic components found in the accounting equation. As you know from Introduction to Financial Statements, each of these categories, in turn, includes many individual accounts, all of which a company maintains in its general ledger. A general ledger is a comprehensive listing of all of a company’s accounts with their individual balances. Accounting is based on what we call a double-entry accounting system, which requires the following: • Each time we record a transaction, we must record a change in at least two different accounts. Having two or more accounts change will allow us to keep the accounting equation in balance.
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• Each time we record a transaction, we must record a change in at least two different accounts. Having two or more accounts change will allow us to keep the accounting equation in balance. • Not only will at least two accounts change, but there must also be at least one debit and one credit side impacted. • The sum of the debits must equal the sum of the credits for each transaction. In order for companies to record the myriad of transactions they have each year, there is a need for a simple but detailed system. Journals are useful tools to meet this need. Debits and Credits Each account can be represented visually by splitting the account into left and right sides as shown. This graphic representation of a general ledger account is known as a T-account. The concept of the T-account was This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 123
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This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 123 briefly mentioned in Introduction to Financial Statements and will be used later in this chapter to analyze transactions. A T-account is called a “T-account” because it looks like a “T,” as you can see with the T-account shown here. A debit records financial information on the left side of each account. A credit records financial information on the right side of an account. One side of each account will increase and the other side will decrease. The ending account balance is found by calculating the difference between debits and credits for each account. You will often see the terms debit and credit represented in shorthand, written as DR or dr and CR or cr, respectively. Depending on the account type, the sides that increase and decrease may vary. We can illustrate
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respectively. Depending on the account type, the sides that increase and decrease may vary. We can illustrate each account type and its corresponding debit and credit effects in the form of an expanded accounting equation. You will learn more about the expanded accounting equation and use it to analyze transactions in Define and Describe the Expanded Accounting Equation and Its Relationship to Analyzing Transactions. As we can see from this expanded accounting equation, Assets accounts increase on the debit side and decrease on the credit side. This is also true of Dividends and Expenses accounts. Liabilities increase on the credit side and decrease on the debit side. This is also true of Common Stock and Revenues accounts. This becomes easier to understand as you become familiar with the normal balance of an account. Normal Balance of an Account The normal balance is the expected balance each account type maintains, which is the side that increases. As
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Normal Balance of an Account The normal balance is the expected balance each account type maintains, which is the side that increases. As assets and expenses increase on the debit side, their normal balance is a debit. Dividends paid to shareholders also have a normal balance that is a debit entry. Since liabilities, equity (such as common stock), and revenues increase with a credit, their “normal” balance is a credit. Table 3.1 shows the normal balances and increases for each account type. Account Normal Balances and Increases Type of account Increases with Normal balance Asset Liability Common Stock Dividends Table 3.1 Debit Credit Credit Debit Debit Credit Credit Debit 124 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Account Normal Balances and Increases Type of account Increases with Normal balance Revenue Expense Table 3.1 Credit Debit Credit Debit
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Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Account Normal Balances and Increases Type of account Increases with Normal balance Revenue Expense Table 3.1 Credit Debit Credit Debit When an account produces a balance that is contrary to what the expected normal balance of that account is, this account has an abnormal balance. Let’s consider the following example to better understand abnormal balances. Let’s say there were a credit of $4,000 and a debit of $6,000 in the Accounts Payable account. Since Accounts Payable increases on the credit side, one would expect a normal balance on the credit side. However, the difference between the two figures in this case would be a debit balance of $2,000, which is an abnormal balance. This situation could possibly occur with an overpayment to a supplier or an error in recording. C O N C E P T S I N P R A C T I C E Assets
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balance. This situation could possibly occur with an overpayment to a supplier or an error in recording. C O N C E P T S I N P R A C T I C E Assets We define an asset to be a resource that a company owns that has an economic value. We also know that the employment activities performed by an employee of a company are considered an expense, in this case a salary expense. In baseball, and other sports around the world, players’ contracts are consistently categorized as assets that lose value over time (they are amortized). For example, the Texas Rangers list “Player rights contracts and signing bonuses-net” as an asset on its balance sheet. They decrease this asset’s value over time through a process called amortization. For tax purposes, players’ contracts are treated akin to office equipment even though expenses for player
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purposes, players’ contracts are treated akin to office equipment even though expenses for player salaries and bonuses have already been recorded. This can be a point of contention for some who argue that an owner does not assume the lost value of a player’s contract, the player does.[5] 3.2 Define and Describe the Expanded Accounting Equation and Its Relationship to Analyzing Transactions Before we explore how to analyze transactions, we first need to understand what governs the way transactions are recorded. As you have learned, the accounting equation represents the idea that a company needs assets to operate, and there are two major sources that contribute to operations: liabilities and equity. The company borrows the funds, creating liabilities, or the company can take the funds provided by the profits generated in the current or past periods, creating retained earnings or some other form of stockholder’s equity. Recall the accounting
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or past periods, creating retained earnings or some other form of stockholder’s equity. Recall the accounting Tommy Craggs. “MLB Confidential, Part 3: Texas Rangers.” Deadspin. August 24, 2010. https://deadspin.com/5619951/mlb-confidential- 5 part-3-texas-rangers This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 125 equation’s basic form. Expanded Accounting Equation The expanded accounting equation breaks down the equity portion of the accounting equation into more detail. This expansion of the equity section allows a company to see the impact to equity from changes to revenues and expenses, and to owner investments and payouts. It is important to have more detail in this equity category to understand the effect on financial statements from period to period. For example, an increase to revenue can increase net income on the income statement, increase retained earnings on the
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increase to revenue can increase net income on the income statement, increase retained earnings on the statement of retained earnings, and change the distribution of stockholder’s equity on the balance sheet. This may be difficult to understand where these changes have occurred without revenue recognized individually in this expanded equation. The expanded accounting equation is shown here. Figure 3.3 Expanded Accounting Equation. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY- NC-SA 4.0 license) Note that this expanded accounting equation breaks down Equity into four categories: common stock, dividends, revenues, and expenses. This considers each element of contributed capital and retained earnings individually to better illustrate each one’s impact on changes in equity. A business can now use this equation to analyze transactions in more detail. But first, it may help to examine
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individually to better illustrate each one’s impact on changes in equity. A business can now use this equation to analyze transactions in more detail. But first, it may help to examine the many accounts that can fall under each of the main categories of Assets, Liabilities, and Equity, in terms of their relationship to the expanded accounting equation. We can begin this discussion by looking at the chart of accounts. Chart of Accounts Recall that the basic components of even the simplest accounting system are accounts and a general ledger. Accounts shows all the changes made to assets, liabilities, and equity—the three main categories in the accounting equation. Each of these categories, in turn, includes many individual accounts, all of which a company maintains in its general ledger. 126 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions When a company first starts the analysis process, it will make a list of all the accounts used in day-to-day
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Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions When a company first starts the analysis process, it will make a list of all the accounts used in day-to-day transactions. For example, a company may have accounts such as cash, accounts receivable, supplies, accounts payable, unearned revenues, common stock, dividends, revenues, and expenses. Each company will make a list that works for its business type, and the transactions it expects to engage in. The accounts may receive numbers using the system presented in Table 3.2. Account Numbering System Assigned account number Account numbers for a Account numbers for a will start with small company large company 1 2 3 4 5 100–199 200–299 300–399 400–499 500–599 1000–1999 2000–2999 3000–3999 4000–4999 5000–5999 Account category Assets Liabilities Stockholders’ equity Revenues Expenses Table 3.2 We call this account numbering system a chart of accounts. The accounts are presented in the chart of
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Account category Assets Liabilities Stockholders’ equity Revenues Expenses Table 3.2 We call this account numbering system a chart of accounts. The accounts are presented in the chart of accounts in the order in which they appear on the financial statements, beginning with the balance sheet accounts and then the income statement accounts. Additional numbers starting with six and continuing might be used in large merchandising and manufacturing companies. The information in the chart of accounts is the foundation of a well-organized accounting system. Breaking Down the Expanded Accounting Equation Refer to the expanded accounting equation (Figure 3.3). We begin with the left side of the equation, the assets, and work toward the right side of the equation to liabilities and equity. Assets and the Expanded Accounting Equation On the left side of the equation are assets. Assets are resources a company owns that have an economic value.
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Assets and the Expanded Accounting Equation On the left side of the equation are assets. Assets are resources a company owns that have an economic value. Assets are represented on the balance sheet financial statement. Some common examples of assets are cash, accounts receivable, inventory, supplies, prepaid expenses, notes receivable, equipment, buildings, machinery, and land. Cash includes paper currency as well as coins, checks, bank accounts, and money orders. Anything that can be quickly liquidated into cash is considered cash. Cash activities are a large part of any business, and the flow of cash in and out of the company is reported on the statement of cash flows. Accounts receivable is money that is owed to the company, usually from a customer. The customer has not yet paid with cash for the provided good or service but will do so in the future. Common phrasing to describe this
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paid with cash for the provided good or service but will do so in the future. Common phrasing to describe this situation is that a customer purchased something “on account,” meaning that the customer has asked to be This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 127 billed and will pay at a later date: “Account” because a customer has not paid us yet but instead has asked to be billed; “Receivable” because we will receive the money in the future. Inventory refers to the goods available for sale. Service companies do not have goods for sale and would thus not have inventory. Merchandising and manufacturing businesses do have inventory. You learn more about this topic in Inventory. Examples of supplies (office supplies) include pens, paper, and pencils. Supplies are considered assets until an
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this topic in Inventory. Examples of supplies (office supplies) include pens, paper, and pencils. Supplies are considered assets until an employee uses them. At the point they are used, they no longer have an economic value to the organization, and their cost is now an expense to the business. Prepaid expenses are items paid for in advance of their use. They are considered assets until used. Some examples can include insurance and rent. Insurance, for example, is usually purchased for more than one month at a time (six months typically). The company does not use all six months of the insurance at once, it uses it one month at a time. However, the company prepays for all of it up front. As each month passes, the company will adjust its records to reflect the cost of one month of insurance usage. Notes receivable is similar to accounts receivable in that it is money owed to the company by a customer or
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company will adjust its records to reflect the cost of one month of insurance usage. Notes receivable is similar to accounts receivable in that it is money owed to the company by a customer or other entity. The difference here is that a note typically includes interest and specific contract terms, and the amount may be due in more than one accounting period. Equipment examples include desks, chairs, and computers; anything that has a long-term value to the company that is used in the office. Equipment is considered a long-term asset, meaning you can use it for more than one accounting period (a year for example). Equipment will lose value over time, in a process called depreciation. You will learn more about this topic in The Adjustment Process. Buildings, machinery, and land are all considered long-term assets. Machinery is usually specific to a manufacturing company that has a factory producing goods. Machinery and buildings also depreciate. Unlike
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manufacturing company that has a factory producing goods. Machinery and buildings also depreciate. Unlike other long-term assets such as machinery, buildings, and equipment, land is not depreciated. The process to calculate the loss on land value could be very cumbersome, speculative, and unreliable; therefore, the treatment in accounting is for land to not be depreciated over time. 128 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Figure 3.4 Assets. Cash, buildings, inventory, and equipment are all types of assets. (credit clockwise from top left: modification of “Cash money! 140606-A-CA521-021” by Sgt. Michael Selvage/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; modification of “41 Cherry Orchard Road” by “Pafcool2”/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; modification of “ASM-e1516805109201” by Jeff Green, Rethink Robotics/ Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 4.0; modification of “Gfp-inventory-space” by Yinan Chen/Wikimedia Commons, CC0) Liabilities and the Expanded Accounting Equation
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modification of “Gfp-inventory-space” by Yinan Chen/Wikimedia Commons, CC0) Liabilities and the Expanded Accounting Equation The accounting equation emphasizes a basic idea in business; that is, businesses need assets in order to operate. There are two ways a business can finance the purchase of assets. First, it can sell shares of its stock to the public to raise money to purchase the assets, or it can use profits earned by the business to finance its activities. Second, it can borrow the money from a lender such as a financial institution. You will learn about other assets as you progress through the book. Let’s now take a look at the right side of the accounting equation. Liabilities are obligations to pay an amount owed to a lender (creditor) based on a past transaction. Liabilities are reported on the balance sheet. It is important to understand that when we talk about liabilities, we are not
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are reported on the balance sheet. It is important to understand that when we talk about liabilities, we are not just talking about loans. Money collected for gift cards, subscriptions, or as advance deposits from customers could also be liabilities. Essentially, anything a company owes and has yet to pay within a period is considered a liability, such as salaries, utilities, and taxes. For example, a company uses $400 worth of utilities in May but is not billed for the usage, or asked to pay for the usage, until June. Even though the company does not have to pay the bill until June, the company owed money for the usage that occurred in May. Therefore, the company must record the usage of electricity, as well as the liability to pay the utility bill, in May. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 129
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well as the liability to pay the utility bill, in May. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 129 Eventually that debt must be repaid by performing the service, fulfilling the subscription, or providing an asset such as merchandise or cash. Some common examples of liabilities include accounts payable, notes payable, and unearned revenue. Accounts payable recognizes that the company owes money and has not paid. Remember, when a customer purchases something “on account” it means the customer has asked to be billed and will pay at a later date. In this case the purchasing company is the “customer.” The company will have to pay the money due in the future, so we use the word “payable.” The debt owed is usually paid off in less than one accounting period (less than a year typically) if it is classified as an account payable.
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future, so we use the word “payable.” The debt owed is usually paid off in less than one accounting period (less than a year typically) if it is classified as an account payable. A notes payable is similar to accounts payable in that the company owes money and has not yet paid. Some key differences are that the contract terms are usually longer than one accounting period, interest is included, and there is typically a more formalized contract that dictates the terms of the transaction. Unearned revenue represents a customer’s advanced payment for a product or service that has yet to be provided by the company. Since the company has not yet provided the product or service, it cannot recognize the customer’s payment as revenue, according to the revenue recognition principle. Thus, the account is called unearned revenue. The company owing the product or service creates the liability to the customer. Equity and the Expanded Accounting Equation
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unearned revenue. The company owing the product or service creates the liability to the customer. Equity and the Expanded Accounting Equation Stockholder’s equity refers to the owner’s (stockholders) investments in the business and earnings. These two components are contributed capital and retained earnings. The owner’s investments in the business typically come in the form of common stock and are called contributed capital. There is a hybrid owner’s investment labeled as preferred stock that is a combination of debt and equity (a concept covered in more advanced accounting courses). The company will issue shares of common stock to represent stockholder ownership. You will learn more about common stock in Corporation Accounting. Another component of stockholder’s equity is company earnings. These retained earnings are what the company holds onto at the end of a period to reinvest in the business, after any distributions to ownership
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company holds onto at the end of a period to reinvest in the business, after any distributions to ownership occur. Stated more technically, retained earnings are a company’s cumulative earnings since the creation of the company minus any dividends that it has declared or paid since its creation. One tricky point to remember is that retained earnings are not classified as assets. Instead, they are a component of the stockholder’s equity account, placing it on the right side of the accounting equation. Distribution of earnings to ownership is called a dividend. The dividend could be paid with cash or be a distribution of more company stock to current shareholders. Either way, dividends will decrease retained earnings. Also affecting retained earnings are revenues and expenses, by way of net income or net loss. Revenues are earnings from the sale of goods and services. An increase in revenues will also contribute toward an increase
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earnings from the sale of goods and services. An increase in revenues will also contribute toward an increase in retained earnings. Expenses are the cost of resources associated with earning revenues. An increase to expenses will contribute toward a decrease in retained earnings. Recall that this concept of recognizing expenses associated with revenues is the expense recognition principle. Some examples of expenses include bill payments for utilities, employee salaries, and loan interest expense. A business does not have an expense until it is “incurred.” Incurred means the resource is used or consumed. For example, you will not recognize utilities as an expense until you have used the utilities. The difference between revenues earned and expenses incurred is called net income (loss) and can be found on the income statement. 130 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions
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incurred is called net income (loss) and can be found on the income statement. 130 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Net income reported on the income statement flows into the statement of retained earnings. If a business has net income (earnings) for the period, then this will increase its retained earnings for the period. This means that revenues exceeded expenses for the period, thus increasing retained earnings. If a business has net loss for the period, this decreases retained earnings for the period. This means that the expenses exceeded the revenues for the period, thus decreasing retained earnings. You will notice that stockholder’s equity increases with common stock issuance and revenues, and decreases from dividend payouts and expenses. Stockholder’s equity is reported on the balance sheet in the form of contributed capital (common stock) and retained earnings. The statement of retained earnings computes the
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contributed capital (common stock) and retained earnings. The statement of retained earnings computes the retained earnings balance at the beginning of the period, adds net income or subtracts net loss from the income statement, and subtracts dividends declared, to result in an ending retained earnings balance reported on the balance sheet. Now that you have a basic understanding of the accounting equation, and examples of assets, liabilities, and stockholder’s equity, you will be able to analyze the many transactions a business may encounter and determine how each transaction affects the accounting equation and corresponding financial statements. First, however, in Define and Examine the Initial Steps in the Accounting Cycle we look at how the role of identifying and analyzing transactions fits into the continuous process known as the accounting cycle. L I N K T O L E A R N I N G
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identifying and analyzing transactions fits into the continuous process known as the accounting cycle. L I N K T O L E A R N I N G The Financial Accounting Standards Board had a policy that allowed companies to reduce their tax liability from share-based compensation deductions. This led companies to create what some call the “contentious debit,” to defer tax liability and increase tax expense in a current period. See the article “The contentious debit—seriously” on continuous debt (https://openstax.org/l/50ContDebt) for further discussion of this practice. 3.3 Define and Describe the Initial Steps in the Accounting Cycle This chapter on analyzing and recording transactions is the first of three consecutive chapters (including The Adjustment Process and Completing the Accounting Cycle) covering the steps in one continuous process known as the accounting cycle. The accounting cycle is a step-by-step process to record business activities
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known as the accounting cycle. The accounting cycle is a step-by-step process to record business activities and events to keep financial records up to date. The process occurs over one accounting period and will begin the cycle again in the following period. A period is one operating cycle of a business, which could be a month, quarter, or year. Review the accounting cycle in Figure 3.5. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 131 Figure 3.5 The Accounting Cycle. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) As you can see, the cycle begins with identifying and analyzing transactions, and culminates in reversing entries (which we do not cover in this textbook). The entire cycle is meant to keep financial data organized and easily accessible to both internal and external users of information. In this chapter, we focus on the first four
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easily accessible to both internal and external users of information. In this chapter, we focus on the first four steps in the accounting cycle: identify and analyze transactions, record transactions to a journal, post journal information to a ledger, and prepare an unadjusted trial balance. In The Adjustment Process we review steps 5, 6, and 7 in the accounting cycle: record adjusting entries, prepare an adjusted trial balance, and prepare financial statements. In Completing the Accounting Cycle, we review steps 8 and 9: closing entries and prepare a post-closing trial balance. As stated previously, we do not cover reversing entries. 132 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions E T H I C A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S Turning Hacked Gift Card Accounts into Cash Gift cards are a great way for a company to presell its products and to create cash flow. One of the
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E T H I C A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S Turning Hacked Gift Card Accounts into Cash Gift cards are a great way for a company to presell its products and to create cash flow. One of the problems with gift cards is that fraudsters are using the retailer’s weak internal controls to defraud the retailer’s customers. A fraudster can hack into autoloading gift cards and drain a customer’s bank account by buying new, physical gift cards through the autoloading gift card account. This is a real problem, and an internal control to reduce this type of fraud is to use a double verification system for the transfer of money from a bank account to reloadable gift card account. Accountants can help their organization limit gift card fraud by reviewing their company’s internal controls over the gift card process. A simple explanation of this fraud is that a fraudster will gain access to an individual’s email account
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process. A simple explanation of this fraud is that a fraudster will gain access to an individual’s email account through phishing or by other means, such as a fraudster putting a key logger on a public computer or in a corrupted public Wi-Fi. The individual uses the same password for the reloadable gift card as his or her email account, and the fraudster will see emails about the gift card. The fraudster contacts the retailor posing as the individual, and the retailor creates an in-store gift card redemption code, and the fraudster or his or her accomplice will go to the store posing as the individual and buy physical gift cards with the redemption code. The customer’s bank account will be drained, and the customer will be upset. In another gift card fraud, the individual’s credit card is stolen and used to buy physical gift cards from a retailor. This type of fraud causes problems for the retailer, for the retailer’s reputation is damaged
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retailor. This type of fraud causes problems for the retailer, for the retailer’s reputation is damaged through the implementation of poor internal controls. Does the fraudster use the fraudulently acquired gift cards? No, there is an entire market for selling gift cards on Craigslist, just go look and see how easy it is to buy discounted gift cards on Craigslist. Also, there are companies such as cardcash.com and cardhub.com that buy and resell gift cards. The fraudster just sells the gift cards, and the retailer has no idea it is redeeming fraudulently acquired gift cards. Through the implementation of proper internal controls, the accountant can help limit this fraud and protect his or her employer’s reputation. First Four Steps in the Accounting Cycle The first four steps in the accounting cycle are (1) identify and analyze transactions, (2) record transactions to a
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First Four Steps in the Accounting Cycle The first four steps in the accounting cycle are (1) identify and analyze transactions, (2) record transactions to a journal, (3) post journal information to a ledger, and (4) prepare an unadjusted trial balance. We begin by introducing the steps and their related documentation. Figure 3.6 Accounting Cycle. The first four steps in the accounting cycle. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) These first four steps set the foundation for the recording process. Step 1. Identifying and analyzing transactions is the first step in the process. This takes information from This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 133 original sources or activities and translates that information into usable financial data. An original source is a
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133 original sources or activities and translates that information into usable financial data. An original source is a traceable record of information that contributes to the creation of a business transaction. For example, a sales invoice is considered an original source. Activities would include paying an employee, selling products, providing a service, collecting cash, borrowing money, and issuing stock to company owners. Once the original source has been identified, the company will analyze the information to see how it influences financial records. Let’s say that Mark Summers of Supreme Cleaners (from Why It Matters) provides cleaning services to a customer. He generates an invoice for $200, the amount the customer owes, so he can be paid for the service. This sales receipt contains information such as how much the customer owes, payment terms, and dates. This
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This sales receipt contains information such as how much the customer owes, payment terms, and dates. This sales receipt is an original source containing financial information that creates a business transaction for the company. Step 2. The second step in the process is recording transactions to a journal. This takes analyzed data from step 1 and organizes it into a comprehensive record of every company transaction. A transaction is a business activity or event that has an effect on financial information presented on financial statements. The information to record a transaction comes from an original source. A journal (also known as the book of original entry or general journal) is a record of all transactions. For example, in the previous transaction, Supreme Cleaners had the invoice for $200. Mark Summers needs to record this $200 in his financial records. He needs to choose what accounts represent this transaction, whether
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record this $200 in his financial records. He needs to choose what accounts represent this transaction, whether or not this transaction will increase or decreases the accounts, and how that impacts the accounting equation before he can record the transaction in his journal. He needs to do this process for every transaction occurring during the period. Figure 3.7 includes information such as the date of the transaction, the accounts required in the journal entry, and columns for debits and credits. Figure 3.7 General Journal. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Step 3. The third step in the process is posting journal information to a ledger. Posting takes all transactions from the journal during a period and moves the information to a general ledger, or ledger. As you’ve learned, account balances can be represented visually in the form of T-accounts.
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from the journal during a period and moves the information to a general ledger, or ledger. As you’ve learned, account balances can be represented visually in the form of T-accounts. Returning to Supreme Cleaners, Mark identified the accounts needed to represent the $200 sale and recorded them in his journal. He will then take the account information and move it to his general ledger. All of the accounts he used during the period will be shown on the general ledger, not only those accounts impacted by the $200 sale. 134 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Figure 3.8 General Ledger in T-Account Form. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) Step 4. The fourth step in the process is to prepare an unadjusted trial balance. This step takes information from the general ledger and transfers it onto a document showing all account balances, and ensuring that
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from the general ledger and transfers it onto a document showing all account balances, and ensuring that debits and credits for the period balance (debit and credit totals are equal). Mark Summers from Supreme Cleaners needs to organize all of his accounts and their balances, including the $200 sale, onto a trial balance. He also needs to ensure his debits and credits are balanced at the culmination of this step. Figure 3.9 Unadjusted Trial Balance. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) It is important to note that recording the entire process requires a strong attention to detail. Any mistakes early on in the process can lead to incorrect reporting information on financial statements. If this occurs, accountants may have to go all the way back to the beginning of the process to find their error. Make sure that as you complete each step, you are careful and really take the time to understand how to record information
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as you complete each step, you are careful and really take the time to understand how to record information and why you are recording it. In the next section, you will learn how the accounting equation is used to analyze transactions. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 135 C O N C E P T S I N P R A C T I C E Forensic Accounting Ever dream about working for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)? As a forensic accountant, that dream might just be possible. A forensic accountant investigates financial crimes, such as tax evasion, insider trading, and embezzlement, among other things. Forensic accountants review financial records looking for clues to bring about charges against potential criminals. They consider every part of the accounting cycle, including original source documents, looking through journal entries, general ledgers,
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accounting cycle, including original source documents, looking through journal entries, general ledgers, and financial statements. They may even be asked to testify to their findings in a court of law. To be a successful forensic accountant, one must be detailed, organized, and naturally inquisitive. This position will need to retrace the steps a suspect may have taken to cover up fraudulent financial activities. Understanding how a company operates can help identify fraudulent activities that veer from the company’s position. Some of the best forensic accountants have put away major criminals such as Al Capone, Bernie Madoff, Ken Lay, and Ivan Boesky. L I N K T O L E A R N I N G A tool that can be helpful to businesses looking for an easier way to view their accounting processes is to have drillable financial statements. This feature can be found in several software systems, allowing
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have drillable financial statements. This feature can be found in several software systems, allowing companies to go through the accounting cycle from transaction entry to financial statement construction. Read this Journal of Accountancy column on drillable financial statements (https://openstax.org/l/50DrillFinState) to learn more. 3.4 Analyze Business Transactions Using the Accounting Equation and Show the Impact of Business Transactions on Financial Statements You gained a basic understanding of both the basic and expanded accounting equations, and looked at examples of assets, liabilities, and stockholder’s equity in Define and Examine the Expanded Accounting Equation and Its Relationship to Analyzing Transactions. Now, we can consider some of the transactions a business may encounter. We can review how each transaction would affect the basic accounting equation and the corresponding financial statements.
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business may encounter. We can review how each transaction would affect the basic accounting equation and the corresponding financial statements. As discussed in Define and Examine the Initial Steps in the Accounting Cycle, the first step in the accounting cycle is to identify and analyze transactions. Each original source must be evaluated for financial implications. Meaning, will the information contained on this original source affect the financial statements? If the answer is yes, the company will then analyze the information for how it affects the financial statements. For example, if a company receives a cash payment from a customer, the company needs to know how to record the cash payment in a meaningful way to keep its financial statements up to date. 136 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Y O U R T U R N Monetary Value of Transactions You are the accountant for a small computer programming company. You must record the following
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Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Y O U R T U R N Monetary Value of Transactions You are the accountant for a small computer programming company. You must record the following transactions. What values do you think you will use for each transaction? A. The company purchased a secondhand van to be used to travel to customers. The sellers told you they believe it is worth $12,500 but agreed to sell it to your company for $11,000. You believe the company got a really good deal because the van has a $13,000 Blue Book value. B. Your company purchased its office building five years ago for $175,000. Values of real estate have been rising quickly over the last five years, and a realtor told you the company could easily sell it for $250,000 today. Since the building is now worth $250,000, you are contemplating whether you should increase its value on the books to reflect this estimated current market value.
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$250,000 today. Since the building is now worth $250,000, you are contemplating whether you should increase its value on the books to reflect this estimated current market value. C. Your company has performed a task for a customer. The customer agreed to a minimum price of $2,350 for the work, but if the customer has absolutely no issues with the programming for the first month, the customer will pay you $2,500 (which includes a bonus for work well done). The owner of the company is almost 100% sure she will receive $2,500 for the job done. You have to record the revenue earned and need to decide how much should be recorded. D. The owner of the company believes the most valuable asset for his company is the employees. The service the company provides depends on having intelligent, hardworking, dependable employees who believe they need to deliver exactly what the customer wants in a reasonable amount of time.
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service the company provides depends on having intelligent, hardworking, dependable employees who believe they need to deliver exactly what the customer wants in a reasonable amount of time. Without the employees, the company would not be so successful. The owner wants to know if she can include the value of her employees on the balance sheet as an asset. Solution A. The van must be recorded on the books at $11,000 per the cost principle. That is the price that was agreed to between a willing buyer and seller. B. The cost principle states that you must record an asset on the books for the price you bought it for and then leave it on the books at that value unless there is a specific rule to the contrary. The company purchased the building for $175,000. It must stay on the books at $175,000. Companies are not allowed to increase the value of an asset on their books just because they believe it is worth more.
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not allowed to increase the value of an asset on their books just because they believe it is worth more. C. You must record the revenue at $2,350 per the rules of conservatism. We do not want to record revenue at $2,500 when we are not absolutely 100% sure that is what we will earn. Recording it at $2,500 might mislead our statement users to think we have earned more revenue than we really have. D. Even though the employees are a wonderful asset for the company, they cannot be included on the balance sheet as an asset. There is no way to assign a monetary value in US dollars to our employees. Therefore, we cannot include them in our assets. Reviewing and Analyzing Transactions Let us assume our business is a service-based company. We use Lynn Sanders’ small printing company, Printing Plus, as our example. Please notice that since Printing Plus is a corporation, we are using the Common
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Printing Plus, as our example. Please notice that since Printing Plus is a corporation, we are using the Common Stock account, instead of Owner’s Equity. The following are several transactions from this business’s current This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 137 month: 1. Issues $20,000 shares of common stock for cash. 2. Purchases equipment on account for $3,500, payment due within the month. 3. Receives $4,000 cash in advance from a customer for services not yet rendered. 4. Provides $5,500 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services. 5. Pays a $300 utility bill with cash. 6. Distributed $100 cash in dividends to stockholders. We now analyze each of these transactions, paying attention to how they impact the accounting equation and corresponding financial statements. Transaction 1: Issues $20,000 shares of common stock for cash.
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corresponding financial statements. Transaction 1: Issues $20,000 shares of common stock for cash. Analysis: Looking at the accounting equation, we know cash is an asset and common stock is stockholder’s equity. When a company collects cash, this will increase assets because cash is coming into the business. When a company issues common stock, this will increase a stockholder’s equity because he or she is receiving investments from owners. Remember that the accounting equation must remain balanced, and assets need to equal liabilities plus equity. On the asset side of the equation, we show an increase of $20,000. On the liabilities and equity side of the equation, there is also an increase of $20,000, keeping the equation balanced. Changes to assets, specifically cash, will increase assets on the balance sheet and increase cash on the statement of cash flows. Changes to stockholder’s equity, specifically common stock, will increase stockholder’s equity on the balance
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Changes to stockholder’s equity, specifically common stock, will increase stockholder’s equity on the balance sheet. Transaction 2: Purchases equipment on account for $3,500, payment due within the month. Analysis: We know that the company purchased equipment, which is an asset. We also know that the company purchased the equipment on account, meaning it did not pay for the equipment immediately and asked for payment to be billed instead and paid later. Since the company owes money and has not yet paid, this is a liability, specifically labeled as accounts payable. There is an increase to assets because the company has equipment it did not have before. There is also an increase to liabilities because the company now owes money. The more money the company owes, the more that liability will increase. The accounting equation remains balanced because there is a $3,500 increase on the asset side, and a $3,500
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money. The more money the company owes, the more that liability will increase. The accounting equation remains balanced because there is a $3,500 increase on the asset side, and a $3,500 increase on the liability and equity side. This change to assets will increase assets on the balance sheet. The change to liabilities will increase liabilities on the balance sheet. Transaction 3: Receives $4,000 cash in advance from a customer for services not yet rendered. 138 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Analysis: We know that the company collected cash, which is an asset. This collection of $4,000 increases assets because money is coming into the business. The company has yet to provide the service. According to the revenue recognition principle, the company cannot recognize that revenue until it provides the service. Therefore, the company has a liability to the
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cannot recognize that revenue until it provides the service. Therefore, the company has a liability to the customer to provide the service and must record the liability as unearned revenue. The liability of $4,000 worth of services increases because the company has more unearned revenue than previously. The equation remains balanced, as assets and liabilities increase. The balance sheet would experience an increase in assets and an increase in liabilities. Transaction 4: Provides $5,500 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services. Analysis: The customer asked to be billed for the service, meaning the customer did not pay with cash immediately. The customer owes money and has not yet paid, signaling an accounts receivable. Accounts receivable is an asset that is increasing in this case. This customer obligation of $5,500 adds to the balance in accounts receivable.
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receivable is an asset that is increasing in this case. This customer obligation of $5,500 adds to the balance in accounts receivable. The company did provide the services. As a result, the revenue recognition principle requires recognition as revenue, which increases equity for $5,500. The increase to assets would be reflected on the balance sheet. The increase to equity would affect three statements. The income statement would see an increase to revenues, changing net income (loss). Net income (loss) is computed into retained earnings on the statement of retained earnings. This change to retained earnings is shown on the balance sheet under stockholder’s equity. Transaction 5: Pays a $300 utility bill with cash. Analysis: The company paid with cash, an asset. Assets are decreasing by $300 since cash was used to pay for this utility bill. The company no longer has that money.
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Analysis: The company paid with cash, an asset. Assets are decreasing by $300 since cash was used to pay for this utility bill. The company no longer has that money. Utility payments are generated from bills for services that were used and paid for within the accounting period, thus recognized as an expense. The expense decreases equity by $300. The decrease to assets, specifically cash, affects the balance sheet and statement of cash flows. The decrease to equity as a result of the expense affects three statements. The income statement would see a change to expenses, changing net income (loss). Net income (loss) is computed into retained earnings on the statement of retained earnings. This change to retained earnings is shown on the balance sheet under stockholder’s equity. Transaction 6: Distributed $100 cash in dividends to stockholders. Analysis: The company paid the distribution with cash, an asset. Assets decrease by $100 as a result.
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Transaction 6: Distributed $100 cash in dividends to stockholders. Analysis: The company paid the distribution with cash, an asset. Assets decrease by $100 as a result. Dividends affect equity and, in this case, decrease equity by $100. The decrease to assets, specifically cash, This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 139 affects the balance sheet and statement of cash flows. The decrease to equity because of the dividend payout affects the statement of retained earnings by reducing ending retained earnings, and the balance sheet by reducing stockholder’s equity. Let’s summarize the transactions and make sure the accounting equation has remained balanced. Shown are each of the transactions. As you can see, assets total $32,600, while liabilities added to equity also equal $32,600. Our accounting
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each of the transactions. As you can see, assets total $32,600, while liabilities added to equity also equal $32,600. Our accounting equation remains balanced. In Use Journal Entries to Record Transactions and Post to T-Accounts, we add other elements to the accounting equation and expand the equation to include individual revenue and expense accounts. Y O U R T U R N Debbie’s Dairy Farm Debbie’s Dairy Farm had the following transactions: A. Debbie ordered shelving worth $750. B. Debbie’s selling price on a gallon of milk is $3.00. She finds out that most local stores are charging $3.50. Based on this information, she decides to increase her price to $3.25. She has an employee put a new price sticker on each gallon. C. A customer buys a gallon of milk paying cash. D. The shelving is delivered with an invoice for $750. Which events will be recorded in the accounting system? Solution
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C. A customer buys a gallon of milk paying cash. D. The shelving is delivered with an invoice for $750. Which events will be recorded in the accounting system? Solution A. Debbie did not yet receive the shelving—it has only been ordered. As of now there is no new asset owned by the company. Since the shelving has not yet been delivered, Debbie does not owe any money to the other company. Debbie will not record the transaction. B. Changing prices does not have an impact on the company at the time the price is changed. All that 140 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions happened was that a new price sticker was placed on the milk. Debbie still has all the milk and has not received any money. Debbie will not record the transaction. C. Debbie now has a transaction to record. She has received cash and the customer has taken some of her inventory of milk. She has an increase in one asset (cash) and a decrease in another asset (inventory.) She also has earned revenue.
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her inventory of milk. She has an increase in one asset (cash) and a decrease in another asset (inventory.) She also has earned revenue. D. Debbie has taken possession of the shelving and is the legal owner. She also has an increase in her liabilities as she accepted delivery of the shelving but has not paid for it. Debbie will record this transaction. 3.5 Use Journal Entries to Record Transactions and Post to T-Accounts When we introduced debits and credits, you learned about the usefulness of T-accounts as a graphic representation of any account in the general ledger. But before transactions are posted to the T-accounts, they are first recorded using special forms known as journals. Journals Accountants use special forms called journals to keep track of their business transactions. A journal is the first place information is entered into the accounting system. A journal is often referred to as the book of original
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place information is entered into the accounting system. A journal is often referred to as the book of original entry because it is the place the information originally enters into the system. A journal keeps a historical account of all recordable transactions with which the company has engaged. In other words, a journal is similar to a diary for a business. When you enter information into a journal, we say you are journalizing the entry. Journaling the entry is the second step in the accounting cycle. Here is a picture of a journal. You can see that a journal has columns labeled debit and credit. The debit is on the left side, and the credit is on the right. Let’s look at how we use a journal. When filling in a journal, there are some rules you need to follow to improve journal entry organization. Formatting When Recording Journal Entries • Include a date of when the transaction occurred. • The debit account title(s) always come first and on the left.
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Formatting When Recording Journal Entries • Include a date of when the transaction occurred. • The debit account title(s) always come first and on the left. • The credit account title(s) always come after all debit titles are entered, and on the right. • The titles of the credit accounts will be indented below the debit accounts. • You will have at least one debit (possibly more). • You will always have at least one credit (possibly more). • The dollar value of the debits must equal the dollar value of the credits or else the equation will go out of balance. • You will write a short description after each journal entry. • Skip a space after the description before starting the next journal entry. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 141 An example journal entry format is as follows. It is not taken from previous examples but is intended to stand alone.
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141 An example journal entry format is as follows. It is not taken from previous examples but is intended to stand alone. Note that this example has only one debit account and one credit account, which is considered a simple entry. A compound entry is when there is more than one account listed under the debit and/or credit column of a journal entry (as seen in the following). Notice that for this entry, the rules for recording journal entries have been followed. There is a date of April 1, 2018, the debit account titles are listed first with Cash and Supplies, the credit account title of Common Stock is indented after the debit account titles, there are at least one debit and one credit, the debit amounts equal the credit amount, and there is a short description of the transaction. Let’s now look at a few transactions from Printing Plus and record their journal entries. Recording Transactions
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credit amount, and there is a short description of the transaction. Let’s now look at a few transactions from Printing Plus and record their journal entries. Recording Transactions We now return to our company example of Printing Plus, Lynn Sanders’ printing service company. We will analyze and record each of the transactions for her business and discuss how this impacts the financial statements. Some of the listed transactions have been ones we have seen throughout this chapter. More detail for each of these transactions is provided, along with a few new transactions. 1. On January 3, 2019, issues $20,000 shares of common stock for cash. 2. On January 5, 2019, purchases equipment on account for $3,500, payment due within the month. 3. On January 9, 2019, receives $4,000 cash in advance from a customer for services not yet rendered. 4. On January 10, 2019, provides $5,500 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services.
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4. On January 10, 2019, provides $5,500 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services. 5. On January 12, 2019, pays a $300 utility bill with cash. 6. On January 14, 2019, distributed $100 cash in dividends to stockholders. 7. On January 17, 2019, receives $2,800 cash from a customer for services rendered. 8. On January 18, 2019, paid in full, with cash, for the equipment purchase on January 5. 9. On January 20, 2019, paid $3,600 cash in salaries expense to employees. 10. On January 23, 2019, received cash payment in full from the customer on the January 10 transaction. 11. On January 27, 2019, provides $1,200 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services. 12. On January 30, 2019, purchases supplies on account for $500, payment due within three months. Transaction 1: On January 3, 2019, issues $20,000 shares of common stock for cash. 142 Analysis: Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions
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Transaction 1: On January 3, 2019, issues $20,000 shares of common stock for cash. 142 Analysis: Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions • This is a transaction that needs to be recorded, as Printing Plus has received money, and the stockholders have invested in the firm. • Printing Plus now has more cash. Cash is an asset, which in this case is increasing. Cash increases on the debit side. • When the company issues stock, stockholders purchase common stock, yielding a higher common stock figure than before issuance. The common stock account is increasing and affects equity. Looking at the expanded accounting equation, we see that Common Stock increases on the credit side. Impact on the financial statements: Both of these accounts are balance sheet accounts. You will see total assets increase and total stockholders’ equity will also increase, both by $20,000. With both totals increasing by
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assets increase and total stockholders’ equity will also increase, both by $20,000. With both totals increasing by $20,000, the accounting equation, and therefore our balance sheet, will be in balance. There is no effect on the income statement from this transaction as there were no revenues or expenses recorded. Transaction 2: On January 5, 2019, purchases equipment on account for $3,500, payment due within the month. Analysis: • In this case, equipment is an asset that is increasing. It increases because Printing Plus now has more equipment than it did before. Assets increase on the debit side; therefore, the Equipment account would show a $3,500 debit. • The company did not pay for the equipment immediately. Lynn asked to be sent a bill for payment at a future date. This creates a liability for Printing Plus, who owes the supplier money for the equipment. Accounts Payable is used to recognize this liability. This liability is increasing, as the company now owes
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Accounts Payable is used to recognize this liability. This liability is increasing, as the company now owes money to the supplier. A liability account increases on the credit side; therefore, Accounts Payable will increase on the credit side in the amount of $3,500. Impact on the financial statements: Since both accounts in the entry are balance sheet accounts, you will see no effect on the income statement. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 143 Transaction 3: On January 9, 2019, receives $4,000 cash in advance from a customer for services not yet rendered. Analysis: • Cash was received, thus increasing the Cash account. Cash is an asset that increases on the debit side. • Printing Plus has not yet provided the service, meaning it cannot recognize the revenue as earned. The company has a liability to the customer until it provides the service. The Unearned Revenue account
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company has a liability to the customer until it provides the service. The Unearned Revenue account would be used to recognize this liability. This is a liability the company did not have before, thus increasing this account. Liabilities increase on the credit side; thus, Unearned Revenue will recognize the $4,000 on the credit side. Impact on the financial statements: Since both accounts in the entry are balance sheet accounts, you will see no effect on the income statement. Transaction 4: On January 10, 2019, provides $5,500 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services. Analysis: • The company provided service to the client; therefore, the company may recognize the revenue as earned (revenue recognition principle), which increases revenue. Service Revenue is a revenue account affecting equity. Revenue accounts increase on the credit side; thus, Service Revenue will show an increase of $5,500 on the credit side.
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equity. Revenue accounts increase on the credit side; thus, Service Revenue will show an increase of $5,500 on the credit side. • The customer did not immediately pay for the services and owes Printing Plus payment. This money will be received in the future, increasing Accounts Receivable. Accounts Receivable is an asset account. Asset accounts increase on the debit side. Therefore, Accounts Receivable will increase for $5,500 on the debit side. 144 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Impact on the financial statements: You have revenue of $5,500. Revenue is reported on your income statement. The more revenue you have, the more net income (earnings) you will have. The more earnings you have, the more retained earnings you will keep. Retained earnings is a stockholders’ equity account, so total equity will increase $5,500. Accounts receivable is going up so total assets will increase by $5,500. The
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equity will increase $5,500. Accounts receivable is going up so total assets will increase by $5,500. The accounting equation, and therefore the balance sheet, remain in balance. Transaction 5: On January 12, 2019, pays a $300 utility bill with cash. Analysis: • Cash was used to pay the utility bill, which means cash is decreasing. Cash is an asset that decreases on the credit side. • Paying a utility bill creates an expense for the company. Utility Expense increases, and does so on the debit side of the accounting equation. Impact on the financial statements: You have an expense of $300. Expenses are reported on your income statement. More expenses lead to a decrease in net income (earnings). The fewer earnings you have, the fewer retained earnings you will end up with. Retained earnings is a stockholders’ equity account, so total equity will decrease by $300. Cash is decreasing, so total assets will decrease by $300, impacting the balance sheet.
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equity will decrease by $300. Cash is decreasing, so total assets will decrease by $300, impacting the balance sheet. Transaction 6: On January 14, 2019, distributed $100 cash in dividends to stockholders. Analysis: • Cash was used to pay the dividends, which means cash is decreasing. Cash is an asset that decreases on the credit side. • Dividends distribution occurred, which increases the Dividends account. Dividends is a part of stockholder’s equity and is recorded on the debit side. This debit entry has the effect of reducing stockholder’s equity. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 145 Impact on the financial statements: You have dividends of $100. An increase in dividends leads to a decrease in stockholders’ equity (retained earnings). Cash is decreasing, so total assets will decrease by $100, impacting the balance sheet.
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decrease in stockholders’ equity (retained earnings). Cash is decreasing, so total assets will decrease by $100, impacting the balance sheet. Transaction 7: On January 17, 2019, receives $2,800 cash from a customer for services rendered. Analysis: • The customer used cash as the payment method, thus increasing the amount in the Cash account. Cash is an asset that is increasing, and it does so on the debit side. • Printing Plus provided the services, which means the company can recognize revenue as earned in the Service Revenue account. Service Revenue increases equity; therefore, Service Revenue increases on the credit side. Impact on the financial statements: Revenue is reported on the income statement. More revenue will increase net income (earnings), thus increasing retained earnings. Retained earnings is a stockholders’ equity account, so total equity will increase $2,800. Cash is increasing, which increases total assets on the balance sheet.
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account, so total equity will increase $2,800. Cash is increasing, which increases total assets on the balance sheet. Transaction 8: On January 18, 2019, paid in full, with cash, for the equipment purchase on January 5. Analysis: • Cash is decreasing because it was used to pay for the outstanding liability created on January 5. Cash is an asset and will decrease on the credit side. • Accounts Payable recognized the liability the company had to the supplier to pay for the equipment. Since the company is now paying off the debt it owes, this will decrease Accounts Payable. Liabilities decrease on the debit side; therefore, Accounts Payable will decrease on the debit side by $3,500. 146 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Impact on the financial statements: Since both accounts in the entry are balance sheet accounts, you will see no effect on the income statement. Transaction 9: On January 20, 2019, paid $3,600 cash in salaries expense to employees. Analysis:
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see no effect on the income statement. Transaction 9: On January 20, 2019, paid $3,600 cash in salaries expense to employees. Analysis: • Cash was used to pay for salaries, which decreases the Cash account. Cash is an asset that decreases on the credit side. • Salaries are an expense to the business for employee work. This will increase Salaries Expense, affecting equity. Expenses increase on the debit side; thus, Salaries Expense will increase on the debit side. Impact on the financial statements: You have an expense of $3,600. Expenses are reported on the income statement. More expenses lead to a decrease in net income (earnings). The fewer earnings you have, the fewer retained earnings you will end up with. Retained earnings is a stockholders’ equity account, so total equity will decrease by $3,600. Cash is decreasing, so total assets will decrease by $3,600, impacting the balance sheet.
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equity will decrease by $3,600. Cash is decreasing, so total assets will decrease by $3,600, impacting the balance sheet. Transaction 10: On January 23, 2019, received cash payment in full from the customer on the January 10 transaction. Analysis: • Cash was received, thus increasing the Cash account. Cash is an asset, and assets increase on the debit side. • Accounts Receivable was originally used to recognize the future customer payment; now that the customer has paid in full, Accounts Receivable will decrease. Accounts Receivable is an asset, and assets decrease on the credit side. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 147 Impact on the financial statements: In this transaction, there was an increase to one asset (Cash) and a decrease to another asset (Accounts Receivable). This means total assets change by $0, because the increase
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decrease to another asset (Accounts Receivable). This means total assets change by $0, because the increase and decrease to assets in the same amount cancel each other out. There are no changes to liabilities or stockholders’ equity, so the equation is still in balance. Since there are no revenues or expenses affected, there is no effect on the income statement. Transaction 11: On January 27, 2019, provides $1,200 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services. Analysis: • The customer does not pay immediately for the services but is expected to pay at a future date. This creates an Accounts Receivable for Printing Plus. The customer owes the money, which increases Accounts Receivable. Accounts Receivable is an asset, and assets increase on the debit side. • Printing Plus provided the service, thus earning revenue. Service Revenue would increase on the credit side.
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• Printing Plus provided the service, thus earning revenue. Service Revenue would increase on the credit side. Impact on the financial statements: Revenue is reported on the income statement. More revenue will increase net income (earnings), thus increasing retained earnings. Retained earnings is a stockholders’ equity account, so total equity will increase $1,200. Cash is increasing, which increases total assets on the balance sheet. Transaction 12: On January 30, 2019, purchases supplies on account for $500, payment due within three months. Analysis: • The company purchased supplies, which are assets to the business until used. Supplies is increasing, because the company has more supplies than it did before. Supplies is an asset that is increasing on the 148 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions debit side. • Printing Plus did not pay immediately for the supplies and asked to be billed for the supplies, payable at a
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Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions debit side. • Printing Plus did not pay immediately for the supplies and asked to be billed for the supplies, payable at a later date. This creates a liability for the company, Accounts Payable. This liability increases Accounts Payable; thus, Accounts Payable increases on the credit side. Impact on the financial statements: There is an increase to a liability and an increase to assets. These accounts both impact the balance sheet but not the income statement. The complete journal for these transactions is as follows: This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 149 We now look at the next step in the accounting cycle, step 3: post journal information to the ledger. 150 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions C O N T I N U I N G A P P L I C A T I O N A T W O R K Colfax Market
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Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions C O N T I N U I N G A P P L I C A T I O N A T W O R K Colfax Market Colfax Market is a small corner grocery store that carries a variety of staple items such as meat, milk, eggs, bread, and so on. As a smaller grocery store, Colfax does not offer the variety of products found in a larger supermarket or chain. However, it records journal entries in a similar way. Grocery stores of all sizes must purchase product and track inventory. While the number of entries might differ, the recording process does not. For example, Colfax might purchase food items in one large quantity at the beginning of each month, payable by the end of the month. Therefore, it might only have a few accounts payable and inventory journal entries each month. Larger grocery chains might have multiple deliveries a week, and multiple entries for purchases from a variety of vendors on their accounts payable weekly.
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multiple deliveries a week, and multiple entries for purchases from a variety of vendors on their accounts payable weekly. This similarity extends to other retailers, from clothing stores to sporting goods to hardware. No matter the size of a company and no matter the product a company sells, the fundamental accounting entries remain the same. Posting to the General Ledger Recall that the general ledger is a record of each account and its balance. Reviewing journal entries individually can be tedious and time consuming. The general ledger is helpful in that a company can easily extract account and balance information. Here is a small section of a general ledger. You can see at the top is the name of the account “Cash,” as well as the assigned account number “101.” Remember, all asset accounts will start with the number 1. The date of each transaction related to this account
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Remember, all asset accounts will start with the number 1. The date of each transaction related to this account is included, a possible description of the transaction, and a reference number if available. There are debit and credit columns, storing the financial figures for each transaction, and a balance column that keeps a running total of the balance in the account after every transaction. Let’s look at one of the journal entries from Printing Plus and fill in the corresponding ledgers. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 151 As you can see, there is one ledger account for Cash and another for Common Stock. Cash is labeled account number 101 because it is an asset account type. The date of January 3, 2019, is in the far left column, and a description of the transaction follows in the next column. Cash had a debit of $20,000 in the journal entry, so
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description of the transaction follows in the next column. Cash had a debit of $20,000 in the journal entry, so $20,000 is transferred to the general ledger in the debit column. The balance in this account is currently $20,000, because no other transactions have affected this account yet. Common Stock has the same date and description. Common Stock had a credit of $20,000 in the journal entry, and that information is transferred to the general ledger account in the credit column. The balance at that time in the Common Stock ledger account is $20,000. Another key element to understanding the general ledger, and the third step in the accounting cycle, is how to calculate balances in ledger accounts. L I N K T O L E A R N I N G It is a good idea to familiarize yourself with the type of information companies report each year. Peruse Best Buy’s 2017 annual report (https://openstax.org/l/50BestBuy2017) to learn more about Best Buy.
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Best Buy’s 2017 annual report (https://openstax.org/l/50BestBuy2017) to learn more about Best Buy. Take note of the company’s balance sheet on page 53 of the report and the income statement on page 54. These reports have much more information than the financial statements we have shown you; however, if you read through them you may notice some familiar items. Calculating Account Balances When calculating balances in ledger accounts, one must take into consideration which side of the account increases and which side decreases. To find the account balance, you must find the difference between the 152 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions sum of all figures on the side that increases and the sum of all figures on the side that decreases. For example, the Cash account is an asset. We know from the accounting equation that assets increase on the debit side and decrease on the credit side. If there was a debit of $5,000 and a credit of $3,000 in the Cash
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debit side and decrease on the credit side. If there was a debit of $5,000 and a credit of $3,000 in the Cash account, we would find the difference between the two, which is $2,000 (5,000 – 3,000). The debit is the larger of the two sides ($5,000 on the debit side as opposed to $3,000 on the credit side), so the Cash account has a debit balance of $2,000. Another example is a liability account, such as Accounts Payable, which increases on the credit side and decreases on the debit side. If there were a $4,000 credit and a $2,500 debit, the difference between the two is $1,500. The credit is the larger of the two sides ($4,000 on the credit side as opposed to $2,500 on the debit side), so the Accounts Payable account has a credit balance of $1,500. The following are selected journal entries from Printing Plus that affect the Cash account. We will use the Cash ledger account to calculate account balances. The general ledger account for Cash would look like the following:
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ledger account to calculate account balances. The general ledger account for Cash would look like the following: This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 153 In the last column of the Cash ledger account is the running balance. This shows where the account stands after each transaction, as well as the final balance in the account. How do we know on which side, debit or credit, to input each of these balances? Let’s consider the general ledger for Cash. On January 3, there was a debit balance of $20,000 in the Cash account. On January 9, a debit of $4,000 was included. Since both are on the debit side, they will be added together to get a balance on $24,000 (as is seen in the balance column on the January 9 row). On January 12, there was a credit of $300 included in the Cash ledger account. Since this figure is on the credit side, this $300 is subtracted from the previous balance of
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ledger account. Since this figure is on the credit side, this $300 is subtracted from the previous balance of $24,000 to get a new balance of $23,700. The same process occurs for the rest of the entries in the ledger and their balances. The final balance in the account is $24,800. Checking to make sure the final balance figure is correct; one can review the figures in the debit and credit columns. In the debit column for this cash account, we see that the total is $32,300 (20,000 + 4,000 + 2,800 + 5,500). The credit column totals $7,500 (300 + 100 + 3,500 + 3,600). The difference between the debit and credit totals is $24,800 (32,300 – 7,500). The balance in this Cash account is a debit of $24,800. Having a debit balance in the Cash account is the normal balance for that account. Posting to the T-Accounts The third step in the accounting cycle is to post journal information to the ledger. To do this we can use a T-
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Posting to the T-Accounts The third step in the accounting cycle is to post journal information to the ledger. To do this we can use a T- account format. A company will take information from its journal and post to this general ledger. Posting refers to the process of transferring data from the journal to the general ledger. It is important to understand that T-accounts are only used for illustrative purposes in a textbook, classroom, or business discussion. They are not official accounting forms. Companies will use ledgers for their official books, not T-accounts. Let’s look at the journal entries for Printing Plus and post each of those entries to their respective T-accounts. The following are the journal entries recorded earlier for Printing Plus. Transaction 1: On January 3, 2019, issues $20,000 shares of common stock for cash. 154 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions
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Transaction 1: On January 3, 2019, issues $20,000 shares of common stock for cash. 154 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions In the journal entry, Cash has a debit of $20,000. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the debit side (left side). Common Stock has a credit balance of $20,000. This is posted to the Common Stock T-account on the credit side (right side). Transaction 2: On January 5, 2019, purchases equipment on account for $3,500, payment due within the month. In the journal entry, Equipment has a debit of $3,500. This is posted to the Equipment T-account on the debit side. Accounts Payable has a credit balance of $3,500. This is posted to the Accounts Payable T-account on the credit side. Transaction 3: On January 9, 2019, receives $4,000 cash in advance from a customer for services not yet rendered. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 155
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rendered. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 155 In the journal entry, Cash has a debit of $4,000. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the debit side. You will notice that the transaction from January 3 is listed already in this T-account. The next transaction figure of $4,000 is added directly below the $20,000 on the debit side. Unearned Revenue has a credit balance of $4,000. This is posted to the Unearned Revenue T-account on the credit side. Transaction 4: On January 10, 2019, provides $5,500 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services. In the journal entry, Accounts Receivable has a debit of $5,500. This is posted to the Accounts Receivable T- account on the debit side. Service Revenue has a credit balance of $5,500. This is posted to the Service Revenue T-account on the credit side.
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account on the debit side. Service Revenue has a credit balance of $5,500. This is posted to the Service Revenue T-account on the credit side. Transaction 5: On January 12, 2019, pays a $300 utility bill with cash. 156 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions In the journal entry, Utility Expense has a debit balance of $300. This is posted to the Utility Expense T-account on the debit side. Cash has a credit of $300. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the credit side. You will notice that the transactions from January 3 and January 9 are listed already in this T-account. The next transaction figure of $300 is added on the credit side. Transaction 6: On January 14, 2019, distributed $100 cash in dividends to stockholders. In the journal entry, Dividends has a debit balance of $100. This is posted to the Dividends T-account on the debit side. Cash has a credit of $100. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the credit side. You will notice that
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debit side. Cash has a credit of $100. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the credit side. You will notice that the transactions from January 3, January 9, and January 12 are listed already in this T-account. The next transaction figure of $100 is added directly below the January 12 record on the credit side. Transaction 7: On January 17, 2019, receives $2,800 cash from a customer for services rendered. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 157 In the journal entry, Cash has a debit of $2,800. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the debit side. You will notice that the transactions from January 3, January 9, January 12, and January 14 are listed already in this T- account. The next transaction figure of $2,800 is added directly below the January 9 record on the debit side.
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account. The next transaction figure of $2,800 is added directly below the January 9 record on the debit side. Service Revenue has a credit balance of $2,800. This too has a balance already from January 10. The new entry is recorded under the Jan 10 record, posted to the Service Revenue T-account on the credit side. Transaction 8: On January 18, 2019, paid in full, with cash, for the equipment purchase on January 5. On this transaction, Cash has a credit of $3,500. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the credit side beneath the January 14 transaction. Accounts Payable has a debit of $3,500 (payment in full for the Jan. 5 purchase). You notice there is already a credit in Accounts Payable, and the new record is placed directly across from the January 5 record. Transaction 9: On January 20, 2019, paid $3,600 cash in salaries expense to employees. 158 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions
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January 5 record. Transaction 9: On January 20, 2019, paid $3,600 cash in salaries expense to employees. 158 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions On this transaction, Cash has a credit of $3,600. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the credit side beneath the January 18 transaction. Salaries Expense has a debit of $3,600. This is placed on the debit side of the Salaries Expense T-account. Transaction 10: On January 23, 2019, received cash payment in full from the customer on the January 10 transaction. On this transaction, Cash has a debit of $5,500. This is posted to the Cash T-account on the debit side beneath the January 17 transaction. Accounts Receivable has a credit of $5,500 (from the Jan. 10 transaction). The record is placed on the credit side of the Accounts Receivable T-account across from the January 10 record. Transaction 11: On January 27, 2019, provides $1,200 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services.
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Transaction 11: On January 27, 2019, provides $1,200 in services to a customer who asks to be billed for the services. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 159 On this transaction, Accounts Receivable has a debit of $1,200. The record is placed on the debit side of the Accounts Receivable T-account underneath the January 10 record. Service Revenue has a credit of $1,200. The record is placed on the credit side of the Service Revenue T-account underneath the January 17 record. Transaction 12: On January 30, 2019, purchases supplies on account for $500, payment due within three months. On this transaction, Supplies has a debit of $500. This will go on the debit side of the Supplies T-account. Accounts Payable has a credit of $500. You notice there are already figures in Accounts Payable, and the new record is placed directly underneath the January 5 record. T-Accounts Summary
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Accounts Payable has a credit of $500. You notice there are already figures in Accounts Payable, and the new record is placed directly underneath the January 5 record. T-Accounts Summary Once all journal entries have been posted to T-accounts, we can check to make sure the accounting equation remains balanced. A summary showing the T-accounts for Printing Plus is presented in Figure 3.10. 160 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions Figure 3.10 Summary of T-Accounts for Printing Plus. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license) The sum on the assets side of the accounting equation equals $30,000, found by adding together the final balances in each asset account (24,800 + 1,200 + 500 + 3,500). To find the total on the liabilities and equity side of the equation, we need to find the difference between debits and credits. Credits on the liabilities and equity
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of the equation, we need to find the difference between debits and credits. Credits on the liabilities and equity side of the equation total $34,000 (500 + 4,000 + 20,000 + 9,500). Debits on the liabilities and equity side of the equation total $4,000 (100 + 3,600 + 300). The difference $34,000 – $4,000 = $30,000. Thus, the equation remains balanced with $30,000 on the asset side and $30,000 on the liabilities and equity side. Now that we have the T- account information, and have confirmed the accounting equation remains balanced, we can create the unadjusted trial balance. This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col25448/1.4 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions 161 Y O U R T U R N Journalizing Transactions You have the following transactions the last few days of April. Apr. 25 You stop by your uncle’s gas station to refill both gas cans for your company, Watson’s Landscaping. Your uncle adds the total of $28 to your account.
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Apr. 25 You stop by your uncle’s gas station to refill both gas cans for your company, Watson’s Landscaping. Your uncle adds the total of $28 to your account. Apr. 26 You record another week’s revenue for the lawns mowed over the past week. You earned $1,200. You received cash equal to 75% of your revenue. Apr. 27 You pay your local newspaper $35 to run an advertisement in this week’s paper. Apr. 29 You make a $25 payment on account. Table 3.3 A. Prepare the necessary journal entries for these four transactions. B. Explain why you debited and credited the accounts you did. C. What will be the new balance in each account used in these entries? Solution April 25 • You have incurred more gas expense. This means you have an increase in the total amount of gas expense for April. Expenses go up with debit entries. Therefore, you will debit gas expense. 162 Chapter 3 Analyzing and Recording Transactions
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