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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rana_Ayyub#:~:text=In%20February%202020%2C%20Ayyub%20was,Public%20Affairs%20Council%20of%20America. | Rana Ayyub | Rana Ayyub (born 1 May 1984) is an Indian journalist and opinion columnist with The Washington Post. She is author of the investigative book Gujarat Files: Anatomy of a Cover Up.
== Background and family ==
Rana Ayyub was born in Mumbai, India. Her father Mohammad Ayyub Waqif, was a writer with Blitz, a Mumbai-based magazine, and a member of the progressive writers movement. Her uncle, Abdul Haq Azmi, was a distinguished scholar of Hadith and served as a senior professor at Darul Uloom Deoband.
She contracted polio at the age of five, leaving her left hand and right leg immobile, and eventually recovered from the disease. When Mumbai witnessed riots in 1992–93, Ayyub's father was warned by a Sikh friend that local men were coming after his daughters. Rana, nine at the time, fled with her sister to stay with the Sikh friend's relatives for three months before reuniting with their family in Deonar, a Muslim-majority suburb, which is where she largely grew up. Ayyub is a practising Muslim.
She graduated in English literature from Sophia College, Mumbai where she was a classmate of Richa Chada and Shuchi Talati.
== Career ==
=== Investigative journalist at Tehelka ===
Ayyub worked for Tehelka (lit. "commotion/uproar"), a Delhi-based investigative and political news magazine. By her own account, a report by her was instrumental in sending Amit Shah, a close associate of Narendra Modi, to jail for several months in 2010.
At Tehelka, Ayyub worked as an investigative journalist and her big assignment was to carry out the sting operation upon which her book Gujarat Files was based. At the end of the sting operation, the management of Tehelka refused to publish any story written by Rana or based on the data collected by her. Ayyub continued to work with Tehelka for several months more. In November 2013, her boss Tarun Tejpal, the editor-in-chief and major shareholder of Tehelka, was accused of sexual harassment by one of his journalist subordinates. Ayyub resigned from Tehelka in protest against the organisation's handling of the charge against Tejpal. She now works independently.
=== Opinions writer at The Washington Post ===
In September 2019, Washington Post nominated Ayyub as Contributing Global Opinions Writer with the paper.
In 2021, on the BBC show HARDtalk, Ayyub explained that she is in a position to express critical views about the government because she writes of international media, given that Indian media publications are censoring their journalists.
In October 2020, HarperCollins India published an open letter written by Ayyub, to protest the controversial appointment of Actor Gajendra Chauhan as the Chairman of Film and Television Institute of India (FTII), as part of the book Inquilab: A Decade of Protest which contains speeches, lectures and letters said to "capture the most important events and issues of the past ten years."
== Notable work ==
=== The Gujarat sting operation ===
As an investigative journalist working with Tehelka, Rana Ayyub took up a project to conduct a prolonged sting operation aimed at snaring politicians and government officials of Gujarat and get them to reveal any potential cover-ups regarding the Gujarat riots of 2002. Rana Posing as Maithili Tyagi, a filmmaker from the American Film Institute, and set about befriending her intended targets. She spent around ten months in disguise, and got paid a regular monthly salary from Tehelka during this period. However, at the end of the exercise, the management of Tehelka felt that the recordings which she had made over the months did not provide any new or sensational information, that the data gathered by her was of inadequate quality, and that they could not publish any story on the basis of the new data.
==== The book ====
In her book Gujarat Files: Anatomy of a Cover Up, Ayyub documented the verbatim transcripts of recordings, made using a concealed recording device, of many bureaucrats and police officers of Gujarat. The recordings were made in the course of an undercover investigation to reveal the views of bureaucrats and police officers on encounter killings and the aftermath of the 2002 Gujarat violence. Ayyub had been posing as 'Maithili Tyagi', a student of the American Film Institute, having an ideological affinity for the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh's beliefs, to enable her to make the recordings.
==== Dispute with Tehelka ====
Tarun Tejpal and Shoma Chaudhury have disputed Ayyub's claim that her story on fake encounters in Gujarat, which was the result of an eight-month long undercover investigation, was dropped by them. According to Tejpal, Ayyub's story was "incomplete". According to Chaudhury, Ayyub's story "did not meet the necessary editorial standards." Ayyub has responded to Tejpal and Chaudhury's assertions by noting that:I must say I am not the only one to complain about dropped stories in Tehelka, the list is fairly big… Shoma Choudhury and Tarun Tejpal of Tehelka cited editorial decisions and gaps. The book is a bestseller and is getting rave reviews for its content. Let the reader be the judge.
==== Reception ====
Historian Ramachandra Guha had called Ayyub's Gujarat Files "a brave book." Jyoti Malhotra has noted that many journalists have privately applauded Ayyub's courage in authoring Gujarat Files. Priya Ramani has commented: "The abuses from the paid foot soldiers on Twitter bounce off her spiral curls smoothly." Reflecting on the procedure used by Ayyub in composing Gujarat Files, Nilanjan Mukhopadhyay has observed: "Going undercover and interviewing many who had been in the thick of gruesome extra-constitutional operations required bravado and this must be appreciated."
Ayyub's investigation of the alleged Gujarat fake encounters has been listed by Outlook magazine as one of the twenty greatest magazine stories of all time across the world.
In 2018, Ayyub was awarded the "most Resilient Global journalist" by Dutch non-profit Free Press Unlimited for resisting attempts to stifle her work.
In the Haren Pandya murder case, the Supreme Court of India dismissed Rana Ayyub's book, stating that "it is based upon surmises, conjectures, and suppositions and has no evidentiary value." Ayyub termed the court's comments "puzzling", stating that the CBI had used her work as evidence in other related cases, and noting that no officer or bureaucrat had denied her claims or taken her to court.
=== Reporting from Kashmir ===
In 2019, Ayyub accompanied Dexter Filkins from The New Yorker on a trip to Kashmir to report on the violence by the government towards the Kashmiri population following the revocation of the special status of Kashmir by the Modi-led Indian government. Their report of torture inflicted on the Kashmiri population, including minors, sharply contrasted with official accounts from the Indian state and state media, which portrayed the region as calm. Prior to their report, the Indian government’s claims could not be verified due to a full communication blackout and a de facto curfew imposed in Kashmir.
== Controversies ==
=== Judicial proceedings ===
In February 2022, Ayyub received scrutiny after the Enforcement Directorate (ED) locked assets worth over ₹1.77 crore of hers. This was done in relation to a money laundering case filed against her, for allegedly embezzling funds she acquired from the public in the name of charity. ED stated that Ayyub had transferred those funds to other accounts for personal spendings.
The Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT) in Mumbai has pointed out that only 10 per cent of the COVID relief funds were used for relief work, and the rest of the funds were transferred to her father's and sister's accounts and then transferred again to her personal account.
The money laundering charges against Ayyub have been described as sham charges by international observers. According to commentators, the money laundering allegations are part of a broader campaign by the Indian authorities aimed at intimidating Ayyub and silencing her criticism of Modi's government.
FIR was filed against Ayyub in Dharwad due to her alleged comments against anti-hijab protestors as Hindu terrorists.
In 2022, UN experts have called on the Indian government to stop the judicial harassment against Ayyub, that included twice freezing Ayyub's bank account. The experts labelled the accusations related to the funds raised by Ayyub for pandemic relief work as "the bogus allegations [that] can be traced back to a far-right social media group."
== Awards and recognition ==
In October 2011, Rana Ayyub received the Sanskriti award for excellence in journalism.
The 'Citation of Excellence' was conferred to Rana Ayyub in the 2017 edition of the Global Shining Light Award for her undercover investigation revealing state's top officials’ complicity during the 2002 Gujarat Riots.
Actress Richa Chadda claimed to have been inspired by Rana Ayyub, who is also her friend, in 2016 film Chalk n Duster, where she plays a journalist.
In 2018, Ayyub was awarded the Most Resilient Journalist Award by Free Press Unlimited for continuing her work "despite being harassed both online and offline and receiving death threats."
In 2019, Ayyub has been listed as one of ten global journalists who face maximum threats to their lives by the Time magazine.
In February 2020, Ayyub was awarded with McGill Medal for journalistic courage at University of Georgia's Grady College.
Ayyub is the 2020 Voices of Courage and Conscience Awardee from the Muslim Public Affairs Council of America.
In 2021, Ayyub received the Excellence in International Journalism and Human Rights Award by Texas Tech University College of Media and Communication.
In 2021, Ayyub was awarded the Overseas Press Club Award for best commentary on international news for her op-eds in The Washington Post.
On 28 June 2022, Ayyub was awarded the International John Aubuchon Award by the National Press Club.
On 23 October 2024, Ayyub was awarded Canadian Journalists for Free Expression (CJFE) International Press Freedom Award.
== Threats ==
Online violence against Ayyub is primarily driven by Twitter users aligned with Hindu nationalism and the ruling BJP. An International Center for Journalists (ICFJ) report found that Twitter has failed to address the abuse against her while withholding some of her tweets at the demand of the Indian Government. As per ICFJ's analysis, Ayyub receives abuse within 14 seconds of posting a tweet.
In 2018, Ayyub was at the receiving end of multiple death and rape threats on twitter. Her personal details were made public and a deepfake pornographic video was released. In April 2018 she filed a complaint with Delhi Police, who subsequently decided to close the case in August 2020 saying that "despite efforts the culprits could not be identified yet."
Several United Nations Special Rapporteurs, associated with the Human Rights Council have intervened in her case three times, warned of the "serious risk" to her life, and called on the authorities in India to "act urgently to protect" her from death threats following an online hate campaign. The US State department's 2020 Human Rights Report specifically mentions the online trolling and death threats faced by Ayyub. In its report documenting online attacks against journalists around the world, the international non-profit Reporters Without Borders discussed the hate speech unleashed against Ayyub and called on the government and Delhi police to protect her.
In 2022, Trads (members of Hindu nationalist alt-right groups) had created Bulli Bai, an app for fake online auction of Muslim women in India with intention to denigrate and harass the minorities. Ayyub and several prominent women journalists in India were targeted. They were also targeted with thousands of hate messages by the secret app Tek Fog allegedly used by the BJP supporters. The app was used to spread right wing propaganda online.
in November 2024, Ayyub was doxxed, and her phone number was leaked by a right-wing account on X. As a result, she received hundreds of calls and messages and states that she received no respite despite filing a complaint with the police.
In November 2025, Ayyub received threats of violence against her and her father from an unknown international number. Rana claimed that these threats were made to intimidate her into writing a column on the 1984 anti-Sikh riots that occurred after the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Rana Ayyub at Wikimedia Commons
Rana Ayyub on Twitter
Rana Ayyub at Washington Post |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KVOS-TV | KVOS-TV | KVOS-TV (channel 12) is a television station licensed to Bellingham, Washington, United States, serving the Seattle–Tacoma market as an affiliate of the Spanish-language network Univision. It is owned by Weigel Broadcasting alongside Seattle-licensed MeTV owned-and-operated station KFFV, channel 44 (which KVOS simulcasts on its third digital subchannel). Its other subchannels carry Weigel's other diginet concepts. Though it now functions as a Seattle-market station, for much of its history it primarily served an audience in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, including Vancouver and Victoria.
KVOS-TV's transmitter is situated atop Mount Constitution on Orcas Island in the San Juan Islands, at an altitude of 2,621 feet (799 m) above the adjacent terrain. The station's signal is very well received throughout the British Columbia Lower Mainland, southern Vancouver Island, and much of northwest Washington. KVOS-TV's original studios were located on Ellis Street in Bellingham. However, with the sale of KVOS-TV to OTA Broadcasting in 2010, the Bellingham facility was closed and the station currently shares studios with KFFV on Third Avenue South in Seattle. KVOS-TV at one time maintained offices in Burnaby, British Columbia, and before that on West 7th Avenue in Vancouver, but no longer has a physical presence in the Vancouver area.
== History ==
=== Early years ===
KVOS signed on June 3, 1953; owned by Bellingham businessman Rogan Jones along with KVOS radio (AM 790, now KGMI). Jones had owned the radio station since 1928, and was best known for being the focus of a case that established broadcasters' right to the same news reports as newspapers. Its first broadcast was a kinescope of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation, which took place the previous day. Since Canada had no television stations operating west of Ontario at that point (it was not until that December that Vancouver would get a locally-operated TV station of their own in CBC outlet CBUT), the British government flew film of the BBC's coverage to Vancouver, where the Mounties escorted it to the border. The Washington State Patrol then drove the film to Bellingham. The station's original slogan was "Your Peace Arch Station, serving Northwest Washington and British Columbia."
KVOS initially experienced financial trouble, despite Jones thinking that he could successfully support a television station in a city the size of Bellingham. He built a powerful transmitter on Orcas Island in hopes of reaching Seattle, but even with increased power, it did not cover enough of the Seattle area to solve the problem. For a time, the revenues from his radio station were all that kept channel 12 afloat. In 1955, Jones, realizing that most of his audience was across the border, incorporated KVOS in Canada, establishing a subsidiary company in Vancouver. The subsidiary, KVOS-TV Limited, brought in revenue for the station by allowing many Vancouver-area businesses to buy advertising time on the station. KVOS-TV continued to broadcast from Bellingham, with much of its audience based in southwestern British Columbia.
After just nine years of owning KVOS-TV, in 1962 Jones sold the station to Miami-based Wometco Enterprises.
Prior to the advent of Canadian content regulations in the early 1970s, Canadian television stations typically spent so little money on domestic television production that KVOS's Vancouver production office was actually one of the largest Canadian production studios anywhere in the entire country, investing most prominently in television documentaries through its Canawest Film Studios division and employing more Canadian writers, actors, artists and musicians than any other media organization in Canada besides the CBC, according to Vancouver MP Simma Holt.
The station was further damaged by a 1976 change in Canadian tax law, by which Canadian companies could no longer write off advertising purchased on American television stations as a tax deduction. In its efforts to stop the change, the station had proposed that it be granted an exemption on the condition that it then return $2 million per year back to Canadian television production; its proposal did not succeed, but the station survived the hit by closing its Canadian production office and reducing its advertising rates to offset the tax increase that its advertisers would have to pay. Even into the 1990s, the station was still sometimes criticized in CRTC licensing hearings pertaining to the Vancouver television market for purportedly draining advertising revenue from the Vancouver stations; CKVU-TV president Daryl Duke once even went so far as to compare KVOS to smallpox.
Dave Mintz, who had been a minority investor in the station since 1955 and president of the station since 1961, left the station in 1979 to become president of Canada's fledgling Global Television Network. Although American by birth, due to the importance of the Vancouver operations to the station, Mintz was residing full-time in Vancouver by the time he took the Global job.
=== Network affiliations, 1955–1980 ===
KVOS began as an affiliate of DuMont upon sign-on in 1953 and remained so until DuMont went off the air in 1956. From January 1, 1955, until about 1979, KVOS was a primary CBS affiliate. In the late 1970s, KVOS sharply reduced its carriage of CBS programming to resolve two commercial disputes. First, Seattle's CBS affiliate, KIRO-TV, had launched complaints against the station and CBS regarding duplicate transmission of CBS programming in the Seattle media market. Second, Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) regulations seeking to increase Canadian content and reduce the number of American network affiliates retransmitted on cable television systems in Canada put pressure on the station.
=== Conversion to independent and secondary Citytv affiliation ===
While KVOS nominally retained its CBS affiliation up to 1987, carrying a few CBS programs such as 60 Minutes, it transitioned into an independent station which primarily carried a diverse mix of syndicated and locally produced programming, including locally produced news and public affairs programs. Beginning in 1990, the station also carried a number of programs syndicated from the Toronto-based independent station Citytv, whose owner CHUM Limited did not yet have an outlet in nearby Vancouver.
Wometco was bought by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in 1984. KKR sold off the Wometco group in 1985, with KVOS sold to Ackerley Communications. In the early 1990s, due to Federal Communications Commission syndicated exclusivity rules affecting the Seattle media market, KVOS was dropped from most Seattle cable television systems. For part of this era, the station used both Canadian and American TV ratings at the start of each program, and was believed to be the only station on either side of the border to do so. Since at least early 2007, with the station's realignment toward a U.S. audience, only U.S. ratings have been shown.
=== Second stint as an independent station ===
In 2001, CHUM Limited purchased the Vancouver station CKVU-TV from Canwest (turning it into a local version of Citytv in 2002, but beginning to air CHUM-provided programming on September 1, 2001) and launched a new station in Victoria known as CIVI-TV. The launch of the new outlets, along with a major series of affiliation and ownership changes in the Vancouver–Victoria market in September 2001, caused KVOS to be displaced by CIVI from its long-time home on channel 12 on many Vancouver-area cable systems, as well as losing Citytv as a source of programming.
The station came under the ownership of Clear Channel Communications (now iHeartMedia) in 2003, following that company's purchase of Ackerley. On November 16, 2006, Clear Channel announced that it would be selling its entire television division, including KVOS-TV, after being bought by private equity firms. On April 20, 2007, Clear Channel entered into an agreement to sell its entire television stations group to Providence Equity Partners' Newport Television. Providence Equity initially announced that it would not keep KVOS or KFTY in Santa Rosa, California; instead, those stations were to be resold to LK Station Group. However, LK could not obtain financing, so KVOS remained with Newport. (KFTY was eventually sold to High Plains Broadcasting, with Newport operating the station; it is now owned today by Innovate Corp., as KEMO-TV.)
In 2008, KVOS filed an application to the FCC to build its digital facility in Granite Falls in Snohomish County. (48°08′09″N 121°58′56″W) The proposed location would have provided city-grade coverage of most of the Seattle area while remaining within 15 miles (24 km) of Bellingham, as required by FCC rules. However, it would have significantly diminished its reach into Canada. Presently, KVOS provides grade B coverage of Seattle's northern suburbs (such as Everett, Edmonds, Bothell and Lynnwood), but just misses Seattle itself. This application was dismissed on July 16, 2009.
In January 2010, KVOS swapped channel positions (now on channel 30) with TSN on Shaw Cable in Metro Vancouver. In Vancouver, KVOS is not included on Shaw's "basic" line-up, but is included as channel 30 on Shaw's "classic" and "digital" line-ups. In Victoria, KVOS is included only on Shaw's "digital" line-up, on channel 69.
In October 2010, KVOS was added to Comcast's digital lineup on channel 72 in the Seattle–Tacoma area. This is the first time in 20 years that the station has been able to be seen in Seattle proper. This also marks the first time KVOS has been viewed in parts of Southwest Washington and Gray's Harbor coastal communities of Aberdeen and Hoquiam.
=== MeTV affiliation and added subchannels ===
The station became an affiliate of the classic television network MeTV on April 25, 2011. Later, TheCoolTV was added as a subchannel of KVOS on August 18, 2011. Unlike the main 12.1 feed, the 12.2 feed was not carried on any Canadian cable system. In January 2014, TheCoolTV was dropped in favor of Movies!.
Newport agreed to sell KVOS to OTA Broadcasting, LLC, a company controlled by Michael Dell's MSD Capital, in December 2011. The deal created a duopoly in the Seattle market with KFFV. OTA Broadcasting assumed control of KVOS on March 6, 2012. As a result of this sale, most of KVOS' staff was laid off, and most of the operations staff were moved to Seattle.
In September 2013, subchannel 12.3 was added, airing Canadian Punjabi language specialty channel Sur Sagar TV. The latter was dropped in mid-2015, and the feed went dark until September 5, 2016, when it started broadcasting Heroes & Icons (H&I).
On March 12, 2015, the main feed of KVOS had adopted to KFFV's 44.6 feed, the branding itself had been switched from MeTV KVOS to MeTV Seattle while the ident was MeTV KVOS-KFFV. Advertising was also shared between KVOS and KFFV. Due to WeatherNation TV previously airing on KFFV, Comcast identified the station as KFFVVW on its on-screen guide.
=== Sale to Weigel Broadcasting ===
Weigel Broadcasting agreed to acquire KVOS-TV and KFFV, along with KAXT-CD and KTLN-TV in San Francisco, in a $23.2 million deal on October 18, 2017, giving Weigel control of both of its MeTV affiliates in the Puget Sound region. The sale was closed on January 15, 2018, with KVOS and sister station KFFV now under Weigel ownership.
On January 17, 2018, H&I became KVOS's primary network and moved to subchannel 12.1, MeTV was relocated to subchannel 12.3 and new offering Decades was added to subchannel 12.4. KVOS' lineup expanded once more on September 3, 2018, when Start TV was added to subchannel 12.5. MeTV Plus was added to subchannel 12.6 on September 27, 2021. On March 28, 2022 Story Television launched on subchannel 12.7.
In April 2019, the CRTC approved a request by Shaw Cable in Kelowna, British Columbia, to add KVOS-DT3 to its systems on a discretionary basis. Shaw felt that the aforementioned switch to Heroes & Icons was at odds with its authorization to carry the programming feed with MeTV programming. There was no objection from the only local station in the market (which, however, is owned by a corporate sibling).
=== 2024 switch to Univision ===
During the 2023 holiday season, Weigel quietly updated the station's website to reflect Univision would move to KVOS's main channel from Sinclair Broadcast Group's KUNS-TV (channel 51), which became an affiliate of The CW on January 1, 2024. As a result, H&I moved from subchannel 12.1 to subchannel 12.8. With KVOS's unique status, Univision's domestic schedule became available over-the-air in Vancouver, Victoria, and southwest British Columbia for the first time; Univision has a partnership with TLN to operate a licensed specialty channel, Univision Canada, featuring its programming.
== Programming ==
Until January 14, 2018, KVOS ran a variety of religious and paid programs, as well as other features between shows including On Scene and MeEvents.
KVOS has produced a variety of local shows over the years. The religious program Anchor first aired in 1968 with host, Pastor Leonard Ericksen. Anchor ran for 30 years, becoming one of the longest running shows of its kind on television. KVOS also produced many news, feature, public affairs, and informational programs as well. The 10:30 Report, Weeks End and Cana West helped launch the careers of well known names such as Andy Anderson and Al Swift, who both went on to successful careers in politics. Some other feature programs have included Kids Stuff, Pacific Style, Pacific Issues, Sports Probe, To Serve and Protect and Red's Classic Theatre with famed B.C. radio personality Red Robinson from 1989 to 2001. Another famous B.C. radio personality, Jack Cullen, hosted Owl Prowl Television Theatre in the 1950s: two reels of footage from that show are held by the City of Vancouver Archives.
During the 1970s and 1980s, KVOS ran a number of British comedy programs each evening, such as On the Buses, The Benny Hill Show, Dave Allen at Large and The Two Ronnies. It was also the only non-PBS (and only commercial) station in the U.S. to air Doctor Who from 1983 to 1993.
=== News programming ===
On the morning of May 21, 1990, NewsView began broadcasts, originally starting as a half-hour show. NewsView featured a variety of local and regional news, sports, and weather for northwest Washington and the border communities of British Columbia. The first anchor was Cyndy Glenn, followed by Michele Higgins, Susan Cowden, Crystal King, Cara Buckingham, and Ty Ray. Reporters included Jeff Wyngaert, Amy Cloud, Dave Sienko and Joe Bates, while weather duties were covered (in the early years) by Jeff Kelly and Dave George, then Dan Leniczek, Dave Sienko, and Greg Otterholt. The newscast debuted at 6:30 a.m., and eventually expanded to a 90-minute show from 6:30 to 8 a.m. Due to low advertising revenues, however, KVOS ended NewsView on January 23, 2007, after 16½ years on the air. Various syndicated programming replaced NewsView in the 6:30–8 a.m. time slots. Alongside NewsView, KVOS also broadcast hourly weather updates and local forecasts at the top of every hour, under the title WeatherView; these updates were introduced in the 1980s, and ended by the mid 2000s decade.
KVOS began airing Northwest Notebook, hosted by Ty Ray, in February 2007. The show featured interviews with newsmakers from Northwest Washington and the Lower Mainland. Ray also hosted Daily Planner, a community calendar that aired six times a day. It has since gone off the air.
== Technical information ==
=== Subchannels ===
The station's signal is multiplexed:
=== Analog-to-digital conversion ===
KVOS-TV shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 12, on February 17, 2009, as part of the federally mandated transition from analog to digital television (which Congress had moved the previous month to June 12). The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 35, using virtual channel 12.
=== 600 MHz auction ===
As result of the FCC's 600 MHz auction, KVOS moved to channel 14 due to spectrum repacking on October 19, 2019.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
KVOS History at Western Washington University |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Xizong_of_Jin | Emperor Xizong of Jin | Emperor Xizong of Jin (28 February 1119 – 9 January 1150), personal name Hela, sinicised name Wanyan Dan, was the third emperor of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty of China. He reigned for about 15 years from 1135 to 1150. During his reign, the Jin dynasty launched several military campaigns against the Han-led Southern Song dynasty in southern China.
== Early life ==
Hela was the eldest son of Shengguo (繩果; also known as Wanyan Zongjun 完顏宗峻), the eldest son of Aguda (Emperor Taizu), the founder and first emperor of the Jin dynasty. His mother was Lady Pucha (蒲察氏), whom he posthumously honoured as "Empress Huizhao" (惠昭皇后). When Emperor Taizu died in 1123, the throne was passed on to his younger brother, Wuqimai (Emperor Taizong). Wanyan Zonghan and Wanyan Xiyin, who used to be Emperor Taizu's chief advisers, convinced Emperor Taizong to designate Hela as his heir apparent (anban bojilie; 諳班勃極烈) in 1132, so Hela became the new emperor in 1135 when Emperor Taizong died.
== Wars against the Southern Song dynasty ==
In 1137, Emperor Xizong abolished the Qi kingdom, a vassal state of the Jin dynasty ruled by Liu Yu (劉豫), a former Song dynasty official. The Jin dynasty started peace negotiations with the Southern Song dynasty. In 1139, the Jin and Song dynasties arrived at a treaty, with the latter agreeing to be a tributary vassal state under the former. In return, the Jin dynasty returned control of Henan and Shaanxi provinces to the Song dynasty. However, in 1140, Emperor Xizong decided to wage war against the Song dynasty so he ordered the general Wanyan Zongbi to lead Jin forces to attack and seize back Henan and Shaanxi. In 1141, Wanyan Zongbi and his army were defeated by Song forces led by Yue Fei and Han Shizhong; the Jin dynasty agreed to negotiate for peace again with the Song dynasty.
== Internal politics ==
Emperor Xizong was very fond of Han culture because of the influence of his adoptive father, Wanyan Zonggan, so he reformed the political institutions and modelled them after Han Chinese ones, while at the same time encouraging talented Han Chinese to serve in his government. In 1136, Emperor Xizong ordered Wanyan Zonggan, Wanyan Zongpan (完顏宗磐) and Wanyan Zonghan to take charge of reforming the government and creating the Three Departments system.
Emperor Xizong abolished the traditional bojilie (勃極烈) system that he inherited from his predecessors. The bojilie system allowed the Jurchen ruler to choose an heir apparent from among male relatives in the same generation as him, usually his brothers. However, Emperor Taizong, who succeeded his brother Emperor Taizu, made an exception when he chose Emperor Xizong (Emperor Taizu's grandson) as his heir apparent instead of choosing from among his sons. Wanyan Zongpan, the eldest son of Emperor Taizong, was very unhappy when the bojilie system was abolished because this meant that he would have no chance to become emperor.
Between 1138 and 1139, Wanyan Zongpan tried to seize power and start a rebellion but was defeated and executed. Since then, the political arena was dominated by Wanyan Zonghan, Wanyan Zonggan and Wanyan Zongbi; Emperor Xizong had little or no say in politics. After Wanyan Zongbi died in 1148, Emperor Xizong gained an opportunity to participate in politics, but his wife, Empress Daoping, started to interfere in politics and she wielded significant influence. Emperor Xizong's two sons, Wanyan Ji'an (完顏濟安) and Wanyan Daoji (完顏道濟), died in 1143 and 1144 respectively. Emperor Xizong felt depressed by the loss of his sons that he developed an addiction to alcohol and started neglecting state affairs. He also became more violent and ruthless, and started killing people indiscriminately. One of his victims was Ambaghai, a Mongol chieftain and great-granduncle of Genghis Khan.
Emperor Xizong was overthrown and murdered by his chancellor, Digunai, and other court officials in a coup d'état on 9 January 1150.
== Family ==
Empress Daoping, of the Peiman clan (悼平皇后 裴滿氏, d. 1149)
Wanyan Ji'an, Crown Prince Yingdao (英悼太子 完顏濟安, 23 March 1142 – 13 January 1143), 1st son
Princess of Dai State (代國公主), 3rd daughter
Married Wogula (斡骨剌; d. 1150)
Consort Samao (妃撒卯), of a certain clan
Worthy Consort, of a certain clan (賢妃)
Wanyan Daoji, Prince of Wei (魏王 完顏道濟, d. 1144), 2nd son
Consort De, of the Wugulungan clan (德妃 烏古論氏)
Consort, of the Jiagu clan (妃夾谷氏)
Consort, of the Zhang clan (妃張氏)
Consort, of the Peiman clan (妃裴滿氏)
Consort, of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal name Jingu (金姑)
Consort, of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal name Saiyue (賽月)
Consort, of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal name Feiyan (飛燕)
Consort, of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal name Yuqiang (玉嬙)
Consort, of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal name Yupan (玉盤)
Consort, of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal name Jinnu (金奴)
Consort, of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal name Chuanzhu (串珠)
Consort of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal nane Jinyin (金印)
Consort of the Zhao clan (妃趙氏), personal name Tanxiang (檀香)
Unknown:
Princess of Zheng (鄭國公主), 1st daughter
married Pucha Dingshou (蒲察鼎壽) and had issue (1 daughter)
Princess of Ji (冀國公主), 2nd daughter
Unnamed Princess, 4th daughter
Princess Supreme of Liang (梁國大長公主), 5th daughter
Princess of Shen (沈國公主), 6th daughter
married Tushan Yi (徒單繹) and had issue ( 1 daughter)
== References ==
Jing-shen Tao, "The Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China". University of Washington Press, 1976, ISBN 0-295-95514-7. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sher_Afgan_Niazi#:~:text=His%20health%20deteriorated%20slowly%20after,with%20Liver%20cancer%20in%202012. | Sher Afgan Niazi | Dr. Sher Afgan Khan Niazi (Urdu: شیر افگن خان نیازی; died 11 October 2012) was a Pakistani politician. He served as Minister of Parliamentary Affairs of Pakistan.
AK Niazi or General Niazi was his real uncle.He was elected for a fourth time to National Assembly in 2002 as a member of Pakistan Peoples Party (Parliamentarians), but later shifted his loyalty to become PPPP (Patriot) and then joined the Pakistan Muslim League (Q). Sher Afgan Niazi helped President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf to oust, detain and then replace the judges of the Supreme Court in 2007 and also supported Musharraf regime's military operation at Lal Masjid, Islamabad. On 18 February 2008, he lost the general election to an independent candidate, Humair Hayat Khan Rokhri. On April 8, 2008 he was pelted with rotten eggs and attacked in Lahore, Punjab by the lawyers protesting against his support for dismissing of Supreme Court judges and Lal Masjid operation. That attack was strongly protested for days in his home town.
Niazi joined President Pervez Musharraf's newly formed political party, the All Pakistan Muslim League (APML). However, he later resigned from the party following differences with the leadership. He was expert in constitutional affairs and had strong command over constitution of Pakistan. He completed his M.B.B.S degree from Nishtar Medical College, Multan, Punjab.
Niazi was famous for memorizing all the articles of the Constitution of Pakistan. His health deteriorated slowly after one of his sons died in car accident in Rawalpindi, and he was diagnosed with liver cancer in 2012.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barseb%C3%A4ck_Golf_%26_Country_Club | Barsebäck Golf & Country Club | Barsebäck Resort is a golf club in Barsebäck, northern part of Metropolitan Malmö in Scania, Sweden. The club is one of the premier golf facilities in Sweden and hosted the 2003 Solheim Cup and the Scandinavian Masters ten times between 1992 and 2017.
== History ==
The club, overlooking the Öresund strait, was founded in 1969 on the grounds of Barsebäck Castle by count Ian Hamilton and his wife Marianne. It was purchased in 1974 by Gösta Carlsson who developed the facility into one of the top golfing facilities in Sweden.
The club has two 18-hole courses, the 73-par Ocean Course (formerly Masters Course) finished in 1969 and designed by Ture Bruce, and the 71-par Pine Course (formerly Donald Steel Course) finished in 1989 and designed by Donald Steel, as well as a 9-hole course, Litorina.
In 2007, Annika Sörenstam hosted a Ladies European Tour competition named Scandinavian TPC hosted by Annika, played on the Masters Course August 9–12. The club first hosted the Scandinavian Masters in 1992. At the tenth installment in 2017 as many as 86,100 visitors saw 20-year-old Renato Paratore win the tournament.
A number of successful golfer have represented the club, including Louise Stahle, Caroline Hedwall and Henrik Stenson. The bag Stenson used when he won both the FedEx Cup Playoffs and the Race to Dubai in 2013 is on display in a glass case in the clubhouse.
In 2019, a 28 years old greenkeeper died after driving his lawn mower into a water hazard.
Gösta Carlsson died in 2018 at the age of 99. In 2020 his descendants sold the facility to Ernst Rosén, owner and operator of Vallda Golf & Country Club.
The resort (renovated 2022) includes a 36 room hotel, 28 houses for golfers and a restaurant under Michelin Guide awarded chef Karim Khouani.
== Tournaments hosted ==
=== Professional tournaments ===
=== Amateur tournaments ===
== See also ==
List of golf courses in Sweden
== References ==
== External links ==
Barsebäck Golf & Country Club |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_Township,_Clinton_County,_Iowa#:~:text=Center%20Township%20is%20a%20township,census%2C%20its%20population%20was%20626. | Center Township, Clinton County, Iowa | Center Township is a township in Clinton County, Iowa, United States. At the 2000 census, its population was 626.
== History ==
Center Township was organized in 1852.
== Geography ==
Center Township covers an area of 42.42 square miles (109.9 km2) and contains no incorporated settlements. According to the USGS, it contains two cemeteries: Center Grove and Elvira.
== Notes ==
== References ==
USGS Geographic Names Information System (GNIS)
== External links ==
US-Counties.com
City-Data.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibha_Saraf | Vibha Saraf | Vibha Saraf is an Indian singer-songwriter and Bollywood playback singer. She performs folk songs and writes and performs music for soundtracks, primarily Kashmiri folk-inspired songs. Her work has been featured on the soundtracks for the films Raazi, which went to win Best Film in the 64th Filmfare Awards, and Gully Boy, the fourth highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2019. In 2019, she was jointly nominated with Harshdeep Kaur for Best Female Playback Singer for the 65th Filmfare Awards and Best Female Playback Singer for the 20th International Indian Film Academy Awards for the song Dilbaro, from the 2018 drama thriller Raazi.
== Early life and education ==
Vibha Saraf was born in the Fateh Kadal neighbourhood of Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir in India. During the exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the region, her family relocated to New Delhi, India, when Saraf was three years old.
She began taking classes at Shriram Bharatiya Kala Kendra, studying Hindustani classical music for four years before studying pop music for five years. Saraf worked as a management consultant for five years before quitting to pursue music.
== Career ==
In 2013, Saraf moved to Mumbai to pursue her career in music. One year later, she had recorded her first soundtrack song, a duet with Arijit Singh titled "O Soniye" for Titoo MBA. The next year, in 2015, she sang "Feeling Avnavi," alongside Advait Nemlekar, for the soundtrack Gujjubhai the Great.
She released her debut single "Harmokh Bartal," in 2016. A bhajan from Kashmir that Saraf selected to celebrate Kashmir's culture and music, Saraf reinterpreted the song, with Tapas Relia composing it and Ashwin Srinivasan playing flute and Ankur Mukherjee, guitar.
In 2018, Saraf performed "Dilbaro" for the film Raazi. The song was written by Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy and was inspired by the Kashmiri folk wedding song "Khanmoj koor." She was nominated for an International Indian Film Academy Award for the performance in 2019.
In February 2019, Saraf released "Kab Se Kab Tak," a duet with Ranveer Singh. Saraf also co-sang the song "Dil Mein Mars Hai" alongside Benny Dayal for the Mission Mangal soundtrack, which was released in the summer of 2019. That same year, Saraf performed on the Gully Boy soundtrack in the duet "Kab Se Kab Tak" with Ranveer Singh.
Saraf has written music for Nucleya, whom she met briefly at an airport after a performance. The two exchanged music over WhatsApp and Saraf wrote lyrics. She has since written two songs for Nucleya and performed on one, the latter which was "Behka," for the film High Jack.
== Music & Discography ==
Vibha Saraf has appeared in music videos in her songs. She appears in the music video of the song 'Mumal' where she is a co-singer with a Rajasthani folk singer Dapu Khan.
Vibha also appears in her own music video 'Jalwe' along with Absar Zahoor.
She has sung for Bollywood and also in other Indian languages including Kashmiri, Telugu, Bengali & Tamil. She writes lyrics for both film and non-film songs & also composes songs for both the film industry and Independent music.
=== Singer ===
Film Songs
=== Songs ===
Her non film songs where Vibha has composed, sung and written lyrics.
=== Other language songs ===
In addition to Hindi and Kashmiri, she has sung songs in Bangla, Telugu and Tamil.
== Musical influence ==
Saraf's music is influenced by traditional music of Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh. Saraf cites the music she heard growing up, as sung by her grandparents and mother, as making Kashmiri music "subconsciously" in her. She wants more people to understand the sufism in the songs. She also finds inspiration in Kashmiri literature, including the poetry of Habba Khatoon and Lalleshwari.
In an interview with The Hindu in 2019, Saraf described her interest in sharing Kashmir-inspired folk music with a broader listenership as a responsibility that "falls on our generation" to "stick to our roots." In the interview, she expresses an appreciation for the preservation and popularity of Punjabi music.
== Awards ==
Vibha Saraf won the Best Female Playback Singer award for the song Dilbaro, Raazi at the 20th IIFA Awards held on 18 September 2019 in Mumbai, India.
Saraf and Harshdeep Kaur also jointly won the Best Female Playback Singer at REEL Movie Awards 2019 for Dilbaro, Raazi, as well as the Zee Cine Award for Best Playback Singer – Female for the same song.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3412_Kafka#:~:text=3412%20Kafka%2C%20provisional%20designation%201983%20AU2%2C%20is%20an%20asteroid%20from%20the%20inner%20regions%20of%20the%20asteroid%20belt%2C%20approximately%206%20kilometers%20in%20diameter.%20It%20was%20discovered%20on%2010%20January%201983%2C%20by%20American%20astronomers%20Randolph%20Kirk%20and%20Donald%20Rudy%20at%20Palomar%20Observatory%20in%20California%2C%20United%20States. | 3412 Kafka | 3412 Kafka, provisional designation 1983 AU2, is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 6 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 10 January 1983, by American astronomers Randolph Kirk and Donald Rudy at Palomar Observatory in California, United States. The asteroid was named after writer Franz Kafka.
== Orbit and classification ==
Kafka orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.0–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,212 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first identified as 1942 YB at the Finnish Turku Observatory in 1942, extending the body's observation arc by 41 years prior to its official discovery observation at Palomar.
== Physical characteristics ==
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Kafka measures 6.1 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.231. Kafka is a superslow rotator. Its rotation period of 2,766 hours (about 115 days) is among the longest of any known asteroid.
== Naming ==
This minor planet was named after Franz Kafka (1883–1924), Austrian–Czech writer of novels and short stories, in which protagonists are faced with bizarre or surrealistic situations. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 13 February 1987 (M.P.C. 11641).
== References ==
Bibliography
Edberg, Stephen J.; Levy, David H. (1994). Observing, Comets, Asteroids, Meteors, and the Zodiacal Light. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42003-7.
== External links ==
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
3412 Kafka at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
3412 Kafka at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_O._Thorp | Edward O. Thorp | Edward Oakley Thorp (born August 14, 1932) is an American mathematics professor, author, hedge fund manager, and blackjack researcher. He pioneered the modern applications of probability theory, including the harnessing of very small correlations for reliable financial gain.
Thorp is the author of Beat the Dealer, which mathematically proved that the house advantage in blackjack could be overcome by card counting. He also developed and applied effective hedge fund techniques in the financial markets, and collaborated with Claude Shannon in creating the first wearable computer.
Thorp received his Ph.D. in mathematics from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1958, and worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) from 1959 to 1961. He was a professor of mathematics from 1961 to 1965 at New Mexico State University. He then joined the University of California, Irvine where he was a professor of mathematics from 1965 to 1977 and a professor of mathematics and finance from 1977 to 1982.
== Background ==
Thorp was born in Chicago, but moved to southern California in his childhood. He had an early aptitude for science and often tinkered with experiments of his own creation. He was one of the youngest amateur radio operators when he was certified at age 12. Thorp went on to win scholarships by excelling in chemistry and physics competitions (one instance led him to meet President Truman), ultimately choosing to attend UC Berkeley for his undergraduate degree. However, he transferred to UCLA after one year, majoring in physics. This was eventually followed by a PhD in Mathematics at UCLA. He met his future wife Vivian during his first year at UCLA. They married in January 1956.
== Computer-aided research in blackjack ==
Thorp used the IBM 704 as a research tool in order to investigate the probabilities of winning while developing his blackjack game theory, which was based on the Kelly criterion, which he learned about from the 1956 paper by Kelly. He learned Fortran in order to program the equations needed for his theoretical research model on the probabilities of winning at blackjack. Thorp analyzed the game of blackjack to a great extent this way, while devising card counting schemes with the aid of the IBM 704 in order to improve his odds, especially near the end of a card deck that is not being reshuffled after every deal.
=== Applied research in casinos ===
Thorp decided to test his theory in practice in Reno, Lake Tahoe, and Las Vegas, Nevada.
Thorp started his applied research using $10,000, with Manny Kimmel, a wealthy professional gambler and former bookmaker, providing the venture capital. First they visited Reno and Lake Tahoe establishments where they tested Thorp's theory at the local blackjack tables. The experimental results proved successful and his theory was verified since he won $11,000 in a single weekend. As a countermeasure to his methods, casinos now shuffle long before the end of the deck is reached. During his Las Vegas casino visits Thorp frequently used disguises such as wraparound glasses and false beards. In addition to the blackjack activities, Thorp had assembled a baccarat team which was also winning.
News quickly spread throughout the gambling community, which was eager for new methods of winning, while Thorp became an instant celebrity among blackjack aficionados. Due to the great demand generated about disseminating his research results to a wider gambling audience, he wrote the book Beat the Dealer in 1962 (substantially updated in 1966), widely considered the original guide to card counting, which sold over 700,000 copies, a huge number for a specialty title which earned it a place in the New York Times bestseller list, much to the chagrin of Kimmel whose identity was thinly disguised in the book as Mr. X.
Thorp's blackjack research is one of the very few examples where results from such research reached the public directly, completely bypassing the usual academic peer review process cycle. He has also stated that he considered the whole experiment an academic exercise.
In addition, Thorp, while a professor of mathematics at MIT, met Claude Shannon, and took him and his wife Betty Shannon as partners on weekend forays to Las Vegas to play roulette and blackjack, at which Thorp was very successful. His team's roulette play was the first instance of using a wearable computer in a casino — something which is now illegal, as of May 30, 1985, when the Nevada devices law came into effect as an emergency measure targeting blackjack and roulette devices. The wearable computer was co-developed with Claude Shannon between 1960 and 1961. It relied on a pair of operators, where one would watch the wheel and use his toe to input the cadence of the wheel, and the other would receive a message in the form of musical tones through a hidden earpiece. By betting on groups of neighboring numbers on the wheel they could gain a sufficient advantage to make a profit. The final operating version of the device was tested in Shannon's home lab at his basement in June 1961. Based on his achievements, Thorp was an inaugural member of the Blackjack Hall of Fame.
He also devised the "Thorp count", a method for calculating the likelihood of winning in certain endgame positions in backgammon.
Edward O. Thorp's Real Blackjack was published by Villa Crespo Software in 1990.
== Stock market ==
Since the late 1960s, Thorp has used his knowledge of probability and statistics in the stock market by discovering and exploiting a number of pricing anomalies in the securities markets and has made a significant fortune. Thorp's first hedge fund was Princeton/Newport Partners from 1969 to 1989 based on Market Neutral Derivatives Hedging. His second hedge fund was called Ridgeline Partners and it ran from August 1994 through September 2002 based on statistical arbitrage. This hedge fund was closed largely because the return of the statistical arbitrage strategies had been low since 2002. He is currently the President of Edward O. Thorp & Associates, based in Newport Beach, California. In May 1998, Thorp reported that his personal investments yielded an annualized 20 percent rate of return averaged over 28.5 years.
Thorp wrote many articles about option pricing, Kelly criterion, statistical arbitrage strategies (6-parts series), and inefficient markets.
In 1991, Thorp was an early skeptic of Bernie Madoff's supposedly stellar investing returns which were proved to be fraudulent in 2008.
== Bibliography ==
Edward Thorp, (1964) Beat the Dealer: A Winning Strategy for the Game of Twenty-One, ISBN 0-394-70310-3
Edward O. Thorp, Sheen T. Kassouf, (1967) Beat the Market: A Scientific Stock Market System, ISBN 0-394-42439-5 (online pdf, retrieved 22 Nov 2017)
Edward O. Thorp, Elementary Probability, 1977, ISBN 0-88275-389-4
Edward O. Thorp, The Mathematics of Gambling, 1984, ISBN 0-89746-019-7 (online version part 1, part 2, part 3, part 4)
The Kelly Capital Growth Investment Criterion: Theory and Practice (World Scientific Handbook in Financial Economic Series), ISBN 978-9814293495, February 10, 2011 by Leonard C. MacLean (Editor), Edward O. Thorp (Editor), William T. Ziemba (Editor)
(Autobiography) Edward O. Thorp, (2017) A Man for All Markets: From Las Vegas to Wall Street, How I Beat the Dealer and the Market
William Poundstone (2005) Fortune's Formula: The Untold Story of the Scientific Betting System That Beat the Casinos and Wall Street
== See also ==
Black–Scholes
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse - who derived Basic strategy for blackjack
Gaming mathematics
Kelly criterion
Proebsting's paradox
Richard A. Epstein
== References ==
== Sources ==
Patterson, Scott D., The Quants: How a New Breed of Math Whizzes Conquered Wall Street and Nearly Destroyed It, Crown Business, 352 pages, 2010. ISBN 0-307-45337-5 via Patterson and Thorp interview on Fresh Air, February 1, 2010, including excerpt "Chapter 2: The Godfather: Ed Thorp"
== External links ==
Edward O. Thorp at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Edward O. Thorp official site
Thorp, Edward entry, Wilmott Wiki
Edward O. Thorp & Fortune's Formula |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida_Mntwana#:~:text=Her%20bronze%20statue%20was%20created%20by%20Sarah%20Lovejoy. | Ida Mntwana | Ida Fiyo Mntwana (1903 – March 1960) was a South African anti-apartheid and women's right activist.
== Biography ==
Mntwana worked as a dressmaker and became active in politics in the 1950s. After Madie Hall Xuma resigned as national president of African National Congress Women's League (ANCWL) in 1949, Mntwana was her replacement. Mntwana was more radical than her predecessor, organizing women in demonstrations, strikes and other acts of civil disobedience. She was also elected to become one of ANC (Africa National Congress) executive committee
In 1954, Mntwana became the first president of the Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW). She helped organize the Congress of the People. At the second day of the congress, police invaded the congress and incited a conflict between the people and the police. It was Mntwana who calmed the people by singing freedom song from the platform to keep the congress going well.
On 26 August 1952, she led the Germiston march. The group were consist of 29 women: 11 Indian, one Coloured (Susan Naude), and 17 African women. She and the group was detained and sentenced to fourteen days in Boksburg prison. She was also a leader of the FEDSAW march to the Union Buildings in Pretoria on 27 October 1955. Around 2,000 women participated in that march to protest pass laws for women.
Mntwana was one of the defendants in the 1956 Treason Trial. Mntwana died in March 1960 during the treason trial.
== Legacy ==
Mntwana is represented in one of 100 bronze statues that is part of the National Heritage Monument's project which was called The Long March to Freedom. Her bronze statue was created by Sarah Lovejoy. In August 2000, Mntwana was cited as "torchbearer" during Thabo Mbeki's speech in the unveiling of South Africa's Women's Monument She earned a posthumous Order for Meritorious Service in silver in 2003.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox | Boston Red Sox | The Boston Red Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Boston. The Red Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East Division. Founded in 1901 as one of the American League's eight charter franchises, the team's home ballpark has been Fenway Park since 1912. The "Red Sox" name was chosen by the team owner, John I. Taylor, c. 1908, following the lead of previous teams that had been known as the "Boston Red Stockings", including the Boston Braves (now the Atlanta Braves). The team has won nine World Series championships, tied for the third-most of any MLB team, and has played in thirteen World Series. Their most recent World Series appearance and win was in 2018. In addition, they won the 1904 American League pennant, but were not able to defend their 1903 World Series championship when the New York Giants refused to participate in the 1904 World Series.
The Red Sox were a dominant team in the new league, defeating the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first World Series in 1903 and winning four more championships by 1918. However, they then went into one of the longest championship droughts in baseball history, dubbed the "Curse of the Bambino" after its alleged inception due to the Red Sox' sale of star player Babe Ruth to the rival New York Yankees two years after their World Series championship in 1918. The Sox endured an 86-year wait before the team's sixth World Series championship in 2004. The team's history during that period was punctuated with some of the most memorable moments in World Series history, including Enos Slaughter's "mad dash" in 1946, the "Impossible Dream" of 1967, Carlton Fisk's home run in 1975, and Bill Buckner's error in 1986. Following their victory in the 2018 World Series, they became the first team to win four World Series trophies in the 21st century, with championships in 2004, 2007, 2013 and 2018. The team's history has also been marked by its intense rivalry with the New York Yankees, arguably the fiercest and most historic in North American professional sports.
The Red Sox are owned by Fenway Sports Group, which also owns Liverpool of the Premier League in England, the National Hockey League's Pittsburgh Penguins and partially owns RFK Racing of the NASCAR Cup Series. They are consistently one of the top MLB teams in average road attendance, while the small capacity of Fenway Park prevents them from leading in overall attendance. From May 15, 2003, to April 10, 2013, the Red Sox sold out every home game—a total of 820 games (794 regular season) for a major professional sports record. Both Neil Diamond's "Sweet Caroline" and the Standells' "Dirty Water" have become anthems for the Red Sox.
As of the end of the 2025 season, the franchise's all-time regular-season record is 10,044–9,336–83 (.518).
== Nickname ==
The name Red Sox, chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, refers to the red hose in the team uniform beginning in 1908. Sox had been previously adopted for the Chicago White Sox by newspapers needing a headline-friendly form of Stockings, as "Stockings Win!" in large type did not fit in a column. The team name "Red Sox" had previously been used as early as 1888 by a "colored" team from Norfolk, Virginia. The Spanish language media sometimes refers to the team as Medias Rojas, a translation of "red socks". The official Spanish site uses the variant "Los Red Sox".
The Red Stockings nickname was previously used by the Cincinnati Red Stockings, who were members of the pioneering National Association of Base Ball Players. Managed by Harry Wright, Cincinnati adopted a uniform with white knickers and red stockings and earned the famous nickname, a year or two before hiring the first fully professional team in 1869. When the club folded after the 1870 season, Wright was hired by Boston businessman Ivers Whitney Adams to organize a new team in Boston, and he brought three teammates and the "Red Stockings" nickname along. (Most nicknames were then unofficial—neither club names nor registered trademarks—so the migration was informal.) The Boston Red Stockings won four championships in the five seasons of the new National Association, the first professional league.
When a new Cincinnati club was formed as a charter member of the National League in 1876, the "Red Stockings" nickname was commonly reserved for them once again, and the Boston team was referred to as the "Red Caps". Other names were sometimes used before Boston officially adopted the nickname "Braves" in 1912; the club eventually left Boston for Milwaukee and is now playing in Atlanta.
In 1901, the upstart American League established a competing club in Boston. (Originally, a team was supposed to be started in Buffalo, but league ownership at the last minute removed that city from their plans in favor of the expansion Boston franchise.) For seven seasons, the AL team wore dark blue stockings and had no official nickname. They were simply "Boston", "Bostonians" or "the Bostons"; or the "Americans" or "Boston Americans" as in "American Leaguers", Boston being a two-team city. Their 1901–1907 jerseys, both home, and road, just read "Boston", except for 1902 when they sported large letters "B" and "A" denoting "Boston" and "American". Newspaper writers of the time used other nicknames for the club, including "Somersets" (for owner Charles Somers), "Plymouth Rocks", "Beaneaters", the "Collinsites" (for manager Jimmy Collins)", and "Pilgrims".
For years many sources have listed "Pilgrims" as the early Boston AL team's official nickname, but researcher Bill Nowlin has demonstrated that the name was barely used, if at all, during the team's early years. The origin of the nickname appears to be a poem entitled "The Pilgrims At Home" written by Edwin Fitzwilliam that was sung at the 1907 home opener ("Rory O'More" melody). This nickname was commonly used during that season, perhaps because the team had a new manager and several rookie players. John I. Taylor had said in December 1907 that the Pilgrims "sounded too much like homeless wanderers."
The National League club in Boston, though seldom called the "Red Stockings" anymore, still wore red trim. In 1907, the National League club adopted an all-white uniform, and the American League team saw an opportunity. On December 18, 1907, Taylor announced that the club had officially adopted red as its new team color. The 1908 uniforms featured a large icon of a red stocking angling across the shirt front. For 1908, the National League club returned to wearing red trim, but the American League team finally had an official nickname and remained the "Red Sox" for good.
The name is often shortened to "Bosox" or "BoSox", a combination of "Boston" and "Sox" (similar to the "ChiSox" in Chicago or the minor league "WooSox" of Worcester, a minor league affiliate of Boston). Sportswriters sometimes refer to the Red Sox as the Crimson Hose and the Olde Towne Team. Recently, media have begun to call them the "Sawx" casually, reflecting how the word is pronounced with a New England accent. However, most fans simply refer to the team as the "Sox" when the context is understood to mean Red Sox.
The formal name of the entity which owns the team is "Boston Red Sox Baseball Club Limited Partnership". The name shown on a door near the main entrance to Fenway Park, "Boston American League Baseball Company", was used prior to the team's reorganization as a limited partnership on May 26, 1978.
== History ==
=== 1901–1919: The golden era ===
In 1901, the minor Western League, led by Ban Johnson, declared itself to be equal to the National League, then the only major league in baseball. Johnson had changed the name of the league to the American League prior to the 1900 season. In 1901, the league created a franchise in Boston, called the "Boston Americans", to compete with the National League team there.
Playing their home games at Huntington Avenue Grounds, the Boston franchise finished second in the league in 1901 and third in 1902. The team was originally owned by C.W. Somers. In January 1902, he sold all but one share of the team to Henry Killilea.
The early teams were led by manager and star third baseman Jimmy Collins, outfielders Chick Stahl, Buck Freeman, and Patsy Dougherty, and pitcher Cy Young, who in 1901 won the pitching Triple Crown with 33 wins (41.8% of the team's 79 wins), 1.62 ERA and 158 strikeouts.
In 1903, the team won their first American League pennant and, as a result, Boston participated in the first modern World Series, going up against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Aided by the modified chants of "Tessie" by the Royal Rooters fan club and by its stronger pitching staff, the Americans won the best-of-nine series five games to three.
In April 1904, the team was purchased by John I. Taylor of Boston. The 1904 team found itself in a pennant race against the New York Highlanders. A predecessor to what became a storied rivalry, this race featured the trade of Patsy Dougherty to the Highlanders for Bob Unglaub. In order to win the pennant, the Highlanders needed to win both games of their final doubleheader with the Americans at the Highlanders' home stadium, Hilltop Park. With Jack Chesbro on the mound, and the score tied 2–2 with a man on third in the top of the ninth, a spitball got away from Chesbro and Lou Criger scored the go-ahead run and the Americans won their second pennant. However, the NL champion New York Giants declined to play any postseason series, but a sharp public reaction led the two leagues to make the World Series a permanent championship, starting in 1905.
In 1906, Boston lost 105 games and finished last in the league. In December 1907, Taylor proposed that the Boston Americans name change to the Boston Red Sox.
By 1909, center fielder Tris Speaker had become a fixture in the Boston outfield, and the team finished the season in third place. In 1912, the Red Sox won 105 games and the pennant. The 105 wins stood as the club record until the 2018 club won 108. Anchored by an outfield including Tris Speaker, Harry Hooper and Duffy Lewis, and pitcher Smoky Joe Wood, the Red Sox beat the New York Giants 4–3–1 in the 1912 World Series best known for Snodgrass's Muff.
From 1913 to 1916, the Red Sox were owned by Joseph Lannin. In 1914, Lannin signed a young up-and-coming pitcher named Babe Ruth from the Baltimore Orioles of the International League. In 1915, the team won 101 games and went on to the 1915 World Series, where they beat the Philadelphia Phillies four games to one. Following the 1915 season, Tris Speaker was traded to the Cleveland Indians. The Red Sox went on to win the 1916 World Series, defeating the Brooklyn Robins.
Harry Frazee bought the Red Sox from Joseph Lannin in 1916 for about $675,000. In 1918, Babe Ruth led the team to another World Series championship over the Chicago Cubs.
=== Sale of Babe Ruth and aftermath (1920–1938) ===
Prior to the sale of Babe Ruth, multiple trades occurred between the Red Sox and the Yankees. On December 18, 1918, outfielder Duffy Lewis, pitcher Dutch Leonard and pitcher Ernie Shore were traded to the Yankees for pitcher Ray Caldwell, Slim Love, Roxy Walters, Frank Gilhooley and $15,000. In July 1919, pitcher Carl Mays quit the team and then was traded to the Yankees for Bob McGraw, Allan Russell and $40,000.
After Mays was traded, league president Ban Johnson suspended him due to his breaking of his contract with the Red Sox. The Yankees went to court after Johnson suspended Mays. After the Yankees were able to play Mays, the American League split into two factions: the Yankees, Red Sox and White Sox, known as the "Insurrectos", versus Johnson and the remaining five clubs, a.k.a. the "Loyal Five".
On December 26, 1919, the team sold Babe Ruth, who had played the previous six seasons for the Red Sox, to the rival New York Yankees. The sale was announced on January 6, 1920. In 1919, Ruth had broken the single-season home run record, hitting 29 home runs. It was believed that Frazee sold Ruth to finance the Broadway musical No, No, Nanette. While No, No, Nanette did not open on Broadway until 1925, Leigh Montville's book, The Big Bam: The Life and Times of Babe Ruth, reports that No, No, Nanette had originated as a non-musical stage play called My Lady Friends, which opened on Broadway in December 1919. According to the book, My Lady Friends had been financed by Ruth's sale to the Yankees. The sale of Babe Ruth came to be viewed as the beginning of the Yankees–Red Sox rivalry, considered the "best rivalry" by American sports journalists.
In the December 1920, Wally Schang, Waite Hoyt, Harry Harper and Mike McNally were traded to the Yankees for Del Pratt, Muddy Ruel, Hank Thormahlen, Sammy Vick. The following winter, shortstop Everett Scott, and pitchers Bullet Joe Bush and Sad Sam Jones were traded to the Yankees for Roger Peckinpaugh, who was immediately traded to the Washington Senators, Jack Quinn, Rip Collins, Bill Piercy.
On July 23, 1922, Joe Dugan and Elmer Smith were traded to the Yankees for Elmer Miller, Chick Fewster, Johnny Mitchell, and Lefty O'Doul. Acquiring Dugan helped the Yankees edge the St. Louis Browns in a tight pennant race. After late trades in 1922, a June 15 trading deadline went into effect. In 1923, Herb Pennock was traded by the Red Sox to the Yankees for Camp Skinner, Norm McMillan, and George Murray.
The loss of several top players sent the Red Sox into free fall. During the 1920s and early 1930s, the Red Sox were fixtures in the second division, never finishing closer than 20 games out of first. The losses increased after Frazee sold the team to Bob Quinn in 1923. The team bottomed out in 1932 with a record of 43–111, still the worst record in franchise history. However, in 1931, Earl Webb set the all-time mark for most doubles in a season with 67.
In 1933, Tom Yawkey bought the team. Yawkey acquired pitchers Wes Ferrell and Lefty Grove, Joe Cronin, a shortstop and manager, and first baseman Jimmie Foxx. In 1938, Foxx hit 50 home runs, which stood as a club record for 68 years. That year Foxx also set a club-record of 175 runs.
=== 1939–1960: The Ted Williams era ===
In 1939, the Red Sox purchased the contract of outfielder Ted Williams from the minor league San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League, ushering in an era of the team sometimes called the "Ted Sox". Williams consistently hit for both high power and high average, and is generally considered one of the greatest hitters of all time. The right-field bullpens in Fenway were built in part for Williams' left-handed swing, and are sometimes called "Williamsburg". Before this addition, it was over 400 feet (120 m) to right field. He served two stints in the United States Marine Corps as a pilot and saw active duty in both World War II and the Korean War, missing at least five full seasons of baseball. His book The Science of Hitting is widely read by students of baseball. He is currently the last player to hit over .400 for a full season, batting .406 in 1941. Williams feuded with sports writers his whole career, calling them "The Knights of the Keyboard", and his relationship with the fans was often rocky as he was seen spitting towards the stands on more than one occasion.
With Williams, the Red Sox reached the 1946 World Series but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games in part because of the use of the "Williams Shift", a defensive tactic in which the shortstop moves to the right side of the infield to make it harder for the left-handed-hitting Williams to hit to that side of the field. Some have claimed that he was too proud to hit to the other side of the field, not wanting to let the Cardinals take away his game. His performance may have also been affected by a pitch he took in the elbow in an exhibition game a few days earlier. Either way, in his only World Series, Williams gathered just five singles in 25 at-bats for a .200 average.
The Cardinals won the 1946 Series when Enos Slaughter scored the go-ahead run all the way from first base on a base hit to left field. The throw from Leon Culberson was cut off by shortstop Johnny Pesky, who relayed the ball to the plate just a hair too late. Some say Pesky hesitated or "held the ball" before he turned to throw the ball, but this has been disputed.
Along with Williams and Pesky, the Red Sox featured several other star players during the 1940s, including second baseman Bobby Doerr and center fielder Dom DiMaggio (the younger brother of Joe DiMaggio).
The Red Sox narrowly lost the AL pennant in 1948 and 1949. In 1948, Boston finished in a tie with Cleveland, and their loss to Cleveland in a one-game playoff ended hopes of an all-Boston World Series. Curiously, manager Joseph McCarthy chose journeyman Denny Galehouse to start the playoff game when the young lefty phenom Mel Parnell was available to pitch. In 1949, the Red Sox were one game ahead of the New York Yankees, with the only two games left for both teams being against each other, and they lost both of those games.
The 1950s were viewed as a time of tribulation for the Red Sox. After Williams returned from the Korean War in 1953, many of the best players from the late 1940s had retired or been traded. The stark contrast in the team led critics to call the Red Sox' daily lineup "Ted Williams and the Seven Dwarfs". Jackie Robinson was even worked out by the team at Fenway Park, however, owner Tom Yawkey did not want an African American player on his team. Willie Mays also tried out for Boston and was highly praised by team scouts. In 1955, Frank Malzone debuted at third base and Ted Williams hit .388 at the age of 38 in 1957, but there was little else for Boston fans to root for. Williams retired at the end of the 1960 season, famously hitting a home run in his final at-bat as memorialized in the John Updike story "Hub fans bid Kid adieu." The Red Sox finally became the last Major League team to field an African American player when they promoted infielder Pumpsie Green from their AAA farm team in 1959.
=== 1960s: Yaz and the Impossible Dream ===
The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of Carl "Yaz" Yastrzemski, Williams' replacement in left field, who developed into one of the better hitters of a pitching-rich decade.
Red Sox fans know 1967 as the season of the "Impossible Dream". The slogan refers to the hit song from the popular musical play "Man of La Mancha". 1967 saw one of the great pennant races in baseball history with four teams in the AL pennant race until almost the last game. The BoSox had finished the 1966 season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski as the team won the pennant to reach the 1967 World Series. Yastrzemski won the American League Triple Crown (the most recent player to accomplish such a feat until Miguel Cabrera did so in 2012), hitting .326 with 44 home runs and 121 runs batted in. He was named the league's Most Valuable Player, just one vote shy of a unanimous selection as a Minnesota sportswriter placed Twins center fielder César Tovar first on his ballot. But the Red Sox lost the series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Cardinals pitcher Bob Gibson stymied the Red Sox, winning three games.
An 18-year-old Bostonian rookie named Tony Conigliaro slugged 24 home runs in 1964. "Tony C" became the youngest player in Major League Baseball to hit his 100th home run, a record that stands today. He was struck just above the left cheek bone by a fastball thrown by Jack Hamilton of the California Angels on Friday, August 18, 1967, and sat out the entire next season with headaches and blurred vision. Although he did have a productive season in 1970, he was never the same.
=== 1970s: The Red Hat Era ===
Although the Red Sox were competitive for much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, they never finished higher than second place in their division. The closest they came to a divisional title was 1972 when they lost by a half-game to the Detroit Tigers. The start of the season was delayed by a players' strike, and the Red Sox had lost one more game to the strike than the Tigers had. Games lost to the strike were not made up. The Red Sox went to Detroit with a half-game lead for the final series of the season, but lost the first two of those three and were eliminated from the pennant race.
==== 1975 ====
The Red Sox won the AL pennant in 1975. The 1975 Red Sox were as colorful as they were talented, with Yastrzemski and rookie outfielders Jim Rice and Fred Lynn, veteran outfielder Dwight Evans, catcher Carlton Fisk, and pitchers Luis Tiant and eccentric junkballer Bill "The Spaceman" Lee. Fred Lynn won both the American League Rookie of the Year award and the Most Valuable Player award, a feat which had never previously been accomplished, and was not duplicated until Ichiro Suzuki did it in 2001. In the 1975 American League Championship Series, the Red Sox swept the Oakland A's.
In the 1975 World Series, they faced the heavily favored Cincinnati Reds, also known as The Big Red Machine. Luis Tiant won games 1 and 4 of the World Series but after five games, the Red Sox trailed the series 3 games to 2. Game 6 at Fenway Park is considered among the greatest games in postseason history. Down 6–3 in the bottom of the eighth inning, Red Sox pinch hitter Bernie Carbo hit a three-run homer into the center field bleachers off Reds fireman Rawly Eastwick to tie the game. In the top of the 11th inning, right fielder Dwight Evans made a spectacular catch of a Joe Morgan line drive and doubled off Ken Griffey at first base to preserve the tie. In the bottom of the 12th inning, Carlton Fisk hit a deep fly ball that sliced towards the left-field foul pole above the Green Monster. As the ball sailed into the night, Fisk waved his arms frantically towards fair territory, seemingly pleading with the ball not to go foul. The ball complied, and bedlam ensued at Fenway as Fisk rounded the bases to win the game for the Red Sox 7–6.
The Red Sox lost game 7, 4–3 even though they had an early 3–0 lead. Starting pitcher Bill Lee threw a slow looping curve which he called a "Leephus pitch" or "space ball" to Reds first baseman Tony Pérez who hit the ball over the Green Monster and across the street. The Reds scored the winning run in the 9th inning. Carlton Fisk said famously about the 1975 World Series, "We won that thing 3 games to 4."
==== 1978 pennant race ====
In 1978, the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in a tight pennant race. The Yankees were 14+1⁄2 games behind the Red Sox in July, and on September 10, after completing a 4-game sweep of the Red Sox (known as "The Boston Massacre"), the Yankees tied for the divisional lead.
On September 16 the Yankees held a 3+1⁄2 game lead over the Red Sox, but the Sox won 11 of their next 13 games and by the final day of the season, the Yankees' magic number to win the division was one—with a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to the Toronto Blue Jays clinching the division. However, New York lost 9–2 and Boston won 5–0, forcing a one-game playoff to be held at Fenway Park on Monday, October 2.
The most remembered moment from the game was Bucky Dent's 7th inning three-run home run in off Mike Torrez just over the Green Monster, giving the Yankees their first lead. The dejected Boston manager, Don Zimmer, gave Mr. Dent a new middle name which lives on in Boston sports lore to this day, uttering three words as the ball sailed over the left-field wall: "Bucky Fucking Dent!" Reggie Jackson provided a solo home run in the 8th that proved to be the difference in the Yankees' 5–4 win, which ended with Yastrzemski popping out to Graig Nettles in foul territory with Rick Burleson representing the tying run at third. Although Dent became a Red Sox demon, the Red Sox got retribution in 1990 when the Yankees fired Dent as their manager during a series at Fenway Park.
=== 1986 World Series and Game Six ===
Carl Yastrzemski retired after the 1983 season, during which the Red Sox finished sixth in the seven-team AL East, posting their worst record since 1966.
However, in 1986, it appeared that the team's fortunes were about to change. The offense had remained strong with Jim Rice, Dwight Evans, Don Baylor and Wade Boggs. Roger Clemens led the pitching staff, going 24–4 with a 2.48 ERA, and had a 20-strikeout game to win both the American League Cy Young and Most Valuable Player awards. Clemens became the first starting pitcher to win both awards since Vida Blue in 1971. Despite spending a month and a half on the disabled list in the middle of the season, left-hander Bruce Hurst went 13–8, striking out 167 and pitching four shutout games. Boston sportswriters that season compared Clemens and Hurst to Don Drysdale and Sandy Koufax from the 1960s Los Angeles Dodgers.
The Red Sox won the AL East for the first time in 11 seasons, and faced the California Angels in the ALCS. The teams split the first two games in Boston, but the Angels won the next two home games, taking a 3–1 lead in the series. With the Angels poised to win the series, the Red Sox trailed 5–2 heading into the ninth inning of Game 5. A two-run homer by Baylor cut the lead to one. With two outs and a runner on, and one strike away from elimination, Dave Henderson homered off Donnie Moore to put Boston up 6–5. Although the Angels tied the game in the bottom of the ninth, the Red Sox won in the eleventh on a Henderson sacrifice fly off Moore. The Red Sox then found themselves with six- and seven-run wins at Fenway Park in Games 6 and 7 to win the American League title.
The Red Sox faced a heavily favored New York Mets team that had won 108 games in the regular season in the 1986 World Series. Boston won the first two games in Shea Stadium but lost the next two at Fenway, knotting the series at two games apiece. After Bruce Hurst recorded his second victory of the series in Game 5, the Red Sox returned to Shea Stadium looking to garner their first championship in 68 years. However, Game 6 became one of the most devastating losses in club history. After pitching seven strong innings, Clemens was lifted from the game with a 3–2 lead. Years later, Manager John McNamara said Clemens was suffering from a blister and asked to be taken out of the game, a claim Clemens denied. The Mets then scored a run off reliever and former Met Calvin Schiraldi to tie the score 3–3. The game went to extra innings, where the Red Sox took a 5–3 lead in the top of the 10th on a solo home run by Henderson, a double by Boggs and an RBI single by second baseman Marty Barrett.
After recording two outs in the bottom of the 10th, a graphic appeared on the NBC telecast hailing Barrett as the Player of the Game and Bruce Hurst as Most Valuable Player of the World Series. A message even appeared briefly on the Shea Stadium scoreboard congratulating the Red Sox as World Series champions. After so many years of abject frustration, Red Sox fans around the world could taste victory. With the count at two balls and one strike, Mets catcher Gary Carter hit a single. It was followed by singles by Kevin Mitchell and Ray Knight. With Mookie Wilson batting, a wild pitch by Bob Stanley tied the game at 5. Wilson then hit a slow ground ball to first; the ball rolled through Bill Buckner's legs, allowing Knight to score the winning run from second.
While Buckner was singled out as responsible for the loss, many observers—as well as both Wilson and Buckner—have noted that even if Buckner had fielded the ball cleanly, the speedy Wilson probably would have still been safe, leaving the game-winning run at third with two out.
Many observers questioned why Buckner was in the game at that point considering he had bad knees and that Dave Stapleton had come in as a late-inning defensive replacement in prior series games. It appeared as though McNamara was trying to reward Buckner for his long and illustrious career by leaving him in the game. After falling behind 3–0, the Mets then won Game 7, concluding the devastating collapse and feeding the myth that the Red Sox were "cursed".
This World Series loss had a strange twist: Red Sox General Manager Lou Gorman was vice-president, player personnel, of the Mets from 1980 to 1983. Working under Mets' GM Frank Cashen, with whom Gorman served with the Orioles, he helped lay the foundation for the Mets' championship.
=== 1988–1991: Morgan Magic ===
The Red Sox returned to the postseason in 1988. With the club in fourth place midway through the 1988 season at the All-Star break, manager John McNamara was fired and replaced by Walpole resident and longtime minor-league manager Joe Morgan on July 15. The club immediately won 12 games in a row, and 19 of 20 overall, to surge to the AL East title in what was called Morgan Magic. But the magic was short-lived, as the team was swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALCS. The Most Valuable Player of that Series was former Red Sox pitcher and Baseball Hall of Fame player Dennis Eckersley, who saved all four wins for Oakland. Two years later, in 1990, the Red Sox again won the division and face the Athletics in the ALCS. However, the outcome was the same, with the A's sweeping the ALCS in four straight.
In 1990, Yankees fans started to chant "1918!" to taunt the Red Sox. The demeaning chant echoed at Yankee Stadium each time the Red Sox were there. Also, Fenway Park became the scene of Bucky Dent's worst moment as a manager, although it was where he had his greatest triumph. In June, when the Red Sox swept the Yankees during a four-game series at Fenway Park, the Yankees fired Dent as their manager. Red Sox fans felt retribution to Dent being fired on their field, but the Yankees used him as a scapegoat. However, Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe severely criticized Yankees owner George Steinbrenner for firing Dent—his 18th managerial change in as many years since becoming owner—in Boston and said he should "have waited until the Yankees got to Baltimore" to fire Dent. He said that "if Dent had been fired in Seattle or Milwaukee, this would have been just another event in an endless line of George's jettisons. But it happened in Boston and the nightly news had its hook." "The firing was only special because ... it's the first time a Yankee manager—who was also a Red Sox demon—was purged on the ancient Indian burial grounds of the Back Bay." However, Bill Pennington called the firing of Dent "merciless".
=== 1992–2001: Mixed results ===
Tom Yawkey died in 1976, and his wife Jean R. Yawkey took control of the team until her death in 1992. Their initials are shown in two stripes on the left field wall in Morse code. Upon Jean's death, control of the team passed to the Yawkey Trust, led by John Harrington. The trust sold the team in 2002, concluding 70 years of Yawkey ownership.
In 1994, General Manager Lou Gorman was replaced by Dan Duquette, a Massachusetts native who had worked for the Montreal Expos. Duquette revived the team's farm system, which during his tenure produced players such as Nomar Garciaparra, Carl Pavano and David Eckstein. Duquette also spent money on free agents, notably an 8-year, $160 million deal for Manny Ramírez after the 2000 season.
The Red Sox won the newly realigned American League East in 1995, finishing seven games ahead of the Yankees. However, they were swept in three games in the ALDS by the Cleveland Indians. Their postseason losing streak reached 13 straight games, dating back to the 1986 World Series.
Roger Clemens tied his major league record by fanning 20 Detroit Tigers on September 18, 1996, in one of his final appearances in a Red Sox uniform. After Clemens had turned 30 and then had four seasons, 1993–96, which were by his standards mediocre at best, Duquette said the pitcher was entering "the twilight of his career". Clemens went on to pitch well for another ten years and win four more Cy Young Awards.
Out of contention in 1997, the team traded closer Heathcliff Slocumb to Seattle for catching prospect Jason Varitek and right-handed pitcher Derek Lowe. Prior to the start of the 1998 season, the Red Sox dealt pitchers Tony Armas Jr. and Carl Pavano to the Montreal Expos for pitcher Pedro Martínez. Martínez became the anchor of the team's pitching staff and turned in several outstanding seasons. In 1998, the team won the American League Wild Card but again lost the American League Division Series to the Indians.
In 1999, Duquette called Fenway Park "economically obsolete" and, along with Red Sox ownership, led a push for a new stadium.
On the field, the 1999 Red Sox were finally able to overturn their fortunes against the Indians in the American League Division Series. Cleveland took a 2–0 series lead, but Boston won the next three games behind strong pitching by Derek Lowe, Pedro Martínez and his brother Ramón Martínez. Game 4's 23–7 win by the Red Sox was the highest-scoring playoff game in major league history. Game 5 began with the Indians taking a 5–2 lead after two innings, but Pedro Martínez, nursing a shoulder injury, came on in the fourth inning and pitched six innings without allowing a hit while the team's offense rallied for a 12–8 win behind two home runs and seven runs batted in from outfielder Troy O'Leary. After the ALDS victory, the Red Sox lost the American League Championship Series to the Yankees, four games to one. The one bright spot was a lopsided win for the Red Sox in the much-hyped Martinez-Clemens game.
=== 2002–present: John Henry era ===
==== 2002–03 ====
In 2002, the Red Sox were sold by Yawkey trustee and president Harrington to New England Sports Ventures, a consortium headed by principal owner John Henry. Tom Werner served as executive chairman, Larry Lucchino served as president and CEO, and serving as vice-chairman was Les Otten. Dan Duquette was fired as GM of the club on February 28, with former Angels GM Mike Port taking the helm for the 2002 season. A week later, manager Joe Kerrigan was fired and was replaced by Grady Little.
While nearly all offseason moves were made under Duquette, such as signing outfielder Johnny Damon away from the Oakland Athletics, the new ownership made additions such as outfielder Cliff Floyd and relief pitcher Alan Embree. Nomar Garciaparra, Manny Ramírez, and Floyd all hit well, while Pedro Martínez put up his usual outstanding numbers. Derek Lowe, newly converted into a starter, won 20 games—becoming the first player to save 20 games and win 20 games in back-to-back seasons.
After failing to reach the playoffs, Port was replaced by Yale University graduate Theo Epstein. Epstein, raised in Brookline, Massachusetts, and just 28 at the time of his hiring, became the youngest general manager in MLB history.
The 2003 team was known as the "Cowboy Up" team, a nickname derived from first baseman Kevin Millar's challenge to his teammates to show more determination. In the 2003 American League Division Series, the Red Sox rallied from a 0–2 series deficit against the Athletics to win the best-of-five series. Derek Lowe returned to his former relief pitching role to save Game 5, a 4–3 victory. The team then faced the Yankees in the 2003 American League Championship Series. In Game 7, Boston led 5–2 in the eighth inning, but Pedro Martínez allowed three runs to tie the game. The Red Sox could not score off Mariano Rivera over the last three innings and eventually lost the game 6–5 when Yankee third baseman Aaron Boone hit a solo home run off Tim Wakefield. Some placed the blame for the loss on manager Grady Little for failing to remove starting pitcher Martínez in the 8th inning after some observers believe he began to show signs of tiring. It was stated by Epstein that the decision to not renew Little's contract was "made on a body of work after careful contemplation of the big picture...did not depend on any one decision in any one postseason game." Boston would hire former Philadelphia Phillies manager Terry Francona to manage the 2004 season.
==== "The Idiots": 2004 World Series Championship ====
During the 2003–04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher, Curt Schilling, and a closer, Keith Foulke. Due to some midseason struggles with injuries, management shook up the team at the July 31 trading deadline as part of a four-team trade. The Red Sox traded the team's popular, yet oft-injured, shortstop Nomar Garciaparra and outfielder Matt Murton to the Chicago Cubs, and received first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz from the Minnesota Twins, and shortstop Orlando Cabrera from the Montreal Expos. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox acquired center fielder Dave Roberts from the Los Angeles Dodgers. Following the trades, the club won 22 out of 25 games and qualified for the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Players and fans affectionately referred to the players as "the Idiots", a term coined by Damon and Millar during the playoff push to describe the team's eclectic roster and devil-may-care attitude toward their supposed "curse".
Boston began the postseason by sweeping the AL West champion Anaheim Angels in the ALDS. In the third game of the series, David Ortiz hit a walk-off two-run homer in the 10th inning to win the game and the series to advance to a rematch of the previous year's ALCS in the ALCS against the Yankees. The ALCS started very poorly for the Red Sox, as they lost the first three games (including a crushing 19–8 home loss in game 3). In Game 4, the Red Sox found themselves facing elimination, trailing 4–3 in the ninth with Mariano Rivera in to close for the Yankees. After Rivera issued a walk to Millar, Roberts came on to pinch run and promptly stole second base. He then scored on an RBI single by Bill Mueller, sending the game into extra innings. The Red Sox went on to win the game 6–4 on a two-run home run by Ortiz in the 12th inning. The odds were still very much against the Sox in the series, but Ortiz also made the walk-off hit in the 14th inning of Game 5. The comeback continued with a victory from an injured Schilling in Game 6. Three sutures being used to stabilize the tendon in Schilling's right ankle bled throughout the game, famously making his sock appear bloody red. With it, Boston became the first team in MLB history to force a series-deciding Game 7 after trailing 3–0 in games. The Red Sox completed their historic comeback in Game 7 with a 10–3 victory over the Yankees. Ortiz began the scoring with a two-run homer. Along with his game-winning runs batted in during games 4 and 5, he was named ALCS Most Valuable Player. The Red Sox joined the 1942 Toronto Maple Leafs and the 1975 New York Islanders as the only North American professional sports teams in history at the time to win a best-of-seven games series after being down 3–0. (The 2010 Philadelphia Flyers and the 2014 Los Angeles Kings would later accomplish the feat).
The Red Sox swept the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series. The Red Sox never trailed throughout the series; Mark Bellhorn hit a game-winning home run off Pesky's Pole in game 1, and Schilling pitched another bloodied-sock victory in game 2, followed by similarly masterful pitching performances by Martinez and Derek Lowe. It was the Red Sox' first championship in 86 years. Manny Ramírez was named World Series MVP. To add a final, surreal touch to Boston's championship season, on the night of Game 4 a total lunar eclipse colored the moon red over Busch Stadium. The Red Sox earned many accolades from the sports media and throughout the nation for their season, such as in December, when Sports Illustrated named the Boston Red Sox the 2004 Sportsmen of the Year.
==== 2007: World Series Championship ====
The 2005 AL East was decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one-game lead in the standings. The Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with the same record as the Yankees, 95–67. However, a playoff was not needed, as the loser of such a playoff would still make the playoffs as a wild card team. As the Yankees had won the season series, they were awarded the division title, and the Red Sox competed in the playoffs as the wild card team. Boston failed to defend their championship, and was swept in three games by the eventual 2005 World Series champion Chicago White Sox in the first round of the playoffs. In 2006 David Ortiz broke Jimmie Foxx's single-season Red Sox home run record by hitting 54 homers. However, Boston failed to make the playoffs after compiling a 9–21 record in the month of August due to several injuries in the club's roster.
Theo Epstein's first step toward restocking the team for 2007 was to pursue one of the most anticipated acquisitions in baseball history. On November 14, MLB announced that Boston had won the bid for the rights to negotiate a contract with Japanese Nippon Professional Baseball superstar pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka. Boston placed a bid of $51.1 million to negotiate with Matsuzaka and completed a 6-year, $52 million contract after they were announced as the winning bid.
The Red Sox moved into first place in the AL East by mid-April and never relinquished their division lead. Initially, rookie second baseman Dustin Pedroia under-performed, hitting below .200 in April. Manager Terry Francona refused to bench him and his patience paid off as Pedroia eventually won the AL Rookie of the Year Award for his performance that season, which included 165 hits and a .317 batting average. On the mound, Josh Beckett emerged as the ace of the staff with his first 20-win season, as fellow starting pitchers Schilling, Matsuzaka, Wakefield and Julián Tavárez all struggled at times. Relief pitcher Hideki Okajima, another recent arrival from the NPB, posted an ERA of 0.88 through the first half and was selected for the All-Star Game. Okajima finished the season with a 2.22 ERA and 5 saves, emerging as one of baseball's top relievers. Minor league call-up Clay Buchholz provided a spark on September 1 by pitching a no-hitter in his second career start. The Red Sox captured their first AL East title since 1995.
The Red Sox swept the Angels in the ALDS. Facing the Cleveland Indians in the ALCS, the Red Sox fell in games 2, 3, and 4 before Beckett picked up his second victory of the series in game 5, starting a comeback. The Red Sox captured their twelfth American League pennant by outscoring the Indians 30–5 over the final three games. The Red Sox faced the Colorado Rockies in the 2007 World Series, and swept the Rockies in four games. In Game 4, Wakefield gave up his spot in the rotation to a recovered Jon Lester, who gave the Red Sox an impressive start, pitching 5+2⁄3 shutout innings. Key home runs late in the game by third baseman Mike Lowell and pinch-hitter Bobby Kielty secured the Red Sox' second title in four years, as Lowell was named Most Valuable Player in the World Series.
==== 2008–2012: Injuries and collapses ====
The Red Sox began their season by participating in the third opening day game in MLB history to be played in Japan, where they defeated the Oakland A's in the Tokyo Dome. On May 19, Jon Lester threw the 18th no-hitter in team history, defeating the Kansas City Royals 7–0. Down the stretch, outfielder Manny Ramirez became embroiled in controversy surrounding public incidents with fellow players and other team employees, as well as criticism of ownership and not playing, which some claimed was due to laziness and nonexistent injuries. The front office decided to move the disgruntled outfielder at the July 31 trade deadline, shipping him to the Dodgers in a three-way deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates that landed them Jason Bay to replace him in left field. With Ramirez gone, and Bay providing a new spark in the lineup, the Red Sox improved vastly and made the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. The Red Sox defeated the Angels in the 2008 ALDS three games to one. The Red Sox then took on their AL East rivals the Tampa Bay Rays in the ALCS. Down three games to one in the 5th game of the ALCS, Boston mounted a comeback from trailing 7–0 in the 7th inning to win 8–7. They tied the series at three games apiece with a Game 6 victory before losing Game 7, 3–1, thus becoming the eighth team in a row since 2000 to fail to repeat as World Series champions.
The Red Sox returned to postseason play in 2009 but were swept in the ALDS by the Los Angeles Angels. In 2010, they placed third in the division and failed to make the playoffs. In 2011, the Red Sox collapsed, becoming the first team in MLB history to blow a 9-game lead in the division heading into September, going 7–20 in the final month and failing again to make the playoffs. In December 2011, Bobby Valentine was hired as a new manager. The 2012 season marked the centennial of Fenway Park, and on April 20, past and present Red Sox players and coaches assembled to celebrate the park's anniversary. However, the collapse that they endured in September 2011 carried over into the season. The Red Sox struggled throughout the season due to injuries, inconsistent play, and off-field news. They finished 69–93 for their first losing season since 1997 and their worst season since 1965.
==== Boston Strong: 2013 World Series Champions ====
Boston, which finished last in the American League East with a 69–93 record in 2012 (26 games behind the Yankees), became the 11th team in major league history to go from worst in the division to first the next season when it clinched the A.L. East division title on September 20, 2013. Many credit the team's turnaround with the hiring of manager John Farrell, the former Red Sox pitching coach under Terry Francona from 2007 to 2010. As a former member of the staff, he had the respect of influential players such as Lester, Pedroia, and Ortiz. But there were other moves made in the offseason by general manager Ben Cherington who targeted "character" players to fill the team's needs. These acquisitions included veteran catcher David Ross, Jonny Gomes, Mike Napoli and Shane Victorino. While some questioned these players as "re-treads", it was clear that Cherington was trying to move past 2011–2012 by bringing in "clubhouse players". Essential to the turnaround, however, was the pitching staff. With ace veteran John Lackey coming off Tommy John surgery and both Jon Lester and Clay Buchholz returning to their prior form, this allowed the team to rely less on their bullpen. Everything seemed in danger of collapsing, however, when both closers, Joel Hanrahan and Andrew Bailey, went down early with season-ending injuries. Farrell gave the closing job to Koji Uehara on June 21 who delivered with a 1.09 ERA and an MLB record 0.565 WHIP. On September 11, the 37-year-old right-hander set a new Red Sox record when he retired 33 straight batters. Other reasons include the trade deadline acquisition of pitcher Jake Peavy when the Red Sox were in second place in the AL East, the depth of the bench with players such as Mike Carp and rookies Jackie Bradley Jr. and Xander Bogaerts, and the re-emergence of players such as Will Middlebrooks and Daniel Nava. On September 28, 2013, the team secured home field advantage throughout the American League playoffs when their closest competition, the Oakland Athletics, lost. The next day, the team finished the season going 97–65, the best record in the American League and tied with the St. Louis Cardinals for the best record in baseball. They proceeded to defeat the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2013 World Series, four games to two. The Red Sox became the first team since the 1991 Minnesota Twins to win the World Series a year after finishing in last place, and the second overall. The 2012 Red Sox's .426 winning percentage was the lowest for a team in a season prior to a World Series championship.
Throughout the season, the Red Sox players and organization formed a close association with the city of Boston and its people in relation to the Boston Marathon bombing that occurred on April 15, 2013. On April 20, the day after the alleged bombers were captured, David Ortiz gave a pre-game speech following a ceremony honoring the victims and the local law enforcement, in which he stated, "This is our fucking city! And nobody is going to dictate our freedom! Stay strong!" For the entirety of the season, the team wore an additional arm patch that exhibited the Red Sox "B" logo and the word "Strong" within a blue circle. The team also hung up in the dugout a custom jersey that read "Boston Strong" with the number 617, representing the city of Boston's area code. On many occasions during the season, victims of the attack and law enforcement involved were given the honor of throwing the ceremonial first pitch. Following their victory in the 2013 World Series, the first one clinched at home in Fenway Park since 1918, Red Sox players Jonny Gomes and Jarrod Saltalamacchia performed a ceremony during the team's traditional duck boat victory parade, in which they placed the World Series trophy and the custom 617 jersey on the Boston Marathon finish line on Boylston Street, followed by a moment of silence and the singing of "God Bless America". This ceremony helped the city "reclaim" its spirit that was lost after the bombing. Overall, the Red Sox team and organization played a role in the healing process after the tragedy, owing to the team's unifying effect on the city.
==== 2014–2017 ====
Following the 2013 championship, the team finished last in the AL East during 2014 with a record of 71–91, and again in 2015 with a record of 78–84. On September 12, 2015, David Ortiz hit his 500th career home run off Matt Moore in Tropicana Field becoming the 27th player in MLB history to achieve that prestigious milestone; in November 2015, Ortiz announced that the 2016 season was to be his last.
The Red Sox had a record of 93–69 and won their division in 2016, with six American League All-Stars, the AL Cy Young Award winner in Rick Porcello, and the runner-up for the AL Most Valuable Player Award, Mookie Betts. Rookie Andrew Benintendi established himself in the Red Sox outfield, and Steven Wright emerged as one of the year's biggest surprises. The Red Sox grabbed the lead in the AL East early and held on to it throughout the year, which included many teams honoring Ortiz throughout the season. Despite the success, the team lost five of their last six games of the regular season and were swept in the ALDS by the eventual American League Champion Cleveland Indians. The Red Sox once again finished with a record of 93–69 in 2017 and repeated as division champions. The team went 5–5 in their last ten regular-season games and were eliminated by the Houston Astros in the ALDS in four games. The Red Sox subsequently fired their manager, John Farrell, and hired Alex Cora, signing him to a three-year deal.
==== "Damage done": 2018 World Series Championship ====
The Red Sox finished with a 108–54 (.667) record, winning the American League East division title for the third consecutive season, eight games ahead of the second-place New York Yankees, and were the first team to clinch a berth in the 2018 postseason. The Red Sox surpassed the 100-win mark for the first time since 1946, broke the franchise record of 105 wins that had been set in 1912, and won the most games of any MLB team since the 2001 Seattle Mariners won 116. The 2018 Red Sox were led by All-Stars Mookie Betts, J. D. Martinez, Chris Sale, and Craig Kimbrel. Betts led baseball in batting average and slugging percentage, while Martinez led in runs batted in. Sale tossed only 158 innings due to a shoulder injury late in the year, but was otherwise superb, posting a 2.11 earned run average to go along with 237 strikeouts. Kimbrel saved 42 games and struck out 96 batters.
The Red Sox entered the postseason as the top seed in the American League, and defeated the New York Yankees (100–62) in four games in the Division Series. Next, they defeated the defending champion Houston Astros (103–59) in five games in the League Championship Series. Boston then defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers (92–71) in five games in the World Series, for the team's fourth championship in 15 years and ninth in franchise history. The team's motto during the season, "do damage", became "damage done" upon their victory.
Based on these exploits, the team is considered the best MLB team of the 2010s, one of the best Red Sox teams ever, and one of the best baseball teams since the 1998 New York Yankees.
==== 2019–present: Decline and mixed results ====
Despite retaining most players from the 2018 championship team, the 2019 Red Sox won 24 fewer games, finishing third in the division and missing the playoffs for the first time since 2015. President of Baseball Operations Dave Dombrowski was dismissed following a September loss to the Yankees. On October 28, the Red Sox hired Chaim Bloom as his replacement on a five-year contract, with the title of Chief Baseball Officer.
On January 7, 2020, it was reported in The Athletic that the Red Sox had used their video replay room to steal signs during their 2018 season. On January 15, the Red Sox and manager Alex Cora agreed to mutually part ways after he was named in the MLB's report about the Houston Astros sign stealing scandal, which occurred during his tenure as bench coach with the 2017 Astros. Ron Roenicke was subsequently named Boston's interim manager. On February 10, a trade of Mookie Betts and David Price to the Los Angeles Dodgers was made official, in a move seen as a salary dump by analysts, although denied by Red Sox executives. In March, the start of the MLB season was indefinitely postponed, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In April, the MLB's investigation into 2018 sign-stealing resulted in a finding of improper actions by the team's replay operator, who as a result was suspended for the 2020 season, and the team forfeited their second-round selection in the 2020 MLB draft. The "interim" tag was subsequently removed from Roenicke's title. The team struggled throughout their abbreviated 60-game regular season, contested July 24 through September 27, finishing in last place in the AL East division, with a record of 24–36. Prior to the final regular season game, management announced that Roenicke would not return as manager for the 2021 season.
Alex Cora returned as manager for the 2021 season, with the team finishing at 92–70 and qualifying for the postseason as the fourth seed in the AL. The Red Sox defeated the Yankees in the AL Wild Card Game, and defeated the Rays in the Division Series, but were eliminated by the Astros in the League Championship Series. The 2022 season was much less successful, with the team finishing in last place within their division with a 78–84 record, the first losing record for the team in a 162-game season since 2015. In 2023, the Red Sox once again finished in last place in their division with a 78–84 record.
Bloom was fired on September 14, 2023. His replacement, Craig Breslow, an executive with the Chicago Cubs and former pitcher for the Red Sox, was hired on October 25, 2023.
Expectations were not high going into Breslow's first year at the helm. Many analysts and fans throughout the game believed that the Red Sox hadn't done enough throughout the 2024 offseason to improve their roster, especially after chairman Tom Werner claimed the team would go "full throttle". The frustration even reached the players, with star player Rafael Devers publicly voicing out his frustration with the team for not doing enough. This led to much speculation around baseball believing that John Henry's interest in the team had waned, especially due to his ventures into other sports. However, despite a mediocre 81–81 2024 season where the Red Sox once again missed the playoffs, there was some upside, with major prospects Kristian Campbell, Marcelo Mayer, and Roman Anthony making national headlines, and center fielder Jarren Duran winning the All-Star Game MVP.
Going into the 2024–25 offseason, Red Sox fans were hoping to push forward and make more improvements than the last offseason. Although the offseason started off slow, the Red Sox made two major moves to improve their team, trading for White Sox ace Garrett Crochet, who would start for them on Opening Day, and signing third baseman Alex Bregman to a three-year, $120-million dollar deal. The Red Sox flipped the script, and entered the 2025 season as contenders for the American League title.
== Roster ==
== Ballpark ==
The Red Sox have played their home games at Fenway Park since 1912, making the ballpark the oldest active ballpark in Major League Baseball, as well as the oldest active venue across the four major North American sports leagues (MLB, NBA, NFL, and NHL). Previously, the team played at the Huntington Avenue Grounds from its inception in 1901 through 1911.
=== Regular season home attendance ===
Between May 15, 2003, and April 10, 2013, the Red Sox sold out every home game at Fenway park. The 820-game streak is a record for all major American sports, narrowly passing the Portland Trail Blazers record of 814 between 1977 and 1995. The previous major league baseball record had been held by the Cleveland Indians, who sold out 455 games between June 12, 1995, and April 2, 2001.
† Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 season was contested behind closed doors, and some 2021 games were contested with limited attendance per local ordinances.
Source:
== Uniforms ==
== Spring training ==
The franchise's first spring training was held in Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1901, when the team was known as the Boston Americans. Since 1993, the city of Fort Myers, Florida, has hosted Boston's spring training, first at City of Palms Park, and since 2012 at JetBlue Park at Fenway South.
=== JetBlue Park ===
In October 2008, the Lee County, Florida, Board of Commissioners approved an agreement with the Red Sox to build a new spring training facility for the team. In November 2008, the Red Sox signed an agreement with Lee County intended to keep their spring training home in the Fort Myers area for 30 more years. In April 2009, the Red Sox announced that the new stadium would be located on a 126-acre (51 ha) lot north of Southwest Florida International Airport. In March 2011, the team and JetBlue Airways officials announced that the new field would be named JetBlue Park at Fenway South.
JetBlue Park opened in March 2012. Many characteristics of the stadium have been taken from Fenway Park, including a 37-foot (11 m) Green Monster wall in left field. Included in the wall is a restored version of the manual scoreboard that was housed at Fenway for almost 30 years, beginning in the 1970s. The field dimensions are identical to those at Fenway.
=== Truck Day ===
The unofficial beginning of the spring training season for the Red Sox is Truck Day, the day a tractor-trailer filled with equipment leaves Fenway Park bound for the team's spring training facility in Florida. 2021's Truck Day was February 8.
== Rivalries ==
=== New York Yankees ===
The Red Sox and New York Yankees have been rivals for more than 100 years. The rivalry is often considered one of the oldest, fiercest and most famous rivalries in professional sports.
The rivalry is often a heated subject of conversation in the Northeastern United States. Since the 1995 inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, every postseason except for 2014 and 2023 has featured one or both of the American League East rivals. The two teams have squared off in the American League Championship Series (ALCS) three times, with the Yankees winning in 1999 and 2003 and the Sox winning in 2004. The teams have faced off in one American League Division Series (ALDS); 2018, won by the Red Sox in four games. The teams have played one American League Wild Card Game on October 5, 2021, which the Red Sox won as well.
The teams have twice met in the last regular-season series to decide the league title, in 1904 (which the Red Sox won) and 1949 (which the Yankees won). The teams also finished tied for first in 1978, when the Yankees won a high-profile one-game playoff for the division title. The 1978 division race is memorable for the Red Sox having held a 14-game lead over the Yankees more than halfway through the season. In 2003, The Red Sox lost in Game 7 of the ALCS on Aaron Boone's walk-off home run. Similarly, the 2004 ALCS is notable for the Yankees leading 3 games to 0 and ultimately losing the best-of-seven series. The Red Sox comeback was the first time in major league history that a team came back from an 0–3 deficit to win a series.
The rivalry is often termed "the best" and "greatest rivalry in all of sports." Games between the two teams often generate a great deal of interest and get extensive media coverage, including being broadcast on national television.
=== Tampa Bay Rays ===
The rivalry between Boston and the Tampa Bay Rays developed in the late 2000s, after the two clubs had their first postseason meeting in the 2008 ALCS. Since then, both teams have won the American League East division a combined seven times. While the rivalry is more recent than Sox' rivalry with the Yankees, it has been called one of the most competitive in modern baseball.
The teams have met three times in the MLB postseason, with the Rays winning the 2008 ALCS and the Red Sox winning the 2013 ALDS and 2021 ALDS.
== Media ==
=== Radio and television ===
The flagship radio station of the Red Sox is WEEI-FM 93.7. Joe Castiglione has broadcast Red Sox games since 1983 (initially assisting Ken Coleman) and has been the lead play-by-play announcer since 1993. Tim Neverett worked with him from 2016 through 2018, but in 2019, WEEI opted for a more conversational format with a variety of commentators (see the above link) alongside Castiglione. Former Red Sox player Lou Merloni has provided color commentary since 2013. Castiglione's predecessors include Curt Gowdy and Ned Martin. He has also worked with play-by-play veterans Bob Starr and Jerry Trupiano. Many stations throughout New England and beyond carry the broadcasts. On August 26, 2024, Rylee Pay and Emma Tiedemann became the first pair of women to call a Red Sox game.
All Red Sox telecasts not shown nationally are available on New England Sports Network (NESN), with Dave O'Brien calling play-by-play, and Kevin Youkilis, Kevin Millar and Will Middlebrooks splitting color commentary duties. Jerry Remy, a former Red Sox second baseman, served as color analyst from 1988 up until his death in 2021. Remy had lung cancer, and would at times step away from broadcasting duties to focus on his health. Former Red Sox pitcher Dennis Eckersley worked as a color commentator for NESN until his retirement following the 2022 season. Several local television stations, including the original WHDH-TV, WNAC-TV (now the current WHDH), WBZ-TV, WSBK-TV, WLVI, WABU, and WFXT, broadcast Red Sox games prior to 2006, when NESN became the exclusive home of the team.
=== Music ===
The integration of music into the culture of the Red Sox dates back to the Americans era, which saw the first use of the popular 1902 showtune Tessie as a rallying cry by fans. The tune saw a resurgence in popularity when a new version by Boston area band The Dropkick Murphys was featured in the 2005 film Fever Pitch, which tells the story of an obsessive Red Sox fan. The song is frequently played after home wins and inspired the name of Red Sox mascot Wally the Green Monster's "sister" Tessie. Their song "I'm Shipping Up to Boston" was used to signify the entrance of Boston's closing pitcher.
"Dirty Water" by The Standells is played immediately after the final play of each Red Sox home win, followed by the Dropkick Murphys' "Tessie"
Another song associated with the team and its fan base is Neil Diamond's 1969 single "Sweet Caroline". The song was first introduced to Fenway Park in 1997. By 2002, its play had been established as a nightly occurrence. It continues to be played at every home game during the 8th inning, sung along to by those in attendance. In 2007, Diamond revealed that the song was written for Caroline Kennedy, American diplomat and daughter of Boston icon President John F. Kennedy. Caroline Kennedy's great-grandfather, John F. Fitzgerald, threw Fenway Park's first-ever ceremonial opening pitch on April 20, 1912. When Diamond was named a Kennedy Center Honors recipient in 2011, Red Sox executive assistant Claire Durant arranged for 80 Red Sox fans to travel to Washington for the ceremony, which culminated in them singing the song behind Smokey Robinson onstage.
== Honors and achievements ==
=== Awards ===
For major MLB awards, voted by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA), Red Sox players have won the MVP Award 12 times, most recently by Mookie Betts in 2018; the Cy Young Award seven times, most recently by Rick Porcello in 2016; Rookie of the Year six times, most recently by Dustin Pedroia in 2007; and Manager of the Year twice, most recently by Jimy Williams in 1999.
=== Retired numbers ===
Previously, the Red Sox published three official requirements for a player to have his number retired on their website and in their annual media guides. The requirements were as follows:
Election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame
At least 10 years played with the Red Sox
Finished his career with the club.
These requirements were reconsidered after the election of Carlton Fisk to the Hall of Fame in 2000; who met the first two requirements but played the second half of his career with the Chicago White Sox. As a means of meeting the criteria, then-GM Dan Duquette hired Fisk for one day as a special assistant, which allowed Fisk to technically finish his career with the Red Sox.
In 2008, the Red Sox made an "exception" by retiring number 6 for Johnny Pesky. Pesky neither spent ten years as a player nor was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame; however, Red Sox ownership cited "... his versatility of his contributions—on the field, off the field, [and] in the dugout ...", including as a manager, scout, and special instructor and decided that the honor had been well-earned. Pesky spent 57 years with the Red Sox organization; as a minor league player (1940–1941), major league player (1942, 1946–1952), minor league manager (1961–1962, 1990), major league manager (1963–1964, 1980), broadcaster (1969–1974), major league coach (1975–1984), and as a special instructor and assistant general manager (1985–2012).
In 2015, the Red Sox chose to forgo the official criteria and retire Pedro Martínez' number 45. Martínez only spent seven of his 18 seasons in Boston. In justifying the number's retirement, Red Sox principal owner John Henry stated, "To be elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame upon his first year of eligibility speaks volumes regarding Pedro's outstanding career, and is a testament to the respect and admiration so many in baseball have for him." After announcing Martínez's number retirement, the official criteria no longer appeared on the team website nor future media guides.
In 2017, less than eight months after he played the final game of his illustrious career, David Ortiz had his number 34 retired by the Red Sox. Ortiz was elected to the Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 2022. To date, Ortiz is the only Red Sox player to have been on the active playoff roster of three World Series championship teams (2004, 2007, 2013) since the issuance of jersey numbers starting in 1931.
The number 42 was officially retired by Major League Baseball in 1997, but Mo Vaughn was one of a handful of players to continue wearing number 42 due to a grandfather clause. He last wore it for the team in 1998. In commemoration of Jackie Robinson Day, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 for games played on April 15, which Coco Crisp (CF), David Ortiz (DH), and DeMarlo Hale (Coach) did in 2007 and again in 2008. Starting in 2009, MLB had all uniformed players for all teams wear number 42 for Jackie Robinson Day.
While not officially retired, the Red Sox have not issued several numbers since the departure of prominent figures who wore them, specifically:
15 – Dustin Pedroia 2B (MLB 2006–2019; all with Boston)
21 – Roger Clemens RHP (MLB 1984–2007; Boston 1984–1996)
33 – Jason Varitek C (MLB 1997–2011; all with Boston). Varitek reclaimed his #33 when he became a coach in 2021.
49 – Tim Wakefield RHP (MLB 1992–1993, 1995–2011; Boston 1995–2011)
There has also been debate in Boston media circles and among fans about the potential retiring of Tony Conigliaro's number 25. Nonetheless, since Conigliaro's last full season in Boston, 1970, the number has never been taken out of circulation and issued to multiple players—notably Troy O'Leary from 1995 to 2001—along with coach Dwight Evans in 2002 and manager Bobby Valentine in 2012.
Until the late 1990s, the numbers originally hung on the right-field facade in the order in which they were retired: 9–4–1–8. It was pointed out that the numbers, when read as a date (9/4/18), marked the eve of the first game of the 1918 World Series, the last championship series that the Red Sox won before 2004. After the facade was repainted, the numbers were rearranged in numerical order. In 2012, the numbers were rearranged again in chronological order of retirement (9, 4, 1, 8, 27, 6, 14) followed by Robinson's 42. As additional numbers were retired, Robinson's 42 was moved to the right so it remains the right-most number hanging.
=== Baseball Hall of Famers ===
==== Ford C. Frick Award recipients ====
==== BBWAA Career Excellence Award recipients ====
Several baseball writers, professionally based in Boston while writing about the Red Sox, have been recipients of the BBWAA Career Excellence Award (formerly the J. G. Taylor Spink Award), given for "meritorious contributions to baseball writing". Each of these writers spent at least part of their career with The Boston Globe.
=== Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame ===
Since 1995, the team has maintained its own hall of fame, recognizing distinguished careers of former uniformed and non-uniformed team personnel. Red Sox personnel inducted to the National Baseball Hall of Fame are automatically inducted to the team's hall of fame. Other honorees are chosen via a 15-member selection committee.
=== Notable records and achievements ===
David Ortiz set the franchise record for home runs in a season with 54 in 2006, surpassing Jimmie Foxx's record of 50 home runs set in 1938.
On April 22, 2007, Manny Ramírez, J. D. Drew, Mike Lowell, and Jason Varitek hit four consecutive home runs in the 3rd inning off 10 pitches from Chase Wright of the New York Yankees. This was the fifth time in Major League history and the first time in Red Sox history this feat has occurred. Notable is that J. D. Drew had previously contributed to a four consecutive home run sequence on September 18, 2006 (coincidentally also the second batter in the sequence) while with the Los Angeles Dodgers. Additionally, then-Red Sox manager Terry Francona's father, Tito Francona, also was a part of such a four consecutive home run sequence for the Cleveland Indians in 1963.
On September 22, 2007, with a victory over the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, the Red Sox clinched a spot in the postseason for the fourth time in five years, the first time in club history this has happened. Also, with this postseason berth, manager Terry Francona became the first manager in team history to lead the club to three playoff appearances.
In 2016, David Ortiz set all-time records for most home runs and runs batted in in a player's final MLB season. Ortiz finished the season with 38 homers, which surpassed Dave Kingman's 35 in 1986, and 127 runs batted in, which surpassed Shoeless Joe Jackson's 123 in 1920.
The Red Sox set a team record for wins in a regular season with 108 in 2018, surpassing the 106-year-old record of 105 wins set in 1912. Including playoffs, the Red Sox won a total of 119 games, the third most total wins in an MLB season.
With their victory in the 2018 World Series, the Red Sox became the first team to win four World Series championships in the twenty-first century. They also achieved this with their third (2013) and second (2007) championships in the century respectively, after first winning in 2004.
==== No-hitters ====
There have been 18 no-hitters thrown in Red Sox history, most recently by Jon Lester on May 19, 2008, against the Kansas City Royals. The franchise's first no-hitter is also the only perfect game in franchise history so far, thrown by Cy Young on May 5, 1904, against the Philadelphia Athletics.
The first Red Sox rookie to throw a no-hitter was Clay Buchholz, doing so against the Baltimore Orioles on September 1, 2007, in his second Major League start.
==== Hitting for the cycle ====
Red Sox batters have hit for the cycle 23 times in franchise history, tied for second most (with the San Francisco Giants) for all franchises behind the Pittsburgh Pirates, who have hit 24. On October 8, 2018, Brock Holt became the first player in MLB history to hit for the cycle in the postseason, doing so in a 16–1 win over the New York Yankees in Game 3 of the 2018 American League Division Series.
The following is a list of Boston Red Sox players who have hit for the cycle:
Buck Freeman — June 21, 1903
Patsy Dougherty — July 29, 1903
Tris Speaker — June 9, 1912
Roy Carlyle — July 21, 1925
Moose Solters — August 19, 1934
Joe Cronin — August 2, 1940 (Cronin's second career cycle, he first hit one for the Washington Senators in 1929)
Leon Culberson — July 3, 1943 (natural cycle)
Bobby Doerr — May 17, 1944
Bob Johnson — July 6, 1944
Ted Williams — July 21, 1946
Bobby Doerr (2) — May 13, 1947
Lou Clinton — July 13, 1962
Carl Yastrzemski — May 14, 1965
Bob Watson — September 15, 1979 (natural cycle; Watson's second career cycle, he first hit one for the Houston Astros in 1977)
Fred Lynn — May 13, 1980
Dwight Evans — June 28, 1984
Rich Gedman — September 18, 1985
Mike Greenwell — September 14, 1988
Scott Cooper — April 12, 1994
John Valentin — June 6, 1996
Brock Holt — June 16, 2015
Mookie Betts — August 9, 2018
Brock Holt (2) — October 8, 2018 (Game 3 of the American League Division Series, first cycle in MLB Postseason history)
== Minor league affiliations ==
Since the 2021 season, Boston's farm system has consisted of six minor league affiliates, fielding seven minor league teams (the Red Sox have two teams in the Dominican Summer League).
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
Nowlin, Bill; Prime, Jim (2005). Feud: The Red Sox, The Yankees, and the Struggle of Good versus Evil. Rounder Books. ISBN 1-57940-111-2.
Stout, Glenn; Johnson, Richard A. (2000). Red Sox Century. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-88417-9.
Frommer, Harvey; Frommer, Frederic J. (2004). Red Sox vs. Yankees: The Great Rivalry. Sports Publishing, LLC. ISBN 1-58261-767-8.
Shaughnessy, Dan (1990). The Curse of the Bambino. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-24887-0.
Shaughnessy, Dan (2005). Reversing the Curse. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-51748-0.
== External links ==
Boston Red Sox official website
Season-by-Season Records
Boston Red Sox Video at ESPN Video Archive
2004 World Series win in the Newseum archive of front page images from 2004-10-28. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolfo_Alsina#:~:text=Biography,the%20second%20time%2C%20in%201835. | Adolfo Alsina | Adolfo Alsina Maza (January 4, 1829 – December 29, 1877) was an Argentine lawyer and Unitarian politician, who was one of the founders of the Autonomist Party and the National Autonomist Party.
== Biography ==
Alsina was born in Buenos Aires, the son of Unitarian politician Valentín Alsina and Antonia Maza (daughter of Manuel Vicente Maza). He moved to Montevideo, Uruguay when Juan Manuel de Rosas became Governor of Buenos Aires Province for the second time, in 1835.
In the neighbouring country Alsina started his law studies.
After the Battle of Caseros in 1852, his family returned to Argentina, and his father was named a Minister by president Vicente López y Planes.
Adolfo finished law school and joined the Unitarian army in the civil war. In 1860, after the Battle of Pavón and the National Union Pact, he took part in the commission responsible for the constitution reform of 1860. He was elected a deputy in 1862.
When the subject of federalisation, supported by Bartolomé Mitre, was considered in the Chamber of Deputies, Alsina provoked a split in the Partido Unitario and founded the Partido Autonomista.
In 1866 he was elected governor of the Buenos Aires Province. Alsina considered running for president, but withdrew when he discovered he did not have the support of most of the province. Domingo Sarmiento was elected president, and named Alsina his vice-president.
When the presidency of Sarmiento finished in 1874, Alsina joined Nicolás Avellaneda to create the Partido Autonomista Nacional, through which Avellaneda reached the presidency and named Alsina Minister of War and Navy.
At the end of 1875, the Native Americans of Patagonia and the Pampas, especially the Mapuche, launched organised resistance against the territorial expansion of the southern border of the emerging nation. The first stage of the "Conquest of the Desert" began with the creation of a two meter deep, three meter wide trench called zanja de Alsina to prevent the free movement of horses and stolen cattle. Alsina also ordered the creation of forts intercommunicated by telegraph.
Trying to understand the native peoples, he decided to study the situation personally; but he fell ill while in the pampas town of Carhué, and died of renal failure, aged 48.
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sora,_Boyac%C3%A1#:~:text=Sora%20was%20under%20the%20rule,1556%20by%20Tom%C3%A1s%20Gualba%20Castellanos. | Sora, Boyacá | Sora is a town and municipality in the Central Boyacá Province, part of the Colombian Department of Boyacá. Sora borders Motavita and Chíquiza in the north, Cucaita and Samacá in the south, Motavita and department capital Tunja in the east and Sáchica and Chíquiza in the west.
== Etymology ==
The name Sora comes from Chibcha and means "Devil worshipper".
== History ==
In the times before the Spanish conquest, the area of Sora was inhabited by the Muisca, organised in their loose Muisca Confederation. Sora was under the rule of the zaque from nearby Hunza.
Modern Sora was founded on August 12, 1556 by Tomás Gualba Castellanos.
== Born in Sora ==
Mauricio Neiza, professional cyclist
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Murray_(lexicographer) | James Murray (lexicographer) | Sir James Augustus Henry Murray, FBA (; 7 February 1837 – 26 July 1915) was a British lexicographer and philologist. He was the primary editor of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) from 1879 until his death.
== Life and learning ==
James Murray was born in the village of Denholm near Hawick in the Scottish Borders, the eldest son of a draper, Thomas Murray. His brothers included Charles Oliver Murray and A. D. Murray, later editor of the Newcastle Daily Journal. He was christened plain 'James Murray', but in 1855 he assumed the extra names 'Augustus Henry' in order to distinguish himself from other James Murrays in the Hawick area. A precocious child with a voracious appetite for learning, he left school at fourteen because his parents were not able to afford to pay the fees to continue his education. At seventeen he became a teacher at Hawick Grammar School (now Hawick High School) and three years later he was headmaster of the Subscription Academy there. In 1856, he was one of the founders of the Hawick Archaeological Society.
In 1861, Murray met a music teacher, Maggie Scott, whom he married the following year. Two years later, they had a daughter Anna, who soon died of tuberculosis, then known as consumption. Maggie, too, fell ill with the same disease, and on the advice of doctors, the couple moved to London to escape the Scottish winters. Once there, Murray took an administrative job with the Chartered Bank of India while continuing in his spare time to pursue his many and varied academic interests. Maggie died within a year of arrival in London. A year later Murray was engaged to Ada Agnes Ruthven and the following year he married her. Their best man was his friend Alexander Graham Bell, who had earlier received instruction from Murray in elementary electricity, and often referred to him as "the grandfather of the telephone".
By this time Murray was primarily interested in languages and etymology, the origin of words. Some idea of the depth and range of his linguistic erudition may be gained from a letter of application he wrote to Thomas Watts, Keeper of Printed Books at the British Museum, in which he claimed an 'intimate acquaintance' with Italian, French, Catalan, Spanish, and Latin, and 'to a lesser degree Portuguese, Vaudois, Provençal & various dialects'. In addition, he was 'tolerably familiar' with Dutch, German, and Danish. His studies of Anglo-Saxon and Mœso-Gothic had been 'much closer', he knew 'a little of the Celtic' and was at the time 'engaged with the Slavonic, having obtained a useful knowledge of the Russian'. He had 'sufficient knowledge of Hebrew and Syriac to read and cite the Old Testament and Peshito' and to a lesser degree he knew Aramaic, Arabic, Coptic, and Phoenician. However, he did not get the job.
By 1869, Murray was on the council of the Philological Society, and by 1873 had given up his job at the bank and returned to teaching at Mill Hill School. He then published The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland, which served to enhance his reputation in philological circles. In 1881, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.
Murray had eleven children with Ada (all having 'Ruthven' in their name, by arrangement with his father-in-law, George Ruthven); the eldest, Harold James Ruthven Murray became a prominent chess historian, Sir Oswyn Murray was permanent secretary at the Admiralty (United Kingdom) from 1917 to 1936, Robert Murray was a Jesuit priest and specialist in Syriac, and Wilfrid George Ruthven Murray wrote an account of his father. All the eleven children survived to maturity (which was unusual at that time) and helped him in the compilation of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED).
He died of pleurisy on 26 July 1915 and requested to be buried in Oxford beside the grave of his best friend, James Legge.
== Murray and the OED ==
On 26 April 1878, Murray was invited to Oxford to meet the Delegates of the Oxford University Press, with a view to his taking on the job of editor of a new dictionary of the English language, to replace Johnson's and to capture all the words then extant in the English speaking world in all their various shades of meaning.
On 1 March 1879, a formal agreement was put in place to the effect that Murray was to edit a new English Dictionary, which would eventually become the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). It was expected to take ten years to complete and be some 7,000 pages long, in four volumes. In fact, when the final results were published in 1928, it ran to twelve volumes, with 414,825 words defined and 1,827,306 citations employed to illustrate their meanings.
In preparation for the work ahead, Murray built a corrugated-iron shed in the grounds of Mill Hill School, called the Scriptorium, to house his small team of assistants as well as the flood of slips (bearing quotations illustrating the use of words to be defined in the dictionary) which started to flow in as a result of his appeal. As work continued on the early part of the dictionary, Murray gave up his job as a teacher and became a full-time lexicographer.
In the summer of 1884, Murray and his family moved to a large house on the Banbury Road in north Oxford. Murray had a second Scriptorium built in its back garden, a larger building than the first, with more storage space for the ever-increasing number of slips being sent to Murray and his team. Anything addressed to "Mr Murray, Oxford" would always find its way to him, and such was the volume of post sent by Murray and his team that the Post Office erected a special post box outside Murray's house. Murray became president of the Oxford Philatelic Society, making use of the substantial collection of postage stamps he received from his many readers around the world.
Murray continued his work on the dictionary, age and failing health doing nothing to diminish his enthusiasm for the work to which he had devoted much of his life. Despite his devotion to the dictionary, which was recognized by his knighthood in 1908, Murray remained a relative outsider in Oxford, never fully taking part in university academic and Senior Common Room life. He was never made a Fellow of an Oxford college, and received an Oxford honorary doctorate only the year before his death.
William Chester Minor was a major contributor to the OED. He became one of the project's most effective volunteers and came to the attention of Murray, who visited him in January 1891. In 1899, Murray paid compliment to Minor's enormous contributions to the dictionary, stating, "we could easily illustrate the last four centuries from his quotations alone".
== In literature and film ==
The book The Surgeon of Crowthorne (published in America as The Professor and the Madman), by Simon Winchester, was published in 1998 and chronicles both Minor's later life and his contributions to the creation of the Oxford English Dictionary.
The movie rights for the book were bought by Mel Gibson's Icon Productions in 1998. Farhad Safinia directed the film adaptation, called The Professor and the Madman, starring Gibson as Murray and Sean Penn as Minor. The film was released in May 2019.
In 2003, Winchester published a broader history, The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary, which includes the origins of the Oxford English Dictionary and its completion nearly seventy years later.
The Dictionary of Lost Words (2020) is a best-selling novel by Australian author Pip Williams, much of which is set in the scriptorium where Murray and his team worked on the OED.
== Honorary degrees ==
He was awarded honorary doctoral degrees by nine universities, including:
LL.D from the University of Glasgow in June 1901.
D.Litt. from the University of Oxford in 1914.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Murray, KM Elisabeth (1977), Caught in the Web of Words: James Murray and the Oxford English Dictionary (biography), Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08919-8 (his granddaughter).
Ogilvie, Sarah (2012), Words of the World: a global history of the Oxford English Dictionary, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781107021839. (later editor on dictionary)
Winchester, Simon (2003), The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary, OUP, ISBN 0-19-860702-4.
Murray is also the "professor" referred to in ———, The Surgeon of Crowthorne (US: The Professor and the Madman), even though he was never actually granted a professorship by Oxford. Dr. William Chester Minor, a volunteer who worked on the dictionary, was the "madman".
== External links ==
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography website entry for James Murray
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Murray, Sir James Augustus Henry" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 40.
Crime Library biography with photographs
Broadmoor's Word-Finder (on Minor and Murray)
Biography at Bikwil.com
Biography at Denholm Village's website Archived 11 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Blue plaque to Murray on his Banbury Road home
Murray Scriptorium Letters and papers of James Murray
Works by James Murray at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about James Murray at the Internet Archive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda_Billing | Amanda Billing | Amanda Billing (born 12 April 1976 in New Zealand) is a New Zealand actress best known for her role as Doctor Sarah Potts on New Zealand soap opera Shortland Street.
== Biography ==
Billing grew up in Masterton, and spent her university years in Christchurch. After graduating with a Bachelor of Arts with 1st Class Honours in Geography from the University of Canterbury, she trained at the Christchurch College of Education and became a high school teacher.
Billing was involved in drama throughout her teaching years and has acted in a few amateur stage productions including Cloud Nine and The Country Wife. She has worked at several schools throughout Auckland teaching Geography, English and Social Studies, most recently at Rangitoto College.
== Credits ==
=== Television ===
Shortland Street - (Sarah Potts) - Core Cast 2004–2014, Guest 2023 South Pacific Pictures
Find Me a Māori Bride - (Crystal Leslie) - Main Cast (2015–present)
Newsworthy - (Herself) - Guest Cast (2015)
The Cul de Sac - (Rose's mother) (2015)
The Brokenwood Mysteries - (Brenda White) (2016)
Power Rangers Ninja Steel - (Principal Hastings) (2017–2018)
Kid Sister - (Keren) (2022-2023)
Under the Vines - (Yvonne) (2024-)
=== Theatre ===
Dust Pilgrim - Multiple Characters - 2018 - Red Leap Theatre (dir. Julie Nolan)
Boys Will Be Boys - 'Astrid' - 2016 - Silo Theatre (dir. Sophie Roberts)
The Book of Everything - 'Mother' - 2016 - Silo Theatre (dir. Sophie Roberts)
Cabaret - 'Sally Bowles' - 2010 - Auckland Theatre Company (dir. Michael Hurst)
The Threepenny Opera - 'Polly Peachum' - 2008 - Silo Theatre and The Large Group (dir. Michael Hurst)
Cloud Nine - 'Edward' (Act I), 'Victoria' (Act II) - 2004 - Silo Theatre (dir. Edwin Wright)
As You Like It - 'Rosalind' - 2003/2004 - Legacy Theatre Co. (dir. Tim Flavell)
Home Ground - 'Margaret' - 2003 - Auckland Performing Arts Centre (dir. Carla Martel)
The Country Wife - 'The Country Wife' - 2003 - Silo Theatre (dir. Heath Jones)
=== Voice Work ===
George FM - various - 2002–2003
Power Rangers Cosmic Fury - Bajillia Naire - 2023
=== Other ===
Auckland based singer (lyric Soprano), dancer
=== Video game ===
Path of Exile - 'Oshabi' - 2020
== References ==
== External links ==
Amanda Billing at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azotobacter_salinestris | Azotobacter salinestris | Azotobacter salinestris is a Gram-negative, nitrogen-fixing bacterium; its specific name, salinestris, comes from the Latin words salinus meaning saline and estris which means "living in". It can be found living in soil or marine habitats as single cells or in chains of six to eight cells. This organism is motile at younger stages, but loses its flagella at older stages. This species is known for its potential use in bioremediation.
== Isolation ==
William J. Page and Shailaja Shivprasad isolated A. salinestris from saline soils. The colonies used for their study were first taken from air-dried surface soil from Alberta, Canada. The soil was inoculated into a Burk nitrogen-free mineral-salt medium, which contained 1% glucose and 0.25 micrograms of copper(I) chloride per milliliter of solution. The medium was incubated at 30 °C and stored at 4 °C. Colony formation was noted after 2–3 days of incubation. The same soil samples were also used to inoculate slant cultures, which were stored at room temperature. A. salinestris was found to lose viability in the slant cultures when stored at 4 °C. Through these cultures and characterization tests, A. salinestris was found to share many of the general characteristics specific to the species Azotobacter. Originally, A. salinestris colonies were classified as Azotobacter chroococcum, but were later identified as a separate species based on their salt-dependent growth.
== Characteristics ==
=== Morphology ===
Azotobacter salinestris is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped organism. This organism's cells are about 2 x 4 μm in size when they are 18 hours old and can grow up to 5 μm in diameter. Older cells can also form cysts. A. salinestris colonies appear to be brown-black in color because they produce water-soluble catechol melanin.
=== Physiology ===
The bacteria that performed the most efficient atmospheric nitrogen fixation were from samples grown in 0.05% to 0.10% saline concentration soils. Nitrogen fixation rates were not affected by the presence of oxygen. A. salinestris that grows in soils is a facultative anaerobe. Colonies growing in aquatic habitats were determined to be microaerophilic and very sensitive to the presence of hydrogen peroxide since they do not produce a catalase enzyme.
=== Metabolism ===
A. salinestris can use melibiose, galactose, mannitol, sucrose, glucose, and fructose as primary carbon sources. They prefer to use sodium ions as their electron acceptor, but also use rubidium. Strains that do not have access to sodium ions produce acid as a product of the metabolism of their growth-promoting carbon substrate.
=== Ecology ===
All known A. salinestris samples were isolated from soils that had a neutral or slightly basic pH. The optimal growth pH of this species is 7.2–7.5. Soils must have at least one millimolar concentration of saline for this organism to grow. Unlike other Azotobacter species, iron was absolutely required for growth. While most Azotobacter species are commonly found in soil, A. salinestris is unique due to being found in soils with high salt content and requiring the presence of iron to grow. These organisms can survive in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. It is dependent on, so can also be found in marine environments.
A. chroococcum is the most common species from Azotobacter to be isolated from soil samples. It is also a close relative to A. salinestris. All growth conditions used to isolate and determine optimum living conditions for A. salinestris were based on the optimal living conditions for A. chroococcum. The defining factor between these two species was the dependence on sodium ions to live. A. salinestris displayed a stronger dependence on sodium to live than A. chroococcum.
== Genetics ==
While Page and Shivprasad are credited with the discovery and characterization of A. salinestris, Eydne and Wachter are credited with the sequencing of the bacterium’s 5S rRNA in 1987.
Although the results were never published, sequencing data placed this bacterial strain in the genus Azotobacter. The bacterium’s DNA has a melting point of 96.68 to 97.08 °C and the GC content was 67.73-67.8%. A separate sequencing of the 16S rRNA sequence, conducted by Moore et al. confirmed that A. salinestris was indeed a separate species of that genus.
== Importance ==
A. salinestris was the first prokaryote to show Na+/succinic acid efflux. It can tolerate up to 5% glyphosate, which is a pesticide used to kill weeds that compete with crops. Because the species is a common nitrogen fixer, it is important to the agricultural industry for the species to be able to survive in the presence of such a common pesticide. It can degrade endosulfan, which is an insecticide that is highly hazardous to human, mammal, and fish health. Endosulfan use was banned in 2012 by the United States, following a precedent established by New Zealand and the European Union. The decision to ban endosulfan use came after a study that showed the health risks to humans and wildlife were much higher than expected. It is similar to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, causes birth defects, and is an estrogen analog. Therefore, the ability of A. salinestris to break down endosulfan is important for bioremediation to the environments where the substance was used.
== See also ==
Prokaryote
== References ==
== External links ==
Type strain of Azotobacter salinestris at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Radebe#:~:text=12%20External%20links-,Early%20life,he%20was%2015%20years%20old. | Lucas Radebe | Lucas Valeriu Ntuba Radebe OIS (born 12 April 1969) is a South African former professional footballer who played as a centre back.
He began playing in the than known Bophuthatswana Soccer league (BOPSOL) playing for Stocks Birds in Lehurutshe closer to Zeerust(North West Provence) before being scouted by Kaizer Chiefs in South Africa, before transferring to Leeds United, where he played 262 matches for the Yorkshire side. During his spells at these clubs, he picked up the nicknames "Rhoo" and "The Chief". He became captain of Leeds United and also of the South African national team, most notably at 2002 FIFA World Cup. Nelson Mandela said of Radebe: "This is my hero." He also captained Kaizer Chiefs during his time at Chiefs.
== Early life ==
Radebe was born to Emily and Johannes Radebe in the Diepkloof section of Soweto, near Johannesburg, as one of 11 children. He attended the local Bopasenatla Secondary School until he was 15 years old. His parents sent him to one of the former homelands in Grade 10, Bophuthatswana, as a way to keep him safe from the violent neighbourhood of Diepkloof Zone Four in Soweto. There he attended Ngotwane High School near Zeerust.
== Club career ==
=== Kaizer Chiefs ===
After playing for amateur side ICL Birds in the now-defunct Bophuthatswana Soccer League, and was spotted by Patrick Ntsoelengoe who recruited him to one of South Africa's top clubs, the Kaizer Chiefs, in 1989. Radebe originally started his career with the Kaizer Chiefs as a goalkeeper, and then switched positions to central midfield and then finally to central defence.
=== Leeds United ===
In 1994, Radebe and another South African player, Philemon "Chippa" Masinga, moved to Leeds United for a transfer fee of £250,000. Radebe was only included in the deal to keep Masinga happy; as it turned out, he became the more valuable investment.
Initially the move was not a success; Radebe did not agree with then Leeds manager Howard Wilkinson, and suffered injuries which prevented him for earning a regular first team place.
Radebe returned to the goalkeeper position in March 1996, replacing John Lukic in the position after he suffered an injury in the second half of a defeat to Middlesbrough. Radebe would again play in the goalkeeper position the following month when goalkeeper Mark Beeney was sent off for handling the ball outside his area in the 17th minute against Manchester United. Radebe was brought on as a substitute in place of Mark Ford, and despite Leeds losing 1–0, Radebe earned 'cult-hero' status at the club due to his performance.
However, when Wilkinson was replaced by George Graham, his career flourished and Radebe was made captain of the team for the 1998–99 season. Whilst he was captain, Leeds enjoyed a period of relative success; in the 1998–99 season, they finished fourth in the FA Premier League, qualifying for the UEFA Cup. During the 1999–2000 season, Leeds finished third in the Premier League and qualified for the following season's Champions League, where they eventually reached the semi-finals. During this time, Radebe turned down the chance to move to Manchester United, AC Milan and Roma. Alex Ferguson commented at the time, "Everyone should be interested in Lucas."
In 2000, he was awarded the FIFA Fair Play Award.
However, in 2000 Radebe sustained serious knee and ankle injuries, which kept him out of the game for almost two years, and subsequently found it difficult to regain his form and his place in the team.
== International career ==
Following the end of apartheid, Radebe made his debut for South African national team in their first international match on 7 July 1992 against Cameroon.
Having recently recovered from a long-term knee injury, he was a member of the South African team that won the 1996 African Cup of Nations.
Radebe was also the captain of the South African national football team during both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2002 FIFA World Cup. South Africa failed to reach the knockout stages on both occasions; however Radebe did get on the score sheet in 2002.
He earned 70 caps for South Africa and scored two goals during his international career, with his last match being against England on 22 May 2003.
After retiring, Radebe was influential in South Africa's successful bid to host the 2010 World Cup. He could also be seen working as a pundit for South African television, and during ITV's coverage of the tournament.
== Style of play ==
Thebe Mabanga, a Mail & Guardian journalist, wrote that South African fans remember Radebe in his Kaizer Chiefs days as "a lanky, flamboyant central midfielder who switched to central defence with ease, snuffing out any opposition threat with exquisite, acrobatic scissor kicks and diving headers, and man-marking the most lethal strikers into silence".
== Post-playing career ==
At the end of the 2005 season, Radebe retired from professional football. Leeds held a testimonial for Radebe at Elland Road on 2 May 2005 attended by a crowd of over 37,886. Radebe also held a retirement match in Durban, South Africa between a South African Invitation XI and Lucas Radebe All Stars at Kings Park Soccer Stadium. The proceeds from both of these matches were combined with other money raised and donated to charity.
On 28 August 2006, Radebe announced that he was going back to Leeds after failing to secure a job with the World Cup hosts to be involved in the set-up of Bafana Bafana. He said he was "tired of waiting for unreliable people" who had allegedly promised him a role in the national team set up as the South African Football Association prepared to host the next World Cup in 2010.
In 2008, a local Leeds brewery asked for suggestions for a new beer; the most popular suggestion was Radebeer, showing the Leeds fans' admiration of Radebe.
On 8 October 2009, The English Football Association announced Radebe as an ambassador to help boost the 2018 World Cup bid.
A biography, Lucas: From the Streets of Soweto to Soccer Superstar by Richard Coomber was published in 2010.
In May 2010 he won the PFA Merit Award for his contribution to football.
During the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Radebe was a pundit for ITV's match coverage and also a columnist for The Daily Telegraph.
Radebe revealed in September 2010 that he would like to manage Leeds United in the future and also manage the South African national side. He said both jobs were the only coaching jobs that he would consider. In July 2012, it was announced that Radebe had accepted a position as team manager with the South African national side.
In October 2013, Radebe announced that he was set for another emotional return to the Elland Road ground at Leeds, to be presented to the crowd on Sunday, 30 October 2013.
On 23 January, it was confirmed that Boxer Josh Warrington would fight IBF world champion Lee Selby (26–1) in his first world title fight on 19 May at Elland Road with Radebe joining Warrington for the ringwalk. On 19 May, Warrington secured a split-decision victory over Selby to claim the title. With Radebe as part of Warrington's ringwalk and band Kaiser Chiefs also played songs at the event.
== Personal life ==
In 1991, he was shot whilst driving with his brother Lazarus to buy drinks for his mother but was not critically wounded. When Leeds United confirmed their interest in 1994, Radebe's decision influenced in part by an incident that had taken place three years previously.
Radebe was shopping for his mother, accompanied by his brothers, one of his sisters and her baby. While walking, they heard a gunshot, but didn't pay it much attention because, says Radebe: "In Soweto you heard shots all the time". He felt a pain in his back and he was bleeding, and his left leg went limp.
Radebe was rushed to hospital but nothing vital had been damaged. The bullet had entered his back and exited halfway down his thigh. The culprit is still unknown, it is suspected that someone was hired to shoot him rather than allow him to switch clubs.
He was voted 54th in the Top 100 Great South Africans in 2004.
His wife Feziwe died of cancer in October 2008. In December 2008, Radebe was treated for a heart complaint after collapsing while at the gym. Radebe married his second wife at the end of 2015.
== Legacy ==
Kaiser Chiefs, a British indie/britpop band, whose members are all Leeds United supporters, chose this name because Radebe is a former player of Kaizer Chiefs.
Radebe has been an ambassador of FIFA for SOS Children's Villages; he also received the FIFA Fair Play Award in December 2000 for his contribution in ridding soccer of racism as well as for his work with children in South Africa.
In April 2003, for recognition of his efforts both on an off the field, Radebe was given the Contribution to the Community Award in the Premier League 10 Seasons Awards.
On an official visit to Leeds, Nelson Mandela said of Radebe: "This is my hero."
== Career statistics ==
Sources: Soccerbase
lucasradebe.com
=== International ===
Scores and results list South Africa's goal tally first.
== Honours ==
Kaizer Chiefs
National Soccer League: 1989, 1991, 1992
Leeds United
Football League Cup runner-up: 1995–96
South Africa
African Cup of Nations: 1996
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Graeme Friedman Madiba's Boys: The Stories of Lucas Radebe and Mark Fish Comerford & Miller, United Kingdom ISBN 978-1-871204-22-3. Foreword by Nelson Mandela
== External links ==
Lucas Radebe at National-Football-Teams.com
A short documentary following Lucas back to his home town in Umlazi Township |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Do_They_Call_Me_Mr._Happy%3F#Track_listing | Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? | Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? is the sixth full-length album by Vancouver punk rock group Nomeansno. Released in 1993, it is their second album recorded by the original two-piece lineup of brothers Rob and John Wright following Mama (1982), and first after the departure of longtime guitarist Andy Kerr. Here the band mostly replaced its hardcore punk sound with slower songs influenced by heavy metal and progressive rock. The album was well-received by critics and praised for its balance of heaviness and subtlety, showcasing the dynamics of the band in its original incarnation.
== Background and recording ==
Brothers Rob and John Wright formed Nomeansno in 1979 as a two-piece, first making home recordings and then rehearsing as a bass-and-drums duo. Their self-released 1982 debut album, Mama, features material written and performed in this incarnation. In 1983, guitarist Andy Kerr joined, and the band proceeded to sign to Alternative Tentacles records and issue four albums and several EPs. Kerr departed the band after touring late in 1991 and emigrated to the Netherlands. The Wright brothers then turned their focus towards The Hanson Brothers, their Ramones-influenced side project, while Rob also began working on solo material under the name Mr. Wrong.
In February 1993, the brothers began working on material for a sixth Nomeansno album. Rob Wright, the band's bass player, also played the guitar parts during the recording sessions. Demo tracks for the album were recorded at Dollhouse Studio. The final versions were recorded at Cecil English's Profile Sound Studios. The record was engineered by Brian Else, produced by Nomeansno, and mixed by Else, Nomeansno, and longtime roadie Craig Bougie. The band experimented in the studio; the final track, "Cats, Sex, and Nazis", features audio samples of Faith No More's "We Care a Lot", songs by The Residents and Deep Purple, and a previously released Nomeansno song, "I Am Wrong".
Three of the ten songs included on the final album were originally written during Kerr's tenure: "I Need You," "Cats, Sex, and Nazis," and "Happy Bridge." The former two of these songs had originally been recorded with Kerr as outtakes from the sessions for their previous album, 0 + 2 = 1, while the latter was initially recorded as a demo. The versions with Kerr were later released on the 0 + 2 = 1 ½ retrospective compilation. Of the seven other tracks on Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy?, four ("The Land of the Living," "The River," "Machine," and "Lullaby") were taken from the Mr. Wrong set and the remainder were new compositions. Four outtakes from these recording sessions were later issued on the compilation album Mr. Right & Mr. Wrong: One Down & Two to Go.
== Release ==
Alternative Tentacles issued the album in 1993 as a ten-track CD and seven-track LP. For the supporting tour, the Wright brothers expanded Nomeansno to include guitarist Tom Holliston and second drummer Ken Kempster, both members of the Hanson Brothers. Holliston would remain with the band until their 2016 breakup. He later called Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? his favorite Nomeansno record.
The album fell out of print when Nomeansno bought the rights to their back catalogue from Alternative Tentacles. Although they have reissued many of their records on their own Wrong Records imprint, Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? has not been reissued.
== Reception ==
Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? was well received by critics and became a fan favorite. Writing for The Guardian, critic John Doran called it "the high watermark of western civilization" in a 2016 retrospective review. AllMusic critic Ned Raggett praised the album for hitting "amazing rock epic heights" having "sheer lift and charge." Raggett furthermore praised the album's simultaneous power and subtlety and awarded the record 4.5 out of 5 stars. Writing for Rock Hard magazine, critic Jan Jaedike called the album a challenging listen due to its heaviness and repetition, but ultimately assessed it as rewarding. Jaedike gave the album 7.5 out of 10 stars.
== Track listing ==
All songs written by Nomeansno, except 5, 7, and 10 written by Nomeansno and Andy Kerr.
"The Land of the Living" – 5:09
"The River" – 6:19
"Machine" – 7:48
"Madness and Death" – 4:46
"Happy Bridge" – 1:23
"Kill Everyone Now" – 8:06
"I Need You" – 7:03
"Slowly Melting" – 6:46
"Lullaby" – 3:39
"Cats, Sex and Nazis" – 7:51
Note: the above track listing is that of the CD issue (1993, Alternative Tentacles). The LP issue (1993, Alternative Tentacles) includes tracks 1 through 6 and 10 only.
== Personnel ==
Nomeansno
John Wright (Mr. Right) – vocals, drums, keyboards, horns (track 10)
Rob Wright (Mr. Wrong) – vocals, bass, guitar
Additional musicians
Mark Critchley – horns (track 10)
Production and artwork
Craig Bougie – mixing
Brian (Who) Else – engineering, mixing
George Horn – mastering
Prod Nattrass – sequencing
John Yates – artwork
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Creutz#Research | Michael Creutz | Michael John Creutz (born November 24, 1944) is an American theoretical physicist at Brookhaven National Laboratory specializing in lattice gauge theory and computational physics.
== Background ==
Creutz was born in 1944 in Los Alamos, New Mexico. His father, Edward Creutz, was also a physicist and was working on the Manhattan Project to help build the atomic bomb at the time of Michael's birth.
Creutz graduated with honor with a bachelor's degree in physics from Caltech in 1966. He did his graduate work at Stanford University under a NSF Graduate Fellowship, graduating in 1970. His thesis was done at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center and his adviser was the noted physicist Sidney Drell.
After his graduation he served shortly as a research associate at SLAC before moving to the Center for Theoretical Physics at the University of Maryland, College Park, where he was a fellow from 1970-1972. In 1972 he joined the High Energy Theory Group at Brookhaven National Laboratory, becoming a senior physicist in 1985 and serving as group leader from 1984 to 1987. In 2003 he became an adjunct professor at the C. N. Yang Institute for Theoretical Physics at nearby Stony Brook University.
== Research ==
Creutz's research spans a wide variety of topics in particle physics and mathematical physics, but he is best known for his work on lattice QCD. His 1983 textbook Quarks, Gluons, and Lattices was the first full-length textbook on lattice QCD and is considered a classic in the field.
Creutz is a fellow of the American Physical Society and was the 2000 recipient of the Aneesur Rahman Prize for Computational Physics "for first demonstrating that properties of QCD could be computed numerically on the lattice through Monte Carlo methods, and for numerous contributions to the field thereafter." In 2009 he received a Humboldt Research Award.
== Books ==
Creutz, Michael (1983). Quarks, gluons, and lattices. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24405-6. OCLC 9323498.
Berg, B. (1988). Lattice Higgs Workshop : Florida State University, May 16-18, 1988. Singapore: World Scientific. ISBN 9971-5-0686-6. OCLC 19290040.
Creutz, Michael (1992). "Quantum Fields on the Computer". Advanced Series on Directions in High Energy Physics. Vol. 11. WORLD SCIENTIFIC. doi:10.1142/1634. ISBN 978-981-02-0939-1. ISSN 1793-1339.
== References ==
== External links ==
latticeguy.net - personal website
Creutz's BNL website
Papers on INSPIRE-HEP
arXiv.org preprints |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Reynolds | Burt Reynolds | Burton Leon Reynolds Jr. (February 11, 1936 – September 6, 2018) was an American actor most famous during the 1970s and '80s. He became well known in television series such as Gunsmoke (1962–1965), Hawk (1966) and Dan August (1970–1971). He had leading roles in films such as Navajo Joe (1966), and 100 Rifles (1969), and his breakthrough role was as Lewis Medlock in Deliverance (1972).
Reynolds played leading roles in financial successes such as White Lightning (1973), The Longest Yard (1974), Smokey and the Bandit (1977) (which started a seven-year box-office reign), Semi-Tough (1977), The End (1978), Hooper (1978), Starting Over (1979), Smokey and the Bandit II (1980), The Cannonball Run (1981), Sharky's Machine (1981), The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982), Smokey and the Bandit III (1983), and Cannonball Run II (1984), several of which he directed. He was nominated twice for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy.
Reynolds was voted the world's number-one movie actor from 1978 to 1982 in the annual Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll, a six-year record he shares with Bing Crosby. After a number of box-office failures, Reynolds returned to television, featuring in the situation comedy Evening Shade (1990–1994), which won a Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. His performance as high-minded pornographer Jack Horner in Paul Thomas Anderson's Boogie Nights (1997) brought him renewed critical attention, earning the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture, with nominations for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and a BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor.
== Early life ==
Burton Leon Reynolds Jr. was born on February 11, 1936, to Burton Milo Reynolds Sr. and Harriet Fernette "Fern" (née Miller). His family descended from Dutch, English, Scots-Irish and Scottish ancestry. Reynolds also claimed some Cherokee and Italian ancestry.
During his career, Reynolds often claimed to have been born in Waycross, Georgia, although in 2015, he stated that he was actually born in Lansing, Michigan. In his autobiography, he stated that Lansing is where his family lived when his father was drafted into the United States Army.
Reynolds, his mother, and his sister joined his father at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, where they subsequently lived for two years. When his father was sent to Europe, the family relocated to Lake City, Michigan, where his mother had been raised. In 1946, the family relocated to Riviera Beach, Florida, where in sixth grade, Reynolds began a lifelong close friendship with Dick Howser. Reynolds's father eventually became chief of police of Riviera Beach, which is adjacent to the north end of West Palm Beach, Florida.
His nickname in Riviera Beach was "Buddy". (The childhood nicknames of Marlon Brando, the superstar actor whom Reynolds was said to resemble and with whom he feuded, were "Bud" and "Buddy".)
At Palm Beach High School, Reynolds lettered in football and track and was named a first-team All-State fullback in 1953 and an honorable-mention selection to the 34th annual All-Southern team. He was initially offered a college football scholarship by University of Miami head coach Andy Gustafson, but eventually chose to play for head coach Tom Nugent at Florida State University.
=== College ===
While at Florida State, Reynolds roomed with future college football coach, broadcaster, and analyst Lee Corso, and also became a brother of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity.
He earned his first start of the 1954 football season at right halfback in FSU's inaugural victory of the season against the University of Louisville. Reynolds tallied a one-yard touchdown in the game. Despite suffering a separated shoulder in the middle of the season, Reynolds finished his freshman season with 16 carries for 134 rushing yards and two touchdowns. He also caught four passes for 76 yards, returned five punts, and had an interception on defense.
In 1955, Reynolds was slated to start in the backfield for the Seminoles (8–4 in 1954), but suffered torn cartilage in his right knee during preseason workouts. After testing the injured knee in a "B" game versus Georgia Tech, Reynolds realized he could not make cuts like he once did and left school. "I knew then I was finished as a football player," he told The Palm Beach Post. A week later, Reynolds underwent a knee operation at St. Mary's Hospital in West Palm Beach. His surgeon predicted he could resume his playing career the following year.
Two months later, Reynolds, then 19, was critically injured in an automobile accident on State Road A1A, suffering internal injuries, including a ruptured spleen, after colliding with a stalled truck. The driver of the truck fled the scene, according to the newspaper report. Reynolds said he lost a prized wristwatch from the 1955 Sun Bowl game in the crash, which left his vehicle totaled.
Reynolds did not return to the Florida State campus for almost two years. To keep up with his studies, he enrolled at Palm Beach Junior College (PBJC) in neighboring Lake Park in early 1956. When Reynolds returned to Florida State in 1957, he rejoined the football team as a backup halfback, but was hampered by lingering injuries from the car accident. In an away game against Boston College in late September, Reynolds averaged four yards on three carries and caught two passes. He was blamed, fairly or not, for the team's loss to North Carolina State University on October 12, 1957. Immediately after the game, he told his teammates that he was done with football. Convinced that his playing days were over, Reynolds returned home and got engaged to Jean Hayden, a former beauty queen from Jacksonville, Florida, who was attending FSU. The couple never wed. Hayden, a speech major in college, wed FSU grad and Navy veteran Edwin Watson Richardson Jr., a car dealer in Tallahassee, in 1959.
=== Early acting ===
During his spring term at PBJC in 1956, Reynolds enrolled in an English class taught by Watson B. Duncan III. Duncan encouraged Reynolds to try out for a school play he was directing, Outward Bound. He cast Reynolds in a main role based on having heard him read Shakespeare in class. Reynolds' performance earned him a best actor award at the 1956 PBJC Drama Awards. "I read two words and they gave me a lead," he later said. In his autobiography, he referred to Duncan as his mentor and the most influential person of his life.
== Career ==
=== Theater ===
The drama award Reynolds won in junior college included a scholarship to the Hyde Park Playhouse, a summer stock theater in Hyde Park, New York. Reynolds considered the opportunity as an agreeable alternative to more physically demanding summer jobs, but did not yet consider acting as a possible career. While working there, Reynolds met Joanne Woodward, who helped him find an agent.
"I don't think I ever actually saw him perform," said Woodward. "I knew him as this cute, shy, attractive boy. He had the kind of lovely personality that made you want to do something for him." He was cast in Tea and Sympathy at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City. After his Broadway debut in Look, We've Come Through, he received favorable reviews for his performance and went on tour with the cast, driving the bus as well as appearing on stage. After the tour, Reynolds returned to New York City and enrolled in acting classes, along with Frank Gifford, Carol Lawrence, Red Buttons, and Jan Murray. "I was a working actor for two years before I finally took my first real acting class (with Wynn Handman at the Neighborhood Playhouse)," he said. "It was a lot of technique, truth, moment-to-moment, how to listen, improv."
After a botched improvisation in acting class, Reynolds briefly considered returning to Florida, but in December 1956, he was cast in a supporting role in a revival of Mister Roberts at the New York City Center, in which Charlton Heston played the starring role and Orson Bean played Ensign Pulver. After the play closed, director John Forsythe arranged a movie audition with Joshua Logan for Reynolds. The movie was Sayonara (1957). Reynolds was told that he could not be in the movie because he looked too much like Marlon Brando. Logan advised Reynolds to go to Hollywood, although Reynolds did not feel confident enough to do so. (Another source says that Reynolds did a screen test after studio talent agent Lew Wasserman saw the effect that Reynolds had on secretaries in his office, but the test was unsuccessful.)
Reynolds worked in a variety of jobs, such as waiting tables, washing dishes, driving a delivery truck, and as a bouncer at the Roseland Ballroom. He wrote that while working as a dockworker, he was offered $150 to jump through a glass window on a live television show.
=== Early television and Riverboat ===
Reynolds began acting for television during the late 1950s, with guest roles on shows such as Flight, M Squad, Schlitz Playhouse, The Lawless Years, and Pony Express. He signed a seven-year contract with Universal Studios. "I don't care whether he can act or not," said Wasserman. "Anyone who has this effect on women deserves a break."
Reynolds's first big opportunity came when he was cast alongside Darren McGavin, who was the main actor of the television series Riverboat (1959–61), playing Ben Frazer, the boat's pilot. According to a contemporary report, Reynolds was considered "a double for Marlon Brando". The show played for two seasons, but Reynolds quit after only 20 episodes, claiming that he got along with neither McGavin nor the executive producer, and that he had "a stupid part". Reynolds subsequently said that he "couldn't get a job. I didn't have a very good reputation. You just don't walk out on a network television series."
Reynolds returned to guest-featuring in television shows. As he put it, "I played heavies in every series in town," appearing in episodes of Playhouse 90, Johnny Ringo, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Lock Up, The Blue Angels, Michael Shayne, Zane Grey Theater, The Aquanauts, and The Brothers Brannagan. "They were depressing years," he later said.
Reynolds starred in the low-budget film Angel Baby (1961). He followed it with a role in a war film Armored Command (1961). "It was the one picture that Howard Keel didn't sing on," reminisced Reynolds. "That was a terrible mistake."
In 1961, he returned to Broadway to appear in Look, We've Come Through, directed by José Quintero, but it lasted only five performances.
Reynolds continued to guest-star on episodes of Naked City, Ripcord, Everglades, Route 66, Perry Mason, and The Twilight Zone ("The Bard", an hour-long send-up of Reynolds's look-alike Marlon Brando). He later said, "I learned more about my craft in these guest shots than I did standing around and looking virile on Riverboat."
=== Gunsmoke ===
In 1962, Dennis Weaver wanted to quit the cast of Gunsmoke, one of the top-rated shows in the country. The producers developed a new character, "half-breed" blacksmith Quint Asper. Reynolds was cast, chosen over 300 other contenders. He announced that he would stay on the show "until it ends. I think it's a terrible mistake for an actor to leave a series in the middle of it." Reynolds left Gunsmoke in 1965. He later said that being in that show was "the happiest period of my life. I hated to leave that show, but I felt I had served my apprenticeship and there wasn't room for two leading men."
He was cast in his first lead role in a movie, the low-budget action movie Operation C.I.A. (1965). He also guest-starred on the television series Flipper, The F.B.I., and 12 O'Clock High.
=== Hawk and leading roles in films ===
Reynolds was given the title role of a TV series, Hawk (1966–67), playing Native American detective John Hawk. It ran for 17 episodes before being cancelled.
He played another Native American in the spaghetti Western film Navajo Joe (1966), which was filmed in Spain. He said, "It wasn't my favorite picture." He later said, "I had two expressions—mad and madder."
He guest-starred in Gentle Ben, and made a pilot for a TV series, Lassiter, in which he would have played a magazine journalist. It did not develop into a series.
Reynolds made a series of movies in quick succession: Shark! (1969), filmed in Mexico, was directed by Sam Fuller, who removed his name from it, after which its release was held up for a number of years. Reynolds described Fade In as "the best thing I've ever done", but it was not released for a number of years, and off of which director Jud Taylor took his name. Impasse (1969) was a war movie filmed in the Philippines. Reynolds plays the title role in Sam Whiskey (1969), a comic Western written by William W. Norton, which Reynolds later said was "way ahead of its time. I was playing light comedy and nobody cared."
Reynolds starred with Jim Brown and Raquel Welch in another Western, 100 Rifles (1969). He said, "I spent the entire time refereeing fights between Jim Brown and Raquel Welch."
In a 1969 interview, Reynolds expressed interest in playing roles like the John Garfield part in The Postman Always Rings Twice, but no one gave him the opportunity. "Instead, the producer hands me a script and says 'I know it's not there now kid, but I know we can make it work.'"
Reynolds declined the leading role for the film M*A*S*H (1970), which went to Elliott Gould. He starred in the film Skullduggery (1970), filmed in Jamaica. He joked that after making "those wonderful, forgettable pictures... I suddenly realized I was as hot as Leo Gorcey."
Reynolds featured in two television films: Hunters Are for Killing (1970) and Run, Simon, Run (1970). In the former, his character was originally a Native American, but Reynolds requested that this element be changed, feeling that he had played the persona too many times already, and that it was not needed for the character, anyway.
=== Dan August and talk shows ===
Reynolds played the title character in the police television drama Dan August (1970–71), produced by Quinn Martin. Reynolds had previously guest-starred in two episodes of Martin's production The F.B.I. The series was given a full-season order of 26 episodes, based on the reputation of Martin and Reynolds, but it struggled in the ratings against Hawaii Five-0 and was not renewed.
Albert R. Broccoli asked Reynolds to play James Bond after Sean Connery, but Reynolds declined the role, saying, "An American can't play James Bond. It just can't be done."
After the cancelation of the series, Reynolds appeared in his first stage play in six years; a production of The Tender Trap at Arlington Park Theatre. He was offered other TV pilots, but was reluctant to play a detective again.
Around this time, he had become well known as a charismatic talk-show guest, starting with an appearance on The Merv Griffin Show. He made jokes at his own expense, calling himself America's most "well-known unknown", who made the kind of movies "they show in airplanes or prisons or anywhere else the people can't get out". He proved enormously popular and was frequently asked back by Griffin and Johnny Carson; he even guest-hosted The Tonight Show. He was so popular as a guest that he was offered his own talk show, but he wanted to continue as an actor.
He later said that his talk-show appearances were "the best thing that ever happened to me. They changed everything drastically overnight. I spent 10 years looking virile, saying, 'Put up your hands.' After the Carson, Griffin, Frost, Dinah's show, suddenly I have a personality."
"I realized that people liked me, that I was enough," said Reynolds. "So if I could transfer that character—the irreverent, self-deprecating side of me, my favorite side of me—onto the screen, I could have a big career."
=== The Godfather and Marlon Brando feud ===
Reynolds was considered for the role of Sonny Corleone in The Godfather, but Francis Ford Coppola's desire to cast James Caan in the part prevailed. Talk arose that Reynolds's participation was vetoed by Marlon Brando, who had a lack of respect for him. Brando denied that he played a role in thwarting the casting of Reynolds, saying in a January 1979 Playboy interview that Coppola would not have cast Reynolds in the part.
Reynolds later claimed that he declined the role of Sonny. (The Godfather producer Albert S. Ruddy later produced The Cannonball Run and Cannonball Run II, two Reynolds movie successes during the 1980s.)
The Brando-Reynolds feud became Hollywood legend. Reynolds said that he could not understand Brando's enmity toward him. In a 2015 interview with The Guardian, Reynolds said, "He was a strange man. He didn't like me at all." He did not consciously imitate Brando, nor act like him, nor try to look like him; he even grew a mustache so that people would stop saying that he looked like Brando.
When he was finally introduced to Brando, Reynolds said that he told him that he was the finest actor in the world. Brando replied, "I wish I could say the same for you."
=== Deliverance and Cosmopolitan centerfold ===
Reynolds had a major role in the movie Deliverance, directed by John Boorman, who cast him on the basis of a talk-show appearance. "It's the first time I haven't had a script with Paul Newman and Robert Redford's fingerprints all over it," Reynolds joked. "The producers actually came to me first."
"I've waited 15 years to do a really good movie," he said in 1972. "I made so many bad pictures. I was never able to turn anyone down. The greatest curse in Hollywood is to be a well-known unknown."
Around this time, Reynolds also gained notoriety when he began a well-publicized relationship with Dinah Shore, who was 20 years his senior, and after he posed nude in the April 1972 issue of Cosmopolitan. Reynolds said that he posed for Cosmopolitan for "a kick. I have a strange sense of humor," and because he knew that Deliverance was about to be released. He later expressed regret for posing for Cosmopolitan. Deliverance was a commercial and critical success, which along with talk-show appearances, helped establish Reynolds as a major movie actor. "The night of the Academy Awards, I counted a half-dozen Burt Reynolds jokes," he later said. "I had become a household name, the most talked-about star at the award show."
Reynolds was subsequently in Fuzz (1972), reuniting with Welch, and also made a cameo in Woody Allen's film Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask) (1972). He also returned to the stage, appearing in The Rainmaker at the Arlington.
Reynolds had the title role of Shamus (1973), playing a private detective. The movie drew lackluster reviews, but nonetheless became a box-office success. Reynolds described it as "not a bad film, kind of cute". He also was in The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing (1973), co-featuring Sarah Miles. The film was a minor success, perhaps best remembered for the scandal of Miles's lover, an aspiring screenwriter, dying by suicide during the filming.
Reynolds meant to reunite with Boorman in Zardoz, but fell ill and was replaced by Sean Connery.
=== White Lightning and Southern movies ===
Another turning point in Reynolds's career came when he made the light-hearted car-chase film written by William W. Norton, White Lightning (1973). Reynolds later called it "the beginning of a whole series of films made in the South, about the South, and for the South... you could make back the cost of the negative just in Memphis alone. Anything outside of that was just gravy." Car-chase movies became Reynolds's most profitable genre. At the end of 1973, Reynolds was voted into the list of the 10 most-popular movie actors in the US at number four. He stayed on that list until 1984.
He made a sports comedy with Robert Aldrich, The Longest Yard (1974), which was popular. Aldrich later said, "I think that on occasion, he's a much better actor than he's given credit for. Not always; sometimes he acts like a caricature of himself."
Reynolds starred in two big-budget fiascos: At Long Last Love (1975), a musical for Peter Bogdanovich, and Lucky Lady (1975), with Gene Hackman and Liza Minnelli. More popular was another light-hearted car-chase film, W.W. and the Dixie Dancekings (1975), and a police drama with Aldrich, Hustle (1975). He also had a cameo appearance in Mel Brooks's Silent Movie (1976).
Toward the end of his life, Reynolds revealed that he declined the role of Han Solo in Star Wars. Reynolds told Business Insider in 2016, "I just didn't want to play that kind of role at the time. ...Now I regret it. I wish I would have done it."
=== Directorial work ===
Reynolds made his directorial debut in 1976 with Gator, the sequel to White Lightning, written by Norton. "I waited 20 years to do it [directing] and I enjoyed it more than anything I've ever done in this business," he said after filming. "And I happen to think it's what I do best."
He was reunited with Bogdanovich for the comedy Nickelodeon (1976), which was a commercial disappointment. Aldrich later commented, "Bogdanovich can get him to do the telephone book! Anybody else has to persuade him to do something. He's fascinated by Bogdanovich. I can't understand it." He turned down the part of Clark Gable in Gable and Lombard.
=== Smokey and the Bandit and career peak ===
Reynolds had the biggest success of his career with the car-chase film Smokey and the Bandit (1977), directed by Hal Needham and co-starring Jackie Gleason, Jerry Reed, and Sally Field. He followed it with a comedy about football players, Semi-Tough (1977), featuring Jill Clayburgh and Kris Kristofferson, and produced by David Merrick. He directed his second film The End (1978), a dark comedy, playing a role originally written for Woody Allen. More popular was a comedy that he made with Needham and Field, Hooper (1978), in which he played an aging stunt man.
"My ability as an actor gets a little better every time," he said about this time. "I'm very prolific in the amount of films I make—two-and-a-half or three a year—and when I look at any picture I do now compared to Deliverance, it's miles above what I was doing then. But when you're doing films that are somewhat similar to each other, as I've been doing, people take it for granted."
For California Suite (1978), Reynolds declined a leading role, which went to Alan Alda. Reynolds said:
"I'd rather direct than act. I'd rather do that than anything. It's the second-best sensation I've ever had." He added that David Merrick had offered to produce two movies that Reynolds would direct without having to act in them.
Reynolds tried a change of pace with Starting Over (1979), a romantic comedy, co-starring Jill Clayburgh and Candice Bergen. The film is co-written and produced by James L. Brooks. Reynolds plays a jewel thief in Rough Cut (1980) produced by Merrick, who fired and rehired director Don Siegel during filming.
Reynolds had two huge successes with more car films directed by Needham: Smokey and the Bandit II (1980) and The Cannonball Run (1981). He starred in David Steinberg's film Paternity (1981) and directed himself in an action film, Sharky's Machine (1981).
Reynolds wanted to try a musical again, and agreed to do The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982). It was a box-office success, as was Best Friends (1982) with Goldie Hawn. In 1982, Reynolds was voted the most popular actor in the US for the fifth year in a row.
Around that time, he stated:
The only thing I really enjoy is this business, and I think my audience knows that. I've never been able to figure out exactly who that audience is. I know there have been a few pictures even my mother didn't go see, but there's always been an audience for them. I guess it is because they always know that I give it 100 percent, and good or bad, there's going to be quite a lot of me in that picture. That's what they're looking for. I don't have any pretensions about wanting to be Hamlet. I would just like to be the best Burt Reynolds around.
=== Career decline ===
James L. Brooks wrote the role of astronaut Garrett Breedlove in Terms of Endearment (1983) with Reynolds in mind. However, Reynolds refused the role, and instead starred in another car-chase comedy Stroker Ace (1983), directed by Needham. The Endearment part went to Jack Nicholson, who won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Reynolds said in 1987, "I felt I owed Hal more than I owed Jim," but Stroker Ace failed. Reynolds admitted that refusing the role was a mistake.
I regret that one most of all because it was a real acting part.... I wish I would have done it, and thinking back now, it was really a stupid decision, but I made a lot of stupid decisions in that period. It must have been my stupid period.
In 1983, an unnamed producer said that while Reynolds's salaries would not decrease because of Stroker Ace's failure, "if two or three more such pictures don't work, people will just stop putting him in that kind of movie and that's the kind of film for which he gets paid the most". Reynolds felt that it was a turning point in his career from which he never recovered. "That's where I lost them," he said of his fans.
For director Blake Edwards, Reynolds starred in The Man Who Loved Women (1983), a remake in English of François Truffaut's 1977 film L'Homme qui aimait les femmes, but it also failed. In an interview at about this time, he said:
Getting to the top has turned out to be a hell of a lot more fun than staying there. I've got Tom Selleck crawling up my back. I'm in my late 40s. I realize I have four or five more years where I can play certain kinds of parts and get away with it. That's why I'm leaning more and more toward directing and producing. I don't want to be stumbling around town doing Gabby Hayes parts a few years from now. I'd like to pick and choose and maybe go work for a perfume factory like Mr. Cary Grant, and look wonderful with everybody saying, 'Gee, I wish he hadn't retired'.
Cannonball Run II (1984), directed by Needham, brought in some money, but only half of the original. City Heat (1984), which teamed Reynolds and Clint Eastwood, was mildly popular, but was considered a major critical and box-office disappointment. Reynolds was injured badly during filming when he was hit in the jaw with a real chair instead of a breakaway prop, causing him excruciating chronic pain, as well as a sharp weight loss that resulted in rumors circulating for years that he had AIDS.
Reynolds returned to directing with Stick (1985), from an Elmore Leonard novel, but it was both a critical and commercial failure. So, too, were three other action movies that he made: Heat (1986), based on a novel by William Goldman, Malone (1987), and Rent-a-Cop (1987) with Liza Minnelli. He later said that he did Heat and Malone "because there were so many rumors about me [having AIDS]. I had to get out and be seen."
In 1987, Reynolds teamed with Bert Convy to co-produce the game show Win, Lose or Draw for their production company Burt and Bert Productions. The show was based on "sketch pad charades", a game that he often played with his friends in his living room in Jupiter. Vicki Lawrence hosted the daytime version for NBC, while Convy hosted the syndicated version until 1989, when he quit to host 3rd Degree, also created by Reynolds and Convy.
Reynolds starred in Switching Channels (1988), a remake of the comedy The Front Page. It was a box-office bomb. Even more poorly received was Physical Evidence (1989), directed by Michael Crichton. Reynolds received excellent reviews for the caper comedy Breaking In (1989), but the commercial reception was poor. The moderately successful animated film All Dogs Go to Heaven (1989), in which Reynolds voiced Charlie B. Barkin, was one of his few successes at the time.
"When I was doing very well," he said at the time, "I wasn't conscious I was doing very well, but I became very conscious when I wasn't doing very well. The atmosphere changed."
=== Return to TV: B.L. Stryker and Evening Shade ===
Reynolds returned to television with the detective series with B.L. Stryker (1989–90). It ran two seasons, during which time Reynolds played a supporting part in Modern Love (1990).
Reynolds starred in the situation comedy television series, Evening Shade (1990–94) as former Pittsburgh Steelers player Woodward "Wood" Newton. The series was a considerable success, with 98 episodes over four seasons. This role earned him a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. Reynolds credited this role for his membership in Steeler Nation. During his tenure on Evening Shade, Reynolds played in other projects, starting with a cameo in The Player (1992) (playing himself complaining about people in Hollywood).
Reynolds starred in the crime film Cop and a Half (1993). On August 25, the Randy Travis television special Wind in the Wire first aired; Reynolds was among the guests. On October 15, CBS first broadcast the television movie The Man from Left Field, co-featuring Reba McEntire. Reynolds starred and directed.
=== Character actor ===
After Evening Shade ended in 1994, Reynolds played the lead in a horror movie, The Maddening (1995). He gradually became more of a character actor, though; he had major support roles in Citizen Ruth (1996), an early work from Alexander Payne, and Striptease (1996) with Demi Moore. Reynolds had to audition for Striptease. The movie's producer later said, "To be honest, we were not enthusiastic at first. There was the hair and his reputation, but we were curious... At the first audition, on the first day, Burt had to take off his toupee in front of six or seven people. It was tough for him, but he did it. It was a very, very humbling thing to do, but by the end of the audition, it was really clear that Burt was the guy." "I knew I could play him," said Reynolds. "I could make him likable and dangerous. There are very few people who can do that. I always played likable and dangerous. I had a persona. Unfortunately, my persona became bigger than my acting." Reynolds accepted a salary of $350,000; lower than what he had been paid earlier in his career." Reynolds got the role and earned some strong reviews for his performance, and the film was successful at the box office although it was panned by critics. Reynolds based his performance as Congressman Dilbeck on politicians he knew from his youth, as his father was a police chief and prominent local Republican.
Reynolds was a supporting actor in Frankenstein and Me (1996), Mad Dog Time (1996), The Cherokee Kid (1996), Meet Wally Sparks (1997) with Rodney Dangerfield, and Bean (1997) with Rowan Atkinson. He had the lead in Raven (1996), a straight-to-video action movie. About this time, he claimed he was depleted financially, having spent $13 million.
In 1996, Reynolds' agent said "Regarding Burt, there's a split between the executives in town who are under 40 and those who are over 40. The younger executives are more open to Burt because they grew up loving Deliverance. But the older executives remember how crazy he was, and they are less receptive." He also hosted segments for the Encore Action premium cable network during the late 1990s and 2000s.
=== Boogie Nights and career revival ===
Reynolds played a porn film director in the successful film Boogie Nights (1997), which was considered a comeback role for him. He received 12 acting awards and three nominations for the role, including a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Reynolds' first and only nomination for the award. Despite the acclaim, Reynolds disliked working on the film, particularly not getting along with writer-director Paul Thomas Anderson, and reportedly dismissed his agent for recommending it. Boogie Nights co-star William H. Macy stated in an interview that Reynolds was clueless about the film and had become out of touch with the film industry due to his age.
Reynolds was offered a role in Anderson's third film, Magnolia (1999), but he declined it. In 2012, he clarified he did not hate Boogie Nights itself and called it "extraordinary", saying his opinion of the film has nothing to do with his relationship with Anderson. In his second autobiography, But Enough About Me (2015), Reynolds attempted to come to terms with his difficult nature. In a 2015 GQ interview, he said that his problem with Anderson was a matter of their differing personalities:
I think mostly because he was young and full of himself. Every shot we did, it was like the first time [that shot had ever been done]. I remember the first shot we did in Boogie Nights, where I drive the car to Grauman's Theater. After he said, "Isn't that amazing?" And I named five pictures that had the same kind of shot. It wasn't original. But if you have to steal, steal from the best.
Despite his Oscar nomination for Boogie Nights and a new appreciation of his acting talent by movie critics, Reynolds failed to return to the A list; while work was plentiful, prestige projects were lacking.
He had the lead in Big City Blues (1997) and supporting roles in Universal Soldier II: Brothers in Arms (1998) and Universal Soldier III: Unfinished Business (1998).
Reynolds returned to directing with Hard Time (1998), an action TV movie featuring himself. It resulted in two sequels, which he did not direct, Hard Time: The Premonition (1999) and Hard Time: Hostage Hotel (1999) (the latter directed by Hal Needham).
He featured in the straight-to-video The Hunter's Moon (1999), Stringer (1999), and Waterproof (2000). He played supporting roles in Pups (1999) and Mystery, Alaska (1999), and had the lead in The Crew (2000) alongside Richard Dreyfuss.
Reynolds directed The Last Producer (2000), featuring himself, and was second-billed in Renny Harlin's Driven (2001), featuring Sylvester Stallone. He was also in Tempted (2001), Hotel (2001) (directed by Mike Figgis), and The Hollywood Sign (2001).
He voiced Avery Carrington in Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, released in 2002.
Reynolds was top-billed in Snapshots with Julie Christie, an $11 million Anglo-Dutch-American picture that failed to find a wide release. He also featured in Time of the Wolf (2002) and Hard Ground (2003), and had supporting roles in Johnson County War (2002) with Tom Berenger, and Miss Lettie and Me (2003) with Mary Tyler Moore.
He was in a series of supporting roles that referred to earlier performances: Without a Paddle (2004), a riff on his role in Deliverance, The Longest Yard (2005), a remake of his 1974 success with Adam Sandler playing Reynolds' old role (while Reynolds played the Michael Conrad part from the original); and The Dukes of Hazzard (2005) as Boss Hogg as a reference to his performances in 1970s car-chase movies.
Reynolds continued to play lead roles in movies such as Cloud 9 (2006), Forget About It (2006), Deal (2008), and A Bunch of Amateurs (2008), and supporting parts in End Game (2006), Grilled (2006), Broken Bridges (2006), In the Name of the King (2007), Not Another Not Another Movie (2011), and Reel Love (2011).
He had a guest role in an episode of Burn Notice, "Past and Future Tense" (2010). Reynolds voiced himself as the mayor of Steelport in Saints Row: The Third, released in 2011. Players can recruit Reynolds as a "homie", depending on their in-game choices. Reynolds also voiced himself in the animated series Archer, in the episode "The Man from Jupiter" (2012). The character of Sterling Archer was largely inspired by Burt Reynolds.
He was top billed in Category 5 (2014) and Elbow Grease (2016) and could be seen in key roles in Pocket Listing (2016), and Hollow Creek (2015). He returned to a regular role on TV in Hitting the Breaks (2016), but it only ran for 10 episodes. He was in Apple of My Eye (2016) and took the lead in The Last Movie Star (2017).
In May 2018, Reynolds joined the cast of Quentin Tarantino's movie Once Upon a Time in Hollywood as George Spahn (an 80-year-old blind man who rented out his ranch to Charles Manson), but he died before filming his scenes and was replaced by Bruce Dern.
=== Posthumous releases ===
Reynolds appeared posthumously in the 2020 movie Defining Moments, which includes his final performance.
=== Other ventures ===
Reynolds was credited as the author of a 1972 mass-market paperback book Hot Line: The Letters I Get...And Write! that featured seminude "beefcake" photos of the actor, playing up his image as a male sex symbol. He also published two autobiographies, My Life in 1994 and But Enough About Me in 2015.
Reynolds co-authored the 1997 children's book, Barkley Unleashed: A Pirate's Tail, a "whimsical tale [that] illustrates the importance of perseverance, the wonders of friendship and the power of imagination".
In 1973, Reynolds released the country/easy listening album Ask Me What I Am. He also sang in two movie musicals: At Long Last Love (1975) and The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982).
== Personal life ==
Reynolds in college "was so good-looking, I used him as bait," college roommate Lee Corso recalled. "He'd walk across campus and bring back two girls, one beautiful and one ugly; I got the ugly girl. His ugly girlfriends were better than anyone I could get on my own."
=== Marriages and long-term relationships ===
Reynolds was married to English actress Judy Carne from 1963 to 1965. He lived with actress Miko Mayama from 1968 to 1971. American singer-actress Dinah Shore (20 years his senior) and he were in a relationship from early 1971 until 1975. In the mid-1970s, Reynolds briefly dated singer Tammy Wynette.
He had a relationship from 1976 to 1980 (then off-and-on until 1982) with American actress Sally Field, during which time they appeared together in four films. In 2016, he regarded Field as the love of his life.
Reynolds was married to American actress Loni Anderson from 1988 to 1994. They had an adopted son, Quinton. Anderson and he separated after he became infatuated with a cocktail waitress, Pam Seals, with whom he later traded lawsuits, which were settled out of court.
=== Business endeavors ===
==== Professional sports ====
A lifelong fan of American football, he once told Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show he would rather have played in the NFL than win an Oscar. Reynolds was a minority owner of the Tampa Bay Bandits of the USFL from 1982 to 1986. The team's name was inspired by the Smokey and the Bandit trilogy and Skoal Bandit, a primary sponsor for the team as a result of also sponsoring Reynolds' motor-racing team.
Reynolds co-owned a NASCAR Winston Cup Series team, Mach 1 Racing, with Hal Needham, which ran the No. 33 Skoal Bandit car with driver Harry Gant.
==== Restaurants and dinner theater ====
During the late 1970s, Reynolds opened Burt's Place, a nightclub restaurant in the Omni International Complex in Atlanta in the Hotel District of downtown Atlanta. The establishment closed after a year. ("Burt's Place" also was the name of a building that was part of the guesthouse complex at Reynolds' Tequesta, Florida, estate in Palm Beach County, Florida.)
He also owned the Burt Reynolds Dinner Theatre in Jupiter, Florida, with an emphasis on training young performers trying to enter show business. The theater opened in 1979 and was later renamed the Burt Reynolds Jupiter Theater. Reynolds operated it until 1989 and leased it until 1996. It had a series of ownership changes until becoming the Maltz Jupiter Theatre in 2004.
In 1984, he opened a restaurant in Fort Lauderdale, named Burt & Jacks, which he co-owned with Jack Jackson. The restaurant was defunct at the time of his death.
Partnering with Killen Music Group owner Buddy Killen, Reynolds invested in Po' Folks, a chain of country-cooking, family-style restaurants located in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. The chain, which was named after a Bill Anderson song, along with subsequent Killen-Reynolds investment in another Southern restaurant chain, failed.
=== Personal bankruptcy ===
During the height of his movie career, Reynolds made as much as $10 million a year (roughly equivalent to $48,200,000 in 2024), but he proved to be a poor businessman. Along with music industry executive Buddy Killen, who produced his 1973 country and western/easy listening album Ask Me What I Am, Reynolds invested in Po' Folks, a Southern regional restaurant chain named after a Bill Anderson song. As Po' Folks failed, Reynolds and Killen invested in another regional chain, Daisy's Diner, which also failed. Reynolds had invested the capital as an individual, not as a corporate investment, and was responsible personally for the liabilities when Po' Folks and the Daisy's Diner failed. In all, his investments in the restaurant industry resulted in losses of $20 million.
Reynolds suffered a steep decrease of his career earnings after the cancellation of Evening Shade, as his popularity waned due to bad publicity from his divorce from Loni Anderson, which became tabloid fodder. His decrease of earnings as an actor plus the great expense of his divorce settlement, child support, and alimony payments to Anderson caused a cash depletion by the mid-1990s.
CBS, the network that produced Evening Shade and managed the program's syndication, sued him for failing to repay a $3.7 million loan in 1996. Subsequently, he filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, due in part to an extravagant lifestyle, a divorce from Anderson, and failed investments in restaurant chains. Reynolds emerged from bankruptcy two years later. During his bankruptcy proceedings, Reynolds listed $6.65 million in assets against debts totaling $11.2 million.
On August 16, 2011, Merrill Lynch Credit Corporation filed foreclosure papers, claiming Reynolds owed US$1.2 million on his home in Hobe Sound, Florida.
Until its sale during bankruptcy, he owned the Burt Reynolds Ranch, where scenes for Smokey and the Bandit were filmed and which once had a petting zoo. In April 2014, the 153-acre (62 ha) rural property was rezoned for residential use and the Palm Beach County school system was empowered to sell it, which it did to residential developer K. Hovnanian Homes.
=== Health problems ===
Reynolds suffered from hypoglycemia, which he discussed publicly on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. During his numerous appearances on The Tonight Show, Reynolds also told Johnny Carson that he suffered from anxiety.
The Stuntmen's Association of Motion Pictures awarded the Richard "Diamond" Farnsworth Award to Reynolds in 2015. Richard Farnsworth was a stunt man who made the transition into a successful acting career. Having performed stunts early during his career, the debilitating health problems of an aging stunt man was central to the storyline of Reynolds' 1978 movie Hooper, which is subtitled on the poster "The Greatest Stuntman Alive." Reynolds, who said he was a card-carrying member of the stunt performers guild, often performed his own stunts in movies, such as the fall over the waterfall in Deliverance, where he injured his coccyx. He also had to be operated on for a hernia that resulted from a fight scene in The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing.
His worst on-set injury occurred while filming City Heat in 1984; Reynolds was struck in the face with a metal chair on the first day of filming, which resulted in temporomandibular joint dysfunction. He was restricted to a liquid diet and lost 30 pounds from not eating. The painkillers he was prescribed resulted in addiction, which lasted several years.
He underwent back surgery in 2009 and a quintuple coronary artery bypass surgery in February 2010.
== Death and tributes ==
Reynolds died of a heart attack at the Jupiter Medical Center in Jupiter, Florida, on September 6, 2018, at the age of 82. His ex-wife Loni Anderson and their son Quinton held a private memorial service for Reynolds at a funeral home in North Palm Beach, Florida, on September 20. Those in attendance included Sally Field, FSU coach Bobby Bowden, friend Lee Corso, and quarterback Doug Flutie. Reynolds' body was cremated and his ashes were given to his niece, Nancy Lee Brown Hess. He was subsequently interred at Hollywood Forever Cemetery on February 11, 2021. In September of that year, a bronze bust of Reynolds was placed at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery.
On the day of Reynolds' death, Antenna TV, which broadcasts The Tonight Show nightly, broadcast an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from February 11, 1982, featuring an interview and a This Is Your Life-style skit with Reynolds. The local media in Atlanta and elsewhere in the state noted on their television news programs that evening that he was the first to make major movies in Georgia, all of which were successful, which helped make the state one of the top filming locations in the country. The Florida State football team honored Reynolds with helmet decals reading "BAN ONE", in the design and style of the license plate of the Trans Am from Smokey and the Bandit, plus Reynolds' signature, worn for the rest of the 2018 season. His niece, Nancy Lee Hess, produced a 2020 biography and documentary about Reynolds titled I Am Burt Reynolds.
== Legacy and appraisal ==
During the height of his career, Reynolds was considered a male sex symbol and icon of American masculinity. Stephen Dalton wrote in The Hollywood Reporter that Reynolds "always seemed to embody an uncomplicated, undiluted, effortlessly likable strain of American masculinity that was driven much more by sunny mischief than angsty machismo." Reynolds's roles were often defined by his larger-than-life physicality and masculinity, contrasted with juvenile but self-aware humor. Though he was not considered a serious dramatic actor during his heyday, his later career was defined by performances that often referenced his own reputation, creating what Dalton called "sophisticated, soulful performances".
Michael Chiklis has credited Reynolds for rescuing his acting career when Reynolds hired him for a role in B.L. Stryker after Chiklis was "blackballed" for his involvement in portraying John Belushi in the movie Wired (1989). Chiklis said that Reynolds knew what Chiklis was going through because he "grew up during the McCarthy era and didn't believe in blackballing."
== Accolades ==
Reynolds was nominated twice for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series in 1991 and 1992 for Evening Shade, winning in 1991 and losing to Craig T. Nelson in Coach the next year.
He was nominated for a Best Supporting Actor Oscar in 1998, losing out to Robin Williams in Good Will Hunting.
Reynolds won Golden Globe Awards for Best Actor in a Television Series-Musical or Comedy for Evening Shade in 1992, and as Best Supporting Actor in Boogie Nights in 1998. He also was nominated for a Golden Globe as Best Actor in a Television Series-Drama for Dan August in 1971, as Best Actor in a Motion Picture-Musical or Comedy for The Longest Yard in 1975 and as Best Actor in a Motion Picture-Musical/Comedy for Starting Over in 1980. He also received Best Actor in a TV series nominations for Evening Shade in 1991 and 1993.
Reynolds won four People's Choice Awards, as Favorite Motion Picture Actor and Favorite All-Around Male in 1983, as Favorite Motion Picture Actor (tied with Clint Eastwood) in 1984, and as Favorite Male Performer in a New TV Series in 1991.
In 2015, the Stuntmen's Association of Motion Pictures awarded Reynolds the Richard "Diamond" Farnsworth Award, named after Richard Farnsworth, the career stunt man who made the transition into a successful acting career.
He was awarded an honorary doctorate from Florida State University in 1981 and later endorsed the construction of a new performing arts facility in Sarasota, Florida.
There is a Burt Reynolds Park in Jupiter, Florida, maintained by Palm Beach County.
== Filmography ==
== Bibliography ==
== Discography ==
Ask Me What I Am (1973)
=== Singles ===
== See also ==
Sasha Gabor, adult film star who was a lookalike of Burt Reynolds (as well as of Sean Connery), portraying him (respectively both) in numerous pornographic parody films, including Tracey and the Bandit (1987) and Boogie Knights (1998). (Gabor's first credited acting gig was in a non-pornographic role, playing the character "Burt Reynolds" in the Harper Valley PTA episode "Svengali of the Valley" during Season 2 of the TV series in 1982.)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Anderson, Loni. (1997) My Life in High Heels. Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-72854-1
Field, Sally (2018). In Pieces. New York City: Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-6302-5.
"Show Business: Frog Prince". Time (August 21, 1972).
Zeman, Ned (December 2015). "Burt Reynolds Isn't Broke, but He's Got a Few Regrets". Vanity Fair. Interview and photographs.
== External links ==
Burt Reynolds at IMDb
Burt Reynolds at the TCM Movie Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francina_Broese_Gunningh | Francina Broese Gunningh | Francina Broese Gunningh, also known as Frans Gunningh Sloet (1783 - 1824), was a Dutch soldier who served in the French, Prussian and Dutch armies.
Gunningh Sloet was born 3 October 1783 in Kampen as the illegitimate daughter of Antje Broese, and worked as a domestic. During a trip back from Paris to the Netherlands, she dressed as a man, which was common for female travelers to avoid harassment during journeys. During the trip, however, she was arrested by the French military police as a suspected deserter after having failed to provide sufficient identifications papers, and was forcibly enlisted in the French army. She deserted, and instead enlisted in the Prussian army. When she was wounded in the chest, her sex was discovered, and she was forced to leave service.
She returned to the Netherlands, and enlisted in the Dutch army. She served in combat during the sieges of Kampen, Coevorden, and Deventer during the War of the Sixth Coalition.
In 1814, she was engaged to be married to Alida Landeel, and added the title "Lord of Amerongen" to her name. She was arrested for using a false noble title, but escaped prison. When she was arrested, she was forced to undergo a medical examination, which revealed her sex. She was sentenced to three years in prison for fraud. She died as the widow of one Mr. Lettener on 16 August 1824 in Edam, North Holland.
== References ==
Dekker, Rudolf & Lotte van de Pol (1995). Kvinnor i manskläder. En avvikande tradition. Europa 1500-1800. Stockholm: Östlings Bokförlag Symposion; ISBN 91-7139-245-9 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Rugova#:~:text=On%205%20September%202005%2C%20he,from%20the%20post%20of%20president. | Ibrahim Rugova | Ibrahim Rugova (Albanian pronunciation: [ibɾahim ɾugova]; 2 December 1944 – 21 January 2006) was a Kosovo-Albanian politician, scholar, and writer, who served as the President of the partially recognised Republic of Kosova, serving from 1992 to 2000 and as President of Kosovo from 2002 until his death in 2006. He oversaw a popular struggle for independence, advocating a peaceful resistance to Yugoslav rule and lobbying for U.S. and European support, especially during the Kosovo War.
He founded the political party Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK) in 1989. The LDK, which had the support of 90% of the ethnic Albanian population of Kosovo, advocated for Kosovo's independence by peaceful means. The party established a shadow government that provided basic government and social services to the Kosovo Albanian population, including education and health care, in effect creating a parallel state. In May 1992, Rugova was elected President of this parallel state. In March 2002, with a United Nations mission administering Kosovo, he was elected President of Kosovo. He held this position until his death in January 2006, and was posthumously declared a Hero of Kosovo. He is sometimes referred to as Ati Kombit ("Father of the Nation") in Kosovo. He is also referred to as the Gandhi of the Balkans due to his strategy of non-violent resistance.
== Family and early life ==
Ibrahim Rugova was born on 2 December 1944 in Crnce, Istok to a family that is a branch of the Kelmendi Albanian clan. At this time, the majority of Kosovo was unified with Albania (controlled by Benito Mussolini's Italy since 1941, and later by the Germans from 1943). Yugoslav control was re-established towards the end of November 1944 when the area was liberated by the Bulgarian Army and Yugoslav partisans who defeated Albanian collaborators. His father Ukë Rugova and his paternal grandfather Rrustë Rugova were summarily executed in January 1945 by Yugoslav communists. Rugova finished primary school in Istok and high school in Peć, graduating in 1967.
He went to the newly established University of Prishtina, where he was a student in the Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Albanian Studies and participated in the 1968 Kosovo Protests. He graduated in 1971 and re-enrolled as a research student concentrating on literary theory. As part of his studies, he spent two years (1976–1977) at the École Pratique des Hautes Études of the University of Paris, where he studied under Roland Barthes. He received his doctorate in 1984. As a student, he participated in a civil rights movement for the Albanians and formally joined the Communist League of Yugoslavia. He was active as a journalist throughout the 1970s, editing the student newspaper Bota e Re ("New World") and the magazine Dituria ("Knowledge"). He also worked in the Institute for Albanian Studies in Prishtina as a research fellow. He published a number of works on literary theory, criticism and history as well as his own poetry. In 1988, he was elected president of the Kosovo Writers Union.
He strongly emphasized the heritage of ancient Dardania, an independent kingdom and later-turned Roman province that included modern-day Kosovo, to strengthen the country's identity and to promote his policy of closer relations with the West.
=== Personal life ===
Rugova was married to Fana Rugova and had three children.
== Presidency ==
As president, Rugova continued to support his non-violent path to independence even as proponents of an armed resistance formed the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) to counter increasing Serbian oppression on the ethnic Albanians. In 1998, Rugova secured a second term as president, but was placed at odds with the KLA as the Kosovo War broke out. In 1999, he participated in the failed Rambouillet talks, as a member of the Kosovar delegation, seeking an end to the hostilities. Having resided in the capital Prishtina during his entire presidency, Rugova was taken prisoner by the state authorities after NATO began its U.S.-led aerial campaign against Yugoslav forces in Kosovo. Rugova was exiled to Rome in May 1999 and returned to Kosovo in the summer of that year, shortly after the end of the war.
Rugova remained nominal president of the republic with Bujar Bukoshi as his Prime Minister; meanwhile, Hashim Thaçi, a former KLA commander, had been leading a provisional government since April that year. Effective power, however, was in the hands of the United Nations administration. In 2000, Rugova and Thaçi agreed to relinquish their positions and to work on creating provisional institutions of self-government until Kosovo's final status was decided. Rugova was elected president of Kosovo by the newly formed parliament in 2002 and again in 2005. While his pre-war popularity had certainly diminished, he remained the most powerful leader in the country until his death from lung cancer in 2006.
== Political career ==
The 1980s saw escalating tension within Kosovo with dissatisfaction by Serbs regarding their treatment at the hands of the Kosovan authorities, and resentment from those same authorities towards the lack of powers devolved to them from Belgrade, Yugoslavia's capital. Since 1974, the Socialist Republic of Serbia's local authority had no constitutional rule over Kosovo. In 1989, unilateral measures taken by Serbian President Milošević shattered Kosovo's autonomy by reverting it to its pre-1974 status.
A harsh system was imposed, leading to widespread violations of human rights and the repression of dissenters. An estimated 130,000 Kosovo Albanians were sacked from their jobs and the police in particular were almost completely purged of Albanians. There were numerous reports of extrajudicial beatings, torture and killings, attracting strong criticism from human rights groups and other countries. Kosovo's intellectuals also opposed the changes; Rugova was one of signatories of the "Appeal of 215 Kosovo Intellectuals" against Milošević's decision to change Kosovo's status. After demanding changes to the constitution, he was expelled from the Communist Party.
Rugova entered politics in 1989, when he assumed the leadership of the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK), a newly formed political party that opposed the nullification of Kosovo's autonomy in the former Yugoslavia. The new party was an overwhelming success and within months, 700,000 people – virtually the entire adult population of Kosovo Albanians – had joined.
Kosovo Albanians boycotted Yugoslav and Serbian elections on the grounds that they would legitimise the Milošević government, and they also questioned its veracity. In May 1992, separate elections were held in Kosovo. Rugova won the first presidential election in the Republic of Kosova, an unrecognised state declared in secret by members of Kosovo's former assembly within Yugoslavia. An underground Kosovo Assembly was founded with Bujar Bukoshi acting as Prime Minister from the safe distance of Germany. The local Serbian government responded by arresting 112 of the 120 members of the assembly and six members of the Kosovo government and charging them with "counter-revolutionary activity."
The LDK established a shadow government and a parallel social system to the Serbian one to provide their own education and health services to the ethnic Albanian population. The shadow government's activities were mostly funded by the overseas Kosovo Albanian diaspora, based primarily in Germany and the United States. However, Rugova's government was recognised officially only by the government of Albania.
In 1991 the Yugoslav wars began following Slovenia and Croatia declaring themselves independent from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. By the summer of 1992, Yugoslavia was fully absorbed with the wars in Croatia and Bosnia, and had no spare military capacity to deal with conflicts elsewhere. Rugova supported Kosovo's independence but strongly opposed the use of force as a means of achieving it, fearing a Bosnia-style bloodbath. He instead advocated a policy of Gandhi-like passive resistance, stating on a visit to London that
The slaughterhouse is not the only form of struggle. There is no mass humiliation in Kosovo. We are organised and are operating as a state. It is easy to take to the streets and to head towards suicide, but wisdom lies in eluding a catastrophe.
The Serbian and Yugoslav governments subjected LDK activists and members to considerable harassment and intimidation, and argued that the shadow government was an illegal organisation. However, they did not try to shut down the LDK completely and they allowed him to travel abroad. It seems likely that Milošević saw Rugova as being useful in averting an uprising in Kosovo. The Yugoslav government would have found such a situation difficult to contain at the same time as supporting simultaneous wars in Croatia and Bosnia.
For his part, Rugova stuck to a hard line throughout the 1990s, rejecting any form of negotiation with Serbia's authorities other than on achieving outright independence of Kosovo. A compromise, or a setback in the eyes of his critics, came in 1996 when he reached an agreement with Serbia over educational facilities, under which the parallel shadow education system would not be integrated with that of Serbia.
=== The slide to war ===
Rugova's strategy of passive resistance attracted widespread support from the Kosovo Albanian population, who had seen the carnage wrought in Croatia and Bosnia and was wary of facing a similar situation. However, the Dayton Agreement of 1995, which ended the Bosnian War, seriously weakened Rugova's position. The agreement failed to make any mention of Kosovo and the international community made no serious efforts to resolve the province's ongoing problems. Radicals among the Kosovo Albanian population began to argue that the only way to break the impasse was to launch an armed uprising, in the belief that this would force the outside world to intervene. They blamed Rugova's policy of non-violence for Kosovo's failure to achieve independence. On 1 September 1996, Rugova and Slobodan Milošević signed the Milošević-Rugova education agreement in an attempt to resolve issues regarding the education of Kosovo Albanian children.
In 1997, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) emerged as a fighting force and began carrying out attacks and assassinations against Serbian civilians, paramilitia and security forces as well as Albanians deemed to be "collaborators". The Serbian response was, as the KLA had predicted, forceful and often indiscriminate. By 1998, the KLA had grown into a full-scale guerrilla army, 100,000 Kosovo Albanians were refugees and the province was in a state of virtual civil war. Rugova was re-elected president in the same year and was awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought by the European Parliament. However, he was by now clearly being eclipsed by the KLA. This was highlighted in February 1999 when he was passed over in favour of the KLA's political chief Hashim Thaçi, who was chosen by the underground Kosovo Assembly to head the Kosovo Albanian negotiating team in the discussions on the aborted Rambouillet Agreement.
At the end of March 1999, after negotiations at Rambouillet had broken down, NATO launched Operation Allied Force to impose a resolution of the Kosovo War. Rugova spent the first few weeks of the war under virtual house arrest, along with his family, in Pristina. At the start of April 1999, Rugova was forcefully taken to Belgrade, where he was shown on Serbian state television meeting Milošević and calling for an end to the war.
Rugova was allowed to leave Kosovo for temporary exile in Italy in early May 1999, not long before the war ended. He attracted further criticism for his slowness to return to Kosovo – it was not until July that he arrived back in the province. Nonetheless, he received a hero's welcome and returned to political life under the new United Nations administration in Kosovo.
=== Post-war ===
Despite the political damage suffered by Rugova during the war, he soon regained public esteem and won a decisive victory against his political rivals in the KLA. The guerrillas had been welcomed as liberators by Kosovo Albanians but subsequently alienated many by the perception that they were engaging in organised crime, extortion and violence against political opponents and other ethnic groups in Kosovo. When elections were held in Kosovo in October 2000, the LDK won a landslide victory with 58% of the vote. Its nearest rival, Hashim Thaçi's KLA-linked Democratic Party of Kosovo, polled only 27%. On Monday, 4 March 2002, Rugova was appointed president by the Kosovo Assembly. Rugova lived to see the Constitution of Kosovo adopted by a freely elected democratic Parliament.
As the new President of Kosovo – this time formally acknowledged as such by the international community – Rugova continued to campaign for Kosovo's full independence. However, he insisted that it had to be achieved by peaceful means and with the agreement of all parties. He also pursued a policy of very close relations with the United States, as well as with the European Union. His incremental approach was criticised by radicals, but he sought to bring along the supporters of the former KLA; in November 2004, he appointed Ramush Haradinaj, the former commander of the KLA, as Prime Minister. The following month, Rugova was again elected president by the Kosovo Assembly. Nonetheless, he still encountered violent opposition. On 15 March 2005, he escaped —unhurt —an attempted assassination when a bomb exploded in a waste container as his car passed by.
Rugova demonstrated a number of unusual traits during his time as president. He was readily identifiable by the silk neckscarf that he wore as a display of oppression in Kosovo and was known for his habit of giving visitors samples from his rock collection. His presents were carefully graded; the size of a crystal could reflect Rugova's feelings about the outcome of a meeting, prompting diplomats to compare notes afterwards about the size of the rocks presented to them. He was also a chain-smoker, and it may have been this habit that caused his eventual fatal condition.
== Death ==
On 30 August 2005, Rugova left Kosovo and went to the United States Air Force Landstuhl Military Hospital in Germany for medical treatment after earlier treatment in Pristina and Camp Bondsteel, the main US base in Kosovo and the second-biggest in Europe. After a week at Landstuhl he returned to Kosovo. On 5 September 2005, he announced that he was suffering from lung cancer, but said that he would not be resigning from the post of president. He underwent chemotherapy, conducted by U.S. Army doctors, at his residence in Pristina but the treatment failed to resolve the cancer. He died four months later, on 21 January 2006. He was buried without religious rites on 26 January at a funeral attended by regional leaders and a crowd estimated to be half a million people.
There have been rumors that Rugova converted to Catholicism just before he died. These rumors have never been confirmed by his family nor other source, and one of his closest associates, Sabri Hamiti, in an essay published on the first anniversary of his death, refuted them. He said that Rugova referred to himself as a ‘symbolic Muslim’. The Chancellor of the Catholic Church of Kosovo, Don Shan Zefi, in an interview for Kosovo's national television, said that there is no evidence of Rugova's conversion to Catholicism or baptism. Zefi denied that he had baptized Rugova. Though he had a state funeral service, the head of the Islamic Community of Kosovo, together with many imams conducted Islamic funeral prayers for Rugova. His grave, located at a hilltop in Prishtina, is oriented perpendicular to Mecca, in accordance with Muslim tradition.
== Books by and about Ibrahim Rugova ==
Prekje lirike, [Lyrical Touches], essays, Rilindja, Pristina, 1971;:
Kah teoria, [Towards Theory], essays, Rilindja, Pristina, 1978;
Bibliografia e kritikës letrare shqiptare 1944–1974, [Bibliography of Albanian Literary Criticism 1944–1974], Instituti Albanologjik, Pristina, 1976 (together with Isak Shema),
Kritika letrare (nga De Rada te Migjeni), [Literary Criticism], anthology with commentary, Rilindja, Pristina, 1979 (together with Sabri Hamiti);
Strategjia e kuptimit, [Strategy of Meaning], essays, Rilindja, Pristina, 1980;
Vepra e Bogdanit 1675–1685, [Bogdani's Oeuvre 1675–1685], monograph study, Rilindja, Pristina, 1982;
Kahe dhe premisa të kritikës letrare shqiptare 1504–1983, [Directions and Premises of Albanian Literary Criticism 1504–1983], monograph study, Instituti Albanologjik, Pristina, 1986;
Refuzimi estetik', [Aesthetic Rejection], essays, Rilindja, Pristina, 1987;
Pavarësia dhe demokracia, [Independence and Democracy], interviews and other occasional pieces, Fjala, Pristina, 1991;
Çështja e Kosovës, [The Kosovo Issue], (together with Marie-Françoise Allain and Xavier Galmiche), Dukagjini, Peć, 1994; translation of the original La question du Kosovo – entretiens avec Marie-Francoise Allain et Xavier Galmiche, Preface de Ismail Kadare, Paris, 1994;
Ibrahim Rugova: “La frêle colosse du Kosovo” , Desclée de Brouwer, Paris, 1999;
Kompleti i veprave të Ibrahim Rugovës në tetë vëllime [Ibrahim Rugova's Oeuvre in eight volumes], Faik Konica, Pristina, 2005.
On the first anniversary of Rugova's death, the Kosovo Presidency published a book entitled President Rugova, with a Preface by President Fatmir Sejdiu (‘The First Statesman of Kosovo’) and a long introduction by Sabri Hamiti (‘Memento for Rugova’). The book collects some of the President's major speeches/addresses as a leader and statesman.
Rugova: Vizioni nacional", a publicistic book by Vehbi Miftari, „AIKD”, 2007
"Rugova: The symbol of independence", a publicistic book by Vehbi Miftari „AIKD”, 2008
"Rugova – mendimi, kultura, politika", a book by Vehbi Miftari, 2010
The Winter Of Great Despair by Jeton Kelmendi
== Honours ==
1995 Peace Prize of Paul Litzer Foundation, Denmark.
1996 Honorary Doctorate of University of Paris VIII: Vincennes—Saint-Denis, France
1998 Sakharov Prize of the European Parliament.
1998 Homo Homini Award for human rights activism, People in Need
1999 Peace Prize, City of Münster
1999 Honorary Citizen of the Cities of Venice, Milan and Brescia (Italy).
2000 Peace Prize of the Democratic Union of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.
2003 Prize European Senator of Honour.
2004 Honorary Doctorate of Tirana University.
2006 National Flag Order (posthumously), by President of Albania Alfred Moisiu
2007 Order "Hero of Kosovo" (posthumously), by President of Kosovo Fatmir Sejdiu
2013 R7 Motorway in Kosovo linking with Albania was named after him
== Notes ==
== See also ==
Democratic League of Kosovo
History of Kosovo
Kosovo Liberation Army
Operation Allied Force
== References ==
== Sources ==
Obituaries:
The Economist on Ibrahim Rugova, 26 January 2006
Ibrahim Rugova, The Guardian obituary
Independence leader Rugova given hero's funeral, The Guardian
Kosovo Albanians Mourn Pro-Independence Leader, The New York Times
Ibrahim Rugova, Kosovo Albanian Leader, Is Dead, The New York Times
(in English) "Ibrahim Rugova – Profile", Vreme News Digest Agency No 257, 7 September 1996
San Francisco Chronicle, 22 January 2006
The Times, The Guardian, The Independent, Financial Times – 23 January 2006
Kola, Paulin (2003). The Search for Greater Albania. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-664-7.
Vera Didanović (15 September 2005). "Umeren političar, ekstreman cilj". Vreme. 767.
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Official website of the President of Kosovo
(in Albanian) Book of Condolence Archived 5 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine
(in Albanian) Democratic League of Kosovo
(in Albanian) Assembly of Kosovo
(in Spanish) Extended bio by CIDOB Foundation
Kosovo Albanians mourn lost leader |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Lugard,_1st_Baron_Lugard | Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard | Frederick John Dealtry Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard (22 January 1858 – 11 April 1945), known as Sir Frederick Lugard between 1901 and 1928, was a British soldier, explorer of Africa and colonial administrator. He was Governor of Hong Kong (1907–1912), the last Governor of Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1912–1914), the first High Commissioner (1900–1906), the last Governor (1912–1914) of Northern Nigeria Protectorate and the first Governor-General of Nigeria (1914–1919).
== Early life and education ==
Lugard was born in Madras (now Chennai), India, but was brought up in Worcester, England. He was the son of the Reverend Frederick Grueber Lugard, a British Army chaplain at Madras, and his third wife, Mary Howard (1819–1865), the youngest daughter of Reverend John Garton Howard (1786–1862), a younger son of landed gentry from Thorne and Melbourne, near York. His paternal uncle was Sir Edward Lugard, Adjutant-General in India from 1857 to 1858 and Permanent Under-Secretary of State for War at the War Office from 1861 to 1871. Lugard was educated at Rossall School and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. The name 'Dealtry' was in honour of Thomas Dealtry, a friend of his father.
== Military career ==
Lugard was commissioned into the 9th Foot (East Norfolk Regiment) in 1878 and joined the second battalion in India. He served in the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880), the Sudan campaign (1884–1885) and the Third Anglo-Burmese War (November 1885) and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in 1887. His career was derailed when he fell in love with a twice-married British divorcee he had met in India. Learning she had been injured in an accident, he abandoned his post in Burma to join her in Lucknow and followed her to England. When she rejected him, Lugard decided to make a fresh start in Africa.
=== Karonga War ===
Around 1880, a group of Swahili traders, under Mlozi bin Kazbadema, established trading bases in the north-western sector of Lake Malawi, including a stockade at Chilumba, on the lake, from which ivory and slaves could be shipped across the lake. In 1883 the African Lakes Company set up a base in Karonga to exchange ivory for trade goods from the Swahili merchants.
Relations between the two groups deteriorated, partly because of the company's delays or unwillingness to provide guns, ammunition and other trade goods and also because the Swahili traders turned more to slaving and attacking communities that the company had promised to protect. Hostilities broke out in mid-1887. The series of intermittent armed clashes that took place up to mid-1889 is known as the Karonga War or sometimes the "Arab War".
The African Lakes Company depot at Karonga was evacuated at the end of the year, but in May 1888, Captain Lugard, persuaded by the British Consul at Mozambique, arrived to lead an expedition against Mlozi, sponsored by the African Lakes Company but without official support from the British government.
Lugard's first expedition of May to June 1888 attacked the Swahili stockades with limited success, and in the course of one attack, he was wounded and withdrew southward. Lugard's second expedition in December 1888 to March 1889 was larger and included a 7-pounder gun, which, however, failed to breach the stockade walls. Following the second failure, Lugard left the Lake Malawi region for Britain in April 1889.
== Exploration of East Africa ==
After leaving Nyasaland in April 1889, Lugard accepted a position with the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) and arrived in Mombasa, on the coast of East Africa, in December. A year earlier, in 1888, the IBEAC had been granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria to colonise the "British sphere of influence" between Zanzibar and Uganda and wanted to open a trading route between Lake Victoria, in Uganda, and the coastal port of Mombasa. The first interior trading post was established at Machakos, 240 miles in from the coast, but the established traditional route to Machakos was a treacherous journey through the large Taru Desert, 93 miles of scorching dust bowl.
Lugard's first mission was to determine the feasibility of a route from Mombasa to Machakos that would bypass the Taru Desert. He explored the Sabaki River and the neighbouring region, in addition to elaborating a scheme for the emancipation of the slaves held by Arabs in the mainland of Zanzibar.
On 6 August 1890, Lugard began his caravan expedition to Uganda and was accompanied by five other Europeans: George Wilson, Fenwick De Winton (son of Francis de Winton - Lugard's other chief), William Grant and Archibald Brown.
He departed from Mombasa towards Uganda to secure British predominance over German influence in the area and to put an end to the civil disturbances between factions in the Kingdom of Buganda.
En route, Lugard was instructed to enter into treaties with local tribes and build forts to secure safe passage for future IBEAC expeditions. The IBEAC employed official treaty documents, which were signed by their administrator and the local leaders, but Lugard preferred the more equitable blood brotherhood ceremony and entered into several brotherhood partnerships with leaders who inhabited the areas between Mombasa and Uganda. One of his famed blood partnerships was sealed in October 1890 during his journey to Uganda, when he stopped at Dagoretti in Kikuyu territory and entered into an alliance with Waiyaki Wa Hinga.
Lugard was Military Administrator of Uganda from 26 December 1890 to May 1892. While administering Uganda, he journeyed around the Rwenzori Mountains to Lake Edward and mapped a large area of the country. He also visited Lake Albert and brought away some thousands of Sudanese who had been left there by Emin Pasha and Henry Morton Stanley during the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition.
When Lugard returned to England in 1892, he successfully dissuaded Prime Minister William Gladstone from allowing the IBEAC to abandon Uganda.
== Early colonial service ==
In 1894, Lugard was dispatched by the Royal Niger Company to Borgu, where he secured treaties with the kings and chiefs who acknowledged the sovereignty of the British company and reduced the influence of other colonial powers. From 1896 to 1897, Lugard took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami, in modern-day Botswana, on behalf of the British West Charterland Company. He was recalled from Ngami by the British government and sent to West Africa, where he was commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests in the hinterland of the Lagos Colony and Nigeria against French aggression. He led the 'Race to Nikki' in 1894 and arrived in the important city in Borgu weeks before his French rival. In August 1897, Lugard organised the West African Frontier Force and commanded it until the end of December 1899, when the disputes with France were settled, but Nikki was integrated into the colony of French Dahomey.
After relinquishing command of the West African Frontier Force, Lugard was appointed High Commissioner of the newly created Protectorate of Northern Nigeria. He was present at Mount Patti, Lokoja, and read the proclamation that established the protectorate on 1 January 1900. The portion of Northern Nigeria under effective control was then small, and Lugard's task in organising this vast territory was made more difficult by the refusal of the sultan of Sokoto and many other Fula princes to fulfill their treaty obligations.
In 1903, British control over the whole protectorate was made possible by a successful campaign against the Kano Emirate and the Sokoto Caliphate. When Lugard resigned as commissioner in 1906, the entire region of modern-day Nigeria had become administered under the supervision of British residents.
Lugard was knighted in the 1901 New Year Honours for his service in Nigeria. He stopped slave raiding and abolished slavery and the slave trade. He began developing the country by getting it surveyed and mapped, and he improved transport and communications for colonial convenience. He also reorganised the taxation system. Lugard is most importantly remembered for his political system of rule that was practised in Nigeria, called indirect rule, and for his contributions in the 1914 amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates of Nigeria .
However, the system of indirect rule has remained criticised from several scholars for its construction of social hierarchies, imbalance of political power and forced adoption of ethnicities, which has increased ethnic conflicts. Although the 1914 amalgamation was intended to create a united nation, it is often considered a "total failure" by scholars, as no attempts were made to integrate several ethnically diverse groups.
== Governor of Hong Kong ==
About a year, after he resigned as High Commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, Lugard was appointed Governor of Hong Kong, a position he held until March 1912. During his tenure, Lugard proposed to return Weihaiwei to the Chinese government in return for the ceding of the rented New Territories in perpetuity. However, the proposal was neither well received nor acted upon. Some believed that if the proposal were carried through, Hong Kong might forever have remained in British hands.
Lugard's chief interest was education, and he was largely remembered for his efforts to the founding of the University of Hong Kong in 1911. He became the first chancellor despite a cold reception from the Colonial Office and local British companies, such as the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. The Colonial Office called the idea of a university "Sir Frederick's pet lamb". Lugard's chief impetus from founding the university was to have it serve as a bearer of Western culture in East Asia. He expected the university, however, to adopt a politically conservative framework supportive of the colonial authorities and to refrain from teaching ideas such as democracy or equality. He was financially backed by his personal friend Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody, who shared the same vision for the establishment of a university in Hong Kong.
== Governor of Nigeria ==
In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria as Governor of the two protectorates. His mission was to combine the two colonies into one. Although controversial in Lagos, where it was opposed by a large section of the political class and the media, the amalgamation did not arouse passion in the rest of the country because the people were unaware of the implications. Lugard took scant notice of public opinion, and did not feel that consensus was needed among the locals on such a serious political subject, which had such key implications for the two colonies. From 1914 to 1919, Lugard served as Governor General of the now combined colony of Nigeria. Throughout his tenure, he sought strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native people, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic liqueurs and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery.
Lugard, assisted by his indefatigable wife, Flora Shaw, concocted a legend that warped understanding of him, Nigeria and colonial rule for decades. He believed that "the typical African... is a happy, thriftless, excitable person, lacking in self control, discipline and foresight, naturally courageous, courteous and polite, full of personal vanity, with little of veracity; in brief, the virtues and defects of this race-type are those of attractive children".
The funding of the Colony of Nigeria in the development of state's infrastructure such as harbours, railways and hospitals in Southern Nigeria came from revenue generated by taxes on imported alcohol. In Northern Nigeria, the revenue that allowed state development projects was less because the taxes was absent and thus funding of projects was covered from revenue generated in the south.
The Adubi War occurred during his governorship. In Northern Nigeria, Lugard permitted slavery within traditional native elite families. He loathed the educated and sophisticated Africans living in the coastal regions. Lugard ran the country and spent half each year in England, where he could promote himself and was distant from realities in Africa, where subordinates had to delay decisions on many matters until he returned. He based his rule on a military system unlike William MacGregor, a doctor turned governor, who mixed with all ranks of people and listened to what was wanted. The Lugard who opposed "native education" later became involved in Hong Kong University, and the man who disliked traders and businessmen became a director of a Nigerian bank.
When the British government decided to raise a local militia to protect the western frontier of the Royal Niger Company's territory against the French advance from Dahomey, Lugard was sent, and he successfully organised the West African Frontier Force, which he used successfully to defend not only the western but also the northern frontiers of Nigeria from French encroachment. This saved Nigeria from the assimilation issues of the French.
Lugard's greatest contribution to the making of modern Nigeria was the successful amalgamation of the North and the South in 1914. Even after the amalgamation, the two parts remained as two separate countries, with separate administrations. "Though in doing this, he aimed primarily at making the wealth and seaport facilities of the South available to the North, he had in fact fashioned the political unity of the Giant of Africa". As noted earlier, the amalgamation of Nigeria helped in making Nigeria to have common telegraphs, railways, customs and excise, a Supreme Court, a standard time, a common currency, and a common civil service; he introduced all necessities needed for infrastructure in a modern state.
More importantly, he laid the foundations of continuous legislative assemblies in Nigeria by establishing the Nigerian Council in 1914. It consisted of the Governor, the Chief Secretary and a few nominated members who met to listen to government policies and give their advice. Unfortunately, it legislated only for the South. It could be referred to as a mock parliament because it set pace for the Legislative Council of later years.
In spite of his contributions, Lugard's work was not without faults. "He aimed at creating in Nigeria one administrative unit but he did not intend to create a Nigerian nation". Instead, his policy of isolating the North from the South, a policy that his successors maintained and has since had a hand in the present disunity of Nigeria. An example is the exclusion of the North from the Legislative Council until 1947. "Thus, it can be said that Lugard sowed the seeds of separatist tendency which has still plagued Nigerian unity". To sum it up, Lugard's attitude to Nigeria implied that he did not envisage self-government for Nigeria. He planned for perpetual British colonialism. "His system of Indirect Rule, his hostility towards educated Nigerians in the South, and his system of education for the North which aimed at training only the sons of the chiefs and emirs as clerks and interpreters show him as one of Britain's arch-imperialists", says K. B. C. Onwubiko.
Regarding the future of British colonialism in Africa, he stated, "For two or three generations we can show the negro what we are, then we shall be asked to go away. Then we shall leave the land to those it belongs to with a feeling that they have better business friends in us than in other white men".
== The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa ==
Lugard's The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa was published in 1922 and discussed indirect rule in colonial Africa. He argued that administration of Africa could simultaneously promote the well-being of the inhabitants and develop the resources of the continent for the benefit of mankind. According to Lugard, there were three principles of colonial administration: decentralisation (granting power to local district officers in colonies), continuity (extensive record keeping so that successors would build upon the policies of predecessors) and cooperation (building local support for the colonial government). He defended British colonial practices, in particular the system of indirect rule that he introduced in Nigeria. The task of the British, he wrote, was "to promote the commercial and industrial progress of Africa without too careful a scrutiny of the material gains to ourselves".
In this work, Lugard outlined the reasons and methods that he recommended for the colonisation of Africa. Some of his justifications for establishing colonial rule included spreading Christianity and ending barbaric practices by Africans such as human sacrifice. He also saw state-sponsored colonisation as a way to protect missionaries, local chiefs and local people from each other, as well as from foreign powers. For Lugard, it was also vital that Britain gain control of unclaimed areas before Germany, Portugal or France claimed the land and its resources for themselves. He realised that there were vast profits to be made through the export of resources such as rubber and through taxation of native populations as well as importers and exporters (the British taxpayer continually made a loss from the colonies in this period). In addition, those resources and inexpensive native labour (slavery having been abolished by Britain in 1833) would provide vital fuel for the industrial revolution in resource-depleted Britain, as well as monies for public works projects. Finally, Lugard reasoned that colonisation had become a fad and that to remain a global power, Britain would need to hold colonies to avoid appearing weak.
William Rappard was influenced by Lugard's book. He sought to get Lugard appointed to the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations.
== League of Nations and abolitionist activism ==
Between 1922 and 1936, Lugard was the British representative on the League of Nations' Permanent Mandates Commission. Lugard saw imperial administration in moral terms and advocated for humane principles of colonial rule. He saw the role of the Permanent Mandates Commission as involving standard-setting and oversight, whereas actual administration should be left to national powers.
Lugard supported General George Spafford Richardson's repressive rule of Western Samoa. Lugard criticised European settlers and Samoans who engaged in "interracial mobilization". Lugard played a key role in drafting a Commission report that exonerated Richardson's governance of Western Samoa and placed the blame of the Western Samoa unrest on the anti-colonial activist Olaf Frederick Nelson.
During this period, he served first on the Temporary Slavery Commission and was involved in organising the 1926 Slavery Convention. He had submitted a proposal for the convention to the British government. Despite being initially alarmed by it, the British government backed the proposal (after subjecting it to considerable redrafting), and it was eventually enacted.
He served as one of the seven members of the Committee of Experts on Slavery (CES) of the League of Nations in 1932-1933.
Lugard served on the International Labour Organization's Committee of Experts on Native Labour from 1925 to 1941.
== Beliefs ==
Lugard pushed for native rule in the British colonies of Africa. He reasoned that black Africans were very different from the Europeans although he speculated on the admixture of Aryan or Hamitic blood arising from the advent of Islam among the Hausa and Fulani. He considered that natives should act as a sort of middle manager in colonial governance. That would avoid revolt because, he believed, the native people of Africa would be more likely to follow someone who looked like them, spoke their languages and shared their customs.
Olúfẹmi Táíwò argued that Lugard blocked Black Africans who had been educated in Europe from playing an active role in the development of Colonial Nigeria and distrusted white "intellectuals" as much as black ones since Lugard believed that the principles they were taught in the universities were often wrong. He preferred to advance prominent Hausa and Fulani leaders from traditional structures.
Lugard was an advocate for European paternalist governance over black Africans. He described them as holding "the position of a late-born child in the family of nations, and must as yet be schooled in the discipline of the nursery".
== Honours ==
Lugard was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in 1895. He was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) in the 1901 New Year Honours and raised to a Knight Grand Cross (GCMG) in 1911. He was appointed to the Privy Council in the 1920 New Year Honours. In 1928 he was further honoured when he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Lugard, of Abinger in the County of Surrey.
The Royal Geographical Society awarded him the Founder's Medal in 1902 for persistent attention to African geography.
A bronze bust of Lugard, created by Pilkington Jackson in 1960, is held in the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Lugard Road on Victoria Peak in Hong Kong, China is named after him.
== Personal life ==
Lugard married on 10 June 1902 Flora Shaw, daughter of Major-General George Shaw, and granddaughter of Sir Frederick Shaw, 3rd Baronet. She was a foreign correspondent for The Times and coined the place name Nigeria. There were no children from the marriage. She died in January 1929.
Lugard survived her by sixteen years and died on 11 April 1945, aged 87. Since he was childless, the barony became extinct. He was cremated at Woking Crematorium.
== Published works ==
In 1893, Lugard published The Rise of Our East African Empire, which was partially an autobiography. He was also the author of various valuable reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office.
The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa, 1922.
== See also ==
Indirect rule
Richmond Palmer
Frank Lugard Brayne
George Wilson (Chief Colonial Secretary of Uganda)
== References ==
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lugard, Sir Frederick John Dealtry". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–116.
Biography, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
== Sources ==
Lord Lugard, Frederick D. (1965). The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa. Fifth Edition. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
Middleton, Dorothy (1959). Lugard in Africa. London: Robert Hale, Ltd.
Miller, Charles (1971). The Lunatic Express, An Entertainment in Imperialism.
Meyer, Karl E. and Shareen Blair Brysac. Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East (2009) pp 59–93.
Pederson, Susan (2015). The Guardians: the League of Nations and the Crisis of Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Perham, Marjery (July 1945). "Lord Lugard: A General Appreciation". Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 15 (3): 114–122. doi:10.1017/S0001972000034124. JSTOR 1156118. S2CID 147554864.
Perham, Margery (1956). Lugard. Volume 1: The Years of Adventure 1858–1898. London: Collins.
Perham, Margery (1960). Lugard. Volume 2: The Years of Authority 1898–1945. London: Collins.
Perham, Margery, ed. (1959). The Diaries of Lord Lugard (3 Vols.). London: Faber & Faber.
Taiwo, Alufemi (1999). "Reading the Colonizer's Mind: Lord Lugard and the Philosophical Foundations of British Colonialism". In Babbitt, Susan E; Campbell, Sue (eds.). Racism and Philosophy. Cornell University Press.
== External links ==
Archives Hub:Papers of Frederick Dealtry Lugard, Baron Lugard of Abinger: 1871–1969
Newspaper clippings about Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basie_Reunion | Basie Reunion | Basie Reunion is an album by Count Basie Orchestra members led by jazz saxophonist Paul Quinichette featuring tracks recorded in 1958 and released on the Prestige label.
The first two tracks are correctly identified on the CD reissue; the original LP issue has the titles reversed (although Ira Gitler correctly identifies the titles in his liner notes). In 1982, Prestige issued this session as a gatefold LP paired with For Basie as Basie Reunions; this issue also has the track titles reversed.
== Reception ==
Allmusic awarded the album 4½ stars and reviewer Ken Dryden stated, "While this session isn't meant to substitute for the original recordings by Count Basie, the consistently swinging performances make this meeting of mostly Basie alumni worth purchasing". On All About Jazz, Derek Taylor wrote "Brimming with talent from bands past and present the one-shot aggregation places a premium on expansive individual solos and relaxed first-rate swing ... This disc a winner on a variety of fronts: as an opportunity to hear Basie alum paying inspired homage to their employer, and as a rare opportunity to hear Washington cut loose in the company of his peers. Recommended wholeheartedly to any and all hepcats still practicing or reformed".
== Track listing ==
"Love Jumped Out" (Buck Clayton) – 5:56
"The Blues I Like to Hear" (Buster Smith) – 7:27
"John's Idea" (Count Basie, Eddie Durham) – 9:18
"Baby, Don't Tell on Me" (Basie, Lester Young, Jimmy Rushing) – 7:56
"Roseland Shuffle" (Basie) – 9:37
== Personnel ==
Paul Quinichette – tenor saxophone
Buck Clayton – trumpet
Shad Collins – trumpet
Jack Washington – baritone saxophone
Nat Pierce – piano
Freddie Green – guitar
Eddie Jones – bass
Jo Jones – drums
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damned_Soul_(Bernini)#: | Damned Soul (Bernini) | Damned Soul (Italian: Anima dannata) is a marble sculpture bust by the Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini as a pendant piece to his Blessed Soul. According to Rudolf Wittkower, the sculpture is in the Palazzo di Spagna in Rome. This may well be what is known today as the Palazzo Monaldeschi.
There is a bronze copy, executed by Massimiliano Soldani Benzi some time between 1705 and 1707, in the Liechtenstein Collection.
Recent scholarship on the sculpture has queried whether its topic is not the Christian personifications of pain (possibly inspired by prints by Karel van Mallery), but a depiction of a satyr.
== See also ==
List of works by Gian Lorenzo Bernini
== Notes ==
== References ==
Avery, Charles (1997). Bernini: Genius of the Baroque. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 9780500286333.
Baldinucci, Filippo (2006) [1682]. The Life of Bernini. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271730769.
Bernini, Domenico (2011) [1713]. The Life of Giano Lorenzo Bernini. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271037486.
Dempsey, Charles (2000). Inventing the Renaissance Putto. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina. ISBN 9780807826164.
Mormando, Franco (2011). Bernini: His Life and His Rome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226538525.
Wittkower, Rudolf (1955). Gian Lorenzo Bernini: The Sculptor of the Roman Baroque. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 9780714837154. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
== External links ==
Media related to Damned Soul (Bernini) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhenan_Bao | Zhenan Bao | Zhenan Bao (Chinese: 鲍哲南; pinyin: Bào Zhé-nán; born 1970) is a Chinese-born American chemical engineer. She serves as K. K. Lee Professor of Chemical Engineering at Stanford University, with courtesy appointments in Chemistry and Material Science and Engineering. She served as the Department Chair of Chemical Engineering from 2018 to 2022. She was an Associate Editor for the Royal Society of Chemistry journal Chemical Science, Polymer Reviews and Synthetic Metals. Bao is known for her work on organic field-effect transistors and organic semiconductors, for applications including flexible electronics and electronic skin.
== Early life and education ==
Bao was born in Nanjing, China in 1970. She is the daughter of a professor of physical chemistry at Nanjing University.
Bao studied chemistry as an undergraduate student at Nanjing University beginning in 1987. While at Nanjing University, she worked in the laboratory of Gi Xue on gold cross-linked polymers.
In 1990, Bao moved to the United States with her family, enrolling in the University of Illinois at Chicago as she had family nearby. Several months later, Bao was accepted directly into the PhD program in chemistry at the University of Chicago without a bachelor's degree, owing to two awards she won while an undergraduate at Nanjing University. At the University of Chicago, as one of the first graduate students of Luping Yu, Bao applied palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions towards the synthesis of conductive and liquid crystalline polymers.
Bao received a Master of Science in chemistry in 1993 and a Doctor of Philosophy in chemistry in 1995, both from the University of Chicago. She does not hold any bachelor’s degrees till the day.
== Career ==
Upon the completion of her doctorate, Bao received an offer to join the University of California, Berkeley as a postdoctoral scholar, but instead chose to join the Materials Research Department at Bell Labs of Lucent Technologies. At Bell Labs, she developed the first all-plastic transistor, or organic field-effect transistor, which allows for use in electronic paper. It was also during this time when Jan Hendrik Schön published a series of papers claiming major breakthroughs involving semiconductors, two of which included Bao as a coauthor. Schön's papers were ultimately retracted due to fraud, but Bao was cleared of allegations of misconduct. She was named a Distinguished Member of Technical Staff at Bell Labs in 2001. She founded the Stanford Wearable Electronics Initiative (eWEAR) and is the current faculty director.
In 2004, she returned to academia by joining the faculty at Stanford University where she is now focusing on studying organic semiconductor and carbon nanotubes using new fabrication methods. Recent work in the lab includes developing electronic skin and all-carbon solar cells. Bao is a co-founder and on the board of directors for C3 Nano and PyrAmes Health, both of which are Silicon Valley venture-funded startup companies. She serves as an advising Partner for Fusion Venture Capital.
== Research ==
Bao and her team of researchers at Stanford University have several current projects in her research group as of 2022. Utilizing a “newly created printing method”, Bao and her team have developed skin-like integrated circuits. This new material can be used for “on-skin sensors, body-scale networks and implantable bioelectronics.” The process used for developing these materials is known as photolithography which, when combined with novel photochemistries can generate the flexible materials.
In conjunction with Karl Deisseroth, Bao has developed biocompatible polymers that can be used to “modulate the properties of target cells”. These cell-modulating biocompatible polymers alter certain properties of neurons and can either inhibit or boost neuronal firing. This technology can be used as a tool for exploration to better understand diseases such as multiple sclerosis.
== Fellowships and societies ==
=== Fellowships ===
American Association for the Advancement of Science
American Chemical Society
SPIE
Terman Fellow, Stanford University
=== Advisory board positions ===
ACS Nano
Advanced Functional Materials
Advanced Functional Materials
Chemical Communications
Chemistry of Materials
Materials Today, Nanoscale
NPG Asia Materials
=== Other positions ===
Board of Directors, Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation, 2022–present.
Advisory Council Member, Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, 2022–present.
Science Committee member, Future Science Prize of China, 2018–2021.
Board member, National Academies Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology, 2009–2012.
Board of Directors, Materials Research Society, 2003–2005.
Executive Committee Member/Member-at-Large, Polymers Materials Science and Engineering division of the American Chemical Society, 2000–2006, 2009–2012
== Awards and honors ==
2000: Named among Top 100 Young Engineers by U.S. National Academy of Engineering.
2000: Listed among Top 10 Research Breakthroughs for work on large scale integrated circuits based on organic materials, Science Magazine.
2001: Awarded R&D 100 Award for the work on Printed Plastic Circuits for Electronic Paper Displays by R&D Magazine
2001: Editor's Choice of the "Best of the Best" in new technology by R&D Magazine.
2002: ACS Team Innovation Award.
2003: Named Among Top 100 young innovators for this century by MIT Technology Review.
2003: University Relations of Lucent Technologies Best Mentor Award.
2004: 3M Faculty Award.
2004–2005: Robert Noyce Faculty Scholar.
2009: Awarded Beilby Medal and Prize for her contributions and discoveries in the field of organic semiconductors.
2011: ACS Cope Scholar Award.
2013: Named one of MIT Technology Review's TR35 and C&EN 12 rising stars for her work with organic semiconductors.
2015: Named one of Nature's 10 "people who mattered" in science for her work with wearable electronics, including artificial skin that mimics touch sense.
2016: Elected as a member into the U.S. National Academy of Engineering.
2017: Laureate of L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science for her contribution to the development of novel functional polymers for consumer electronics, energy storage and biomedical applications.
2017: ACS Award in Applied Polymer Science "for pioneering work on the design, processing, and applications of polymer electronic materials for flexible and stretchable electronics."
2020: Willard Gibbs Award.
2021: Elected to American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
2021: Awarded ACS POLY Charles G. Overberger International Prize for Excellence Polymer Research.
2021: Awarded MRS Mid-Career Award.
2021: Awarded AICHE Alpha Chi Sigma Award for Chemical Engineering Research.
2021: Awarded Alumni Professional Achievement Award by the Alumni Board of the University of Chicago.
2022: Awarded ACS Chemistry of Materials Award.
2022: Awarded the VinFuture Prize in Female Innovator category for the development of electronic skins.
2023 Samsung Research Award, Samsung Electronics
2023 Innovation Investigator, Arc Institute
2024 Member, National Academy of Science, National Academy of Sciences
2024 Fellow, Asian American Academy of Science and Engineering (AAASE)
2024 Faculty Women’s Forum (FWF) Outstanding Leader Award, Stanford University
== Personal life ==
One of her major mentors was Elsa Reichmanis, who was the department director at Bell Labs. She is married and has two children.
== References ==
== External links ==
Stanford Academic Bio
Bao Lab website
Interview with Chemical Technology |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_National_Assembly_of_France | List of presidents of the National Assembly of France | This article lists Presidents of the French Parliament or, as the case may be, of its lower chamber.
The National Constituent Assembly was created in 1789 out of the Estates-General. It, and the revolutionary legislative assemblies that followed – the Legislative Assembly (1791–1792) and the National Convention (1792–1795), had a quickly rotating Presidency. With the establishment of the Directory in 1795, there were two chambers of the French legislature. The lower, the Council of Five Hundred, also had a quickly rotating chairmanship. Under Napoleon I, the Legislative Corps had all authority to actually enact laws, but was essentially a rubberstamp body, lacking the power to debate legislation. With the restoration of the monarchy, a bicameral system was restored, with a Chamber of Peers and a Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber of Deputies, for the first time, had presidents elected for a substantial period of time.
With the revolution of 1848, the monarchical assemblies were dissolved and replaced again with a unicameral National Assembly, which Napoleon III replaced with a new version of his uncle's Legislative Corps. With the establishment of the Third Republic, the name of Chamber of Deputies was restored; after 1876 it was joined by a Senate as upper house. The Chamber of Deputies was renamed the National Assembly in the constitution of the Fourth Republic, and is still known as that.
== Presidents of the National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791) ==
Presidents of the National Constituent Assembly rotated in short periods.
== Presidents of the Legislative Assembly (1791–1792) ==
Presidents of the Legislative Assembly rotated in short periods.
== Presidents of the National Convention (1792–1795) ==
== Presidents of the Council of Five Hundred (1795–1799) ==
== Presidents of the Legislative Corps (1800–1814) ==
== President of the Chamber of Départements' Deputies (1814–1815) ==
== President of the Chamber of Representatives (4 June – 13 July 1815) ==
== Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of the Departments (1815–1830) ==
== Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (1830–1848) ==
== Presidents of the National Constituent Assembly (1848–1849) ==
== President of the National Legislative Assembly (1849–1852) ==
== Presidents of the Legislative Corps (1852–1870) ==
== Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (1871–1940) ==
== President of the Consultative Assembly (1943–1945) ==
== Presidents of the Constituent National Assembly (1945–1946) ==
== Presidents of the National Assembly, Fourth Republic (1946–1958) ==
== Presidents of the National Assembly, Fifth Republic (1958–present) ==
== External links ==
(in French) List of presidents of the National Assembly of France on its official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson#:~:text=She%20received%20her%20judicial%20commission,the%20United%20States%20Supreme%20Court. | Ketanji Brown Jackson | Ketanji Onyika Brown Jackson (née Brown; kə-TAHN-jee; born September 14, 1970) is an American lawyer and jurist who is an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Jackson was nominated to the Supreme Court by President Joe Biden on February 25, 2022, and confirmed by the U.S. Senate and sworn into office that same year. She is the first black woman, the first former federal public defender, and the sixth woman to serve on the United States Supreme Court.
Jackson was born in Washington, D.C., and raised in Miami, Florida. She received her undergraduate and legal education at Harvard University, where she served as an editor of the Harvard Law Review, and clerked for Justice Stephen Breyer, whose seat she later assumed on the Supreme Court. From 2010 to 2014, Jackson was the vice chairwoman of the United States Sentencing Commission. In 2013, she was appointed by President Barack Obama to serve as a district judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. President Joe Biden elevated her to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in 2021, where she served until 2022. Jackson served as a Harvard Board of Overseers member from 2016 to 2022.
Alongside justices Elena Kagan and Sonia Sotomayor, Jackson is considered part of the Court's liberal wing.
== Early life and education ==
Jackson was born on September 14, 1970, in Washington, D.C., to parents who were both teachers and had been educated at historically black colleges and universities. Her father, Johnny Brown, graduated from the University of Miami School of Law and became chief attorney for the Miami-Dade County School Board. Her mother, Ellery, was the school principal at the New World School of the Arts in Miami. One of her uncles, Calvin Ross, served as the police chief of the Miami Police Department.
Jackson grew up in Miami and attended Miami Palmetto Senior High School. She distinguished herself as a champion debater, winning the national oratory title at the National Catholic Forensic League championships in New Orleans during her senior year. She has recalled her experience with high school debate as one "that I can say without hesitation was the one activity that best prepared me for future success in law and in life." In 1988, Jackson graduated from Palmetto as senior class president. In her high school yearbook, she was quoted as saying that she wanted "to go into law and eventually have a judicial appointment".
After high school, Jackson matriculated at Harvard University to study government, having applied despite her guidance counselor's advice to set her sights lower. She took classes in drama and performed improv comedy, forming a diverse friend group. As a member of the Black Students Association, she led protests against a student who displayed a Confederate flag from his dormitory window and protested the lack of full-time professors in the Afro-American Studies Department. While a freshman, Jackson enrolled in Michael Sandel's course Justice, which she has called a major influence during her undergraduate years. She graduated from Harvard in 1992 with a Bachelor of Arts, magna cum laude. Her senior thesis was titled "The Hand of Oppression: Plea Bargaining Processes and the Coercion of Criminal Defendants".
From 1992 to 1993, Jackson worked as a staff reporter and researcher for Time magazine. She then attended Harvard Law School, where she was a supervising editor of the Harvard Law Review, graduating in 1996 with a Juris Doctor, cum laude.
== Early career ==
After law school, Jackson was a law clerk to Judge Patti B. Saris of the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts from 1996 to 1997 and to Judge Bruce M. Selya of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit from 1997 to 1998. She spent a year in private practice at the Washington, D.C., law firm of Miller Cassidy Larroca & Lewin (now part of Baker Botts), then clerked for Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer from 1999 to 2000.
Jackson returned to private legal practice at the law firm of Goodwin Procter from 2000 to 2002, then under Kenneth Feinberg at the law firm now called Feinberg & Rozen LLP from 2002 to 2003. From 2003 to 2005, she was an assistant special counsel to the United States Sentencing Commission. From 2005 to 2007, Jackson was an assistant federal public defender in Washington, D.C., where she handled cases before the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. A review by The Washington Post of cases Jackson handled during her time as a public defender showed that "she won uncommon victories against the government that shortened or erased lengthy prison terms". From 2007 to 2010, Jackson was an appellate specialist in private practice at the law firm of Morrison & Foerster.
== U.S. Sentencing Commission (2010–2014) ==
On July 23, 2009, President Obama nominated Jackson as vice chair of the United States Sentencing Commission. The Senate Judiciary Committee favorably reported her nomination by voice vote on November 5, 2009. The Senate confirmed her nomination by voice vote on February 11, 2010. She succeeded Michael E. Horowitz, who had served from 2003 until 2009. Jackson served on the Sentencing Commission until 2014. During her time on the commission, it retroactively amended the sentencing guidelines to reduce the guideline range for crack cocaine offenses, and enacted the "drugs minus two" amendment, which implemented a two offense-level reduction for drug crimes.
== District Court (2013–2021) ==
On September 20, 2012, Obama nominated Jackson to serve as a United States district judge for the District of Columbia to the seat vacated by retiring judge Henry H. Kennedy Jr. Republican U.S. Representative Paul Ryan, a relative by marriage, introduced Jackson at her December 2012 confirmation hearing and said, "Our politics may differ, but my praise for Ketanji's intellect, for her character, for her integrity, it is unequivocal." On February 14, 2013, the Senate Judiciary Committee favorably reported her nomination by voice vote. She was confirmed by the Senate by voice vote on March 22, received her commission on March 26, and was sworn in by Justice Breyer in May. Her service as a district judge ended on June 17, 2021, when she was elevated to the court of appeals.
During her time on the district court, Jackson wrote multiple decisions adverse to the positions of the Trump administration. In her opinion ordering Trump's former White House counsel Don McGahn to comply with a legislative subpoena, she wrote that "presidents are not kings". Jackson handled a number of challenges to executive agency actions that raised questions of administrative law. She also issued rulings in several cases that gained particular political attention.
Bloomberg Law reported in spring 2021 that conservative activists were pointing to certain decisions by Jackson that had been reversed on appeal as a "potential blemish on her record". In 2019, Jackson ruled that provisions in three Trump executive orders conflicted with federal employee rights to collective bargaining. Her decision was reversed unanimously by the D.C. Circuit. The D.C. Circuit also reversed another 2019 decision, involving a challenge to a Department of Homeland Security decision to expand the agency's definition of which non-citizens can be deported. Alliance for Justice President Nan Aron defended Jackson's record, saying she "has written nearly 600 opinions and been reversed less than twelve times".
=== Selected rulings ===
In American Meat Institute v. U.S. Department of Agriculture (2013), Jackson rejected the meat packing industry's request for a preliminary injunction to block a United States Department of Agriculture rule requiring them to identify animals' country of origin. Jackson found that the rule likely did not violate the First Amendment.
In Depomed v. Department of Health and Human Services (2014), Jackson ruled that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had violated the Administrative Procedure Act when it failed to grant pharmaceutical company Depomed market exclusivity for its orphan drug Gralise. She concluded that the Orphan Drug Act required the FDA to grant Gralise exclusivity.
In Pierce v. District of Columbia (2015), Jackson ruled that the D.C. Department of Corrections violated the rights of a deaf inmate under the Americans with Disabilities Act because jail officials failed to provide the inmate with reasonable accommodations, or to assess his need for reasonable accommodations, during his detention in 2012. She held that "the District's willful blindness regarding" Pierce's need for accommodation and its half-hearted attempt to provide Pierce with a random assortment of auxiliary aids—and only after he specifically requested them—fell far short of what the law requires."
In April and June 2018, Jackson presided over two cases challenging the Department of Health and Human Services' decision to terminate grants for teen pregnancy prevention programs two years early. She ruled that the decision to terminate the grants early without explanation was arbitrary and capricious.
In American Federation of Government Employees, AFL-CIO v. Trump (2018), Jackson invalidated provisions of three executive orders that would have limited the time federal employee labor union officials could spend with union members, the issues that unions could bargain over in negotiations, and the rights of disciplined workers to appeal disciplinary actions. She ruled that the executive orders violated the right of federal employees to collectively bargain, as guaranteed by the Federal Service Labor-Management Relations Statute. The D.C. Circuit vacated this ruling on jurisdictional grounds in 2019.
In 2018, Jackson dismissed 40 wrongful death and product liability lawsuits stemming from the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, which had been combined into a single multidistrict litigation. She held that under the doctrine of forum non conveniens, the suits should be brought in Malaysia, not the U.S. The D.C. Circuit affirmed this ruling in 2020.
In 2019, in Center for Biological Diversity v. McAleenan, Jackson held that Congress had, through the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act, stripped federal courts of jurisdiction to hear non-constitutional challenges to the United States Secretary of Homeland Security's decision to waive certain environmental requirements to facilitate construction of a border wall on the United States and Mexico border.
In 2019, Jackson issued a preliminary injunction in Make The Road New York v. McAleenan, blocking a Trump administration rule that would have expanded expedited removal ("fast-track" deportations) without immigration court hearings for undocumented immigrants. She found that the U.S. Department of Homeland Security had violated the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) because its decision was arbitrary and capricious and the agency did not seek public comment before issuing the rule. In a 2–1 ruling in 2020, the D.C. Circuit reversed the entry of the preliminary injunction, ruling that the IIRIRA (by committing the matter to the executive branch's "sole and unreviewable discretion") precluded APA review of the decision.
In 2019, Jackson issued a ruling in Committee on the Judiciary of the U.S. House of Representatives v. McGahn, in which the House Committee on the Judiciary sued former White House Counsel Don McGahn to compel him to comply with the subpoena to appear at an impeachment inquiry hearing on issues of alleged obstruction of justice by the Trump administration. McGahn declined to comply with the subpoena after President Donald Trump, relying on a legal theory of executive testimonial immunity, ordered McGahn not to testify. In a lengthy opinion, Jackson ruled in favor of the House Committee and held that senior-level presidential aides "who have been subpoenaed for testimony by an authorized committee of Congress must appear for testimony in response to that subpoena" even if the president orders them not to do so. Jackson rejected the administration's assertion of executive testimonial immunity by holding that "with respect to senior-level presidential aides, absolute immunity from compelled congressional process simply does not exist". According to her, that conclusion was "inescapable precisely because compulsory appearance by dint of a subpoena is a legal construct, not a political one, and per the Constitution, no one is above the law." Jackson's use of the phrase "presidents are not kings" gained popular attention in subsequent media reporting on the ruling. Noting that she took four months to resolve the case, including writing a 120-page opinion, The Washington Post wrote: "That slow pace contributed to helping Mr. Trump run out the clock on the congressional oversight effort before the 2020 election." The ruling was appealed by the United States Department of Justice, and the D.C. Circuit affirmed part of Jackson's decision in August 2020. While the case remained pending, on June 4, 2021, McGahn testified behind closed doors under an agreement reached with the Biden administration.
== U.S. Court of Appeals (2021–2022) ==
On March 30, 2021, President Biden announced his intention to nominate Jackson as a United States circuit judge for the District of Columbia Circuit. On April 19, 2021, her nomination was sent to the Senate. Biden nominated Jackson to the seat vacated by Judge Merrick Garland, who had stepped down to become U.S. Attorney General. The American Bar Association appraised Jackson as "well qualified with no recusals or abstentions".
On April 28, 2021, a hearing on her nomination was held before the Senate Judiciary Committee. During her confirmation hearing, Jackson was questioned about several of her rulings against the Trump administration. On May 20, Jackson's nomination was reported out of committee by a 13–9 vote. On June 8, Majority Leader Chuck Schumer filed cloture on her nomination. On June 10, the Senate invoked cloture on her nomination by a 52–46 vote. On June 14, her nomination was confirmed by a 53–44 vote. Republican senators Susan Collins, Lindsey Graham, and Lisa Murkowski joined all 50 Democrats in voting to confirm Jackson. She received her judicial commission on June 17, 2021. Her service as a circuit judge ended on June 29, 2022, the day before she was sworn in as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
During her time on the Circuit Court Jackson authored two majority opinions, American Federation of Government Employees v. FLRA and Wye Oak Technology, Inc. v. Republic of Iraq. In American Federation of Government Employees, her first written opinion for the court of appeals, Jackson, writing for a unanimous panel, wrote that a 2020 FLRA law change that moved to allow for collective bargaining negotiations with unions only when the negotiated working condition changes constituted a "substantial impact", stood in violation with U.S. Code 5 § 706. In her opinion, Jackson rejected arguments that the previously established de minimis standard warranted replacement, objecting to claims that the standard was "unpredictable" in its application or inconsistent with federal labor law. In addition, she argued that the replacement standard failed to be affirmatively more successful when compared to the existing de minimis standard, as no comparative analysis between the two had occurred, and that the existing could therefore not be justifiably replaced.
In Wye Oak Technology, Inc. v. Republic of Iraq Jackson wrote for a unanimous panel regarding the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act's commercial activity exemptions. In her opinion, Jackson addressed prior litigation by Wye Oak Technology which had determined that, under the second of the Act's three exemption clauses, U.S. courts were permitted to exercise jurisdiction over Iraq to facilitate the payment of their invoices. The clause Wye Oak used in litigation provided for the exemption so long as "an act is performed in the United States in connection with the foreign state’s outside-U.S. commercial activity". Jackson determined that this clause was applicable only when an act is performed by a foreign state within the U.S., vacating the prior verdict permitting for the exemption, as all acts performed within the U.S. were attributable to Wye Oak and not Iraq. Jackson subsequently remanded the case for consideration to the District Court for the District of Columbia to determine whether additional commercial activity exemptions such as the "direct effect" clause were applicable in its stead.
== Nomination to the Supreme Court ==
In early 2016, Obama administration officials vetted Jackson as a potential nominee to the Supreme Court of the United States to fill the vacancy left by the death of Justice Antonin Scalia. Jackson was one of five candidates interviewed as a potential nominee.
In early 2022, news outlets speculated that Biden would nominate Jackson to the U.S. Supreme Court to fill the seat vacated by Justice Breyer. Biden pledged during the 2020 United States presidential election campaign to appoint a black woman to the court should a vacancy occur. Jackson's appointment to the D.C. Circuit, considered the second-most influential federal court, was viewed as preparation for a potential promotion to the Supreme Court.
Jackson's potential nomination to the Supreme Court was supported by civil rights and liberal advocacy organizations. Her potential nomination was opposed by Republican Party leaders and senators. The Washington Post wrote that Jackson's experience as a public defender "has endeared her to the more liberal base of the Democratic Party". While her supporters have touted her history as a public defender as an asset, during her 2021 confirmation hearing, Republicans tried to cast it as a liability.
On February 25, 2022, Biden announced that Jackson was his nominee to be an associate justice of the Supreme Court. Her nomination was sent to the Senate on February 28. Her confirmation hearing before the Senate Judiciary Committee was held on March 21. After the Judiciary Committee deadlocked on her nomination by an 11–11 vote, the Senate discharged the committee from further consideration of her nomination by a 53–47 vote. The next day, the Senate proceeded to the consideration of her nomination by a 53–47 vote, and Majority Leader Chuck Schumer then filed cloture on her nomination. On April 7, the Senate invoked cloture on her nomination by a 53–47 vote. Later that day, she was confirmed by the same margin. Republicans Mitt Romney, Lisa Murkowski, and Susan Collins joined all Democrats in confirming Jackson to the Supreme Court. She received her judicial commission as an associate justice on April 8. She was sworn in and became an associate justice at noon on June 30, 2022, when Breyer's retirement went into effect.
== U.S. Supreme Court (2022–present) ==
The Supreme Court released its final merit opinions on the morning of June 30, 2022. At noon, Breyer officially retired and Jackson was sworn in, becoming the first Black woman and the first former federal public defender to serve on the Supreme Court. On September 28, 2022, Jackson was assigned as the circuit justice for the First Circuit.
On July 21, Jackson voted on her first Supreme Court case, joining the dissent in a 5–4 decision refusing to block a district court ruling that prevented the Biden administration from setting new enforcement priorities for immigrants entering the U.S. or living in the country illegally. She participated in her first oral argument as an associate justice on October 3, in Sackett v. Environmental Protection Agency. On November 7 she wrote her first opinion, a two-page dissent from a denial of review in the case of a death row inmate in Chinn v. Shoop; the opinion was joined by Justice Sotomayor.
Two contributors to SCOTUSBlog noted that, since joining the Court at the beginning of the 2022 term, Jackson was the most active participant in oral arguments, speaking an average of 1,350 words per argument, while the eight other justices each spoke on average fewer than 1,000. On February 28, 2023, Jackson authored her first majority opinion for a unanimous court in Delaware v. Pennsylvania, which involved how unclaimed money from MoneyGrams are distributed among individual states.
In 2025, Justice Amy Coney Barrett criticized Jackson's dissent in Trump v. CASA, writing, "Justice Jackson decries an imperial Executive while embracing an imperial Judiciary." On July 8, 2025, in AFGE v. Trump, the Supreme Court issued an emergency order on Trump's federal workforce reorganization, ruling in Trump's favor 8-1, with Jackson the lone dissenter. It was an appeal of a lower court ruling in the Northern District of California. Jackson argued that Trump's reorganization of the U.S. government was an illegal restructuring of the federal bureaucracy. Justice Sonia Sotomayor said the case was not about the merits of the reorganization plans themselves and pointed out that the case could proceed and other aspects challenged.
=== Labor disputes ===
On June 1, 2023, Jackson wrote the sole dissenting opinion in Glacier Northwest, Inc. v. Teamsters, concerning the power of employers to sue labor unions regarding the destruction of employer property following a strike. In her opinion, she argued that further deference to the National Labor Relations Board was justified given the precedent of cases such as San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon that stipulate that the NLRA preempts state law when the two conflict. Jackson further contended that the majority opinion failed "Congress's intent with respect to the Board's primary role in adjudicating labor disputes", with its deference to state actions risking "erosion of the right to strike". In her conclusion, she emphasized these points, writing: "Workers are not indentured servants, bound to continue laboring until any planned work stoppage would be as painless as possible for their master. They are employees whose collective and peaceful decision to withhold their labor is protected by the NLRA even if economic injury results".
On June 13, 2024, Jackson wrote an opinion, concurring in part and dissenting in part, in Starbucks Corporation v. McKinney. In it, she agreed that the case should be reheard in the lower courts using the four criteria tests of Winter v. Natural Resources Defense Council, but argued that the majority failed to follow the NLRA's directives of court deference to NLRB authority in labor disputes. Arguing that the court was failing to issue proper deference to the NLRB, Jackson wrote, "I am loath to bless this aggrandizement of judicial power where Congress has so plainly limited the discretion of the courts, and where it so clearly intends for the expert agency it has created to make the primary determinations".
=== Affirmative action ===
Jackson dissented from the Supreme Court's ruling in Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina, the companion case to Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College, which limited the use of racial preferences in university admissions. In her dissent, Jackson emphasized the relationship between Black Americans and the U.S. government, writing, "Our country has never been colorblind", and associating affirmative action as a corrective marker in reconciliation. In doing so, she expressed opposition to the majority's usage of the Equal Protection Clause, writing, "To impose this result in that Clause’s name when it requires no such thing, and to thereby obstruct our collective progress toward the full realization of the Clause’s promise, is truly a tragedy for us all".
=== Judicial philosophy ===
Jackson has said she does not have a particular judicial philosophy, but rather has a perspective on legal analysis or a "judicial methodology". Though she has not embraced the label, Jackson has expressed that she sees value in originalism, saying the "Constitution is fixed in its meaning", and has explicitly criticized living constitutionalism.
In January 2022, The New York Times reported that Jackson had "not yet written a body of appeals court opinions expressing a legal philosophy" because she had joined the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit in the summer of 2021. However, The Times said, Jackson's earlier rulings "comported with those of a liberal-leaning judge", including her opinions blocking various Trump administration actions. Additionally, a review of over 500 of her judicial opinions indicated that she would likely be as liberal as Breyer, the justice she replaced.
According to Sahil Kapur, writing for NBC News, "Jackson fits well with the Democratic Party and the progressive movement's agenda" due to her relative youth, background as a public defender, and history of labor-friendly rulings.
Politico reported that "Jackson is popular with liberal legal activists looking to replace Breyer with a justice willing to engage in ideological combat with the court's conservatives."
== Personal life ==
In 1996, Jackson married surgeon Patrick Graves Jackson, whom she met at Harvard College. He is a descendant of Continental Congress delegate Jonathan Jackson and is related to U.S. Supreme Court justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. The couple have two daughters. Jackson is a non-denominational Protestant. In a 2017 speech, she said, "I am fairly certain that if you traced my family lineage back past my grandparents—who were raised in Georgia, by the way—you would find that my ancestors were slaves on both sides." Jackson's paternal ancestry can be traced to Houston County, Georgia, while her maternal ancestry can be traced to Calhoun County, Georgia. Through her marriage, Jackson is related to former speaker of the House Paul Ryan.
In 1989, while Jackson was an undergraduate at Harvard, her uncle Thomas Brown Jr. was sentenced to life in prison for a nonviolent cocaine conviction after federal agents found 14 kilograms of cocaine wrapped in duct tape. Years later, Jackson persuaded a law firm to take his case pro bono, and President Barack Obama eventually commuted his sentence.
Jackson appeared in the Broadway production of & Juliet one night in December 2024. After receiving the invitation to portray herself in a brief cameo, she called it a "lifelong dream of hers". She took acting classes as an undergraduate at Harvard, and said that prepared her for her role on Broadway. The role was written for her.
=== Affiliations ===
Jackson is a member of the Judicial Conference Committee on Defender Services and the Council of the American Law Institute. She previously served as a member of the Harvard Board of Overseers and on the Georgetown Day School Board of Trustees and the U.S. Supreme Court Fellows Commission.
From 2010 to 2011, she served on the advisory board of Montrose Christian School, a Baptist school. Jackson has served as a judge in several mock trials with the Shakespeare Theatre Company and for the Historical Society of the District of Columbia's Mock Court Program. In 2018, she presided over a mock trial hosted by Drexel University's Thomas R. Kline School of Law "to determine if Vice President Aaron Burr was guilty of murdering" Alexander Hamilton.
In 2017, Jackson presented at the University of Georgia School of Law's 35th Edith House Lecture. In 2018, she was a panelist at the National Constitution Center's town hall on Alexander Hamilton's legacy. In 2020, Jackson gave the Martin Luther King Jr. Day lecture at the University of Michigan Law School and was honored at the University of Chicago Law School's third annual Judge James B. Parsons Legacy Dinner, hosted by the school's Black Law Students Association. In 2022, she received the Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award, presented by Awards Council members Justice Amy Coney Barrett and retired justice Anthony Kennedy.
== Selected works ==
Recent Case (1995). "Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) – Scope of Liability after Reves v. Ernst & Young". Harvard Law Review. 108 (6): 1405–1410. doi:10.2307/1341863. JSTOR 1341863.
Note (1996). "Prevention versus Punishment: Toward a Principled Distinction in the Restraint of Released Sex Offenders". Harvard Law Review. 109 (7): 1711–1728. doi:10.2307/1342027. JSTOR 1342027. S2CID 247656074.
Lovely One (2024). Jackson, Ketanji Brown (September 3, 2024). Lovely One: A Memoir (First hardcover ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 9780593729908. OCLC 1452735147.
== See also ==
Barack Obama Supreme Court candidates
Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States
Joe Biden judicial appointment controversies
Joe Biden Supreme Court candidates
List of African American federal judges
List of African American jurists
List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)
List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Additional sources ==
"Tracking the Progress of African Americans on the Editorial Rolls of America's Most Prestigious Law Journal". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (47): 44–46. Spring 2005. doi:10.2307/25073170. JSTOR 25073170.
Braun, Julie A. (2022). Unland, James J. (ed.). "Ketanji Brown Jackson: Legal Philosophy of a Rookie Supreme Court Justice". Journal of Health Care Finance (published October 3, 2022). doi:10.2139/ssrn.4063023. SSRN 4242313.
Phillips, James Cleith (September 27, 2022) [27 March 2022 (posted)]. "The Linguistic Style of Judge Ketanji Brown Jackson". Penn State Law Review. 127 (1). SSRN 4063023.
Bradley, Christy; Roland, James (Summer 2022). "Critical Thinkers for a Critical Time: Debate as a Foundation for Youth Civic Engagement". National Civic Review. 111 (2): 14–22. JSTOR 48680128.
Bowles, Dorcas Davis; Hopps, June Gary; Strickland, Christopher (Summer 2022). "Two Firsts: A Brief Glimpse into the Lives of the First Woman-Sandra Day O'Connor and the First Black Woman- Ketanji Brown Jackson to Serve on the Supreme Court of the United States". Phylon. 59 (1). Clark Atlanta University: 49–70. JSTOR 27150914.
== External links ==
Ketanji Brown Jackson at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center.
whitehouse.gov: Portrait
Ketanji Brown Jackson at Ballotpedia
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paola_Concia#:~:text=In%20August%202011%2C%20she%20married,%2C%20Ricarda%20Trautmann%2C%20in%20Frankfurt. | Paola Concia | Anna Paola Concia (born 4 July 1963) is an Italian politician and LGBT rights activist.
== Biography ==
Concia was born in Avezzano, Province of L'Aquila, and she graduated in sports science from L'Aquila's Istituto Superiore di Educazione Fisica; following her graduation, she has worked as a physical education and tennis instructor. She first became involved with politics while at ISEF, and she was initially a member of the Italian Communist Party.
Concia moved to Rome in 1992 following the death of her mother and the collapse of her marriage. She worked as a parliamentary assistant before working as an adviser to Anna Finocchiaro, the minister responsible for equal opportunities. Concia later advised Giovanna Melandri after her promotion to Minister of Cultural Heritage and Activities in 1998. Following the 2001 general election, Concia left politics to pursue her work in tennis. She came out a year later.
Concia was named as the Democratic Party's spokesperson on homosexuality, and she used her position within the party to become a prominent activist for equal rights. She was first elected to the Chamber of Deputies in the 2008 general election.
In August 2011, she married her wife, Ricarda Trautmann, in Frankfurt.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Premier_League#External_links | 2021–22 Premier League | The 2021–22 Premier League was the 30th season of the Premier League, the top English professional league for association football clubs since its establishment in 1992, and the 123rd season of top-flight English football overall. The start and end dates for the season were released on 25 March 2021, and the fixtures were released on 16 June 2021.
Manchester City successfully defended their title, winning for the second consecutive year, securing a sixth Premier League title and eighth English league title overall on the last day of the campaign; it was also the club's fourth title in the last five seasons.
== Summary ==
Manchester City were the defending champions, having won their fifth Premier League title during the previous season.
This season saw the return of full attendance, after the final third of the 2019–20 and the entirety of the 2020–21 seasons were held with limited or no attendance due to the restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. This season was the second season to feature a winter break, with no Premier League matches scheduled between 23 January and 7 February 2022.
=== The race for first place ===
The early title race was dominated by Liverpool, Manchester City and Chelsea, who were separated by two points by early December. By December, Chelsea led the way following a run of just one defeat in 14 matches until a shock defeat to West Ham United gave City the edge. A run of 12 consecutive victories, concluding in a victory over Chelsea that essentially ended their title hopes, gave Manchester City a 13-point lead by January (though Liverpool had two games in hand due to COVID-19 postponements). Liverpool then went on a 10-game winning run, including both their games in hand, helped by a costly 2–3 home loss for City to Tottenham Hotspur in February, to cut City's lead to a single point ahead of their meeting at the Etihad on 10 April. A 2–2 draw retained City's narrow lead going into the final weeks of the season.
=== Newcastle takeover ===
On 7 October, Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund purchased an 80% stake and completed the £300m takeover of Newcastle United, ending the 14-year ownership of Mike Ashley. On 12 October 2021, an emergency meeting was convened by the other 19 Premier League clubs between themselves and the Premier League, where they voiced their anger at the league's decision to ratify the takeover; Newcastle United were the only Premier League club to be excluded from attending the meeting. On 18 November 2021, Premier League clubs voted to tighten the Premier League's financial controls in order to limit Newcastle United's spending power.
At the time of the takeover, Newcastle were in 19th position having failed to win any of their first seven games. The new ownership announced the departure of Steve Bruce and hired Eddie Howe; while Newcastle did not win a game until the 15th attempt, their form improved dramatically after five signings in the January transfer window. A run of 12 wins in their final 18 games secured an 11th place finish.
=== COVID-19 outbreaks force postponements ===
In December 2021, multiple matches were postponed due to the COVID-19 outbreaks in multiple clubs, with many clubs calling for the league to shut down until 2022. Following a meeting on 20 December involving all 20 Premier League clubs, a decision was made to fulfil the fixtures over the Christmas period "where it is safe to do so". Clubs were advised that if they had 13 fit players, plus a goalkeeper, then they should fulfil their fixtures.
=== Abramovich sanctions ===
On 2 March, Roman Abramovich announced that he planned to sell Chelsea, stating his intent to donate all proceeds of the sale to the victims of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In the following days, numerous reports about interested buyers surfaced including Swiss billionaire Hansjörg Wyss, Los Angeles Dodgers and Lakers shareholder Todd Boehly, Pakistani businessman Javed Afridi, and other unnamed parties.
On 10 March, the British government froze all of Roman Abramovich's assets due to his close personal ties with Vladimir Putin, leaving Chelsea unable to sell tickets or merchandise, buy or sell players, and negotiate contracts. The UK government issued Chelsea a licence that allowed the club to continue footballing activities, ensured that employees continued to be paid, and allowed season-ticket holders to continue to attend games.
=== Final day climax ===
Going into the last day of the season, the title race, Champions League, Europa League, Conference League qualifications, and the relegation battle were all decided on the final day for the first time in Premier League history.
==== Title ====
With a one point advantage over Liverpool, Manchester City needed to match or better Liverpool's result to clinch back-to-back titles. Liverpool needed to win and hope that Manchester City dropped points to Aston Villa, managed by former Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard.
Liverpool went behind to Wolves in the 3rd minute, but quickly equalised. Aston Villa took a shock 2–0 lead after 63 minutes thanks to goals from Matty Cash and Philippe Coutinho. Manchester City then scored three goals (from substitute Ilkay Gundogan and Rodri) in under six minutes to take the lead in the match. Two late goals from Liverpool's Mohamed Salah and Andy Robertson meant they won their game 3–1, but their result was irrelevant as City's 3–2 comeback win over Villa confirmed City as champions for the fourth time in five seasons.
This season is mainly remembered for the great quality of play expressed by Manchester City and Liverpool, which gave rise to a fantastic title fight (as was the case in the 2018–2019 season that also ended with the Citizens' victory) but it is also true that VAR in its third season in England caused various problems, often due to a "high bar" that forced and twisted the protocol and made VAR intervene on very few occasions, the goal was to intervene in a targeted manner as UEFA did at EURO 2020, but despite the good will, some mistakes were made, among the most glaring being the failure to award a penalty in Everton-Manchester City in favour of the home team due to a handball of Rodri, an episode that affected the title race.
==== Relegation ====
Norwich City, who were promoted from the Championship last season, suffered relegation with four games to spare following a 10th loss in 12 matches, against Aston Villa. Norwich also recorded the worst goal difference since Derby County in 2007–08. The next weekend Watford, who were also promoted, were the second to go down after defeat to Crystal Palace.
The final relegation spot was contested by Everton, Burnley and Leeds United, all of whom spent time in the bottom three in the final months of the season. Everton endured a run of just three wins between October and April, but victories against Manchester United, Chelsea and Leicester City meant that victory over Crystal Palace in their final home game of the season would secure safety. Although they went 2–0 down at half time, Dominic Calvert-Lewin's goal in the 85th minute to put Everton 3–2 ahead had fans invading the pitch. Fans stormed the pitch again at full time, after avoiding what would have been the club's first relegation since 1951 and prolonging their top-flight status for a 69th year running.
Burnley and Leeds went into the final day level on 35 points, with Burnley having the edge over Leeds due to a superior goal difference. Burnley fell behind 2–0 to Newcastle, while a Raphinha penalty put Leeds ahead against Brentford in the 54th minute. A 78th minute equaliser from Brentford and a Maxwel Cornet goal gave Burnley hope of survival, but an added time winner from Jack Harrison confirmed safety for Leeds and relegated Burnley after six consecutive seasons in the Premier League.
==== Champions League, Europa League and Conference League spots ====
With Chelsea securing a top-four finish for a fourth straight season, only Tottenham and Arsenal were in the hunt for the final Champions League spot. Arsenal were in 4th with three games remaining, but Arsenal's defeats against Tottenham in the North London derby and Newcastle in their final away game combined with Tottenham victory against Burnley in their final home game saw Tottenham leapfrog them with one game remaining. Spurs just needed a point against already relegated Norwich on the final day to secure Champions League qualification for the first time in three years, and won 5–0 with two goals from Son Heung-min, who secured a joint Golden Boot with Mohamed Salah. Arsenal failed to qualify for the Champions League for a sixth season, despite beating Everton 5–1.
Manchester United suffered another difficult season, culminating in the sacking of Ole Gunnar Solskjær on 21 November 2021, which followed a humiliating 4–1 defeat to Watford. Ralf Rangnick would be appointed as interim manager for the rest of the season. The club ultimately finished the season in 6th, with a goal difference of zero and their worst points tally in the Premier League era, at just 58, as well as losing on the final day. United still managed to qualify for the Europa League, as West Ham's 3–1 defeat at Brighton prevented them from qualifying for back-to-back Europa League spots; they instead had to settle for a spot in the Europa Conference League.
=== Other teams ===
Brentford manager Thomas Frank had a promising first season in the Premier League. Thanks to January signing Christian Eriksen, the team won seven out of their last 11 games of the season, which included a 4–1 victory against Chelsea. The Dane guided the Bees to a 13th place finish, 11 points above the relegation zone and not spending a single week in the relegation zone.
Brighton had their best season in the top-flight with Graham Potter's side finishing ninth with a total of 51 points, despite their poor home record. Their 4–0 win against Manchester United was another new high for them, as it was also their biggest top-flight win.
== Teams ==
Twenty teams competed in the league – the top seventeen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the Championship. The promoted teams were Norwich City, Watford (who both returned to the top flight after a year's absence) and Brentford (who returned to the top flight after a seventy-four year absence). This was also Brentford's first season in the Premier League. They replaced Fulham, West Bromwich Albion (both teams relegated to the Championship after just one year in the top flight) and Sheffield United (relegated after a two-year top flight spell).
=== Stadiums and locations ===
Note: Table lists in alphabetical order. Source:
=== Personnel and kits ===
a.^ Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang was club captain at Arsenal until 14 December 2021, when he was stripped of the captaincy following a disciplinary breach; he was later let go by the club on 1 February. Alexandre Lacazette served as the de facto captain until early February, when he was officially named to the role.
b.^ Troy Deeney was club captain at Watford at the start of the season, but left the club on 30 August. Moussa Sissoko was named the captain following Deeney's departure.
c. ^ Three and Hyundai suspended their sponsorships of Chelsea in response to sanctions imposed on the club and Roman Abramovich following the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The former does however remain on the club's shirt and will at least until a new kit is released the following season. Should the sponsorship be put back on hold, Three will remain Chelsea's shirt sponsor.
=== Managerial changes ===
== League table ==
== Results ==
== Season statistics ==
=== Top scorers ===
==== Hat-tricks ====
Notes
4 Player scored 4 goals(H) – Home team(A) – Away team
=== Clean sheets ===
=== Discipline ===
==== Player ====
Most yellow cards: 11
Junior Firpo (Leeds United)
Tyrone Mings (Aston Villa)
James Tarkowski (Burnley)
Most red cards: 2
Raúl Jiménez (Wolverhampton Wanderers)
Ezri Konsa (Aston Villa)
==== Club ====
Most yellow cards: 101
Leeds United
Most red cards: 6
Everton
== Awards ==
=== Monthly awards ===
=== Annual awards ===
== Attendances ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright_Star_Catalogue#:~:text=The%20abbreviation%20for%20the%20catalog%20as%20a%20whole%20is%20BS%20or%20YBS%20but%20all%20citations%20of%20stars%20it%20indexes%20use%20HR%20before%20the%20catalog%20number%2C%20a%20homage%20to%20the%20catalog%27s%20direct%20predecessor%2C%20published%20in%201908%2C%20named%20the%20Harvard%20Revised%20Photometry%20Catalogue. | Bright Star Catalogue | The Bright Star Catalogue, also known as the Yale Catalogue of Bright Stars, Yale Bright Star Catalogue, or just YBS, is a star catalogue that lists all stars of stellar magnitude 6.5 or brighter, which is roughly every star visible to the naked eye from Earth. The catalog lists 9,110 objects, of which 9,095 are stars, 11 are novae or supernovae (which were "bright stars" only at the time when they were at their peak), and four are non-stellar objects which are the globular clusters 47 Tucanae (designated HR 95) and NGC 2808 (HR 3671), and the open clusters NGC 2281 (HR 2496) and Messier 67 (HR 3515).
The catalogue is fixed in number of entries, but its data is maintained, and it is appended with a comments section about the objects that has been steadily enhanced. The abbreviation for the catalog as a whole is BS or YBS but all citations of stars it indexes use HR before the catalog number, a homage to the catalog's direct predecessor, published in 1908, named the Harvard Revised Photometry Catalogue.
== History ==
The earliest predecessor of the YBSC, titled Harvard Photometry, was published in 1884 by the Harvard College Observatory under the supervision of Edward Charles Pickering, and contained about 4,000 stars. Following its release, Pickering promoted a broader stellar survey for the southern celestial hemisphere, equally as thorough as the Harvard Photometry of 1884. This photometry work was carried out by Solon I. Bailey between 1889 and 1891, leading to the publication of the Revised Harvard Photometry in 1908. The new catalogue contained stars down to magnitude 6.5 in both hemispheres, for which John A. Parkhurst continued work through the 1920s.
The Yale Bright Star Catalogue has been steadily enhanced since the Yale astronomer Frank Schlesinger published the first version in 1930; even though the YBS is limited to the 9110 objects already in the catalog, the data for the objects already listed is corrected and extended, and it is appended with a comments section about the objects. The edition of 1991 was the fifth in order, a version that introduced a considerable enhancement of the comments section, to a little more than the size of the catalogue itself. This most recent edition, in addition to several previous editions, was compiled and edited by Ellen Dorrit Hoffleit of Yale University.
The Harvard Revised Photometry, based on visual observations, has been superseded by photo-electric measurements using band pass filters, most prominently the UBV photometric system. This can differ substantially (up to 1.8 magnitudes ) from the older system. Hence many stars brighter than V=6.50 are not in the YBSC (and hundreds of stars in the YBSC are fainter than V=6.50). Dorrit Hoffleit with Michael Saladyga and Peter Wlasuk published in 1983 a Supplement with an additional 2603 stars for which a V magnitude of brighter than 7.10 had been measured at that time.
=== Editions ===
There have been one predecessor, and five editions of the YBS Catalog:
predecessor – Revised Harvard Photometry (1908)
1st edition – Catalogue of Bright Stars (1930)
2nd edition – Catalogue of Bright Stars (1940)
3rd edition – Catalogue of Bright Stars (1964)
4th edition – The Bright Star Catalogue (1982)
Supplement – A Supplement to the Bright Star Catalogue (1983)
5th edition – The Bright Star Catalogue (1991), which exists only in electronic form, not in book form.
== See also ==
=== Astronomical topics ===
Photometry
Star catalog
=== Astronomers ===
Solon I. Bailey
Ida Barney
Ellen Dorrit Hoffleit
Carlos Jaschek
Louise Freeland Jenkins
Edward Charles Pickering
Frank Schlesinger
== References ==
== External links ==
"Yale Bright Star Catalog". Provides a link to a program "sbsc" for consulting the Bright Star Catalog.
"Complete catalog from CDS". cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (FTP). (To view documents see Help:FTP)
"Online version of the catalog from VizieR".
"Online version of the supplement to the 4th edition of the catalog". |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi_Dimitrov | Georgi Dimitrov | Georgi Dimitrov Mihaylov (; Bulgarian: Георги Димитров Михайлов) also known as Georgiy Mihaylovich Dimitrov (Russian: Георгий Михайлович Димитров; 18 June 1882 – 2 July 1949), was a Bulgarian communist politician who served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party from 1933 to 1949, and the first leader of the Communist People's Republic of Bulgaria from 1946 to 1949. From 1935 to 1943, he was the General Secretary of the Communist International.
Born in western Bulgaria, Dimitrov worked as a printer and trade unionist during his youth. He was elected to the Bulgarian parliament as a socialist during the First World War and campaigned against his country's involvement in the conflict, which led to his brief imprisonment for sedition. In 1919, he helped found the Bulgarian Communist Party. Two years later, he moved to the Soviet Union and was elected to the executive committee of Profintern. In 1923, Dimitrov led a failed communist uprising against the government of Aleksandar Tsankov and was subsequently forced into exile. He lived in the Soviet Union until 1929, at which time he relocated to Germany and became head of the Comintern operations in central Europe.
Dimitrov rose to international prominence in the aftermath of the 1933 Reichstag fire trial. Accused of plotting the arson, he refused counsel and mounted an eloquent defence against his Nazi accusers, in particular Hermann Göring, ultimately winning acquittal. After the trial he relocated to Moscow and was elected head of Comintern.
In 1946, Dimitrov returned to Bulgaria after 22 years in exile and was elected prime minister of the newly founded People's Republic of Bulgaria. He negotiated with Josip Broz Tito to create a federation of Southern Slavs, which led to the 1947 Bled accord. The plan ultimately fell apart over differences regarding the future of the joint country as well as the Macedonian question, and was completely abandoned following the fallout between Stalin and Tito. Dimitrov died after a short illness in 1949 in Barvikha near Moscow. His embalmed body was housed in the Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum in Sofia until its removal in 1990; the mausoleum was demolished in 1999.
== Early life ==
The first of eight children, Dimitrov was born in Kovachevtsi, in present-day Pernik Province, to refugee parents from Ottoman Macedonia (a mother from Bansko and a father from Razlog). His father was a rural craftsman, forced by industrialisation to become a factory worker. His mother, Parashkeva Doseva, was a Protestant Christian, and his family is sometimes described as Protestant. The family moved to Radomir and then to Sofia. Several of Georgi's siblings engaged in leftist political activities. His brother Nikola moved to Russia and joined the Bolsheviks in Odessa. In 1908, Nikola was arrested and exiled to Siberia where he died in 1916. Georgi's brother Konstantin became a trade union leader but was killed in the First Balkan War in 1912. One of his sisters, Lena, married a future communist leader, Valko Chervenkov.
Dimitrov was sent to Sunday school by his mother, who wanted him to be a pastor, but he was expelled at age 12. He then trained as a compositor, and became active in the labor movement in the Bulgarian capital. By age 15, he was an active trade union member. By age 18 in 1900, he was secretary of the Sofia branch of the printers' union.
== Career ==
Dimitrov joined the Bulgarian Social Democratic Workers' Party in 1902. The following year he allied himself with Dimitar Blagoev and the faction that formed the Social Democratic Labour Party of Bulgaria ("The Narrow Party", or tesniaks). In 1919, this party became the Bulgarian Communist Party when it affiliated with Bolshevism and the Comintern. From 1904 to 1923, Dimitrov was Secretary of the General Trade Unions Federation, which the Narrows controlled.
In 1911, he spent a month in prison for libeling an official of the rival Free Federation of Trade Unions, whom he accused of strike-breaking. In 1913, he was elected to the Bulgarian Parliament. He opposed government policies in the Balkan Wars and World War I. In 1915, he voted against awarding new war credits and denounced Bulgarian nationalism, for which he received short prison sentences. In summer 1917, after he intervened in defense of wounded soldiers who were being ordered by an officer to clear out of a first-class railway carriage, Dimitrov was charged with incitement to mutiny, stripped of his parliamentary immunity, and imprisoned on 29 August 1918. Released in 1919, he went underground and made two failed attempts to visit Russia, finally reaching Moscow in February 1921. He returned to Bulgaria later in 1921, but then travelled again to Moscow and was elected in December 1922 to the Executive Bureau of Profintern, the communist trade union international.
In June 1923, when Bulgarian Prime Minister Aleksandar Stamboliyski was deposed through a coup d'état, Dimitrov and Khristo Kabakchiev, the leading communists in Bulgaria at the time, resolved not to take sides, a decision condemned by the Comintern as a "political capitulation" brought on by the party's "dogmatic-doctrinaire approach". After Vasil Kolarov had been sent from Moscow to impose a change in the Bulgarian party line, Dimitrov accepted the Comintern's authority. In September 1923, he and Kolarov led the failed uprising against the regime of Aleksandar Tsankov, which cost the lives of possibly five thousand communist supporters during the fighting and the reprisals which followed. Despite its failure, the attempt was approved by the Comintern, and secured the positions of Kolarov and Dimitrov – who escaped via Yugoslavia to Vienna – as the joint leaders of the Bulgarian CP.
The political struggle in Bulgaria intensified in 1925. Dimitrov's only surviving brother, Todor, was arrested and killed that year by royal police. After the April 1925 St Nedelya Church assault, which was a terrorist bomb attack carried out by members of the Bulgarian CP, Dimitrov was tried in absentia in May 1926 and sentenced to death, although he had not approved the attack. Living under pseudonyms, he remained in the Soviet Union until 1929, when he was ousted from his Bulgarian CP leadership role by a faction of younger, more left-wing activists. Dimitrov then relocated to Germany where he was given charge of the Central European section of the Comintern. In 1932, he was appointed Secretary General of the World Committee Against War and Fascism, replacing Willi Münzenberg.
== Leipzig trial ==
Dimitrov was living in Berlin in early 1933 when Adolf Hitler and the Nazis took power. On the night of 27 February, the German parliament building, the Reichstag, was severely damaged in an arson attack. A Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, was found near the scene of the crime and presumed to be the culprit. Hitler quickly blamed a Communist conspiracy for the arson, and the Nazis proceeded to make mass arrests. On 9 March, Dimitrov was arrested based on the evidence of a waiter who claimed to have seen "three Russians" (in reality, Dimitrov and two other Bulgarians, Vasil Tanev, and Blagoy Popov, both of whom were members of the faction that had supplanted Dimitrov in the Bulgarian Communist Party) talking in a cafe with Van der Lubbe. Dimitrov would remain in Nazi detention until the following February. His diary entries during this period tended to be "dry and elliptical, and occasionally obscure" since he knew they would be subject to examination by his captors.
The Reichstag fire trial lasted from September to December 1933. Because it occurred at the Reich Supreme Court in Leipzig, it is often referred to as the Leipzig Trial. Dimitrov decided to refuse counsel and defend himself against his Nazi accusers, most famously Hermann Göring. Dimitrov used the trial as an opportunity to defend the Communist ideology. Explaining why he chose to speak in his own defense, Dimitrov said:
I admit that my tone is hard and grim. The struggle of my life has always been hard and grim. My tone is frank and open. I am used to calling a spade a spade. I am no lawyer appearing before this court in the mere way of his profession. I am defending myself, an accused Communist. I am defending my political honor, my honor as a revolutionary. I am defending my Communist ideology, my ideals. I am defending the content and significance of my whole life. For these reasons every word which I say in this court is a part of me, each phrase is the expression of my deep indignation against the unjust accusation, against the putting of this anti-Communist crime, the burning of the Reichstag, to the account of the Communists.
Dimitrov's calm conduct of his defence, and the accusations he directed at his prosecutors, won him world renown. In Europe, a popular saying spread across the Continent: "There is only one brave man in Germany, and he is a Bulgarian." Among those impressed with Dimitrov was the noted U.S. attorney Arthur Garfield Hays, co-founder of the American Civil Liberties Union. Hays attended the Leipzig Trial and devoted a chapter to it in his 1942 autobiography. In an oft-quoted passage, Hays wrote of Dimitrov:I have never seen such a magnificent exhibition of moral courage. The man was not only brave but reckless, and selflessly so. Whenever he got to his feet, he would by force of his personality place the court, the prosecutors, the German audience, and the Nazis on the defensive. This striking characterization was cited in multiple American newspaper reviews of Hays' book and helped introduce Dimitrov's name throughout the U.S.
On 23 December 1933, the verdicts were read. While Van der Lubbe was found guilty and sentenced to death, the judge acquitted Dimitrov, Tanev, and Popov because of insufficient evidence to connect them to what the judge was convinced was a conspiracy to burn down the Reichstag. The three Bulgarians were expelled from Germany and sent to the USSR.
== Head of Comintern ==
When Dimitrov arrived in Moscow on 28 February 1934, he was encouraged by Joseph Stalin to end the practice of denouncing Social Democrats as 'social fascists', practically indistinguishable from actual fascists, and to instead promote "united front" tactics against the threat of European fascism. In April, as Dimitrov's fame grew in the wake of the Leipzig Trial, he was appointed a member of the Executive of Comintern and of its political secretariat, in charge of the Anglo-American and Central European sections. He was being groomed to take control of the Comintern from two of the so-called "Old Bolsheviks", Iosif Pyatnitsky and Wilhelm Knorin, who had held the position since 1923. Finally, in 1934, Stalin chose Dimitrov to head the international organization. At this point, Tzvetan Todorov writes, Dimitrov "became part of the Soviet leader's inner circle."
From 25 July to 20 August 1935, the 7th World Congress of the Communist International met in Moscow. Dimitrov was the dominant presence; he was elected the Comintern's General Secretary. His impassioned anti-fascist speeches at the Congress were transcribed and published in a September 1935 pamphlet, The United Front Against Fascism, which went through numerous editions over the ensuing years.
During the Great Purge in the Soviet Union, Dimitrov knew about the mass arrests, but did almost nothing. In November 1937, he was told by Stalin to lure the German communist Willi Münzenberg to the USSR so that he could be arrested. Dimitrov did not object and did as he was told. He noted in his diary when Julian Leszczyński, Henryk Walecki, and several members of his staff were arrested, but again did nothing, though he did raise questions when the NKVD representative in Comintern, Mikhail Trilisser, was arrested.
== Leader of Bulgaria ==
In 1946, Dimitrov returned to Bulgaria after 22 years in exile. After a referendum abolished the monarchy in September, Bulgaria was declared a people's republic. Later that year, he succeeded Kimon Georgiev as Prime Minister, though Dimitrov had already been the most powerful man in the country since the monarchy was abolished two months earlier. He retained his Soviet citizenship.
One of Dimitrov's first acts as Prime Minister was to negotiate with Josip Broz Tito on the creation of a Federation of the Southern Slavs. The Bulgarian and Yugoslav Communist leaderships had been discussing this matter since November 1944. The idea was based on the fact that Yugoslavia and Bulgaria were the only two homelands of the Southern Slavs, and were separated from the rest of the Slavic world. The idea eventually resulted in the 1947 Bled accord, signed by Dimitrov and Tito, which called for abandoning frontier travel barriers, arranging for a future customs union, and having Yugoslavia unilaterally forgive Bulgarian war reparations. The preliminary plan for the federation included the incorporation of the Blagoevgrad Region ("Pirin Macedonia") into the People's Republic of Macedonia and the return of the Western Outlands from Serbia to Bulgaria. In anticipation of this, Bulgaria accepted teachers from Yugoslavia who started to teach the newly codified Macedonian language in the schools in Pirin Macedonia, and also issued an order that the Bulgarians of the Blagoevgrad Region should claim а Macedonian identity.
However, differences soon emerged between Dimitrov and Tito with regard to both the future joint country and the Macedonian question. Whereas Dimitrov envisaged a state where Yugoslavia and Bulgaria would be placed on an equal footing and Macedonia would be more or less attached to Bulgaria, Tito saw Bulgaria as a seventh republic in an enlarged Yugoslavia tightly ruled from Belgrade. Their differences also extended to the national character of the Macedonians; whereas Dimitrov considered them to be an offshoot of the Bulgarians, Tito regarded them as an independent nation of people who had nothing whatsoever to do with the Bulgarians. The initial tolerance for the Macedonization of Pirin Macedonia gradually grew into outright alarm.
By January 1948, Tito's plans to annex Bulgaria and Albania had become an obstacle to policy of the Cominform and the other Eastern Bloc countries. In December 1947, Enver Hoxha and an Albanian delegation were invited to a high-level meeting in Bulgaria. Dimitrov was aware of the subversive activity of Koçi Xoxe and other pro-Yugoslav Albanian officials. He told Enver Hoxha during the meeting: "Look here, Comrade Enver, keep the Party pure! Let it be revolutionary, proletarian and everything will go well with you!"
After the initial rupture, Stalin invited Dimitrov and Tito to Moscow regarding the recent incident. Dimitrov accepted the invitation, but Tito refused, and sent his close associate Edvard Kardelj instead. The resulting rift between Stalin and Tito in 1948 gave the Bulgarian Government an eagerly-awaited opportunity of denouncing Yugoslav policy in Macedonia as expansionistic, and of revising its policy on the Macedonian question. The ideas of a Balkan Federation and a United Macedonia were abandoned, the Macedonian teachers were expelled and the teaching of Macedonian throughout the province was discontinued. At the 5th Congress of the Bulgarian Workers' Party (Communists), Dimitrov accused Tito of "nationalism" and hostility towards the internationalist communists, specifically the Soviet Union. Despite the fallout, Yugoslavia did not reverse its position on renouncing Bulgarian war reparations, as defined in the 1947 Bled accord.
== Personal life ==
In 1906, Dimitrov married his first wife, Serbian emigrant milliner, writer and socialist Ljubica Ivošević, with whom he lived until her death in 1933. While in the Soviet Union, Dimitrov married his second wife, the Czech-born Roza Yulievna Fleishmann (1896–1958), who gave birth to his only son, Mitya, in 1936. The boy died at age seven of diphtheria. While Mitya was alive, Dimitrov adopted Fani, a daughter of Wang Ming, the acting General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 1931. He and his wife adopted another child, Boiko Dimitrov, born 1941.
== Death ==
Dimitrov died on 2 July 1949 in the Barvikha sanatorium near Moscow. The speculation that he had been poisoned has never been confirmed, although his health seemed to deteriorate quite abruptly. The supporters of the poisoning theory claim that Stalin did not like the "Balkan Federation" idea of Dimitrov and his closeness with Tito.
After the funeral, Dimitrov's body was embalmed and placed on display in Sofia's Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum. After the end of Communist rule in Bulgaria, his body was buried in Sofia's central cemetery in 1990. His mausoleum was demolished in 1999.
== Legacy ==
=== Armenia ===
A statue in the village of Dimitrov, named in his honour in 1949.
=== Benin ===
A large painted statue of Dimitrov survives in the centre of Place Bulgarie in Cotonou, Republic of Benin, decades after the country abandoned Marxism–Leninism and the colossal statue of Vladimir Lenin was removed from Place Lenine.
=== Bulgaria ===
Dimitrovgrad, Bulgaria
Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum 1949–1999
=== Cambodia ===
There is also an avenue (#114) named for him in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
=== Cuba ===
A main avenue in the Nuevo Holguin neighborhood, which was built during the 1970s and 1980s in the city of Holguín is named after him.
Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias Jorge Dimitrov in Bayamo is named after him.
IPUEC Jorge Dimitrov (Ceiba 7) school in Caimito
Primary School Escuela Primaria Jorge Dimitrov in Havana
=== East Germany ===
In then-East Berlin's Pankow district, a street that since 1874 had been named Danziger Straße — after the formerly German city Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) — was in 1950 renamed Dimitroffstraße (Dimitrov Street) by the Communist East German regime. It also lent its name to an U-Bahn station. After German unification, the Berlin Senate in 1995 restored the street's name to Danziger Straße, and the U-Bahn station was renamed Eberswalder Straße.
=== England ===
In July 1982, there was a centennial celebration of Dimitrov's birth held at Mahatma Gandhi Hall in London. A lecture from the event was printed in the pamphlet, Georgi Dimitrov: Fighter Against Fascism.
=== Greece ===
In 1974, the song Mavra Korakia along with 20 songs of album "Antartika" (The Guerilla [Songs]) were published by Notis Mavroudis and Petros Pandis, as part of the return of KKE in Greece during the Metapolitefsi. The song is a glorification of the Leipzig Trial of Dimitrov, Tanev and Popov, emphasising Dimitrov's ability to avoid hanging. It is widely sung in the left-wing circles of Greek society.
=== Hungary ===
The square Fővám tér and the street Máriaremetei út in Budapest, Hungary were named after Dimitrov between 1949 and 1991. In the square, a bust of him was erected in 1954, replaced by a full-length statue in 1983, which was then relocated to the eponymous street a year later. Both sculptures are exhibited since 1992 in the Memento Park.
Szentlőrincpuszta, part of Érsekvadkert was called Dimitrovpuszta (Dimitrov Plains) between 1955 and the late 1990s.
=== Italy ===
There is a Georgi Dimitrov street in the city of Reggio Emilia, Emilia Romagna administrative region.
=== Nicaragua ===
The Sandinista government of Nicaragua renamed one of Managua's central neighbourhoods "Barrio Jorge Dimitrov" to commemorate him during that country's revolution in the 1980s.
=== Romania ===
In Bucharest, a boulevard was named after him (Bulevardul Dimitrov). In 1990, following the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, this boulevard was renamed in honor of the former Romanian King Ferdinand I (Bulevardul Ferdinand).
=== Russia ===
Dimitrovgrad, Russia
In Novosibirsk a large street leading to a bridge over the Ob River are both named after him. The bridge was opened in 1978.
=== Serbia ===
Dimitrovgrad, Serbia (see below)
=== Slovakia ===
During the times of the communist rule, an important chemical factory in Bratislava was called "Chemické závody Juraja Dimitrova" (colloquially Dimitrovka) in his honour. After the Velvet Revolution, it was renamed Istrochem.
=== Ukraine ===
Dymytrov, now Myrnohrad in Ukraine was named Dymytrov between 1972 and 2016.
=== Yugoslavia ===
After the 1963 Skopje earthquake, Bulgaria joined the international reconstruction effort by donating funds for the construction of a high school, which opened in 1964. In order to honor the donor country's first post-World War II president, the high school was named after Georgi Dimitrov, a name it still bears today.
The town of Caribrod (Цариброд) in what was then the People's Republic of Serbia, FPRY was renamed in 1950 to Dimitrovgrad (Димитровград) to honor the late Bulgarian leader, despite the Tito-Stalin split. The name has been kept since, although in recent years the local city council has tried to restore the old name (most recently in 2019), and some people prefer the older name to avoid confusion with the Dimitrovgrad in Bulgaria.
== Works ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Banac, Ivo, ed. (2003). The Diary of Georgi Dimitrov, 1933–1949. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300097948.
== Further reading ==
Dallin, Alexander; Firsov, Fridrikh Igorevich, eds. (2000). Dimitrov and Stalin, 1934–1943: Letters from the Soviet Archives. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300080212.
Stankova, Marietta (2010). Georgi Dimitrov: A Life (Communist Lives). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1845117283.
== External links ==
Georgi Dimitrov Internet Archive at Marxists Internet Archive.
Selected Works in English (Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3) in PDF format, published in Bulgaria in 1972.
Stella Blagoeva, George Dimitroff, International Publishers, 1943.
Georgi Dimitrov: 90th Birth Anniversary, containing biographical information.
Video A Better Tomorrow: The Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum from UCTV (University of California)
Newspaper clippings about Georgi Dimitrov in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavino_Angius | Gavino Angius | Gavino Angius (born 18 November 1946) is an Italian politician.
== Biography ==
Born at Sassari (Sardinia), after the degree in Political Sciences, he became a member of the Italian Communist Party (PCI), for which he was secretary of his city's section. He was elected for the first time at the Italian Chamber of Deputies in 1987.
Angius initially opposed the transformation of PCI into the more Social democratic-oriented Democratic Party of the Left (PDS, later Democrats of the Left). However, he remained in the new party while becoming a national level figure, as well as collaborator to secretary Massimo D'Alema.
Confirmed as deputy in 1992 and 1994 for PDS, he was elected senator two years later. Elected again in 2001, he was named chief of the Democrats of the Left senators.
Angius became one of the vice-presidents of the Italian Senate in May 2006.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitwan_District | Chitwan District | Chitwan District (, Nepali: चितवन, [ˈtsit̪ʌwʌn] ) is one of seventy-seven districts of Nepal, and takes up the southwestern corner of Bagmati Province. Bharatpur, largest city of Nepal after Kathmandu, is its administrative centre. It covers 2,238.39 km2 (864.25 sq mi), and in 2011 had a population of 579,984 (279,087 male and 300,897 female) people. Bharatpur is the commercial and service centre of South Central Nepal and a major destination for higher education, health care and transportation in the region. Chitwan lies in the Terai region of Nepal. It is in the drainage basin of the Gandaki River and is roughly triangular, taking that river as its meandering northwestern border, and a modest watershed border, with India, as the basis of its southern limit.
Local government: Bharatpur Metropolitan, Rapti Municipality, Ratnanagar Municipality, Kalika Municipality, Khairahani Municipality, Madi Municipality, Ikshyakamana Gaupalika
== History ==
The district takes its name from the Chitwan Valley, one of Nepal's Inner Terai valleys between the Mahabharat and Siwalik ranges, both considered foothills of the Himalayas.
Chitwan is one of the few remaining undisturbed vestiges of the Terai region, which formerly extended over the foothills of Nepal. It was originally a dense forest with wild animals like leopards and Bengal tigers. It was ruled by Chitrsen Baba and rishis meditated in the forest.
== Etymology ==
There are several theories on the origin of the name Chitwan:
The name Chitwan is a composite of the Sanskrit words चित्त, transliterated "citta" meaning heart, and वन, transliterated "vana" meaning jungle or forest. Thus, the meaning of Chitwan is Heart of the Jungle.
Chitwan was a dense forest ruled by the Tharu God-King Chitrasen Baba, thought to an incarnation of Vishnu. Today, the Tharu worship his idol during HariBodhini Ekadashi in Chitrasari en route to the village of Sauraha. Ban (वन) is the local word for a forest, according to this theory, the area was called Chitra Ban (Chitrasen's forest) which then became Chitwan.
The Chitwan forests were populated by leopards and Bengal tigers and, since the Tharu term for a leopard is Chitri, the area became Chitwan.
Chitra is also the Tharu word for religious drawings. You can see lots of Chitra in Tharu traditional house and, hence, "Chitra ban" became Chitwan.
== Religious Sites ==
Valmiki Ashram
Shivaghat
Devghat
Bikram-Baba Temple
Krishna Mandir Temple
Sitamai Temple
Umbrella Street
== Agriculture and industry ==
The people inhabiting the Chitwan District are predominantly peasant farmers cultivating mainly food and cash crops such as rice, maize, wheat, beans, lentils, mustard and Vegetables. The district is the major maize-producing area in Nepal, with an area under maize cultivation of 27,170 ha (104.9 sq mi) in the year 2003–04. Maize is cultivated on irrigated /seasonal irrigated land in winter and spring, and on rain fed land in summer. Because it is easily accessible by good roads, maize produced in the district can be easily distributed to other parts of the country. Poultry is also a significant industry in Chitwan.
Chitwan is famous in Nepal for mustard growing and production of mustard oil. This popularity of the mustard in Chitwan is attributed to the predominant soil type silt, resulting from the flooding of the Narayani River and its tributaries. The land of Chitwan is also spotted with clay, which is very good for growing rice, wheat and vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, radish, potatoes, broccoli, cucumbers, pumpkins, sweet potatoes and carrot. Chitwan is also famous for floriculture, mushroom cultivation and bee keeping.
Chitwan has adopting the South Korean New Community Movement model of development. One of the biggest rice mills in Nepal, Agam Food Industry, is situated in Bharatpur and is a big source of local employment.
== Cuisine ==
Chitwan is known for Taas (Nepali: तास), a spicy fried goat meat dish served with bhuja or chiura. Momo, Bhuteko Bhat (fried rice), and sukuti are other popular dishes. Dal bhat (steamed rice and lentils), is the staple food of the area, though meat and dairy products are also consumed. Other popular cuisines include Newari and Tharu and Thakali and Madheshi. For centuries, traditional fermented foods and beverages have constituted about 20% of the local diet. Depending on altitudinal variation, finger millet, wheat, buckwheat, barley, vegetable, rice, potato, and soybeans etc. are grown.
== Gallery ==
== Geography ==
The Rapti River flows east to the southwest in the south of Bharatpur and forms the northern border of the Chitwan National Park. The Narayani River flows north to south to the west of Bharatpur. It is the deepest and one of the biggest rivers in Nepal. The Narayani Bridge over the river connects Chitwan District with Nawalparasi District of Nepal.
Chitwan is particularly rich in flora and fauna. Nepal's first national park, the Chitwan National Park together with the adjacent Parsa National Park support a diversity of species that is much higher than elsewhere on the Indian subcontinent. Rare species include Bengal tiger, gharial, rhino, leopards, mugger crocodile, Indian rock python and several species of deer. The protected areas are guarded by a battalion of the Nepal Army and patrolled by anti-poaching units. Bishazari Tal ("20 Thousand") Lake is near Chitwan National Park, about 5 km (3.1 mi) south of Bharatpur. The lake is an important bird-watching center.
Krishna Mandir is One of the nice temples of the Hindu religion of Nepal. This is the temple of the god Krishna. There is no statue of the god in this temple. Its interior is made of mirrors all over the wall. The historical event of the god Krishna is shown on the wall. There is one place inside where there is a statue of the god Krishna and his wife.
== Transportation and communication ==
Bharatpur Airport is the only airport in the region and has flights to and from Kathmandu. Mahendra Highway, the main east–west highway in Nepal, runs through the region and, Prithvi Highway a north–south highway from the border with India to Kathmandu runs through the district. Narayangarh is the main transit point for vehicles travelling via the east–west Mahendra Highway and also for people travelling from Kathmandu, Gorkha, and Pokhara through Mugling.
There are numerous local FM radio stations broadcasting from Bharatpur: Synergy FM, Hamro FM, Radio Triveni, Radio Madi, Radio Chitwan, Radio Kotagiri, Chitwan Online FM, Kalika Music FM, Kalika FM. and Narayani FM. Television channels include Beso Channel, Aviyan Channel, Unique Television and Avass Television. There are multiple private Internet service providers. Fibre connectivity and 4G internet is available in the larger cities.
== Landmark buildings ==
Upardanghari fort, in the old headquarters of Chitwan district, is believed to have been built by Satrubhanjan Shah, the son of Prince Bahadur Shah to defend the newly founded Kingdom in the 17th century.
Kasara Durbar is an old palace built by the Rana Regime inside Chitwan National Park. Currently, it serves as the park office and museum.
Diyalo Bangala Palace (Aptari Bharatpur) was the spring season palace used by the Shah Dynasty of Nepal. This palace was built by late king Mahendra Bir Bikram Shahdev to rest in during winter season. It is located on the banks of Narayani River in Bharatpur Municipality ward no. 2.
DAO Building Bharatpur: This old building was built in the period of shifting the headquarters from Upardangghari. Now is used as an office of the chief district officer.
Bharatpur Covered hall: Hall in guesthouse of Bharatpur for indoor games.
Umbrella Street. This street has about 480 colourful hanging umbrellas that provide a serene atmosphere for guests.[2]
== Geography and climate ==
== Major places ==
== Demographics ==
At the time of the 2021 Nepal census, Chitawan District had a population of 719,859. 7.01% of the population is under 5 years of age. It has a literacy rate of 83.68% and a sex ratio of 1046 females per 1000 males. 683,634 (94.97%) lived in municipalities.
Ethnicity wise: Khas were the largest group, making up 40% of the population. Hill Janjatis are the second-largest group, making up 31% of the population. Tamangs were the largest Hill Janjatis, with Magars being 11% of the population. Chhetri and Bahun made up 20% of the population.
As their first language, 67.79% of the population spoke Nepali, 9.52% Tharu, 4.94% Tamang, 3.32% Chepang, 3.24% Gurung, 3.22% Magar, 2.48% Bhojpuri, 2.03% Nepal Bhasha and 1.02% Darai as their first language. In 2011, 70.1% of the population spoke Nepali as their first language.
Religion: 81.43% of the population is Hindu, 12.48% Buddhist, 4.19% Christian and 1.33% Islam.
== Administration ==
The district consists of seven municipalities, out of which one is a metropolitan city, five are urban municipalities and one is a rural municipality.
Bharatpur Metropolitan City
Kalika Municipality
Khairahani Municipality
Madi Municipality
Ratnanagar municipality
Rapti Municipality
Ichchhakamana Rural Municipality
=== Former municipalities and gaunpalikas ===
Prior to the restructuring of the district, Chitwan had following gaunpalikas and municipalities.
== Health care ==
Chitwan district is known for its hospitals and has many top rated medical institutions, mostly in and around Bharatpur Municipality.Bharatpur is colloquially known as medical city of Nepal. The district is especially known for the B. P. Koirala Memorial Cancer Hospital at Krishnapur and two of the reputed medical colleges of the nation;College of Medical Sciences, Bharatpur and Chitwan Medical College. Chitwan ranks only behind the capitalKathmandu, in terms of hospital facilities in Nepal. Medical facilities in the district also include Bharatpur Hospital, a part of the Bharatpur medical college; Chitwan Eye Hospital; Sairam Dental Hospital and Research Center; Maula Kalika Hospital; and Narayani Community Hospital.
== Educational institutions ==
Most of the educational institutions in this region provide quality education to the students from Chitwan and neighboring districts too. These schools and colleges focus on the development of skills and knowledge of their students. Among them:
Aroma English Secondary School, Bharatpur 10
Balkumari College is located near the Narayangadh Bharatpur Height and affiliated to Tribhuvan University.
Balikumari College, Narayangarh, Chitwan
Birendra Multiple Campus is the oldest campus of the city, located in Bharatpur heights.
Buddha Shanti Higher Secondary School, Rapti Municipality 03
Chitwan Higher Secondary School, Bharatpur-10 * shree arunodaya higher secondary school,bharatpur 6 geetanager
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, also known as the Rampur Agriculture Campus, is the agriculture institution under Tribhuvan University, and is the main institution in the fields of agriculture and veterinary science in Nepal. Occupying a huge area, this campus has been declared a university, the Agriculture and Forestry University.
Secondary School Gawai, Gawai, Khairahani 13
Aadikabi Bhanubhakta Secondary School, Narayangarh, bharatpur - 1
Apex Educational Academy, a higher secondary school in Bharapur
Apex academy in Kshetrapur
Birendra higher secondary school
Boston International College, Hakim chowk, Bharatpur-10 (affiliated to Pokhara University)
Central English Boarding School
Chitwan Health Foundation and Research Center was established in Bharatpur as the nursing School of Chitwan Hospital and Health Foundation
Chitwan Hotel Training Center in Bharatpur
Chitwan Medical College and Research Centre, Dipendranagar, Bharatpur
Chitwan Science College and Orchid Science College
College of Medical Sciences: a 700-bed teaching hospital in Dipendranagar, Bharatpur.
Crystal College, Ratnanagar
Daisy English Higher Secondary Boarding School, Khairahani - 4, Parsa
Divya Jyoti Basic School, Harnari, Khairahani 13
Gawai Secondary School, Khairahani 13, Gawai
Grandee English Boarding School, Bharatpur-19
Himalayan Secondary English Boarding School, Ratnanagar-1, Bakulahar
Holy Vision Public School, Yagyapuri, Bharatpur-4
Indreni ICT college, affiliated to Tribhuvan University, located at Muktinagar, Bharatpur
International college is a college of higher education and runs the HSEB and TU affiliated BBS and MBS programs in management streams.
Jan Aadrash multiple campus Birendranagar is the public campus in Birendranagar ward no. 2.
Jana Jagriti Higher Secondary School, Pithuwa – 3, Pithuwa
Kalika English Boarding School
Kamal Devi English School
Kankali Secondary School, Khairahani - 1
Lead Academy for Science and Management Technology
Little Flower English school, Belchowk
Little Stars Secondary English Boarding School. Bharatpur 7, Krishnapur
Madi secondary school, Madi-3 Basantapur
Maiya Devi Girls College, Dipendranagar, Bharatpur
Nepal Police School Bharatpur-14
New Capital College
Paragon Secondary School, Ratnanagar-10, Chitwan
Polar Star Secondary English School, Bharatpur-8, Chitwan
Pragati Shiksha Sadan, East Rampur, Chitwan
Prembasti Secondary School, Bharatpur 7 Prembasti
Prerana Higher Secondary School
Presidency college in Dipendranagar
SOS Hermann Gmeiner Higher Secondary School
Sagarmatha Secondary Boarding School, Ratnanagar
Saheed Smriti Multiple campus, Shantichowk is the biggest campus of eastern Chitwan.
Sainik Awashiya Mahavidhyalaya Chitwan, operated by Nepal army welfare fund, provided education in high school level.
Saptagandaki Multiple Campus is the largest public campus in the city, located in Dipendranagar ward no. 10, Bharatpur.
School of Health Science
Shanti Academy college in Bharatpur
Shanti Vidya Mandir English School, Bharatpur-11, Chitwan
Shree Medical and Technical College located in Bharatpur is affiliated to the Purbanchal University and CTEVT.
Shree Prembasti Higher Secondary School, Bharatpur-7, Chitwan
Shree Sharadpur Higher School
Sirjana English Secondary School, Located behind Central Bus Terminal (Paras Buspark)
Skyrider boarding school, ra.na.pa-13, ameliya
Small heaven School
Someshwor higher secondary school Madi-01 Baruwa
Sun Rise English school, Bharatpur 10
Valmiki Shiksha Sadan Higher Secondary School provides higher secondary education
Xavier college in Bel chowk
SOS Hermann Gmeiner School Bharatpur, Bharatpur-8, Chitwan
shree arunodaya higher secondary school,bharatpur 6 geetanagar chitwan.
Source: Center for Education and Human Resource Development
== Notable people ==
Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda): Prime Minister of Nepal 2008–09 and 2016–17; chairman of UCPN
Nilkantha Upreti: Former Chief Election Commissioner of Nepal
Surendra Pandey: Former Finance Minister of Nepal
Ram Bahadur Thapa (Badal): Former Home Minister of Nepal
Bikram Pandey Former minister of Nepal and current house of representative from Chitwan 3
Shristi Shrestha: Miss Nepal 2012
Shiva Regmi: Nepalese Film director
Bodhraj Acharya: Nepalese scientist
Kamal Bahadur Adhikari: Nepalese weightlifter
Dr. Santosh Kalwar: Nepalese poet, writer, and computer researcher (first English language novelist of Chitwan)
Swopnil Sharma: Lead singer of The Shadows Nepal Band
Sandeep Lamichhane: Cricketer
Sushant Subedi: Analyst/Economist
Asmi Shrestha: Miss Nepal 2016
Nirmal Purja: Nepalese Mountaineer
Lalmani Chaudhary : 2008 House of representatives from Chitwan 1 (constituency)
== See also ==
Ayodhyapuri
Sundarbasti
Sushant Subedi
Notary and Translation Service in Bharatpur - Notary Nepal
== References ==
== External links ==
"Districts of Nepal". Statoids. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EGOT_winners#EGOT_winners | List of EGOT winners | EGOT, an acronym for the Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony Awards, is the designation given to people who have won all four of the major performing art awards in the United States. Respectively, these awards honor outstanding achievements in television, audio recording/music, film, and theatre. Achieving the EGOT has been referred to as the "grand slam" of American show business. Including those with honorary or special awards, 27 people have achieved this status. Only one person, Robert Lopez, has won all four awards twice.
== Background ==
The EGOT acronym was coined by actor Philip Michael Thomas in late 1984. While starring in Miami Vice, he stated a desire to achieve the EGOT within five years. The acronym gained wider recognition following a 2009 episode of 30 Rock that introduced EGOT status as a recurring plotline. There is some debate over whether only the Primetime Emmy Award should count towards an EGOT, as some (including Thomas himself) distinguish the other types of Emmy competitions as subordinate to the Primetime honor.
Starting in 2016, the Daytime Emmy Awards had a category for Outstanding Musical Performance in a Daytime Program, which was removed after the 2019 ceremony because three of the four winners were Broadway ensembles, which between them included five people (Cynthia Erivo, Rachel Bay Jones, Katrina Lenk, Ben Platt, and Ari'el Stachel) who had already won Tony and Grammy awards for the shows they were in, and with their Daytime Emmy wins only needed Oscars to complete their EGOT status.
In 2023, TheaterMania writer Zachary Stewart criticized the practice of "selling" producer credits for shows favored to win a Tony as a "shortcut" to EGOT status. He drew a distinction between the producers who actually do the work of organizing the production of a show and investing producers who merely help finance it, often late in the award season.
== EGOT winners ==
=== Competitive EGOT ===
=== Non-competitive EGOT ===
Notes
== Competitive EGOT awardees ==
=== Richard Rodgers ===
American composer Richard Rodgers (1902–1979) received his fourth distinct award in 1962. Between 1946 and 1979, Rodgers received a total of 10 competitive awards. He was the first person to win all four and was primarily a composer.
Academy Awards:
1946: Best Song – "It Might as Well Be Spring" (from State Fair)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1962: Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composed for Television – Winston Churchill: The Valiant Years
Grammy Awards:
1961: Best Show Album (Original Cast) – The Sound of Music
1963: Best Original Cast Show Album – No Strings
Tony Awards:
1950: Best Musical – South Pacific
1950: Producers (Musical) – South Pacific
1950: Best Score – South Pacific
1952: Best Musical – The King and I
1960: Best Musical – The Sound of Music
1962: Best Composer – No Strings
Special Awards:
1962: Special Tony Award "for all he has done for young people in the theatre and for taking the men of the orchestra out of the pit and putting them onstage in No Strings"
1972: Special Tony Award
1979: Special Tony Award, Lawrence Langner Memorial Award for Distinguished Lifetime Achievement in the American Theatre
=== Helen Hayes ===
American actress Helen Hayes (1900–1993) received her fourth distinct award in 1977. Between 1932 and 1980, Hayes received a total of six competitive awards. She was the first woman and the first performer to win all four. Hayes was also the first EGOT recipient to win the Triple Crown of Acting (with individual acting wins in each of the Emmy, Oscar, and Tony awards). Counting only the first award of each type, she also has the longest interval (45 years) between her first and fourth award of any EGOT winner.
Academy Awards:
1932: Best Actress in a Leading Role – The Sin of Madelon Claudet
1971: Best Actress in a Supporting Role – Airport
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1953: Best Actress – Schlitz Playhouse of Stars (Episode: "Not a Chance")
Grammy Awards:
1977: Best Spoken Word Recording – Great American Documents
Tony Awards:
1947: Best Actress in a Play – Happy Birthday
1958: Best Leading Actress in a Play – Time Remembered
Special Awards:
1980: Special Tony Award, Lawrence Langner Memorial Award for Distinguished Lifetime Achievement in the American Theatre
=== Rita Moreno ===
Puerto Rican actress, dancer, and singer Rita Moreno (born 1931) received her fourth distinct award in 1977. Between 1961 and 1978, Moreno received a total of five awards. She is also the first Latina winner and the first winner to win a Grammy as their second award (both previous winners won Tonys as their second award). In addition, she became a Kennedy Center Honoree in 2015 and a Peabody Award winner in 2019. Moreno is also the second EGOT recipient and the first Hispanic actress to win the Triple Crown of Acting.
Academy Awards:
1962: Best Actress in a Supporting Role – West Side Story
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1977: Outstanding Continuing or Single Performance by a Supporting Actress in Variety or Music – The Muppet Show (Episode: "Rita Moreno")
1978: Outstanding Lead Actress for a Single Appearance in a Drama or Comedy Series – The Rockford Files (Episode: "The Paper Palace")
Grammy Awards:
1973: Best Recording for Children – The Electric Company
Tony Awards:
1975: Best Supporting or Featured Actress in a Play – The Ritz
=== John Gielgud ===
English actor and theatre director John Gielgud (1904–2000) received his fourth distinct award in 1991. Between 1948 and 1991, Gielgud received a total of five competitive awards. Gielgud was the first winner to win any award other than the Oscar as their first award (his first award was a Tony). At age 87 when he won his Emmy, he also became the oldest winner, the first male performer, the first LGBTQ winner, and the first non-American.
Academy Awards:
1982: Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Arthur
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1991: Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Special – Summer's Lease
Grammy Awards:
1980: Best Spoken Word, Documentary or Drama Recording – Ages of Man
Tony Awards:
1948: Outstanding Foreign Company – The Importance of Being Earnest
1961: Best Director of a Drama – Big Fish, Little Fish
Special Awards:
1959: Special Tony Award "for contribution to theatre for his extraordinary insight into the writings of Shakespeare as demonstrated in his one-man play Ages of Man"
=== Audrey Hepburn ===
British actress and humanitarian Audrey Hepburn (1929–1993) received her fourth distinct award posthumously in 1994. Between 1954 and 1994, Hepburn received a total of four competitive awards. She was the fifth person to complete the feat and the first to do so posthumously. She was also the first winner to win two of their awards in consecutive awards shows (the 1994 Grammys were the first Grammys since her posthumous win at the 1993 Emmys). She is the only EGOT winner to not win multiple awards in any of the four award fields.
Academy Awards:
1954: Best Actress in a Leading Role – Roman Holiday
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1993: Outstanding Individual Achievement – Informational Programming – Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn (Episode: "Flower Gardens")
Grammy Awards:
1994: Best Spoken Word Album for Children – Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales
Tony Awards:
1954: Distinguished Dramatic Actress – Ondine
Special Awards:
1968: Special Tony Award
1993: Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award
=== Marvin Hamlisch ===
American composer and conductor Marvin Hamlisch (1944–2012) received his fourth distinct award in 1995. Between 1974 and 2001, Hamlisch received a total of 12 competitive awards. Before Alan Menken joined the group in 2020, Hamlisch had the most Oscars of any EGOT winner (three - all won in the same year). In 1974 he would win "General Field" Grammys, taking Song of the Year and Best New Artist, making him first EGOT to have this distinction. Hamlisch was also the first EGOT winner to have won multiple, qualifying awards for the same work – both an Oscar and a Grammy for the song "The Way We Were".
Academy Awards:
1974: Best Original Dramatic Score – The Way We Were
1974: Best Scoring: Original Song Score and Adaptation or Scoring: Adaptation – The Sting
1974: Best Song – "The Way We Were" (from The Way We Were)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1995: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Direction – Barbra: The Concert
1995: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music and Lyrics – "Ordinary Miracles" (from Barbra: The Concert)
1999: Outstanding Music and Lyrics – "A Ticket to Dream" (from AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies)
2001: Outstanding Music Direction – Timeless: Live in Concert
Grammy Awards:
1975: Best New Artist
1975: Song of the Year – "The Way We Were"
1975: Best Pop Instrumental Performance – "The Entertainer"
1975: Album of Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special – The Way We Were: Original Soundtrack Recording
Tony Awards:
1976: Best Musical Score – A Chorus Line
=== Jonathan Tunick ===
American orchestrator, musical director, and composer Jonathan Tunick (born 1938) received his fourth distinct award in 1997. Between 1977 and 2024, Tunick received a total of five awards. Tunick is the first EGOT winner to have won an Emmy as their second award as well as the first to win the Tony as their fourth award.
Academy Awards:
1978: Best Original Song Score and Its Adaptation or Adaptation Score – A Little Night Music
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1982: Outstanding Achievement in Music Direction – Night of 100 Stars
Grammy Awards:
1989: Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocal(s) – "No One is Alone" (vocals by Cleo Laine)
Tony Awards:
1997: Best Orchestrations – Titanic
2024: Best Orchestrations – Merrily We Roll Along
=== Mel Brooks ===
American actor, comedian, and filmmaker Mel Brooks (born 1926) received his fourth distinct award in June 2001. Between 1968 and 2002, Brooks received a total of 11 awards. Brooks was the first person to win the Emmy as the first award, and the first winner to have won his Oscar for screenwriting. He is the only person to have won the Triple Crown of Writing, having won an Oscar, an Emmy and a Tony in writing categories.
Academy Awards:
1969: Best Story and Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screen – The Producers
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1967: Outstanding Writing Achievement in Variety – The Sid Caesar, Imogene Coca, Carl Reiner, Howard Morris Special
1997: Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series – Mad About You (Episodes: "The Grant" and "The Penis")
1998: Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series – Mad About You (Episode: "Uncle Phil and the Coupons")
1999: Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series – Mad About You (Episode: "Uncle Phil Goes Back to High School")
Grammy Awards:
1999: Best Spoken Comedy Album – The 2000 Year Old Man in the Year 2000
2002: Best Long Form Music Video – Recording 'The Producers': A Musical Romp with Mel Brooks
2002: Best Musical Show Album – The Producers
Tony Awards:
2001: Best Musical – The Producers
2001: Best Book of a Musical – The Producers
2001: Best Original Score – The Producers
Special Awards
2023: Academy Honorary Award – "Mel Brooks lights up our hearts with his humor, and his legacy has made a lasting impact on every facet of entertainment."
Brooks is one of only two people to have two awards of each type, though unlike the other (Robert Lopez) one of Brooks's Oscars was honorary. When he appeared on the January 30, 2015 episode of Real Time with Bill Maher, Brooks called himself an EGOTAK, noting that he had also received awards from the American Film Institute and Kennedy Center.
=== Mike Nichols ===
American film and theater director, producer, actor, and comedian Mike Nichols (1931–2014) received his fourth distinct award in November 2001. Between 1961 and 2012, Nichols received a total of 15 awards. Nichols was the first EGOT winner to win the Grammy as their first award, the first winner to have won multiple awards for directing (an Oscar, several Tonys, and two Emmys) . When counting all awards won—not just the first of each type—Nichols has the longest timespan of awards among EGOT winners, at 51 years. He is one of only 2 people, the other being Bob Fosse, to achieve the Triple Crown of Directing, having won an Oscar, an Emmy and a Tony in directing categories.
Academy Awards:
1968: Best Director – The Graduate
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2001: Outstanding Made for Television Movie – Wit
2001: Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries or a Movie – Wit
2004: Outstanding Miniseries – Angels in America
2004: Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Dramatic Special – Angels in America
Grammy Awards:
1962: Best Comedy Performance – An Evening with Mike Nichols and Elaine May
Tony Awards:
1964: Best Direction of a Play – Barefoot in the Park
1965: Best Direction of a Play – Luv and The Odd Couple
1968: Best Direction of a Play – Plaza Suite
1972: Best Direction of a Play – The Prisoner of Second Avenue
1977: Best Musical – Annie
1984: Best Play – The Real Thing
1984: Best Direction of a Play – The Real Thing
2005: Best Direction of a Musical – Monty Python's Spamalot
2012: Best Direction of a Play – Death of a Salesman
=== Whoopi Goldberg ===
American actress, comedian and author Whoopi Goldberg (born 1955) received her fourth distinct award in 2002. Between 1985 and 2009, she received a total of five competitive awards. Goldberg is the first African American winner, the first to win the Oscar as their second award, and the third person after Audrey Hepburn (1954) and Marvin Hamlisch (1974) to win two of their qualifying awards in the same year (she won both her Tony and her first competitive Emmy in 2002).
Academy Awards:
1991: Best Actress in a Supporting Role – Ghost
Daytime Emmy Awards:
2002: Outstanding Special Class Special – Beyond Tara: The Extraordinary Life of Hattie McDaniel
2009: Outstanding Talk Show Host – The View
Grammy Awards:
1986: Best Comedy Recording – Whoopi Goldberg: Original Broadway Show Recording
Tony Awards:
2002: Best Musical – Thoroughly Modern Millie
Special Awards:
1997: Special Emmy Award, Governors Award, for the seven Comic Relief Benefit Specials
=== Scott Rudin ===
American film, television, and theatre producer Scott Rudin (born 1958) received his fourth distinct award in 2012. Between 1984 and 2021, Rudin received a total of 21 awards, tying with Alan Menken for winning the most competitive EGOT awards. Rudin is currently the only EGOT winner who is solely a producer and did not win any of his four awards for a creative endeavor (i.e. singing, writing, acting).
Academy Awards:
2008: Best Picture – No Country for Old Men
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1984: Outstanding Children's Program – He Makes Me Feel Like Dancin'
Grammy Awards:
2012: Best Musical Theater Album – The Book of Mormon: Original Broadway Cast Recording
Tony Awards:
1994: Best Musical – Passion
2000: Best Play – Copenhagen
2002: Best Play – The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia?
2005: Best Play – Doubt
2006: Best Play – The History Boys
2009: Best Play – God of Carnage
2010: Best Revival of a Play – Fences
2011: Best Musical – The Book of Mormon
2012: Best Revival of a Play – Death of a Salesman
2014: Best Revival of a Play – A Raisin in the Sun
2015: Best Play – The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
2015: Best Revival of a Play – Skylight
2016: Best Play – The Humans
2016: Best Revival of a Play – A View From the Bridge
2017: Best Revival of a Musical – Hello, Dolly!
2019: Best Play – The Ferryman
2019: Best Revival of a Play – The Boys in the Band
2021: Best Play – The Inheritance
=== Robert Lopez ===
American songwriter Robert Lopez (born 1975) received his fourth distinct award in 2014. Between 2004 and 2022, he received a total of 12 awards. He is the first Filipino and Asian to achieve this feat. He is the youngest winner (39 years, 8 days) to receive all four awards in competitive categories, as well as, at the time, the fastest to complete his qualifying run of EGOT wins (9 years, 8 months). His second series of wins set a new shortest interval of 7 years, 8 months (June 27, 2010 Emmy through March 4th, 2018 Academy Award) until 2024 when both Benj Pasek and Justin Paul topped this record with a qualifying run of 7 years and 7 months.
Lopez is the first person to win each EGOT award twice. As of 2025, he is one Oscar away from becoming the first triple EGOT winner as well. He is currently the only winner to have two of each EGOT award in competitive categories, as Mel Brooks' second Oscar in 2023 was a special award. His first two Emmys were Daytime Emmys, followed by a Primetime Emmy in 2021 for WandaVision. He is the only EGOT recipient to follow a Daytime Emmy win with a subsequent Primetime Emmy win.
Lopez received his Grammy Award for The Book of Mormon in collaboration with fellow EGOT winner Scott Rudin (among others), making them the first pair of EGOT winners to co-win the same award. Lopez is also the first person to have won the Oscar last, a prize he shared then, and again in 2018, with his wife Kristen Anderson-Lopez. As of 2024, Kristen Anderson-Lopez lacks only a Tony to achieve EGOT status in her own right.
Academy Awards:
2014: Best Original Song – "Let It Go" (from Frozen)
2018: Best Original Song – "Remember Me" (from Coco)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2021: Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics – "Agatha All Along" (from WandaVision — Episode: "Breaking the Fourth Wall")
Daytime Emmy Awards:
2008: Outstanding Music Direction and Composition – Wonder Pets!
2010: Outstanding Music Direction and Composition – Wonder Pets!
Children's and Family Emmy Awards:
2022: Outstanding Short Form Program – We the People
Grammy Awards:
2012: Best Musical Theater Album – The Book of Mormon: Original Broadway Cast Recording
2015: Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media – Frozen
2015: Best Song Written for Visual Media – "Let It Go" (from Frozen)
Tony Awards:
2004: Best Original Score – Avenue Q
2011: Best Book of a Musical – The Book of Mormon
2011: Best Original Score – The Book of Mormon
=== Andrew Lloyd Webber ===
English composer and impresario of musical theatre Andrew Lloyd Webber, Baron Lloyd-Webber (born 1948) received his fourth distinct award in 2018. Between 1980 and 2025, Lloyd Webber received a total of 12 competitive awards. On September 9, 2018, Lloyd Webber, John Legend, and Tim Rice all simultaneously became EGOTs when they were collectively awarded the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live) for Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert.
Academy Awards:
1997: Best Original Song – "You Must Love Me" (from Evita)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2018: Outstanding Variety Special (Live) – Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert
Grammy Awards:
1981: Best Cast Show Album – Evita: Premier American Recording
1984: Best Cast Show Album – Cats: Complete Original Broadway Cast Recording
1986: Best Contemporary Composition – Lloyd Webber: Requiem
Tony Awards:
1980: Best Original Score – Evita
1983: Best Musical – Cats
1983: Best Original Score – Cats
1988: Best Musical – The Phantom of the Opera
1995: Best Musical – Sunset Boulevard
1995: Best Original Score – Sunset Boulevard
2025: Best Revival of a Musical – Sunset Boulevard
Special Awards:
1990: Grammy Legend Award
2018: Special Tony Award
=== Tim Rice ===
English lyricist and librettist Tim Rice (born 1944) received his fourth distinct award in 2018. Between 1980 and 2018, Rice received a total of 12 awards, and shares all of his awards with fellow EGOTs Elton John, John Legend, Andrew Lloyd Webber, and Alan Menken. On September 9, 2018, Lloyd Webber, Legend, and Rice all simultaneously became EGOTs when they were collectively awarded the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live) for Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert.
Academy Awards:
1993: Best Original Song – "A Whole New World" (from Aladdin)
1995: Best Original Song – "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" (from The Lion King)
1997: Best Original Song – "You Must Love Me" (from Evita)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2018: Outstanding Variety Special (Live) – Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert
Grammy Awards:
1981: Best Cast Show Album – Evita: Premier American Recording
1994: Song of the Year – "A Whole New World (Aladdin's Theme)"
1994: Best Musical Album for Children – Aladdin: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
1994: Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television – "A Whole New World (Aladdin's Theme)" (from Aladdin)
2001: Best Musical Show Album – Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida
Tony Awards:
1980: Best Book of a Musical – Evita
1980: Best Original Score – Evita
2000: Best Original Score – Aida
=== John Legend ===
American singer, songwriter, pianist, and record producer John Legend (born 1978) received his fourth distinct award in 2018. Between 2006 and 2025, Legend received a total of 21 awards. Legend has won the most Grammy Awards, 12, of any competitive EGOT recipient. In addition to being the first African American man to achieve EGOT status, Legend is the first person to receive the four awards in four consecutive years. John was also the first EGOT recipient to have won both a competitive Primetime and Daytime Emmy Award, an accomplishment matched by Robert Lopez in 2021. Legend, Andrew Lloyd Webber, and Tim Rice all simultaneously became EGOTs on September 9, 2018, when they were collectively awarded the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live) for Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert.
Academy Awards:
2015: Best Original Song – "Glory" (from Selma)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2018: Outstanding Variety Special (Live) – Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert
Daytime Emmy Awards:
2019: Outstanding Interactive Media for a Daytime Program – Crow: The Legend
2022: Outstanding Daytime Special – Shelter Me: Soul Awakened
2022: Outstanding Short Form Daytime Program – Cornerstones: Founding Voices of the Black Church
Children's and Family Emmy Awards:
2023: Outstanding Non-Fiction Program – 1000% Me: Growing Up Mixed
2025: Outstanding Non-Fiction Program – Stand Up & Shout: Songs from a Philly High School
Grammy Awards:
2006: Best New Artist
2006: Best R&B Album – Get Lifted
2006: Best Male R&B Vocal Performance – "Ordinary People"
2007: Best Male R&B Vocal Performance – "Heaven"
2007: Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals – "Family Affair"
2009: Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals – "Stay with Me (By the Sea)"
2011: Best R&B Song – "Shine"
2011: Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance – "Hang on in There"
2011: Best R&B Album – Wake Up!
2016: Best Song Written for Visual Media – "Glory" (from Selma)
2020: Best Rap/Sung Performance – "Higher"
2021: Best R&B Album – Bigger Love
2025: Best Arrangement, Instrumental or A Cappella – "Bridge Over Troubled Water"
Tony Awards:
2017: Best Revival of a Play – Jitney
=== Alan Menken ===
American composer Alan Menken (born 1949) received his fourth distinct award in 2020. Between 1990 and 2020, Menken received a total of 21 competitive awards, tying with Scott Rudin for the most awards to individuals whose EGOT status was achieved solely by competitive wins. If Menken's special (non-competitive) Emmy Award is counted, he becomes the fully competing EGOT with the most overall awards. If EGOT status is recognized without regard to any qualifying awards being non-competitive, then Quincy Jones holds the record with his 30 fully competitive awards, including 29 Grammys. Alan Menken has the most Oscar wins (8) by an EGOT.
Academy Awards:
1990: Best Original Score – The Little Mermaid
1990: Best Original Song – "Under the Sea" (from The Little Mermaid)
1992: Best Original Score – Beauty and the Beast
1992: Best Original Song – "Beauty and the Beast" (from Beauty and the Beast)
1993: Best Original Score – Aladdin
1993: Best Original Song – "A Whole New World" (from Aladdin)
1996: Best Original Musical or Comedy Score – Pocahontas
1996: Best Original Song – "Colors of the Wind" (from Pocahontas)
Daytime Emmy Awards:
2020: Outstanding Original Song in a Children's, Young Adult or Animated Program – "Waiting in the Wings" (from Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure — Episode: "Rapunzel and the Great Tree")
Grammy Awards:
1991: Best Recording for Children – The Little Mermaid: Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack
1991: Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television – "Under the Sea" (from The Little Mermaid)
1993: Best Album for Children – Beauty and the Beast: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
1993: Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television – Beauty and the Beast: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
1993: Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television – "Beauty and the Beast" (from Beauty and the Beast)
1994: Song of the Year – "A Whole New World (Aladdin's Theme)" (from Aladdin)
1994: Best Musical Album for Children – Aladdin: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
1994: Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television – Aladdin: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
1994: Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television – "A Whole New World (Aladdin's Theme)" (from Aladdin)
1996: Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television – "Colors of the Wind" (from Pocahontas)
2012: Best Song Written for Visual Media – "I See the Light" (from Tangled)
Tony Awards:
2012: Best Original Score – Newsies
Special Awards:
1990: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Contribution to the success of the academy's anti-drug special for children – "Wonderful Ways to Say No" from the TV special Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue
=== Jennifer Hudson ===
American singer, actress, talk show host, and producer Jennifer Hudson (born 1981) received her fourth distinct award in 2022. Hudson received a total of five competitive awards between 2007 and 2022, making her the youngest competitive female EGOT to date.
Academy Awards:
2007: Best Actress in a Supporting Role – Dreamgirls
Daytime Emmy Awards:
2021: Outstanding Interactive Media for a Daytime Program – Baba Yaga
Grammy Awards:
2009: Best R&B Album – Jennifer Hudson
2017: Best Musical Theater Album – The Color Purple
Tony Awards:
2022: Best Musical – A Strange Loop
=== Viola Davis ===
American actress and producer Viola Davis (born 1965) received her fourth distinct award in 2023. Between 2001 and 2023, Davis received a total of five competitive awards becoming the eighteenth person to competitively win each of the four awards. Davis acknowledged her new EGOT status while accepting her 2023 Grammy. Davis is also the third EGOT recipient and the first African American actress to win the Triple Crown of Acting.
Academy Awards:
2017: Best Actress in a Supporting Role – Fences
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2015: Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series – How to Get Away with Murder
Grammy Awards:
2023: Best Audio Book, Narration & Storytelling Recording – Finding Me
Tony Awards
2001: Best Featured Actress in a Play – King Hedley II
2010: Best Leading Actress in a Play – Fences
=== Elton John ===
English singer, composer, pianist, and producer Elton John (born 1947) received his fourth distinct award in 2024. Between 1987 and 2024, John received a total of nine competitive awards becoming the nineteenth person to competitively win each of the four awards.
Academy Awards:
1995: Best Original Song – "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" (from The Lion King)
2020: Best Original Song – "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again" (from Rocketman)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2024: Outstanding Variety Special (Live) – Elton John: Farewell from Dodger Stadium
Grammy Awards:
1987: Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal – "That's What Friends Are For"
1992: Best Instrumental Composition – "Basque"
1995: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance – "Can You Feel the Love Tonight"
1998: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance – "Candle in the Wind 1997"
2001: Best Musical Show Album – Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida
Tony Awards:
2000: Best Original Score – Aida
Special Awards:
1999: Grammy Legend Award
=== Benj Pasek ===
American composer, lyricist, and producer Benj Pasek (born 1985) received his fourth distinct award in 2024. Pasek and Justin Paul set a new record for achieving EGOT status in the fastest time by winning all four awards within 7 years and 7 months. Between 2017 and 2025, Pasek received a total of seven competitive awards becoming the twentieth person to competitively win each of the four awards. Pasek shares all seven of his competitive award wins with his writing partner and fellow EGOT-recipient Justin Paul.
Academy Awards:
2017: Best Original Song – "City of Stars" (from La La Land)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2024: Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics – "Which of the Pickwick Triplets Did It?" (from Only Murders in the Building — Episode: "Sitzprobe")
Children's and Family Emmy Awards:
2025: Outstanding Original Song for a Preschool Program – "That's Why We Love Nature" (from Sesame Street — Episode: "Tamir's Water Works")
Grammy Awards:
2018: Best Musical Theater Album – Dear Evan Hansen
2019: Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media – The Greatest Showman
Tony Awards:
2017: Best Original Score – Dear Evan Hansen
2022: Best Musical – A Strange Loop
=== Justin Paul ===
American composer, lyricist, and producer Justin Paul (born 1985) received his fourth distinct award in 2024. Paul and Benj Pasek set a new record for achieving EGOT status in the fastest time by winning all four awards within 7 years and 7 months. Between 2017 and 2025, Paul received a total of seven competitive awards becoming the twenty-first person to competitively win each of the four awards. Paul shares all seven of his competitive award wins with his writing partner and fellow EGOT-recipient Benj Pasek.
Academy Awards:
2017: Best Original Song – "City of Stars" (from La La Land)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
2024: Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics – "Which of the Pickwick Triplets Did It?" (from Only Murders in the Building — Episode: "Sitzprobe")
Children's and Family Emmy Awards:
2025: Outstanding Original Song for a Preschool Program – "That's Why We Love Nature" (from Sesame Street — Episode: "Tamir's Water Works")
Grammy Awards:
2018: Best Musical Theater Album – Dear Evan Hansen
2019: Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media – The Greatest Showman
Tony Awards:
2017: Best Original Score – Dear Evan Hansen
2022: Best Musical – A Strange Loop
== Non-competitive EGOT awardees ==
Six additional artists have received all four awards, though one was bestowed for an honorary or similar non-competitive distinction: Barbra Streisand does not have a competitive Tony; Liza Minnelli does not have a competitive Grammy; and Harry Belafonte, James Earl Jones, Quincy Jones, and Frank Marshall are all without a competitive Oscar.
=== Barbra Streisand ===
American singer, actress, and director Barbra Streisand (born 1942) received her fourth distinct award in 1970. Between 1963 and 2001, Streisand received a total of 18 awards, three of which were non-competitive. Having obtained her fourth award with a special Tony at age 28, she is the youngest special EGOT winner. With just six years elapsing between her first award, a 1964 Grammy, and her 1970 Tony, Streisand held the record for completing the fastest special EGOT until 2023 when Frank Marshall did so within four years.
Streisand is the only EGOT to win an Oscar in both a music and an acting category. She is the only winner to have three competitive awards for debut performances: first studio album, first feature film, and first television special. Additional distinctions include the Peabody Award, the AFI Life Achievement Award, the Kennedy Center Honor, the Cecil B. DeMille Award, the National Medal of Arts, the American Society of Cinematographers Board of Governors Award, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Academy Awards:
1969: Best Actress in a Leading Role – Funny Girl
1977: Best Original Song – "Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)" (from A Star Is Born)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1965: Outstanding Individual Achievements in Entertainment – Actors and Performers – My Name is Barbra
1995: Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program – Barbra Streisand: The Concert
1995: Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Special – Barbra Streisand: The Concert
2001: Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program – Timeless: Live in Concert
Daytime Emmy Awards:
2001: Outstanding Special Class Special – Reel Models: The First Women of Film
Grammy Awards:
1964: Best Vocal Performance, Female – The Barbra Streisand Album
1964: Album of the Year (Other Than Classical) – The Barbra Streisand Album
1965: Best Vocal Performance, Female – "People"
1966: Best Vocal Performance, Female – My Name Is Barbra
1978: Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female – "Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)"
1978: Song of the Year – "Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)"
1981: Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal – "Guilty" (with Barry Gibb)
1987: Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female – The Broadway Album
1992: Grammy Legend Award (non-competitive)
1995: Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (non-competitive)
Tony Awards:
1970: Special Tony Award: Star of the Decade (non-competitive)
=== Liza Minnelli ===
American actress, singer, dancer, and choreographer Liza Minnelli (born 1946) received her fourth distinct award in 1990. Between 1965 and 2009, Minnelli received a total of seven awards, two of which were special.
Academy Awards:
1973: Best Actress in a Leading Role – Cabaret
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1973: Outstanding Single Program − Variety and Popular Music – Liza with a 'Z'. A Concert for Television
Grammy Awards:
1990: Grammy Legend Award (non-competitive)
Tony Awards:
1965: Best Leading Actress in a Musical – Flora the Red Menace
1974: Special Tony Award for "adding luster to the Broadway season" (non-competitive)
1978: Best Leading Actress in a Musical – The Act
2009: Best Special Theatrical Event – Liza's at The Palace...!
=== James Earl Jones ===
American actor James Earl Jones (1931–2024) received his fourth distinct award in 2011. Between 1969 and 2017, Jones received a total of eight awards, two of which were special.
Academy Awards:
2011: Academy Honorary Award (non-competitive)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1991: Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series – Gabriel's Fire
1991: Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Special – Heat Wave
Daytime Emmy Awards:
2000: Outstanding Performer − Children's Special – Summer's End
Grammy Awards:
1977: Best Spoken Word Recording – Great American Documents
Tony Awards:
1969: Best Leading Actor in a Play – The Great White Hope
1987: Best Leading Actor in a Play – Fences
2017: Special Tony Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theatre (non-competitive)
=== Harry Belafonte ===
American singer, activist, and actor Harry Belafonte (1927–2023) received his fourth distinct award in 2014. Between 1954 and 2014, Belafonte received a total of six awards, including a Grammy Hall of Fame Award and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (six special awards).
Academy Awards:
2014: Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (non-competitive)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1960: Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program – Tonight with Belafonte – The Revlon Revue
Grammy Awards:
1961: Best Performance – Folk – Swing Dat Hammer
1966: Best Folk Performance – An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba
2000: Grammy Hall of Fame Award
Tony Awards:
1954: Distinguished Supporting or Featured Musical Actor – John Murray Anderson's Almanac
=== Quincy Jones ===
American record producer, musician, songwriter, composer, arranger, and film and television producer Quincy Jones (1933–2024) received his fourth distinct award in 2016. Between 1964 and 2024, Jones received a total of 33 awards—the highest number so far of any EGOT winner. He competed for and won 28 Grammys, one Tony, and one Emmy, also receiving a special Grammy Legend Award and two special Oscars (the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award and the Academy Honorary Award). Quincy's final qualifying award was a fully competitive 2016 Tony for The Color Purple.
Academy Awards:
1994: Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (non-competitive)
2024: Academy Honorary Award (non-competitive)
Primetime Emmy Awards:
1977: Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a Series (Dramatic Underscore) – Roots: Part 1
Grammy Awards:
1964: Best Instrumental Arrangement – "I Can't Stop Loving You"
1970: Best Instrumental Jazz Performance – Large Group or Soloist with Large Group – Walking in Space
1972: Best Pop Instrumental Performance – Smackwater Jack
1974: Best Instrumental Arrangement – "Summer in the City"
1979: Best Instrumental Arrangement – "The Wiz Main Title (Overture, Part One)"
1981: Best Instrumental Arrangement – "Dinorah, Dinorah"
1982: Producer of the Year
1982: Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocal(s) – "Ai No Corrida" (with Jerry Hey)
1982: Best Arrangement on an Instrumental Recording – "Velas"
1982: Best Cast Show Album – Lena Horne: The Lady and Her Music
1982: Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal – "The Dude"
1984: Producer of the Year (Non-Classical)
1984: Best Recording for Children – E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial
1984: Album of the Year – Thriller
1984: Record of the Year – "Beat It"
1985: Best Arrangement on an Instrumental – "Grace (Gymnastics Theme)" (with Jeremy Lubbock)
1986: Best Music Video, Short Form – "We Are the World – The Video Event"
1986: Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals – "We Are the World"
1986: Record of the Year – "We Are the World"
1991: Producer of the Year (Non-Classical)
1991: Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocal(s) – "The Places You Find Love"
1991: Best Arrangement on an Instrumental – "Birdland"
1991: Best Jazz Fusion Performance – "Birdland"
1991: Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group – "Back on the Block"
1991: Album of the Year – Back on the Block
1992: Grammy Legend Award (non-competitive)
1994: Best Large Jazz Ensemble Performance – Miles & Quincy Live at Montreux
2002: Best Spoken Word Album – Q: The Autobiography of Quincy Jones
2019: Best Music Film – Quincy
Tony Awards:
2016: Best Revival of a Musical – The Color Purple
=== Frank Marshall ===
American film producer and director Frank Marshall (born 1946) received his fourth distinct award in 2023. Between 2019 and 2023, Marshall received a total of four awards. He is the only EGOT winner to have won a Sports Emmy Award and to have received the Irving G.Thalberg Memorial Award. With just four years elapsing between his first award (a 2019 honorary Oscar), a long format TV sports documentary, and competitive Grammy and Tony music awards, Marshall completed his EGOT collection in the shortest time of all persons to have reached this status.
Academy Awards:
2019: Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (non-competitive)
Sports Emmy Awards:
2023: Outstanding Long Documentary – The Redeem Team
Grammy Awards:
2023: Best Music Film – Jazz Fest: A New Orleans Story
Tony Awards:
2022: Best Musical – A Strange Loop
== Three competitive awards ==
The following people have each won three out of the four major entertainment awards in competitive categories. As of July 2025, 74 living people are one award away from achieving (competitive) EGOT status.
=== Without an Emmy ===
=== Without a Grammy ===
=== Without an Oscar ===
=== Without a Tony ===
Notes
† – Person is deceased.
◊ – Person has been nominated at least once for a competitive category of the missing award but has failed to win.
NCA – Person won a non-competitive award in this category (see section above).
PA – Person has won the Peabody Award
PP – Person has won the Pulitzer Prize
TC – Person has joined EGOT winners Helen Hayes, Rita Moreno, and Viola Davis as winners of the Triple Crown of Acting, with singular (non-group/ensemble/company) acting wins in each of the Emmy, Oscar and Tony awards.
== Three, including non-competitive awards ==
In addition to the above winners, the following people have each won three out of the four major entertainment awards in either competitive categories or non-competitive special and honorary categories. As of June 2025, 12 additional living individuals are one award away from achieving EGOT status (including non-competitive awards).
Howard Ashman†, ◊ won two competitive Oscars, five competitive Grammy Awards, and a Special Emmy Award.
Fred Astaire† won three competitive Emmy Awards, a Special Academy Award, and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.
Robert Russell Bennett† won a competitive Emmy Award, a competitive Oscar, and two Special Tony Awards.
Irving Berlin† won an Academy Award, a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, and a competitive Tony Award.
Barbara Broccoli won a competitive Emmy Award, two competitive Tony Awards, and the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award, a non-competitive Academy Award.
Carol Burnett won seven competitive Emmy Awards, one competitive Grammy award, and a Special Tony Award.
David Byrne won an Academy Award, a competitive Grammy Award, and a Special Tony Award.
Walt Disney† won 22 competitive Academy Awards, four non-competitive Academy Awards, seven competitive Emmy Awards, and a Grammy Trustees Award.
Ray Dolby† won an Academy Scientific and Technical Award, two Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards, and a Special Merit/Technical Grammy Award.
Michael J. Fox won five competitive Emmy Awards, a competitive Grammy Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, a non-competitive Academy Award.
Judy Garland†, ◊ won an Academy Juvenile Award, two competitive Grammy Awards, and a Special Tony Award.
Eileen Heckart† won a competitive Academy Award, a competitive Emmy Award, and a Special Tony Award.
Danny Kaye† won a competitive Emmy Award, a Special Tony Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, a non-competitive Academy Award.
Barry Manilow won two competitive Emmy Awards, a competitive Grammy Award, and a Special Tony Award.
Steve Martin◊ won the Honorary Academy Award, a competitive Emmy Award, and five competitive Grammy Awards.
Elaine May won the Honorary Academy Award, a competitive Tony Award, and a competitive Grammy Award.
Dolly Parton◊ won 11 competitive Grammy Awards, a competitive Emmy Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, a non-competitive Academy Award.
Stephen Schwartz won three competitive Oscars, three competitive Grammys and the Isabelle Stevenson Award, a non-competitive Tony Award.
Bruce Springsteen◊ won 20 competitive Grammys, a competitive Academy Award, and a Special Tony Award.
Thomas Stockham† won an Academy Scientific and Technical Award, a Technology & Engineering Emmy Award, and a Technical Grammy Award.
Cicely Tyson† won three competitive Emmy Awards, a competitive Tony Award, and an Academy Honorary Award.
Eli Wallach† won a competitive Tony Award, a competitive Emmy Award, and an Academy Honorary Award.
Diane Warren won a competitive Grammy Award, a competitive Emmy Award, and an Academy Honorary Award.
Oprah Winfrey won competitive Emmy Awards, a competitive Tony Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, a non-competitive Academy Award.
Notes
† – Person is deceased.
◊ – Person has been nominated at least once for a competitive category of the missing award but has failed to win.
== Four nominations ==
The following people have not won all four awards in competitive categories but have received at least one nomination for each of them:
Notes
† – Person is deceased.
== Variations ==
=== PEGOT ===
There are conflicting definitions for the PEGOT. Some say the "P" refers to the Peabody Award, others say it is the Pulitzer Prize. As of 2024, Mel Brooks, Rita Moreno, Mike Nichols, and Barbra Streisand have achieved this status by winning the Peabody while Marvin Hamlisch and Richard Rodgers have achieved it by winning the Pulitzer.
EGOT winners who also won at least one Peabody Award:
Mel Brooks
Rita Moreno
Mike Nichols†
Barbra Streisand
EGOT winners who also won at least one Pulitzer Prize:
Marvin Hamlisch†
Richard Rodgers†
People who won a Peabody, lacking only one EGOT award:
Carol Burnett (missing an Oscar)
Martin Charnin† (missing an Oscar)
Rob Epstein (missing a Tony)
Anne Garefino (missing an Oscar)
James Moll (missing a Tony)
Trey Parker (missing an Oscar)
Matt Stone (missing an Oscar)
Charles Strouse (missing an Oscar)
Lily Tomlin (missing an Oscar)
Cicely Tyson† (missing a Grammy)
Oprah Winfrey (missing a Grammy)
People who won a Pulitzer, lacking only one EGOT award:
Jerry Bock† (missing an Oscar)
Oscar Hammerstein II† (missing an Emmy)
Tom Kitt (missing an Oscar)
Frank Loesser† (missing an Emmy)
Lin-Manuel Miranda (missing an Oscar)
Stephen Sondheim† (missing an Emmy)
Notes
† – Person is deceased.
=== REGOT ===
Another variation is the REGOT, which includes being awarded a Razzie Award. Alan Menken has a REGOT due to his Razzie win (with Jack Feldman) for Worst Original Song for "High Times, Hard Times" from Newsies. With her Razzie win for Worst Actress for Rent-a-Cop and Arthur 2: On the Rocks, Liza Minnelli has a REGOT if her non-competitive Grammy Legend Award is considered.
Lady Gaga reordered the acronym as EGORT, when she hosted Saturday Night Live and poked fun at her win for Worst Screen Combo (with Joaquin Phoenix) from Joker: Folie à Deux.
Alternatively, publications such as Vulture have listed the REGOT as including an induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The only person to have such a REGOT is Elton John although Harry Belafonte and Quincy Jones would be included if counting non-competitive awards.
== Equivalent honors outside the United States ==
The Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony Awards are presided over by industry bodies based in the United States, and as of 2024, 16 out of the 21 EGOT winners were American nationals. The remaining five―John Gielgud, Audrey Hepburn, Elton John, Andrew Lloyd Webber, and Tim Rice―were British. Many countries hold their own equivalent awards ceremonies honouring their own television, music, film, and theatre industries. In some cases, commentators in other countries have derived their own acronyms for individuals who have won at all four ceremonies.
=== Canada ===
In 2018, Leah Collins of CBC Arts proposed a Canadian equivalent of the EGOT: the Canadian Screen Awards (and their predecessors, the Gemini Awards and the Genie Awards) for film and television, the Juno Awards for music, and the Dora Mavor Moore Awards for theatre. Toronto-based game show Trivia Club referred to this combination as the "Two-Can-Ju-Do". No individual has won in all four categories.
=== Australia ===
In 2019, Caitlin Welsh of Nova Entertainment proposed the "LAHA" as an Australian equivalent: the Logie Awards for television, the ARIA Music Awards for music, the Helpmann Awards for theatre, and the AACTA Awards for film. She also could not identify any winners of all four awards, although Noni Hazlehurst has received nominations in all four.
== See also ==
Academy Awards
Emmy Awards
Children's and Family Emmy Awards
Daytime Emmy Awards
International Emmy Awards
News and Documentary Emmy Awards
Primetime Emmy Awards
Sports Emmy Awards
Technology and Engineering Emmy Awards
Grammy Awards
Tony Awards
Triple Crown of Acting
British Triple Crown
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bereznak, Alyssa (February 21, 2019). ""Who's an EGOT?" How '30 Rock' Made a Fake Award Into a Real-Life Goal". The Ringer. Retrieved October 4, 2023.
== External links ==
Entertainment Weekly: 18 stars who are EGOT winners |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nydia_Vel%C3%A1zquez#:~:text=She%20served%20as%20an%20instructor,College%20from%201981%20to%201983. | Nydia Velázquez | Nydia Margarita Velázquez Serrano ( NID-ee-ə, Spanish: [ˈniðja βeˈlaskes]; born March 28, 1953) is an American politician serving as the U.S. representative for New York's 7th congressional district since 2013. A member of the Democratic Party, she previously represented New York's 12th congressional district from 1993 to 2013, prior to redistricting. She chaired the Congressional Hispanic Caucus from 2009 to 2011. Velázquez is the first Puerto Rican woman to serve in Congress.
On November 20, 2025, Velázquez announced she would not run for re-election in 2026.
== Early life, education and career ==
Velázquez was born in Limones in the municipality of Yabucoa, Puerto Rico, on March 28, 1953. She grew up in a small house on the Río Limones with eight other siblings. Her mother was Carmen Luisa Serrano Medina, and her father, Benito Velázquez Rodríguez, was a low-income worker in the sugarcane fields who became a self-taught political activist and the founder of a local political party; he was also listed as "Black" on the 1940 U.S. census. Political conversations at the Velázquez dinner table focused on workers' rights.
Velázquez attended public schools and skipped three grades as a child. She became the first person in her family to graduate from high school. At age 16, she became a student at University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras. In 1974, she received a B.A. degree in political science, magna cum laude, and became a teacher. In college, Velázquez supported Puerto Rican independence; by the time she ran for Congress in 1992, Velázquez no longer addressed the issue, saying that it must be left up to the Puerto Rican people. In the 2024 gubernatorial elections of Puerto Rico, Velázquez was among many prominent figures including representative Alexandria Ocasio Cortez who endorsed Juan Dalmau Ramírez of the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP) for the governership as part of the Alianza de País.
In 1976, Velázquez received an M.A. degree in political science from New York University. She served as an instructor of political science at the University of Puerto Rico at Humacao from 1976 to 1981. After returning to New York City, Velázquez was an adjunct professor of Puerto Rican studies at Hunter College from 1981 to 1983.
== Political career ==
In 1983, Velázquez was special assistant to Representative Edolphus Towns, a Democrat representing New York's 10th congressional district in Brooklyn.
In 1984, Howard Golden (then the Brooklyn Borough president and chairman of the Brooklyn Democratic Party) named Velázquez to fill a vacant seat on the New York City Council, making her the first Hispanic woman to serve on the council. Velázquez ran for election to the council in 1986, but lost to a challenger.
From May 1986 to July 1989, Velázquez was national director of the Puerto Rico Department of Labor and Human Resources' Migration Division Office. In 1989 the governor of Puerto Rico named her the director of the Department of Puerto Rican Community Affairs in the United States. In this role, according to a 1992 The New York Times profile, "Velazquez solidified her reputation that night as a street-smart and politically savvy woman who understood the value of solidarity and loyalty to other politicians, community leaders and organized labor."
Velázquez pioneered Atrévete Con Tu Voto, a program that aims to politically empower Latinos in the United States through voter registration and other projects. The Atrévete project spread from New York to Hartford, Connecticut; New Jersey; Chicago; and Boston, helping Hispanic candidates secure electoral wins.
=== Puerto Rico ===
Velázquez has been an advocate for human and civil rights of the Puerto Rican people. In the late 1990s and the 2000s, she was a leader in the Vieques movement, which sought to stop the United States military from using the inhabited island as a bomb testing ground. In May 2000, Velázquez was one of nearly 200 people arrested (including fellow Representative Luis Gutiérrez) for refusing to leave the natural habitat the US military wished to continue using as a bombing range. Velázquez was ultimately successful: in May 2003, the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility on Vieques Island was closed, and in May 2004, the U.S. Navy's last remaining base on Puerto Rico, the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station – which employed 1,000 local contractors and contributed $300 million to the local economy – was closed.
== U.S. House of Representatives ==
=== Elections ===
==== 1992 ====
Velázquez ran for Congress in the 1992 election, seeking a seat in the New York's newly drawn 12th congressional district, which was drawn as a majority-Hispanic district. She won the Democratic primary, defeating nine-term incumbent Stephen J. Solarz, who was heavily damaged by the House banking scandal, and four Hispanic candidates.
==== 2010 ====
Velázquez's 2010 campaign income was $759,359. She came out of this campaign about $7,736 in debt. Her top contributors included Goldman Sachs, the American Bankers Association, the National Roofing Contractors Association and the National Telephone Cooperative Association.
==== 2012 ====
Velázquez, who was redistricted into the 7th congressional district, defeated her challengers to win the Democratic nomination. Her top contributors included Goldman Sachs, the American Bankers Association and the Independent Community Bankers of America.
=== Tenure ===
On September 29, 2008, Velázquez voted for the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008. On November 19, 2008, she was elected by her peers in the Congressional Hispanic Caucus to lead the group in the 111th Congress.
Before removing her name from consideration, she was considered a possible candidate to be appointed to the United States Senate by Governor David Paterson after Senator Hillary Clinton resigned to become secretary of state.
Among Velázquez's firsts are: the first Hispanic woman to serve on the New York City Council; the first Puerto Rican woman to serve in Congress; and the first woman Ranking Democratic Member of the House Small Business Committee in 1998. She became the first woman to chair the United States House Committee on Small Business in January 2007 as well as the first Hispanic woman to chair a House standing committee.
Valazquez voted with President Joe Biden's stated position 100% of the time in the 117th Congress, according to a FiveThirtyEight analysis.
In September 2024, Nydia M. Velázquez presented a federal bill called the "Mel Law," which guarantees posthumous degrees to students who die before completing their mandatory studies.
In April 2024, Velázquez and nearly 20 other congresspeople voted against military aid to Israel.
=== Committee assignments ===
Committee on Financial Services
Subcommittee on Financial Institutions and Consumer Credit;
Subcommittee on Insurance, Housing and Community Opportunity;
Committee on Small Business (chair)
Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis
=== Caucus memberships ===
Black Maternal Health Caucus
Congressional Equality Caucus
Congressional Hispanic Caucus
Congressional Progressive Caucus
Women's Issues Caucus
Urban Caucus
House Baltic Caucus
Congressional Arts Caucus
Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus
Climate Solutions Caucus
Medicare for All Caucus
Blue Collar Caucus
Rare Disease Caucus
United States–China Working Group
Velázquez was formerly a member of the Congressional Out of Iraq Caucus.
== Personal life ==
Velázquez, also known as "la luchadora", married Brooklyn-based printer Paul Bader in 2000. It was her second marriage. In November 2002, New York City Comptroller Bill Thompson controversially hired Bader as an administrative manager in the Bureau of Law and Adjudications, joining Joyce Miller, wife of Representative Jerry Nadler, and Chirlane McCray, wife of City Councilman Bill de Blasio. In 2010, Velázquez and Bader were in the process of divorce.
In October 1992, during her first campaign for the House, an unknown person at Saint Clare's Hospital in Manhattan anonymously faxed to the press Velázquez's hospital records pertaining to a suicide attempt in 1991. At a subsequent press conference, Velázquez acknowledged that she had attempted suicide that year while suffering from clinical depression. She said that she underwent counseling and "emerged stronger and more committed to public service." She expressed outrage at the leak of personal health records and asked the Manhattan district attorney and the state attorney general to investigate. Velázquez sued the hospital in 1994, alleging that the hospital had failed to protect her privacy. The lawsuit was settled in 1997.
Velázquez is Catholic.
== See also ==
List of Puerto Ricans
History of women in Puerto Rico
List of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress
Women in the United States House of Representatives
== References ==
== External links ==
Congresswoman Nydia Velázquez official U.S. House website
Nydia Velázquez for Congress
Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Financial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission
Legislation sponsored at the Library of Congress
Profile at Vote Smart
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Constable | John Constable | John Constable (; 11 June 1776 – 31 March 1837) was an English landscape painter in the Romantic tradition. Born in Suffolk, he is known principally for revolutionising the genre of landscape painting with his pictures of Dedham Vale, the area surrounding his home – now known as "Constable Country" – which he invested with an intensity of affection. "I should paint my own places best", he wrote to his friend John Fisher in 1821, "painting is but another word for feeling".
Constable's most famous paintings include Wivenhoe Park (1816), Dedham Vale (1828) and The Hay Wain (1821). Although his paintings are now among the most popular and valuable in British art, he was never financially successful. He was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts at the age of 52. His work was embraced in France, where he sold more than in his native England and inspired the Barbizon school.
== Early career ==
John Constable was born in East Bergholt, a village on the River Stour in Suffolk, to Golding and Ann (Watts) Constable. His father was a wealthy corn merchant, owner of Flatford Mill in East Bergholt and, later, Dedham Mill in Essex. Golding Constable owned a small ship, The Telegraph, which he moored at Mistley on the Stour estuary, and used to transport corn to London. He was a cousin of the London tea merchant, Abram Newman. Although Constable was his parents' second son, his older brother was intellectually disabled and John was expected to succeed his father in the business. After a brief period at a boarding school in Lavenham, he was enrolled in a day school in Dedham, Essex. Constable worked in the corn business after leaving school, but his younger brother Abram eventually took over the running of the mills.
In his youth, Constable embarked on amateur sketching trips in the surrounding Suffolk and Essex countryside, which was to become the subject of a large proportion of his art. These scenes, in his own words, "made me a painter, and I am grateful"; "the sound of water escaping from mill dams etc., willows, old rotten planks, slimy posts, and brickwork, I love such things." He was introduced to George Beaumont, a collector, who showed him his prized Hagar and the Angel by Claude Lorrain, which inspired Constable. Later, while visiting relatives in Middlesex, he was introduced to the professional artist John Thomas Smith, who advised him on painting but also urged him to remain in his father's business rather than take up art professionally.
In 1799, Constable persuaded his father to let him pursue a career in art, and Golding granted him a small allowance. Entering the Royal Academy Schools as a probationer, he attended life classes and anatomical dissections, and studied and copied old masters. Among works that particularly inspired him during this period were paintings by Thomas Gainsborough, Claude Lorrain, Peter Paul Rubens, Annibale Carracci and Jacob van Ruisdael. He also read widely among poetry and sermons, and later proved a notably articulate artist.
In 1802 he refused the position of drawing master at Great Marlow Military College (now Sandhurst), a move which Benjamin West (then master of the RA) counselled would mean the end of his career. In that year, Constable wrote a letter to John Dunthorne in which he spelled out his determination to become a professional landscape painter:
For the last two years I have been running after pictures, and seeking the truth at second hand... I have not endeavoured to represent nature with the same elevation of mind with which I set out, but have rather tried to make my performances look like the work of other men...There is room enough for a natural painter. The great vice of the present day is bravura, an attempt to do something beyond the truth.
His early style has many qualities associated with his mature work, including a freshness of light, colour and touch, and reveals the compositional influence of the old masters he had studied, notably of Claude Lorrain. Constable's usual subjects, scenes of ordinary daily life, were unfashionable in an age that looked for more romantic visions of wild landscapes and ruins. He made occasional trips farther afield.
By 1803, he was exhibiting paintings at the Royal Academy. In April he spent almost a month aboard the East Indiaman Coutts as it visited south-east ports while sailing from London to Deal before leaving for China.
In 1806 Constable undertook a two-month tour of the Lake District. He told his friend and biographer, Charles Leslie, that the solitude of the mountains oppressed his spirits, and Leslie wrote:
His nature was peculiarly social and could not feel satisfied with scenery, however grand in itself, that did not abound in human associations. He required villages, churches, farmhouses and cottages.
Constable adopted a routine of spending winter in London and painting at East Bergholt in summer. In 1811 he first visited John Fisher and his family in Salisbury, a city whose cathedral and surrounding landscape were to inspire some of his greatest paintings.
To make ends meet, Constable took up portraiture, which he found dull, though he executed many fine portraits. He also painted occasional religious pictures but, according to John Walker, "Constable's incapacity as a religious painter cannot be overstated."
Another source of income was country house painting. In 1816, he was commissioned by Major-General Francis Slater Rebow to paint his country home, Wivenhoe Park, Essex. The Major-General also commissioned a smaller painting of the fishing lodge in the grounds of Alresford Hall, which is now in the National Gallery of Victoria. Constable used the money from these commissions towards his wedding with Maria Bicknell. This period of Constable's painting is heavily populated with idyllic country scenes with heavy detail, notably his 1816 work The Wheat Field.
== Marriage ==
From 1809, his childhood friendship with Maria Elizabeth Bicknell developed into a deep, mutual love. Their marriage in 1816 when Constable was 40 was opposed by Maria's grandfather, Dr. Rhudde, rector of East Bergholt. He considered the Constables his social inferiors and threatened Maria with disinheritance. Maria's father, Charles Bicknell, solicitor to George IV and the Admiralty, was reluctant to see Maria throw away her inheritance. Maria pointed out to John that a penniless marriage would detract from any chances he had of making a career in painting. Golding and Ann Constable, while approving the match, held out no prospect of supporting the marriage until Constable was financially secure. After they died in quick succession, Constable inherited a fifth share in the family business.
John and Maria's marriage in October 1816 at St Martin-in-the-Fields (with Fisher officiating) was followed by time at Fisher's vicarage and a honeymoon tour of the south coast. The sea at Weymouth and Brighton stimulated Constable to develop new techniques of brilliant colour and vivacious brushwork. At the same time, a greater emotional range began to be expressed in his art. While on honeymoon, Constable began to experiment with works exploring nature's grandeur, characterized by dominating skies, such as Osmington Bay.
Three weeks before their marriage, Constable revealed that he had started work on his most ambitious project to date In a letter to Maria Bicknell from East Bergholt, he wrote:
’I am now in the midst of a large picture here which I had contemplated for the next exhibition
The picture was Flatford Mill (Scene on a Navigable River). It was the largest canvas of a working scene on the River Stour that he had worked on to date and the largest he would ever complete largely outdoors. Constable was determined to paint on a larger scale, his objective not only to attract more attention at the Royal Academy exhibitions but also, it seems, to project his ideas about landscape on a scale more in keeping with the achievements of the classical landscape painters he so admired. Although Flatford Mill failed to find a buyer when it was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1817, its fine and intricate execution drew much praise, encouraging Constable to move on to the even larger canvases that were to follow.
== The ‘Six-Footers’ ==
Although he managed to scrape an income from painting, it was not until 1819 that Constable sold his first important canvas, The White Horse, described by Charles Robert Leslie as ‘on many accounts the most important picture Constable ever painted'. The painting (without the frame) sold for the substantial price of 100 guineas to his friend John Fisher, finally providing Constable with a level of financial freedom he had never before known. The White Horse marked an important turning point in Constable’s career; its success saw him elected an associate of the Royal Academy and it led to a series of six monumental landscapes depicting narratives on the River Stour known as the ‘six-footers’ (named for their scale). The extraordinary size of the works helped Constable attract attention in the competitive space of the Academy's exhibitions. Viewed as ‘the knottiest and most forceful landscapes produced in 19th-century Europe’, for many they are the defining works of the artist's career. The series also includes Stratford Mill, 1820 (National Gallery, London); The Hay Wain, 1821 (National Gallery, London); View on the Stour near Dedham, 1822 (Huntington Library and Art Gallery, Los Angeles County); The Lock, 1824 (Private Collection); and The Leaping Horse, 1825 (Royal Academy of Arts, London).
The following year, his second six-footer Stratford Mill was exhibited. The Examiner described it as having ‘a more exact look of nature than any picture we have ever seen by an Englishman’. The painting was a success, acquiring a buyer in the loyal John Fisher, who purchased it for 100 guineas, a price he himself thought too low. Fisher bought the painting for his solicitor and friend, John Pern Tinney. Tinney loved the painting so much, he offered Constable another 100 guineas to paint a companion picture, an offer the artist didn’t take up. Constable's growing popularity in turn led to more lucrative commissions, such as Malvern Hall (1821, Clark Art Institute).
In 1821, his most famous painting The Hay Wain was shown at the Royal Academy's exhibition. Although it failed to find a buyer, it was viewed by some important people of the time, including two Frenchmen, the artist Théodore Géricault and writer Charles Nodier. According to the painter Eugène Delacroix, Géricault returned to France ’quite stunned‘ by Constable’s painting, while Nodier suggested French artists should also look to nature rather than relying on trips to Rome for inspiration. It was eventually purchased, along with View on the Stour near Dedham, by the Anglo-French dealer John Arrowsmith, in 1824. A small painting Yarmouth Jetty was added to the bargain by Constable, with the sale totalling £250. Both paintings were exhibited at the Paris Salon that year, where they caused a sensation, with the Hay Wain being awarded a gold medal by Charles X. The Hay Wain was later acquired by the collector Henry Vaughan who donated it to the National Gallery in 1886.
Of Constable's colour, Delacroix wrote in his journal: "What he says here about the green of his meadows can be applied to every tone". Delacroix repainted the background of his 1824 Massacre de Scio after seeing the Constables at Arrowsmith's Gallery, which he said had done him a great deal of good.
A number of distractions meant that The Lock wasn't finished in time for the 1823 exhibition, leaving the much smaller Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Grounds as the artist's main entry. This may have occurred after Fisher forwarded Constable the money for the painting. This both helped him out of a financial difficulty and nudged him along to get the painting done. The Lock was therefore exhibited the following year to more fanfare and sold for 150 guineas on the first day of the exhibition, the only Constable ever to do so. The Lock is the only upright landscape of the Stour series and the only six-footer that Constable painted more than one version of. A second version now known as the ‘Foster version’ was painted in 1825 and kept by the artist to send to exhibitions. A third, landscape version, known as A Boat Passing a Lock (1826) is now in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts. Constable’s final attempt, The Leaping Horse, was the only six-footer from the Stour series that didn’t sell in Constable’s lifetime.
== Later life ==
Constable’s pleasure at his own success was dampened after his wife started displaying symptoms of tuberculosis. Her growing illness meant that Constable took lodgings for his family in Brighton from 1824 until 1828, in the hope the sea air could restore her health. During this period Constable split his time between Charlotte Street in London and Brighton. This change saw Constable move away from large scale Stour scenes in favour of coastal scenes. He continued painting six-foot canvases, although he was initially unsure of the suitability of Brighton as a subject for painting. In a letter to Fisher in 1824 he wrote
The magnificence of the sea, and its (to use your own beautiful expression) everlasting voice, is drowned in the din & lost in the tumult of stage coaches - gigs - “flys” &c. -and the beach is only Piccadilly (that part of it where we dined) by the sea-side.
In his lifetime, Constable sold only 20 paintings in England, but in France he sold more than 20 in just a few years. Despite this, he refused all invitations to travel internationally to promote his work, writing to Francis Darby: "I would rather be a poor man [in England] than a rich man abroad."
In 1825, perhaps due partly to the worry of his wife's ill-health, the uncongeniality of living in Brighton ("Piccadilly by the seaside"), and the pressure of numerous outstanding commissions, he quarreled with Arrowsmith and lost his French outlet.
Chain Pier, Brighton was his only ambitious six-foot painting of a Brighton subject, it was exhibited in 1827. The Constables persevered in Brighton for five years to aid Maria’s health, but to no avail. After the birth of their seventh child in January 1828, they returned to Hampstead where Maria died on 23 November at the age of 41. Intensely saddened, Constable wrote to his brother Golding, "hourly do I feel the loss of my departed Angel—God only knows how my children will be brought up...the face of the World is totally changed to me".
Thereafter, he dressed in black and was, according to Leslie, "a prey to melancholy and anxious thoughts". He cared for his seven children alone for the rest of his life. The children were John Charles, Maria Louisa, Charles Golding, Isobel, Emma, Alfred, and Lionel. Only Charles Golding Constable produced offspring. Several of Constable's children also painted, notably his son Lionel. While Lionel eventually gave up painting for photography, several of his works are within the collection of the Clark Art Institute.
Shortly before Maria died, her father had also died, leaving her £20,000. Constable speculated disastrously with the money, paying for the engraving of several mezzotints of some of his landscapes in preparation for a publication. He was hesitant and indecisive, nearly fell out with his engraver, and when the folios were published, could not interest enough subscribers. Constable collaborated closely with mezzotinter David Lucas on 40 prints after his landscapes, one of which went through 13 proof stages, corrected by Constable in pencil and paint. Constable said, "Lucas showed me to the public without my faults", but the venture was not a financial success.
This period saw his art move from the serenity of its earlier phase, to a more broken and accented style. The turmoil and distress of his mind is clearly seen in his later six-foot masterpieces Hadleigh Castle (1829) and Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows (1831), which are amongst his most expressive pieces.
He was elected to the Royal Academy in February 1829, at the age of 52. In 1831 he was appointed Visitor at the Royal Academy, where he seems to have been popular with the students.
He began to deliver public lectures on the history of landscape painting, which were attended by distinguished audiences. In a series of lectures at the Royal Institution in 1836, Constable proposed a three-fold thesis: firstly, painting "is scientific as well as poetic"; secondly, "that imagination never did, and never can" produce art to bear comparison with reality; and thirdly, "that no great painter was ever self taught".
He also spoke against the new Gothic Revival movement, which he considered mere "imitation".
In 1835, his last lecture to students of the Royal Academy, in which he praised Raphael and called the Academy the "cradle of British art", was "cheered most heartily". He died on the night of 31 March 1837, apparently from heart failure, and was buried with Maria in the graveyard of St John-at-Hampstead Church in Hampstead in London. (His children John Charles Constable and Charles Golding Constable are also buried in this family tomb.)
== Locations ==
Bridge Cottage is a National Trust property, open to the public. Nearby Flatford Mill and Willy Lott's Cottage (the house visible in The Hay Wain) are used by the Field Studies Council for courses. The largest collection of original Constable paintings outside London is on display at Christchurch Mansion in Ipswich. Somerville College, Oxford is in possession of a portrait by Constable.
== Art ==
Constable quietly rebelled against the artistic culture that taught artists to use their imagination to compose their pictures rather than nature itself. He told Leslie, "When I sit down to make a sketch from nature, the first thing I try to do is to forget that I have ever seen a picture".
Constable attributed his gift 'to all that lay on the Stour river', however, biographer Anthony Bailey attributed his artistic development to the influence of his well to do relative, Thomas Allen and the London contacts he introduced Constable to.
Although Constable produced paintings throughout his life for the "finished" picture market of patrons and R.A. exhibitions, constant refreshment in the form of on-the-spot studies was essential to his working method. He was never satisfied with following a formula. "The world is wide", he wrote, "no two days are alike, nor even two hours; neither were there ever two leaves of a tree alike since the creation of all the world; and the genuine productions of art, like those of nature, are all distinct from each other."
Constable painted many full-scale preliminary sketches of his landscapes to test the composition in advance of finished pictures. These large sketches, with their free and vigorous brushwork, were revolutionary at the time, and they continue to interest artists, scholars and the general public. The oil sketches of The Leaping Horse and The Hay Wain, for example, convey a vigour and expressiveness missing from Constable's finished paintings of the same subjects. Possibly more than any other aspect of Constable's work, the oil sketches reveal him in retrospect to have been an avant-garde painter, one who demonstrated that landscape painting could be taken in a totally new direction.
Constable's watercolours were also remarkably free for their time: the almost mystical Stonehenge, 1835, with its double rainbow, is often considered to be one of the greatest watercolours ever painted. When he exhibited it in 1836, Constable appended a text to the title: "The mysterious monument of Stonehenge, standing remote on a bare and boundless heath, as much unconnected with the events of past ages as it is with the uses of the present, carries you back beyond all historical records into the obscurity of a totally unknown period."
In addition to the full-scale oil sketches, Constable completed numerous observational studies of landscapes and clouds, determined to become more scientific in his recording of atmospheric conditions. The power of his physical effects was sometimes apparent even in the full-scale paintings which he exhibited in London; The Chain Pier, 1827, for example, prompted a critic to write: "the atmosphere possesses a characteristic humidity about it, that almost imparts the wish for an umbrella".
The sketches themselves were the first ever done in oils directly from the subject in the open air, with the notable exception of the oil sketches Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes made in Rome around 1780. To convey the effects of light and movement, Constable used broken brushstrokes, often in small touches, which he scumbled over lighter passages, creating an impression of sparkling light enveloping the entire landscape. One of the most expressionistic and powerful of all his studies is Seascape Study with Rain Cloud, painted about 1824 at Brighton, which captures with slashing dark brushstrokes the immediacy of an exploding cumulus shower at sea. Constable also became interested in painting rainbow effects, for example in Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows, 1831, and in Cottage at East Bergholt, 1833.
To the sky studies he added notes, often on the back of the sketches, of the prevailing weather conditions, direction of light, and time of day, believing that the sky was "the key note, the standard of scale, and the chief organ of sentiment" in a landscape painting. In this habit he is known to have been influenced by the pioneering work of the meteorologist Luke Howard on the classification of clouds; Constable's annotations of his own copy of Researches About Atmospheric Phaenomena by Thomas Forster show him to have been fully abreast of meteorological terminology. "I have done a good deal of skying", Constable wrote to Fisher on 23 October 1821; "I am determined to conquer all difficulties, and that most arduous one among the rest".
Constable once wrote in a letter to Leslie, "My limited and abstracted art is to be found under every hedge, and in every lane, and therefore nobody thinks it worth picking up". He could never have imagined how influential his honest techniques would turn out to be. Constable's art inspired not only contemporaries like Géricault and Delacroix, but the Barbizon School, and the French impressionists of the late nineteenth century.
In 2019 two drawings by Constable were found among the possessions of the late playwright and poet, Christopher Fry; the drawings later sold for £60,000 and £32,000 at auction.
=== Gallery ===
== Selected paintings ==
Dedham Vale (1802) – Victoria and Albert Museum, London
The Stour (1810) – Philadelphia Museum of Art
Landscape: Two Boys Fishing (1813) – Anglesey Abbey, Cambs, NT
Landscape: Ploughing Scene in Suffolk (1814, revised c. 1816 and 1831) – Yale Center for British Art, New Haven
The Mill Stream, Flatford (1814) – Christchurch Mansion, Ipswich
The Stour Valley And Dedham Village (1814–1815) – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Boat-Building Near Flatford Mill (1815) – Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Golding Constable's Flower Garden (1815) – Christchurch Mansion, Ipswich
Golding Constable's Kitchen Garden (1815) – Christchurch Mansion, Ipswich
Portrait of Maria Bicknell, Mrs. John Constable (1816) – Tate Britain, London
Wivenhoe Park, Essex (1816) – National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
The Quarters behind Alresford Hall (1816) – National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne
Flatford Mill (original title Scene on a Navigable River) (1816) – Tate Britain, London
Two Donkeys (1816) – Philadelphia Museum of Art
Weymouth Bay: Bowleaze Cove and Jordon Hill (1816–17) – National Gallery, London
A Cottage in a Cornfield (1817) – National Museum Cardiff
Weymouth Bay with Approaching Storm (1819) – Louvre, Paris
The White Horse (A Scene on the River Stour) (1819) – Frick Collection, New York City
Harwich- The Low Lighthouse and Beacon Hill (1820) – Yale Center for British Art, New Haven
Hampstead Heath (1820) – Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
Dedham Lock and Mill (1820) – Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Stratford Mill (1820) – National Gallery, London
The Hay Wain (original title Landscape: Noon; 1821) – National Gallery, London
The Grove, or the Admiral's House in Hampstead (1821–22) – Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin
View on the Stour near Dedham (1822) – The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA
Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Grounds (1823) – Victoria and Albert Museum, London
The Lock (1824) – Private Collection
Seascape Study with Rain Clouds (1824–25) – Royal Academy of Arts, London
Brighton Beach (c. 1824–26) – Dunedin Public Art Gallery, Dunedin
The Leaping Horse (1825) – Royal Academy of Arts, London
Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Grounds (1825) – Frick Collection, New York City
The Cornfield (1826) – National Gallery, London
Chain Pier, Brighton (1827) – Tate Britain, London
The Vale of Dedham (1828) – National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh
Hadleigh Castle (1829) – Yale Center for British Art and sketch Tate Britain
Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows (1831) – Tate Britain, London
Sir Richard Steele's Cottage, Hampstead (1832) – Yale Center for British Art
The Opening of Waterloo Bridge (1832) – Tate Britain, London
The Valley Farm (1835) – Tate Britain, London
Stonehenge (1835) – Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Hampstead Heath with a Rainbow (1836) – Tate Britain, London
Cenotaph to the Memory of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1836) – National Gallery, London
Arundel Mill and Castle (c. 1836–37) – Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo, OH
== Notes ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links ==
Media related to Paintings by John Constable at Wikimedia Commons
348 artworks by or after John Constable at the Art UK site
John Constable: Sketch for Hadleigh Castle c1828 – Great Works of Western Art
A gallery of Constable's cloud studies
Web feature from Royal Academy of Arts
Constable's Great Landscapes: The Six-Foot Paintings at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC
John Constable: a complete chronology and other articles
Constable's Oil Sketches Victoria and Albert Museum
A Sketchbook by Constable Victoria and Albert Museum
List of works held by the Victoria and Albert Museum
390 paintings by John Constable at www.John-Constable.org
Gallery of Constable Paintings at MuseumSyndicate Archived 22 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
Portraits by the artist as a young man: Constable's parents finally identified, The Guardian, March 4, 2009
Memoirs of the Life of John Constable, ed C. R. Leslie 1843
Romanticism & the school of nature : nineteenth-century drawings and paintings from the Karen B. Cohen collection, fully digitized text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries
Charles Rhyne Archive - Research on John Constable
Turner and Constable 2025 exhibition at the Tate Britain |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Haney | Chris Haney | Christopher Deane Haney (born November 16, 1968) is an American former Major League Baseball left-handed pitcher. He pitched from 1991–2000 and in 2002 for the Montreal Expos, Kansas City Royals, Chicago Cubs, Cleveland Indians, and Boston Red Sox.
Haney is the son of former catcher Larry Haney. He attended Orange County High School in Orange, Virginia. Haney pitched for the Charlotte 49ers and was the All-Sun Belt selection in both 1989 and 1990 and remains the program's leader with 20 complete games.
He was drafted by the Montreal Expos in the second round of the 1990 Major League Baseball draft. A year after signing, Haney made his major league debut for the Expos, and pitched for them for 1.5 years, then was traded to the Kansas City Royals on August 29, 1992 with Bill Sampen for Sean Berry and Archie Corbin.
Haney pitched for the Royals from 1992 to 1998. He had his best season in 1996, when he served as a full-time starter, finishing the year with a 10-14 record and a 4.67 earned run average.
On August 7, 1999, Wade Boggs of the Tampa Bay Devil Rays became the first major leaguer to hit a home run for his 3,000th hit, connecting against Haney. That October, Haney was left off the Indians' playoff roster. The decision to exclude him was blamed by some for the team's collapse against the Boston Red Sox in the 1999 American League Division Series.
In 2001, he played in Japan for the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks. After retiring from baseball, he returned to Orange, Virginia, the town where he grew up.
In 2002, Haney returned to MLB and pitched for the Red Sox. He made 24 appearances, all in relief. He did not pick up any wins but on June 5, 2002, he did pick up his one and only career save against the Tigers.
Haney's son, Jacob, pitched from 2017–2022 at the College of William & Mary.
== See also ==
List of second-generation Major League Baseball players
== References ==
== External links ==
Career statistics from MLB · ESPN · Baseball Reference · Fangraphs · Baseball Reference (Minors) · Retrosheet · Baseball Almanac |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Is_Blind_season_3 | Love Is Blind season 3 | The third season of Love Is Blind premiered on Netflix on October 19, 2022, and concluded on November 9, 2022, with a reunion episode released on the same date. A three-part companion piece entitled After the Altar was released on February 10, 2023. The season followed singles from Dallas, Texas.
== Season summary ==
== Participants ==
All the participants lived in Dallas at the time of filming.
=== Future appearances ===
In 2023, Bartise Bowden appeared on the first season of Perfect Match, finishing as a finalist.
== Episodes ==
== Unaired engagements ==
According to Netflix and production company, Kinetic Content, there were no unaired engagements in Season 3; all couples that got engaged in the pods were featured on the show.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cab_Calloway#Early_life | Cab Calloway | Cabell Calloway III (December 25, 1907 – November 18, 1994) was an American jazz singer, songwriter and bandleader. He was a regular performer at the Cotton Club in Harlem, where he became a popular vocalist of the swing era. His niche of mixing jazz and vaudeville won him acclaim during a career that spanned over 65 years.
Calloway was a master of energetic scat singing and led one of the most popular dance bands in the United States from the early 1930s to the late 1940s. His band included trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie, Jonah Jones, and Adolphus "Doc" Cheatham, saxophonists Ben Webster and Leon "Chu" Berry, guitarist Danny Barker, bassist Milt Hinton, and drummer Cozy Cole.
Calloway had several hit records in the 1930s and 1940s, becoming the first African-American musician to sell one million copies of a record. He became known as the "Hi-de-ho" man of jazz for his most famous song, "Minnie the Moocher", originally recorded in 1931. He reached the Billboard charts in five consecutive decades (1930s–1970s). Calloway also made several stage, film, and television appearances. He had roles in Stormy Weather (1943), Porgy and Bess (1953), The Cincinnati Kid (1965), and Hello Dolly! (1967). In the 1980s, Calloway enjoyed a marked career resurgence following his appearance in the musical comedy film The Blues Brothers (1980).
Calloway was the first African-American to have a nationally syndicated radio program. In 1993, Calloway received the National Medal of Arts from the United States Congress. He posthumously received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2008. His song "Minnie the Moocher" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999, and added to the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry in 2019. In 2022, the National Film Registry selected his home films for preservation as "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant films". He was inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame and the International Jazz Hall of Fame.
== Early life ==
Cabell Calloway III was born in Rochester, New York, on December 25, 1907, to an African American family. His father, Cabell Calloway Jr., graduated from Lincoln University of Pennsylvania in 1898. His mother, Martha Eulalia Reed, was a Morgan State College graduate, teacher, and church organist, and worked as a lawyer and in real estate. The family moved to Baltimore, Maryland, in 1919. Soon after, his father died and his mother remarried to John Nelson Fortune.
Calloway grew up in the West Baltimore neighborhood of Druid Hill. He often skipped school to earn money by selling newspapers, shining shoes, and cooling down horses at the Pimlico racetrack where he developed an interest in racing and gambling on horses. After he was caught playing dice on the church steps, his mother sent him to Downingtown Industrial and Agricultural School in 1921, a reform school run by his mother's uncle in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
Calloway resumed hustling when he returned to Baltimore and worked as a caterer while he improved his education in school. He began private vocal lessons in 1922, and studied music throughout his formal schooling. Despite his parents' and teachers' disapproval of jazz, he began performing in nightclubs in Baltimore. His mentors included drummer Chick Webb and pianist Johnny Jones. Calloway joined his high school basketball team, and in his senior year he started playing professional basketball with the Baltimore Athenians, a team in the Negro Professional Basketball League. He graduated from Frederick Douglass High School in 1925. After this, he spent a short period of time at law school in Chicago but left to continue performing in nightclubs.
== Music career ==
=== 1927–1929: Early career ===
In 1927, Calloway joined his older sister, Blanche Calloway, on tour for the popular black musical revue Plantation Days. His sister became an accomplished bandleader before he did, and he often credited her as his inspiration for entering show business. Calloway's mother wanted him to be a lawyer like his father, so once the tour ended he enrolled at Crane College in Chicago, but he was more interested in singing and entertaining. While at Crane he refused the opportunity to play basketball for the Harlem Globetrotters to pursue a singing career.
Calloway spent most of his nights at ‘Black and tan clubs’ such as Chicago's Dreamland Café, Sunset Cafe, and Club Berlin, performing as a singer, drummer, and master of ceremonies. At Sunset Cafe, he was an understudy for singer Adelaide Hall. There he met and performed with Louis Armstrong, who taught him to sing in the scat style. He left school to sing with the Alabamians band.
In 1929, Calloway relocated to New York with the band. They opened at the Savoy Ballroom on September 20, 1929. When the Alabamians broke up, Armstrong recommended Calloway as a replacement singer in the musical revue Connie's Hot Chocolates. He established himself as a vocalist singing "Ain't Misbehavin'" by Fats Waller. While Calloway was performing in the revue, the Missourians asked him to front their band.
=== 1930–1955: Success ===
In 1930, the Missourians became known as Cab Calloway and His Orchestra. At the Cotton Club in Harlem, New York, the band was hired in 1931 to substitute for the Duke Ellington Orchestra while Ellington's band was on tour. Their popularity led to a permanent position. The band also performed twice a week for radio broadcasts on NBC. Calloway appeared on radio programs with Walter Winchell and Bing Crosby and was the first African American to have a nationally syndicated radio show. During the depths of the Great Depression, Calloway was earning $50,000 a year at 23 years old.In 1931, Calloway recorded his most famous song, "Minnie the Moocher". It was the first single record by an African American to sell a million copies. Calloway performed the song and two others, "St. James Infirmary Blues" and "The Old Man of the Mountain", in the Betty Boop cartoons Minnie the Moocher (1932), Snow-White (1933), and The Old Man of the Mountain (1933). Calloway performed voice-over for these cartoons, and through rotoscoping, his dance steps were the basis of the characters' movements.
As a result of the success of "Minnie the Moocher", Calloway became identified with its chorus, gaining the nickname "The Hi De Ho Man". He performed in the 1930s in a series of short films for Paramount. Calloway's and Ellington's groups were featured on film more than any other jazz orchestras of the era. In these films, Calloway can be seen performing a gliding backstep dance move, which some observers have described as the precursor to Michael Jackson's moonwalk. Calloway said 50 years later, "it was called The Buzz back then." The 1933 film International House featured Calloway performing his classic song, "Reefer Man", a tune about a man who smokes marijuana. Fredi Washington was cast as Calloway's love interest in Cab Calloway's Hi-De-Ho (1934). Lena Horne made her film debut as a dancer in Cab Calloway's Jitterbug Party (1935).
Calloway made his first Hollywood feature film appearance opposite Al Jolson in The Singing Kid (1936). He sang several duets with Jolson, and the film included Calloway's band and 22 Cotton Club dancers from New York. According to film critic Arthur Knight, the creators of the film intended to "erase and celebrate boundaries and differences, including most emphatically the color line...when Calloway begins singing in his characteristic style – in which the words are tools for exploring rhythm and stretching melody – it becomes clear that American culture is changing around Jolson and with (and through) Calloway".
In 1938, Calloway released Cab Calloway's Cat-ologue: A "Hepster's" Dictionary, the first dictionary published by an African American. It became the official jive language reference book of the New York Public Library. A revised version of the book was released with Professor Cab Calloway's Swingformation Bureau in 1939. He released the last edition, The New Cab Calloway's Hepsters Dictionary: Language of Jive, in 1944. On a BBC Radio documentary about the dictionary in 2014, Poet Lemn Sissay stated, "Cab Calloway was taking ownership of language for a people who, just a few generations before, had their own languages taken away."
Calloway's band in the 1930s and 1940s included many notable musicians, such as Ben Webster, Illinois Jacquet, Milt Hinton, Danny Barker, Doc Cheatham, Ed Swayze, Cozy Cole, Eddie Barefield, and Dizzy Gillespie. Calloway later recalled, "What I expected from my musicians was what I was selling: the right notes with precision, because I would build a whole song around a scat or dance step." Calloway and his band formed baseball and basketball teams. They played each other while on the road, played against local semi-pro teams, and played charity games.
In 1941, Calloway fired Gillespie from his orchestra after an onstage fracas erupted when Calloway was hit with spitballs. He wrongly accused Gillespie, who stabbed Calloway in the leg with a small knife.
From 1941 to 1942, Calloway hosted a weekly radio quiz show called The Cab Calloway Quizzicale. Calling himself "Doctor" Calloway, it was a parody of The College of Musical Knowledge, a radio contest created by bandleader Kay Kyser. During the years of World War II, Calloway entertained troops in United States before they departed overseas. The Calloway Orchestra also recorded songs full of social commentary including "Doing the Reactionary", "The Führer's Got the Jitters", "The Great Lie", "We'll Gather Lilacs", and "My Lament for V Day".
In 1943, Calloway appeared in the film Stormy Weather, one of the first mainstream Hollywood films with a black cast. The film featured other top performers of the time, including Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, Lena Horne, the Nicholas Brothers, and Fats Waller. Calloway would host Horne's character Selina Rogers as she performed the film's title song as part of a big all-star revue for World War II soldiers.
Calloway wrote a humorous pseudo-gossip column called "Coastin' with Cab" for Song Hits magazine. It was a collection of celebrity snippets, such as the following in the May 1946 issue: "Benny Goodman was dining at Ciro's steak house in New York when a very homely girl entered. 'If her face is her fortune,' Benny quipped, 'she'd be tax-free.'" In the late 1940s, however, Calloway's bad financial decisions and his gambling caused his band to break up.
=== 1956–1960: Cotton Club Revue ===
Calloway and his daughter Lael recorded "Little Child", an adaption of "Little Boy and the Old Man". Released on ABC-Paramount, the single charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1956.
For the second season, Lee Sherman was the choreographer of The Cotton Club Revue of 1958, which starred Calloway. The revue featured tap dancing prodigies Maurice Hines and Gregory Hines.
In March 1958, Calloway released his album Cotton Club Revue of 1958 on Gone Records. It was produced by George Goldner, conducted and arranged by Eddie Barefield. That year, Calloway appeared in the film St. Louis Blues, the life story of W.C. Handy, featuring Nat King Cole and Eartha Kitt.
The Cotton Club Revue of 1959 traveled to South America for engagements in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. They also stopped in Uruguay and Argentina before returning to North America which included a run on Broadway.
=== 1961–1993: Later years ===
Calloway remained a household name due to TV appearances and occasional concerts in the US and Europe. In 1961 and 1962, he toured with the Harlem Globetrotters, providing halftime entertainment during games.
Calloway was cast as "Yeller" in the film The Cincinnati Kid (1965) with Steve McQueen, Ann-Margret, and Edward G. Robinson. He appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show on March 19, 1967, with his daughter Chris Calloway. In 1967, he co-starred with Pearl Bailey as Horace Vandergelder in an all-black cast of Hello, Dolly! on Broadway during its original run. Chris Calloway also joined the cast as Minnie Fay. The new cast revived the flagging business for the show and RCA Victor released a new cast recording, rare for the time. In 1973–74, Calloway was featured in an unsuccessful Broadway revival of The Pajama Game with Hal Linden and Barbara McNair.
His autobiography, Of Minnie the Moocher and Me was published in 1976. It included his complete Hepster's Dictionary as an appendix. In 1978, Calloway released a disco version of "Minnie the Moocher" on RCA Victor which reached the Billboard R&B chart. Calloway was introduced to a new generation when he appeared in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers performing "Minnie the Moocher".
In 1985, Calloway and his Orchestra appeared at The Ritz London Hotel where he was filmed for a 60-minute BBC TV show called The Cotton Club Comes to the Ritz. Adelaide Hall, Doc Cheatham, Max Roach, and the Nicholas Brothers also appeared on the bill. A performance with the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra directed by Erich Kunzel in August 1988 was recorded on video and features a classic presentation of "Minnie the Moocher", 57 years after he first recorded it.
In January 1990, Calloway performed at the Meyerhoff Symphony Hall, with the Baltimore Symphony. That year he made a cameo in Janet Jackson's music video "Alright". He continued to perform at Jazz festivals, including the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival and Greenwood Jazz. In 1992, he embarked on a month-long tour of European jazz festivals. He was booked to headline "The Jazz Connection: The Jewish and African-American Relationship," at New York City's Avery Fisher Hall in 1993, but he pulled out due to a fall at home.
== Personal life ==
In January 1927, Calloway had a daughter named Camay with Zelma Proctor, a fellow student. His daughter was one of the first African-Americans to teach in a white school in Virginia. Calloway married his first wife Wenonah "Betty" Conacher in July 1928. They adopted a daughter named Constance and divorced in 1949. Calloway married Zulme "Nuffie" MacNeal on October 7, 1949. They lived in Long Beach on the South Shore of Long Island, New York, on the border with neighboring Lido Beach. In the 1950s, Calloway moved his family to Westchester County, New York, where he and Nuffie raised their daughters Chris Calloway (1945–2008), Cecilia "Lael" Eulalia Calloway, and Cabella Calloway (1952–2023).
Calloway was an Episcopalian.
=== Legal issues ===
In December 1945, Calloway and his friend Felix H. Payne Jr. were beaten by a police officer, William E. Todd, and arrested in Kansas City, Missouri after attempting to visit bandleader Lionel Hampton at the whites-only Pla-Mor Ballroom. They were taken to the hospital for injuries, then charged with intoxication and resisting arrest. When Hampton learned of the incident he refused to continue the concert. Todd said he was informed by the manager, who did not recognize Calloway, that they were attempting to enter. He claimed they refused to leave and struck him. Calloway and Payne denied his claims and maintained they had been sober; the charges were dismissed. In February 1946, six civil rights organizations, including the NAACP, demanded that Todd be fired, but he had already resigned after a pay cut.
In 1952, Calloway was arrested in Leesburg, Virginia on his way to the race track in Charles Town, West Virginia. He was charged with speeding and attempted bribery of a policeman.
== Death ==
On June 12, 1994, Calloway suffered a stroke at his home in Westchester County, New York. He died five months later from pneumonia on November 18, 1994, at the age of 86, at a nursing home in Hockessin, Delaware. A memorial service was held in his honor at Cathedral of St. John the Divine. He was survived by his wife, who died in 2008, five daughters, and seven grandsons. Calloway was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.
== Legacy ==
Music critics have written of his influence on later generations of entertainers such as James Brown, Michael Jackson, and Janet Jackson, as well as modern-day hip-hop performers. John Landis, who directed Calloway in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers, stated, "Cab Calloway is hip-hop." Journalist Timothy White noted in Billboard (August 14, 1993): "No living pathfinder in American popular music or its jazz and rock 'n' roll capillaries is so frequently emulated yet so seldom acknowledged as Cabell "Cab" Calloway. He arguably did more things first and better than any other band leader of his generation."
In 1998, the Cab Calloway Orchestra directed by Calloway's grandson Chris "CB" Calloway Brooks was formed. In 2009, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy released an album covering Calloway's music titled How Big Can You Get?: The Music of Cab Calloway. In 2012, Calloway's legacy was celebrated in an episode of PBS's American Masters titled "Cab Calloway: Sketches".
In 2019, plans were announced to demolish Calloway's boyhood home at 2216 Druid Hill Avenue in Baltimore, replacing the abandoned structure and the rest of that block with a park to be named Cab Calloway Legends Park in his honor. Family members and the National Trust for Historic Preservation advocated preservation of the house, however, as a significant artifact of African-American cultural heritage. Although the block is designated "historically significant" on the National Register of Historic Places, Baltimore City officials said at a hearing on July 9, 2019, that there is "extensive structural damage" to the Calloway house as well as adjacent ones. The Commission on Historical and Architectural Preservation's executive director, however, said that properties in worse condition than the Calloway House have been restored with financial support from a city tax credit program. Maryland Governor Larry Hogan also urged that demolition of the Calloway House be forestalled for its potential preservation as a historic house museum akin to the Louis Armstrong House in New York. Design options for the planned Cab Calloway Square may include an archway from the facade (pictured) as part of the Square's entrance, as proposed by architects working with Baltimore City and the Druid Heights Community Development Corporation, a nonprofit community-oriented group. Despite objections, the house was razed on September 5, 2020.
=== Awards and honors ===
In 1985, Town Supervisor Anthony F. Veteran issued a proclamation, declaring a ''Cab Calloway Day'' in Greenburgh, New York.
In 1990, Calloway was presented with the Beacons in Jazz Award from The New School in New York City. New York City Mayor David Dinkins proclaimed the day "Cab Calloway Day".
In 1992, the Cab Calloway School of the Arts was founded in Wilmington, Delaware.
In 1994, Calloway's daughter Camay Calloway Murphy founded the Cab Calloway Museum at Coppin State College in Baltimore, Maryland.
The New York Racing Association (NYRA) annually honors the jazz legend, a native of Rochester, New York, with a stakes races restricted to New York-bred three-year-olds, as part of their New York Stallion Series. First run in 2003, The Calloway has since undergone various distance and surface changes. The race is currently run at Saratoga Racecourse, Saratoga Springs, New York. The Cab Calloway Stakes celebrated its 13th renewal on July 24, 2019, and was won by Rinaldi.
In 2020 Calloway was inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame.
Calloway received the following accolades:
1967: Best Performance, Outer Critics Circle Awards (Hello, Dolly)
1987: Inducted into Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame
1990: Beacons in Jazz Award, The New School
1993: National Medal of Arts
1993: Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts, University of Rochester
1993: Cab Calloway School of the Arts dedicated in his name in Wilmington, Delaware
1995: Inducted into International Jazz Hall of Fame
1999: Grammy Hall of Fame Award for "Minnie the Moocher"
2008: Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
2019: "Minnie the Moocher" added to the Library of Congress National Recording Registry
== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
1943: Cab Calloway And His Orchestra (Brunswick)
1956: Cab Calloway (Epic)
1958: Cotton Club Revue 1958 (Gone Records)
1959: Hi De Hi De Ho (RCA Victor)
1962: Blues Makes Me Happy (Coral)
1968: Cab Calloway '68 (Pickwick International)
=== Select compilations ===
1968: Cab Calloway Sings The Blues (Vocalion)
1974: Hi De Ho Man (Columbia)
1981: Minnie The Moocher (RCA International)
1983: Mr. Hi. De. Ho. 1930–1931 (MCA)
1990: Cab Calloway: Best Of The Big Bands (Columbia)
1992: Cab Calloway & Co. (RCA)
1992: The King Of Hi-De-Ho 1934–1947 (Giants of Jazz)
1998: Jumpin' Jive (Camden)
2001: Cab Calloway and His Orchestra Volume 1: The Early Years 1930–1934 (JSP)
2003: Cab Calloway & His Orchestra Volume 2: 1935–1940 (JSP)
=== Charting singles ===
== Stage ==
== Filmography ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Calloway, Cab and Rollins, Bryant (1976). Of Minnie the Moocher and Me. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. ISBN 978-0-690-01032-9
== External links ==
Cab Calloway School of the Arts official website
NAMM Oral History Interview (1993)
Cab Calloway at IMDb
CALLOWAY, Cab (CHASE-FATIO Eleanor). Lugano: Swiss National Sound Archives. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koloman_Bedekovi%C4%87 | Koloman Bedeković | Koloman Bedeković (Hungarian: Kálmán Bedekovich; 13 October 1818 – 10 August 1889) was a Croatian politician, who served as Minister without portfolio of Croatian Affairs twice: between 1868 and 1871 and between 1876 and 1889. He had a significant role in the creation of Croatian-Hungarian Agreement. In 1871 he was appointed Ban of Croatia-Slavonia.
Bedeković was the leader of the Croatian Unionist Party and fought against his country's independence. As ban he called parliamentary elections in 1871. The People's Party emerged victorious, causing Bedeković to prorogue the Parliament of Croatia three times to prevent it from taking power. Dissatisfaction with the obstruction of parliament led to the Rakovica Revolt. Early elections were subsequently called for 1872. The failure of Bedeković to convene the previous parliament resulted in his removal from the post of ban and replacement with the first non-noble ban, Ivan Mažuranić.
== References ==
Magyar Életrajzi Lexikon |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cildo_Meireles | Cildo Meireles | Cildo Meireles (born 1948) is a Brazilian conceptual artist, installation artist and sculptor. He is noted especially for his installations, many of which express resistance to political oppression in Brazil. These works, often large and dense, encourage a phenomenological experience via the viewer's interaction.
== Life ==
Meireles was born in Rio de Janeiro in 1948. From an early age, Meireles showed a keen interest in drawing and spatial relations. He was especially interested in how this has been explored in animated film. His father, who encouraged Meireles' creativity, worked for the Indian Protection Service and their family traveled extensively within rural Brazil.
In an interview with Nuria Enguita, Meireles described a time when he was "seven or eight" and living in the countryside that had a huge impact on him. He said that he was startled by an impoverished man wandering through the trees. The next day, the young Meireles went to investigate, but the man was gone and only a small but perfect hut the man had apparently made the night before remained. Meireles said that this hut "was perhaps the most decisive thing for the path [he] followed in life...The possibility one has of making things and leaving them for others."
During his time in rural Brazil, Meireles learned the beliefs of the Tupi people which he later incorporated into some of his works in order to highlight their marginalization in, or complete disappearance from, Brazilian society and politics. Installations which contain allusions to the Tupi include Southern Cross (1969–70) and Olvido (1990). Meireles cites Orson Welles' 1938 radio broadcast The War of the Worlds as one of the greatest works of art of the 20th century because it "seamlessly dissolved the border between art and life, fiction and reality." Recreating this concept of total audience investment was an important artistic goal of Meireles that is seen throughout his body of work.
He began his study of art in 1963 at the District Federal Cultural Foundation in Brasília, under the Peruvian painter and ceramist Felix Barrenechea. In the late 1960s, Meireles discovered the work of Hélio Oiticica and Lygia Clark, thereby introducing him to the Brazilian Neo-Concrete movement. These artists, as well as Meireles, were all concerned with blurring the boundary between what is art and what is life, and responding to current political situations within their pieces.
Meireles unintentionally participated in a political demonstration in April 1964, when he was sixteen years old. He has cited this moment has his "political awakening" and began to take an interest in student politics. In 1967 he moved to Rio de Janeiro and studied at the Escola Nacional de Belas Artes.
Meireles currently lives and works in Rio de Janeiro.
== Career ==
Meireles has stated that drawing was his main artistic medium until 1968, when he altogether abandoned expressionistic drawing in favor of designing things that he wanted to physically construct. A topic that he especially explored in his art was the concept of the ephemeral and the non-object, art that only exists with interaction, which prompted him to create installation pieces or situational art. This led to his Virtual Spaces project, which he began in 1968. This project was "based on Euclidian principles of space" and sought to show how objects in space can be defined by three different planes. He modeled this concept as a series of environments made to look like corners in rooms.
Following the military coup in 1964, Meireles became involved in political art. When Meireles was "first getting started as an artist," governmental censorship of various forms of media, including art, was standard in Brazil. Meireles found ways to create art that was subversive but subtle enough to make public by taking inspiration from Dadaist art, which he notes had the ability to seem "tame" and "ironic." In the early 1970s he developed a political art project that aimed to reach a wide audience while avoiding censorship called Insertions Into Ideological Circuits, which was continued until 1976. Many of his installation pieces since this time have taken on political themes, though now his art is "less overtly political."
He was one of the founders of the Experimental Unit of the Museu de Arte Moderna in Rio de Janeiro in 1969 and in 1975, edited the art magazine Malasartes.
In 1999, Meireles was honoured with a Prince Claus Award and in 2008 he won the Velazquez Plastic Arts Award, presented by the Ministry of Culture of Spain.
== Key works ==
=== Red Shift (1967–1984) ===
A large-scale, three-room exploration of an entirely red environment. The title of the installation refers both to the scientific concept of chromatic shift (or chromatic aberration) as well as to the idea of a "shift" as a displacement or deviation.
The first room, called Impregnation, is approximately 50 m2 and filled with a number of everyday, domestic objects in a variety of different shades of red. The effect is an overwhelming visual saturation of the color. Upon entering the room, the participant experiences an initial shock from the visual inundation of red. Dan Cameron writes that "one's gaze is literally thwarted in an effort to gain a purchase on the specificity of things." Because of its lack of chromatic differentiation, the environment appears to lack depth. Cameron argues that the longer a participant stays in the room the more aware they become of the color's negative, unsettling psychological impact on them.
The second room is called Spill/Environment and consists solely of a large pool of red ink spilled from a small bottle on the floor, evoking mental associations with blood. The amount of liquid on the floor in comparison to the amount which the bottle could conceivably hold is disproportionate. The redness on the floor extends throughout the small room to the edge of the darkened third room, an effect which lends itself to feelings of foreboding and uncertainty.
The third room, Shift, contains a washbasin attached to the wall at a 30° angle illuminated by a direct beam of overhead light. A red stream pours into the washbasin from a tap, also at a 30° angle, allowing the liquid to pool in the sink before draining. The feelings of disturbance experienced by the participant throughout the installation culminate in this final room. Since the room is completely dark, the sole focus is placed on the washbasin. While the connotations of blood which appear throughout the installation are at first rather vague, like in the initial saturation of red in the first room and in the ink spill of the second room, in the third room this association with blood becomes much more explicit, creating a final, visceral reaction to the color within the participant.
Art historian Anne Dezeuze has commented that the "cinematic" installation as a whole articulates a certain sense of menace within participants because of the intense repetition of the color red throughout the three rooms. Like most of Meireles' other artworks, Red Shift takes on political undertones when examined in light of Brazil's military dictatorship which lasted throughout the creation and exhibition of this piece. For instance, the red liquid pouring into the washbasin has been seen by some art historians as a visual representation of the blood of victims murdered by government authorities.
=== Southern Cross (1969–1970) ===
A minimalist sculpture, on a Lilliputian scale: Meireles calls it an example of “humiliminimalism” – a humble brand of minimalism. He wanted it to be even smaller, “but when [he] sanded it down to [his] nails, [he] lost patience and stopped at nine millimeters." Unlike most minimalist sculptures it is no mere object, but it is meant to be as richly symbolic, sensuous and potent as an amulet. Each half of the tiny 9mm by 9mm by 9mm cube is made of pine and oak. These two types of wood are considered sacred by the Tupi people of Brazil. The title refers to an unofficial geographical (and metaphysical) region that lies to the west of Tordesillas. According to Meireles in a statement he made about the artwork in 1970, this region is "the wild side, the jungle in one's head, without the lustre of intelligence or reason...our origins." It is a place where "there are only individual truths." In the same statement, he notes that he wants Southern Cross to be perceived as a physical representation of the memory of the Tupi ("people whose history is legends and fables") and a warning to modernity of the growing self-confidence of the primordial which will eventually result in an overtaking of the urban by the natural. Meireles' statement is also political. It is a caution against indifference, especially against indifference towards Brazil's fading indigenous population. The tiny cube is meant to be placed alone in the middle of an empty room in order to emphasize the reality and the power of indigenous belief systems in the context of Eurocentric modernism.
=== Insertions Into Ideological Circuits (1970–1976) ===
An art project with political undertones that was designed to reach a mass-audience. This project manifested in multiple ways, two of the most well-known being the Coca-Cola project, and the Banknote project. Insertions Into Ideological Circuits was based upon three principles as defined by Meireles: 1) In society there are certain mechanisms for circulation (circuits); 2) these circuits clearly embody the ideology of the producer, but at the same time they are passive when they receive insertions into the circuit; 3) and this occurs whenever people initiate them. The goal of Insertions... was to literally insert some kind of counter-information or critical thought into a large system of circulated information. Meireles inserted something that is physically the same, though ideologically different, into a pre-existing system in order to counteract the original circuit without disrupting it. The project was achieved by printing images and messages onto various items that were already widely circulated and which had value discouraging them being destroyed, such as Coca-Cola bottles (which were recycled by way of a deposit scheme) and banknotes. Meireles screen-printed texts onto the Coca-Cola bottles that were supposed to encourage the buyer to become aware of their personal role in a consumerist society. The project simultaneously conveyed anti-imperialist and anti-capitalist messages. Building off of that concept, Meireles also used money as a theme and produced his own replica banknotes and coins (1974–1978) which appeared very similar to genuine Brazilian and US currency but with zero denominations clearly written on them, e.g. Zero Dollar. Mieireles also wrote critiques of the Brazilian government on the banknotes, such as "Who killed Herzog?" (in reference to journalist Vladimir Herzog), "Yankees go home!" and "Direct elections."
=== Through (1983–1989) ===
A labyrinthine structure which invites the visitor to walk across eight tons of broken plate glass. The maze is composed of "velvet museum ropes, street barriers, garden fences, blinds, railings, and aquariums" and in the center of it is a three-meter ball of cellophane. Meireles notes that an essential part of Through is the sense of psychological unease that comes from the participant's realization of the different sensory capacities and capabilities between the eyes and the body. For instance, the eyes can see through the glass parts of the work, but the body is physically impeded from passing through parts of the space. Furthermore, the sound of crunching glass underfoot while navigating the maze can be off-putting. He wanted the participant to experience psychological tension between the appreciation of the sonic and the appreciation of the visual. The work, Meireles says, "is based on the notion of an excess of obstacles and prohibitions." Meireles drew some of his inspiration for this installation from writer Jorge Luis Borges, whose subject matter sometimes included the concept of the labyrinth. Meireles also wanted the participant to experience feelings of awareness and attentiveness that come from walking a labyrinth.
=== Olvido (1987-1989) ===
"Olvido" is a large-scale installation. The materials used were unique. Those materials include banknotes, animal bones, and candles. The audience is able to experience with both materials and senses, visual, hearing, and smell. The materials used in the installation were metaphors of political and social issues. The artwork is an indication of the environmental disaster caused by the development and deforestation in the Amazon region and the damage to the Indigenous communities.
=== Babel (2001) ===
A tower of hundreds of radios, each just audible and tuned to stations of different languages to evoke resonances of the Tower of Babel in the Bible. In the story, before the destruction of the Tower of Babel by God, every person on Earth spoke the same language. Meireles' Babel acknowledges the multiplicity of language that resulted from the Tower's destruction in the story. The artwork contradicts the notion of one universal language, emphasizing that the pursuit of commonality is futile. Paul Herkenhoff points out that Babel also has autobiographical meaning for Meireles, as radio was a common method of widespread communication in Brazil during the artist's youth. The work also speaks to globalization. Meireles parallels the unity of humanity before the fall of the Tower of Babel with the present-day unity which has resulted from globalization despite numerous language barriers.
== Exhibitions ==
Meireles considers his first exhibition to have taken place in 1965, when one of his canvases and two of his drawings were accepted by the Segundo Salão Nacional de Arte Moderna in Brasília.
A retrospective of his work was presented at the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York in 1999. It then traveled to the Museu de Arte Moderna in Rio de Janeiro and the São Paulo Museum of Modern Art. In conjunction with the exhibition, a book entitled Cildo Meireles, was published by Phaidon Press (1999).
The first extensive presentation of the artist's work in the UK opened at Tate Modern in October 2008. Meireles was the first Brazilian artist to be given a full retrospective by Tate. This exhibition then moved to the Museu d'Art Contemporani in Barcelona, and later to the Museo Universitario Arte Contemporáneo (MUAC) in Mexico City until January 10, 2010.
From March to July 2014 a major retrospective of Meireles's work was presented at Milan's HangarBicocca. It featured twelve of his most important works. Another important retrospective took place at SESC Pompeia from September 2019 to February 2020. In the exhibition entitled "Entrevendo" (Glimpsing) many of his most noteworthy installations were on display and an important catalogue was created for the exhibition.
== References ==
== Selected bibliography ==
Basualdo, Carlos. "Maxima Moralia: The Work of C. Meireles", Artforum International, v. 35 (February 1997) p. 58-63.
Cameron, Dan, Paulo Herkenhoff, and Gerardo Mosquera. Cildo Meireles. London: Phaidon Press, 1999.
Carvalho, Denise. "Cildo Meireles: New Museum of Contemporary Art" Sculpture, v. 19 no. 10 (December 2000) p. 74-5.
Cohen, Ana Paula. "Cildo Meireles: Museu de Arte Moderna Aloisio Magalhaes", Art Nexus no. 44 (April/June 2002) p. 125-6.
Dezeuze, Anna. "Cildo Meireles." Artforum International 47, no. 8 (2009): 182.
Farmer, John Alan. "Through the Labyrinth: An Interview with Cildo Meireles", Art Journal v. 59 no. 3 (Fall 2000) p. 34-43.
Gilmore, Jonathan. "Cildo Meireles at Galerie Lelong", Art in America v. 93 no. 3 (March 2005) p. 132.
Meireles, Cildo. Cildo Meireles. Valencia: IVAM, 1995.
Meireles, Cildo and Charles Merewether. “Memory of the Senses.” Grand Street, no. 64 (1998): 221–223.
Mosquera, Gerardo. Cildo Meireles (London: Phaidon), 1999.
Nogueira, Marcelo. “Disculpture: Cildo Meireles’s Vinyl Records as Sculptural Objects.” Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies, vol. 34, issue n. 2, (2025): 295–316. doi:10.1080/13569325.2025.2498957.
Weinstein, Joel. "Industrial Poetry: A Conversation with Cildo Meireles", Sculpture v. 22 no. 10 (December 2003) p. 50-5.
Zamudio, Raul. "Cildo Meireles at Tate Modern", ArtNexus v. 8. no. 73 (June/August, 2009) p. 76-78.
Zamudio, Raul. "Knowing Can Be Destroying", TRANS> arts.cultures.media no. 7 (2000) p. 146-152.
== External links ==
Review of Cildo Meireles at Tate Modern, 2009
List of exhibitions by Cildo Meireles (covers 1967–2007)
TateShots: Cildo Meireles The artist talks about his interactive work Meshes of Freedom. 20 November 2008
Cildo Meireles' profile at Kadist Art Foundation
Materiality and Memory: An interview with Cildo Meireles
Cildo Meireles from sense to concept |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946_Argentine_general_election | 1946 Argentine general election | The Argentine general election of 1946, the last for which only men were enfranchised, was held on 24 February. Voters chose both the President and their legislators.
== Background ==
Conservative rule, maintained through electoral fraud despite a moderate record, was brought to an end in a June 1943 coup d'état. Broadcasting "orders of the day" every morning on the radio, the new regime enjoyed little approval. The devastating 1944 San Juan earthquake presented an opportunity to regain lost goodwill and the regime moved quickly, involving the private sector through nationwide fund-raising, entrusted to the Labor Minister, Juan Perón. Perón enlisted celebrities for the effort, among which was a radio matinee star, Eva Duarte, who introduced herself to the Labor Minister by remarking that "nothing's missing, except a touch of Atkinson's". The effort's success and the rise of his ally, Edelmiro Farrell, within the junta, led to Perón's appointment as vice-president, which he leveraged in support of Argentina's struggling labor unions, particularly the CGT.
Perón's sudden clout led to growing rivalry among his junta colleagues, who had him arrested on October 9, a surprise move outdone by CGT leaders like retail workers' leader Ángel Borlenghi, the slaughterhouses' Cipriano Reyes, and Eva Duarte herself. Organizing a mass (and, at times, violent) demonstration for his release on the Plaza de Mayo, their October 17, 1945, mobilization marked a turning point in Argentine history: the creation of the Peronist movement. Capitulating to the political winds, the junta bestowed presidential powers on Perón, who initiated his program of mass nationalizations of institutions such as the universities and Central Bank. Calling elections for February 1946, Perón's opposition hastily arranged an alliance, the Democratic Union. Many in the centrist Radical Civic Union were steadfastly opposed to this ad hoc union with conservatives and the left, an intrinsic burden compounded by a white paper scathingly critical of Perón released by the U.S. Ambassador, Spruille Braden. The report, accusing Perón of fascist ties, allowed him to marginalize the Democratic Union (and their nominees José Tamborini and Enrique Mosca – the "tambourine and the fly"). He quickly reframed the argument as one between "Perón or Braden", making this his rallying cry and winning the 1946 elections handily.
== Candidates for President ==
Labor Party: Former Vice-president Juan Perón from Buenos Aires Province
Democratic Union (UCR-led alliance): Former Congressman José Tamborini from the city of Buenos Aires
== Results ==
=== President ===
=== Chamber of Deputies ===
==== Results by province ====
=== Provincial Governors ===
== References ==
=== Online references ===
Todo Argentina Archived 2008-10-24 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Say_Yes_to_the_Dress | Say Yes to the Dress | Say Yes to the Dress is an American reality television series on TLC which follows events at Kleinfeld Bridal in Manhattan. The series shows the progress of individual sales associates, managers, and fitters at the store, along with profiling brides as they search for the perfect wedding dress. Common themes include overwhelming advice of friends and family, the ability of the "perfect dress" to help a bride overcome personal difficulty, struggle with weight and body image concerns, and the challenge of staying in budget, especially in the case of dresses by Kleinfeld's exclusive designer, Pnina Tornai. Dresses sold on the show range from $1,300 to $40,000.
== Cast ==
=== Mara Urshel ===
Mara Urshel is one of the co-owners of Kleinfeld. Earlier in her career in the retail industry, she served as senior vice president and general merchandise manager at Saks Fifth Avenue. She worked there for twenty years. After she left Saks, she was employed by Casual Corner and Geoffrey Beene Company in executive management positions. She then purchased the Kleinfeld Bridal store with Ronald Rothstein and Wayne Rogers on July 9, 1999.
=== Ronald Rothstein ===
Ronald (Ronnie) Rothstein is one of the co-owners of Kleinfeld. He was successful academically; he graduated from Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in 1964 and received his law degree from the University of Miami in 1968. He then became a member of the Florida Bar. In 1976, he started his own consumer products company named Oh Dawn, but after eight years, he sold Oh Dawn to an American Stock Exchange company. He did however stay on in an executive capacity for several more years. On July 9, 1999, he purchased the Kleinfeld Bridal store with Mara Urshel and Wayne Rogers.
=== Randy Fenoli ===
Randy Fenoli was the Fashion Director for Kleinfeld. He was born in Mt. Vernon, Illinois, and grew up with a love of fashion. He began sewing dresses when he was only nine years old. When he got older, he branched out into the areas of make-up artistry, hair styling, and entertainment. He then enrolled with the New York's Fashion Institute of Technology. Later, he was offered a job working for Paul Diamond of The Diamond Collection. He was then offered a job at Kleinfeld where he worked until 2012. He is now an independent consultant.
=== Dorothy Silver ===
Dorothy Silver is the Director of Sales and Merchandising for Kleinfeld. She began her career in New York as a floor manager at Bonwit Teller, but she has spent the majority of her twenty-five years in the retail industry at Kleinfeld. She works alongside Nicole Sacco and Joan Roberts.
=== Nicole Sacco ===
Nicole Sacco is the Director of Fittings and Sales at Kleinfeld. She has worked there for thirteen years and has many responsibilities, primarily helping consultants with their clients, whether it's finding a dress, closing the sale, or just making sure the client is happy. She works alongside Dorothy Silver and Joan Roberts.
=== Nitsa Glezelis ===
Nitsa Glezelis is the Director of Alterations at Kleinfeld. She was born in Kos, Greece, and has been in the retail industry since she was twelve years old. She has worked at Kleinfeld for eighteen years. She works alongside Vera Skenderis.
=== Joan Roberts ===
Joan Roberts is the Director of Sales/Bridal Manager at Kleinfeld. Before coming to Kleinfeld, she had worked in the retail industry for twenty five years. She works alongside Nicole Sacco and Dorothy Silver.
=== Camille Coffey ===
Camille Coffey is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She was first introduced to Kleinfeld when she was shopping for a dress to wear to her son's wedding. She applied for a job and has been working there ever since.
=== Vera Skenderis ===
Vera Skenderis is the Alterations Manager at Kleinfeld. She was born in Athens, Greece. She has been working in the retail industry for thirty-four years. She works alongside Nitsa Glezelis.
=== Audrey Pisani ===
Audrey Pisani is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She was born in Brooklyn and has worked in the retail industry for twenty years. Fifteen of those years have been spent working in bridal wear.
=== Keasha Rigsby ===
Keasha Rigsby is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She has been working in the retail industry for fifteen years. Six of those years have been spent working in bridal wear. She was first introduced to Kleinfeld when she was shopping for wedding dresses with her cousin. She met one of the co-owners, Ronnie Rothstein, applied for a job, and has been working there ever since. Keasha has not appeared on Say Yes to the Dress since the January 2011 season. She will be appearing on a new show entitled Keasha's Perfect Dress on the Canadian Slice network. This show will follow Keasha as she opens a new bridal salon.
=== Debbie Asprea ===
Debbie Asprea is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She has been working in the retail industry for eighteen years. She has been with Kleinfeld for fifteen of those eighteen years. She attributes her love of fashion to her father, who was a dress contractor.
== Episodes ==
== Spinoffs ==
Say Yes to the Dress: Atlanta (July–September 2010; July 2011–) is the first spinoff, which focuses on Bridals by Lori, a bridal shop in Atlanta, Georgia. Other than the shop, staff and production company (NorthSouth Productions produced the Atlanta series), the elements are the same as the original series. The Atlanta series itself also led to two spinoffs:
Say Yes to the Dress: Bridesmaids (July 2011–) is a spinoff focused on bridesmaid dresses and the bridesmaid showroom at Bridals by Lori.
Say Yes to the Dress: Monte's Take (July 2011 – February 2012) is a podcast hosted by Monte Durham, the bridal image consultant at Bridals by Lori; and TLC Interactive Producer Candace Keener. The weekly podcast provides listeners wedding tips and tricks.
Say Yes to the Dress: Big Bliss (September–October 2010; April 2011–) is the second spin-off. The shop, staff, venue and producers are the same as the original series, except that all of Kleinfeld's clientele on this program are brides that are plus-sized.
Say Yes to the Dress: Randy Knows Best (April 2011–August 2013): Randy Fenoli, Kleinfeld's fashion director, uses top ten lists and past episode clips to share his tips on a variety of bridal categories.
Randy to the Rescue (June 2012–August 2013): Randy Fenoli travels across the country where lucky brides-to-be get a special consultation with Randy, where he will give a few pointers on how to improve their bridal style.
Say Yes to the Dress: Australia (2016): An international adaptation of the format on TLC Australia, featuring couture wedding gown designer Adam Dixon. The series is the first local production on the channel.
Say Yes to the Dress: UK (2016): The second international adaptation that premiered on TLC UK
Say Yes to the Dress: Ireland (2017) which premiered on RTÉ 2.
Say Yes to the Dress: Asia (2017) was also created for TLC Asia, shot in Malaysia with Malaysian hosts, featuring 18 Southeast Asian women and their dresses.
Say Yes to the Dress: Benelux
Say Yes: Wedding SOS (January 2018–) is a wedding makeover spin-off series focusing on transforming couples who have let themselves go.
Say Yes to the Dress: Canada (known in the US as Say Yes to the Dress: Northern Edition)
Say Yes to the Dress: America (January 2020): A 10-episode event series that featured couples representing each U.S. state, Puerto Rico, and Washington, D.C., and concluded with a mass wedding in New York City with all 52 couples, officiated by Fenoli.
Say Yes to the Dress: India (Dec 8, 2021)
Say Yes to the Vegas Dress
Say Yes to the Dress: The Big Day
Say Yes to the Dress: Lancashire (known in the US as Say Yes to the Dress: England)
Say Yes to the Dress: Finland
Say Yes to the Dress: Dubai (aka Say Yes to the Dress: Arabia)
Say Yes to the Dress: In Sickness and in Health
Say Yes to the Dress: Poland
Say Yes to the Dress: Spain
Say Yes to the Dress: Denmark
Say Yes to the Dress: Since the Big Day
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Kleinfeld Bridal
Bridals by Lori
Pnina Tornai
Say Yes to the Dress: Monte's Take Podcast |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp#:~:text=By%20February%202013%2C%20WhatsApp%20had,users%20and%2050%20staff%20members. | WhatsApp | WhatsApp (officially WhatsApp Messenger), owned by Meta Platforms, is an American social media, instant messaging (IM), and Voice over IP (VoIP) service accessible via desktop and mobile app. It allows users to send text messages, voice messages, and video messages, make voice and video calls, and share images, documents, user locations, and other content. The service requires a cellular mobile telephone number to register. WhatsApp was launched in May 2009. In January 2018, WhatsApp released a standalone business app called WhatsApp Business which can communicate with the standard WhatsApp client. As of May 2025, the service had 3 billion monthly active users, making it the most used messenger app. The name of the app is meant to sound like "what's up".
The service was created by WhatsApp Inc. of Mountain View, California, which was acquired by Facebook in February 2014 for approximately US$19.3 billion. It became the world's most popular messaging application in 2015, with 900 million users, and had more than 2 billion active users worldwide in February 2020. WhatsApp Business had approximately 200 million monthly users in 2023. By 2016, it had become the primary means of Internet communication in regions including the Americas, the Indian subcontinent, and large parts of Europe and Africa.
== History ==
=== 2009–2014 ===
WhatsApp was founded by Brian Acton and Jan Koum, former employees of Yahoo! Koum incorporated WhatsApp Inc. in California on February 24, 2009. A month earlier, after Koum purchased an iPhone, he and Acton decided to create an app for the App Store. The idea started off as an app that would display statuses in a phone's Contacts menu, showing if a person was at work or on a call.
Their discussions often took place at the home of Koum's Russian friend Alex Fishman in West San Jose. They realized that to take the idea further, they would need an iPhone developer. Fishman visited RentACoder.com, found Russian developer Igor Solomennikov, and introduced him to Koum.
Koum named the app WhatsApp to sound like "what's up" and it was published on the Apple App Store and BlackBerry App World in May and June 2009 respectively. However, when early versions of WhatsApp kept crashing, Koum considered giving up and looking for a new job. Acton encouraged him to wait for a "few more months".
In June 2009, when the app had been downloaded by only a handful of Fishman's Russian-speaking friends, Apple launched push technology, allowing users to be pinged even when not using the app. Koum updated WhatsApp so that everyone in the user's network would be notified when a user's status changed. This new facility, to Koum's surprise, was used by users to ping "each other with jokey custom statuses like, 'I woke up late' or 'I'm on my way.'" Fishman said, "At some point it sort of became instant messaging".
WhatsApp 2.0, released for iPhone in August 2009, featured a purpose-designed messaging component; the number of active users suddenly increased to 250,000.
Although Acton was working on another startup idea, he decided to join the company. In October 2009, Acton persuaded five former friends at Yahoo! to invest $250,000 in seed funding, and Acton became a co-founder and was given a stake. He officially joined WhatsApp on November 1. Koum then hired a friend in Los Angeles, Chris Peiffer, to develop a BlackBerry version, which arrived two months later. Subsequently, WhatsApp for Symbian OS was added in May 2010, and for Android OS in August 2010. In 2010 Google made multiple acquisition offers for WhatsApp, which were all declined.
To cover the cost of sending verification texts to users, WhatsApp was changed from a free service to a paid one. In December 2009, the ability to send photos was added to the iOS version. By early 2011, WhatsApp was one of the top 20 apps in the U.S. Apple App Store.
In April 2011, Sequoia Capital invested about $8 million for more than 15% of the company, after months of negotiation by Sequoia partner Jim Goetz.
By February 2013, WhatsApp had about 200 million active users and 50 staff members. Sequoia invested another $50 million at a $1.5 billion valuation. Some time in 2013 WhatsApp acquired Santa Clara–based startup SkyMobius, the developers of Vtok, a video and voice calling app.
As of December 2013, the service had 400 million monthly active users. That year, the company had $148 million in expenses and a net loss of $138 million.
=== 2014–2015 ===
On February 19, 2014, one year after the venture capital financing round at a $1.5 billion valuation, Facebook, Inc. (now Meta Platforms) agreed to acquire the company for US$19 billion, its largest acquisition to date. At the time, it was the largest acquisition of a venture-capital-backed company in history. Sequoia Capital received an approximate 5,000% return on its initial investment. Facebook paid $4 billion in cash, $12 billion in Facebook shares, and an additional $3 billion in restricted stock units granted to WhatsApp's founders Koum and Acton. Employee stock was scheduled to vest over four years subsequent to closing. Days after the announcement, WhatsApp users experienced a loss of service, leading to anger across social media.
The acquisition was influenced by the data provided by Onavo, Facebook's research app for monitoring competitors and trending usage of social activities on mobile phones, as well as startups that were performing "unusually well".
The acquisition caused many users to try, or move to, other message services. Telegram claimed that it acquired 8 million new users, and Line, 2 million.
At a keynote presentation at the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona in February 2014, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg said that Facebook's acquisition of WhatsApp was closely related to the Internet.org vision. A TechCrunch article said about Zuckerberg's vision:The idea, he said, is to develop a group of basic internet services that would be free of charge to use – "a 911 for the internet". These could be a social networking service like Facebook, a messaging service, maybe search and other things like weather. Providing a bundle of these free of charge to users will work like a gateway drug of sorts – users who may be able to afford data services and phones these days just don't see the point of why they would pay for those data services. This would give them some context for why they are important, and that will lead them to pay for more services like this – or so the hope goes.
Three days after announcing the Facebook purchase, Koum said they were working to introduce voice calls. He also said that new mobile phones would be sold in Germany with the WhatsApp brand, and that their ultimate goal was to be on all smartphones.
In August 2014, WhatsApp was the most popular messaging app in the world, with more than 600 million users. By early January 2015, WhatsApp had 700 million monthly users and over 30 billion messages every day. In April 2015, Forbes predicted that between 2012 and 2018, the telecommunications industry would lose $386 billion because of "over-the-top" services like WhatsApp and Skype. That month, WhatsApp had over 800 million users. By September 2015, it had grown to 900 million; and by February 2016, one billion.
On November 30, 2015, the Android WhatsApp client made links to Telegram unclickable and not copyable. Multiple sources confirmed that it was intentional, not a bug, and that it had been implemented when the Android source code that recognized Telegram URLs had been identified. (The word "telegram" appeared in WhatsApp's code.) Some considered it an anti-competitive measure; WhatsApp offered no explanation.
=== 2016–2019 ===
On January 18, 2016, WhatsApp's co-founder Jan Koum announced that it would no longer charge users a $1 annual subscription fee, in an effort to remove a barrier faced by users without payment cards. He also said that the app would not display any third-party ads, and that it would have new features such as the ability to communicate with businesses.
On May 18, 2017, the European Commission announced that it was fining Facebook €110 million for "providing misleading information about WhatsApp takeover" in 2014. The Commission said that in 2014 when Facebook acquired the messaging app, it "falsely claimed it was technically impossible to automatically combine user information from Facebook and WhatsApp." However, in the summer of 2016, WhatsApp had begun sharing user information with its parent company, allowing information such as phone numbers to be used for targeted Facebook advertisements. Facebook acknowledged the breach, but said the errors in their 2014 filings were "not intentional".
In September 2017, WhatsApp's co-founder Brian Acton left the company to start a nonprofit group, later revealed as the Signal Foundation, which developed the WhatsApp competitor Signal. He explained his reasons for leaving in an interview with Forbes a year later. WhatsApp also announced a forthcoming business platform to enable companies to provide customer service at scale, and airlines KLM and Aeroméxico announced their participation in the testing. Both airlines had previously launched customer services on the Facebook Messenger platform.
In January 2018, WhatsApp launched WhatsApp Business for small business use.
In April 2018, WhatsApp co-founder and CEO Jan Koum announced he would be leaving the company. By leaving before November 2018, due to concerns about privacy, advertising, and monetization by Facebook, Acton and Koum were initially believed to have given up $1.3 billion in unvested stock options, however, it was later reported that Koum retained $450M worth of options via a "rest and vest" program. Facebook later announced that Koum's replacement would be Chris Daniels.
On November 25, 2019, WhatsApp announced an investment of $250,000 through a partnership with Startup India to provide 500 startups with Facebook ad credits of $500 each.
In December 2019, WhatsApp announced that a new update would lock out any Apple users who had not updated to iOS 9 or higher and Samsung, Huawei, Sony and Google users who had not updated to version 4.0 by February 1, 2020. The company also reported that Windows Phone operating systems would no longer be supported after December 31, 2019. WhatsApp was announced to be the 3rd most downloaded mobile phone app of the decade 2010–2019.
=== Since 2020 ===
In March 2020, WhatsApp partnered with the World Health Organization and UNICEF to provide messaging hotlines for people to get information on the COVID-19 pandemic. In the same month, WhatsApp began testing a feature to help users find out more information and context about information they receive to help combat misinformation.
In January 2021, WhatsApp announced a controversial new privacy policy allowing WhatsApp to share data with its parent company, Facebook. This led many users to delete WhatsApp and instead use services such as Signal and Telegram. However, the WhatsApp privacy policy does not apply in the EU, since it violates the principles of GDPR. Facing criticism, WhatsApp postponed the update to May 15, 2021, and had no plans to limit functionality of users, nor nag users who did not approve the new terms.
The 2021 Facebook outage affected other platforms owned by Facebook, such as Instagram and WhatsApp.
In May 2022, WhatsApp launched its Cloud API services (now known as WhatsApp Business Platform) for larger businesses requiring features beyond the WhatsApp Business App. The Cloud API enables businesses to integrate WhatsApp with other software, have a central WhatsApp account for multiple users and implement advanced automation.
In August 2022, WhatsApp launched an integration with JioMart, available only to users in India. Local users can text special numbers in the app to launch an in-app shopping process, where they can order groceries.
In March 2024, Meta announced that WhatsApp would let third-party messaging services enable interoperability with WhatsApp, a requirement of the EU's Digital Markets Act (DMA). This allows users to send messages between other messaging apps and WhatsApp while maintaining end-to-end encryption.
== Features ==
=== Presence ===
On February 24, 2017, WhatsApp launched a new Status feature similar to Snapchat and Facebook stories. WhatsApp has rolled out a feature called 'Voice Status Updates', which allows users to record voice notes and share them as their status on the app.
WhatsApp has the facility to hide users' online status ("Last Seen"). In December 2021, WhatsApp changed the default setting from "everyone" to only people in the user's contacts or who have been conversed with ("nobody" is also an option). In 2022, WhatsApp added the ability for users to turn off their online status.
=== General texting ===
In October 2018, the "Swipe to Reply" option was added to the Android beta version, 16 months after it was introduced for iOS.
In early 2020, WhatsApp launched its "dark mode" for iPhone and Android devices – a new design consisting of a darker palette.
In October 2020, WhatsApp rolled out a feature allowing users to mute both individuals and group chats forever. The mute options are "8 hours", "1 week", and "Always". The "Always" option replaced the "1 year" option that was originally part of the settings.
In May 2023, WhatsApp allowed users to edit messages, aligning itself with competitors such as Telegram and Signal which already offered this feature. According to the company, messages could be edited within a 15-minute window after being sent. Edited messages were tagged as "edited" to inform recipients that the content had been modified. Text formatting options like code blocks, quote blocks, and bulleted lists also became available for the first time.
In October 2024, WhatsApp expanded their chat filter feature, adding the ability for users to create custom lists that contain specific chats of their choice.
=== Voice and video calling and notes ===
In August 2013, WhatsApp added voice messages to their apps, giving users a way to send short audio recordings directly in their chats.
Voice calls between two accounts were added to the app in March and April 2015. By June 2016, the company's blog reported more than 100 million voice calls per day were being placed on WhatsApp.
In November 2016, video calls between two accounts were introduced.
Later in September 2018, WhatsApp introduced group audio and video call features.
In July 2023, video messages were added to WhatsApp. Similar to voice messages, this feature allows users to record and send short videos directly in a chat. This lets users share videos of themselves more quickly, and without adding anything to their device's gallery. Currently, video messages are limited to 60 seconds.
In November 2023, WhatsApp added a "voice chat" feature for groups with more than 32 members. Unlike their 32-person group calls, starting a voice chat does not call all group members directly; they instead receive a notification to join the voice chat.
In December 2023, WhatsApp's "View Once" feature expanded to include voice messages. Voice messages sent this way are deleted after the recipient listens to them the first time.
In June 2024, improvements were made to voice and video calls, allowing up to 32 participants in video calls, adding audio to screen sharing, and introducing a new codec to increase call reliability.
In November 2024, the ability to transcribe voice messages was added, allowing users to read out what was said in a voice message, rather than listening to the audio.
In December 2024, WhatsApp introduced several new video calling features, including the ability to select specific participants from a group to make a call, rather than calling all group members. Visual effects also became available, adding visual filters to a user's video feed.
=== File sharing ===
In November 2010, a slate of improvements for the iOS version of WhatsApp were released, including the ability to search for messages in your chat history, trimming long videos to a sendable size, the ability to cancel media messages as they upload or download, and previewing photos before sending them. In March 2012, WhatsApp improved its location-sharing function, allowing users to share not only their location, but also the location of places, such as restaurants or hotels.
In July 2017, WhatsApp added support for file uploads of all file types, with a limit of 100 MB. Previously between March 2016 and May 2017, only limited file types categorised as images (JPG, PNG, GIF), videos (MP4, AVI), and documents (CSV, DOC/DOCX, PDF, PPT/PPTX, RTF, TXT, XLS/XLSX), were allowed to be shared for file attachments.
In July 2021, WhatsApp announced forthcoming support for sending uncompressed images and videos in 3 options: Auto, Best Quality and Data Saver.
In May 2022, the file upload limit was raised from 100 MB to 2 GB, and the maximum group size increased to 512 members.
=== Security and encryption ===
On November 10, 2016, WhatsApp launched a beta version of two-factor authentication for Android users, which allowed them to use their email addresses for further protection. Also in November 2016, Facebook ceased collecting WhatsApp data for advertising in Europe.
In October 2019, WhatsApp officially launched a new fingerprint app-locking feature for Android users.
In July 2021, WhatsApp announced forthcoming support for end-to-end encryption for backups stored in Facebook's cloud.
In August 2021, WhatsApp launched a feature that allows chat history to be transferred between mobile operating systems. This was implemented only on Samsung phones, with plans to expand to Android and iOS "soon".
In October 2023 they also introduced passkey support, where a user can verify their login with on-device biometrics, rather than SMS. In November 2023, WhatsApp also began rolling out support for sending login codes to a linked email address, rather than via SMS. In a later update on November 30, WhatsApp added a Secret Code feature, which allows those who use locked chats to enter a unique password that hides those chats from view when unlocking the app.
=== Linked and multi-device support ===
In January 2015, WhatsApp launched a web client that allowed users to scan a QR code with their mobile app, mirroring their chats to their browser. The web client was not standalone, and required the user's phone to stay on and connected to the internet. It was also not available for iOS users on launch, due to limitations from Apple. Since then, linked devices support has expanded and more information is written in the Platform Support part of this article.
In July 2021 the company was also testing multi-device support, allowing computer users to run WhatsApp without an active phone session.
In April 2023, the app rolled out a feature that would allow account access across multiple phones, in a shift that would make it more like competitors. Messages would still be end-to-end encrypted. WhatsApp officially rolled out the Companion mode for Android users, allowing linking up to five Android phones to a single account. Now, the feature is also made available to iOS users, allowing them to link up to four iPhones.
In October 2023, support for logging in to multiple (meaning two) accounts was added, allowing users to switch between different WhatsApp accounts in the same app.
=== Stickers and avatars ===
On October 25, 2018, WhatsApp announced support for Stickers. Unlike other platforms, WhatsApp requires third-party apps to add Stickers to WhatsApp.
In March 2021, WhatsApp started rolling out support for third-party animated stickers, initially in Iran, Brazil and Indonesia, then worldwide.
In December 2022, WhatsApp launched 3D digital avatars. Users are able to use an avatar as their profile picture or use it for stickers during instant messaging, similar to those offered by Bitmoji or Memoji.
=== Communities and Channels ===
In April 2022, WhatsApp announced undated plans to roll out a Communities feature allowing several group chats to exist in a shared space, getting unified notifications and opening up smaller discussion groups. The company also announced plans to implement reactions, the ability for administrators to delete messages in groups and voice calls up to 32 participants.
In June 2023, a feature called WhatsApp Channels was launched which allows content creators, public figures and organizations to send newsletter-like broadcasts to large numbers of users. Unlike messages in groups or private chats, channels are not end-to-end encrypted. Channels were initially only available to users in Colombia and Singapore, then later Egypt, Chile, Malaysia, Morocco, Ukraine, Kenya and Peru before becoming widely available in September 2023.
=== Artificial intelligence ===
In April 2024, an AI-powered "Smart Assistant" became widely available in WhatsApp, allowing users to ask it questions or have it complete tasks such as generating images. The assistant is based on the LLaMa 3 model, and is also available on other Meta platforms like Facebook and Instagram. WhatsApp also introduced chat filters, allowing users to sort their chats by All, Unread or Groups.
In September 2024, WhatsApp expanded support for Meta AI, allowing users to send text and photos to Meta AI to ask questions, identify objects, translate text or edit pictures.
In December 2024, WhatsApp introduced a reverse image search feature, allowing users to verify image authenticity directly within the app using Google Search.
=== About ===
In November 2025, WhatsApp announced that they would update their About feature, which allows users to add a short message to explain what they are doing. By default, it is set to disappear in 24 hours, but it can be set for a longer amount of time and can be restricted for viewing by other contacts in the Settings menu. According to WhatsApp, this update was made for the incoming Christmas period for users to inform their contacts on their activities during the holidays. Prior to the update, the feature was "largely hidden within the apps menus" and difficult to find, with the reason for updating being that WhatsApp wanted the feature to be used more often. Engadget called the revamped feature "WhatsApp’s version of an AIM away message" and likened it to Instagram's and Facebook's Notes.
== Platform support ==
Currently, WhatsApp's principal platforms, which are fully supported, are devices supporting mobile telephony running Android, and iPhones. As of 2025, the software requires at least Android version 5.0 or iOS version 15.1 respectively. This table details platform support history.
=== Linked devices ===
Linked devices are secondary devices running the WhatsApp messenger software. They link to and sync with WhatsApp actively running on a supported primary phone. Up to four linked devices can be added per user account. Linked devices automatically log out after 14 days of inactivity on the primary phone. Linked devices allow the service to be used on multiple other platforms like desktop computers and smartwatches (e.g. WhatsApp Web, Facebook Portal), but also on other smartphones (called companions).
Originally it was required for the primary phone to keep an online connection to WhatsApp for linked devices to work, but now WhatsApp can run on linked devices without such requirement. This ability (named multi-device support) began testing in July 2021 and rolled out to all users in April 2023.
==== WhatsApp Web ====
WhatsApp was officially made available for PCs through a web client, under the name WhatsApp Web, released on January 21, 2015. WhatsApp Web is accessed through web.whatsapp.com and access is granted after the user scans their personal QR code through their mobile WhatsApp client. The desktop version was first only available to Android, BlackBerry, and Windows Phone users. Later on, it also added support for iOS, Nokia Series 40, and Nokia S60 (Symbian).
Previously the WhatsApp user's handset had to be connected to the Internet for the browser application to function but as of an update in October 2021 (and integrated by default in WhatsApp as of April 2022) that is no longer the case. When this multi-device feature was first introduced to Android and iOS users, it could only show messages for the last three months on the Web version, because the Web version was syncing with the phone. Since the complete roll out of this feature, users cannot check old messages before this period on the Web version anymore.
There are similar unofficial WhatsApp solutions for macOS, such as the open-source ChitChat, previously known as WhatsMac.
==== Windows and Mac ====
On May 10, 2016, the messenger was introduced for both Microsoft Windows and macOS operating systems. Support for video and voice calls from desktop clients was later added. Similar to the WhatsApp Web format, the app, which synchronises with a user's mobile device, is available for download on the website. It supported operating systems Windows 8 and OS X 10.10 and higher.
In 2023, WhatsApp replaced the Electron-based apps with native versions for their respective platforms. The Windows version is based on UWP while the Mac version is a port of the iOS version using Catalyst technology.
In July 2025, WhatsApp stopped developing the Windows UWP-based app due to poor support and deprecation of the UWP framework by Microsoft. WhatsApp for Windows transitioned over to the Microsoft Edge WebView2 framework, marking a return to utilising a web-based framework (just like Electron previously) instead of a native framework. The WebView2-based app has been criticised for its sluggish performance, high RAM usage, and requirement to keep the app running in the background to receive push notifications, compared to the previous native version.
==== iPad ====
WhatsApp has been officially supported for iPads and its iPadOS since May 27, 2025. Similarly to WhatsApp for web, Windows, Mac, and smartwatches, the iPad is a type of linked device that connects and syncs to WhatsApp running on a smartphone.
==== Smartwatches ====
WhatsApp added support for Android Wear (now called Wear OS) in 2014.
== Technical ==
WhatsApp uses a customized version of the open standard Extensible messaging and presence protocol (XMPP). A 2019 document released by the DOJ confirms this by naming "FunXMPP" as the protocol used by WhatsApp. The document was part of a lawsuit by WhatsApp and Meta against the NSO Group for their Pegasus malware. Upon installation, it creates a user account using the user's phone number as the username (Jabber ID: [phone number]@s.whatsapp.net).
WhatsApp automatically compares all the phone numbers from the device's address book with its central database of WhatsApp users to automatically add contacts to the user's WhatsApp contact list. Previously the Android and Nokia Series 40 versions used an MD5-hashed, reversed-version of the phone's IMEI as a password, while the iOS version used the phone's Wi-Fi MAC address instead of the IMEI. A 2012 update implemented generation of a random password on the server side. Alternatively a user can also contact any other WhatsApp user through the URL https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=[phone number] where [phone number] is the number of the contact including the country code.
Some devices using dual SIMs may not be compatible with WhatsApp, though there are unofficial workarounds to install the app.
In February 2015, WhatsApp implemented voice calling, which helped WhatsApp to attract a different segment of the user population. WhatsApp's voice codec is Opus, which uses the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) and linear predictive coding (LPC) audio compression algorithms. WhatsApp uses Opus at 8–16 kHz sampling rates. On November 14, 2016, WhatsApp added video calling for users using Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone devices.
In November 2017, WhatsApp implemented a feature giving users seven minutes to delete messages sent by mistake.
Multimedia messages are sent by uploading the image, audio or video to be sent to an HTTP server and then sending a link to the content along with its Base64 encoded thumbnail, if applicable.
WhatsApp uses a "store and forward" mechanism for exchanging messages between two users. When a user sends a message, it is stored on a WhatsApp server, which tries to forward it to the addressee, and repeatedly requests acknowledgement of receipt. When the message is acknowledged, the server deletes it; if undelivered after 30 days, it is also deleted.
=== End-to-end encryption ===
On November 18, 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced a partnership with WhatsApp to provide end-to-end encryption by incorporating the encryption protocol used in Signal into each WhatsApp client platform. Open Whisper Systems said that they had already incorporated the protocol into the latest WhatsApp client for Android, and that support for other clients, group/media messages, and key verification would be coming soon after. WhatsApp confirmed the partnership to reporters, but there was no announcement or documentation about the encryption feature on the official website, and further requests for comment were declined. In April 2015, German magazine Heise security used ARP spoofing to confirm that the protocol had been implemented for Android-to-Android messages, and that WhatsApp messages from or to iPhones running iOS were still not end-to-end encrypted. They expressed the concern that regular WhatsApp users still could not tell the difference between end-to-end encrypted messages and regular messages.
On April 5, 2016, WhatsApp and Open Whisper Systems announced that they had finished adding end-to-end encryption to "every form of communication" on WhatsApp, and that users could now verify each other's keys. Users were also given the option to enable a trust on first use mechanism to be notified if a correspondent's key changes. According to a white paper that was released along with the announcement, WhatsApp messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol. WhatsApp calls are encrypted with SRTP, and all client-server communications are "layered within a separate encrypted channel".
On October 14, 2021, WhatsApp rolled out end-to-end encryption for backups on Android and iOS. The feature has to be turned on by the user and provides the option to encrypt the backup either with a password or a 64-digit encryption key.
The application can store encrypted copies of the chat messages onto the SD card, but chat messages are also stored unencrypted in the SQLite database file "msgstore.db".
WhatsApp uses the Sender Keys protocol.
=== WhatsApp Payments ===
WhatsApp Payments (marketed as WhatsApp Pay) is a peer-to-peer money transfer feature. The service became generally available in India and Brazil, and in Singapore for WhatsApp Business transactions only.
==== India ====
In July 2017, WhatsApp received permission from the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) to enter into partnership with multiple Indian banks, for transactions over Unified Payments Interface (UPI), which relies on mobile phone numbers to make account-to-account transfers. In November 2020, UPI payments via WhatsApp were initially restricted to 20 million users, and to 100 million users in April 2022, and became generally available to everyone in August 2022.
=== Facebook/WhatsApp cryptocurrency project, 2019–2022 ===
On February 28, 2019, The New York Times reported that Facebook was "hoping to succeed where Bitcoin failed" by developing an in-house cryptocurrency that would be incorporated into WhatsApp. The project reportedly involved more than 50 engineers under the direction of former PayPal president David A. Marcus. This "Facebook coin" would reportedly be a stablecoin pegged to the value of a basket of different foreign currencies.
In June 2019, Facebook said that the project would be named Libra, and that a digital wallet named "Calibra" was to be integrated into Facebook and WhatsApp. After financial regulators in many regions raised concerns, Facebook stated that the currency, renamed Diem since December 2020, would require a government-issued ID for verification, and the wallet app would have fraud protection. Calibra was rebranded to Novi in May 2020.
Meta (formerly Facebook) ended its Novi project on September 1, 2022.
== Controversies and criticism ==
=== Misinformation ===
WhatsApp has repeatedly imposed limits on message forwarding in response to the spread of misinformation in countries including India and Australia. The measure, first introduced in 2018 to combat spam, was expanded and remained active in 2021. WhatsApp stated that the forwarding limits had helped to curb the spread of misinformation regarding COVID-19.
==== Murders in India ====
In India, WhatsApp encouraged people to report messages that were fraudulent or incited violence after lynch mobs in India murdered innocent people because of malicious WhatsApp messages falsely accusing the victims of intending to abduct children. There were a series of incidents between 2017 and 2020, after which WhatsApp announced changes for Indian users of the platform that labels forwarded messages as such.
==== 2018 elections in Brazil ====
In an investigation on the use of social media in politics, it was found that WhatsApp was being abused for the spread of fake news in the 2018 presidential elections in Brazil. It was reported that US$3 million was spent in illegal concealed contributions related to this practice.
Researchers and journalists called on WhatsApp's parent company, Facebook, to adopt measures similar to those adopted in India and restrict the spread of hoaxes and fake news.
=== Security and privacy ===
WhatsApp was initially criticized for its lack of encryption, sending information as plaintext. Encryption was first added in May 2012. End-to-end encryption was only fully implemented in April 2016 after a two-year process. As of September 2021, it is known that WhatsApp makes extensive use of outside contractors and artificial intelligence systems to examine certain user messages, images and videos (those that have been flagged by users as possibly abusive); and turns over to law enforcement metadata including critical account and location information.
In 2016, WhatsApp was widely praised for the addition of end-to-end encryption and earned a 6 out of 7 points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's "Secure Messaging Scorecard". WhatsApp was criticized by security researchers and the Electronic Frontier Foundation for using backups that are not covered by end-to-end encryption and allow messages to be accessed by third-parties.
In May 2019, a security vulnerability in WhatsApp was found and fixed that allowed a remote person to install spyware by making a call which did not need to be answered.
In September 2019, WhatsApp was criticized for its implementation of a 'delete for everyone' feature. iOS users can elect to save media to their camera roll automatically. When a user deletes media for everyone, WhatsApp does not delete images saved in the iOS camera roll and so those users are able to keep the images. WhatsApp released a statement saying that "the feature is working properly", and that images stored in the camera roll cannot be deleted due to Apple's security layers.
In November 2019, WhatsApp released a new privacy feature that let users decide who can add them to groups.
In December 2019, WhatsApp confirmed a security flaw that would allow hackers to use a malicious GIF image file to gain access to the recipient's data. When the recipient opened the gallery within WhatsApp, even if not sending the malicious image, the hack is triggered and the device and its contents become vulnerable. The flaw was patched and users were encouraged to update WhatsApp.
On December 17, 2019, WhatsApp fixed a security flaw that allowed cyber attackers to repeatedly crash the messaging application for all members of group chat, which could only be fixed by forcing the complete uninstall and reinstall of the app. The bug was discovered by Check Point in August 2019 and reported to WhatsApp. It was fixed in version 2.19.246 onwards.
For security purposes, since February 1, 2020, WhatsApp has been made unavailable on smartphones using legacy operating systems like Android 2.3.7 or older and iPhone iOS 8 or older that are no longer updated by their providers.
In April 2020, the NSO Group held its governmental clients accountable for the allegation of human rights abuses by WhatsApp. In its revelation via documents received from court, the group claimed that the lawsuit brought against the company by WhatsApp threatened to infringe on its clients' "national security and foreign policy concerns". However, the company did not reveal names of the end users, which according to a research by Citizen Lab include, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates.
On December 16, 2020, a claim that WhatsApp gave Google access to private messages was included in the anti-trust case against the latter. As the complaint was heavily redacted due to being an ongoing case, it did not disclose whether this was alleged tampering with the app's end-to-end encryption, or Google accessing user backups.
In January 2021, WhatsApp announced an updated privacy policy which stated that WhatsApp would share user data with Facebook and its "family of companies" beginning February 2021. Previously, users could opt-out of such data sharing, but the new policy removed this option. The new privacy policy would not apply within the EU, as it is illegal under the GDPR. Facebook and WhatsApp were widely criticized for this move. The enforcement of the privacy policy was postponed from February 8 to May 15, 2021, WhatsApp announced they had no plans to limit the functionality of the app for those who did not approve the new terms.
On October 15, 2021, WhatsApp announced that it would begin offering an end-to-end encryption service for chat backups, meaning no third party (including both WhatsApp and the cloud storage vendor) would have access to a user's information. This new encryption feature added an additional layer of protection to chat backups stored either on Apple iCloud or Google Drive.
On November 29, 2021, an FBI document was uncovered by Rolling Stone, revealing that WhatsApp responds to warrants and subpoenas from law enforcement within minutes, providing user metadata to the authorities. The metadata includes the user's contact information and address book.
In January 2022, an unsealed surveillance application revealed that WhatsApp started tracking seven users from China and Macau in November 2021, based on a request from US DEA investigators. The app collected data on who the users contacted and how often, and when and how they were using the app. This is reportedly not an isolated occurrence, as federal agencies can use the Electronic Communications Privacy Act to covertly track users without submitting any probable cause or linking a user's number to their identity.
At the beginning of 2022, it was revealed that San Diego–based startup Boldend had developed tools to hack WhatsApp's encryption, gaining access to user data, at some point since the startup's inception in 2017. The vulnerability was reportedly patched in January 2021. Boldend is financed, in part, by Peter Thiel, a notable investor in Facebook.
In September 2022, a critical security issue in WhatsApp's Android video call feature was reported. An integer overflow bug allowed a malicious user to take full control of the victim's application once a video call between two WhatsApp users was established. The issue was patched on the day it was officially reported.
In 2025, WhatsApp alerted 90 journalists and other members of civil society that they had been targeted by spyware used by the Israeli technology company Paragon Solutions.In April 2025, a group of Austrian researchers were able to extract 3.5 billion users' phone numbers by being able to make a hundred million contact discovery requests an hour, a flaw that exposed previous warnings from researchers in 2017 were not addressed. The researchers notified, Meta (who updated the enumeration problem in October), and deleted their copy of the phone numbers.
==== UK institutions ====
As of 2023, WhatsApp is widely used by government institutions in the UK, although such use is viewed as problematical since it hinders the public, including journalists, from obtaining accurate government records when making freedom of information requests.
The information commissioner has said that the use of WhatsApp posed risks to transparency since members of Parliament, government ministers, and officials who wished to avoid scrutiny might use WhatsApp despite there being official channels. Transparency campaigners have challenged the practice in court.
Notably, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the UK government routinely used WhatsApp to make decisions on managing the crisis, including on personal rather than government-issued devices. When the official inquiry into the pandemic began seeking evidence in May 2023, this presented issues for its ability to gather the material it sought. A personal device of the former Prime Minister, Boris Johnson, had been compromised by a security breach, and it was claimed that it could not be switched on to recover messages. Further, the Cabinet Office had claimed that since many messages were not relevant to the inquiry, it only needed to hand over material it had
selected as being relevant. The High Court, in a judicial review sought by the Cabinet Office, declared that all documents sought by the inquiry were to be handed over unredacted.
In 2018, it was reported that around 500,000 National Health Service (NHS) staff used WhatsApp and other instant messaging systems at work and around 29,000 had faced disciplinary action for doing so. Higher usage was reported by frontline clinical staff to keep up with care needs, even though NHS trust policies do not permit their use.
==== Mods and fake versions ====
In March 2019, WhatsApp released a guide for users who had installed unofficial modified versions of WhatsApp and warned that it may ban those using unofficial clients.
==== WhatsApp snooping scandal ====
In May 2019, WhatsApp was attacked by hackers who installed spyware on a number of victims' smartphones. The hack, allegedly developed by Israeli surveillance technology firm NSO Group, injected malware onto WhatsApp users' phones via a remote-exploit bug in the app's Voice over IP calling functions. A Wired report noted the attack was able to inject malware via calls to the targeted phone, even if the user did not answer the call.
In October 2019, WhatsApp filed a lawsuit against NSO Group in a San Francisco court, claiming that the alleged cyberattack violated US laws including the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). According to WhatsApp, the exploit "targeted at least 100 human-rights defenders, journalists and other members of civil society" among a total of 1,400 users in 20 countries.
In April 2020, the NSO Group held its governmental clients accountable for the allegation of human rights abuses by WhatsApp. In its revelation via documents received via court, the group claimed that the lawsuit brought against the company by WhatsApp threatened to infringe on its clients' "national security and foreign policy concerns". However, the company did not reveal the names of the end users, which according to research by Citizen Lab include, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates.
In July 2020, a US federal judge ruled that the lawsuit against NSO group could proceed. NSO Group filed a motion to have the lawsuit dismissed, but the judge denied all of its arguments.
==== Jeff Bezos phone hack ====
In January 2020, a digital forensic analysis revealed that the Amazon founder Jeff Bezos received an encrypted message on WhatsApp from the official account of Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. The message reportedly contained a malicious file, the receipt of which resulted in Bezos' phone being hacked. The United Nations' special rapporteur David Kaye and Agnes Callamard later confirmed that Jeff Bezos' phone was hacked through WhatsApp, as he was one of the targets of Saudi's hit list of individuals close to The Washington Post journalist Jamal Khashoggi.
==== FBI ====
In 2021, an FBI document obtained through a Freedom of Information request by Property of the People, Inc., a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, revealed that WhatsApp and iMessage are vulnerable to law-enforcement real-time searches.
==== Tek Fog ====
In January 2022, an investigation by The Wire claimed that BJP, an Indian political party, allegedly used an app called Tek Fog which was capable of hacking inactive WhatsApp accounts en masse to mass message their contacts with propaganda. According to the report, a whistleblower with app access was able to hack a test WhatsApp account controlled by reporters "within minutes." It was later determined that staff of their Meta investigative team had been duped by false information; The Wire fired the staff member involved and issued a formal apology to its readers.
=== Terrorism ===
In December 2015, it was reported that terrorist organization ISIS had been using WhatsApp to plot the November 2015 Paris attacks. According to The Independent, ISIS also uses WhatsApp to traffic sex slaves.
In March 2017, British Home Secretary Amber Rudd said encryption capabilities of messaging tools like WhatsApp are unacceptable, as news reported that Khalid Masood used the application several minutes before perpetrating the 2017 Westminster attack. Rudd publicly called for police and intelligence agencies to be given access to WhatsApp and other encrypted messaging services to prevent future terror attacks.
In April 2017, the perpetrator of the Stockholm truck attack reportedly used WhatsApp to exchange messages with an ISIS supporter shortly before and after the incident. The messages involved discussing how to make an explosive device and a confession to the attack.
In April 2017, nearly 300 WhatsApp groups with about 250 members each were reportedly being used to mobilize stone-pelters in Jammu and Kashmir to disrupt security forces' operations at encounter sites. According to police, 90% of these groups were closed down after police contacted their admins. Further, after a six-month probe which involved the infiltration of 79 WhatsApp groups, the National Investigation Agency reported that out of about 6386 members and admins of these groups, about 1000 were residents of Pakistan and gulf nations. Further, for their help in negating anti-terror operations, the Indian stone pelters were getting funded through barter trade from Pakistan and other indirect means.
In May 2022, the FBI stated that an ISIS sympathizer, who was plotting to assassinate George W. Bush, was arrested based on his WhatsApp data. According to the arrest warrant for the suspect, his WhatsApp account was placed under surveillance.
=== Scams and malware ===
There are numerous ongoing scams on WhatsApp that let hackers spread viruses or malware. In May 2016, some WhatsApp users were reported to have been tricked into downloading a third-party application called WhatsApp Gold, which was part of a scam that infected the users' phones with malware. A message that promises to allow access to their WhatsApp friends' conversations, or their contact lists, has become the most popular hit against anyone who uses the application in Brazil. Clicking on the message actually sends paid text messages. Since December 2016, more than 1.5 million people have clicked and lost money.
Another application called GB WhatsApp is considered malicious by cybersecurity firm Symantec because it usually performs some unauthorized operations on end-user devices.
=== Bans ===
==== China ====
WhatsApp is owned by Meta, whose main social media service Facebook has been blocked in China since 2009. In September 2017, security researchers reported to The New York Times that the WhatsApp service had been completely blocked in China. On April 19, 2024, Apple removed WhatsApp from the App Store in China, citing government orders that stemmed from national security concerns.
==== Iran ====
On May 9, 2014, the government of Iran announced that it had proposed to block the access to WhatsApp service to Iranian residents. "The reason for this is the assumption of WhatsApp by the Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, who is an American Zionist", said Abdolsamad Khorramabadi, head of the country's Committee on Internet Crimes. Subsequently, Iranian president Hassan Rouhani issued an order to the Ministry of ICT to stop filtering WhatsApp. It was blocked permanently until Meta answers September 2022.
==== Turkey ====
Turkey temporarily banned WhatsApp in 2016, following the assassination of the Russian ambassador to Turkey.
==== Brazil ====
On March 1, 2016, Diego Dzodan, Facebook's vice-president for Latin America was arrested in Brazil for not cooperating with an investigation in which WhatsApp conversations were requested. On March 2, 2016, at dawn the next day, Dzodan was released because the Court of Appeal held that the arrest was disproportionate and unreasonable.
On May 2, 2016, mobile providers in Brazil were ordered to block WhatsApp for 72 hours for the service's second failure to cooperate with criminal court orders. Once again, the block was lifted following an appeal, after less than 24 hours.
Brazil's Central Bank issued an order to payment card companies Visa and Mastercard on June 23, 2020, to stop working with WhatsApp on its new electronic payment system. A statement from the Bank asserted the decision to block the Facebook-owned company's latest offering was taken to "preserve an adequate competitive environment" in the mobile payments space and to ensure "functioning of a payment system that's interchangeable, fast, secure, transparent, open and cheap."
==== Uganda ====
The government of Uganda banned WhatsApp and Facebook, along with other social media platforms, to enforce a tax on the use of social media. Users are to be charged USh.200/= per day to access these services according to the new law set by parliament.
==== United Arab Emirates (UAE) ====
The United Arab Emirates banned WhatsApp video chat and VoIP call applications in as early as 2013 due to what is often reported as an effort to protect the commercial interests of their home grown nationally owned telecom providers (du and Etisalat). Their app ToTok has received press suggesting it is able to spy on users.
==== Cuba ====
In July 2021, the Cuban government blocked access to several social media platforms, including WhatsApp, to curb the spread of information during the anti-government protests.
==== Switzerland ====
In December 2021, the Swiss army banned the use of WhatsApp and several other non-Swiss encrypted messaging services by army personnel. The ban was prompted by concerns of US authorities potentially accessing user data for such apps because of the CLOUD Act. The army recommended that all army personnel use Threema instead, as the service is based in Switzerland.
==== Zambia ====
In August 2021, the digital rights organization Access Now reported that WhatsApp along with several other social media apps was being blocked in Zambia for the duration of the general election. The organization reported a massive drop-off in traffic for the blocked services, though the country's government made no official statements about the block.
==== Saudi Arabia ====
The Saudi Central Bank (SAMA) has prohibited local banks from using instant messaging applications like WhatsApp for customer communication. This decision aims to enhance data security and protect customer information.
==== Russia ====
28 November 2025 Russia threatens full ban on WhatsApp.
==== Third-party clients ====
In mid-2013, WhatsApp Inc. filed for the DMCA takedown of the discussion thread on the XDA Developers forums about the then popular third-party client "WhatsApp Plus".
In 2015, some third-party WhatsApp clients that were reverse-engineering the WhatsApp mobile app, received a cease and desist to stop activities that were violating WhatsApp legal terms. As a result, users of third-party WhatsApp clients were also banned.
== WhatsApp Business ==
WhatsApp launched two business-oriented apps in January 2018, separated by the intended userbase:
A WhatsApp Business app for small companies
An Enterprise Solution known as WhatsApp Business Platform for bigger companies with global customer bases, such as airlines, e-commerce retailers and banks, who would be able to offer customer service and conversational commerce (e-commerce) via WhatsApp chat, using live agents or chatbots (as far back as 2015, companies like Meteordesk had provided unofficial solutions for enterprises to attend to large numbers of users, but these were shut down by WhatsApp)
This solution was originally available as on-premise only, but in 2022, WhatsApp Cloud API became available. The on-premise API has been deprecated and will be fully sunset on October 23, 2025.
As WhatsApp API does not have a frontend interface, businesses need to subscribe through one of Meta's approved Business Solution Providers. Examples of these include respond.io, Gupshup, Trengo, Wati and Manychat.
In October 2020, Facebook announced the introduction of pricing tiers for services offered via the WhatsApp Business API, charged on a per-conversation basis. On July 1, 2025, a new pricing tier system came into effect which charges per-message rather than per-conversation.
== User statistics ==
WhatsApp handled ten billion messages per day in August 2012, growing from two billion in April 2012, and one billion the previous October. On June 13, 2013, WhatsApp announced that they had reached their new daily record by processing 27 billion messages. According to the Financial Times, WhatsApp "has done to SMS on mobile phones what Skype did to international calling on landlines".
By April 22, 2014, WhatsApp had over 500 million monthly active users, 700 million photos and 100 million videos were being shared daily, and the messaging system was handling more than 10 billion messages each day.
On August 24, 2014, Koum announced on his Twitter account that WhatsApp had over 600 million active users worldwide. At that point WhatsApp was adding about 25 million new users every month, or 833,000 active users per day.
In May 2017, it was reported that WhatsApp users spend over 340 million minutes on video calls each day on the app. This is the equivalent of roughly 646 years of video calls per day.
By February 2017, WhatsApp had over 1.2 billion users globally, reaching 1.5 billion monthly active users by the end of 2017.
In January 2020, WhatsApp reached over 5 billion installs on Google Play Store making it only the second non-Google app to achieve this milestone.
In February 2020, WhatsApp had over 2 billion users globally.
In May 2025, Meta reported WhatsApp had over 3 billion monthly active users globally.
=== Specific markets ===
India is by far WhatsApp's largest market in terms of total number of users. In May 2014, WhatsApp crossed 50 million monthly active users in India, which is also its largest country by the number of monthly active users, then 70 million in October 2014, making users in India 10% of WhatsApp's total user base. In February 2017, WhatsApp reached 200 million monthly active users in India.
Israel is one of WhatsApp's strongest markets in terms of ubiquitous usage. According to Globes, already by 2013 the application was installed on 92% of all smartphones, with 86% of users reporting daily use.
In July 2024, WhatsApp reached 100 million users in the United States.
=== Competition ===
WhatsApp competes with messaging services including iMessage (estimated 1.3 billion active users), WeChat (1.26 billion active users), Telegram (900 million users), Viber (260 million active users), LINE (217 million active users), KakaoTalk (57 million active users), and Signal (70 million active users). Both Telegram and Signal in particular were reported to get registration spikes during WhatsApp outages and controversies.
WhatsApp has increasingly drawn its innovation from competing services, such as a Telegram-inspired web version and features for groups. In 2016, WhatsApp was accused of copying features from a then-unreleased version of iMessage.
== See also ==
Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients
Comparison of user features of messaging platforms
Comparison of VoIP software – Voice over IP software comparison
Criticism of Facebook
Instagram – Social media platform owned by Meta
List of most-downloaded Google Play applications
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Media related to WhatsApp at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company#Presidents_of_Fox_Broadcasting_Company_Entertainment | Fox Broadcasting Company | Fox Broadcasting Company, LLC (commonly known as Fox; stylized in all caps) is an American commercial broadcast television network serving as the flagship namesake property of Fox Corporation and operated through Fox Entertainment. Fox is based at Fox Corporation's corporate headquarters at 1211 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, and it hosts additional offices at the Fox Network Center in Los Angeles and at the Fox Media Center in Tempe, Arizona. The channel was launched by News Corporation on October 9, 1986 as a competitor to the Big Three television networks, which are the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC).
Fox has gone on to become the most successful attempt at a fourth television network; it was also the highest-rated free-to-air network in the 18–49 demographic from 2004 to 2012 and 2020 to 2021 and was the most-watched American television network in total viewership during the 2007–08 season. It is a member of the North American Broadcasters Association and the National Association of Broadcasters. Unlike other major commercial broadcast networks, Fox does not have a newscast of its own due to its lack of a news division, and instead relies on its own 24-hour news channels, Fox News, Fox Business Network, and Fox Weather to supply news programming for the network.
Fox and its affiliated companies operate many entertainment channels in international markets, but these do not necessarily air the same programming as the American network. Most viewers in Canada have access to at least one American-based Fox affiliate, either over the air or through a pay television provider, although Fox's National Football League broadcasts and most of its prime time programming are subject to simultaneous substitution regulations for pay television providers imposed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to protect rights held by domestically based networks.
Like Canada, Fox programming is available in Mexico through free-to-air affiliates in markets located within proximity to the Mexico–United States border whose signals are readily receivable over-the-air in border areas of northern Mexico. In Central America, the Dominican Republic, Peru, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador and the Caribbean, many subscription providers carry either select American-based Fox-affiliated stations or the main network feed from Fox O&Os WNYW in New York City, KTTV in Los Angeles, WTTG in Washington, D.C. or Fox affiliate WSVN in Miami. In addition, the network's programming has been available in the U.S. Virgin Islands since 2011 on WVXF in Charlotte Amalie and Puerto Rico since 2015 from WSJP-LD in San Juan.
== History ==
=== Origins ===
20th Century Fox (now known as 20th Century Studios) had been involved in television production as early as 1948. Its television arm was known as TCF Television Productions up until 1958, which produced several syndicated programs. Following the closure of the DuMont Television Network in August 1956, after it became mired in severe financial problems, the NTA Film Network was launched as a new "fourth network". 20th would also produce original content for the NTA network. The film network effort would fail after a few years, but 20th continued to dabble in television through its production arm, such as Perry Mason, Batman and M*A*S*H for the Big Three television networks ABC, NBC, and CBS.
=== 1980s: Establishment of the network ===
==== Foundations ====
While running Paramount Pictures, Barry Diller attempted to create a fourth television network. The Paramount Television Service of 1977 was canceled before its first broadcast. Paramount produced many programs for the Big Three but catering to their demands "just wore us down", he said in 1983: "I want to make our own things and put them on the air". Diller hoped to create a "mini-network" of independent television stations airing Paramount programs. Unable to achieve his goal at Paramount, Diller joined film studio 20th Century Fox.
In March 1985, News Corporation, a media company owned by Australian publishing magnate Rupert Murdoch that had mainly served as a newspaper publisher, paid $255 million for a 50% interest in TCF Holdings, the parent company of the 20th Century Fox film studio. In May 1985, News agreed to pay $2.55 billion to acquire independent stations in six major U.S. cities from the John Kluge-run broadcasting company Metromedia: WNEW-TV in New York City, WTTG in Washington, D.C., KTTV in Los Angeles, KRIV-TV in Houston, WFLD-TV in Chicago, and KRLD-TV in Dallas. A seventh station, ABC affiliate WCVB-TV in Boston, was part of the original transaction but was spun off to the Hearst Broadcasting subsidiary of the Hearst Communications in a separate, concurrent deal as part of a right of first refusal related to that station's 1982 sale to Metromedia. (Two years later, News Corporation acquired WXNE-TV in that market from the Christian Broadcasting Network and changed its call letters to WFXT.)
Radio personality Clarke Ingram suggested that the Fox network is a revival or at least a linear descendant of DuMont, since Metromedia was founded when DuMont spun off its two remaining owned-and-operated stations, WNEW-TV (then known as WABD) and WTTG, as DuMont Broadcasting (it later changed its name to Metropolitan Broadcasting before becoming Metromedia). Additionally, the former base of DuMont's operations, the DuMont Tele-Centre in Manhattan, eventually became the present-day Fox Television Center.
==== Beginning of the network ====
In 1985, 20th Century Fox announced its intentions to form a fourth television network that would compete with ABC, CBS, and NBC. The plans were to use the combination of the Fox studios and the former Metromedia stations to both produce and distribute programming. Organizational plans for the network were held off until the Metromedia acquisitions cleared regulatory hurdles. Then, in December 1985, Rupert Murdoch agreed to pay $325 million to acquire the remaining equity in TCF Holdings from his original partner, Marvin Davis. The purchase of the Metromedia stations was approved by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in March 1986; the call letters of the New York City and Dallas outlets were subsequently changed respectively to WNYW and KDAF. These first six stations, then broadcasting to a combined reach of 22% of the nation's households, became known as the Fox Television Stations group. With the sole exception of KDAF (which was sold to Renaissance Broadcasting in 1995, at which time it became an affiliate of The WB), all of the original owned-and-operated stations ("O&Os") are still part of the Fox network today. Like the core O&O group, Fox's affiliate body initially consisted of independent stations (a few of which had maintained affiliations with ABC, NBC, CBS, or DuMont earlier in their existences). The local charter affiliate was, in most cases, that market's top-rated independent; however, Fox opted to affiliate with a second-tier independent station in markets where a more established independent declined the affiliation (such as Denver, Phoenix and St. Louis). Largely because of both these factors, Fox in a situation very similar to what DuMont had experienced four decades before had little choice but to affiliate with UHF stations in all except a few (mainly larger) markets where the network gained clearance. Then-Fox Inc. head Barry Diller was acknowledged to have been the one who created the network, with the New York Times noting in October 1986 that Diller's "current obsession is creating a television network to compete each evening with NBC, CBS and ABC."
The Fox television network officially debuted with a soft launch at 11:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time on Thursday, October 9, 1986. Its inaugural program was a late-night talk show, The Late Show, which was hosted by comedian Joan Rivers. After a strong start, The Late Show quickly eroded in the ratings; it was never able to overtake NBC stalwart The Tonight Show. By early 1987, Rivers (and her then-husband Edgar Rosenberg, the show's original executive producer) quit The Late Show after disagreements with the network over the show's creative direction, the program then began to be hosted by a succession of guest hosts. After that point, some stations that affiliated with FBC in the weeks before the April 1987 launch of its prime time lineup (such as WCGV-TV in Milwaukee and WDRB-TV in Louisville) signed affiliation agreements with the network on the condition that they would not have to carry The Late Show due to the program's weak ratings.
Shortly before the official launch of FBC on April 5, 1987, under original Fox Entertainment President Garth Ancier, the network underwent a re-branding to the much shorter "Fox". According to an interview Ancier gave at that time, it was ad man Jay Chiat who suggested to network executives that, rather than create a brand from scratch, the network ought to use the "Fox" heritage of the previous 80 years and the "searchlight" iconography to link Fox Broadcasting to 20th Century Fox. Until late in the game during the 1980s, several station groups like Media Central and Pappas Telecasting had avoided Fox when the network launched, but joined the network later on.
The network had its "grand opening" when it expanded its programming into prime time on April 5, 1987, inaugurating its Sunday night lineup with the premieres of the sitcom Married... with Children and the sketch comedy series The Tracey Ullman Show. The premieres of both series were rebroadcast twice following their initial airings (at 7:00 p.m. and 7:30 pm. Eastern/Pacific, respectively) that night, which Jamie Kellner, who served as the network's president and chief operating officer until his resignation in January 1993, stated would allow viewers to "sample FBC programming without missing 60 Minutes, Murder, She Wrote, or the 8 o'clock movies". Fox added one new show per week over the next several weeks, with the drama 21 Jump Street and comedies Mr. President and Duet completing its Sunday schedule. On July 11, 1987, the network rolled out its Saturday night schedule with the premiere of the supernatural drama series Werewolf, which began with a two-hour pilot movie event. Three other series were added to the Saturday lineup over the next three weeks: comedies The New Adventures of Beans Baxter, Karen's Song, and Down and Out in Beverly Hills (the latter being an adaptation of the film of the same name). Both Karen's Song and Down and Out in Beverly Hills were canceled by the start of the 1987–88 television season, the network's first fall launch, and were replaced by the sitcoms Second Chance and Women in Prison, both of which would be cancelled by mid 1988.
In regard to its late night lineup, Fox had already decided to cancel The Late Show, and had a replacement series in development, The Wilton North Report, when the former series began a ratings resurgence under its final guest host, comedian Arsenio Hall. Wilton North lasted just a few weeks, however, and the network was unable to reach a deal with Hall to return as host when it hurriedly revived The Late Show in early 1988. The Late Show went back to featuring guest hosts, eventually selecting Ross Shafer as its permanent host, only for it to be canceled for good by October 1988, while Hall signed a deal with Paramount Television to develop his own syndicated late night talk show, The Arsenio Hall Show. Fox aired the 39th Primetime Emmy Awards and would air the next five editions.
Although the network had modest successes in Married... with Children and The Tracy Ullman Show, several affiliates were disappointed with Fox's largely underperforming programming lineup during the network's first three years, KMSP-TV in Minneapolis and KPTV in Portland, Oregon, both owned at the time by Chris-Craft Television, disaffiliated from Fox in 1988 (with KITN (now WFTC) and KPDX respectively replacing those stations as Fox affiliates), citing that the network's weaker program offerings were hampering viewership of their stronger syndicated slate.
At the start of the 1989–90 television season, Fox added a third night of programming, on Mondays. The season heralded the start of a turnaround for Fox. It saw the debut of a midseason replacement series, The Simpsons, an animated series that originated as a series of shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show. Ranked at a three-way tie for 29th place in the Nielsen ratings, it became a breakout hit and was the first Fox series to break the Top 30. The Simpsons, at 36 years as of 2025, is the longest-running American sitcom, the longest-running American animated program, and the longest-running American scripted primetime television series.
In 1989, Fox also first introduced the documentary series Cops and crime-focused magazine program America's Most Wanted (the latter of which debuted as a half-hour series as part of the network's mainly comedy-based Sunday lineup for its first season, before expanding to an hour and moving to Fridays for the 1990–91 season). These two series, which would become staples on the network for just over two decades, would eventually be paired to form the nucleus of Fox's Saturday night schedule beginning in the 1994–95 season. Meanwhile, Married... with Children, which differentiated itself from other family sitcoms of the period as it centered on a dysfunctional lower-middle-class family, saw viewer interest substantially increase beginning in its third season after Michigan homemaker Terry Rakolta began a boycott to force Fox to cancel the series after objecting to risqué humor and sexual content featured in a 1989 episode. Married...'s newfound success led it to become the network's longest-running live-action sitcom, airing for 11 seasons.
=== 1990s: Rise into mainstream success and beginnings of rivalry with the Big Three ===
Fox survived where DuMont and other attempts to start a fourth network had failed because it programmed just under the number of hours defined by the FCC to legally be considered a network. This allowed Fox to make revenue in ways forbidden to the established networks (for instance, it did not have to adhere to the Financial Interest and Syndication Rules that were in effect at the time), since during its first years it was considered to be merely a large group of stations. By comparison, DuMont had been saddled by numerous regulatory barriers that hampered its potential to grow, most notably a ban on acquiring additional stations, during an era when the FCC had much tighter ownership limits for television stations (limiting broadcasters to a maximum of five stations nationwide) than it did when Fox launched. In addition, Murdoch was more than willing to open his wallet to get and keep programming and talent. DuMont, in contrast, operated on a shoestring budget and was unable to keep the programs and stars it had.
Most of the other startup networks that launched in later years (such as UPN and The WB) followed Fox's model as well. Furthermore, DuMont operated during a time when the FCC did not require television manufacturers to include UHF capability. To see DuMont's UHF stations, most people had to buy an expensive converter. Even then, the signal quality was marginal at best compared to the signals of VHF stations (see also: UHF television broadcasting § UHF vs VHF). By the time Fox launched, cable allowed UHF stations to generally be on an equal footing with VHF stations.
Although Fox was growing rapidly as a network and had established itself as a presence, it was still not considered a major competitor to the established "Big Three" broadcast networks, ABC, CBS, and NBC. From its launch, Fox had the advantage of offering programs intended to appeal toward a younger demographic – adults between 18 and 34 years of age – and that were edgier in content, whereas some programs that were carried by the "Big Three" networks attracted an older-skewing audience. Until the early 1990s, when Fox expanded its programming to additional nights and outside prime time, most Fox stations were still essentially formatted as independent stations – filling their schedules with mainly first-run and acquired programming, and, during prime time, running either syndicated programs or, more commonly, movies on nights when the network did not provide programming. Few Fox stations carried local newscasts during the network's early years, unlike the owned-and-operated stations and affiliates of its established rivals. Those that did were mostly based in larger markets (including some of the network's O&Os) and retained newscasts that had aired for decades. Even then, these news operations were limited to one newscast per day, following the network's prime time lineup.
On September 6, 1990, Fox reached an agreement with TCI (the nation's largest cable company at the time) in which TCI systems in markets that were not served by an over-the-air Fox affiliate at the time would become charter affiliates of a cable-only national feed of the network known as Foxnet. The cable-only network launched on June 6, 1991, bringing Fox programming to smaller markets that did not carry a default Fox affiliate at the time; it would manage to reach a total of 1.3 million subscribers by 1992.
As Fox gradually headed towards carrying a full week's worth of programming in prime time through the addition of programming on Thursday and Friday nights at the start of the 1990–91 season, the network's added offerings included the scheduling of The Simpsons opposite veteran NBC sitcom The Cosby Show as part of Fox's initial Thursday night lineup that fall (along with future hit Beverly Hills, 90210, which would become the network's longest-running drama, airing for ten seasons) after only a half-season of success on Sunday nights. The show performed well in its new Thursday slot, spending four seasons there and helping to launch Martin, another Fox comedy that became a hit when it debuted in August 1992. The Simpsons returned to Sunday nights in the fall of 1994, and has remained there ever since.
The sketch comedy series In Living Color, which debuted in April 1990, created many memorable characters and launched the careers of future movie stars Jim Carrey, Jamie Foxx, Damon Wayans, Marlon Wayans, Keenen Ivory Wayans, guest stars Chris Rock and Tim Meadows, and both members of the show's dance troupe, the "Fly Girls", Rosie Perez and Jennifer Lopez. The series also gained international prominence after Fox aired a special live episode in January 1992 as an alternative to the halftime show during Super Bowl XXVI, which was broadcast on CBS, marking the start of Fox's rivalry with the "Big Three" networks while popularizing the counterprogramming strategy against the Super Bowl telecast.
The early and mid-1990s saw the debuts of several soap opera-style prime time dramas aimed at younger audiences that became quick hits, which, in addition to Beverly Hills, 90210, included its adult-focused spin-off Melrose Place (which initially had a mediocre ratings performance, before viewership rose significantly midway through its first season following Heather Locklear's addition to the cast), its own short lived spin-off Models Inc., and family drama Party of Five. The early and mid-1990s also saw the network launch several series aimed at a black audience, which, in addition to Martin, included the sitcom Living Single and police procedural New York Undercover.
==== Luring the NFL and affiliation switches ====
Despite having a few successful shows like the science fiction drama The X-Files, Fox still lacked credibility among viewers. Even those working in television thought of Fox as "the one that has that cartoon show" (The Simpsons). More than 85% of affiliates in 1993 were UHF stations. Fox became a viable competitor to the older networks when it won broadcast television rights to the National Football League (NFL) away from CBS. In December 1993, Fox signed a contract with the NFL to televise games from the National Football Conference (NFC)—which had been airing its games on CBS since 1956—starting with the 1994 season. The initial four-year contract, which Fox bid $1.58 billion to obtain—while CBS offered $295 million per year to retain the rights—also included the exclusive U.S. television rights to Super Bowl XXXI in 1997. The network also lured Pat Summerall, John Madden, Dick Stockton, Matt Millen, James Brown, Terry Bradshaw, and behind-the-scenes production personnel, from CBS Sports to staff its NFL coverage.
Shortly afterward, News Corporation began striking affiliation deals with, and later purchasing, more television station groups. On May 23, 1994, Fox agreed to purchase a 20% stake in New World Communications, a television and film production company controlled by investor Ronald Perelman that had just recently entered into broadcasting through its 1993 purchase of seven stations owned by SCI Television. As a result of Fox acquiring a 20% minority interest in the company, New World signed an agreement to switch the affiliations of twelve stations (eight CBS affiliates, three ABC affiliates [ two of which were subsequently placed in a blind trust and then sold directly to Fox due to conflicts with FCC ownership rules ], and one NBC affiliate) that it had either already owned outright or was in the process of acquiring from Citicasters and Argyle Communications at the time to Fox starting in September 1994 and continuing as existing affiliation contracts with their existing major network partners expired.
That summer, SF Broadcasting, a joint venture between Fox and Savoy Pictures that was founded in March 1994, purchased four stations from Burnham Broadcasting (three NBC affiliates and one ABC affiliate); through a separate agreement, those stations would also switch to Fox between September 1995 and January 1996 as existing affiliation agreements lapsed. These two deals were not the first instances in which a longtime "Big Three" station affiliated with Fox: in Miami, the affiliation moved from WCIX (channel 6) to NBC affiliate WSVN in January 1989 as the result of a complicated six-station affiliation swap in two South Florida markets spurred by NBC's purchase of CBS affiliate WTVJ (channel 4) and CBS's purchase of WCIX. WSVN immediately attracted industry notice for featuring a news-intensive tabloid format uncharacteristic of any Fox affiliate or independent station heretofore, with then-Fox network president Lucie Salhany calling WSVN "the future of television" in May 1994. WSVN remains the largest Fox affiliate in terms of market size to have entirely eschewed any prominent on-air branding with the network name.
The NFC contract, in fact, was the impetus for the affiliation deal with New World and SF Broadcasting's purchase of the Burnham stations, as Fox sought to improve local coverage of its new NFL package by aligning the network with stations that had more established histories and advertiser value than its charter affiliates. The deals spurred a series of affiliation realignments between all four U.S. television networks involving individual stations and various broadcasting groups such as those between CBS and Group W (whose corporate parent later bought the network in August 1995), and ABC and the E. W. Scripps Company (which owned three Fox affiliates that switched to either ABC or NBC as a result of the New World deal) affecting 30 television markets between September 1994 and September 1996. The two deals also had the side benefit of increasing local news programming on the new Fox affiliates, mirroring the programming format adopted by WSVN upon that station's switch to the network (as well as expanding the number of news-producing stations in Fox's portfolio beyond mainly charter stations in certain large and mid-sized markets).
With significant market share for the first time ever and the rights to the NFL, Fox firmly established itself as the nation's fourth major network. Fox Television Stations would acquire New World outright on July 17, 1996, in a $2.48 billion stock purchase, making the latter's twelve Fox affiliates owned-and-operated stations of the network; the deal was completed on January 22, 1997. Later, in August 2000, Fox bought several stations owned by Chris-Craft Industries and its subsidiaries BHC Communications and United Television for $5.5 billion (most of these stations were UPN affiliates, although its Minneapolis station KMSP-TV would rejoin Fox in September 2002 as an owned-and-operated station). These purchases, for a time, made Fox Television Stations the largest owner of television stations in the U.S. (a title that has since been assumed by the Sinclair Broadcast Group, one of the network's largest affiliate groups).
==== Evolving programming ====
Fox completed its prime time expansion to all seven nights on January 19, 1993, with the launch of two additional nights of programming on Tuesdays and Wednesdays (The method of gradually adding nights to the programming schedule that began with the network's April 1987 prime time launch was replicated by The WB and UPN when those networks debuted in January 1995), making it the fifth broadcast network (behind the Dumont network) to air programming on a nightly basis. September 1993 saw the heavy promotion and debut of a short-lived western series that incorporated science-fiction elements, The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. However, it was the supernatural investigative drama that debuted immediately following it on Friday nights, The X-Files, that would find long-lasting success, and would become Fox's first series to crack Nielsen's year-end Top 20 most-watched network programs. After several other failed attempts at late night programming following the cancellation of The Late Show (most notably, the quick failure of The Chevy Chase Show in 1993), Fox finally found success in that time period with the debut of MADtv on October 14, 1995; the sketch comedy series became a solid competitor to NBC's Saturday Night Live for over a decade and was Fox's most successful late night program as well as one of its most successful Saturday night shows, running for 14 seasons until 2009.
An attempt to make a larger effort to program Saturday nights by moving Married... with Children from its longtime Sunday slot and adding a new but short-lived sitcom (Love and Marriage) to the night at the beginning of the 1996–97 season backfired with the public, as it resulted in a brief cancellation of America's Most Wanted that was criticized by law enforcement and public officials, and was roundly rejected by viewers, which brought swift cancellation to the newer series. Married... quickly returned to Sundays (before moving again to Mondays two months later); both it and Martin would end their runs at the end of that season. The Saturday schedule was revised in November 1996, to feature one new and one encore episode of Cops, and the revived America's Most Wanted: America Fights Back. Cops and AMW remained the anchors of Fox's Saturday lineup, making it the most stable night in American broadcast television for over 14 years; both shows eventually were among the few first-run programs remaining on Saturday evenings across the four major networks after decreasing prime time viewership – as more people opted to engage in leisure activities away from home rather than watch television on that night of the week led ABC, NBC and CBS to largely abandon first-run series on Saturdays (outside newsmagazines, sports and burned off prime time shows that failed on other nights) in favor of reruns and movies by the mid-2000s. America's Most Wanted ended its 22-year run on Fox in June 2011, and was subsequently picked up by Lifetime (before being cancelled for good in 2013); Cops, in turn, would move its first-run episodes to Spike in 2013 after 23 seasons (ending its original run on Fox as the network's longest-running prime time program), leaving sports and repeats of reality and drama series as the only programs airing on Fox on Saturday evenings.
During the 1997–98 season, Fox had three shows in the Nielsen Top 20 (in terms of total viewers); The X-Files (which ranked 11th), King of the Hill (which ranked 15th) and The Simpsons (which ranked 18th), all of which aired on Sunday nights. Building around its flagship animated comedy The Simpsons, Fox would experience relative success with animated sitcoms in prime time, beginning with the debut of the Mike Judge-produced King of the Hill in 1997. Family Guy (the first of three adult-oriented animated series from Seth MacFarlane to air on the network) and Futurama (from Simpsons creator Matt Groening) would make their debuts in 1999; however, they were canceled in 2002 and 2003 respectively. Due to strong DVD sales and highly rated cable reruns on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim, Fox later decided to order new episodes of Family Guy, which began airing in 2005. Futurama would be revived with four direct-to-DVD films between 2007 and 2009 and would return as a first-run series on Comedy Central, where it ran from 2010 to 2013. Less successful efforts included The Critic, starring Saturday Night Live alumnus Jon Lovitz (which Fox picked up in 1994 after it was cancelled by ABC, only for the series to be cancelled again after its second season), and The PJs (which moved to The WB in 2000, after Fox cancelled that series after its second season). Other notable shows that debuted in the late 1990s included the quirky David E. Kelley-produced live-action dramedy Ally McBeal, the short-lived game show Greed, and the period comedy That '70s Show, the latter of which became Fox's second-longest-running live-action sitcom, airing for eight seasons.
Throughout the 1990s and into the next decade, Fox launched a slate of cable channels beginning with the 1994 debuts of general entertainment network FX and movie channel FXM: Movies from Fox (now FX Movie Channel), followed by the debut of Fox News Channel in August 1996. Its sports operations expanded with the acquisition of controlling interests in several regional sports networks (including the Prime Network and SportsChannel) between 1996 and 2000 to form Fox Sports Net (which launched in November 1996), its 2000 purchase of Speedvision (later Speed Channel, which was replaced in the United States by Fox Sports 1 in August 2013; however, it continues to exist in other North American and Caribbean countries as Fox Sports Racing), and the launches of Fox Sports World (later Fox Soccer, which was replaced by FXX in September 2013) and Fox Sports en Español (now Fox Deportes) in the early 2000s.
=== 2000s: Rise to ratings leadership, the American Idol effect, and fierce rivalry with CBS ===
By 2000, many staple Fox shows of the 1990s had ended their runs. During the late 1990s and carrying over into the early 2000s, Fox put much of its efforts into producing reality shows many of which were considered to be sensationalistic and controversial in nature – such as Who Wants to Marry a Multi-Millionaire?, Temptation Island, Married by America, and Joe Millionaire (which became the first Fox program to crack the Nielsen Top 10), as well as video clip shows such as World's Wildest Police Videos and When Animals Attack!. After shedding most of these programs, Fox gradually filled its lineup with acclaimed dramas such as 24, The O.C., House, and Bones, and comedies such as The Bernie Mac Show, Malcolm in the Middle, and Arrested Development.
As the decade wore on, Fox began surpassing ABC and NBC in the ratings, first in age demographics, then in overall viewership, and placed second behind a resurgent CBS in total viewership, beginning in 2002. Fox hit a major milestone in 2005 when it emerged as the most-watched U.S. broadcast network in the lucrative 18–49 demographic for the first time, largely boosted by the strength of the reality singing competition series American Idol. Regarded as the single most dominant program on 21st-century U.S. television, as well as the first Fox show to lead the Nielsen seasonal ratings, American Idol had peak audiences of up to 38 million viewers during the 2003 season finale and double-season average audiences of around 31 million viewers in 2006 and 2007. Subsequently, it leapfrogged over Fox's Big Three competition to become the highest-rated U.S. television program overall starting with the 2003–04 season, becoming the first reality singing competition series in the country to reach first place in the seasonal ratings.
American Idol remains the most recent American television program to date to lead the national prime time ratings and attract at least 30 million viewers for multiple and consecutive television seasons. It is the most-watched program on American television by seasonal average viewership in the 2000s decade, as well as the most recent program scheduled to have successfully established a graveyard slot on American television since the end of NBC's Friends in 2004 and the subsequent decline of NBC's previously dominant "Must See TV" Thursday timeblock. By 2005, reality television succeeded sitcoms as the most popular form of entertainment in the United States as a result of Fox's rise with American Idol and NBC's network declines. House, which aired as American Idol's lead-out program on Tuesday nights, earned international prominence in the 21st century and became Fox's first prime time drama series (and the network's third program overall) to reach the Nielsen Top 10 beginning 2006.
Beginning 2004, CBS and Fox, which ranked as the two most-watched broadcast networks in the U.S. during the 2000s, have tended to equal one another in demographic ratings among general viewership, with both networks winning certain demographics by narrow margins; however, while Fox has the youngest-skewing viewer base, CBS is consistently regarded to have the oldest audience demographics among the major broadcast networks. Fox hit a milestone in February 2005 by scoring its first sweeps victory in total viewership and demographic ratings, boosted largely by its broadcast of Super Bowl XXXIX and the strengths of American Idol, 24, House, and The O.C.
In September 2006, as a result of the increasing number of over-the-air Fox affiliates and the increased availability of digital subchannels carrying Fox in certain markets, Foxnet was discontinued. Then, a sweeping milestone came by the conclusion of the 2007–08 season on May 21, 2008, shortly after the widely acclaimed seventh-season finale of American Idol, when Fox outranked longtime leader CBS as the most-watched television network overall in the United States, attributed to the strengths of Super Bowl XLII and its NFL game coverages, Idol and House during that season. To date, Fox is the only non-Big Three network to top the overall Nielsen ratings since its inception in the 1950–51 season.
In the late 2000s, Fox launched a few series that proved to be powerful hits in different respects. In 2007, the network began production on the game shows Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader? and Don't Forget the Lyrics!; both shows ran for a total of three seasons each, making them the longest-running game shows in Fox's history. In 2008, the supernatural mystery series Fringe debuted to moderate ratings but earned critical acclaim during its first season on Tuesdays. Throughout its run, the series developed a large loyal fanbase that turned the show into a cult favorite. In 2009, Glee premiered to average ratings when its pilot aired as a lead-out program of the eighth-season finale of American Idol, but earned positive reviews from critics. The cast of the series has been acknowledged by Barack Obama and Oprah Winfrey, who have each asked the cast to perform live for various national events.
=== 2010–2017: Network's ratings collapse and revamp in network programming ===
At the beginning of the 2010s, new comedies Raising Hope and New Girl gave Fox its first live-action comedy successes in years. The second season of Glee delivered that series' highest ratings during the 2010–11 season, with viewership peaking during its Super Bowl lead-out episode in February 2011 (marking the most expensive post-Super Bowl episode ever produced on U.S. television). The said show has continuously attracted worldwide media attention that it formed a large, loyal international fanbase. At the same time, Fox's live telecast of the Super Bowl XLV helped Fox emerge as the first U.S. television network to earn an average single-night prime time audience of at least 100 million viewers.
American Idol lost its first place standing among all network prime time programs during the 2011–12 finale (falling to second that season behind NBC Sunday Night Football), ending the longest streak at#1 for a prime-time broadcast network series in American television history, through its eight-year ratings domination in both the Adults 18–49 demographic and total viewership. Idol also remained in the Nielsen Top 10 for eleven years from 2003 to 2013, and became the highest-rated non-sports prime time television program as well as the highest-rated reality series in the United States from 2003 to 2012. these records marked the longest Nielsen ratings streaks of any Fox program in these categories.
The 2012 season finale of American Idol marked the end of the season-long 25th anniversary of the establishment of Fox network, helping it win in the 18–49 demographic for the eighth consecutive season, the longest such streak according to Nielsen measurement records (and still standing as of 2025). However, Fox suffered a collapse in viewership during the 2012–13 season; American Idol and Glee suffered steep ratings declines, while the network as a whole fell to third place (suffering an overall decrease by 22%) in total viewership and to second place in the 18–49 demographic (where it remained as of 2014) by the end of the season.
The decline in ratings continued into the 2013–14 season, with Fox placing fourth among the major networks in total viewership for the first time since 2001. Subsequently, on January 13, 2014, Fox announced that it would abandon its use of the standard concept of greenlighting shows through the initial order of pilot episodes during the designated "pilot season" (running from January through April), instead opting to pick up shows directly to series.
Fox scored renewed ratings successes with its February 2014 live telecast of Super Bowl XLVIII, which became the second most-watched television broadcast (by average) in U.S. history, and the lead-out programs that followed this event – New Girl and Brooklyn Nine-Nine. Later, in May 2014, Kevin Reilly announced that he would resign as chairman of Fox Entertainment. On July 15, 2014, then-corporate parent 21st Century Fox announced that it would merge the operations of the network and 20th Century Fox Television into the newly created Fox Television Group, with 20th Century Fox Television co-chairpersons Dana Walden and Gary Newman appointed to head the division.
The 2014–15 season saw the series finale of Glee and debut of hits in the freshmen dramas Gotham (based on the Batman mythos) and the Lee Daniels-produced Empire. Ratings for Empire, in particular, increased week-to-week throughout its first season, becoming the network's first successful American Idol lead-out since House, as well as the first American television program to consistently increase its episode-to-episode viewership during its first five weeks since the 1992 feat set by ABC's Roseanne. Empire ended its inaugural season as the first American television show ever to increase its episodic viewership on a consistent basis throughout the course of a single season, as well as Fox's fourth program overall (and the first since the 2013 finale of American Idol) to enter the Nielsen Top 10 by the end of the 2014–15 season.
The 2015–16 season marked a notable turnaround for Fox, as it jumped ahead of ABC to third place in nationwide ratings (both in overall viewership and in the 18–49 demo) and posted several firsts for the network and on American television. Its improvement was boosted by the transfer of the Miss Universe and Miss USA pageants from NBC, as well as shows such as Grease: Live, Empire and the return of The X-Files after its most recent season ending in 2002. Grease: Live became the first live American television musical special of the 21st century to be broadcast in front of a live studio audience (as well as the first ever live musical special aired by a non-Big Three network on primetime).
By 2016, Empire and The X-Files ranked in the Nielsen Top 10 for the season, the first season with 2 Fox programs entering the top rankings since the American Idol-House tandem of the 2007–2008 season (and the first ever season that Fox achieved such rankings without American Idol or any other reality television show from Fox in the Top 10). The same year also marked the finale of American Idol in its original run on Fox after airing for fifteen seasons, ending an era of one of the most successful shows in American television history.
In February 2017, Fox broadcast Super Bowl LI, which attracted an average 111.3 million viewers—ranking among the top five most-watched Super Bowl games, and the second-highest audience in network history behind Super Bowl XLVIII.
In March 2017, Rob Wade was named Fox's new president of alternative entertainment and specials Rob Wade; he had previously worked as a showrunner for Dancing with the Stars, as head of entertainment for BBC Worldwide, and as executive producer of America's Got Talent and The X Factor.
=== 2018–present: Sale of studios to Disney, focus on non-scripted and sports programming ===
On July 27, 2018, in a deal first announced December 2017, and completed March 20, 2019, 21st Century Fox shareholders agreed to sell most of its key assets (including 20th Century Fox and FX Networks) to The Walt Disney Company for $71.3 billion, following the spin-off of certain businesses. The sale did not include the Fox Broadcasting Company and television stations or the Fox Sports, Fox News, and Fox Business cable channels, which were to be maintained under a company tentatively referred to as "New Fox". Because Disney already owns the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), the acquisition of the Fox network by Disney would have been illegal under the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)'s rules prohibiting a merger between any of the four major broadcast networks. As a result of the Disney/Fox deal, and with the merger of CBS and Viacom on December 4, 2019, Fox has become the only major American broadcast network without attachment to any film studio.
It was acknowledged that Fox had placed a larger emphasis on its sports programming in its first upfronts since the deal was announced, including the acquisitions of the NFL's Thursday Night Football package and rights to the FIFA World Cup. It was also noted that Fox had been increasingly pivoting towards programs that could generate large audiences, as opposed to ones that become successful primarily through critical acclaim. On June 27, 2018, WWE announced that SmackDown would move to Fox on Friday nights beginning October 4, 2019, following its run on USA Network, under a five-year contract valued at $205 million per-year. The network also began to increase its non-scripted output, announcing the new celebrity music competition series The Masked Singer (based on the South Korean format King of Mask Singer), and the new game shows Mental Samurai and Spin the Wheel for the 2018–19 season.
In August 2018, Fox Television Group CEO Dana Walden stated that the network planned to commission and acquire more series from "independent" studios not co-owned with the Big Three networks, explaining that the vertical integration of the major broadcast networks (including Fox itself) with associated studios had limited opportunities for outside studios, and cited several top programs that were distributed by third-parties, such as The Big Bang Theory and This Is Us (produced by Warner Bros. Television and 20th Television for CBS and NBC respectively). There were also plans for Fox to acquire new pitches directly from their writers, and offer them to outside producers. As part of the transition, Fox aimed to gradually reduce the amount of scripted programming development coming from 20th Television, although stalwarts such as The Simpsons would remain with the network.
Following the completion of the sale, network head Dana Walden became chairwoman of Disney Television Studios and ABC Entertainment. AMC president Charlie Collier succeeded Gary Newman as chairman and CEO of Fox on November 1, 2018. Newman was expected to temporarily remain with Fox in a transitional role, to oversee the corporate transition. The start of 2019 saw The Masked Singer premiere to Fox's highest ratings for a non-scripted premiere without an NFL lead-in since 2011, and record the largest-ever Nielsen ratings gain for a non-scripted series after three days of delayed viewership. On January 30, 2019, Fox ordered a second season, while the first-season finale saw an average audience of 11.5 million viewers.
With the completion of Disney's purchase the next day, the "New Fox" entity, officially named Fox Corporation, formally began trading on March 19, 2019. At its 2019–20 upfronts, Fox announced 10 new scripted series for the upcoming season, with three (Almost Family, Bless the Harts, and Prodigal Son) slated for the fall lineup, as well as the second and third seasons of The Masked Singer — scheduled for October 2019 and February 2020 respectively (with the latter premiering after Super Bowl LIV). Fox also established a new in-house studio, Fox Alternative Entertainment, for investments in non-scripted formats. It is led by Rob Wade, while its first production was the second season of The Masked Singer (after season 1 was produced by Endemol Shine North America).
Thursday Night Football finished as the second highest-rated series of the 2018–19 television season in the key demographic, behind only Sunday Night Football, while The Masked Singer finished tied for third with The Big Bang Theory and This Is Us. In the 2019–20, Thursday Night Football and The Masked Singer once again finished as the second and third highest-rated programs in the key demographic, and Fox finished the season as the highest-rated network among viewers 18–49 (with CBS leading in overall viewers). Fox repeated this victory in the 2020–21 season, but was narrowly beaten by NBC for 2021–22 by a tenth of a ratings share. In October 2022, Collier stepped down to join Roku, with Rob Wade promoted to president and CEO of Fox Entertainment. That season, Fox would lose Thursday Night Football to Amazon Prime Video.
In May 2023, Fox dropped its procedural drama 9-1-1 after six seasons. It had been the network's scripted tentpole since 2018. As a 20th Television production, ABC would subsequently pick up the series for a seventh season. Its spin-off 9-1-1: Lone Star would remain on Fox for the time being, with a renewal for a fifth season. In September 2024, it was announced that 9-1-1: Lone Star would conclude after its fifth season; it was the last 20th Television-produced drama airing on the network. Fox would also lose SmackDown to USA Network in September 2024; as a replacement, Fox would begin a strategy of regular sports programming on Friday nights, beginning with a package of primetime college football games. The new package would leverage Fox's contract extension with the Big Ten Conference, which included options for the network to carry Friday-night games after the addition of west coast teams to the conference.
On April 2, 2025, Fox and 20th Television Animation announced a four-season, 15-episode renewal for animated comedies The Simpsons, Bob's Burgers and Family Guy, alongside American Dad!, marking its return to the network since its debut in 2005, after an 11-year run on TBS that lasted between October 2014 and March 2025.
== Programming ==
As of 2015, Fox currently provides 17 hours of regularly scheduled network programming each week. The network provides fifteen hours of prime time programming to its owned-and-operated and affiliated stations on Monday through Saturdays from 8:00 to 10:00 p.m. and Sundays from 7:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m. (all times Eastern and Pacific). An hour of late night programming is also offered on Saturdays from 11:00 p.m. to 12:00 am. Eastern and Pacific Time, a former hour of original comedy, but currently a repeat hour for primetime series (though scheduling for that hour varies depending on the market due to late local newscasts airing in the traditional 11:00 p.m./10:00 p.m. timeslot on some Fox stations), and the hour-long Sunday morning political discussion show – and the network's only regular national news program – Fox News Sunday with Shannon Bream (airing from 9:00 a.m. to 10:00 am. Eastern and Pacific, although the timeslot also varies by market due to local news or public affairs programming).
Sports programming is also provided; usually on weekends, with notable exceptions (albeit not every weekend year-round), and most commonly airing between 11:00 a.m. and 11:30 pm. ET (often airing for longer hours during football season in the fall, slightly less during NASCAR and college basketball season in the winter and barely any in the spring and summer afternoons), The Saturday prime time block (along with the Friday prime time block beginning in 2024) is mainly scheduled for sports programming, with encores of shows airing when no sports programming is airing on a given week.
=== Adult animation ===
Except for The Critic, The PJs and Futurama, which were respectively cancelled in 1995, 2000 and 2003, typically every Sunday night during prime time (unless preempted, usually by sports telecasts), Fox airs a lineup incorporating original adult animation sitcoms, all being produced (or co-produced with Fox for post-2019 works) by the network's original sister company, 20th Television. This block of adult cartoons became a staple of the network airing under the brand Animation Domination from May 1, 2005, to September 14, 2014, when the network rebranded the block as Sunday Funday as a result of the re-incorporation of live-action comedy series on the Sunday night lineup after ten years (aside from occasional burn-offs of series aired on other nights during the 7:00 pm. Eastern/Pacific hour), although animated series remain an integral part of that night's schedule.
The first programs to air as part of the Animation Domination lineup were American Dad! (which also had its beginnings in the lineup, and moved to TBS in October 2014, until its eventual return back to the network in early-2026), Family Guy (which returned to the network after a three-year cancellation when Animation Domination began), The Simpsons (the longest-running cartoon on Fox, predating the lineup by 16 years), and King of the Hill (which also predated the lineup by eight years). Once King of the Hill was cancelled, Family Guy's spinoff The Cleveland Show would air from 2009 to 2013 and Loren Bouchard's next series, Bob's Burgers would air starting in 2011. Animated shows currently airing as part of the lineup include The Simpsons, Family Guy, Bob's Burgers, Krapopolis, Grimsburg, and Universal Basic Guys, with American Dad! to return to the network in early-2026 after over a full decade of airing original episodes on TBS. Other shows in the lineup include Sit Down, Shut Up, Allen Gregory, Napoleon Dynamite, Bordertown, Bless the Harts, Duncanville, The Great North, Housebroken, and the live-action/animated hybrid Son of Zorn.
An extension of the Sunday prime-time block called "Animation Domination High-Def" launched on Saturday late nights in July 2013 (marking the return of first-run programming in that time period since the 2010 cancellation of The Wanda Sykes Show), with ADHD Shorts, Axe Cop and High School USA!. Due to low ratings, Fox announced on April 17, 2014, that it would discontinue "Animation Domination High-Def"; although the block was slated to end on June 28, 2014, it continued to air in encore form until the start of the 2016–17 season, when the hour returned to airing encores of comedies or reality series.
=== Children's programming ===
Fox began airing children's programming on September 8, 1990, with the debut of the Fox Children's Network (rebranded as the Fox Kids Network in 1991, and then to simply Fox Kids in 1998), a programming block that aired on Saturday mornings and weekday afternoons. Programming within the Fox Kids block consisted mainly of animated series, although it also featured some live-action series as part of the lineup. Shows featured in the block included Bobby's World, Eek! The Cat, X-Men, Spider-Man, The Tick, Fun House, Goosebumps, Casper, Dragon Ball Z (the Ocean English dub) and Digimon; it also aired select shows from Warner Bros. Animation including the popular animated series Tiny Toon Adventures, Animaniacs and Batman: The Animated Series (Warner Bros. pulled Batman and Animaniacs from the Fox Kids lineup in September 1995, moving both shows, as well as Tiny Toons – which had already ended its run – to the newly launched Kids' WB block on The WB). Fox Kids' most successful series, however, was Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (from eventual sister company and Fox Kids co-parent Saban Entertainment), which debuted in 1993 and became the block's flagship program until it moved to ABC and Toon Disney in 2002.
In October 2001, Fox sold its children's division, Saban Entertainment and Fox Family Worldwide (the parent subsidiary of cable network Fox Family Channel, now Freeform) to The Walt Disney Company for $5.3 billion. The network relegated the Fox Kids block to Saturdays in January 2002 (turning over the two-hour timeslot held by the weekday block to its owned-and-operated and affiliated stations, rather than retaining the slots and filling them with adult-oriented daytime shows); then on September 14, 2002, as part of a time-lease agreement with 4Kids Entertainment to program the remaining four-hour Saturday morning lineup, Fox Kids was replaced by a new children's program block called FoxBox (which was renamed 4Kids TV in January 2005). Notable programs in that block include Yu-Gi-Oh!, Kirby: Right Back at Ya!, Sonic X, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2003), Shaman King and One Piece.
Fox discontinued the 4Kids TV block on December 27, 2008, due to conflicts between the network and 4Kids Entertainment that were later settled, regarding 4Kids' failure to pay Fox for the programming lease rights, and the network's inability to fulfill a promise guaranteeing clearance on 90% of its stations and to get other stations to carry the block in certain markets where a Fox station declined it (an issue that plagued Fox's children's program blocks since the start of its affiliation deal with New World Communications). Fox had earlier announced, on November 23, that it would no longer carry children's programming in the time period, citing stiff competition from cable channels aimed at the demographic; the network instead turned over two of the four vacant Saturday morning hours to its affiliates to allow them to air local newscasts or educational programs purchased from the syndication market, while it retained the remaining two hours to run a network-managed paid programming block, Weekend Marketplace, which debuted on January 3, 2009.
On September 13, 2014, Xploration Station, a two-hour syndicated block produced by Steve Rotfeld Productions, began airing on Fox stations owned by several affiliate groups including Fox Television Stations and Tribune Broadcasting. The block, which complies with guidelines defined by the Children's Television Act, features programs focused on the STEM fields. Stations can choose to either carry Xploration Station, continue to air Weekend Marketplace (as the Sinclair Broadcast Group chose to do, since it already carries syndicated E/I programming purchased by the company across its Fox affiliates, although Sinclair added the block on most of its Fox affiliates in September 2016) or in case of Birmingham, not at all (since Gray Television carried E/I programs through existing contracts with syndicators of educational program content instead).
=== News ===
Unlike ABC, CBS, and NBC, Fox does not currently air national news programs (morning, evening or overnight, like ABC News, CBS News, and NBC News) or newsmagazines choosing to focus solely on its prime time schedule, sports and other ancillary network programming. The absence of a national news program on the Fox network is despite the fact that Fox Corporation owns the Fox News Channel, which launched in October 1996 and currently maintains near-universal distribution within the United States via pay television providers. Fox News is not structured as a news division of the Fox network, and operates as a technically separate entity within Fox Corporation through the company's Fox News Group subsidiary. However, it does produce some content that is carried by the broadcast network, which is usually separate from the news coverage aired by the cable channel; in particular, FNC anchor Bill Hemmer anchors most prime time news presentations on the Fox network, especially during political news events (which are anchored by Bret Baier on Fox News Channel).
Specifically, the Fox network airs coverage of the State of the Union address, presidential debates, national election coverage, as well as live breaking news coverage currently branded as a "Fox News Special Report" (also branded as a "Fox News Alert" or sometimes a "Fox News Red Alert"); carriage of such special coverage of a breaking news story may vary from station to station, and is often limited to events that occur during the network's usual prime time block (for example, unlike the Big Three, Fox does not often provide coverage of major political convention speeches, which usually occur during the 10:00 p.m. (Eastern Time) hour during which most of its affiliates air local newscasts; however, the majority of Fox's owned-and-operated stations and affiliate groups do carry weekday breaking news briefs). The political discussion show Fox News Sunday also airs on the Fox network on Sunday mornings and is rebroadcast later in the day on FNC. Fox also operates an affiliate news service called Fox NewsEdge, which launched with Fox News Channel in 1996, and provides national and international news reports, and feature stories for Fox stations to use in their own local newscasts.
Fox first tried its hand at a national news program in prime time with the hour-long weekly newsmagazine The Reporters, which was produced by the same team behind the Fox Television Stations-distributed syndicated tabloid program A Current Affair; the program ran from 1988 to 1990, when it was cancelled due to low ratings. From 1987 until about 1996, Fox also aired news capsules that aired within its prime time schedule, branded first as Fox News Extra, and later as Fox News Updates, which were produced at New York City O&O WNYW and used their anchors. Another failed attempt occurred in 1993, when Fox launched Front Page (which included among its five hosts, Ron Reagan and Josh Mankiewicz), in an attempt to capture a younger demographic for a newsmagazine program.
The network tried its hand at a newsmagazine again in 1998 with Fox Files, hosted by Fox News Channel anchors Catherine Crier and Jon Scott, as well as a team of correspondents; it lasted a little over a year before being cancelled. Its last attempt at a newsmagazine series occurred during the 2002–03 Sweeps period, with The Pulse, hosted by Fox News Channel anchor Shepard Smith. On May 17, 2016, the network aired an interview special with then Fox News primetime anchor Megyn Kelly, Megyn Kelly Presents.
Fox also attempted national morning programs, only the first of which aired on the network itself. Its first venture at such a program was Fox After Breakfast, an hour-long morning news and lifestyle show, hosted by Tom Bergeron, Laurie Hibberd, and Vicki Lawrence, that ran on the network from 1996 to 1998 (Fox aired the program at 9:00 a.m. – as opposed to the 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. time slot that NBC, CBS, and ABC air their national morning shows – to accommodate local morning newscasts that ran in the latter slot on some of its stations); the program originated as Breakfast Time in 1994 on sister cable channel FX. Fox tried again in 2002 with Good Day Live, a heavily entertainment-focused syndicated offshoot of Good Day L.A., a news/entertainment/lifestyle program that debuted in 1993 on Los Angeles owned-and-operated station KTTV; the national version of the program was cancelled in 2005. On January 22, 2007, Fox premiered The Morning Show with Mike and Juliet on its owned-and-operated stations; hosted by Mike Jerrick and Juliet Huddy (then-anchors of Fox News Channel's DaySide), the show was lighter in format and more entertainment-oriented, though its focus often changed when a major news story occurred. In February 2007, the program was syndicated to other stations including many affiliated with ABC, NBC and CBS in markets where it was not carried by a Fox or MyNetworkTV affiliate; The Morning Show was cancelled in June 2009.
=== Sports ===
When the network launched, Fox management, having seen the critical role that sports programming, soccer events, in particular had played in the growth of the British satellite service BSkyB, believed that sports – and specifically, professional football would be the engine that would make Fox a major network the quickest. In 1987, after ABC initially hedged on renewing its contract to broadcast Monday Night Football, Fox made an offer to the National Football League (NFL) to acquire the rights for the same amount that ABC had been paying, about $13 million per game at the time. However, partly due to the fact that Fox had not yet established itself as a major network, the NFL chose to renew its contract with ABC (where Monday Night Football remained until its move to sister cable channel ESPN in September 2006).
Six years later, when the league entered contract negotiations with its television partners, Fox placed a $1.58 billion bid to obtain broadcast rights to the National Football Conference – covering four seasons of games, beginning with the 1994 NFL season. The NFL selected the Fox bid on December 18, 1993, stripping CBS of football telecasts for the first time since 1955. The event placed Fox on par with the "Big Three" television networks and ushered in an era of growth for the NFL. Fox's acquisition of the NFL rights also quickly led toward the network reaching an affiliation deal with New World Communications to change the affiliations of twelve of its stations to Fox (see above). The rights gave Fox many new viewers and a platform for advertising its other programs.
With a sports division now established with the arrival of the NFL, Fox acquired broadcast television rights to the National Hockey League (1994–99), Major League Baseball (since 1996) and NASCAR auto racing (since 2001, initially as part of a deal that also involved NBC and TNT).
From 2007 to 2010, Fox aired the Bowl Championship Series—a group of college football bowl games held around New Year's Day, and the BCS National Championship Game (with the exception of any event held at the Rose Bowl Stadium, including the Rose Bowl Game and the Rose Bowl-hosted 2010 BCS National Championship Game, as their organizer maintained a separate contract with ABC). Following the conclusion of the deal, Fox acquired rights to the Big Ten Conference and Pac-12 Conference's newly established football championship games (the latter alternating yearly with ESPN). In 2017, Fox acquired tier 1 rights to the Big Ten Conference.
In August 2011, Fox and mixed martial arts promotion Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) reached a multi-year agreement, which included the rights to broadcast four live events in prime time or late night annually, marking the first time that the UFC aired its events on broadcast television. Its first UFC on Fox event, Velasquez vs. Dos Santos, aired on November 12, 2011. This deal ended at the end of 2018, with UFC events moving to ESPN and ESPN+.
The network's 2023 telecast of Super Bowl LVII remains the highest-rated U.S. television program on average of all time. Meanwhile, its 2017 telecast of Super Bowl LI remains the record holder for the largest overall audience ever tallied in U.S. television history.
On June 13, 2024, Fox announced a multi-year deal to be the sole broadcaster of the IndyCar Series and its subsidiary series Indy NXT with all IndyCar Series races to be broadcast on the network.
== Stations ==
Fox has 18 owned-and-operated stations, and current and pending affiliation agreements with 226 additional television stations encompassing 50 states, the District of Columbia and three U.S. possessions; through its Fox Television Stations subsidiary, Fox has the most owned-and-operated stations of the major American commercial broadcast networks. The network has a national reach of 95.77% of all households in the United States (or 299,268,292 Americans with at least one television set). Currently, New Hampshire, New Jersey and Delaware are the only U.S. states where Fox does not have a locally licensed affiliate (New Hampshire is served by Boston affiliate WFXT, New Jersey is split between New York City O&O WNYW and Philadelphia O&O WTXF, while Delaware is served by WTXF and Salisbury, Maryland affiliate WBOC-DT2).
Fox largely discontinued analog broadcasts on June 12, 2009, as part of the transition to digital television. As a newer broadcast network, Fox still has a few low-power affiliates, covering markets like Youngstown, Ohio (WYFX-LD). In some markets, including both of the ones mentioned, these stations also maintain simulcasts on a subchannel of a co-owned/managed full-power television station. Fox also maintains a sizeable number of subchannel-only affiliations in cities located outside the 50 largest Nielsen-designated markets that do not have enough full-power stations to support a standalone affiliation or have a low-power station as the only other option as an affiliate, though a couple have appeared in the top 50; the largest subchannel-only Fox affiliate by market size is WSYX-DT3 in Columbus, Ohio, No. 34 by Nielsen.
Nexstar Media Group is Fox's largest affiliate group in terms of overall market and numerical reach, with 42 stations (including some former Fox O&Os that were spun off in 2008 to Local TV, which Tribune Media later acquired in 2013, to finance former Fox parent News Corporation's purchase of The Wall Street Journal; Nexstar purchased Tribune in the fall of 2019); the Sinclair Broadcast Group is the second largest operator of Fox stations by numerical total, owning or providing services to 26 Fox-affiliated stations.
Fox previously distributed its programming in markets that did not have enough stations to support an affiliate via Foxnet, a cable channel acting as an alternate national feed for small and certain mid-sized U.S. markets (generally those within the bottom 110 Nielsen media markets) that launched in 1991 and operated until its shutdown on September 12, 2006; the channel featured a master schedule of programs acquired from the syndication market and some brokered programming to fill time slots not occupied by Fox network programming. The concept behind Foxnet served as the basis for The WB 100+ Station Group (launched in September 1998 as the cable-only feed of The WB) and The CW Plus (the immediate successor of The WB 100+, which launched in September 2006 as a cable-only/digital multicast feed of The CW), which both allow the customization of localized branding (which Foxnet did not allow its cable partners to do) in addition to allowing affiliates to sell local advertising.
== Differences between Fox and the "Big Three" networks ==
=== Network programming ===
Fox's programming schedule differs from the "Big Three" networks in several significant ways: the network airs its prime time programming for only two hours on Monday through Saturday evenings and three hours on Sundays, compared to the three hours on Monday through Saturdays (from 8:00 to 11:00 p.m.) and four hours on Sunday nights (from 7:00 to 11:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time) programmed by the three longer-established networks, ABC, CBS and NBC. This scheduling is termed as "common prime", referring to the programming of prime time content across all of the conventional broadcast networks during the early- and mid-evening hours, while the 10:00 p.m. (Eastern/Pacific)/9:00 p.m. (Central/Mountain) hour is programmed only by the three older networks.
Fox has traditionally avoided programming the 10:00 p.m. hour, choosing to cede the time period to its local affiliates for them to program, many of which air local newscasts during that hour; however, some exceptions do exist for select special film presentations, which by virtue of their running time (depending on whether the film's original length, combined with commercial breaks that would be included in the television cut, would exceed a traditional two-hour broadcast timeslot) must spill over into the 10:00 p.m. hour, overruns from live sports telecasts scheduled to air during prime time and new primetime entertainment programming after primetime (6:30 pm ET) NFL playoff games. However, the network did regularly schedule programming in the 10:00 p.m. hour on Sunday nights from September 1989 to September 1993 (when that specific time period was turned back over to its affiliates), although it never added programming at that hour on any other night. Fox's original reason for the reduced number of prime time hours was to avoid fulfilling FCC requirements in effect at the time to be considered a network, and to be free of resulting regulations, although these rules have since been relaxed.
Despite being a major network, in addition to not carrying national morning and evening newscasts, Fox also does not air any network daytime programming (such as soap operas, game shows or talk shows). Because of this, the network's owned-and-operated stations and affiliates handle the responsibility of programming daytime hours with syndicated or locally produced programming (then corporate sister 20th Television distributes several syndicated daytime programs carried by many Fox stations, such as Divorce Court and The Wendy Williams Show; Fox Television Stations also test markets certain series from 20th Television and other syndicators such as Warner Bros. Television Distribution that are proposed for national distribution on some of its stations). The network also does not carry network-supplied children's programming on Saturday mornings or late-night programming on Monday through Friday nights. Local affiliates either produce their own programming or run syndicated programs during these time periods. Because of the erratic scheduling of the network's sports programming, many Fox stations choose to run a mix of syndicated programming, infomercials and especially movies to fill weekend afternoon timeslots when a sports event is not scheduled to air.
In addition, from the network's inception, Fox has produced two versions of its program promotions for distribution to the network's stations: a standard version incorporating airtimes based on their broadcast in the Eastern/Central or Pacific/Mountain time zones, depending on the feed used by the station (as those seen during network commercial breaks), and versions with "clean" end tags to allow stations to include local airtime and station information through graphical insertion and verbal continuity by station promotional announcers during the program logo graphic or prime time menu. This practice—which differs from that long used by ABC, NBC and CBS, which only allow their stations to insert logos within their network promotions—was also later adopted by The WB and UPN (and their successors The CW, and to a lesser extent, MyNetworkTV) for use by their affiliated stations. A third cut of these promos exists for national program advertising carried by cable networks (including Fox's sister cable networks), where the wording "check local listings" is placed in the end tag.
Fox is the only broadcast network that currently carries adult animated comedies. This started with The Simpsons in 1989. This is followed up by King of the Hill in 1997 (until 2009, with the last remaining four episodes airing on syndication, but is set to return to Hulu for new episodes in 2025), Family Guy (which was cancelled twice until being picked up by Adult Swim for reruns and was brought back by the network in 2005 thanks to home video sales) and Futurama in 1999 (until 2003 when it was also picked up by Adult Swim only to be purchased by Comedy Central for new episodes between 2008 and 2013 and returned for new episodes on Hulu in 2023), American Dad! in 2005 (until 2014 when TBS picked up the series that lasted until March 2025 with the network initially returning the next year), The Cleveland Show in 2009 (a Family Guy spinoff that lasted until 2013), Bob's Burgers in 2011, The Great North in 2021 (until 2025), Krapopolis in 2023, Grimsburg and Universal Basic Guys in 2024. Although the network has aired other adult animated shows like The Critic, The PJs, Sit Down, Shut Up, Allen Gregory, Napoleon Dynamite, Bordertown, Son of Zorn (the network's only live-action/animated hybrid sitcom) Bless the Harts, Duncanville, and Housebroken, none had success and were short-lived. While other big-name networks–ABC, CBS, and NBC–have tried to copy the success of Fox with adult animated shows, none were successful.
=== News programming ===
Within Fox's station body, the quantity of locally produced news programming varies considerably compared to the owned-and-operated and affiliated stations of ABC, NBC, and CBS (which typically carry at least 4½ hours of local newscasts on weekdays and one hour on weekends, which are usually spread across morning, midday, early or late evening timeslots). At minimum, most Fox stations run a late-evening newscast following the network's prime time lineup (at 10:00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific, and 9:00 p.m. in the Central and Mountain Time Zones), which typically run 30 minutes to one hour in length; besides the fact that the network's stations have more latitude to air an earlier late-evening newscast since Fox does not program that hour, this stems from the fact that several of its charter stations were already airing prime time newscasts as independent stations prior to the network's launch (such as New York City O&O WNYW, which debuted its 10:00 p.m. newscast in March 1967). Most Fox stations also carry a weekday morning newscast of one to three hours in length at 7:00 am, as a local alternative to the national morning news programs provided by the "Big Three" networks (though mainly in the case of Fox stations that have a news operation and in a few cases, via simulcasts with ABC-, NBC- and CBS-affiliated stations that operate a Fox affiliate, this is often part of a morning news block that runs for four to six hours on average).
Fox has fewer stations that have an independent news operation than those of ABC, NBC and CBS; as of October 2015, 70 of Fox's 236 stations (including all 18 owned-and-operated stations) maintain in-house news departments (compared to roughly 5⁄8–7⁄8 of the stations of each of the three other major broadcast networks, whose newscasts are either produced in-house or in conjunction with another station). KVVU (channel 5) in Las Vegas has the highest weekly total of news programming hours among Fox's stations, at 78½ hours.
Most Fox stations that run a news operation use a newscast-intensive scheduling format that is very similar to an ABC-, NBC-, or CBS-affiliated station which in many cases, may incorporate midday or early-evening newscasts, the latter of which is often extended by a half-hour to compete with the national evening newscasts provided by the "Big Three" networks; some Fox stations except for those owned by Fox Television Stations and those formerly owned by Tribune Broadcasting air their early-evening newscasts only on Monday through Friday nights, due to frequent sports event overruns into that daypart on weekends. The first Fox station to adopt such a scheduling format was WSVN in Miami; upon affiliating with the network in January 1989, WSVN retained its existing morning, midday and early evening newscasts, while moving its late newscast from 11:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m. and expanding it to one hour (the station later relaunched an 11:00 p.m. newscast in 1995), and expanding its weekday morning newscast by two hours. This type of format was later adopted by the former major network stations that switched to Fox between 1994 and 1996, especially those affected by New World and Burnham Broadcasting affiliation deals. Many Fox stations with upstart news departments often do not run a full slate of newscasts initially, usually carrying only a prime time newscast at first, before gradually adding other newscasts over time.
In many small to mid-sized markets (largely those ranked outside the 50 largest Nielsen-designated television markets), production of the local Fox affiliate's newscasts is outsourced to an NBC, ABC, or CBS station – either due to insufficient funds or studio space for a news department or in most cases, as a byproduct of the station being operated through a legal duopoly or a management agreement with a major network affiliate (such as with Cunningham Broadcasting-owned WEMT (channel 39) in Greeneville, Tennessee, which has its newscasts produced by NBC affiliate WCYB-TV (channel 5) through a local marketing agreement with Sinclair Broadcast Group). Fox affiliates that outsource their news production to a major-network affiliate often carry a lesser amount of news programming than is possible with an affiliate with a standalone news department due to the contracting station's preference to avoid having the Fox station's newscasts compete against their own in common timeslots (differing from outsourcing agreements between two same-market ABC, CBS, or NBC affiliates in certain areas, in which both stations may simulcast newscasts in the same timeslots). The lone exceptions to this rule currently are El Paso, Texas affiliate KFOX-TV (channel 14) and WXIN, which respectively began producing newscasts for their CBS-affiliated duopoly partners using resources from their existing news departments in September 2014 (when new sister stations KFOX and KDBC-TV (channel 4) consolidated their operations into a single facility) and January 2015 (when WXIN sister WTTV (channel 4) affiliated with CBS), with the Fox stations maintaining the same amount of news programming that they did beforehand. Another exception is KNPN-LD (channel 26) in St. Joseph, Missouri, which has been the smallest Fox affiliate by market size with an in-house news operation since the station's July 2012 sign-on; News-Press & Gazette Company expanded production of KNPN's newscasts to its sister flagship stations, KNPG-LD (channel 21) and KCJO-LD (channel 30), when they respectively joined NBC and CBS in November 2016 and June 2017, though the former also maintained roughly the same amount of news programming before the conversions (KNPN airs morning, midday and early evening newscasts on weekdays and a nightly late evening newscast; all three stations simulcast the first 90 minutes of the morning newscast, while the remainder of KNPN's newscasts air in separate time slots from those seen on KNPG and KCJO).
WPGH-TV (channel 53) in Pittsburgh is the largest Fox station by Nielsen market ranking (at #23) that outsources its news programming; NBC affiliate WPXI (channel 11; owned by Cox Media Group) has produced the station's 10:00 p.m. newscast since 2006, when WPGH shut down its news department following the closure of owner Sinclair Broadcast Group's News Central division. A few Fox affiliates only air syndicated programming in time periods where newscasts would air on other major network stations. The largest Fox station by market size that does not carry news programming is WSYT (channel 68) in Syracuse, New York (which discontinued a 10:00 p.m. newscast produced by CBS affiliate WTVH (channel 5) in 2006). In Dayton, Ohio, Sinclair Broadcast Group took the unusual step in August 2015 of adopting Fox 45 News as its universal brand for its news operation in that market, making it appear as if the news department was operated by WRGT-TV, even though it actually belongs to WRGT's virtual duopoly partner, ABC affiliate WKEF, which Sinclair owns outright (newscasts on WKEF would be branded as "Fox 45 News on ABC22"); Sinclair used WRGT over WKEF due to the latter's perennial "also-ran" reputation in the market in regard to their newscast ratings. WRGT and WKEF have since switched to a new branding model in the summer of 2019 involving a 24/7 web news service known as "Dayton 24/7 Now", and in 2021, WRGT's Fox affiliation moved to WKEF's second subchannel (along with a number of other Sinclair or related companies in several other markets), as Sinclair consolidated its network affiliations onto one station in a market to address regulatory concerns.
== Related services ==
=== Video-on-demand services ===
Fox maintains several video on demand venues for viewers to watch the network's programming, including a traditional VOD service called Fox on Demand, which is carried on most traditional cable, satellite, streaming, and telecom providers. Fox also streams most of its programming on the streaming video service Hulu, along with traditional streaming via the network's Full Episode portal on Fox.com. The network's mobile and digital media player app was branded as "Fox Now", and featured access to a live stream of the network's primetime and sports programming (though not local and syndicated programming for affiliates not owned by the network), along with full-time live streams of their owned cable networks with TV Everywhere authentication through authorized television providers.
The most recent episodes of the network's shows are usually made available on the Fox on Demand television service the day after their original broadcast. In addition, fast forwarding capabilities are disabled while viewing content (a commonality for video-on-demand television services provided by the American broadcast networks) and the program's original advertisements that aired during the initial broadcast are included for a week after becoming available on the service, before being replaced by direct response advertising thereafter. Due to restrictions put in place by the network in January 2012 to encourage live or same-week DVR viewing via traditional and cable on demand methods, Hulu and Fox.com both impose an eight-day delay for most viewers to access the most recent episode of any Fox program, restricting day-after-air streaming of its shows on both services to subscribers of certain pay television providers (such as Dish Network and Verizon FiOS) using an ISP account through agreements made with Fox, along with Hulu's free service with advertisements on Yahoo! Stream; however, Hulu offers newer episodes of Fox programs the day after their original broadcast to paid subscribers requiring only a user-determined login.
In March 2020, Fox began to stream the full schedule of all of their owned Fox Television Stations through Fox Now. The following month, Fox acquired the ad-supported streaming service Tubi. The service primarily offers content and channels licensed from third-party studios, but later began to add episodes of Fox Entertainment original series (such as The Masked Singer) a week after their television premiere.
Fox discontinued the Fox Now app in July 2023; streaming of the network's programming would continue on other apps instead, such as Hulu, Fox Local, or Tubi. Fox would effectively relaunch Fox Now as Fox One two years later.
=== Fox HD ===
Fox began broadcasting its programming in 720p high definition on September 12, 2004, with that day's slate of NFC football games during week one of the 2004 NFL season. Until March 14, 2016, the network did not display an on-screen logo graphic on the bottom-right corner of the screen, outside a ten-second sweep of a "Fox HD" promotional logo (which until the end of 2010, also featured a sponsor tag for DirecTV); instead a trigger in Fox's program delivery system at each station displayed the logo bug of an owned-and-operated or affiliate station in the right-hand corner of the 16:9 screen frame, which disappeared during commercial breaks (the station logo bug would still be triggered even if Fox programming was pre-empted locally due to breaking news, severe weather coverage or special programming, though some stations, such as WGGB-DT2 in Springfield, Massachusetts, did not display a logo or substitute only the "FOX" logo alone). However, network or affiliate bugs are not displayed during Fox Sports programming. During some high-profile or live programs such as American Idol and So You Think You Can Dance, however, Fox forwent the affiliate's logo and displayed its network logo instead, mainly for promotional consideration due to fair use of clips from each series by other media outlets (such as news programs, talk shows, and review and satirical programs that rely on clip content); until 2014, the bug was placed in the 4:3 safe area. The Sunday political talk program Fox News Sunday displayed the "Fox HD" logo at all times for both that reason and because of many stations airing the program on tape delay later in the morning. Beginning on March 14, 2016, the standard Fox logo with hashtag is now used on all programming, with the station bug flashed for a few moments at the start of a program or coming out of commercial, as is traditionally done with ABC, CBS and NBC stations. In addition, the Fox HD bug was discontinued; although it was still used on Fox News Sunday until around late 2019-early 2020.
On some Fox programs, a hashtag rests above the affiliate's logo (for example, #newgirl or #bones) to provide viewers reference to the network's official Twitter search tag to find or start discussions during the program being broadcast. In April 2012, additional tags relating to plot points in a given episode (for instance, the #saturdaynightGLEEver tag for an April 2012 episode of Glee of that same title) began to also be promoted in this space to both add additional trending topics and spread out more conversations on Twitter. In cases where the Fox bug appears instead of the station's logo bug, the Twitter hashtag is directly above the Fox logo in the safe area. Fox's coverage of the World Series started broadcasting in HD with Game 1 of the 2002 World Series.
During the transitional period from analog to digital television, Fox was the only commercial television network in the United States to air programs in widescreen that were not available in HD (which were identified as being presented in "Fox High Resolution Widescreen" from 2001 to 2006). Prior to the launch of its HD feed, some sitcoms and drama series were presented in widescreen standard-definition, with reality, talk and game shows (American Idol being the first major exception, as it began to be presented in high definition in 2008) later being presented only in widescreen enhanced definition. The children's sports program This Week in Baseball began airing in widescreen in 2009, while Fox News Sunday converted to HD when Fox News Channel began operating from its new high-definition facilities in November 2008 (prior to Fox News Channel's conversion to a unified widescreen presentation on both its high-definition and standard-definition feeds in September 2010, it was the final Fox News program to structure its graphics and camera positions for the 4:3 safe area). MADtv was produced to air only in 4:3 until September 2008, likely due to a combination of stations tape-delaying the program and therefore being unable to offer it via the live network feed in 16:9, and the show's producers not making the switch to the format. The final Fox show to convert to HD was Family Guy beginning with its September 26, 2010, episode; all programming provided by Fox is now broadcast in widescreen and in high definition as of 2013, and in Dolby Digital 5.1 surround sound.
Fox is unique among American broadcasters as it distributes its HD feed over satellite to the network's affiliates as an MPEG transport stream intended to be delivered bit-for-bit for broadcast transmission. During network programming hours, local commercials are inserted over the feed using a transport stream splicer. Affiliates of most other networks decode compressed satellite network video feeds and then re-encode them for final over-the-air transmission.
After Fox began broadcasting its sports programming with graphics optimized for 16:9 displays rather than the 4:3 safe area in late July 2010, the network asked cable and satellite providers to comply and use the No. 10 Active Format Description flag it now disseminates over Fox programming, which displays content natively broadcast in 16:9 in a letterboxed format suitable for 4:3 television screens to allow any optimized graphical elements to be displayed in full. Subsequently, a number of Fox O&Os and affiliates also began disseminating the AFD No. 10 flag over local news and syndicated programs that the stations broadcast in HD, and have incorporated graphical elements seen during local programs and on-air promos (as well as logo bugs) optimized for the letter boxed presentation.
== Branding ==
=== Station standardization ===
During the early 1990s, Fox began having its stations use a branding structure using a combination of the "Fox" name and the station's channel number, often followed by the licensed call letters (for instance, WNYW in New York City, WTTG in Washington, D.C. and WAGA-TV in Atlanta, Georgia, are all branded as "Fox 5"). By the mid-to-late 1990s, stations minimized their call letters to be just barely readable while still in compliance with FCC identification requirements. This marked the start of the trend for other networks to apply such naming schemes.
The branding scheme has varied in some markets, with some Fox stations using a city or regional name within the branding instead of the channel number (for example, Chicago owned-and-operated station WFLD branded as "Fox Chicago" from 1997 to 2012 and Philadelphia O&O WTXF-TV branded as "Fox Philadelphia" from 1995 to 2003); a few of the network's stations also minimized use of the "Fox" name, opting to use their call letters or a more generic branding (WSVN in Miami, which has branded as "WSVN 7" for general use and "(Channel) 7 News" for its newscasts since it joined the network in January 1989; KHON-TV (channel 2) in Honolulu, which changed its general branding from "Fox 2" to "KHON 2" in 2003; WDRB in Louisville, Kentucky, which dropped its "Fox 41" brand in favor of branding by its call letters in September 2011; and KVRR (channel 15) in Fargo, North Dakota, which dropped the generic "Fox" branding it used in part due to its network of repeater stations throughout eastern North Dakota in favor of branding by its calls in May 2015). Similarly, most of the stations that switched to Fox as a result of its 1994 affiliation deal with New World Communications retained their Big Three-era branding for general or news purposes (with a few exceptions such as WJW in Cleveland, which dropped its CBS-era "TV8" and "Newscenter 8" brands in 1995, in favor of "Fox is ei8ht" as a general brand and ei8ht is News as the title for its newscasts; likewise that same year, KDFW in Dallas/Fort Worth re-branded itself as "Fox 4 Texas" after its newscast name of "News 4 Texas" before shortening its ID to simply "Fox 4" in 1996 and changing its newscast name to "Fox 4 News", both in use since then), before conforming to Fox's station branding conventions when Fox Television Stations acquired New World in 1997.
A particularly unique situation was with KTVU (channel 2) in Oakland-San Francisco, which as a Fox affiliate under longtime owner Cox Media Group, retained its perennial "Channel 2" brand (with limited references as "Fox Channel 2" by the early 1990s). In 1996, the station rebranded as "KTVU Fox 2" for general purposes (adding the Fox logo on the underside of the top line of its heritage "Circle Laser 2" logo as well), while retaining "(KTVU) Channel 2 News" as the branding for its newscasts. Fox Television Stations (which traded WFXT in Boston and WHBQ-TV (channel 13) in Memphis station to Cox in 2014, in exchange for KTVU and sister station KICU-TV) instituted the "KTVU Fox 2" branding full-time in February 2015, retaining the "Circle Laser 2" both within the group's standardized "boxkite" logo and in an alternate version (which would become the primary logo through its de-emphasis of the O&O standardization later that year) placed next to a prominent Fox wordmark. Another situation also includes another Fox station KCPQ in Seattle, Washington, which as a Fox affiliate under Tribune Media and Nexstar Media Group, also retained the "Q13 Fox" name as well as the "Q13 News" name for its newscast until KCPQ dropped the Q13 moniker and rebranded itself to "Fox 13" in September 2021, conforming with the branding of other Fox O&O stations after its acquisition by Fox.
Starting in 2006, more standardization of the O&Os began to take place both on-air and online. All of the network's O&Os began adopting an on-air look more closely aligned with the Fox News Channel, which included a standardized red, white and blue boxkite-style logo augmented by red pillars (which rotated on-air, particularly in the logo bugs seen during newscasts). After News Corporation's acquisition of the social networking site Myspace (which it sold in June 2011 to a consortium that included singer Justin Timberlake among its backers), some Fox O&Os launched websites with identical layouts and similar URL domains under the "MyFox" scheme (such as MyFoxDC.com for WTTG). On-air usage of the FNC-inspired logos was reduced in August 2012 (when a new standardized graphics package was implemented, with wordmark bugs being used during newscasts and other programming), while several of the O&Os ceased using the "MyFox" domains in 2015; the use of the Fox News Channel boxkite logos in all elements, along with explicit connections with the latter, was drastically reduced since the July 2016 resignation of Roger Ailes from Fox for a more traditional and simpler 'call-channel number' horizontal wordmark style which is more flexible with both traditional television and smaller mobile screens. In 2017, Fox's local newscast music composer, Stephen Arnold Music, released a new news music package, "Beyond", that uses none of the Fox News Channel sonic elements associated with the previous Fox O&O music package, and it has rolled out across all Fox O&O local news operations.
As of 2017, Fox O&O's with a sister MyNetworkTV station in that market have also begun to play down that network, with many MyNetworkTV O&O's now taking on the branding of "Fox (channel number) Plus/Xtra/More", etc., suggesting them as an extension of their higher-profile sister Fox station. Several of these stations now also carry extended newscasts or rebroadcasts of earlier newscasts from their sister stations during primetime, pushing MyNetworkTV's schedule to a late-night offering.
=== Logos ===
When Fox launched on October 9, 1986, as Fox Broadcasting Company, it used a logo with three squares containing the network's initials (FBC) similar to BBC's current logo from 1997–present in the UK. Below it was a rectangle with the network's full name in the same font. This logo is mostly the same color as the ITV's old logo from 1998 to 2004 in the UK, which was used during the network's first six months in existence and was primarily featured as a network identification slide at the beginning of The Late Show with Joan Rivers. On April 5, 1987, when the network inaugurated its prime time programming, a more familiar logo based on 20th Century Fox's signature logo design was introduced, featuring just the capitalized "FOX" name alongside the familiar trademark searchlights and double-pane platform (Fox's owned-and-operated stations used a variant for station identifications from 1987 to 1989, which incorporated both an "O" and searchlight in negative space, the latter of which intersected the "X" and panes within the otherwise translucent yellow/gold logo; until as late as the mid-1990s, some Fox affiliates that did not license the regulation network logo, or which used CGI to output their station logos with local production houses which tried to emulate the parent network's logo as close as possible, used those that imitated the 20th Century Fox-inspired design in their station logos).
In September 1993, the familiar logo was given a more "hip" makeover, with the "FOX" wordmark overhauled into its current proprietary logotype and the angle changed, removing the tilting (the 1987 logo remained in use during the 1993–94 season in print advertisements featured in TV Guide and other television listings magazines). Starting with the introduction of this logo, the network began displaying an on-screen bug within its programs on the lower right-hand corner of the screen (initially for one minute at the start of each program segment or act, eventually being displayed throughout the program outside commercial breaks, before reverting to the former display format regularly upon the 2009 digital transition). The "O" character also underwent a makeover, acquiring its trademark pillar-like bowl, which has since become a major focal point for the logo and Fox advertising in lieu of the searchlight motif. The "O" is alternately used as a zero character in the station logo of several Fox affiliates which have a tens channel location, including Phoenix's channel 10, KSAZ-TV, and Sacramento affiliate KTXL-TV, channel 40.
Another revised logo was introduced for the 1995–96 television season, removing the searchlights, but retaining the two lower panes and adding a third pane atop the logotype. A variant of the original 1993 design was implemented in 1996, excluding the panes underneath the network name, but restoring the searchlights placed behind the "F" and "X" in the Fox wordmark.
The current version of the logo was introduced in 1999, removing the searchlights completely and switching the logo exclusively to a wordmark design. Despite this, the searchlight theme remained an integral part of 21st Century Fox's branding efforts; they are still incorporated into Fox News Channel's logo, and the universal station logo introduced in 2006 by Fox's owned-and-operated stations – which were retained by the seven former O&Os that Fox Television Stations sold in 2008 to Local TV and had spread to several Fox stations owned by Tribune Broadcasting (including those it acquired through the company's 2013 merger with Local TV; the logo introduced by the O&Os was modified for Tribune's Fox affiliates in 2012 to feature only one searchlight as part of the company's graphical standardizations for those stations) and certain other Fox affiliates not owned or operated by either company. The 1996–99 searchlight logo is still used within the logos of a small number of Fox affiliates; the searchlights continued to be featured in the logo of sister channel FX until a rebranding effort in 2008. The screen bug may have been used from 1999 to 2014; when the network upgraded to high-definition, the watermark placement remained at the 480i format. Until March 14, 2016, they did not display the on-screen bug, just the hashtag missing the Fox bug, used on some affiliates.
For the 2019–20 season, Fox implemented branding elements by Trollbäck + Company with the logo mark slightly thickened, along with animations of the mark with its shapes incorporated into advertising and on-air branding elements (including an animation of the abstract shapes morphing into the main Fox logo).
== Controversy ==
Controversy surrounded the network in 2002 and 2003 over profanity, expressed respectively by Cher and Nicole Richie, aired live during Fox's broadcast of the Billboard Music Awards on its affiliates in the Eastern and Central Time Zones despite the use of five-second audio delays; the indecent material was edited out when the program was broadcast in other time zones from the Mountain Time Zone westward. Both of the obscene instances were condemned by the Parents Television Council, and named by them among the worst instances on television from 2001 to 2004. PTC members filed tens of thousands of complaints to the Federal Communications Commission regarding the broadcasts. A subsequent apology made by Fox representatives was labeled a "sham" by PTC president L. Brent Bozell III, who argued that the network could have easily used an audio delay to edit out the obscene language. As the FCC was investigating the broadcasts, in 2004, Fox announced that it would begin extending live broadcast delays to five minutes from its standard five or ten seconds to more easily be able to edit out obscenities uttered over the air. In June 2007, in the case Federal Communications Commission v. Fox Television Stations, the U.S. Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the FCC could not issue indecency fines against Fox because it does not have the authority to fine broadcasters for fleeting expletives, such as in the case of the Billboard Awards. The FCC eventually decided to appeal the Second Circuit Court's finding. The U.S. Supreme Court granted certiorari and oral arguments in FCC v. Fox, et al., began November 4, 2008.
The Parents Television Council has also criticized many popular Fox shows for perceived indecent content, such as Family Guy, The Simpsons, American Dad!, Futurama, Cops, Hell's Kitchen, 24, House, Married... with Children, Bones, Arrested Development, Prison Break, 'Til Death, Malcolm in the Middle, The O.C., and That '70s Show. The Council sometimes has gone even as far as to file complaints with the Federal Communications Commission regarding indecent content within Fox programming, having done so for That '70s Show and Married by America, having successfully been able to get the FCC to fine the network nearly $1 million for its airing of the latter program. That fine was reduced to $91,000 in January 2009 after an appeal of the fine by Fox was granted as a result of its earlier discovery that the FCC originally claimed to have received 159 complaints regarding the content in Married by America; it later admitted to only receiving 90, which came from only 23 people. A study of the complaints by blogger Jeff Jarvis deduced that all but two were virtually identical to each other, meaning that the $1.2 million judgment was based on original complaints written by a total of only three people. On September 21, 2012, the United States Department of Justice dismissed the lawsuit.
== Presidents of Fox Broadcasting Company Entertainment ==
== See also ==
Foxtel
Fox Broadcasting Co. v. Dish Network, LLC
List of United States over-the-air television networks
Lists of Fox television affiliates
Lists of United States network television schedules
== References ==
== Further reading ==
"Networks: Fox Broadcasting Company". MovieStaff.com. Retrieved June 17, 2010.
Block, Alex Ben (1990). Outfoxed. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-03904-2.
Kimmel, Daniel M. (2004). The Fourth Network. I.R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-572-1.
== External links ==
Official website
Fox at the Wayback Machine (archived October 22, 1996) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_V._Allred | James V. Allred | James Burr V. Allred (March 29, 1899 – September 24, 1959) was the 33rd governor of Texas. He later served, twice, as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas.
== Early life ==
Born on March 29, 1899, in Bowie, Texas, the son of Renne Allred Sr. and Mary Magdalene (Henson), Allred graduated from Bowie High School in 1917. He enrolled at Rice Institute (now Rice University) but withdrew for financial reasons. He then served with the United States Immigration Service. Allred served in the United States Navy from 1918 to 1919. In 1921, he received a Bachelor of Laws from Cumberland School of Law (then part of Cumberland University, now part of Samford University).
== Career ==
=== Law ===
Allred began a private law practice in Wichita Falls, Texas, in 1921. From 1923 to 1926, he served as district attorney in the city. He returned to private practice in 1926 before becoming Attorney General of Texas in 1931.
=== Governor of Texas ===
Allred was elected Governor of Texas in the 1934 gubernatorial election and served until 1939. He was an ardent Democrat and supporter of the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
=== District court ===
Allred received a recess appointment to the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas on July 11, 1938, but he declined the appointment.
On January 5, 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated Allred to the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas, to a new seat authorized by 52 Stat. 584. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 16, 1939, and received his commission on February 23, 1939. His service ended on May 15, 1942, due to his resignation.
Allred was an unsuccessful candidate for the United States Senate from Texas in 1942. He then returned to private practice in Houston, Texas, from 1943 to 1949.
Allred was nominated by President Harry S. Truman on September 23, 1949, to the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas, to a new seat authorized by 63 Stat. 493. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on October 12, 1949, and received his commission on October 13, 1949.
== Death ==
During a court session on September 24, 1959, Allred called recess at 11:00 a.m. due to feeling ill. He entered Mercy Hospital in Laredo, Texas, where he died at 4:50 p.m. from a coronary occlusion. His funeral, held at Wichita Falls Christian Church on September 28, 1959, was visited by Governor Price Daniel, Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, Senator Ralph Yarborough, Representative Homer Thornberry, and former Governor Dan Moody.
== Legacy ==
The James V. Allred Unit, a Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) state prison for men in Wichita Falls, Texas, is named for Allred.
== Note ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
"Ex-Governor Allred Dies After Seizure". The Dallas Morning News, September 25, 1959, sec. I, p. 1.
"Fiery Allred Got Into Politics Early". The Dallas Morning News, September 25, 1959, sec. I, p. 3.
"James V. Allred of U.S. Bench, 60; Federal Judge for South Texas Dies – Served Two Terms as Governor, '35–39". The New York Times, September 25, 1959. (Subscription required for access to full article.)
"Joe Betsy Allred, widow of former governor, dies". The Dallas Morning News, June 9, 1993, p. 30A.
== External links ==
Allred, James Burr V (1899–1959) from the Handbook of Texas Online
Legislative Messages of Hon. James V. Allred, Governor of Texas 1935–1939, hosted by the Portal to Texas History
Allred, James V. at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center.
James V. Allred at Find a Grave |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floral_clock#: | Floral clock | A floral clock, or flower clock, is a large decorative clock with the clock face formed by carpet bedding, usually found in a park or other public recreation area. Most have the mechanism set in the ground under the flowerbed, which is then planted to visually appear as a clock face with moving hands which may also hold bedding plants.
The first floral clock was the idea of John McHattie, Superintendent of Parks in Edinburgh, Scotland. It was first planted up in the spring of 1903 in West Princes Street Gardens. In that year it had only an hour hand but a minute hand was added the following year. A cuckoo which pops out every quarter hour was added in 1952. The clock was soon imitated across the United Kingdom and later throughout the world.
In Edinburgh, the clock mechanism is set inside the plinth of the statue to Allan Ramsay adjacent. The first mechanism using salvaged parts from Elie Parish Church in Fife was installed by James Ritchie & Son. A new mechanism was installed in 1934 and has been electrically operated since 1973. It is still maintained by James Ritchie Clockmakers.
The only flower clock with two faces moved by the same system is located in Zacatlán, Puebla, Mexico. It has two faces, each five metres (16 ft) in diameter. It was built by Relojes Centenario, a local manufacturer.
== Examples ==
Michael Jackson had a floral clock at his Neverland Ranch.
Other floral clocks can be seen in the International Peace Garden on the border between North Dakota and Manitoba, Rockford, Illinois and in Frankfort, Kentucky.
On 19 May 2016, Camarillo Plaza in California unveiled a 13-foot (4.0 m) in diameter floral clock. The clock was created as a dedication to Mr. David Pick.
== Images ==
== References ==
Brent Elliott, 'Floral Clock', Oxford Companion to Gardens, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986
Clifford-Smith, Silas; 'Floral Clocks', Oxford Companion to Australian Gardens, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne, 2002
== External links ==
Michael Jackson's Floral Clock
World's Biggest Flower Clock
Edinburgh Floral Clock |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuPaul%27s_Drag_Race_season_4 | RuPaul's Drag Race season 4 | The fourth season of RuPaul's Drag Race began airing on January 30, 2012, and aired its final episode on April 30 of the same year. The cast members were announced November 13, 2011. The winner of season four headlined Logo's Drag Race Tour featuring Absolut Vodka, and also won a one-of-a-kind trip, a lifetime supply of NYX Cosmetics, and a cash prize of $100,000.
Like the previous season, Santino Rice and Billy B (Billy Brasfield), celebrity makeup artist and star of the HGTV mini-series Hometown Renovation, shared the same seat at the judges table alternatively, Brasfield filling in for Rice when needed. Both judges appeared side-by-side in the audience during the "Reunited" episode.
The theme song played during the runway every episode was "Glamazon" and the song played during the credits was "The Beginning", both from RuPaul's album Glamazon.
This is the first season in which a contestant, Willam Belli, was disqualified from the competition for breaking the rules, and the second season in a row in which a contestant, Kenya Michaels, was brought back into the competition after having been eliminated in a prior episode.
The winner of the fourth season of RuPaul's Drag Race was Sharon Needles, with Chad Michaels and Phi Phi O'Hara being the runners-up, making it the first time in the show's history to have two runners-up. The final also featured the first three-way lip-sync battle, instead of the usual format with two competitors. It was the first season in which the winner was not crowned in the studio but instead during the "Reunited" episode, which was filmed in front of a live audience. This was also the first time three versions of the finale were filmed with each Top 3 contestant being crowned to prevent spoilers; this came after Raja winning Season 3 was leaked by Perez Hilton in 2011.
Jiggly Caliente, who placed 8th in the competition and later served as a judge on Drag Race Philippines, died on April 27, 2025.
== Contestants ==
Ages, names, and cities stated are at time of filming.
Notes:
== Contestant progress ==
Legend:
== Lip syncs ==
The contestant was eliminated after their first time in the bottom two.
The contestant was eliminated after their second time in the bottom two.
The contestant was eliminated after their third time in the bottom two.
== Guest judges ==
Listed in chronological order:
== Episodes ==
== Marketing ==
In January 2012, Logo released the second running of Fantasy Drag Race, an online fan contest inspired by fantasy football where viewers assemble a team of three season four Drag Race contestants. Players receive and lose points based on their team's performance on the show, and can earn additional points by redeeming codes and performing tasks given out when episodes of the show first air. The highest scoring players receive Drag Race and NYX Cosmetics products, and one player wins a trip for two to the first stop on Logo's Drag Race Tour.
Already having a generous social media presence, Logo expanded its efforts across Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, GetGlue, and Foursquare in preparation for the premiere of season four. Both RuPaul and contestants tweet live while the show airs, and LogoTalk! chat parties (featuring judges, contestants from previous seasons, and contestants from season four) occur on the official Logo website while participants watch new episodes. Season four specifically marks an increased interest from Logo in Tumblr, where the network publishes animated GIFs, contestant trading cards, and images that incorporate internet memes. Dan Sacher, VP of digital for VH1 and Logo, has stated that their online marketing efforts are part of helping the small network expand their fan base across as many outlets as possible.
== Reception ==
The premiere episode of season four averaged a 0.6 rating in the 18-49 demographic, totaling 481,000 viewers, and ranked as the highest-rated premiere in Logo's network history. Untucked totalled 254,000 viewers, marking the companion show's most watched debut. During the evening of the premiere, the show registered eight US trending topics on Twitter (including Jiggly Caliente, Sharon Needles, Phi Phi O'Hara, and Latrice Royale) and reached a 7th place ranking on Trendrr. Leading up to the first episode, the show's Facebook page saw an 89% increase (earning over half a million fans).
The season finale scored a 0.7 rating in the 18-49 demographic and drew 601,000 viewers total, while the reunion episode became the highest rated episode of the season. Season four's "RuPaul's Drag Race: Reunited" was also the highest-rated reunion in the franchise's history, seeing a 33% increase in the 18-49 demographic compared to season three. The reunion registered five trending topics on Twitter (including Sharon Needles, Phi Phi, Willam, and a new portmanteau Willam introduced to the show: "RuPaulogize"), and ranked 4th among non-sports cable programs for the night on Trendrr.
During season 4, the show's Twitter following increased by 77%, and the Facebook page accrued a 36% increase in likes. TV.com also declared it was the best reality show on television.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (U.S.)
Official website (Canada)
Official Facebook page |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_county_governors_of_Finnmark | List of county governors of Finnmark | The county governor of Finnmark county in Norway represented the central government administration in the county. The office of county governor is a government agency of the Kingdom of Norway; the title was Amtmann (before 1919) and then Fylkesmann (after 1919).
In 1576, the king of Norway established Vardøhus len as a new administrative unit for the northern part of the kingdom. In 1661, it became Vardøhus amt that was subordinate to the Trondhjem stiftamt and the king began appointing a county governor. In 1787, the island of Senja and the Troms area were transferred from Nordlandenes amt to Vardøhus amt and the new, larger county was renamed Finmarkens amt. In 1866, the island of Senja and the Troms area were separated from Vardøhus to form the new Tromsø amt. In 1919, the name was again changed to Finnmark fylke. In 2002, the Sami language name, Finnmárku, was added as a co-official name for the county. From 1 January 2019 the county governor offices of Troms and Finnmark were merged in anticipation of the merger of the two counties.
From 1844 until 1918, the county was subordinate to the Diocesan Governor of Tromsø who was the civil governor of the Diocese of Tromsø.
The county governor is the government's representative in the county. The governor carries out the resolutions and guidelines of the Storting and government. This is done first by the county governor performing administrative tasks on behalf of the ministries. Secondly, the county governor also monitors the activities of the municipalities and is the appeal body for many types of municipal decisions.
== Names ==
The name of the county (Vardøhus, Finmarken, Finnmark) and the word for county (amt, fylke) have changed over the centuries. From 1661 until 1787 the title was Amtmann i Vardøhus amt. From 1787 until 1918, it was Amtmann i Finmarkens amt. Since 1918, the title was Fylkesmann i Finnmark fylke.
== List of county governors ==
Finnmark county has had the following governors:
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Alabama | University of Alabama | The University of Alabama (informally known as Alabama, UA, the Capstone, or Bama) is a public research university in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States. Established in 1820 and opened to students in 1831, the University of Alabama is the oldest and largest of the public universities in Alabama as well as the University of Alabama System. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".
The university offers programs of study in 12 academic divisions leading to bachelor's, master's, education specialist, and doctoral degrees. The only publicly supported law school in the state is at UA. The school was a center of activity during the American Civil War and the civil rights movement. The University of Alabama varsity football program (nicknamed the Crimson Tide), inaugurated in 1892, ranks as one of the ten best in US history. In a 1913 speech, UA president George H. Denny extolled the university as the "capstone of the public school system in the state", thereby establishing the university's current nickname, The Capstone. As of June 2024 UA has produced 65 Goldwater Scholars, 16 Rhodes Scholars, and 16 Truman Scholars.
== History ==
=== Establishment ===
In 1818, the United States Congress authorized the newly created Alabama Territory to set aside a township for the establishment of a "seminary of learning". When Alabama was admitted to the Union in 1819, a second township was added to the land grant, bringing it to a total of 46,000 acres (186 km2). The General Assembly of Alabama established the seminary on December 18, 1820, named it "The University of the State of Alabama," and created a board of trustees to manage the construction and operation of the university. The site the board chose for the campus was, at the time, outside the city limits of the erstwhile state capital, Tuscaloosa. William Nichols, the architect of the Alabama State Capitol building in Tuscaloosa, was chosen to design the campus. Influenced by Thomas Jefferson's plan at the University of Virginia, the Nichols-designed campus featured a 70-foot (21 m) wide, 70-foot (21 m) high domed Rotunda that served as the library and nucleus of the campus.
The university's charter was presented to the first university president in the nave of Christ Episcopal Church. UA opened its doors to students on April 18, 1831, with Alva Woods as president. An academy-style institution during the antebellum period, the university emphasized the classics and the social and natural sciences. There were around 100 students per year at UA in the 1830s.
As the state and university matured, an active literary culture evolved on campus and in Tuscaloosa. UA had one of the largest libraries in the country on the eve of the Civil War with more than 7,000 volumes. There were several thriving literary societies, including the Erosophic and the Phi Beta Kappa societies, which often had lectures by such distinguished politicians and literary figures as United States Supreme Court justice John Archibald Campbell, novelist William Gilmore Simms, and professor Frederick Barnard. The addresses to those societies reveal a vibrant intellectual culture in Tuscaloosa; they also illustrate the proslavery ideas that were so central to the university and the state.
Discipline and student behavior were major issues at the university almost from the day it opened. Early presidents attempted to enforce strict rules regarding conduct. Students were prohibited from drinking, swearing, making unauthorized visits off-campus, or playing musical instruments for more than an hour at a time. Still, riots and gunfights were not uncommon. To combat the severe discipline problem, president Landon Garland received approval from the legislature in 1860 to transform the university into a military school.
=== From the Civil War to World War II ===
Many of the cadets who graduated from the school served as officers in the Confederate Army during the Civil War. As a consequence of that role, Union troops burned the campus on April 4, 1865, only five days before Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House. Despite a call to arms and defense by the student cadet corps, only four buildings survived the burning: the President's Mansion (1841), Gorgas House (1829), Little Round House (1860), and Old Observatory (1844). The university reopened in 1871 and in 1880 Congress granted the university 40,000 acres (162 km2) of coal land in partial compensation for war damages.
The University of Alabama enrolled female students beginning in 1892. The board of trustees allowed female students largely because of Julia S. Tutwiler, with the conditions that they be over eighteen, and would be allowed to enter the sophomore class after completing their first year at another school and passing an exam. Ten women from Tutwiler's Livingston school enrolled for the 1893 fall semester. By 1897, women were allowed to enroll as freshmen.
During World War II, UA was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, which offered students a path to a Navy commission. During this time the University of Alabama had extensions in other cities including Mobile; the Mobile extension was replaced by the University of South Alabama which opened in 1963.
=== Racial integration ===
Until the 1960s, the university admitted only white students (with one temporary exception). The practice of racial segregation was common in the American South at this time and the university barred all students of color from attending. The first attempt to integrate the university occurred in 1956 when Autherine Lucy successfully enrolled on February 3 as a graduate student in library sciences after she secured a court order preventing the university from rejecting her application on the basis of race. In the face of violent protests against her attendance, Lucy was suspended (and later outright expelled) three days later by the board of trustees on the basis of being unable to provide a safe learning environment for her. The university was not integrated until 1963 when Vivian Malone and James Hood registered for classes on June 11.
Governor George Wallace made his infamous "Stand in the Schoolhouse Door", standing in the front entrance of Foster Auditorium in a symbolic attempt to stop Malone and Hood's enrollment. When confronted by U.S. Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and federal marshals sent in by U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Wallace stepped aside. President John F. Kennedy had called for the integration of the University of Alabama as well. Although Hood dropped out after two months, he returned and, in 1997, received his doctorate. Malone persisted in her studies and became the first African American to graduate from the university. In 2000, the university granted her a doctorate of humane letters. Autherine Lucy's expulsion was rescinded in 1980, and she re-enrolled and graduated with a master's degree in 1992. Later in his life, Wallace apologized for his opposition to racial integration. In 2010, the university formally honored Lucy, Hood and Malone by rechristening the plaza in front of Foster Auditorium as Malone-Hood Plaza and erecting a clock tower – Autherine Lucy Clock Tower – in the plaza. In 2019 Autherine Lucy was presented with a doctorate of humane letters, and in 2022 the education building in which she sheltered during the protests was renamed in her honor.
=== 2011 tornado ===
On April 27, 2011, Tuscaloosa was hit by a tornado rated EF4 on the Enhanced Fujita scale, killing six students who lived off campus. The campus grounds were not damaged by the storm, but the university canceled the rest of the spring semester and postponed graduation because of damage to approximately 12% of the city and the loss of life.
== Campus ==
From a small campus of seven buildings in the wilderness on the main road between Tuscaloosa and Huntsville (now University Boulevard) in the 1830s, UA has grown to a massive 1,970-acre (800 ha) campus in the heart of Tuscaloosa. There are 297 buildings on campus containing some 10,600,000 square feet (980,000 m2) of space. In 2010, the school added 168 acres to its campus by purchasing the land formerly belonging to Bryce Hospital. It also plans to acquire more land to accommodate the continuing growth of the enrollment.
The university maintains the University of Alabama Arboretum in eastern Tuscaloosa and the Dauphin Island Sea Lab on Dauphin Island, just off the Alabama Gulf Coast. In 2011, the Sustainable Endowments Institute gave the university a College Sustainability Report Card grade of "B+".
=== Landmarks ===
UA is home to several museums, cultural facilities and historical landmarks.
The Alabama Museum of Natural History at Smith Hall exhibits Alabama's rich natural history. The oddest artifact there could be the Sylacauga meteorite, the largest known extraterrestrial object to strike a human being who survived. The Paul W. Bryant Museum houses memorabilia and exhibits on the history of UA athletic programs, most notably the tenure of football coach Paul "Bear" Bryant. Athletic trophies and awards are displayed at the Mal Moore Athletic Facility. The Sarah Moody Gallery of Art at Garland Hall hosts revolving exhibitions of contemporary art, including from the university's own permanent collection. The Jones Archaeological Museum at Moundville exhibits the history of Mississippian culture in Alabama.
Numerous historical landmarks dot the campus, including the President's Mansion, Denny Chimes, Foster Auditorium (a National Historical Landmark), the Gorgas–Manly Historic District, and Maxwell Observatory.
A cemetery next to the Math and Science Education Building includes the graves of two enslaved persons who were owned by faculty members before the Civil War. Both men died in the 1840s, and their graves went unmarked until 2004.
Campus culture facilities include the Allen Bales Theatre, the Marion Gallaway Theatre, the English Building auditorium, and the Frank M. Moody Music Building, which houses the Tuscaloosa Symphony Orchestra as well as three resident choirs. The UA Opera Theatre performs in Bryant-Jordan Hall.
== Organization and administration ==
The University of Alabama is an autonomous institution within the University of Alabama System and governed by the Board of Trustees of The University of Alabama and headed by the chancellor of The University of Alabama. The state legislature created the board to govern the university's operations. Its responsibilities include setting policy for the university, determining the university's mission and scope, and assuming responsibility for the university to the public and the legislature. The board is self-perpetuating and composed of 15 members and two ex officio members. The Constitution of the State of Alabama dictates the board's makeup and requires the board to include three members from the congressional district that contains the Tuscaloosa campus and two members from every other congressional district in Alabama. Board members are elected by the board and are confirmed by the Alabama State Senate.
The president of the University of Alabama is the principal executive officer of the university and is appointed by the chancellor with approval of the board of trustees. Stuart R. Bell became the 29th president on July 15, 2015.
=== Faculty and Staff ===
In fall 2023, UA employed 7,472 employees, including 2,117 instructional staff (faculty), 2,631 professional staff, and more than 2,600 office, clerical, technical and service staff.
=== Colleges and academic divisions ===
The College of Arts and Sciences is the university's college for the liberal arts, fine arts, and sciences. It is the largest of the university's 12 colleges, with approximately 7,900 undergraduate students and 1,100 graduate students. Most core curriculum classes and majors and minors are part of the college.
There are 11 other academic divisions at the University of Alabama (see the table above). Eight divisions (Arts and Sciences, Business, Communication and Information Sciences, Education, Engineering, Human Environmental Sciences, Nursing, and Social Work) grant undergraduate degrees. Degrees in those eight divisions at the master's, specialist, and doctoral level are awarded through the Graduate School. The law school offers JD and LL.M. degree programs. The College of Community Health Sciences provides advanced studies in medicine and related disciplines and operates a family medicine residency program. Medical students are also trained in association with the University of Alabama School of Medicine, from which they receive their degree.
Founded in 1971 and merged into the College of Arts and Sciences in 1996, the New College's stated objectives were to "create an opportunity for a highly individualized education that enables students to draw from the resources of all University classes and faculty" and to "serve as an experimental unit with the expectation of exporting successful innovations to other sectors of the University". The college allows undergraduate students flexibility in choosing their curriculum while completing a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science degree in interdisciplinary studies. The New College Review, a non-fiction cultural journal, is written, edited, designed, and published by students.
=== Endowment ===
The University of Alabama System's financial endowment was valued at $1.520 billion in the National Association of College and University Business Officers' (NACUBO) 2019 listings. UA's portion of the system's endowment was valued at $885.7 million in September 2015.
== Academics ==
=== Undergraduate admissions ===
In fall 2021, Alabama received 42,421 applications for first-time freshman enrollment, from which 33,472 applications were accepted (78.9%) and 7,593 freshmen enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 22.7%. Alabama's freshman retention rate is 88.6%, with 72.1% going on to graduate within six years.
The university started test-optional admissions with the Fall 2021 incoming class and has extended this through Fall 2024. Of the 63% of enrolled freshmen in 2021 who submitted ACT scores, the middle 50 percent composite score was between 21 and 31. Of the 17% of the incoming freshman class who submitted SAT scores, the middle 50 percent composite scores were 1080–1370.
The University of Alabama is a college-sponsor of the National Merit Scholarship Program and sponsored 189 Merit Scholarship awards in 2020. In the 2020–2021 academic year, 223 freshman students were National Merit Scholars.
=== Classification ===
The University of Alabama is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". It is a large, four-year primarily residential university accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Full-time, four-year undergraduates comprise a large amount of the university enrollment. The undergraduate instructional program emphasizes professional programs of study as well as the liberal arts, and there is a high level of co-existence between the graduate and undergraduate program. The university has a very high level of research activity and has a "comprehensive doctoral" graduate instructional program in the liberal arts, humanities, social sciences. health sciences (medical school), and STEM fields.
UA began offering engineering classes in 1837. It was one of the first universities in the nation to offer an engineering degree. Over the past decade, UA has greatly expanded its science and engineering programs, in terms of numbers of students, faculty hired, and number and size of new academic/research facilities (almost one million in new square footage). UA's College of Engineering enrolls more students than any other engineering program in the state as of 2016. UA's freshman engineering classes have also had the highest average ACT score among all state of Alabama engineering programs for the last several years.
=== Degrees conferred ===
Ten of the university's twelve academic units (see above) offer degree programs across a combined total of 117 areas of study. Two areas, economics and health care management, are offered jointly by separate units (Culverhouse College of Business and Arts & Sciences for both), and one area (material science) is offered jointly by the other universities in the UA system.
UA conferred 9,105 degrees in the 2023–24 academic year, including 6,604 bachelor's degrees (3,579 with Latin honors), 1,192 master's degrees, 300 doctorates, 56 education specialist, and 153 professional degrees.
Latin honors are conferred on graduates completing a bachelor's degree for the first time (including at other universities) with an overall grade point average of at least 3.5. Cum laude honors are conferred to graduates with a GPA of 3.5 or greater and less than 3.7 (without rounding). Magna cum laude honors are conferred with a GPA of 3.7 or greater and less than 3.9. Summa cum laude honors are conferred with a GPA of 3.9 or higher.
=== Rankings ===
In the 2023 U.S. News & World Report rankings, UA was tied for 170th in the National Universities category (tied for 91st among "Top Public Schools"). Additionally, in the 2023 U.S. News rankings, the law school was tied for 35th in the nation, the business school was tied for 55th, the education school tied for 56th, and the engineering school was tied for 99th. In 2016, Business Insider ranked the UA law school as the third-best public law school in the nation.
In August 2020, the UA Department of Advertising and Public Relations was named the Most Outstanding Education Program by PRWeek during the 2020 PRWeek Awards. It was the department's ninth recognition as a finalist for the award and first selection as the top program.
As of 2021 The Princeton Review ranked University of Alabama first in the nation as a party school and first for having lots of Greek life. The university was also ranked the eighth-most LGBT unfriendly school in the nation.
=== Libraries ===
The University of Alabama has 2.9 million document volumes, along with nearly 100,000 uncatalogued government documents in its collection; of these, 2.5 million volumes are held by the University Libraries. The University Libraries system has six separate libraries.
The Amelia Gayle Gorgas Library, which sits on the Main Quad, is the oldest and largest of the university libraries. Gorgas Library holds the university's collections in the humanities and social sciences, as well as the university's depository of U.S. government documents. The library opened in 1939. A seven-story addition was built on the north side of the library in the 1970s.
The Angelo Bruno Business Library, in the Business Quad, is named after the co-founder of the Bruno's grocery chain who gave the university $4 million to create a library focusing on commerce and business studies. Opened in 1994, the 64,000-square-foot (5,900 m2), three-story facility holds more than 170,000 volumes. Bruno Library also houses the 9,500-square-foot (880 m2) Sloan Y. Bashinsky Sr. Computer Center.
The Eric and Sarah Rodgers Library for Science and Engineering, in the Science and Engineering Quad, is named after two popular, long-time professors of engineering and statistics, respectively. It opened in 1990, combining the Science Library collection in Lloyd Hall and the Engineering Library collection in the Mineral Industries Building (now known as H.M. Comer Hall). Rodgers Library was designed with help from IBM to incorporate the latest in informatics. McLure Education Library was founded in 1954 in a remodeled student union annex (across the street from the old Student Union, now Reese Phifer Hall) and named in 1974 after John Rankin McLure, the longtime dean of the College of Education. The William Stanley Hoole Special Collections Library, which holds the university's collection of rare and historical documents and books, is in Mary Harmon Bryant Hall. The Library Annex holds seldom-used books and journals, as well as other volumes which need special protection, that would otherwise take up valuable space in the libraries.
Other libraries on campus are independent of the University Libraries. The 66,000-square-foot (6,100 m2) Bounds Law Library, at the Law Center, holds more than 300,000 volumes. Established in 1978, the Health Sciences Library, at the University Medical Center, serves students at the College of Community Health Sciences. Its 20,000-volume collection includes clinical medicine, family practice, primary care, medical education, consumer health, and related health care topics. Located in Farah Hall (home of the Department of Geography) the Map Library and Place Names Research Center holds over 270,000 maps and 75,000 aerial photographs. The William E. Winter Reading Room of the College of Communication and Information Sciences is in Reese Phifer Hall and holds more than 10,000 volumes. The School of Social Work Reading Room in Little Hall contains around 200 volumes.
UA is one of the 126 members of the Association of Research Libraries, which yearly compiles internal rankings. In 2011, the University of Alabama ranked 56th among all criteria, a marked improvement over a 2003 ranking of 97th.
In the fall of 2011, the University of Alabama Trustees approved a resolution to expand Gorgas Library by 50,000 square feet (4,600 m2), doubling the seating capacity from 1,139 to 2,278.
=== Research ===
In academic year 2014–2015, UA received $76 million in research contracts and grants. The Alabama International Trade Center and the Center for Advanced Public Safety are two research centers at UA. The US Department of Homeland Security has selected The University of Alabama as a National Center of Academic Excellence (CAE) in Information Assurance Education and Research.
== Student life ==
=== Student body ===
In fall 2023, the university had an enrollment of 39,623 students, The record enrollment included 3,184 freshmen from Alabama, representing every county in the state. This marked UA's fifth consecutive year with an in-state increase and the largest number of in-state freshmen since 2010. Alabama residents comprised 41.7% of the undergraduate student body; out-of-state residents comprised 58.3%.
In 2023, UA enrolled a record number of 1,142 National Merit Scholars, making UA one of the nation's largest enrolling institutions of National Merit Scholars.
Kevin Carey, writing for The Atlantic, claimed that universities like UA "give an effective 45 percent [admissions] bump to the children of the top 1 percent".
=== Residential life ===
Today nearly 30% of students live on campus, including over 90% of first-year freshmen.
=== Student government ===
The Student Government Association is the primary student advocacy organization at UA. The SGA is governed by the SGA Constitution and consists of a legislative branch, an executive branch and a judicial council.
==== SGA controversy ====
Since its founding in 1914, a secretive coalition of fraternities and sororities, commonly known as "The Machine", has wielded enormous influence over the Student Government Association. Occurrences of harassment, intimidation, and even criminal activities aimed at opposition candidates have been reported. Many figures in local, state, and national politics have come out of the SGA at the University of Alabama. Esquire devoted its April 1992 cover story to an exposé of The Machine. The controversy led to the university disbanding the SGA in 1993, which was not undone until 1996. "Machine" fraternities and sororities have traditionally accepted only white pledges, with only one documented case of an African American student being offered entry, in 2003.
Controversy surrounding The Machine reemerged in August 2013, when sororities and fraternities were mobilized to elect two former SGA presidents, Cason Kirby and Lee Garrison, in closely contested municipal school board races. Before election day, questions about illegal voter registration were raised when evidence emerged that indicated eleven fraternity members fraudulently claimed to be living in a single house in one district. And on election day, leaked emails suggested that sorority/fraternity members may have been provided incentives to vote—including free drinks at local bars. As a result of possible voter fraud, Kirby's opponent filed a lawsuit challenging the election results and University of Alabama faculty have questioned whether The Machine has corrupted the democratic process in the City of Tuscaloosa.
=== Greek life ===
UA has one of the largest Greek systems in the nation with over 12,000 active students. In 2023, 29% of male undergraduates were in university-sanctioned fraternities; 44% of female undergraduates were in university-sanctioned sororities.
Greek letter organizations (GLOs) first appeared at the university in 1847 when two men visiting from Yale University installed a chapter of Delta Kappa Epsilon. When DKE members began holding secret meetings in the old state capitol building that year, the administration voiced strong disapproval. Over a few more decades, seven other fraternities appeared at UA: Alpha Delta Phi in 1850, Phi Gamma Delta in 1855, Sigma Alpha Epsilon in 1856 (this was the founding chapter), Kappa Sigma in 1867, Sigma Nu in 1874, Sigma Chi in 1876, and Phi Delta Theta in 1877. Anti-fraternity laws were imposed that year, but were lifted in the 1890s. Women at the university founded the Zeta chapter of Kappa Delta sorority in 1903. Alpha Delta Pi soon followed.
The Atlanta Journal Constitution newspaper reported male students receiving "100 licks with a paddle" by fellow male students multiple times back in the 1890s. Serious injuries in fraternities are a recurring issue.
Despite having the first non-white student initiated into a historically white Greek organization on campus in 2000, notable segregation within Alabama's Greek system has been a debated issue due to some other public college Greek systems becoming more integrated. John P. Hermann, a now-retired English professor, tried in the 1990s and 2000s to end what he referred to as "taxpayer-supported segregation". Controversy erupted again in September 2013, when a story in the campus paper, The Crimson White, revealed that alumnae of Greek organizations had prevented a black student from being accepted in an all-white sorority. As a result, the Alabama Panhellenic Association allowed recruitment to continue through continuous open bidding. According to TIME, a deal that would allow black students to join historically white sororities was announced by the university as "the first step toward ending more than a century of systematic segregation in the school's sorority system".
In 1987, the Theta Sigma chapter of Alpha Kappa Alpha became the first historically black Greek organization and only historically black sorority with a house on a Greek row. The Kappa Alpha chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha is the first and only historically black fraternity with a house on fraternity row.
=== Student media ===
The Crimson White is the student-produced newspaper. The CW publishes continuously online and physical copies twice a week on Monday and Thursday during the academic year and weekly in the summer. The CW normally distributes 10,000 copies per publication. The CW won the Mark of Excellence Award for a second time in 2011 and a Gold Crown Award from the Columbia Scholastic Press Association for its spring 2011 issues. The Crimson White was also inducted into the College Media Hall of Fame for its coverage of the April 2011 tornado that caused massive damage in Tuscaloosa. Other UA student publications include the Blount Truth Literary Journal, Marr's Field Journal, and Alice. In December 2025, the university's vice president of student life, Steven Hood, said that two student magazines, Alice, which focused on women's lifestyle, and Nineteen Fifty-Six, which wrote about Black student culture, would be suspended because while facially neutral, their target demographics meant they counted as "unlawful proxies" contrary to federal anti-diversity, equity, and inclusion guidance issued by US Attorney General Pam Bondi.
== Athletics and traditions ==
The University of Alabama's intercollegiate athletic teams are known as the Alabama Crimson Tide (this name can be shortened to Alabama, the Crimson Tide, or even the Tide). The nickname Crimson Tide originates from a 1907 football game versus Auburn University in Birmingham where, after a hard-fought game in torrential rain in which Auburn had been heavily favored to win, Alabama forced a tie. Writing about the game, one sportswriter described the offensive line as a "Crimson Tide", in reference to their jerseys, stained red from the wet dirt.
Alabama competes in the Southeastern Conference of the NCAA's Division I. Alabama fields men's varsity teams in football, basketball, baseball, golf, cross country, swimming and diving, tennis, and track and field. Women's varsity teams are fielded in basketball, golf, cross country, gymnastics, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, and volleyball. The athletic facilities on campus include Bryant–Denny Stadium, named after legendary football coach Paul "Bear" Bryant and former UA President George Denny, and the 14,619-seat Coleman Coliseum.
Alabama maintains athletic rivalries with Auburn University and the University of Tennessee. The rivalry with Auburn is especially heated as it encompasses all sports. The annual Alabama-Auburn football game is nicknamed the Iron Bowl. While the rivalry with Tennessee is centered around football for the most part, there is no shortage of acrimony, especially given the recent history between then-UT Coach Phillip Fulmer and his relationship to the Tide's most recent NCAA probation. There are also rivalries with Louisiana State University (football and baseball), University of Mississippi (football and men's basketball), Mississippi State University (football, men's basketball), University of Georgia (football, women's gymnastics), and the University of Florida (football, softball).
=== Football ===
The University of Alabama football program, started in 1892, has won 30 SEC titles and 18 national championships (including 12 awarded by the Associated Press and 8 by the Coaches Poll). The program has compiled 36 10-win seasons and 59 bowl appearances, winning 32 of them – all NCAA records. Alabama has produced 18 hall-of-famers, 97 All-Americans honored 105 times, and 4 Heisman trophy winners (Mark Ingram II, Derrick Henry, DeVonta Smith, and Bryce Young).
The Crimson Tide's current home venue, Bryant–Denny Stadium, opened in 1929 with a capacity of around 12,000. The most recent addition of the stadium was completed in 2010. An upper deck was added in the south end zone, completing the upper deck around the stadium. The current official capacity of the stadium is 101,821. The previous addition was the north end zone expansion, completed 2006. The Tide has also played many games, including the Iron Bowl against rival Auburn University, at Legion Field in Birmingham.
Nearly synonymous with Alabama football is legendary coach Paul "Bear" Bryant whose record at the University of Alabama was 232–46–9. He led the Crimson Tide to 6 national titles in 1961, 1964, 1965, 1973, 1978, and 1979. Alabama's most recent head football coach Nick Saban won a total of 7 national titles, including six at Alabama. Additionally, the 1966 team was the only one in the country to finish with a perfect record, but poll voters denied the 12–0 Alabama team the three-peat as Michigan State and Notre Dame played to a 10–10 tie in what was considered the "Game of the Century" and subsequently split the national championship.
In the 2020 season, Alabama earned a 13–0 record against an all-SEC schedule during the COVID-19 pandemic including winning the SEC Championship against Florida, the Rose Bowl against Notre Dame, and the National Championship game against Ohio State. Crimson Tide Wide Receiver DeVonta Smith was awarded the Heisman Trophy, the program's third winner. In the 2021 season, the Crimson Tide would post a 13–2 record, including a 41–24 win over Georgia in the SEC championship game to win their 29th conference title. They would then go on to beat the Cincinnati Bearcats 27–6 in the Cotton Bowl, culminating in an eventual loss to Georgia in the National Championship by a score of 33–18. Along with a successful football season, Alabama's starting quarterback, Bryce Young, won the Heisman trophy - becoming the fourth player from the university to win it, and the first quarterback from the university to win it.
=== School songs ===
The school's fight song is "Yea Alabama", written in 1926 by Lundy Sykes, then editor of the campus newspaper. Sykes composed the song in response to a contest by the Rammer Jammer to create a fight song following Alabama's first Rose Bowl victory. The song as it is played by the Million Dollar Band during games and known to most people is simply the chorus of the larger song. The Alabama Alma Mater is set to the tune of Annie Lisle, a ballad written in the 1850s.
== Alumni ==
University of Alabama graduates include 15 Rhodes Scholars, 59 Goldwater Scholars, and 16 Truman Scholars. UA graduates have also been named to the USA Today All-USA College Academic Team.
Among UA's alumni are Mel Allen, Hugo Black, Bear Bryant, Kaitlan Collins, Julio Jones, Harper Lee, Jim Nabors, Joe Namath, Joe Scarborough, Jeff Sessions, Richard Shelby, Justin Thomas, Jimmy Wales, and George Wallace.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
University of Alabama Athletics website
"Alabama, University of" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ann_Willson | Mary Ann Willson | Mary Ann Willson (active 1810 to 1825) was an American folk artist whose work remained undiscovered for over a century, until it appeared in an exhibition of American Primitive paintings in 1944. Little is known of her life, but evidence suggests that she may have been one of the first American watercolorists.
== Life and career ==
Mary Ann Willson was an American folk artist based in Greene County, New York. She was unknown until 1943, when a portfolio of her work was discovered by staff at the Harry Stone Gallery in New York City. According to art historian Jean Lipman, Willson and her contemporary Eunice Pinney of Connecticut are considered two of the earliest American painters to work in the medium of watercolor.
Little is known about the artist. What information is available is derived from two anonymous letters, one of which accompanied the portfolio acquired by the Harry Stone Gallery, and a short biography included in Richard Lionel De Lisser's Picturesque Catskills, Greene County, which was first published in 1894. Because both letters contain a reference to the artists Thomas Cole, Asher Brown Durand and Daniel Huntington describing them as "modern" painters, they have been dated to the mid-nineteenth century. According to these documents, Miss Willson and her "friend," Miss Brundage (also spelled Brundidge), left Connecticut in about 1810 to settle in the town of Greenville, Greene County, New York. The couple purchased a few acres and built a log cabin. Apparently, with the aid of her neighbors, Brundage farmed the land while Willson painted pictures, "which she sold to the farmers and others as rare and unique works of art." According to the two letters, her work was purchased by patrons from Canada to Mobile, Alabama. The author of these letters has been tentatively identified by De Lisser and Greene County historian Mabel Parker Smith as Theodore L. Prevost, a cousin of the artist Thomas Cole by marriage; the art historian N. F. Karlins, however, has suggested that Theodore Alexander Cole, the son of the artist and owner of two of Willson's watercolors, composed the letters.
Stylistically, Willson's paintings are the work of an untrained hand. Her subjects are taken from popular prints of the day and are executed in bright colors made from berry juice, vegetable dye or brick dust. Her surviving oeuvre is small: in 1976, Karlins published a checklist of her known watercolors, which numbered twenty-two.
At Brundage's death, Willson is reported to have been inconsolable and to have disappeared not long afterwards. Her last known work was completed in 1825. What became of her is unknown.
== Exhibitions ==
In 1944, the Harry Stone Gallery in New York City mounted an exhibition of sixty-seven "American Primitive" paintings that featured twenty of Willson's surviving watercolors. Willson's exhibited paintings included landscapes, still lifes, narrative scenes, portraits, mythological themes and genre subjects and demonstrated not only the range of her subject matter but also her ability, as noted by curator Jean Lipman, "to exploit pure color and design." According to Lipman, Willson "was simply endowed with a teeming imagination, a bold taste for primary color and geometric design, and a total lack of inhibition, a combination which adds up to a style close indeed to that of modern abstract art." Significantly, as Karlins has noted, there was speculation at the time of the exhibition that the watercolors were forgeries and the supporting documentation "concocted ... in order to benefit from the growing market for folk art." Karlins ultimately concluded, however, that because Willson's career is documented in De Lisser's 1894 publication and works attributed to the artist are recorded in the collection of Theodore Cole, the exhibited watercolors were authentic. He writes that although "there are many questions still to be answered about the origins of and influences on Mary Ann Willson's works ... one thing is certain—[the paintings] are not twentieth-century fakes. They are the product of one of the most original early nineteenth-century folk watercolorists yet discovered."
== In popular culture ==
Willson's life and relationship with Brundage served as the basis for Isabel Miller's 1969 novel A Place for Us, which was republished in 1971 as Patience and Sarah, as well as a 1998 opera by Paula M. Kimper.
== References ==
== External links ==
Prodigal Sons works, National Gallery of Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado_outbreak_of_June_5%E2%80%936,_2010 | Tornado outbreak of June 5–6, 2010 | The tornado outbreak of June 5–6, 2010, was a tornado outbreak that affected the Midwestern United States and parts of the Great Lakes region, starting the weekend of June 5, 2010, and extending into the morning of June 6, 2010. At least 53 tornadoes were confirmed from Iowa to southern Ontario and Ohio as well as in northern New England. Seven people were confirmed dead in Ohio just outside Toledo in Wood County, and one in Dwight, Illinois. Damage from the tornadoes in the United States totaled over $266 million.
== Meteorological synopsis ==
A low pressure system moved across the central United States on June 5 where a moderate risk for severe thunderstorms was issued for areas along Interstate 80 from the Quad Cities area to near Cleveland, Ohio and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Strong storms developed early in the afternoon across most of the area covered under the moderate risk and into central Iowa. Tornadoes were reported near Interstate 35 as well as in parts of central Ohio.
Severe weather shifted into Illinois during the early evening hours as the daytime heating and instability peaked. Tornadoes were reported in the Peoria, Illinois area as well as in areas just west of Chicago during the early evening hours. Heavy damage was reported in LaSalle County, Illinois as well as in Livingston County, Illinois. A tornado emergency was issued in the Peoria area after multiple sightings just outside the city. Heavy damage was reported in the Elmwood and Yates City area. In Streator, an EF2 tornado damaged 180 homes, destroyed 20 homes and injured 17 people. Two other tornadoes (rated EF0 and EF3) touched down just outside Streator as well, causing additional damage to homes and power lines. In Dwight a second EF2 tornado struck a mobile home park, destroying 12 homes and leaving several others uninhabitable. Other buildings were damaged in town and several well-built homes lost their roofs. Two separate EF0 tornadoes touched down in Dwight as well, causing damage to roofs, trees, and derailing a train. Six people were injured from the tornado, one of whom died from his injuries at the end of the month.
After midnight, storms moved into northern Indiana, northern Ohio, southern Michigan and southwestern Ontario where heavy damage was reported just outside Toledo in Wood County where seven people were killed. In Allen Township, eight homes were destroyed, three received major damage and 10 received minor damage. Heavy damage was also reported in Leamington, Ontario where a state of emergency was declared. In Michigan, shortly after midnight, Calhoun, Kalamazoo, Hillsdale, Jackson, Ingham, Branch, Berrien, Van Buren, Saint Joseph, Washtenaw, Wayne, and Monroe counties were all under simultaneous tornado warnings, including two separate simultaneous warnings covering all of Calhoun County. Damage in Calhoun County included downed trees and a metal flagpole bent at a right angle in Homer, Michigan due to extreme winds. The decision to sound tornado sirens was made in many communities. An EF1 tornado was confirmed just south of Battle Creek by the NWS; damage included a roof being torn off of a church. An EF2 tornado damaged a total of 311 houses, apartments and commercial and public buildings in Monroe County.
A moderate risk was issued for June 6 across the northeast coast of the United States primarily due to damaging wind, with tornadoes also a significant threat. However, it busted for the most part, with only scattered wind damage and no tornadoes.
== Confirmed tornadoes ==
Note: 5 tornadoes in Ontario are using the older Fujita scale
=== June 5 event ===
=== June 6 event ===
== Aftermath ==
Illinois Governor Pat Quinn declared LaSalle, Livingston, Peoria and Putnam counties disaster areas. Allegations of racial discrimination in the mainly African American communities of Pembroke Township and Hopkins Park occurred after they were not included in the state disaster area. Quinn said that Kankakee County had not made a request on the behalf of Pembroke. Many residents of Pembroke received no warning before the tornadoes moved through the area. The community had received a state grant to purchase a tornado siren, but the money had never been allocated, leaving the town of 2,784 residents without any warning system. After it was revealed the area had no working siren, state lawmakers Lisa Dugan and Toi Hutchinson promised every home in the area would be supplied with a weather radio, and funding would be raised for a tornado siren. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) rejected federal disaster aid for victims in Elmwood, Illinois.
== See also ==
List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
== References ==
== External links ==
Shattered Lives: The Blade's continuing coverage of June 5 tornadoes Published June 19, 2010 by The Blade
Continuing coverage of the tornadoes and clean-up effort from WTOL
Photos of tornado damage from WMAQ-TV
June 5, 2010: Tornado Touchdown: Wood & Ottawa Counties (National Weather Service Cleveland forecast office) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Wrangler | Bronze Wrangler | The Bronze Wrangler is an award presented annually by the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum to honor the top works in Western music, film, television, and literature.
The awards were first presented in 1961. The Wrangler is a bronze sculpture of a cowboy on horseback, and is designed by artist John Free.
The awards program also recognizes inductees into the prestigious Hall of Great Westerners and the Hall of Great Western Performers as well as the recipient of the Chester A. Reynolds Memorial Award, named in honor of the Museum's founder.
== Award categories ==
=== Film and television ===
Theatrical Motion Picture
Outstanding Docudrama
Television Feature Film
Factual Narrative
Factual Television Program (awarded from 1961 until 1989)
Fictional Television Drama
Western Documentary
=== Literary ===
Art Books
Folklore Books
Juvenile Books
Magazine Article
News Featurette
Nonfiction Book
Outstanding Photography Book
Poetry Book
Short Stories
Western Novel
=== Music ===
Outstanding New Artist
New Horizons
Music
Outstanding Original Western Composition
Outstanding Traditional Western Album
== Special categories ==
Hall of Great Western Performers
Trustees Award
Other special awards
Special Award: John B. Stetson Company for The Hat That Wore the West-Death Valley Days (1963)
Special Award: Yakima Canutt for more than 50 years of outstanding contributions to Motion Pictures (1971)
Special Award: Craig Fisher for the documentary film Survival on the Prairie (1971)
Special Merit Award: Union Pacific and The Westerner in recognition of great western motion pictures made prior to 1960 (1975)
Special Award: Seuil Audiovisual (producer) for Frontier Heritage; Claude Fleouter (writer-director); Denys Limon (writer); (1978)
Special Award: Harold Warp, creator of pioneer village in Minden, Nebraska (1978)
Special Award: Paul Aaron, host of Cowboy Joe's Radio Ranch and Prairie Echoes (1978)
Special Award: Ed Rutherford, collector of Western artifacts (1980)
Special Award: James A. Michener (author) (1980)
John Ford Award: Sam Peckinpah (1980)
Special Award: Alfred A. Knopf, publisher (1981)
Special Award: John Mantley, television producer (1981)
Special Award: Buck Taylor, actor (1981)
Special Award: Elsa Spear Byron, author/photographer (1982)
Special Award: Johnny Grant, entertainer (1982)
Entertainment Arts Gold Medal: Burl Ives (1984)
Special Award: Bill Kelly (producer) and Allison Brown (producer) for "Joe Wietsky: Cowboy" (1987)
Special Award: Geoffrey Bell (producer) for "The Movies Go West" (1987)
Special Award for Outstanding Achievement in a New Format: Kieth Merrill (director, producer) for "Alamo: The Price of Freedom" (IMAX Format) (1989)
Special Award for Significant Scholarly Research: Merrill J. Mattes (editor) and University of Illinois Press (publisher) for Platte River Road Narratives (1989)
Special Music Award: Arlene Markinson (producer) for "Santa Fe Spirit" (1990)
Special Television Feature Award: E.W. Swackhammer (director), Chuck Sellier (producer) Alex McArthur (actor) for "Desperado" (1990)
Lifetime Contribution to Western Art Award: Robert Lougheed, posthumanous award accepted by his widow Cordy Lougheed (1990)
Special Award for Historical Excellence: Richard Farnsworth (narrator), Gwendolyn Clancy (producer) and the University of Nevada, Reno (producer) for "The Man They Call Will James" (1991)
Special Award for the Preservation of Authentic Western Music: Michael Martin Murphey (composer, producer) for "Cowboy Logic" (1991)
Directors' Award for Excellence in a Theatrical Presentation: Tommy Tune (director, choreographer), Cy Coleman (composer), Betty Comden (lyrics), Adolph Green (lyrics), Keith Carradine (actor), Pierre Cossette (producer), Martin Richards (producer), Sam Crothers (producer), James M. Nederlander (producer), Stewart Lane (producer) and Max Weitzenhoffer (producer) for "The Will Rogers Follies" (1992)
Directors' Award for Excellence in a Television Presentation: Marino Amoruso (director, screenplay, producer), Ben Johnson (actor) and Harry Carey Jr. (actor) for "Legends of the American West" (1992)
Directors' Award for Outstanding Study of Western Material Culture: R.L. Wilson (author) and Random House (publisher) for "The Peacemakers: Arms and Adventures in the American West" (1993)
Directors' Award for Outstanding Contributions to Western Music: "Sons of the Pioneers" (1995)
Outstanding Achievement in Art: Wilson Hurley following formal dedication of his five monumental "Windows to the West" triptychs (1996)
Special Award: TNN in recognition of their leadership for providing the Hall's first national television special "A Cowboy Jubilee: Celebrating the National Cowboy Hall of Fame" in April 1995 (1996)
Special Award for Innovation in Western Music: Michael Martin Murphey (recording artist) and Jim Ed Norman (producer) for "Sagebrush Symphony" (1996)
Directors' Award For Special Literary Achievement: Peter H. Hassrick (author), Melissa J. Webster (author) and the Buffalo Bill Historical Center for "Frederic Remington: A Catalogue Raisonne of Paintings, Watercolors and Drawings" (1997)
Directors' Award For Special Recognition: Frank "Pistol Pete" Eaton (1997)
Directors Award for Excellence in Original Western Television Production: TNT (1997)
Special Directors' Award: R.L. Wilson (author), Greg Martin (author) and Random House (publisher) (1999)
Director's Award For Outstanding News Magazine Feature: Victor Neufeld (executive director), Rob Wallace (producer) and Hugh Downs (reporter) for ABC News 20/20: "Wild Horses" (1999)
Special Directors Award For Special Recognition: Robert L. Klemme for marking the location of the Chisholm Trail, where it was located between the years of 1871-1874, across the state of Oklahoma (1999)
Directors' Award for Television Feature Film: Uli Edel (director), Gordon Dawson (screenplay), Sam Shepard (actor), Randy Quaid (actor), Eric Roberts (actor), Brad Rowe (actor), David Rosemont (executive producer) and Daniel Schneider (producer) for "Purgatory" (TNT)
Directors Award for Excellence in Dramatic Presentation and Original Music Composition: R.W. Hampton (composer), Lisa Hampton (executive producer), Rich O'Brien (producer) for "The Last Cowboy – His Journey"
Directors' Award: Bob Brown, leather maker and costume designer to the Hollywood stars of early western films (2001)
Special Directors' Award: Arthur Allan Seidelman (director), Jacqueline Feather (screenplay), David Seidler (screenplay), Richard Crenna (actor), David Carradine (actor), Randall C. Badger (executive producer), Dan Paulson (executive producer), Robert Halmi Jr. (executive producer), Bob Chmiel (executive producer) for By Dawn's Early Light (2001)
Board of Directors' Lifetime Achievement Award: A.C. Lyles, producer for Paramount Pictures (2006)
Board of Directors' Lifetime Achievement Award: Dean Smith, Hollywood stuntman, actor and gold medalist in the 1952 Olympics (2007)
== References ==
General
https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/western-heritage-award-winners/
Specific
== External links ==
Official Website
Western Heritage Awards at the Internet Movie Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllida_Barlow#Career | Phyllida Barlow | Dame Gillian Phyllida Barlow (4 April 1944 – 12 March 2023) was a British visual artist. She studied at Chelsea College of Art (1960–1963) and the Slade School of Art (1963–1966). She joined the staff of the Slade in the late 1960s and taught there for more than forty years. She retired from academia in 2009 and in turn became an emerita professor of fine art. She had an important influence on younger generations of artists; at the Slade her students included Rachel Whiteread and Ángela de la Cruz. In 2017 she represented Great Britain at the Venice Biennale.
== Early life and education ==
Although born in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, in 1944 (as her psychiatrist father Erasmus Darwin Barlow, a great-grandson of Charles Darwin, was stationed there at the time), Barlow was brought up in a London recovering from the Second World War. She studied at Chelsea College of Art (1960–63) under the tutelage of George Fullard who was to influence Barlow's perception of what sculpture can be. "Fullard, among others, was able to impart that the act of making was in itself an adventure. The family moved to Richmond, west London, after the war, and her childhood experiences of bomb damage would inspire much of her lifelong work. A sculpture that falls over or breaks is just as exciting as one that reveals itself perfectly formed. All the acts of making in the world are there to be plundered and contain within themselves the potential to be transferred to the studio and adapted."
Whilst studying at Chelsea, Barlow met her husband, the artist and writer Fabian Benedict Peake, the son of Mervyn Peake, author of Gormenghast, and his wife the artist and memoirist Maeve Gilmore. She later attended the Slade School of Fine Art from 1963 to 1966 to further study sculpture. Described by The Independent as "a British art dynasty", Barlow and her husband had five children together, including the artists Eddie Peake and Florence Peake.
== Career ==
After graduating from Slade School of Art in 1966, Barlow began a forty-year-long career as a teacher in various institutions, starting with a part-time teaching position in sculpture at the former West of England College of Art, now known as the University of the West of England, Bristol. While here, she learned traditional techniques of sculpture and discovered an affinity for the malleability of clay. Barlow found an interest in everyday, convenient materials like cardboard, polystyrene, scrim, and cement and how she could create abstracted pieces of work that placed a sense of elevated meaning to them. Forming an environment in which her viewers can reflect on the work and explore the material and processes used to create it was one of her main motivations in her practice. In 2004 she was appointed professor of fine art and director of undergraduate studies at Slade School of Art before retiring from teaching in 2009 at the age of 65, deciding to focus on her own art. She believed that art schools placed too big an emphasis on a particular 'model' of how to be an artist.
Barlow's break as an artist came in 2004 when she was shown at the BALTIC, Gateshead. This was followed by representation by Hauser & Wirth. In 2018 and 2019, Barlow was 'provocateur' for the Yorkshire Sculpture international.
== Work ==
Barlow's work is a combination of playful and intimidating. The child like colours she painted her sculptures, almost referencing toys is in deep contrast to the industrial materials and scale of her works. Her sculptures tower above the viewer as if a huge section of scaffolding. She played with mass, scale, volume and height which creates a tension to her forms. Her forms give the impression of being both excruciatingly heavy and light as air simultaneously. When in the presence of her sculpture, one loses the sense of object and is entered into an environment. Barlow did not hide her process and material choices from the viewer, she exposed each detail.
Best known for her colossal sculptural projects, Barlow employed "a distinctive vocabulary of inexpensive materials such as plywood, cardboard, plaster, cement, fabric and paint" to create striking sculptures. Drawing on memories of familiar objects from her surroundings, Barlow's practice was grounded in an anti-monumental tradition characterised by her physical experience of handling materials, which she transformed through processes of layering, accumulation and juxtaposition. "Obtrusive and invasive, Barlow's large-scale sculptural objects are frequently arranged in complex installations in which mass and volume seem to be at odds with the space around them. Their role is restless and unpredictable: they block, interrupt, intervene, straddle and perch, both dictating and challenging the experience of viewing." Her constructions are often crudely painted in industrial or synthetic colours, resulting in abstract, seemingly unstable forms.
Maybe I don't think enough about beauty in my work because I'm so curious about other qualities, abstract qualities of time, weight, balance, rhythm; collapse and fatigue versus the more upright dynamic notions of maybe posture ... the state that something might be in. Is it growing or shrinking, is it going up or down, is it folding or unfolding?
Barlow was also a prolific painter, yet even in this field she recognised they were "sculptural drawings". She painted as part of her curriculum at the Chelsea College of Arts - where she was encouraged to practice by artist and sculptor Henry Moore - and carried on doing so throughout her life as an artist, accruing a vast archive of work.
== Solo exhibitions ==
Barlow's work has been presented in solo exhibitions around the world. In 2014, Barlow was commissioned to create new work for the Duveen Galleries at Tate Britain, London.
After being awarded the Kunstpreis Aachen in 2012, Barlow was commissioned to do a solo exhibition for the Ludwig Forum für Internationale Kunst in Germany. The exhibition Brink featured seven expansive sculptures creating a "stage-like arena" for her fictive city.
In 2013, Barlow presented a solo exhibition entitled HOARD at The Norton Museum of Art in West Palm Beach, Florida, U.S. It was the Norton's third exhibition of RAW – Recognition of Art by Women – made possible by the Leonard and Sophie Davis Fund/MLDauray Arts Institute.
2015 saw Barlow's work travelling up to Scotland to be installed in the Fruitmarket Gallery in Edinburgh. The exhibition was called 'Set' and consisted of new works which were specifically produced for the show. Her work took over the gallery transforming it into an all consuming environment of bright matter. Her forms undulated through the gallery space with the intention of creating an argument or tension between the two floors of the gallery; "The upstairs space shrugging its shoulders at the downstairs space" as Barlow herself put it.
In 2016, Barlow presented a solo exhibition of new work at the Kunsthalle Zurich. Barlow was one of four artists to have been nominated for the inaugural Hepworth prize, the UK's first prize for sculpture, and hers was displayed at the Hepworth Wakefield starting in October 2016.
For the 2017 Venice Biennale, Barlow unveiled her powerfully industrial and bulbous Folly series, which took over both a sanitised indoor space and the idyllic Venetian outdoors. Barlow initially planned for her installation of 41 'baubles' to be hanging from planks that jutted from facade of the pavilion but this vision had to be altered due to expense; they were ultimately displayed in a way that resembled lollipops. Graham Sheffield, the Director Arts at the British Council at the time, wrote that Barlow was selected for her "challenging and imposing sculptures" which unsurprisingly commanded a distinct and powerful presence at the 57th Biennale.
During the course of 2018, Barlow presented three solo shows. Hauser & Wirth curated the exhibition entitled 'tilt', which was held in their New York City gallery. In New York she also exhibited with High Line Art, with the show 'prop'. In the UK in 2018 Barlow's show 'Quarry' was held in Edinburgh, Scotland, at Jupiter Artland.
In 2019 the Royal Academy of Art (of which she was elected an Academician in 2011) hosted exhibition of a new collection of Barlow's work entitled cultural-de-sac. Her work was situated in the Gabrielle Jungels-Winkler Galleries. The works were a site specific collection of large scale, brutalist sculptures which were created in response to the architecture of the RA building.
== Honours and awards ==
Barlow became a Royal Academician in 2011. She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2015 New Year Honours for services to the arts and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2021 Birthday Honours for services to art.
Barlow was a member of the juries that selected Doris Salcedo (2016), Pierre Huyghe (2017), Isa Genzken (2019) and Michael Rakowitz (2020) for the Nasher Prize.
== Death ==
Dame Phyllida Barlow died on 12 March 2023, at the age of 78.
== References ==
== External links ==
Phyllida Barlow at IMDb
Phyllida Barlow discography at Discogs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palais_de_Glace | Palais de Glace | The Palais de Glace (French pronunciation: [palɛ də ɡlas]) is a rumeno style Belle Époque building in the Recoleta neighbourhood of Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Located at 1430 Posadas street, it was modelled on the Palais des Glaces in Paris. The building was designed by J. L. Ruiz Basadre and inaugurated in 1911 as an ice skating rink and social club.
The circular ice rink occupied a central room around which were arranged theatre-style boxes and rooms for social gatherings. The refrigeration plant was housed in the basement and on the first floor was a balcony, a cafe and organ. The building has a domed roof with a large central skylight which provided natural light for the skating rink below. As ice skating became less fashionable in the following decade, and tango gained increasing social acceptance, the Palais de Glace was converted into an elegant dance hall and played an important role in the promotion of this new dance phenomenon, initially opposed by the bourgeois elite. Many well-known tango orchestras and dancers appeared here over the years but towards the end of the 1920s the venue went into decline and in 1931 the building was taken over by the local authority and given to the Ministry of Education and Justice.
From now on the building was used to house the National Office of Fine Arts and the annual Salón Nacional de Bellas Artes (National Exhibition of Fine Arts) was held there from 1932 until 1954. Starting in 1931 the interior of the building was remodelled by the architect and artist Alejandro Bustillo, to provide exhibition rooms whilst respecting the original design, and in 1934 three large murals were painted on the interior walls. In 1935 the exterior of the building was radically altered.
In 1938 an exhibition of television equipment was staged here and between 1954 and 1960 the building was used as a studio annex by the television station Canal Siete. During this period the Salón Nacional was held at various venues including the National Museum of Fine Arts and the Argentine National Congress.
Since 1960 the Palais de Glace has hosted the Salón Nacional together with a range of other art exhibitions and musical events. In 2004 the building was declared a National Historic Monument.
In 2012 it was awarded by the Konex Foundation from Argentina for it contribution to the Visual Arts of Argentina.
== References ==
== External links ==
National Commission for Museums and Historical Monuments and Places
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Geun-hye | Park Geun-hye | Park Geun-hye (; Korean: 박근혜 [pak‿k͈ɯn.hje] ; born 2 February 1952) is a South Korean politician who served as the 11th president of South Korea from 2013 until her removal from office in 2017. A member of Saenuri during her presidency and the eldest daughter of Park Chung Hee, she was the first woman in the country and the first in East Asia to be elected as head of state. Park previously served as the first lady of South Korea under her father's presidency from 1974 until her father's assassination in 1979.
Born in Daegu, Park graduated from Sogang University in 1974 with a bachelor's degree in electronic engineering. Before her presidency, Park was leader of the conservative Grand National Party (GNP) from 2004 to 2006 and leader of the Liberty Korea Party from 2011 to 2012. She was also a member of the National Assembly, serving four consecutive parliamentary terms between 1998 and 2012. Park started her fifth term as a representative elected via national list in June 2012. In 2013 and 2014, Park ranked 11th on the Forbes list of the world's 100 most powerful women and the most powerful woman in East Asia. In 2014, she ranked 46th on the Forbes list of the world's most powerful people, the third-highest South Korean on the list, after Lee Kun-hee and Lee Jae-yong.
On 9 December 2016, Park was impeached by the National Assembly on charges related to influence peddling by her top aide, Choi Soon-sil. Then–Prime Minister Hwang Kyo-ahn assumed her powers and duties as acting president as a result. The Constitutional Court upheld the impeachment by a unanimous 8–0 ruling on 10 March 2017, thereby removing Park from office, making her the first Korean president to be so removed. On 6 April 2018, South Korean courts sentenced her to 24 years in prison (later increased to 25 years) for corruption and abuse of power.
In 2018, two separate criminal cases resulted in an increase of seven years in Park's prison sentence. She was found guilty of illegally taking off-the-books funds from the National Intelligence Service (NIS) and given a five-year prison sentence, and also found guilty of illegally interfering in the Saenuri Party primaries in the 2016 South Korean legislative election, for which she was sentenced to two more years in prison. On 24 December 2021, it was announced that she would receive a pardon on compassionate grounds from South Korean President Moon Jae-in. She was released from prison on 31 December and returned home three months later on 24 March 2022.
== Early life and education ==
Park Geun-hye was born on 2 February 1952, in Samdeok-dong of Jung District, Daegu, South Korea as the first child of Park Chung Hee, who came to power with the May 16 military coup d'état of 1961 and was the third president of South Korea from 1963 to 1979; and his wife, First Lady Yuk Young-soo. Both of her parents were assassinated. She has a younger sister, Park Geun-ryeong, and a younger brother, Park Ji-man. She also has an older half-sister, Park Jae-ok. She is unmarried with no children. Pew Research Center described her as an atheist with a Buddhist and Roman Catholic upbringing.
In 1953, Park's family moved to Seoul, where she graduated from Jangchung Elementary School and Sungshim (literal: Sacred Heart) Girls' Middle and High School in 1970, going on to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in electronic engineering from Sogang University in 1974. She briefly studied at Joseph Fourier University in France, but left following the murder of her mother.
Park's mother was killed on 15 August 1974, in the National Theater of Korea; Mun Se-gwang, a Japanese-born ethnic Korean sympathizer of North Korea and member of the Chongryon, was attempting to assassinate her husband, President Park Chung Hee. Park Geun-hye was regarded as First Lady until the assassination of her father by his intelligence chief, Kim Jae-gyu, on 26 October 1979. During this time, activists who were political opponents of Park's father claimed to be subject to arbitrary detention. Further, human rights were considered subordinate to economic development. In 2007, Park expressed regret at the treatment of activists during this period.
Park received honorary doctoral degrees from the Chinese Culture University in Taiwan in 1987, Pukyong National University and KAIST in 2008, Sogang University in 2010, and TU Dresden in 2014.
== Political career ==
=== Early career ===
Park was elected a Grand National Party (GNP; later the Liberty Korea Party, or Saenuri Party) assemblywoman for Dalseong County (Daegu) in the 1998 by-election, and three more times in the same electoral district between 1998 and 2008, being the incumbent assemblywoman until April 2012. In 2012, Park announced she would not run for a constituency representative seat for the 19th election in Dalseong, but for a proportional representative position for the Saenuri Party instead, in order to lead the party's election campaign. She was subsequently elected as a proportional representative in the April 2012 election.
Due to the failed attempt to impeach President Roh Moo-hyun and the bribery scandal of its 2002 presidential candidate, Lee Hoi-chang (revealed in 2004), the GNP was facing a defeat in the 2004 general election. Park was appointed chairwoman of the party and led the election efforts. In the election, the GNP lost its majority position but managed to win 121 seats, which was largely considered a great achievement under such inhospitable circumstances for the party. As the chairwoman of the GNP, Park helped her party make significant gains in local elections and actually obtain a majority in 2006.
During the campaign, on 20 May 2006 in Seoul, Ji Chung-ho, a 50-year-old man with eight criminal convictions, slashed Park's face with a utility knife, causing an 11-centimeter wound that required 60 stitches and several hours of surgery. A famous anecdote from this incident occurred when Park was hospitalized after the attack: the first word that she said to her secretary after her recovery from her wound was, "How is Daejeon?" After this, the GNP candidate in the Daejeon mayoral race won the election despite having trailed by more than 20 percentage points in opinion polls up to the point of the attack. In addition, during Park's term as the GNP chairwoman between 2004 and 2006, the party won all 40 reelections and by-elections held, which was largely credited to her influence and efforts. This feat gave Park the nickname "Queen of Elections".
On 12 February 2007, Park made a much-publicized visit to Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Her visit culminated in an address to a packed audience at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, where she said she wanted to save Korea and advocated a stronger relationship between South Korea and the United States.
Park hoped to emulate her father's success by becoming the presidential nominee of the GNP. She eventually lost to Lee Myung-bak by a narrow margin. Lee had a commanding lead at the beginning of the primary season, but Park was able to narrow the gap through allegations of Lee's corruption. Park won the "party members' bid", but she lost the "national bid", which is a larger percentage of the total presidential bid. After the 2007 presidential election, President Lee Myung-bak formed a government of mostly close supporters. Park's supporters argued that this was a kind of political reprisal and that they should secede from the GNP. Eventually, they formed parties named Pro-Park Coalition and Solidarity for Pro-Park Independents (친박 무소속 연대; Chin Park Musosok Yeondae). After the mass secession, the rebels announced that they would rejoin the GNP after the general election, but the party prohibited it. In the following 2008 general election, the rebels won 26 seats: fourteen from the Pro-Park Coalition and twelve as independents. Together, they played a pivotal role in the GNP's narrow majority. Park continually insisted that the GNP should allow the return of her supporters. As of 2011, most of these rebels had returned to the GNP, resulting in approximately 50 to 60 assembly members who supported Park out of 171 in the GNP.
In 2011, as a response to the dwindling approval rating of the GNP, the party formed an emergency committee and changed its name to the Saenuri Party, or "New Frontier" Party. On 19 December, Park was appointed as the chairwoman of the emergency committee, the de facto leader of the party. In the 2012 general election, the Saenuri Party achieved a surprise win against the opposing Democratic United Party, winning 152 seats and retaining its majority position. Because of the corruption scandals of the Lee administration revealed before the election, the party was widely expected to win no more than 100 seats. During the 13-day campaign period, Park traveled about 7,200 km (4,500 mi) around South Korea, visiting more than 100 constituencies. It is the consensus of Korean news media and political experts that the most important factor leading to Saenuri Party's victory was Park's leadership. For this reason, the 2012 election was often dubbed the "return of the Queen of Election". The party's defeat in the populous Seoul metropolitan area in this election, however, revealed the limitation of Park's political influence.
=== 2012 presidential campaign ===
Park had been the leading candidate for the 2012 presidential election in every national poll in South Korea between 2008, when the Lee administration began, and September 2011, with an approval rating of 25% to 45%, more than twice that of the second candidate. Park's approval rating was highest during the 2008 general election, and lowest in early 2010 as a result of her political stance against the Lee administration in Sejong City issue. Park also benefited from a public image of standing aloofly above the fray of politics.
In September 2011, Ahn Cheol-soo, a former venture IT businessman and the Dean of Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology at Seoul National University, emerged as a strong independent presidential candidate. In September 2011 national presidential polls, Ahn and Park closely competed for the status of frontrunner, with Park losing the top seat in some polls for the first time since 2008.
On 10 July 2012, Park formally announced her presidential bid at Time Square, Yeongdeungpo District, Seoul. In this event, she emphasized the right to pursue happiness, a democratic economy, and customized welfare services for the Korean people. In a national survey by Mono Research on 30 August Park was the top presidential candidate with an approval rating of 45.5% when competing with all potential candidates, and according to another recent national survey result had a higher approval rating (50.6%) than Ahn (43.9%) in a two-way competition as of 11 September . The opposing Democratic Party of Korea elected Moon Jae-in as its presidential candidate on 17 September, while Ahn announced his presidential bid on 19 September . Although still a leading candidate, Park had a lower approval rating than both Ahn and Moon when engaged in two-way competition, according to a 22 September national survey. Park was elected as president of the Republic of Korea on 19 December 2012, with the approval of 51.6% of Korean voters.
In 2017, the National Intelligence Service (NIS) admitted that it had conducted an illicit campaign to influence the 2012 presidential election, mobilizing teams of experts in psychological warfare to ensure that Park defeated Moon.
=== Positions ===
In a 2012 survey by Korean Research assessing the political stance of twelve potential presidential candidates of South Korea, Park was considered the most conservative candidate. Her conservative, market-oriented political stance was well reflected in her campaign pledge for 2008 presidential bid to cut taxes, reduce regulation, and establish strong law and order. Since 2009, however, Park started to focus more on welfare issues, advocating customized welfare services to the Korean people.
Park was well known for her strict adherence to political promises. In 2010, for example, she successfully stopped the Lee administration's attempt to cancel the plan to establish Sejong City, a new national center of administration, arguing that the plan was a promise made to the people. This conflict between Park and the Lee administration cost her a considerable decrease in her approval rating at the time. In 2012, Park also vowed to construct a new airport in the southeastern region, a 2008 presidential campaign promise made by GNP but cancelled in 2011, despite claims of economic infeasibility of the plan.
The administrative vision of Park's new government was "a new era of hope and happiness". The five Administrative Goals of the government were "a jobs-centered creative economy", "tailored employment and welfare", "creativity-oriented education and cultural enrichment", "a safe and united society" and "strong security measures for sustainable peace on the Korean Peninsula". The Park Geun-hye administration planned to create a trustworthy, clean, and capable government by carrying out these goals, related strategies, and tasks.
Park chose not to vote in the 2017 South Korean presidential election.
== Presidency (2013–17) ==
=== Inauguration ===
Park became the 11th president of South Korea on 25 February 2013. At midnight, she took over all presidential authorities including the prerogative of supreme command of South Korea's armed forces from her predecessor Lee Myung-bak. In her inauguration speech at the National Assembly building, Park spoke of her plan to open a new era of hope through "economic prosperity, people's happiness, and cultural enrichment". She particularly expressed her hope that North Korea would give up its nuclear arms and walk on the path of peace and mutual development, and declared that the foundation for a happy era of unification in which all Korean people will be able to enjoy prosperity and freedom and realize their dreams would be built through the Korean Peninsula Trust-building Process. In her inauguration speech, Park presented four guiding principles to realize her administrative vision: economic prosperity, people's happiness, cultural enrichment, and establishment of a foundation for peaceful unification. Park's inauguration ceremony was the largest one in South Korean history with 70,000 participants. Diplomatic representatives in Korea, as well as high-level delegates specially sent from 24 countries around the world including Thai Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra, U.S. National Security Advisor Thomas Donilon, Taiwanese Legislative Speaker Wang Jin-pyng, and former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda, also participated in the event to congratulate Park.
=== First year (February 2013 – February 2014) ===
The goal of the newly launched Park Geun-hye Administration for governing state affairs was to open "a new era of hope and happiness for all the people". Park avowed that South Korea would break away from its long-pursued development model that centered around the nation, and shift the focus of government administration from the state to individual citizens. The administration's keywords in managing state affairs were "people", "happiness", "trust", "co-prosperity" and "principle". Right after taking office, Park restructured the Blue House and government organization. The Office of National Security at the Blue House, Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning, and Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries were newly launched, and the seat of Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs was revived. The Chief of the National Security Office would act as a "control tower" for diplomatic, security, and national defense issues, and the Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs for economic, social, and welfare issues.
Park announced her plan to build a "Creative Economy" on 5 June 2013, representing her vision for economic revival and job creation. In April, Park said "Timing is very important for our economic policy, jobs and livelihood mainly ordinary people should organize a supplementary budget in a timely manner." She encouraged the gig economy. On 8 April 2014, Park signed the Australia–Korea Free Trade Agreement with Australia's Prime Minister Tony Abbott.
Park proposed the eradication of "Four Major Social Evils" (사 대회악: "sa dae hwe ak") – sexual violence, domestic violence, school violence, and unsafe food. Statistics showed that sexual violence and domestic violence increased during these years. Without referring to statistical data, aggravating school violence or food safety is a public concern in South Korea. She also launched the National Unity Committee on 17 June with the purpose to advise the president in the process of resolving various conflicts in South Korean society and establishing a culture of co-existence and co-prosperity. Former Democratic United Party Advisor Han Kwang -ok was named as the head.
==== Foreign policy ====
After taking office, Park met with Secretary of State John Kerry and U.S. President Barack Obama. Park's trip to the United States in May 2013 was her first foreign trip after taking office. Like many of her predecessors, Park maintained a close relationship with the U.S., which has over 20,000 soldiers stationed in South Korea. During her visit to the U.S., she addressed a joint session of the U.S. Congress, where she called for a united front against any North Korean provocations. Park also called for a strong global relationship between South Korea and the United States.
Park visited the United States on her first overseas trip as president. She traveled to Washington, D.C., New York City, and Los Angeles on 5–9 May 2013. During summit talks at the White House, Presidents Park and Obama adopted a joint declaration for the American-South Korean alliance and discussed ways to further develop the bilateral relations in a future-forward manner. Also, the two leaders discussed ways to promote cooperation in building peace in the Northeast Asian region and strengthen the partnership between Seoul and Washington. The two leaders of South Korea and the United States agreed to adopt a joint statement on comprehensive energy cooperation to build a foundation for a future growth engine, and establish a policy cooperation committee on information and communication technology. In addition, Park urged her U.S. counterpart to expand the annual U.S. visa quota for South Korean professionals in order to promote co-development of both economies.
On 27–30 June 2013, Park visited China with a South Korean delegation, where she met with Xi Jinping, the Chinese president. On 13 November 2013, Park held an extended meeting with President Vladimir Putin, whose visit to South Korea was the first among leaders of four major powers including the United States, China, and Japan. During the meeting, Park and Putin considered combining Korea's Eurasian Initiative and Russia's Asia-Pacific Policy. After the summit, both presidents issued a joint communique and held a joint press conference. Earlier, Park attended the G-20 Summit in September 2013 at St. Petersburg, where she met Putin for a separate dialogue discussing economic cooperation and seeking support on North Korean issues. It marked the first Korea–Russia summit talk since Park's inauguration. When Park met with Russian Minister for the Development of Russian Far East Viktor Ishaev, who headed the Russian delegation to Park's inaugural ceremony, she stated that Russia was one of Korea's key strategic partners.
===== North Korea =====
North Korea had engaged in provocations such as violating a UN Security Council resolution and firing a long-range missile on 12 December 2012, just before 19 December presidential election. After Park was elected, North Korea conducted its third nuclear test 12 February 2013, nullified the non-aggression agreements between the two countries on 8 March and withdrew North Korean workers from the Kaesong Industrial Region on 8 April. Park maintained her stance that South Korea will not succumb to the North's provocations and threats, and will endeavor to elicit policy coordination towards North Korea with major powers such as the United States, China and the UN. Her response to North Korean issues gained the support of many South Koreans and also the United States, China, and Russia, and played a significant role in the unanimous adoption by the UN Security Council of Resolution 2094 regarding North Korea on 7 March 2013. Due to Park's response and the international community's actions, on 6 June North Korea ceased provocations and threats towards the South and suggested holding discussions on reopening the Kaesong Industrial Complex.
Park said that peace and unification on the Korean peninsula is the wish of all 70 million Koreans and that as president she will do her utmost to meet such a goal. As well, "the ultimate objective of reunification efforts is to improve the quality of life of people in both Koreas, to further expand freedom and human rights, and [from there] build a prosperous Korean Peninsula." She later stated, "to open a new era of peace and hope on the peninsula, North Korea needs to accept her administration's trust-building policy initiative".
Park's policy vision and initiative on issues concerning North Korea and unification are reflected in her Korean Peninsula Trust-building Process. The Ministry of Unification announced a new vision statement "realizing a new unified Korea that ensures everyone's happiness". The administrative tasks for this cause include normalizing inter-Korean relations through a trust-building process, embarking on small-scale unification projects that will lead to a complete integration of the two Koreas, and taking practical measures to prepare for unification by strengthening unification capabilities. According to Park, peaceful unification will be achieved in a three-stage unification initiative: starting from securing peace, going through economic integration, and finally reaching political integration. To achieve sustainable peace by the initiative, the new administration will offer humanitarian assistance for the people in North Korea, inter-Korean exchange and cooperation in economic, social, and cultural areas, and will apply 'Vision Korea project' for establishing a single economic community in the Korean Peninsula, conditioned on sufficient mutual trust and progress in denuclearizing North Korea.
=== Second year (February 2014 – February 2015) ===
Park proposed three steps to North Korea to help move toward the reunification of the Korean Peninsula, on 28 March in Dresden, during her state visit to Germany. She stated that "Starting with jointly managing rivers and forests running through the two Koreas, we need to expand joint projects that benefit both sides. In that respect, I hope North Korea will attend the UN Convention on Biological Diversity conference to be held in South Korean city of Pyeongchang in October."
In May 2014, Park warned that a new nuclear test by North Korea could lead to "a nuclear domino effect", that might provide its neighbors with a pretext to arm themselves with nuclear weapons.
On 18 May 2014, Park announced South Korea's "plans to break up its coastguard" after failing to respond well during the MV Sewol ferry disaster. According to Park, "investigation and information roles would be transferred to the South Korea National Police while the rescue and salvage operation and ocean security roles would be transferred to the Department for National Safety, not to be confused with the Korean Ministry of Security and Public Administration, which will be newly established".
On 19 November 2014, the Korea Coast Guard and National Emergency Management Agency ceased control as the Ministry of Public Safety and Security was founded at the same day.
=== Third year (February 2015 – February 2016) ===
On 26 May 2015, Park urged the head of the Asian Development Bank to cooperate with South Korea and the China-led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank after South Korea had officially applied to join the Chinese-led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank in late March 2015.
=== Fourth and final year (February 2016 – March 2017) ===
On 1 May 2016, Park became the first South Korean president to visit Iran. She was at the head of a 236-member delegation of businessmen and entrepreneurs during a three-day visit to Tehran to discuss bilateral trade and other matters of mutual interest. She met Iranian President Hassan Rouhani and held talks with Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. The two countries also signed 19 basic agreements to expand mutual cooperation over a variety of areas. Earlier, Iran's President Rouhani emphasized that Iran and South Korea were set to boost their trade volume from the current $6 billion to $18 billion.
==== 2016 general elections ====
Park suffered a serious setback in the 2016 general elections on 13 April 2016, as the Saenuri Party lost both its majority and its status as first party in the National Assembly. Park had been criticized for her involvement in the elections and the party's nomination process, and other Saenuri members blamed the pro-Park faction in the party for the defeat. Park loyalists fared badly in constituency elections. The result was seen to hinder the chances of Park's passing her proposed economic reforms, and in the aftermath of the results the conservative The Chosun Ilbo stated that Park's "lame duck period has started earlier than any other administration in the past".
=== Approval ratings ===
In July 2013, public support for Park's method of governing state affairs reached up to 63 percent, higher than the percentage of the votes she had won in the presidential election, which was 52 percent. The Korean media suggested that such a high level of support came from Park's principled North Korea policy, constructive outcomes from visits to the United States and China, and distancing from internal political disputes.
By January 2015, Park's approval rating had fallen to 30 percent, partly due to the sinking of MV Sewol and disputes with North Korea. By September 2015, Park's approval had increased to 54 percent due to her diplomacy that defused a military standoff with North Korea, but in the aftermath of her party's 2016 election loss, her ratings fell to 31.5 percent, plunging 8.1 percentage points compared to the week before the election.
On 4 November 2016, Park's ratings fell to 4–5% as details of her relationship with Choi Soon-sil were investigated and exposed in what became the 2016 South Korean political scandal.
== Arrest, detention, pardon and post-presidency (2017–present) ==
Park was arrested on 31 March 2017, and held in pre-trial detention at the Seoul Detention Center in Uiwang, Gyeonggi Province. On 17 April 2017, Park was formally charged with abuse of power, bribery, coercion and leaking government secrets. Park denied the charges during five rounds of interrogation while in prison.
Prosecutors sought a 30-year prison term for Park, along with a fine of ₩188.5 billion (US$110,579,397). On 6 April 2018, a three-judge panel of the Central District Court in Seoul sentenced Park to 24 years in prison and a fine of ₩18 billion (US$16,798,683), finding her guilty of 16 out of 18 charges brought before her.
In June 2018, three former NIS directors (Lee Byung-kee, Lee Byung-ho, and Nam Jae-joon) who served in the Park administration were found guilty of bribery, related to the 2016 Park Geun-hye scandals. They illegally transferred money from the NIS budget to Park's presidential office. This illegally obtained money was used by Park and her associates for private use and to pay bribes. On 24 August 2018, Park's sentence was increased to 25 years in prison.
In July 2020, an appellate court reduced Park's prison sentence to 20 years after a retrial, taking into account that she "received little personal benefit" from her offences, and Park was also cleared of charges of alleged extortion from conglomerates paying donations to foundations of Choi Soon-sil. In January 2021, South Korea's top court upheld the 20-year prison sentence, bringing an end to the legal process.
On 24 December 2021, it was announced that Park would receive a pardon from South Korean President Moon Jae-in. In his pardon, President Moon cited Park's deteriorating health and the needs to "overcome unfortunate past history and promote national unity" as reasons for the pardon. On 31 December, she was released from prison, returning home three months later on 24 March 2022. New President Yoon Suk-yeol invited Park to his inauguration ceremony on 10 May 2022.
== Controversies and issues ==
=== Parentage controversy ===
Park had been often criticized for being the "daughter of a dictator" (Park Chung Hee) and by supporters of Lee Myung-bak for not actively supporting the Lee administration. A national-level poll conducted in July 2012 by a conservative newspaper reported that 59% of participants responded they did not believe Park was a "daughter of a dictator" while 36% agreed with the characterization. Park Chung Hee's status as a dictator became a contested topic after the 1997 Asian financial crisis. GNP party elites saw this as their chance to revitalize Park Chung Hee's image, focusing on South Korea's economic growth during his administration, thus steadily changing his public perception.
During a 2012 interview with the Cheongju broadcast station CJB, Park commented regarding her stance that her father's May 16 coup was a "revolution to save the country" by stating, "I don't think it's the place of politicians to be fighting over whether [the events of 1961] were a 'coup d'etat' or a 'revolution'." In a July 2012 survey, 50% of respondents answered that they disagreed with Park's assessment that her father's 1961 coup was "unavoidable, the best possible choice, and an advisable decision", as opposed to 37% that agreed. From another survey conducted in July 2012, 42% of respondents agreed with her opinion that her father's 1961 coup was "unavoidable", while 46% disagreed.
Because Park inherited strong regional and generational support from her father, as well as the legacy of his economic success, Park's opponents used her father as criticism against her.
=== Bu-il foundation accusations ===
Park has faced much scrutiny over an educational foundation, Jeongsoo Scholarship Foundation, formerly known as Buil (in reference to the stock it controls in the newspaper "Busan Ilbo"), which her father, and later she, headed. Its original owners claimed in court they were forced to turn it over to her father.
=== Party criticism ===
Liberty Korea Party assemblyman Nam Kyung-pil criticized the Park-centered nature of the party, regarding its preparation for the 2012 presidential election, and stated, "If we keep seeing the same situation where Park Geun-hye gives a press conference before a general meeting of lawmakers is held, and what she says then gets decided on as the party's position, then the public is going to think democracy has disappeared from the party."
Furthermore, some have said Park's behavior in the lead-up to 2012 presidential election was a mixture of trend-following and corner-cutting—a stark contrast with the vehement insistence on the principle that she showed when she opposed a revision of the plan for a multifunctional administrative city in Sejong City. For instance, Yim Tae-hee, another presidential candidate of the party, pointed to Park's voting down of a motion to arrest Chung Doo-un, a lawmaker implicated with bribery related to saving banks. Another candidate, Ahn Sang-soo, accused Park of "saying one thing yesterday and another today".
=== Spokesman scandal ===
Park fired Yoon Chang-jung, a Blue House spokesman who was alleged by Washington Police to have committed sexual assault against a young woman hired as an intern at the South Korean Embassy in Washington during Park's first visit to the United States.
=== Election-meddling scandal ===
Just a week before the presidential election date, the opposing party alleged that the public servants from National Intelligence Service (NIS) had organized to promote Park's election campaign by way of posting online articles favorable to Park and slanderous to the opposing candidates. This political behavior by public servants is strictly prohibited by the Korean Constitution. To prove their allegation, the opposing Democratic Party, along with the police and Central Election Assistance Commission. From there, the 29-year-old female agent, later known as Ha-Young Kim, who was running an illegal online election campaign operation such as spreading slanderous postings about the opposing candidate had locked herself in. The police could not force to enter the house and the standoff lasted for three days, provoking a tense political standoff. The opposition accused the intelligence service of blocking an investigation. Park and her party accused the opposition of harassing the woman. Park even said the standoff of the self-lock-in was a violation of a female right in the presidential candidate debate that took place three days before the election.
Later that night of the presidential debate, Kim Yong-pan, then the chief of Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency, publicly announced there was no evidence of illegal online postings from the collected laptop of the female agent. This announcement, which took place three days before the election, was believed to have significantly affected the outcome of the presidential election according to the opposing party. After months of probes into the alleged election meddling, the prosecution concluded in mid-June 2013 that Won Sei-hoon, then NIS chief who headed the intelligence agency for around four years under former President Lee Myung-bak, ordered agents to conduct an online smear campaign against opposition presidential candidates. The special investigation drew a conclusion that the agents systemically intervened in domestic politics by writing thousands of postings on politics in cyberspace through hundreds of different user IDs. Kim Yong-pan, then chief of the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency (SMPA), was prosecuted without physical detention on charges of abusing his authority to hamper police investigation into the case. CCTV conversation between the computer analysts who were analyzing the laptop at police revealed that the police already knew there were illegal online postings against the opposing party's candidates, but the chief of SMPA publicly announced otherwise, an announcement that indicates intentional meddling into the presidential election.
The investigation and the trial at court are on-going, and Park faces a political blow. However, the leading Saenuri party along with government leaders has attempted to dodge its political fall-out. Their effort has involved tipping a rumor to a major conservative media, Chosun Ilbo, about an extramarital child of the Chae Dong-wook, former Prosecutor General, who has approved the prosecution of Won Se-hoon and Kim Yong-pan, which eventually led to his resignation. Yoon Suk-ryul, the director of the special investigation team, which was leading the probe into the election meddling, was fired and returned to his original position, head of Yeoju branch Supreme Prosecutors Office. The investigation of his team has further revealed that the NIS is suspected of having posted 55,689 messages on Twitter for three months until the presidential election.
Whether or not the election meddling of the NIS by way of online posts has actually affected the outcome of the presidential election is controversial. However, the false announcement by Kim Yong-pan, then chief of the SMPA, has appeared to do so. Had the police announced honestly, 14% of the electorate who voted for Park said they would have voted for Moon Jae-In, the first runner-up of the election.
=== Lack of communication ===
Park has been criticized for holding press conferences with questions and answers submitted in advance. By 11 January 2015, she had held four press conferences since taking office in February 2013. Among the four press conferences, three of them were public speeches without questions and answers. Even in the remaining press conference, the questions were submitted in advance, and she read prepared answers. Her opponents labeled her as "No communication" (불통; Bultong).
=== November 2015 protests ===
On 15 November 2015, around 80,000 anti-government protesters clashed with government forces on the streets of Seoul, demanding that Park step down, with many of the protesters chanting "Park Geun-hye, step down". The rally was triggered by Park's adopting business-friendly labour policies and a decision to require middle and high schools to use only state-issued history textbooks in classes starting in 2017, combined with plans to make labour markets more flexible by giving employers more leeway in dismissing workers. Security forces fired tear gas and sprayed water cannons into the crowd when protesters attempted to break through police barricades.
=== Censorship ===
In the wake of the April 2014 capsizing of the Sewol ferry, public outcry arose over the government's handling of the situation. In response, the Park administration established a commission to monitor and prosecute social media critics of Park.
Tatsuya Kato, a Japanese journalist who was a Seoul Bureau chief of South Korea at Sankei Shimbun, was indicted on charges of defamation for reporting the relationship between Park and Choi Soon-sil's husband, Chung Yoon-hoi, by the Supreme Prosecutors' Office of the Republic of Korea after the MV Sewol sank.
=== Public Official Election Act ===
On 25 June 2015, Park said that "Betrayal which breaks the trust shouldn't be accepted in politics and this should be punished by election with people's own hands". This mention was aimed to Yu Seungmin who was a member of Saenuri Party. Her statement was criticized by professor Jo Guk and politician Moon Jae-in because it was intended to affect Yu's election, which is forbidden by the Public Official Election Act. However, the National Election Commission decided not to treat Park's mention as a violation of the Act.
=== Comfort Women agreement ===
In 2015, Park reached an agreement with Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe regarding the comfort women issue. Japan apologized to former comfort women and provided 1 billion yen ($8.8 million) towards an assistance fund as terms of the agreement. The two governments agreed that the issue would be "irreversibly resolved". However, in 2017, Park's successor, President Moon Jae-in, stated that the deal was seriously flawed and unilaterally terminated it.
=== Choi Soon-sil scandal and impeachment ===
In October 2016, investigations into Park's relationship with Choi Soon-sil, daughter of the late Church of Eternal Life cult leader and Park's mentor Choi Tae-min, began. Several news media including JTBC and the Hankyoreh reported that Choi, who has no official government position, had access to confidential documents and information for the president, and acted as a close confidant for the president. Choi and Park's senior staff including both Ahn Jong-bum and Jeong Ho-sung used their influence to extort ₩77.4 billion (approximately $75 million) from Korean chaebols—family-owned large business conglomerates—and set up two culture and sports-related foundations, Mir and K-sports foundations. Choi was also accused of having influenced Ewha Womans University to change their admission criteria in order for her daughter Chung Yoo-ra to be given a place there. Ahn Jong-bum and Jeong Ho-sung, top presidential aides, were arrested for abuse of power and helping Choi; they denied wrongdoing and claimed that they were simply following President Park's orders. Choi was also alleged to have used a South Korean overseas development assistance project (a convention center in Myanmar) for improper personal benefits.
On 25 October 2016, Park publicly acknowledged her close ties with Choi. On 28 October, Park dismissed key members of her top office staff while her approval ratings fell to 4%. Her approval rating ranged from 1 to 3% for Korean citizens under 60 years of age, while it remained higher, at 13%, for the over-60 age group. It was the worst ever approval rate in Korean history and is worse than the 6% approval rating of former President Kim Young-sam, who was widely blamed for forcing the Korean economy into the 1997 Asian financial crisis. The controversy led to mass protests and rallies in October and November 2016 calling for her resignation. On 12 November, more than 1 million citizens participated in the protests at Gwanghwamun Square close to the presidential residence demanding Park's resignation or impeachment. On 19 November, another 1 million people participated in the national protest after Park refused to help in the investigation.
Park then fired a number of her cabinet members and the prime minister. In particular, the sacking of the prime minister, Hwang Kyo-ahn, resulted in controversy, due to the claim that his firing was carried out via a text message. The Supreme Prosecutors' Office of Korea (SPO), in laying charges against Choi and two former presidential aides, alleged that Park colluded with the three in certain criminal activities. The president would be questioned by prosecutors, the first time this has occurred with a serving South Korean president. Following the scandal, there was a series of massive demonstrations that started in the first week of November 2016. On 29 November 2016, Park offered to resign as president, and invited the National Assembly to arrange a transfer of power. The opposition parties rejected the offer, accusing Park of attempting to avoid the process of impeachment.
The National Assembly instead filed a motion for impeachment, which was put to a vote on 9 December 2016 and passed with 234 supporters. Due to the ratification of her impeachment proposal, her presidential powers and duties were suspended, and Prime Minister Hwang Kyo-ahn assumed those powers and duties as acting president.
Park was finally ousted from office by the Constitutional Court on 10 March 2017. The decision was unanimous, 8–0 in favour of the impeachment, as announced shortly thereafter. On 26 March 2017, South Korean prosecutors announced they were seeking an arrest warrant against Park. This warrant was granted by the Seoul Central District Court on 31 March 2017, and Park was arrested later that day, and was later sentenced to 25 years in prison.
=== Pardon ===
In December 2021, the government of President Moon Jae-in decided to issue Park a pardon. The Justice Ministry said the reason for doing so was to promote reconciliation and consolidate national power to help overcome the national crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Moon also said Park's declining health had played a role in the decision. Park was pardoned under a broad amnesty that benefited 700 other prisoners, whose remaining prison terms would be eradicated or cut in half. She arrived home in March 2022 after having been hospitalized at Samsung Medical Center.
== Honours ==
South Korea:
Recipient of the Grand Order of Mugunghwa
=== Foreign honours ===
Austria:
Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
Peru
Grand Cross of Order of the Sun of Peru
United Kingdom:
Honorary Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB, 2013)
== Electoral history ==
=== National Assembly races (1998 to present) ===
==== 1998 ====
==== 2000 ====
==== 2004 ====
==== 2008 ====
==== 2012 ====
=== Presidential (2012) ===
== Publications ==
=== Books ===
—— (July 2007). 절망은 나를 단련시키고 희망은 나를 움직인다 [Despair Trains Me and Hope Moves Me] (in Korean). Wisdom House. ISBN 978-89-6086-033-9.
—— (January 2001). 나의 어머니 육영수 [My mother, Yuk Young-soo] (in Korean). People&People. ISBN 978-89-85541-54-1.
—— (October 1998). 결국 한 줌, 결국 한 점 [In the End Only a Fistful, One Speck] (in Korean). Busan Ilbo Books. ISBN 978-89-87236-25-4.
—— (October 1998). 고난을 벗 삼아 진실을 등대삼아 [Befriending Adversity: Truth as the Guiding Light] (in Korean). Busan Ilbo Books. ISBN 978-89-87236-24-7.
—— (May 1995). 내 마음의 여정 [Journey of My Mind] (in Korean). Hansol Media. ISBN 978-89-85656-50-4.
—— (November 1993). 평범한 가정에 태어났더라면 [If I Were Born in an Ordinary Family] (in Korean). Nam Song. ISBN 9780307455628. OCLC 33010951.
=== Articles ===
"A New Kind of Korea: Building Trust Between Seoul and Pyongyang". Foreign Affairs. September–October 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
== See also ==
Politics of South Korea
== Explanatory footnotes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website Archived 12 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine (in English)
Park Geun-hye addresses "U.S.–Korea Relations in a Changing World" at Stanford University, 6 May 2009
Park Geun-hye's speech at the JFK Jr. Forum, Harvard University, 12 February 2007
"Star Rises for Daughter of South Korea", The Washington Post, 15 March 2005
"All the Queen's men and women", The Straits Times, 20 March 2017
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Alberto_Galluzzi | Carlo Alberto Galluzzi | Carlo Alberto Galluzzi (1919–2000) was an Italian politician. From 1976 till 1989, he served as a Member of the European Parliament. He was a member of the Communist Party of Italy. In 1983/1984 he served as Chair of the Delegation to the European Parliament/Spanish Cortes Joint Committee. From 1985 until 1987 he served as Chair of the Delegation for relations with Japan. During 1989 he served as Vice-Chair of the Delegation for relations with the Member States of ASEAN and the ASEAN Interparliamentary Organisation (AIPO) and the Republic of Korea.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO | NATO | North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance between 32 member states—30 in Europe and 2 in North America. Founded in the aftermath of World War II, NATO was established with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. The organization serves as a system of collective security, whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any outside party. This is enshrined in Article 5 of the treaty, which states that an armed attack against one member shall be considered an attack against them all.
Throughout the Cold War, NATO's primary purpose was to deter and counter the threat posed by the Soviet Union and its satellite states, which formed the rival Warsaw Pact in 1955. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the alliance adapted, conducting its first major military interventions in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995) and Yugoslavia (1999). Article 5 was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks, leading to the deployment of NATO troops to Afghanistan as part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). The alliance has since been involved in a range of roles, including training in Iraq, intervention in Libya in 2011, and countering piracy.
Since the end of the Cold War, the alliance has accepted sixteen new members, incorporating former Warsaw Pact countries and post-Soviet states. NATO and Russia have co-operated, but Russian leaders have called this eastward enlargement a threat to its security interests, and oppose Ukraine joining NATO. The Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014 prompted strong condemnation from NATO and a renewed focus on collective defence. Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 led to a major reinforcement of NATO's eastern flank and caused Finland and Sweden to abandon their neutral status and join the alliance. NATO recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Ukraine and Georgia as aspiring members.
NATO's main headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, while its military headquarters are near Mons, Belgium. The combined militaries of all NATO members include approximately 3.5 million soldiers and personnel. Their combined military spending constitutes over half of the global total. Members have committed to a target of spending at least 5% of their gross domestic product (GDP) on defence to ensure the alliance's continued military readiness.
== History ==
=== 20th century ===
NATO has its roots in the Atlantic Charter, a 1941 agreement between the United States and United Kingdom. The Charter laid out a framework for international cooperation without territorial expansion after World War II. On 4 March 1947, the Treaty of Dunkirk was signed by France and the United Kingdom during the aftermath of World War II and the start of the Cold War as a Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance in the event of possible attacks by Germany. In March 1948, this alliance was expanded in the Treaty of Brussels to include the Benelux countries, forming the Brussels Treaty Organization, commonly known as the Western Union. Talks for a wider military alliance, which could include North America, also began that month in the United States, where their foreign policy under the Truman Doctrine set out in 1947 promoted international solidarity against actions they saw as communist aggression, such as the February 1948 coup d'état in Czechoslovakia. These talks resulted in the signature of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949 by the member states of the Western Union plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland. Canadian diplomat Lester B. Pearson was a key author and drafter of the treaty.
The North Atlantic Treaty was largely dormant until the Korean War initiated the establishment of NATO to implement it with an integrated military structure. This included the formation of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in 1951, which adopted many of the Western Union's military structures and plans, including their agreements on standardizing equipment and agreements on stationing foreign military forces in European countries. In 1952, the post of Secretary General of NATO was established as the organization's chief civilian. That year also saw the first major NATO maritime exercises, Exercise Mainbrace and the accession of Greece and Turkey to the organization. Following the London and Paris Conferences, West Germany was permitted to rearm militarily, as they joined NATO in May 1955, which was, in turn, a major factor in the creation of the Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact, delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War.
The building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 marked a height in Cold War tensions, when 400,000 US troops were stationed in Europe. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion – doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO's military structure in 1966. In 1982, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance.
The Revolutions of 1989 in Europe led to a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and focus on the continent. In October 1990, East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance, and in November 1990, the alliance signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) in Paris with the Soviet Union. It mandated specific military reductions across the continent, which continued after the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in February 1991 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union that December, which removed the de facto main adversaries of NATO. This began a drawdown of military spending and equipment in Europe. The CFE treaty allowed signatories to remove 52,000 pieces of conventional armaments in the following sixteen years, and allowed military spending by NATO's European members to decline by 28 percent from 1990 to 2015. In 1990, several Western leaders gave assurances to Mikhail Gorbachev that NATO would not expand further east, as revealed by memoranda of private conversations.
In the 1990s, the organization extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, the organization conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999.
Politically, the organization sought better relations with the newly autonomous Central and Eastern European states, and diplomatic forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbours were set up during this post-Cold War period, including the Partnership for Peace and the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative in 1994, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1997, and the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council in 1998. At the 1999 Washington summit, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic officially joined NATO, and the organization also issued new guidelines for membership with individualized "Membership Action Plans". These plans governed the subsequent addition of new alliance members.
=== 21st century ===
Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks, after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO-led ISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations.
The election of French president Nicolas Sarkozy in 2007 led to a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the NATO Military Command Structure, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent.
The 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea led to strong condemnation by all NATO members, and was one of the seven times that Article 4, which calls for consultation among NATO members, has been invoked. Prior times included during the Iraq War and Syrian civil war. At the 2014 Wales summit, the leaders of NATO's member states formally committed for the first time to spend the equivalent of at least two percent of their gross domestic products on defence by 2024, which had previously been only an informal guideline.
At the 2016 Warsaw summit, NATO countries agreed on the creation of NATO Enhanced Forward Presence, which deployed four multinational battalion-sized battlegroups in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. Before and during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, several NATO countries sent ground troops, warships and fighter aircraft to reinforce the alliance's eastern flank, and multiple countries again invoked Article 4. In March 2022, NATO leaders met at Brussels for an extraordinary summit which also involved Group of Seven and European Union leaders. NATO member states agreed to establish four additional battlegroups in Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia, and elements of the NATO Response Force were activated for the first time in NATO's history.
As of June 2022, NATO had deployed 40,000 troops along its 2,500-kilometre-long (1,550 mi) Eastern flank to deter Russian aggression. More than half of this number have been deployed in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland, which five countries muster a considerable combined ex-NATO force of 259,000 troops. To supplement Bulgaria's Air Force, Spain sent Eurofighter Typhoons, the Netherlands sent eight F-35 attack aircraft, and additional French and US attack aircraft would arrive soon as well. In 2025, Germany stationed a full armoured brigade in Lithuania.
== Military operations ==
=== Early operations ===
No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, Anchor Guard in 1990 and Ace Guard in 1991, were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Airborne early warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of southeastern Turkey, and later a quick-reaction force was deployed to the area.
=== Bosnia and Herzegovina intervention ===
The Bosnian War began in 1992, as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia. The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9 October 1992, authorizing its member-states to enforce a previously declared no-fly zone under the United Nations Protection Force over central Bosnia and Herzegovina. NATO complied and started enforcing the ban on 12 April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight. From June 1993 until October 1996, Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no-fly zone.
On 10 and 11 April 1994, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US F-16 jets acting under NATO direction. In retaliation, Serbs took 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April. On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces.
In August 1995, a two-week NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began against the Army of the Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica genocide. Further NATO air strikes helped bring the Yugoslav Wars to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995. As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, named IFOR. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO countries in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller SFOR, which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations were then passed onto the European Union Force Althea. Following the lead of its member states, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations.
=== Kosovo intervention ===
In an effort to stop Slobodan Milošević's Serbian-led crackdown on KLA separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire.
Negotiations under US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO, which acted on protecting regional security and started a 78-day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999. Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo.
The campaign was and has been criticized over its civilian casualties, including the bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, and over whether it had legitimacy. The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the UN Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval. The US/UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management.
Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999, ending the Kosovo War. On 11 June, Milošević further accepted UN resolution 1244, under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence. In August–September 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia. As of 2023, around 4,500 KFOR soldiers, representing 27 countries, continue to operate in the area.
=== War in Afghanistan ===
The September 11 attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization's history. The Article states that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, and to enhance the security of shipping in general, which began on 4 October 2001.
The alliance showed unity: on 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which included troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two countries leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area.
ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban, al-Qaeda and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan, and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country.
On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a US-led anti-terrorism coalition. Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts. During its 2012 Chicago Summit, NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO-led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014. ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow-on training Resolute Support Mission.
On 14 April 2021, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said the alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May. Soon after the withdrawal of NATO troops started, the Taliban launched an offensive against the Afghan government, quickly advancing in front of collapsing Afghan Armed Forces. By 15 August 2021, Taliban militants controlled the vast majority of Afghanistan and had encircled the capital city of Kabul. Some politicians in NATO member states have described the chaotic withdrawal of Western troops from Afghanistan and the collapse of the Afghan government as the greatest debacle that NATO has suffered since its founding.
=== Iraq training mission ===
In August 2004, during the Iraq War, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission – Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US-led MNF-I. The NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. The aim of NTM-I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the country. NTM-I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of the North Atlantic Council. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US-led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who was also dual-hatted as the Commander of NTM-I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011.
Turkey invoked the first Article 4 meetings in 2003 at the start of the Iraq War. Turkey also invoked this article twice in 2012 during the Syrian civil war, after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F-4 reconnaissance jet, and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria, and again in 2015 after threats by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant to its territorial integrity.
=== Gulf of Aden anti-piracy ===
In 2008 the United Nations Secretary-General called on member-states to protect the ships of Operation Allied Provider, which was distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia.
The North Atlantic Council and other countries, including Russia, China and South Korea, formed Operation Ocean Shield. The operation sought to dissuade and interrupt pirate attacks, protect vessels, and to increase the general level of security in the region.
Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates, and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states.
=== Libya intervention ===
During the Libyan Civil War, violence between protesters and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated, and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards, beginning with Opération Harmattan by the French Air Force on 19 March.
On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group 1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1, and additional ships and submarines from NATO members. They would "monitor, report and, if needed, interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries".
On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition's forces. NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member states were participating in combat operations, resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany with Gates calling on the latter to contribute more and the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict. In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO. The German foreign ministry pointed to "a considerable [German] contribution to NATO and NATO-led operations" and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama.
While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day (10 June) announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August. Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs. The following week, the head of the Royal Navy said the country's operations in the conflict were not sustainable. By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets. A report from the organization Human Rights Watch in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign.
Following a coup d'état attempt in October 2013, Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues.
=== Turkish border ===
Use of Article 5 has been threatened multiple times and four out of seven official Article 4 consultations have been called due to spillover in Turkey from the Syrian civil war. In April 2012, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan considered invoking Article 5 of the NATO treaty to protect Turkish national security in a dispute over the Syrian civil war. The alliance responded quickly, and a spokesperson said the alliance was "monitoring the situation very closely and will continue to do so" and "takes it very seriously protecting its members."
After the shooting down of a Turkish military jet by Syria in June 2012 and Syrian forces shelling Turkish cities in October 2012 resulting in two Article 4 consultations, NATO approved Operation Active Fence. In the past decade the conflict has only escalated. In response to the 2015 Suruç bombing, which Turkey attributed to ISIS, and other security issues along its southern border, Turkey called for an emergency meeting. The latest consultation happened in February 2020, as part of increasing tensions due to the Northwestern Syria offensive, which involved Syrian and suspected Russian airstrikes on Turkish troops, and risked direct confrontation between Russia and a NATO member.
=== Eastern flank ===
Operation Eastern Sentry is a NATO military initiative launched in response to Russian drone incursions into Polish airspace in September 2025. The operation aims to strengthen the alliance's eastern flank and deter further aggression. Multiple member states are contributing military assets, including fighter jets and naval units, to enhance air and ground defense capabilities. Eastern Sentry is designed to provide a flexible and agile response to threats, with a focus on countering drone technology.
== Membership ==
The 32 NATO members are:
NATO has thirty-two members, mostly in Europe with two in North America. NATO's "area of responsibility", within which attacks on member states are eligible for an Article 5 response, is defined under Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty to include member territory in Europe, North America, Turkey, and islands in the North Atlantic north of the Tropic of Cancer. Attacks on vessels, aircraft and other forces in the North Atlantic (again, north of the Tropic of Cancer) and the Mediterranean Sea may also provoke an Article 5 response. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies such as the Belgian Congo be excluded from the treaty. French Algeria was, however, covered until its independence on 3 July 1962. Twelve of these thirty-two are original members who joined in 1949, while the other twenty joined in one of ten enlargement rounds.
=== Special arrangements ===
The three Nordic countries which joined NATO as founding members, Denmark, Iceland, and Norway, chose to limit their participation in three areas: there would be no permanent peacetime bases, no nuclear warheads and no Allied military activity (unless invited) permitted on their territory. However, Denmark allows the U.S. Space Force to maintain Pituffik Space Base, in Greenland.
From the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, France pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed "Gaullo-Mitterrandism". Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009, the latter being disbanded the following year. France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and, unlike the United States and the United Kingdom, will not commit its nuclear-armed submarines to the alliance.
=== Enlargement ===
NATO was established on 4 April 1949 by the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty (Washington Treaty). The 12 founding members of the alliance were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Four new members joined during the Cold War: Greece (1952), Turkey (1952), West Germany (1955) and Spain (1982). Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, many former Warsaw Pact and post-Soviet states sought membership. In 1990, the territory of the former East Germany was added with the reunification of Germany. At the 1999 Washington summit, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic officially joined, and NATO issued new guidelines for membership, with individualized "Membership Action Plans". These plans governed the addition of new members: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia in 2004, Albania and Croatia in 2009, Montenegro in 2017, and North Macedonia in 2020. Finland and Sweden are the newest members, joining in 2023 and 2024 respectively, spurred on by Russia's invasion of Ukraine.
Ukraine's relationship with NATO began with the NATO–Ukraine Action Plan in 2002. In 2005, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that if Ukraine joined NATO, "we will respect their choice, because it is their sovereign right to decide their own defence policy, and this will not worsen relations between our countries". However, since his 2007 Munich speech, Putin has strongly opposed further enlargement. In 2010, under President Viktor Yanukovych, Ukraine re-affirmed its non-aligned status and renounced aspirations of joining NATO. During the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution, Russia occupied Crimea and supported armed separatists in eastern Ukraine. Because of this, in December 2014 Ukraine's parliament voted to end its non-aligned status, and in 2019 it enshrined the goal of NATO membership in the Constitution. At the June 2021 Brussels Summit, NATO leaders affirmed that Ukraine would eventually join, and supported Ukraine's right to self-determination without interference. In late 2021, there was another massive Russian military buildup on Ukraine's borders. Russian president Putin warned that Ukraine joining NATO, and the deployment of missile defense systems or long-range missiles in Ukraine, would cross a red line. However, Ukraine was a long way from potential membership, and there were no such plans to deploy missiles. The Russian Foreign Ministry drafted a treaty that would forbid Ukraine or any former Soviet state from ever joining NATO. Secretary-General Stoltenberg replied that the decision is up to Ukraine and NATO members, adding "Russia has no veto...and Russia has no right to establish a sphere of influence to try to control their neighbors". NATO offered to improve communications with Russia and discuss missile placements and military exercises, as long as Russia withdrew troops from Ukraine's borders. Instead, Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022. Ukraine applied for NATO membership in September 2022 after Russia proclaimed it had annexed the country's southeast.
Georgia was promised "future membership" during the 2008 summit in Bucharest, but US president Barack Obama said in 2014 that the country was not "currently on a path" to membership.
Russian leaders have said that NATO enlargement went against informal understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and European and US negotiators that allowed for peaceful German reunification. A June 2016 Levada Center poll found that 68 percent of Russians think that deploying NATO troops in the Baltic states and Poland – former Eastern bloc countries bordering Russia – is a threat to Russia. In contrast, 65 percent of Poles surveyed in a 2017 Pew Research Center report identified Russia as a "major threat", with an average of 31 percent saying so across all NATO countries, and 67 percent of Poles surveyed in 2018 favour US forces being based in Poland. Of non-CIS Eastern European countries surveyed by Gallup in 2016, all but Serbia and Montenegro were more likely than not to view NATO as a protective alliance rather than a threat. A 2006 study in the journal Security Studies argued that NATO enlargement contributed to democratic consolidation in Central and Eastern Europe. China also opposes further expansion.
=== NATO defence expenditure ===
==== Direct contributions ====
Member states pay for NATO's three common funds (the civil and military budgets and the security investment programme) based on a cost-sharing formula that includes per capita gross national income and other factors. In 2023–2024, the United States and Germany were the biggest contributors to the NATO budget at 16.2% each.
==== Indirect contributions ====
Member states pay for and maintain their own troops and equipment. They contribute to NATO operations and missions by committing troops and equipment on a voluntary basis. Since 2006, the goal has been for each country to spend at least 2 percent of its gross domestic product on its own defence; in 2014, a NATO declaration said that countries not meeting the goal would "aim to move towards the 2 percent guideline within a decade". In July 2022, NATO estimated that 11 members would meet the target in 2023. On 14 February 2024, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said that 18 member states would meet the 2% target in 2024. On 17 June 2024, prior to the 2024 Washington summit, Stoltenberg updated that figure and announced that a record 23 of 32 NATO member states were meeting their defense spending targets of 2% of their country's GDP. NATO added that defense spending for European member states and Canada was up 18% in the past year alone. As of 2024, the following countries were not meeting the 2% contribution goal: Spain (1.28%), Luxembourg (1.29%), Slovenia (1.29%), Belgium (1.3%), Canada (1.37%), Italy (1.49%), Portugal (1.55%), and Croatia (1.81%).
== Partnerships with third countries ==
The Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation. Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants. The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership. Other third countries have also been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework, such as Afghanistan.
The European Union (EU) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the Berlin Plus agreement on 16 December 2002. With this agreement, the EU was given the possibility of using NATO assets if it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act – the so-called "right of first refusal". For example, Article 42(7) of the 1982 Treaty of Lisbon specifies that "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power". The treaty applies globally to specified territories, whereas NATO is restricted under its Article 6 to operations north of the Tropic of Cancer. It provides a "double framework" for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme.
Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses its activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa. The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative was announced in 2004 as a dialogue forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the Gulf Cooperation Council. In June 2018, Qatar expressed a wish to join NATO, who ruled it out, saying that only additional European countries could join according to Article 10 of NATO's founding treaty. Qatar and NATO had earlier signed a joint security agreement, in January 2018.
Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and since then, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives. In 1998, NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations, but reflect the Allies' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries" was agreed by the Allies in 2000. By 2012, the Alliance had broadened this group, which meets to discuss issues such as counter-piracy and technology exchange, under the names "global partners" or "partners across the globe". Australia and New Zealand, both global partners, are also members of the AUSCANNZUKUS strategic alliance, and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation. NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg stated that NATO needs to "address the rise of China", by closely cooperating with Australia, New Zealand, Japan and South Korea. Colombia is NATO's latest partner and has access to the full range of cooperative activities offered; it is the first and only Latin American country to cooperate with NATO.
== Structure ==
All agencies and organizations of NATO are integrated into either the civilian administrative or military executive roles. For the most part, they perform roles and functions that directly or indirectly support the security role of the alliance as a whole.
The civilian structure includes:
The North Atlantic Council (NAC) is the body which has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO, consisting of member states' permanent representatives or representatives at higher level (ministers of foreign affairs or defence, or heads of state or government). The NAC convenes at least once a week and takes major decisions regarding NATO's policies. The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the secretary general and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon by consensus. There is no voting or decision by majority. Each state represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions.
The NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) is a body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO, which meets at two session per year. NATO PA interacts directly with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. It is however officially a structure different from NATO, and has as aim to join deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council.
NATO headquarters, located on Boulevard Léopold III/Leopold III-laan, B-1110 Brussels, which is in the City of Brussels municipality. The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states. Non-governmental groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council/Atlantic Treaty Association movement.
The military structure includes:
The Military Committee (MC) is the body of NATO that is composed of member states' Chiefs of Defence (CHOD) and advises the North Atlantic Council (NAC) on military policy and strategy. The national CHODs are regularly represented in the MC by their permanent Military Representatives (MilRep), who often are two- or three-star flag officers. Like the council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each country's armed forces. The MC is led by its chairman, who directs NATO's military operations. Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that country's 1966 decision to remove itself from the NATO Military Command Structure, which it rejoined in 1995. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, and this led to conflicts between it and NATO members. Such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom.
Allied Command Operations (ACO) is the NATO command responsible for NATO operations worldwide.
The Rapid Deployable Corps include Eurocorps, I. German/Dutch Corps, Multinational Corps Northeast, and NATO Rapid Deployable Italian Corps among others, as well as naval High Readiness Forces (HRFs), which all report to Allied Command Operations.
Allied Command Transformation (ACT), responsible for transformation and training of NATO forces.
=== Legal authority of NATO commanders ===
NATO is an alliance of 32 sovereign states and their individual sovereignty is unaffected by participation in the alliance. NATO has no parliaments, no laws, no enforcement, and no power to punish individual citizens. As a consequence of this lack of sovereignty the power and authority of a NATO commander are limited. NATO commanders cannot punish offences such as failure to obey a lawful order; dereliction of duty; or disrespect to a senior officer. NATO commanders expect obedience but sometimes need to subordinate their desires or plans to the operators who are themselves subject to sovereign codes of conduct like the UCMJ. A case in point was the clash between General Sir Mike Jackson and General Wesley Clark over KFOR actions at Pristina Airport.
NATO commanders can issue orders to their subordinate commanders in the form of operational plans (OPLANs), operational orders (OPORDERs), tactical direction, or fragmental orders (FRAGOs) and others. The joint rules of engagement must be followed, and the Law of Armed Conflict must be obeyed at all times. Operational resources "remain under national command but have been transferred temporarily to NATO. Although these national units, through the formal process of transfer of authority, have been placed under the operational command and control of a NATO commander, they never lose their national character." Senior national representatives, like CDS, "are designated as so-called red-cardholders". Caveats are restrictions listed "nation by nation... that NATO Commanders... must take into account".
== See also ==
Atlanticism – Ideology of European and North American friendship
Common Security and Defence Policy of the European Union
History of the Common Security and Defence Policy
List of countries in Europe by military expenditures
List of military alliances
List of military equipment of NATO
Major non-NATO ally – Special designation of the United States
Ranks and insignia of NATO – Military rank equivalents within NATOPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
=== Similar organizations ===
ANZUS – Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty
AUKUS – Australia, United Kingdom, United States
Balkan Pact – SFR Yugoslavia with NATO members Greece and Turkey
Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) – Russia and some former Soviet republics
Five Eyes – Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States intelligence services
Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) – Series of Commonwealth defence relationships from 1971
Free World Military Assistance Forces (FWMAF)
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance – 1947 collective defense treaty
Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition (IMCTC) – Intergovernmental counterterrorist military alliance
Middle East Treaty Organization (METO) – Cold War military alliance (1955–1979)Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Northeast Asia Treaty Organization (NEATO) – 1950s proposed collective defense organization
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) – Eurasian multilateral security organisation
South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) – Collective defense organization (1955–1977)
United Nations Command (UNC) – Multinational military force supporting South Korea
== References ==
=== Works cited ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Official website
Secretary General's Annual Reports 2011–present
NATO collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
NATO collected news and commentary at Dawn
NATO collected news and commentary at The Guardian
NATO collected news and commentary at The New York Times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chattahoochee_State_Park#:~:text=The%20park%20occupied%20596%20acres,by%20Hurricane%20Michael%20in%202018. | Chattahoochee State Park | Chattahoochee State Park was a public recreation area located in the extreme southeast corner of Alabama operated by the government of Houston County, Alabama. The park occupied 596 acres (241 ha) along Irwin's Mill Creek on the Florida-Alabama border. It closed following the destruction of much of the park by Hurricane Michael in 2018.
== History ==
Land near the park was the site of an 1818 skirmish in the First Seminole War.
The state park was developed by members of the Civilian Conservation Corps during the 1930s. Their handiwork included a natural stone dam built to create the 23-acre (9.3 ha) CC Pond and the park's dirt roads. At one time, chimneys and other remnants of the camp where CCC workers lived could be found.
The majority of the park's facilities and trees were destroyed by Hurricane Michael in October 2018; subsequently the park was permanently closed due to the state lacking sufficient funds to clear, repair and rebuild the park. In 2022, slow progress was being made on reopening the park; it was hoped to have the park reopened in 2024.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathima_Beevi | Fathima Beevi | M. Fathima Beevi (30 April 1927 – 23 November 2023) was an Indian judge who was a justice of the Supreme Court of India. Appointed to the apex Court in 1989, she became the first female judge of the Supreme Court of India, and the first Muslim woman to be appointed to any of the higher judiciaries in the country. On her retirement from the court, she served as a member of the National Human Rights Commission and later as the Governor of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu from 1997 to 2001. In 2023, she was honoured with Kerala Prabha Award, the second-highest honour given by the Government of Kerala. In the 2024 honours list, she was posthumously awarded the Padma Bhushan.
== Early life and education ==
M. Fathima Beevi was born on 30 April 1927 at Pathanamthitta in the Kingdom of Travancore, now in the Indian state of Kerala, as the daughter of Annaveettil Meer Sahib and Khadeeja Beevi into the Rowther family.
Beevi attended Town school and Catholicate High School, Pathanamthitta and got her BSc in chemistry from women's college, Thiruvananthapuram. She obtained her LL.B. from Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram.
== Career ==
Beevi was enrolled as Advocate on 14 November 1950. She topped the Bar Council exam in 1950. She began her career in the lower judiciary in Kerala. She was appointed the Munsiff in the Kerala Sub-ordinate Judicial Services in May 1958. She was promoted as the Sub-ordinate Judge in 1968 and as the Chief Judicial Magistrate in 1972, as District & Sessions Judge in 1974.
In January 1980, Beevi was appointed the Judicial Member of the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal. She was then elevated to the High Court as a Judge on 4 August 1983.
Beevi became permanent Judge of the High Court on 14 May 1984. She retired as the Judge of the High Court on 29 April 1989 but was further elevated to the Supreme Court as a Judge on 6 October 1989 where she retired on 29 April 1992.
== Governor of Tamil Nadu ==
Beevi later went on to become the Governor of Tamil Nadu on 25 January 1997. Appointing her as the Governor of Tamil Nadu and Justice Sukhdev Singh Kang, former Chief Justice of Jammu and Kashmir High Court, as Governor of Kerala, the then President of India, Shankar Dayal Sharma said "Their experience of and insights into the working of the Constitution and the laws comprise valuable assets."
As the Governor of the state, she rejected the mercy petitions filed by the four condemned prisoners in the Rajiv Gandhi assassination case. The prisoners had sent the mercy petitions to the Governor, pleading for her to exercise her power under Article 161 of the Constitution (the Governor's power to grant pardon).
=== Controversy ===
Beevi was embroiled in controversy when she gave a clean chit to the law and order situation in Tamil Nadu that prompted the ire of the Central government. The Minister for Law, Arun Jaitley asked for her resignation. Later she left her office as Governor of the state under controversial circumstances of her accepting Jayalalithaa's assembly majority after the elections and over the arrest of Karunanidhi, who pitched for her appointment four years ago. Jayalalitha defended the state Governor's decision to invite her to form the government. She said "She is a former supreme court judge. She herself is a legal expert. Nobody need teach her about law or the constitution. Her decision is not justiciable."
Jayalalitha's party had received the simple majority (131 seats out of total 234 seats in the Tamil Nadu Assembly) after elections in May 2001. Fathima Beevi, the then Governor of Tamil Nadu administered the oath of office to J Jayalalitha as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu on 14 May 2001 in spite of the fact that Jayalalitha could not contest the election and would not be able to get herself elected by the people to the assembly within six months as per the constitution. There were a few Public Interest Litigations (PIL) filed in the Supreme Court questioning the validity of her appointment as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Fathima Beevi justified her decision by saying that the majority party in the state assembly had elected Jayalalitha as their leader.
Fathima Beevi submitted her resignation after the Union Cabinet decided to recommend to the President to recall the Governor for having failed to discharge her constitutional obligation. The centre was peeved with Fathima Beevi for not having furnished an independent and objective assessment of the sequence of events after the arrest of the former Chief Minister, M. Karunanidhi, and the two Union Ministers, Murasoli Maran and T. R. Baalu. The centre had accused her of toeing the official line verbatim. The then Andhra Pradesh Governor, Dr C. Rangarajan, took charge as the acting Governor of Tamil Nadu, following her resignation.
Subsequently, the Supreme Court of India overturned her appointment of Jayalalithaa as Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Referring to the case, the Court Bench ruled that "The Governor cannot, in the exercise of his/her discretion or otherwise, do anything that is contrary to the Constitution and the laws. Therefore, the Governor, having due regard to the Constitution and the laws, must decline to exercise the discretion in appointing as Chief Minister a non-member who was not qualified to become a member of the legislature."
=== Other duties ===
As the Governor of the state she had also served as the Chancellor of Madras University. It was reported by university sources that the Vice-Chancellor, P.T. Manoharan, had decided to quit his office in the wake of the Chancellor allegedly withholding her approval to the Syndicate's decision to establish a new department for contemporary Tamil literature. She had also served as the Chairman of Kerala Commission for Backward Classes (1993) and member of National Human Rights Commission (1993). She received Hon. D. Litt. and Mahila Shiromani Award in 1990. She was also awarded Bharat Jyoti Award.
The left parties also discussed the nomination of the prospects of Fathima Beevi as the President of India, during which the NDA Government proposed the name of Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam.
== Death ==
Fathima Beevi died on 23 November 2023, at the age of 96.
== See also ==
Anna Chandy
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_International_Airlines | Pakistan International Airlines | Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) is the flag carrier of Pakistan. With its primary hub at Jinnah International Airport in Karachi, the airline also operates from its secondary hubs at Allama Iqbal International Airport in Lahore and at Islamabad International Airport.
Founded on 29 October 1946 by Mirza Ahmad Ispahani and Adamjee Haji Dawood as Orient Airways, the airline was initially based in Calcutta, British India, before shifting operations to the newly independent state of Pakistan in August 1947. Orient Airways was nationalised to form the Pakistan International Airlines Corporation (PIAC). The new airline commenced international services in 1955 to London, via Cairo and Rome. In 1964, it became the first non-Communist airline to fly to China. The airline assisted in the establishment of Emirates in 1985. In 2004, PIA became the launch customer of the Boeing 777-200LR. On 10 November 2005, PIA used the Boeing 777-200LR to complete the world's longest nonstop flight by a commercial airliner. This flight lasted 22 hours and 22 minutes on the eastbound route between Hong Kong and London.
PIA is Pakistan's largest airline and operates a fleet of 32 aircraft, Mostly various Boeing 777 types, Airbus A320s and ATR aircraft. The airline operates a frequent flyer program, Awards +Plus. It is not part of any airline alliance. The airline operates nearly 50 flights daily, servicing 20 domestic destinations and 28 international destinations across Asia, Europe, the Middle East and North America. It is under the administrative control of the Secretary to the Government of Pakistan for Aviation.
In addition to commercial flight operations, PIA also owns the Sofitel Paris, The Scribe Hotel in Paris, and The Roosevelt Hotel in New York City. The Roosevelt is now used as a homeless shelter.
The Government of Pakistan's report in 2020 emphasised that after Air Marshals Nur Khan and Asghar Khan—whose tenures were regarded in aviation circles as the "Golden Age of PIA"—departed from their leadership roles, the airline began a downward trajectory, suffering billions in losses. Its assets declined, disciplinary issues escalated, and unions indirectly took control of management. Aircraft that were capable of flying were grounded, and repairable equipment was neglected.
On 30 June 2020, PIA was banned from flying in European airspace initially for six months, starting on 1 July 2020, and then indefinitely after EASA determined that the airline was not capable of certifying and overseeing its operators and aircraft in accordance with applicable international standards. This decision was made soon after it was revealed that at least a fourth of all pilots' licences issued in Pakistan were not genuine. By 9 July 2020, the airline was also banned by the United Kingdom and the United States.
On November 29, 2024, the EASA lifted its ban on PIA and other Pakistani carriers, allowing travel between Pakistan and Europe but not the UK. The UK lifted its ban on 16 July 2025.
== Early years ==
Pakistan International Airlines can trace its origins to the days when Pakistan had not gained independence and was still part of the British Raj until 1947. In the early 1930s, Imperial Airways operated its long-haul routes by creating a lot of small airports across Africa and Asia. The Handley Page H.P.42 aircraft was Imperial Airways' first major success, as it was specially designed to handle operations from unprepared ground.
In 1945, the country's founder Muhammad Ali Jinnah recognised the need for a flag carrier for the future nation and sought financial help from wealthy businessmen Mirza Ahmad Ispahani and Adamjee Haji Dawood. As a result, the new airline, Orient Airways, was registered in Kolkata (then known as Calcutta) on 23 October 1946. Orient became the first and only Muslim-owned airline in the British Raj.
In February 1947, the airline bought three Douglas DC-3 aircraft and obtained a licence to fly in May of the same year. The airline started its operations on 30 June 1947, offering services in British India from Calcutta to Sittwe and Rangoon (present-day Yangon).
== Post-independence ==
On 14 August 1947, Pakistan gained independence and Orient Airways started relief operations for the new country. The airline was entrusted with the task of servicing air routes between East and West Pakistan. By 1949, Orient acquired three Convair CV-240s to service the Karachi-Delhi-Kolkata-Dhaka route and became the first Asian airline to operate Convair aircraft.
=== 1950s ===
Orient's traffic continuously declined until 1953 as Great Britain's BOAC had been granted rights to carry passengers between the two wings of Pakistan, while two other local competitors also began serving Orient routes. As a result of losses, the Pakistani government began subsidising Orient's operations through a 1952 contract for the purchase of three Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellations registered to the government's newly established subsidiary, Pakistan International Airlines (PIA), at the cost of 25 million rupees. PIA had been established as a department of Pakistan's Civil Aviation Authority, and was tasked with operation and maintenance of the new Lockheed aircraft.
Pakistan's government established the Pakistan International Airlines Corporation through the merger of Orient Airways with Pakistan International Airlines on 1 October 1953 by an interim joint operating agreement in which the government assumed financial control of the airline, while Orient's operations and ground assets could be complemented by the aircraft of Pakistan International Airlines – although Orient Airways continued to operate under its name for a few more years.
Pakistan's Ministry of Defence took over operations from the Civil Aviation Authority in early 1954, while the chairman of Orient Airways became the CEO of PIA, and foreign staff brought in to help relaunch the airline. On 7 June 1954, Orient Airways began nonstop flight services between East and West Pakistan, with service from Karachi to Dhaka using Pakistan International Airlines' Lockheed aircraft that had been ordered in 1952 and delivered in early 1954. The route was subsidised by the government so that middle-class Pakistanis could afford to fly the route, with rates that may have been the lowest in the world at the time. The airline also introduced two new domestic routes: Karachi–Lahore–Peshawar and Karachi–Quetta–Lahore.
On 11 March 1955, Orient Airways and Pakistan International Airlines were formally merged as part of the Pakistan International Airlines Corporation Ordinance, 1955. Orient Airways ceased operations while the Government of Pakistan took a majority holding in the airline. The new PIA had a fleet of three L-I049C Super Constellations, two Convair CV-240s, and eleven DC-3s.
The newly relaunched airline also inaugurated its first international route, Karachi-London Heathrow Airport via Cairo and Rome, using the newly acquired Lockheed L-1049C Super Constellations. The airline continued using DC-3s on domestic routes in Pakistan. PIA carried 113,165 passengers in 1955 – 50% higher than in 1954.
In May 1956, PIA ordered five Vickers Viscount 815s. The airline also entered into a partnership with PanAm to train PIA's personnel in 1956. In 1957–1958, passenger numbers rose to 208,000, necessitating the purchase of two additional Lockheed Super Constellations. The appointment of Air Marshal Nur Khan as the managing director of PIA in 1959 heralded an era of success for PIA.
=== 1960s ===
In February 1960, PIA wet-leased a Boeing 707 from Pan American Airlines and introduced it onto the Karachi-London route on 7 March 1960 initially using Pan Am pilots, thereby becoming the second Asian airline to induct and commercially operate a jet aircraft in its fleet after Air India. An all-Pakistani crew began operation of the 707 from 20 June 1960 onwards. By the end of 1960, PIA, for the first time, entered financial profitability.
With the newly acquired aircraft, the airline introduced its first trans-Atlantic route Karachi-New York JFK (then known as Idlewild) via London Heathrow on 5 May 1961, which was suspended in February 1963. In 1961, it expanded its fleet by placing orders for 3 Boeing 720s, which were delivered in 1962. On 2 January 1962, a PIA Boeing 720B flown by Captain Abdullah Beg from London to Karachi established a world record for speed over a commercial airline route of 938.78 km/h (582.98 mph), a record which still holds to this day. Fokker F27 Friendships, and Sikorsky helicopters were also ordered and delivered in 1963, with the helicopters used to provide air service to 20 towns in East Pakistan until 1966.
The helicopters were retired in 1966 and a reduced network of eight cities was served by Fokker F27 aircraft. Upon the establishment of ties between Pakistan and the People's Republic of China, PIA started flying the Dhaka-Guangzhou-Shanghai route on 29 April 1964, becoming the first airline of a non-communist country flying to the People's Republic of China. On 10 May 1964, PIA became the first non-Soviet airline offering flights to Europe via Moscow.
At the outbreak of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the Pakistani Armed Forces used PIA's services for logistics and transport purposes. The Viscounts were phased out in 1966 and were replaced by four Hawker Siddeley Tridents.
PIA's route network grew rapidly in the mid to late 1960s: Dhahran was added in 1962, while Cairo services resumed. In 1966, Paris, Istanbul, Baghdad, Kuwait, Jeddah and Nairobi were added to PIA's routes. Bangkok was added in 1967, while Manila, Tokyo, and Damascus were added in 1969.
During a news conference in Karachi on 11 May 1967, Air Marshal Asghar Khan announced that the airline had become the fifth largest profit-making airline in the world, carrying one million passengers annually. At a press conference held at the PIA headquarters in Karachi in July 1967, Asghar Khan announced plans for the construction of a series of small hotels in major cities and resort areas across the country, with a total investment of PKR 44.5 million (approximately $9,345,000). The project included building 64-room hotels in Sylhet, Sargodha, Sukkur, Mohenjo-daro, Chitral, Gilgit, and Kaptai, and 88-room hotels in Khulna, Lyallpur, Multan, and Murree, with an additional 20 cottages attached to the new 644 room Kaptai Hotel. Furthermore, Peshawar and Chittagong will each have hotels with 125 rooms.
These establishments are designed to be European-style motels equipped with modern amenities such as air conditioning, heating, parking facilities, and swimming pools. The cost of rooms would range from twenty to thirty Pakistani rupees, approximately four to five dollars per person, depending on the room type. The hotels were completed in 1970. A new holding company was established to attract domestic investment for this venture, in addition to forming small companies in the cities where the hotels will be located. For the foreign exchange portion, which constitutes 20% of the total cost, successful discussions were conducted with the Export-Import Bank. The entire project relied on private investment, with no financial participation from the Government of Pakistan. Air Marshal Asghar Khan mentioned that the PIA Board of Directors approved an investment of approximately Rs. 10 million for the project. Pakistan Services Ltd., which operated the Intercontinental hotel chain, contributed significantly. Local municipal bodies were approached for investment as well. Bechtel Corp. of New York prepared the design and cost estimates for the proposed motels. To ensure cost-effectiveness and timely execution, it was recommended that a standardised design be used for all the motels, utilising local materials, equipment, and expertise as much as possible.
=== 1970s ===
On 3 December 1971, a French national's attempt to hijack a PIA flight from Paris to Karachi was thwarted by French security forces. Transatlantic flights to New York City were resumed in May 1972 with a stopover in Europe. With the establishment of cordial ties between the Libyan and Pakistani governments in the early 1970s, PIA added Tripoli to its network in 1972. PIA also signed an agreement with Yugoslav airline JAT (today known as Air Serbia) in 1972 to lease two PIA Boeing 707s to JAT.
PIA acquired McDonnell Douglas DC-10s in 1973 to replace its remaining Boeing 707-300s. Nur Khan was appointed as PIA executive for the second term in 1974. In 1974, PIA launched Pakistan International Cargo, offering air freight and cargo services.
The latter half of the decade witnessed a further expansion of PIA's fleet with the introduction of Boeing 747s, with its first two aircraft leased from TAP Air Portugal in 1976. By 1976–7, PIA carried 2.2 million passengers, compared to 698,000 in 1972–3. Revenues in 1976 rose sharply compared to 1975, with the airline revenues of $134 million in the July–December period of 1976. On 20 January 1978, a PIA Fokker 27 was hijacked en route to Karachi from Sukkur.
For the first time since its inauguration, PIA started providing technical and administrative assistance or leased aircraft to foreign airlines including Air China, Air Malta, Choson Minhang (today known as Air Koryo), Philippine Airlines, Somali Airlines, and Yemenia. A subsidiary of PIA also started providing hotel management services in the United Arab Emirates towards the end of the decade. Political upheaval in Pakistan in the late 1970s began to impact PIA's operations negatively.
Tim Clark previously worked at the airline before moving onto found Emirates.
=== 1980s ===
The 1980s saw a continuation of PIA growth. The decade began with the opening of a cargo handling centre at Karachi airport, duty-free shops, the first C and D safety checks on its entire fleet, as well as the introduction of the airline's first Airbus A300B4-200 aircraft. In 1981, PIA had an employee workforce of almost 24,000, which despite being reduced to 20,000 by 1983 still resulted in PIA having the world's highest ratio of employees to aircraft. PIA's operations became increasingly de-centralised during the early 1980s, with responsibilities being split between new departments. Despite de-centralisation, PIA reported its highest ever profits in 1981-82, followed by record profits again in 1983-84.
In 1984, the airline introduced the Night Coach service as a low-cost alternative to day-time domestic flights. In the following years, PIA Planetarium was inaugurated in Karachi which was followed by planetaria in Lahore and Peshawar. These planetariums featured retired PIA aircraft on display for educational and observational purposes. Two more retired Boeing 720B aircraft were donated to the planetaria in Karachi and later on Lahore. PIA profits again rose in 1984–5.
In June 1985, PIA became the first Asian airline to operate the Boeing 737-300 aircraft, after six of the aircraft were delivered. Pakistan International Airlines also played a significant role in establishing UAE's Emirates airline in 1985 by providing technical and administrative assistance to the new carrier as well as leasing a new Boeing 737–300 and an Airbus A300B4-200. In late 1987 and early 1988, services to Malé, Manchester, and Toronto were introduced.
=== 1990s ===
PIA began to sustain operating losses and liquidity problems throughout the 1990s due to frequent pilot strikes, issues with various vendors, over-staffing, and political interference in airline management. In 1990, First Officer Maliha Sami became the first female pilot of PIA when she took off on the Karachi-Panjgur-Turbat-Gwadar route. In June 1991, PIA took delivery of its first of six Airbus A310-300s. With the new aircraft, the airline introduced flights to Tashkent in 1992 and to Zürich in 1993.
In March 1993, AVM Farooq Umar became managing director of the airline. An Open Skies agreement between Karachi to Dubai was agreed upon in 1993, and 12 private airlines were allowed to operate domestically in Pakistan. Both steps came simultaneously and put enormous pressure on PIA's financial performance, though PIA launched six new routes to the Persian Gulf and CIS countries, along with a tourist 'Air Safari' scenic flight over the Karakoram Mountains in 1994. Non-stop flights from Lahore and Islamabad to JFK and Canada were launched, while PIA added Jakarta, Fujairah, Baku, and Al-Ain to its network in 1994. In addition, PIA became a client of three flight reservation systems, namely: SABRE, Galileo, and Amadeus.
A Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft was also leased briefly in 1996 to cope with a surge in passenger traffic during summer 1996. Flights to Beirut were resumed the same year as well before being discontinued a few years later. In 1999, PIA leased five Boeing 747–300 aircraft from Cathay Pacific to replace its Boeing 747-200M fleet. The aircraft were painted with a new livery, a handwork Pashmina tail, on white body and large Pakistan titles on the front fuselage. The livery was adopted in the early 90s but due to some copyright issues, it was dropped. The Boeing 747-300s continued to bear the new livery, but with a plain green tail with PIA titles. The other aircraft in the fleet were repainted in early 1990s livery.
=== 2000s ===
The War in Afghanistan following the attacks on 11 September 2001 negatively impacted PIA's operations as Afghan airspace was closed. However, following the restructuring of the airline under new management in April 2001, the airline again became profitable. Cost per employee dropped 24% between 2000 and 2003, and lower engineering and maintenance costs led to enhanced airline revenue.
In July 2002, PIA purchased six Boeing 747–300 aircraft from Cathay Pacific, five of which were already on lease. The sixth one arrived shortly afterwards and was used mainly on its North American and European routes. In October 2002, after ten years without any new orders, the airline placed an order for eight Boeing 777 aircraft. The order included all three variants of 777, i.e. three 777-200ER (Extended Range), two 777-200LR (Longer Range), and three 777-300ER versions. PIA was the launch customer that revived the Boeing 777-200LR project that, until then, only had three orders.
Boeing delivered the first of three 777-200ER aircraft to PIA in January 2004, and PIA introduced a new livery for the 777-200ERs that was applied to most of its fleet. PIA also leased six more Airbus A310-300 aircraft directly from Airbus. On 3 November 2005, PIA placed an order to purchase seven ATR 42-500 aircraft to replace its ageing fleet of Fokker F27 Friendships. On 10 November 2005, PIA used the 777-200LR to fly the world's longest flight by a commercial airliner, flying over 21,000 kilometres on an eastbound flight from Hong Kong to London for 22 hours and 22 minutes – a record which still stands as of late 2019. On 6 December 2005, PIA acquired another new Boeing 777-200ER on a ten-year lease. The same year, Ayesha Rabia Naveed became the first Pakistani woman to captain a scheduled commercial flight. The following year, she captained a flight with the first all-woman crew. On 23 December 2006, PIA took delivery of its first Boeing 777-300ER. The remaining aircraft were delivered in January 2007.
On 25 February 2006, Boeing delivered its first 777-200LR to PIA. ATR delivered two of the seven ordered ATR 42s to PIA in May and December 2006 respectively, following which the airline ceased using military Lockheed C-130 Hercules for passenger services in northern areas of Pakistan. The military aircraft were being used after the PIA Flight 688 accident.
Under the careful supervision and guidance of Mr. Syed Shah, who was serving as the Station Manager at the time, Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) initiated the induction of long-range 777 aircraft into its fleet. This pivotal move allowed PIA to offer non-stop flights from Toronto to Karachi, Islamabad, and Lahore, beginning on 3 March 2006.
The introduction of the long-range 777 aircraft into PIA's fleet marked a significant milestone in the airline's history.
As a result of this strategic decision, PIA was able to offer a more efficient and seamless travel experience for its passengers, enabling them to travel non-stop to their desired destinations in Pakistan. This move also positioned PIA as a prominent player in the aviation industry, further cementing its reputation as a reliable and customer-centric airline. PIA had also planned non-stop flights to New York City, Chicago, Washington, and Houston but was not permitted by US authorities (unless the airline implemented a European stopover on the flight to American cities) due to security concerns after 9/11.
A PIA flight from Multan crashed in July 2006, killing 45. A government inquiry afterward blamed aging aircraft for the crash. Houston services also ended in 2006. Following the crash, on 5 March 2007, the European Commission banned all but 9 of PIA's 42-strong fleet from flying to Europe, citing safety concerns over its ageing aircraft. The fleet of Boeing 777s was exempted from the ban, but 15 aircraft were over 20 years old by this point. PIA claimed that the ban was discriminatory and unjustifiable.
The ban on some of the aircraft was lifted after four months on 5 July 2007, following an inspection by the European Union Air Safety Administration. Of the eleven aircraft allowed to resume operations to the EU, five were Boeing 747-300s, and the remaining six were Airbus A310-300s. On 29 November 2007, the EU completely removed the ban, and PIA's entire fleet was permitted to fly to Europe.
=== 2010s ===
In 2010, PIA altered its livery. The tail design was replaced with a much larger version of the Pakistan national flag and added the text "Pakistan International" in gold writing underneath the large billboard-style PIA on the fuselage. The green stripe was modified to include gold and was extended to the rear of the fuselage.
By 2011, PIA began to be unprofitable again, requiring government subsidies.
In 2014, PIA leased four Boeing 737-800s. PIA also issued a request for tender for four Boeing 777-300ERs, however, the bids for the 777s were not accepted. The airline did lease Airbus A320 aircraft and inducted two A320-214s in its fleet in 2014. Another wet-leased A320-211s joined PIA on 11 August 2014. In October 2014, the airline again wet-leased three Boeing 737-800s, and it also accepted bids to dry lease five ATR 72–500s for eight years. In 2015, after serving PIA for 16 years, the last of PIA's Boeing 747-300s were phased out.
In early 2016, PIA was fundamentally grounded for an entire week as employees walked out en masse following the deaths of two employees in a demonstration against the airline's privatisation. In August 2016, PIA launched a new "Premier Service" for flights to London, using an Airbus A330-300 wet-leased from SriLankan Airlines. The wet-lease period ended after six months, and as a result, the A330-300 was returned to SriLankan Airlines, and the Premier Service discontinued. By the end of 2016, the airline was saddled with $3 billion in debt.
In January 2017, PIA retired all of the Airbus A310-300s from its fleet. For replacement, PIA leased four Boeing 737-800s from Pegasus Airlines, which were returned later on completion of the lease period. After over 50 years of service, PIA service to New York ended in October 2017 as a result of TSA regulation preventing nonstop flights from Pakistan and the US, leaving Toronto as PIA's only destination in North America – which continues to be served by nonstop flights from Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad.
In 2017, PIA decided to replace its reservation and ticketing system "Sabre" with a Turkish-origin system called "Hitit". Both PIA & Hitit signed an agreement and in September 2018, the airline successfully switched to the new system. At the end of 2018, the airline was burdened with $3.3 billion in debt, up from $2.97 the year before, and thus requiring government bailouts for continued operation. With the demise of Shaheen Air, PIA launched routes that had previously been served only by Shaheen.
New profitable routes were launched in 2019, while profitable routes such as Karachi-Toronto saw increased frequencies. six unprofitable routes were discontinued in 2019. In April 2019, PIA claimed that its revenues almost matched operating costs. Later that year following a visit of TSA officials to the Islamabad International Airport in July 2019, PIA expressed hope that non-stop flights to the US would be permitted. In August 2019, PIA laid off 1,000 "redundant employees". In September, PIA announced that it would lease additional aircraft to increase the airline's fleet to 37 by 2020, and 45 by 2023. By the end of 2019, PIA reported a 41% increase in year-on-year revenue due to discontinuation of unprofitable routes, reintroduction of grounded aircraft, and a sharp increase in cargo-space utilisation.
=== 2020s ===
For the first time in its history, PIA operated a relief flight from Lahore to Melbourne, Australia, during the COVID-19 pandemic.
On 22 May 2020, a PIA Airbus A320-214 AP-BLD, crashed near Karachi airport with 99 people on board. The flight was en route to Karachi from Lahore. Flight PK8303, carrying 91 passengers and eight crew members on board, crashed while on the descent towards the runway of Jinnah International Airport, killing 97 while two passengers survived. The cause of the crash was due to the aircraft being badly damaged in the first belly landing, with both engines flaming out during the go-around. The final report listed following as the primary reasons: human error, non-adherence to SOPs and disregard of ATC instructions during the event flight, lack of communication between the ATC and the flight crew.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) communicated concerns over the "serious lapse in licensing and safety oversight by the aviation regulator".
In November 2020, PIA shut down its courier arm, SpeedEx, whose infrastructure was scattered over 74 domestic destinations, and laid off its 320 employees.
In December 2020, PIA announced a plan to lay off half of its employees and transferred its engineering arm, Precision Engineering Complex (PEC), to the Pakistan Air Force.
On 24 June 2020, in the wake of Flight 8303 crash, Pakistani aviation minister Ghulam Sarwar Khan told Parliament that 262 of Pakistan's 860 active, licensed pilots had been found to have suspicious or fake licences. They were suspected of having paid someone else to take their certification examination on their behalf. PIA subsequently grounded 150 of its 434 pilots on suspicion of having a bogus license. Later, the employment of seven pilots was terminated.
Almost a week after the comments made from pakistan's aviation minister, the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) revoked PIA's 'third part authorisation', subsequently banning PIA from flying in European airspace for six months from the following day, following multiple safety failings.
Following EU's decision to ban PIA, the United States banned the airline because of concerns about its certification of pilots on 9 July 2020. By that date, PIA was also banned from flights in the United Kingdom, and Pakistani pilots in Vietnam and Malaysia were grounded on a temporary basis. I addition, on 15 July 2020, the US Federal Aviation Administration downgraded Pakistan's International Aviation Safety Assessment rating to Category 2, preventing Pakistani airlines including PIA from establishing new services in the United States or carrying the code of any US airline.
On 18 July, PIA dismissed seven pilots and one member of cabin crew whose licences had been revoked by the country's Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).
On 28 December, the EU ban was extended for three more months, stating that an official inspection of the CAA would have to be performed first. On 16 March 2021, the ban was extended to July. Less than a month later, the ban was extended indefinitely, following another safety concern regarding the CAA that was made public by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). ICAO has yet to perform safety audit of the CAA. The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) stated that the ICAO's safety audit would be a sign of improvement.
On 6 November 2021, the first sign of improvement appeared when the CAA received positive feedback from Europe's Safety Audit for Foreign-Origin Aircraft (SAFA).
In late 2023, PIA was forced to cancel numerous flights due to unpaid fuel bills. Resulting cancelations resulted in multiple instances of customer anger creating viral social media content. State-owned Pakistan State Oil suspended fueling of PIA aircraft after PIA's request for additional government funding was denied.
Further improvements were made on 8 March 2023, when PIA completed an online safety audit conducted by EASA.
On 29 November 2024, EASA lifted the EU ban on PIA, citing improvements in the CAA's oversight. PIA subsequentially announced the resumption of flights to Europe, beginning with a flight to Paris that took off on 10 January 2025. However, PIA subsequently apologised after it released an advertisement for the event, which was criticised for using imagery reminiscent of the September 11 attacks and led to Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif announcing an inquiry.
In late December 2023, the Interim government announced a plan to privatise the airline. During a question hour in the Senate, the adviser to Prime Minister on Aviation Air Marshal (Retd) Farhat Hussain Khan that said privatisation of Pakistan International Airlines is being carried out under the government's policy to privatise loss making entities. The Adviser said that initially PIA will be privatised as a flight entity and the decision on its other properties will be decided later.
On 6 January 2025, it was reported that PIA would expand its number of destinations to the Middle East by deploying its fleet of Boeing 777 and Airbus A320 aircraft. From 20 January 2025 onward, PIA started offering two weekly flights between Sialkot and Bahrain. Another two weekly flights are operated between Lahore and Dammam beginning 22 January 2025 while a once-a-week flight commenced on 25 January 2025 between Lahore and Kuwait. Besides, PIA will also introduce weekly flights from Faisalabad to Jeddah starting 20 January 2025 and another weekly service between Sialkot and Doha, Qatar from 21 January 2025.
On 16 July 2025, the UK's Civil Aviation Authority lifted its ban on PIA, also citing safety improvements. PIA announced its intention to resume flights to the UK starting with three weekly flights between Islamabad and Manchester, later reducing the frequency to two weekly. Although the inaugural flight was continuously delayed due to delays in obtaining a Third Country Operator (TCO) certificate, the airline finally got it on 24 September and subsequently launched flights in October 2025.
== Corporate management ==
=== Structure ===
Pakistan International Airlines Corporation Limited (PIACL) is majority-owned by the Government of Pakistan (86%) while the remainder (14%) is owned by private shareholders. The airline is under the administration of Aviation Division and is managed by a president and chief executive officer as well as the board of directors.
The board consists of nine independent non-executive members and has four sub-committees: an Audit Committee, Brand and Advertising Committee, Finance Committee, and Human Resource Committee, each having its charter and chairman. The president and chief executive officer leads the executive management of staff who run the airline. The airline's main headquarters are located at Karachi, while smaller subhead offices are located in several cities within Pakistan.
Seven of PIA's ten departments are in Islamabad, viz, Marketing Department, Procedure Bureau, Central Reservation Control, Revenue Management, HR and Security and Vigilance Department. The remaining three departments are in Karachi, namely finance, engineering and situation room.
=== Privatization ===
In the late 1990s, the Government of Pakistan announced privatization plans due to the persistent losses suffered by the airline, but they were never implemented; however, several steps towards the outsourcing of non-core businesses were initiated. Catering units (starting with Karachi Flight Kitchen), ground handling (starting with ramp services) and engineering, are to gradually leave the airline and operate as independent companies. In 1997, Pakistan called in a team from International Finance (IFC), the consulting arm of the World Bank, to advise on restructuring and privatization of Pakistan International Airlines (PIA). However, no agreement was reached. Despite the government's multiple privatization plans, on 18 February 2009, the carrier was dropped from the privatization list.
In 2013, the Government of Pakistan once again aimed to privatize the airline due to increased losses by selling twenty-six percent of shares and management control to the investor. This plan was dropped due to protests by airline unions and associations after security forces killed two employees approaching the Jinnah International Airport terminal building.
In 2018, the newly elected government aimed to not privatize the entity and instead achieve profitability through the change in its top management.
On 6 February 2024, the Caretaker Cabinet of the interim Government decided to split different functions of Pakistan International Airlines into two entities to make it attractive for investors. These entities were named TopCo and HoldCo. TopCo was allocated basic functions, including engineering, ground handling, and flight kitchen and training. HoldCo was given Precision Engineering Complex, PIA Investment Limited and subordinate departments and properties.
On 4 June 2024, the government pre qualified 6 companies to bid for the privatization of Pakistan International Airlines. these companies were Air Blue, Arif Habib Corporation, Blue World City, Fly Jinnah, Pak Ethanol (Pvt) Consortiums, and YB Holdings Consortiums.
On 30 October 2024, the final bidding process for PIA's privatization attracted only one bid from Blue World City, a real estate development company. The bid offered 10 billion Pakistani rupees (approximately $36 million) for a 60% stake in the airline, which was substantially below the government's minimum price of 85 billion Pakistani rupees.
On 13 November 2024, the Pakistani government officially rejected the bid, emphasizing that the privatization process would adhere to laws and regulations, with final decisions made in the national interest by the cabinet committee.
On July 9, 2025, the Government of Pakistan approved four potential investors to take over Pakistan International Airlines (PIA). These companies are Air Blue, Fauji Fertilizers, Lucky Cement Consortium (Includes Hub Power, Kohat Cement, and Metro Ventures) and Arif Habib Consortium (Fatima Fertilizer, City Schools and Lake City Holdings).
=== Financial and operational performance ===
In 2011, PIA began to be unprofitable, requiring government subsidies. By the end of 2016, the airline was saddled with $3 billion in debt. At the end of 2018, the airline was burdened with $3.3 billion in debt, up from $2.97 the year before, and thus requiring government bailouts for continued operation. In April 2019, PIA claimed that its revenues almost matched operating costs. An audit in September 2019 revealed that PIA had operated 46 empty flights between 2016 and 2017, without any passengers causing a loss of $1.1 million to the airline. Additionally, 36 Hajj flights were flown without any passengers. By the end of 2019, PIA reported a 41% increase in year-on-year revenue due to discontinuation of unprofitable routes, reintroduction of idle aircraft, and a sharp increase in the airline cargo space utilisation.
The airline faces many challenges to its profitability. PIA, along with Etihad, were once considered one of the cheapest airlines in the GCC. Pakistan faces what has been termed "capacity dumping" by Middle East airlines, who operate numerous daily flights to every major city in Pakistan. Pakistan's Open Skies Agreement with the UAE, for example, allows Emirati airlines an unlimited number of seats into Karachi, with Emirates airline alone operating up to seven daily flights to Karachi from Dubai on high-capacity Boeing 777s. PIA also discontinued previously profitable routes to the US, as the TSA forbade nonstop flights from Pakistan to the US, and instead required costly diversions to European airports for immigration clearance – resulting in flight times that were significantly longer than flights on Middle Eastern airlines. New routes such as to Najaf and Bangkok also did not improve the airline's finances given the seasonality of those destinations. Further, staffing levels and overall management issues, including an employee count of 18,014 in 2010 for a fleet of 40 aircraft, present further challenges, although in August 2019, PIA laid off 1,000 "redundant employees".
== Destinations ==
As of November 2019, PIA serves 19 domestic and 28 international destinations in 20 countries across Asia, the Middle East, Europe and North America.
PIA with its Interline agreements and codeshare partner airlines, offers a wider choice of travel in 102 international destinations in 40 countries across the world with different flight connections.
=== Hubs ===
PIA’s hubs are Jinnah International Airport, Allama Iqbal International Airport and Islamabad International Airport. Karachi is PIA’s main hub, while Islamabad and Lahore serve as secondary hubs.
=== Codeshare agreements ===
PIA has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:
=== Interline agreements ===
PIA has interline agreements with the following airlines:
=== Cargo SPA agreements ===
PIA has cargo special pro-rate agreements with the following airlines:
== Fleet ==
=== Current fleet ===
As of November 2025, Pakistan International Airlines operates the following aircraft:
=== Former fleet ===
== Livery ==
In December 2003, PIA introduced a new image that was applied to its first Boeing 777-200ER and on two newly leased Airbus A310s, one of which was in service. The livery was white at the front and beige at the rear separated by a dark green stripe. The tail was painted white with a new typeface PIA acronym written in dark green. The Pakistan title was added to the front fuselage in all raised letters and the engine cowlings were painted in beige. The PIA logo written in calligraphic Urdu was added just behind the cockpit. However, due to criticism, the design was modified before the first Boeing 777 was delivered. The tail logo was replaced by a flowing Pakistan flag on a beige background. The "Pakistan" titles were removed and the PIA acronym was enlarged and moved onto the fuselage. The English and Urdu PIA titles remained the same. The leased A310s and most of the PIA fleet also adopted this livery at a later date.
In early 2006, the airline launched four new tail designs for its fleet. The tails represented the four provinces of Pakistan: Sindh, Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan. The tails promoted the cultures of the four provinces of Pakistan by applying motifs to the tails and adding a city name to the rear of the fuselage corresponding to the province. The "Frontier" tail represented the "Phulkari" (flowering) pattern, which reflected a tradition of embroidery generally done on shawls, shirts, and linen. The "Punjab" tail was loosely related to the tile decoration of the Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore. The "Balochistan" tail showed the creativity seen in the local kilims, carpets, and rugs woven with wool, goat or camel hair and mixed yarn. The pattern was mostly bold geometric motifs in primary colours dominated by red. The "Sindh" tail was influenced by the Hala tile work with electric blue and white floral patterns. In 2009, management stopped the application of provincial tails, deeming them too costly.
PIA launched its new livery in mid April 2010. An Airbus A310, Boeing 777–200 and Boeing 747–300 were the first aircraft to wear the new look. The livery was unveiled at the PIA headquarters on a Boeing 777 model. The livery consisted of a green and gold strip running around the bottom of the fuselage and continuing right up until the tail cone. The forward/upper portion was white and at the rear, it was an off-white/beige colour. The bottom part of the tail blended into the upper fuselage as it too is white, with the rest of the tail painted with a large wavy Pakistan flag, which takes up the whole tail, in a dark green colour. At the front of the fuselage, 'PIA' was written in a billboard style in dark green and underneath 'Pakistan' was written in golden colour. Just behind the cockpit, there is a stylised Urdu PIA logo as well as on the engines.
In July 2014, on the delivery of the first A320 series aircraft, PIA introduced a "crescent and star" on the aircraft engines' cowlings in place of the Urdu PIA logo. In 2015, after the completion of sixty years service, the 1960s livery was applied to three of the Airbus A320s and on one Boeing 777-200ER.
In April 2018, PIA formally launched a new brand identity and livery and added a portrait of the Markhor in a ceremony held at PIA Offices in Islamabad, presented by the then head of brand of PIA, having Pakistan's national animal represented on its aircraft, including a large one on the tail and two on the engines, describing the resilient nature of PIA Brand surviving under the onslaught of all the negativity associated with the brand.
The symbol of animal was chosen for its universal recognition as the Urdu calligraphy logo of PIA could not be comprehended by non-Pakistani customers. In essence the idea was to make PIA a truly international brand based on the values of resilience, grace and fortitude, something which PIA had lost with increased focus on ethnic traffic. The tail had a forward leaping Markhor having long screw horns, which are the features of 'Kashmiri Markhor' endemic to Pakistan only. According to the initial plan, a euro-white style was chosen and existing green and golden strips were removed from the aircraft fuselage along with off-white/beige colour on the rear fuselage, but later a major rebranding was carried out. The font of the PIA logo was also changed and added to the fuselage. For the first time, legacy PIA colours (Pakistan green and mustard gold) were dropped and a blue texture was added in the "PIA" acronym expanding the colour palette for the brand. Urdu PIA logo colour was also changed from the yellow-green gradient texture. The airline's slogan was also changed to "We Fly at the Right Attitude" from "Great People to Fly With". The first aircraft with the redesigned livery was converted on 12 May 2018 and rolled out of Isphani Hangar by the method of decals to make a debut at the New Islamabad International Airport. The re-branding was halted on Suo Moto Notice taken by Supreme Court of Pakistan on fears of spending millions on the rebranding and not paying the salary of the staff on time. The Supreme Court of Pakistan suo motu notice barred PIA from using the Markhor logo as its brand identity. The Supreme Court later gave orders to retain the flag on the tail and disposed of the case. However, with a management change, the re-branding was abandoned altogether. Currently, the airline is operating a hybrid livery which features a euro-white fuselage and gold Urdu logo in-front of the front exits and engine cowling while the flag tail, English PIA (and Pakistan International in gold) titles in dark green and Pakistan titles in dark green on the belly have been retained from the 2010 livery. The PIA corporate website was also added ahead of the aft exits. Currently, five Boeing 777s and three A320s are sporting this livery.
== Services ==
=== Catering ===
PIA Catering is the main supplier of meals for the airline at Islamabad and Karachi. It can produce 15,000 passenger meals each day. In 2006, the management of the flight kitchens was given to Singapore Air Terminal Services (SATS). This agreement ended in 2011 and PIA is managing the Flight Kitchens in Karachi and Islamabad itself. As of April 2019, an MOU was signed between PIA and McDonald's for the airlines catering. PIA Catering provides special meals to allow for passengers' dietary and religious needs. No alcoholic beverages or pork are served on board due to Islamic dietary laws.
=== PIA Premier service ===
PIA Premier was launched as a luxury air service on 14 August 2016. An Airbus A330 aircraft was initially wet-leased from SriLankan Airlines to operate the service. There were six weekly flights to London, three each from Islamabad and Lahore. However, it was soon diminished due to a loss of 2.1 billion rupees.
=== In-flight entertainment ===
Pakistan International Airlines was the first international airline to introduce entertainment system showing a regularly scheduled film on board in the year 1962.
=== In-flight internet ===
In January 2017, the airline began trials on an on-board internet system to deliver in-flight entertainment on some domestic flights. The system allows passengers to access a selection of in-flight entertainment content using their own mobile devices. PIA offers personal screens on Boeing 777 flights with in-flight movies, music and TV shows. The Boeing 777 IFE also features an inflight map and air show. Selected A320s feature drop-down screens with in-flight map and air-show.
=== Precision Engineering Complex ===
The Precision Engineering Complex (PEC) is a specialized manufacturing and engineering facility that was a subsidiary of the Pakistan International Airlines Holding Company Limited (PIAHCL) before being transferred to an entity owned by the Pakistan Air Force. Established originally as a unit of Pakistan International Airlines (PIA), the PEC is an integrated complex that focuses on producing high-precision components for the aerospace and broader engineering industries. Its capabilities encompass various disciplines, including investment casting, Conventional and CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining, optics, PCB (Printed Circuit Board) manufacturing, electrical, electronics, and composites. As a key player in the country's engineering sector, the facility has secured international certifications and operates as a supplier to global aerospace giants such as General Electric, Airbus Industries, and Boeing. The transfer of ownership from PIAHCL to Precision Engineering Complex (Private) Limited, a designated company of the Pakistan Air Force, was approved by PIAHCL shareholders in late 2025 as part of the broader government-led restructuring and privatization effort concerning the national flag carrier.
The Precision Engineering Complex (PEC) includes the following facilities:
=== Ground handling ===
PIA provides ground handling services to the following airlines:
== PIA Cargo ==
The PIA Cargo is a cargo airline branch that provides logistics services and delivery system within Pakistan and abroad. The PIA Cargo transports goods across Pakistan as well as to international destinations. These consumer goods include meat packing, vegetables, textiles, paper products, laboratory equipment, and postal mail.
During the early 1970s, PIA operated a service called Air Express that delivered documents and parcels within Pakistan. In 1974, PIA launched a dedicated cargo division within its organisation using two Boeing 707-320C. This division was known as Pakistan International Cargo. The airline operated several cargo flights to the Middle East such as Dubai and Europe, especially London. The operations ended in the late 1990s when both aircraft were phased out. During 2004 to 2007, the airline again operated two Airbus A300 Freighter aircraft chartered through MNG Airlines to Haan. Luton, Amsterdam, Basel and Cologne. However, again the contract ended and PIA discontinued this service.
In 2003, the airline launched PIA Speedex, a courier service initially in Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi and Islamabad. This expanded to twelve cities within a year. Today, the airline serves over 70 locations within Pakistan, with shipments collected and delivered from customers homes.
In 2019, the new PIA management experienced a sharp increase in the airline's cargo space utilisation, from 20 percent to almost 80 percent.
PIA currently offers cargo service for these international destinations: Abu Dhabi, Bangkok, Barcelona, Birmingham, China – Beijing, Copenhagen, Doha, Dubai, Jeddah, Kabul, Kuala Lumpur, London, Manchester, Medina, Milan, Muscat, Najaf, Oslo, Paris, Riyadh, Sharjah, Tokyo – Narita and Toronto – Canada.
== Corporate sponsorship ==
The airline has sponsored events, both within Pakistan and in its overseas markets.
In the 1990s, the airline launched the three green stripe livery to represent its support for sports. The airline supports the Pakistan International Airlines first-class cricket team that plays in the Quaid-i-Azam Trophy and Patron's Trophy. PIA sponsors the PIA football club, and the A1 Team Pakistan in the A1 Grand Prix motorsports championship series of open-wheel auto racing series when it was initially launched. The airline also promotes the Shandur Polo Gala, that takes place every year in the Chitral and Gilgit regions of northern Pakistan during the summer period. PIA has had its own sports division since 1958, promoting sports within Pakistan such as cricket, hockey, football, squash, polo, tennis, bridge, chess, table tennis, cycling, and bodybuilding.
PIA has its own Boy Scouts Association (PIA-BSA), working in partnership with Pakistan Boy Scouts Association. After a devastating earthquake in 2005, PIA-BSA worked in partnership with other charity organisations to provide relief help.
PIA was one of the official sponsors of the "Destination Pakistan 2007" festivals. The official logo was added to a select number of aircraft during the year. In 2008, PIA teamed up with mobile phone provider, Ufone to provide air miles to passengers who used the mobile network. Standard Chartered Bank and PIA launched credit cards allowing passengers to earn air miles. In 2009, PIA was the gold sponsor for Logistics Pakistan, an exhibition and conference poised to highlight the emerging opportunities for the Logistics sector in Pakistan. In 2009, PIA and the Pakistan Remittance Initiative (PRI) formed a strategic alliance to promote world money transfers.
PIA has Planetariums in Karachi and Lahore that enable the public to see static aircraft as well as astronomy shows. PIA Horticulture, set up in 1996, provides flowers for display in PIA's offices and events, winning awards and accolades at flower exhibitions across the country. The airline supports non-profit organisations within Pakistan such as Al-Shifa Trust, Zindagi Trust, The Citizens Foundation, and Sindh Institute of Urology and Transplantation. In 2009, PIA teamed up with the fast-food franchise McDonald's, to offer passengers discounts on meals and upgrades. PIA also owns three hotels, the Roosevelt Hotel, the Scribe Hotel and Skyrooms (Private) Limited. The airline also has an agreement with Pearl Continental Hotels for its UAE based passengers.
== Charter and special services ==
=== State officials transportation ===
PIA has been continuously serving government officials of Pakistan and has always transported the President and Prime Minister on overseas visits. During the late 1990s, a PIA Boeing 737–300 was used for official visits by the Bhutto and Sharif governments. The aircraft wore official government colours but was later repainted in the airline official colours at the end of the decade. When the government changed after a military coup in 1999, the Boeing 737–300 was transferred to PIA permanently. The President and Prime Minister then resorted to using two of PIA's Airbus A310-300s for official visits, while rare trips were done on regular commercial flights of the airline. In February 2007 the government of Qatar gifted an Airbus A310 from its VIP fleet to the Pakistani government; this ended the need for the use of PIA aircraft. However, from time to time the government uses one of the airline's Airbus A320s, or occasionally a Boeing 777, for official trips.
=== Charter services ===
PIA operates private charter flights using ATR 42s to Bhit, Kadanwari and Sehwan Sharif in Sindh as well as to other parts of the country for oil and gas companies and other customers. Ad hoc charters for United Nations peacekeeping troops are also carried out to Africa and Eastern Europe, Asia (South Korea, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, East Timor) and many other international destinations; PIA Charter Team provides these services.
=== Hajj and Umrah operations ===
PIA operates a two-month (pre- and post-) Hajj operation each year to and from Saudi Arabia. PIA transported over 100,000 intending pilgrims each year to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia until its fleet shrank to 25 aircraft in 2011–2012. Since then, the airline's Hajj quota was reduced to 60,000 to 70,000 pilgrims by the then government.
== Awards and recognition ==
On 27 September 2024, PIA received Pakistan's first National Tourism Award for Promoting Travel and Tourism. The award was given to PIA in recognition of its outstanding work promoting domestic travel. At Pakistan's First National Tourism Awards, organised by Discover Pakistan, Air Vice Marshal Amir Hayat, CEO of PIA, received the award.
== Accidents and incidents ==
The airline has lost more than 30 aircraft in crashes and other events, including 20 fatal crashes. There have also been at least eight hijacking incidents involving the airline's aircraft between 1971 and 2017.
In October 1952, an Orient Airways flight carrying cargo from Karachi to Dacca crashed. One of three was killed in this crash.
On Monday 3 August 1953, the Douglas DC-3 registered AP-AAD was operating on a hajj flight, carrying pilgrims from Karachi to Jeddah via Sharjah and Bahrain. The leg to Bahrain was to be flown by the first officer from the left-hand seat. Shortly after takeoff the aircraft entered a steep descending turn. The captain took over control but could not recover the aircraft. The Douglas DC-3 struck the ground. One of 25 was killed in this crash. "The accident resulted from the loss of control of the aircraft by the first officer shortly after taking off on a dark night when instrument flying was necessary. This loss of control was due to the inability of the first officer to fly on instruments. The responsibility for the accident is attributed to the captain for failing to supervise the piloting of the aircraft by the first officer."
Pakistan International Airlines experienced its first recorded hull loss in 1956: a Douglas DC-3 flew into a mountain on 25 February while on a cargo flight from Gilgit to Rawalpindi in poor weather, killing the three crew members on board.
On 1 July 1957, a Douglas DC-3 registered AP-AJS, operating a domestic flight from Chittagong to Dhaka in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), crashed on a mudflat in the Bay of Bengal, killing all 20 passengers and four crew members on board.
On 15 May 1958, a Convair CV-240 with the registration AP-AEH, operating as Flight 205 from Delhi to Karachi, crashed and caught fire moments after it took off from Delhi's Palam Airport on a moonless night in dusty conditions. The investigation attributed the crash to the captain experiencing a night somatogravic illusion, resulting in the aircraft descending shortly after it became airborne. Four of the six crew members and 21 of the 38 passengers on board were killed; two people on the ground were also killed.
On 18 May 1959, a four-month-old Vickers Viscount with the registration AP-AJC was damaged beyond economic repair in a landing accident at Rawalpindi. The aircraft ran off the runway into a rainwater channel; there were no fatalities.
Three months after the first Viscount crash, the airline lost another on 14 August 1959. The Viscount (registered AP-AJE) crashed at Karachi International Airport during a pilot training flight, while attempting an overshoot with two engines inoperative. Two of the three people on board were killed.
On 26 March 1965 a Douglas DC-3 registered AP-AAH crashed in mountainous terrain near the Lowari Pass on a domestic flight from Peshawar to Chitral, killing the four crew members and 18 of the 22 passengers on board.
Eight weeks later, on 20 May 1965, a Boeing 720 operating as Flight 705 crashed while descending to land on Runway 34 at Cairo International Airport, resulting in 121 fatalities.
On 8 October 1965 a Fokker F27 Friendship, with less than 500 hours' flying time since it was delivered new to the airline earlier in the year, crashed while on a domestic cargo flight from Rawalpindi to Skardu. The aircraft (registered AP-ATT) hit a ridge near the village of Patian and slid down its side, the remains coming to rest more than 1,000 feet (300 m) below the impact point. The four crew members on board were killed.
On 2 February 1966 Flight 17, operated by a Sikorsky S-61 helicopter, crashed on a scheduled domestic flight in East Pakistan after the main gearbox failed, killing 23 of the 24 passengers and crew on board.
On 6 August 1970, a Fokker F27 Friendship registered AP-ALM, operating a domestic flight from Rawalpindi to Lahore, crashed at high speed a few minutes after taking off from Rawalpindi in stormy weather. All 26 passengers and four crew members on board were killed.
On 3 December 1971, a French national's attempt to hijack a Boeing 720B flight from Paris to Karachi was thwarted by French security forces.
On 12 December 1971, a Fokker F27 Friendship registered AP-ALX, operating an international flight between Karachi and Zahedan crashed in Pakistan near the Iranian border, killing all 4 people on board.
On 8 December 1972, a Fokker F27 Friendship registered AP-AUS, operating a domestic flight between Gilgit and Rawalpindi in rainy weather as Flight 631, crashed in mountainous terrain. There were no survivors among the 22 passengers and four crew members on board.
On 20 January 1978, a PIA Fokker F27 registered AP-ALW at Karachi with 22 passengers on board was hijacked by a gunman who asked to be flown to India. The then chairman of PIA, Air Marshal (Retd) Nur Khan boarded the aircraft to negotiate with the hijacker. He received a gunshot wound while trying to disarm the hijacker but still managed to overpower him.
On 26 November 1979 Flight 740 was a Boeing 707-320C that crashed after takeoff from Jeddah International Airport for a flight to Karachi, resulting in 156 fatalities.
On 2 March 1981 Flight 326 was hijacked by three gunmen and flown to Kabul. For almost two weeks, more than 100 passengers were held captive on the Boeing 720 until Pakistan released 55 prisoners. One passenger, Pakistani diplomat Tariq Rahim, was murdered during the ordeal.
On 4 February 1986, a Boeing 747 registered as AP-AYW made a belly landing at Islamabad Airport around 9:00 am. The aircraft was operating Flight 300 from Karachi with 247 passengers and 17 crew members on board. Everyone survived this accident caused by pilot error.
On 23 October 1986, a Fokker F27 aircraft crashed during approach to Peshawar Airport. Of the 54 passengers and crew on board, 13 were killed in the accident.
On 25 August 1989, a Fokker F27 operating as Flight 404 disappeared shortly after taking off from Gilgit Airport. All 54 passengers and crew on board were presumed killed.
On 28 September 1992 Flight 268, an Airbus A300 B4-200 registration AP-BCP, crashed on approach to Kathmandu's Tribhuvan International Airport. All 167 on board were killed.
On 27 December 1997, a Pakistan Airlines Boeing 747 plane from Karachi to London, crashed when landing at Dubai international airport. It overshot the runway and went through the perimeter wall before coming to rest. No one was killed.
On 25 May 1998 a Fokker F27 Friendship operating as Flight 544 was hijacked. All passengers and crew escaped unhurt.
On 17 October 2001, Pakistan International Airlines Flight 231, an Airbus A300, from Islamabad via Peshawar veered off the side of the runway after the right hand main landing gear collapsed as it touched down. The aircraft skidded and eventually came to rest in sand 50 meters from the runway. The aircraft sustained damage to its right wing structure and right engine, which partly broke off the wing. All 205 crew and passengers (which included high profile American political commentator and talk show host Tucker Carlson and his father Dick Carlson) evacuated safely. However, Tucker Carlson has erroneously claimed that the plane was flying over the Arabian Sea when it had a probable explosion in the cargo hold followed by a wing detachment resulting in its crashing into a sand dune in Dubai.
On 1 March 2004, Pakistan International Airlines Flight 2002, Airbus A300B4-203 registration AP-BBA, burst two tires whilst taking off from King Abdulaziz International Airport. Fragments of the tire were ingested by the engines, which caused the engines to catch fire and an aborted takeoff was performed. Due to the fire, substantial damage to the engine and the left wing caused the aircraft to be written off. All 261 passengers and 12 crew survived.
In March 2005 Pakistan International Airlines experienced several minor accidents. This includes the wrong grease being used for the undercarriages in Pakistan airports leading to small fuselage fires. Poor maintenance in Pakistan had previously led to insufficient fuel in tanks and an engine falling onto the runway at Manchester Airport.
On 10 July 2006 Flight 688, a Fokker F27 operating from Multan to Lahore and then to Islamabad, crashed in a field after bursting into flames a few minutes after takeoff from Multan International Airport. All 41 passengers and four crew members on board were killed.
On 25 September 2010, a PIA Boeing 777-200LR registered AP-BGY, flying from Toronto to Karachi, made an emergency landing at Stockholm Arlanda Airport after a phone call was made claiming a passenger on board was armed with explosives. After the plane landed in Stockholm, it was parked at an emergency stand and the suspected passenger was removed from the plane by Swedish authorities. The rest of the passengers were also removed and the empty aircraft was searched. The plane and passengers were allowed to depart Sweden while the suspect was detained in the country for further investigation, but was later released after no evidence was found of the allegation made against him.
On 31 August 2012, ATR 42–500 registration AP-BHJ, operating Flight 653 from Islamabad to Lahore, was landing at Allama Iqbal International Airport when it undershot the runway and came to rest on a grassy area on the right side of Runway 36R. There were no fatalities among the 42 passengers and four crew members. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair and withdrawn from service.
On 11 February 2013, a Boeing 737 aircraft registered AP-BEH was operating Flight 259 from Islamabad to Muscat via Sialkot when its port side main landing gear collapsed during landing at Muscat International Airport. There were no fatalities among the 107 passengers and seven crew members on board. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair and withdrawn from service.
On 8 June 2014, there was an attack on Jinnah International Airport. Several aircraft were damaged and written off, including a PIA Boeing 747-367, registered as AP-BFV, and a PIA Airbus A310-308, registered as AP-BDZ. In total, there were 36 fatalities, including the 10 attackers.
On 24 June 2014, an Airbus A310-300 registered as AP-BGN was operating Flight 756 from Riyadh to Peshawar with 178 passengers and 12 crew members on board when it was hit by gunfire during its landing approach at Bacha Khan International Airport, Peshawar. The aircraft landed safely, but one passenger was killed and two crew members were injured. The aircraft was damaged but it was later ferried to Karachi for repair.
On 7 December 2016, Flight 661, operated by an ATR 42–500 aircraft registered AP-BHO, crashed in Havelian, Pakistan while en route from Chitral to Islamabad, killing all 47 on board.
On 22 May 2020, Flight 8303, operated by an Airbus A320, AP-BLD crashed while on final approach to Jinnah International Airport, Karachi, arriving from Lahore. According to CAA sources, PIA Airbus A320 from Lahore was about to land in Karachi when it crashed at the Jinnah Garden area near Model Colony in Malir. CAA sources said that its communication with the plane had been cut off one minute prior to the landing. The pilots attempted an unstabilised landing which resulted in a belly landing as the landing gear was not lowered due to high workload in the cockpit. This badly damaged both the engines which suffered from oil leaks due to the heavy scraping on the runway. The pilots then tried to perform a go-around attempting to make a second approach, they requested to turn left for a direct route to the runway as they were losing altitude. The pilots then declared mayday reporting they had lost both engines (both engines had flamed out due to damage). Soon after, the aircraft lost altitude and crashed into flames in the Model Colony residential area at about 14:40 local time. A ground observer reported that the aircraft suddenly became silent in its final seconds of flight. 99 people were on board; two passengers survived while 97 on board, including eight crew members, were killed. Additional casualties on the ground were one fatality and seven injured.
On 18 January 2025, the captain and first officer of flight PK150 from Dammam to Multan was grounded for landing the plane at the wrong runway. The flight was initially diverted to Lahore Airport due to bad weather condition and heavy fog in Multan.
On 13 March 2025, Flight 306, an Airbus A320 flying from Karachi to Lahore, landed at Lahore with one tire missing in its main landing gear. The missing tire was found at Jinnah International Airport where the aircraft departed from.
== See also ==
List of airlines of Pakistan
Transport in Pakistan
== References ==
== Notes ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Doraemon_characters#:~:text=Nobiru%20Nobi%20(%E9%87%8E%E6%AF%94%20%E3%81%AE%E3%81%B3%E3%82%8B%2C%20Nobi,he%20loved%20him%20very%20much. | List of Doraemon characters | This list describes characters from the anime and manga series Doraemon.
== Main characters ==
Doraemon
Doraemon (ドラえもん) is the title character and co-protagonist of the series. He is a cat-like robot from the future. He was yellow-skinned and had ears originally. However, his ears were accidentally eaten by a robotic mouse, which left him heartbroken and caused his skin to turn blue. People often mistake him for a raccoon dog, much to his frustration. He is sent back in time by Sewashi Nobi (Nobita's great-great-grandson) to help Nobita. Doraemon possesses a 4-dimensional pocket from which he can acquire various kinds of futuristic tools, gadgets, and playthings from a future department store. He has the tendency to panic during emergencies, characterized by him frantically trying to pull out a very much-needed tool from his pocket, only to produce a huge assortment of household items and unwanted gadgets. Still, Doraemon is very friendly and intelligent, but suffers a lot because of Nobita's antics. Since Sewashi sent Doraemon to the past, Doraemon has been living as the unofficial fourth member of Nobita's family and acts like a second son to Nobita's parents, since despite being a robot, he still needs to eat and sleep. He fears mice greatly (due to the robot mouse having eaten his ears); when confronted with mice he is liable to react by pulling out devastating gadgets. Most of the times, Nobita saves Doraemon in such situations. Although he has no fingers in most media(Although sometimes bumps looking like fingers are shown in his round hands), he can hold things because of the suction cups in his hands. His favorite food is Dorayaki or Doracake. He has been shown to date a normal female cat called Mi Chan. He is the elder brother of Dorami, another robot from the future, who if not more, is at least as smart as Doraemon.
Nobita Nobi
Nobita Nobi (野比 のび太, Nobi Nobita) is the co-protagonist of the series. He wears glasses, a red or yellow polo shirt with a white collar, and blue or black shorts and white socks and light blue shoes. Although he's not good at sports, he's good at shooting and has been reflected in the movies many time. He's also good at string figure which is sometimes considered a girl's game. Son of Tamako and Nobisuke Nobi. Future father of Nobisuke (his son). Future husband or boyfriend of Shizuka and great-great-grandfather of Sewashi.
Shizuka Minamoto
Voiced by: Masako Ebisu (1973), Michiko Nomura (1979 – March 2005), Rei Sakuma (2000; Young), Yumi Kakazu (2005–present), Denise Tan (2002–2003), Rumiko Varnes (2003), Cassandra Lee Morris (2014–present), Parul Bhatnagar (2005–present) (Hindi)
Shizuka Minamoto (源 静香, Minamoto Shizuka), nicknamed Shizuka-chan (しずかちゃん) is a smart, kind and pretty girl. She is often represented by the colour pink, and is seen wearing a pink shirt and skirt. The word 'Shizuka (しずか)' means 'Quiet'. She is Nobita's best friend and love-interest. She does not shun Nobita due to his failing grades, lazy disposition or constant failures. In fact, she often tries to encourage him to do better, though she usually fails to convince him. Shizuka likes to bathe several times a day; however, a running gag in the series is that she is sometimes interrupted by a sudden appearance of Nobita (sometimes Doraemon, Gian, or Suneo) usually due to misuse of Doraemon's gadgets like the Anywhere Door (Doko Demo Doa in Japanese). Shizuka's skirt is also frequently seen getting flipped, either by Nobita misusing Doraemon's gadgets, or by the wind. Scenes in which her underwear is seen, or she is seen bathing, have been removed from the dubbed versions, especially in India, Europe, the United States and the United Kingdom. Her true passions are sweet potatoes, which she would rather keep to herself, and the violin, for which her playing is just as horrendous as Gian's singing. She is also known for taking piano lessons reluctantly due to her mother's wishes (as she loves violin more), which is sometimes a reason for declining to hang out with friends. Shizuka is an animal lover and keeps two pets at home: a dog, who is saved from succumbing to illness by Nobita and Doraemon in one story; and a canary which runs away on multiple occasions and causes Shizuka and Nobita to run around the city chasing it down.
She sometimes fancies handsome idols on TV. Besides Nobita, Shizuka is also close to her classmate and popular student Dekisugi, though they consider each other only as friends.
Takeshi "Gian" Goda
Voiced by: Kaneta Kimotsuki (1973), Kazuya Tatekabe (1979 – March 2005), Subaru Kimura (2005–present), Kujira (2000, Young), Gerald Chew (2002–2003), Kaiji Tang (2014–present)
Takeshi Goda (剛田 武, Gōda Takeshi) usually known by the nickname "Gian" (「ジャイアン」, "Jaian"; English: Big G) is a strong and quick-tempered local bully. He frequently steals other children's stuff (especially Nobita's and Suneo's) under the pretext of "borrowing" them, unless the toy is damaged. He is known for his awful singing voice, though he considers himself a great singer. To prove this, Gian sometimes "invites" others to attend his concerts, under the threat of beatings. His singing is so horrible that it causes nausea in listeners; once when Nobita and Doraemon tried to mute it in a silent world, Gian's writing of the lyrics on a board had the same nausea-causing effect. Though his voice is terrible, in one of the episodes it was shown that a girl liked his singing. In some films, his singing is enhanced to become an effective weapon (as in 'Nobita's Great Adventure in the South Seas'). In some episodes when his voice is recorded and he hears the recording, he instantly denies it is his voice and threatens to beat up the person who sang his songs badly. Gian is also confident in cooking, but just like his singing, his hand-made food can be a nightmare for other people very easily.
However, Gian does not hesitate to help his friends when they are in real trouble. Throughout the series, particularly the films, he is often the one who voices the most concern and refuses to look away when there is a problem, in contrast to Suneo's cowardice. While he is described by others as daunting and intimidating, he is very sensitive and prone to crying when something touching happens, and he actually values his friends highly, a feeling which his friends sometimes reciprocate. Gian also has a soft spot for his younger sister, Jaiko, and usually tries to prevent her from getting into trouble, even if she can handle the situation herself. Gian is basically a bullying 'tsundere'. Despite his reputation as an overreactive bully, Gian is greatly fearful towards his mother, who often drags him out to punish his delinquency.
His catchphrase is "What's mine is mine. What's yours is also mine." (「俺の物は、俺のもの。お前の物も俺の物。」, "Ore no mono wa, ore no mono. Omae no mono mo ore no mono."), also known as Gianism (ジャイアニズム, Jaianizumu) in Japan (the Japanese band Nightmare have borrowed the term for their albums Gianism Best Ofs and Gianizm).
Suneo Honekawa
Voiced by: Shun Yashiro (1973), Kaneta Kimotsuki (1979 – March 2005), Naoki Tatsuta (November - December 1985, stand-in for Kimotsuki), Tomokazu Seki (2005–present) (Japanese); Hossan Leong (2002–2003), Brian Beacock (2014–present) (English)
Suneo Honekawa (骨川 スネ夫, Honekawa Suneo, English dub: Sneech) is the fox-faced (inherited from his mother) rich and spoiled child who loves to flaunt his material wealth before everyone, especially Nobita. A lot of the stories start with Suneo showing off some new video game, toy or pet which evokes Nobita's envy. He is often seen with Gian, teasing Nobita. He also often pushes Nobita aside with silly excuses while he invites Gian and Shizuka to his parties or resorts. However, he is actually one of Nobita's closest friends, who would often ask for his and Doraemon's help. In the films, Suneo is often the one most reluctant to take part in Nobita and Doraemon's adventures, and he also tries to face as little trouble as possible and go home, unless others convince him, making him somewhat a coward. He has an extensive knowledge of science, and is a talented artist and designer, besides being extremely cunning.
In some scenes, Suneo is seen as a narcissist who loves to stare at himself in the mirror while telling himself that he is the most handsome guy in the world. His habit of bragging often lands him into trouble. Suneo is also very self-conscious about his height, being the shortest kid in his class. He likes steak and melon. Suneo often tries to win Shizuka's favour and is a close friend of Gian.
== Supporting characters ==
Tamako Nobi
Voiced by: Noriko Ohara (1973), Sachiko Chijimatsu (1979 – March 2005), Kotono Mitsuishi (April 2005 – present) (Japanese); Rumiko Varnes (2003), Mari Devon (2014-2020), Dorah Fine (2021-present) (English)
Young Voiced by: Tomoko Kawakami
Tamako Nobi (野比 玉子, Nobi Tamako; English dub: Tammy Nobi) (née Kataoka) in the English dub, is Nobita's bespectacled, stay-at-home mother, and the one Nobita inherits his appearance from. She can be extremely strict and she is often seen scolding Nobita for his actions, such as failing the exam, playing all day instead of studying, being lazy all day, or doing something stupid (whether intentional or not). In several episodes, Nobita tries to avoid his mother's scolding by using Doraemon's gadgets. Despite her disappointment with Nobita's lazy attitude and academic failures (even when her house is occasionally visited by Nobita's teacher for his progress in school), she is actually a good mother and cares about her son deeply. Her maiden last name was revealed to be Kataoka (片岡). Her anxiety about the high household expenses is a recurring feature. In a couple of episodes where Nobita sees her in the past, it is revealed that she was rebellious even as a girl. She dislikes animals and would always reject requests for any pet Nobita wants; making this plot point in some of the films and stories where Nobita has to take in stray animals secretly. However, in one story, her initial dislike of a cat turns her into adoring it so much that she becomes depressed when the cat's owner wants it back.
Nobisuke Nobi
Adult: Voiced by: Ichiro Murakoshi (1973), Masayuki Katō (April 1979 – October 1992), Yōsuke Naka (October 1992 – March 2005), Yasunori Matsumoto (April 2005 – present) (Japanese); Tony Oliver (2014-present) (English)
Young: Voiced by: Eiko Yamada (1979), Yumiko Kobayashi (2005) (Japanese)
Nobisuke Nobi (野比 のび助, Nobi Nobisuke, English dub: Toby Nobi) is Nobita's father and laid-back salaryman. He appears an easy-going father, often seen arriving home from work to soothe Tamako's anger towards Nobita. He has trouble quitting smoking and is self-conscious about his inability to pass the driving test. He also has a poor memory. He likes to drink, and sometimes arrives home drunk from nightly business meetings. Nobisuke often goes to golf which most fellow Japanese businessmen and employees play. He had many similar personality traits with Nobita when he was young like getting bad grades, being poor at athletics, and getting scolded by his father. He has an impressive talent for painting, but did not choose to be an artist due to many reasons. Nobisuke is fond of Nobita and probably does not rebuke him like Tamako does because most of Nobita's inabilities and weaknesses remind him of his own childhood faults. Though he would makes comments or conversations that affect Nobita considerably in one way or another. It was shown that he met Tamako on the day he had rejected an offer to be an artist from a wealthy gentleman, and feeling overjoyed, was running down the street at such speed that he barged straight into her, causing her to drop her ID card. This, he later returns and the acquaintance gradually turns into love and marriage.
Dorami
Voiced by: Keiko Yokozawa (April 1980 – March 2005), Chiaki Fujimoto (September 2006 – present) (Japanese); Wendee Lee (2014–present) (English)
Dorami (ドラミ) is Doraemon's younger sister. Like Doraemon before he developed a fear of mice, she is yellow-skinned, and to keep Doraemon from thinking about his ears, her ears were replaced by a large red bow, her kitsune tails were replaced by a flower tail. She and Doraemon are siblings due to the fact that they shared half of the oil from a can when she was made. Dorami lives in the 22nd-century Tokyo with Sewashi. She sometimes visits Nobita with the time machine on Nobita's desk when Doraemon is "off-duty", to help Doraemon with something or to take care of Nobita when Doraemon has gone for his yearly health checkup. Dorami likes melonpan and is afraid of cockroaches like Nobita's mom. She is also shown to be a more advanced robot than Doraemon (Dorami is able to produce 10,000 horse power, in comparison to Doraemon's 129.3). Different from her malfunctioning brother, she is the smartest student during her school time, and has better skills in using gadgets. In one story, Nobita is intent on replacing Doraemon with Dorami due to her better skills; however, he quickly learns the fact that Dorami does not understand him as much as Doraemon does and will not tolerate his usual antics. Dorami also has her own spin-off manga. In the manga series The Doraemons, she is the love interest of Dora-the-Kid, Doraemon's friendly rival and the one most similar to him.
Hidetoshi Dekisugi
Young: Voiced by: Sumiko Shirakawa (April 1980 – March 2005), Shihoko Hagino (May 2005 – present) (Japanese); Spike Spencer (2014-present) (English)
Adult: Voiced by: Shinya Ōtaki
Hidetoshi Dekisugi (出木杉 英才, Dekisugi Hidetoshi; English: Ace Goody) is Nobita's classmate and friendly rival as he is a good friend of Shizuka's. He is very intelligent and has photographic memory. Dekisugi is the perfect all-round student, consistently getting 100s in class (A+'s in English Dub) and also being highly capable in sports. His family is apparently wealthy, owning a house that is so large that one can lose one's way. His name literally means "brilliant over-achiever", and his last name is a pun on dekisugiru (出来過ぎる), which means "over achieving". Shizuka sometimes prefers the company of Dekisugi, who is more of her intellectual equal. Nobita often feels jealous and concocts bizarre schemes (helped by Doraemon's gadgets) to keep them apart or to win Shizuka's attention. However, Dekisugi never gets angry at Nobita and even willingly helps Nobita whenever he has philosophical or scientific questions. Dekisugi is polite, respectful, and will never argue with or fault anyone even in the most ridiculous of situations – instead he will always say something positive to lighten the mood.
In the future, it is shown that in spite of Shizuka's friendship with Dekisugi, she still marries Nobita while Dekisugi himself is wed to another woman. The Dekisugi family becomes a very close associate of the Nobi family with the families' children being friends with each other.
Sewashi
Voiced by: Keiko Yamamoto (1973), Yoshiko Ōta (1980~March 2005), Sachi Matsumoto (August 2005~) (Japanese); Max Mittelman (2014-present) (English)
Sewashi (セワシ, Sewashi; English dub: Soby) is Nobita's great-great-grandson, he is the one who sends Doraemon back to the past to look after Nobita. Sewashi first bought Doraemon in 2112 when Doraemon still had ears and his original factory paint. He sent him because his pocket money was not much due to the debts the family inherited from Nobita, and he also wanted to help out his troubled great-great-grandfather for themselves to lead a better life. He seems to have more common sense and is smarter than Nobita, but is just as reluctant when it comes to studying. Sewashi is also the owner of Doraemon's sister, Dorami.
Mrs. Honekawa
Voiced by: Toshiya Ueda→Kazue Takahashi (1973), Yoshino Ōtori (1979 – March 1991), Mari Yokō (April 1991 – March 2005), Minami Takayama (April 2005 – present) (Japanese); Dorothy Elias-Fahn (2014) (English)
Mrs. Honekawa (スネ夫の母, Suneo no Haha) is Suneo's mother. She sports curly hair and shares a fox-like face with her son and husband. She loves Suneo very much and spoils him badly. She is generous to Suneo's friends, but just like her son, she likes to show off her jewellery or branded handbags and sometimes makes Nobita's mother jealous. In the episode "Mother Vs. Rich Mother Battle," she became Tamako's rival after eating the Rival-Making steak and competes with Tamako to see who makes the tastiest curry. In the 30 years special, she is seen as just as odd and mischievous as her son. She and her husband love to travel. She has a fear of dinosaurs.
Sunekichi Honekawa
Voiced by: Issei Futamata (1984 – March 2005), Takumi Yamazaki (December 2005 – present) (Japanese); Derek Stephen Prince (2014) (English)
Sunekichi Honekawa (スネ吉) is Suneo's college aged cousin. He is an expert in radio-controlled toys and he often takes Suneo alone or with friends (except for Nobita) on picnics and hikes.
In the closed captioning of the English dub episode Vacuum Cleaner Super Car, his original Japanese name Sunekichi appears after the transformation of a driving school, which might be an error.
Michiko Minamoto
Voiced by: Keiko Yokoyama (1973), Keiko Yokozawa (1979–1981), Masako Matsubara (August 1981 – March 2005), Ai Orikasa (April 2005 – present) (Japanese); Wendee Lee (2015) (English)
Michiko Minamoto (源美智子, Minamoto Michiko) is Shizuka's mother. She is very kind, but can also be quite exigent on Shizuka sometimes. She wants Shizuka to take up piano lessons when the latter would rather want to practice violin.
Mrs. Gōda
Voiced by: Kazuyo Aoki (1979 – March 2005), Miyako Takeuchi (April 2005 – present) (Japanese); Jessica Gee (2014) (English)
Mrs. Gōda (ジャイアンの母, Jaian no Haha) is the owner of a small but successful store "Gōda Greengrocers" ("Gōda's Goods" in the English anime) as well as the only character Gian is deathly afraid of. In the 1973 anime, Mrs. Gōda was dead. In later anime projects, she is alive. Gian always tries to run away from her when she orders him to help in the matters of the store or do deliveries. Though being as strong as her son, she is a righteous person as she punishes her son whenever he bullies children as she doesn't want to let Gian hurt other children. Her harsh treatment towards Gian is driven by her love, and Gian too, though sometimes speaking ill of her, cares for his mother deeply. This is evident from the way Gian had painstakingly made a rice-cake, actually a gadget from Doraemon, which had healed his mother's health problem, despite being constantly mocked and annoyed during the process by Nobita and Suneo. Had he lost focus, the gadget would have lost effectiveness, but his love for his mother prevented him from losing concentration.
Jaiko Gōda
Voiced by: Yoshiko Ōta (1979), Kazuyo Aoki (1980 – March 2005), Vanilla Yamazaki (April 2005 – present) (Japanese); Minae Noji (2014-present) (English)
Jaiko Gōda (剛田 ジャイ子, Gōda Jaiko; English: Little G) is Gian's younger sister, and also the only child Gian treats well in the whole story, and Jaiko too loves her elder brother. In earlier stories, she had bad tempers when something did not go as she pleases, though she mellows down in later stories. Had Doraemon not intervened, she would have been Nobita's wife in the future which is why her first appearance is earlier than Suneo and Gian in the series. However, Doraemon succeeds on his mission and Nobita eventually marries Shizuka. Her name Jaiko is usually considered a nickname in the same vein as her brother; her given name is never revealed in the series.
As an aspiring manga artist, Jaiko goes by her pen name Christine Gōda (クリスチーネ 剛田, Kurisuchīne Gōda), and sometimes submits her manga to publishing companies for prizes. She usually fails because her storytelling is still rough, although she has received much attention from editors. Sometimes when she almost decides to give up writing comic books after failing to get good ideas, Gian and his friends, after being requested and sometimes forced, cheer her up. Unlike Gian, she is kind, polite and good at studies. She and Moteo Mote are good friends. He appreciates her cartoons and encourages her to write more.
Muku
Voiced by: Tessho Genda (1981), Kazuyo Aoki→Kazuya Tatekabe ( – March 2005), Yasuhiro Takato (May 2007) (Japanese); Anthony Hansen (2013) (English)
Muku (ムク) / Pork Chop is Gian and Jaiko's cowardly and dimwitted pet dog, who was a little stray dog when he was adopted by the Godas. Muku tries to be as brave as Gian, who praises his strength and courage, but in many emergencies, he just runs away and enrages Gian. Initially Gian tried to get rid of him, but after he saved Gian, he has warmed up to him and become really friendly. Jaiko loves Muku very much and takes him on walks regularly. Muku occasionally shows the bad habit of gathering things from the locality in his kennel, much to Gian's embarrassment and his mother's displeasure.
Teacher
Voiced by: Osamu Katō→Masashi Amenomori (1973), Ritsuo Sawa (1979), Osamu Katō→Kazuhiko Inoue (1980 – September 1981), Ryōichi Tanaka (October 1981 – March 2005), Wataru Takagi (April 2005 – present) (Japanese); Keith Silverstein (2014-present) (English)
Teacher (先生, Sensei; English dub: Mr. S) is a strict unnamed teacher at Nobita's school who often scolds Nobita for not completing his homework, arriving late at school, forgetting his homework, falling asleep during class, and getting worse marks on his tests. He sometimes tries to encourage Nobita through kindness to study and not get 0 marks, and sometimes resorts to punishments that range from making Nobita stay in the hallway or clean the classroom windows alone after school. While Teacher is impressed by Dekisugi's progress and occasionally scolds Gian, Suneo tends to fool Teacher with conning lies or superstitions. Teacher often pays unexpected visits to the Nobi's in order to inform Tamako Nobi about Nobita's recent exam results and his academic position. Nobita's feelings towards him are varied ranging from fear to respect and admiration depending on the situation. He tends to be quite grumpy and stern; his personality blinds him to his students' problems, and whenever he encounters them on the street, he scolds them for not doing their homework. He bears a facial resemblance to Kim Jong-un.
His real name is unknown. In the Nippon TV anime, his name is given as "Ganari" (我成). In the TV Asahi version, he was once named Eiichirou Senjou (先生 えいいちろう, Senjō Eiichirō), whose family name happens to mean "teacher" but is read differently. In the English dub, he is called Mr S.
Mr. Kaminari
Voiced by: Banjō Ginga (1981), Shingo Kanemoto (1985 – 1990), Takeshi Watabe (1991 – 2005), Katsuhisa Hōki (2005 series) (Japanese), Unknown VA (US)
Mr. Kaminari (神成, Kaminari; English dub: Mr. Rumbleton) is an old man living next to the Open Plot where Nobita and his friends play. It is often seen that the baseballs and footballs are breaking the glass of Kaminari's window (a woman's window in early manga chapters) or destroying one of his favorite bonsai plants. which angers Kaminari a lot. The children always try not to anger Kaminari and play carefully. Recovering the ball without getting shouted at is too difficult. Gian and Suneo quite often break his glass and make Nobita the scapegoat to recover the ball. He also has a wife who rarely appears and a beautiful granddaughter, Mizue, that Nobita and other boys has a crush on.
Mii-chan
Voiced by: Keiko Yokozawa (1973), Unknown→Mari Mashiba→Junko Asami→Kumiko Watanabe→Midori Nakazawa→Motoko Kumai→Fujiko Takimoto→Sachi Matsumoto (1981 – March 2005), Mari Maruta (2005 series)
Mii-chan (ミイちゃん, Mii-chan; English dub: Mimi) is a regular female cat from Nobita's timeline, who either hangs out or goes on dates with Doraemon. She to Doraemon is similar with Shizuka to Nobita, however, besides Noramyako, Doraemon loves her very much though still often develops crushes on other cats throughout the series.
In the close captioning for the English dub episode Invasion of the Body Swappers, Mimi's name is spelled Meenie by mistake.
== Other characters ==
Nobirou Nobi
Voiced by: Yasuo Muramatsu (1980 – March 2005), Kōichi Hashimoto (November 2006 – present) (Japanese); Keith Silverstein (2013) (English)
Nobirou Nobi (野比 のび郎, Nobi Nobirō; English dub: Chester Nobi) is Nobisuke's younger brother and an uncle of Nobita, with whom he is very friendly. He works overseas and only comes home during the Christmas-New Year holiday, which Nobita happily awaits every year since his uncle always gives him (and Doraemon) pocket money and presents on that time. He has a noticeably tanned skin due to his frequent stays in the tropics. In one chapter, he recounts on his many animal encounters, including an elephant which he thought had perished during World War II. The elephant is actually saved by Nobita and Doraemon due to a case of predestination paradox.
Nobie Nobi
Voiced by: Megumi Hayashibara
Nobie Nobi (野比 のび恵, Nobi Nobie) is Nobirou's daughter and Nobita's younger cousin. She is fond of Nobita and would play with him whenever she visits his house.
Tamao Kataoka
Voiced by: Toshiharu Sakurai (November 2005 – present)
Tamao Kataoka (片岡 玉夫, Kataoka Tamao) is Tamako's younger brother and Nobita's uncle. He is a cowardly car salesman, and this cowardliness prevented him from expressing his feelings to the woman he loves. Nobita and Doraemon, despite initially deteriorating matters, finally help him to propose to (and be accepted by) the lady.
Nobiru Nobi
Nobiru Nobi (野比 のびる, Nobi Nobiru) is Nobirou and Nobisuke's father and Nobita's paternal grandfather who died before Nobita's birth. He was very strict and very rude to Nobisuke since he valued physical strength and athleticism which Nobisuke lacked, though after all he loved him very much. He did not apparently favour Nobisuke's artistic prowess, but he really treasured the portrait his son had made of him, and for which Nobisuke got first prize in school. His grandson only saw him when he traveled to the past. Despite being harsh to Nobisuke, he enjoys indulging Nobita when Nobita travels to the past.
Nobita's Grandmother
Voiced by: Miyoko Aso (1973), Unknown (June 1979), Atsuko Mine (July 1979), Akiko Takamura (1984-2004), Mari Maruta (2006), Yasuko Hatori (2006), Miki Ito (2006, Young), Nobuko Miyamoto (Stand by Me Doraemon 2)
Nobisuke's mother and Nobita's paternal grandmother who is only referred to as Grandma (おばあちゃん, Obāchan) by Nobita. She died when Nobita was in kindergarten before the main storyline. She is always seen as a kind woman, if a bit eccentric, and unlike her husband never scolded Nobisuke for his lack of interest in "masculine activities", such as getting in a fight. Nobita remembers her very fondly, with most of his better childhood memories being playing with her; many of his toys, including his old kendama, which becomes a plot point in one film, were given to him by his grandmother. When Nobita travels to the past, she always recognizes him as her grandson even if he has grown up. She appeared in a few episodes. She takes care of Nobita on his former days and in one of The Doraemons manga, she was proud to see Nobita grown up into a teenage boy.
Nobisuke Nobi Jr.
Voiced by: Noriko Ohara (1979 – March 2005), Yoshiko Kamei (April 2005 – present)
Nobisuke Nobi Jr. (野比ノビスケ, Nobi Nobisuke) is Nobita and Shizuka's son, named after Nobita's father. Though being as dumb as his father, he is a strong child and a good athlete, and brave enough to bully Gian and Suneo's sons (possibly as retaliation for all of his father's suffering from their dads). The first time he met the present Nobita, he even beat up Nobita because he regarded him as an imposter. His wife's name is Yukari. His son, grandson, granddaughter-in-law are not named. He is the great-grandfather of Sewashi. His daughter-in-law is not shown in anime or manga or other media.
Yoshio Minamoto
Voiced by: Shinichi Kimotsuki (1973), Masayuki Katō (1979–1980), Masaru Ikeda (1981), Akira Kume (1999), Mahito Oba (July 2005 – present), Aruno Tahara (July 2005 – present) (Japanese); Steven Blum (in Stand by Me Doraemon) (English)
Yoshio Minamoto (源 義雄, Minamoto Yoshio) is Shizuka's father, a normal salaryman who often goes to movies with Shizuka. His best-known appearance in the series is when Nobita and Doraemon eavesdrop on him talking to Shizuka the night before Nobita and her wedding, in which he trusts that Nobita will be able to take care of Shizuka. So he accepts Nobita as his daughter's spouse. He is the only parent of Nobita's friends who is named. It is a fact that Shizuka has 3 fathers in different episodes.
Peeko
Peeko (ピー子, Pīko; English dub: Sunny) / Sunny is Shizuka's lovely pet canary. It is yellow in color and sings sweetly. Peeko (Pii-chan) escapes from the cage very often as a way of freedom. Rescuing Peeko is the plot of many episodes.
Pero
Shizuka's pet dog. He was saved by Nobita and Doraemon from succumbing from a fever
Kazu
Shizuka's cousin. He appeared in few episodes.
Mr. Honekawa
Voiced by: Sanji Hase→Osamu Katō (1973), Osamu Katō (1979 – March 2005), Kaneta Kimotsuki (Stand-in for Katō, May 1989 – January 1990), Hideyuki Tanaka (June 2005 – present)
Mr. Honekawa (スネ夫の父, Suneo no Chichi) is a successful businessman. He has many relationships with business elites as a part of Suneo's showing off. He appears less frequently than his wife, mostly when going tours with family or inviting Suneo's friends to his party. In the 30 years special, he is said to be mischievous as well.
Sunetsugu Honekawa
Voiced by: Naoki Tatsuta (January 1985), Yuki Kaida (May 2006 – present)
Sunetsugu Honekawa (骨川 スネツグ, Honekawa Sunetsugu) is Suneo's younger brother who lives in New York City with his uncle (who is single and raised him like a son). He has a good personality and a great respect for his older brother, but only because of Suneo's arrogant brags and lies in their correspondence. He often whispers to Suneo about Hana. Regarding her as a sweet lovely girl.
Suneo's Great-Grandmother
Suneo's great-grandmother uses old wives' tales to impart values and good habits to Suneo, much to his displeasure.
Chiruchiru
Voiced by: Ikue Ōtani (October 1995), Ayumi Sena (June 2007 – present)
Chiruchiru (チルチル; English dub: Lizzie) is Suneo's pet cat. He/She is a Persian cat often praised very much by Suneo's mother. His/Her face is also like the rest of Honekawa family.
Suneo's Uncle
He lives with Sunetsugu in New York city. He raised Sunetsugu alone like his own son. He is single. He sometimes appears in Doraemon episodes. He is Mr. Honekawa's younger brother.
Mr. Goda
Voiced by: Masayuki Tatekabe (1973), Masayuki Katō (1979–1980), Yu Shimaka (1987), Daisuke Gōri (November 1987), Yū Shimaka (1993), Shinpachi Tsuji (2005 series) (Japanese); Kirk Thornton (2014), (English)
Mr. Goda (ジャイアンの父, Jaian no Chichi) mostly works outside to help his wife's store. Though being the parent who is the least recurring in Fujiko's story, he is known to be the strongest man in the town that he lives in. He is somewhat like Gian and would often flaunt his strength with others including Nobisuke Nobi who is just as weak as his son. He has mixed feelings for Gian where he would like and care him and occasionally would scold him for doing bad deeds.
Gian's Uncle
Gian's maternal uncle. He is a black belt in judo and uses this ability to help other people. He taught Gian to use his strength in helping the weak. He also began teaching his nephew judo and he appeared in an episode
Tsubasa Ito
Voiced by: Haruna Ikezawa (1970s series), Masayo Kurata (2005 series) (Japanese); Mela Lee (2013) (English)
Tsubasa Ito (伊藤翼, Ito Tsubasa; English dub: Sera Ivy) is a popstar and TV actress who is very popular. Suneo often gets her autograph and shows it off to his friends. Doraemon is apparently a huge fan of her since it is shown in one episode that he has pictures of her all over his closet.
Gachako
Voiced by: Junko Hori (1973)
Gachako (ガチャ子) is an annoying female robot duck. She was removed from later versions of the manga and never appeared in the 1979 or 2005 anime series due to the fact that Fujiko Fujio heavily disliked her annoying personality. She has not made any other appearances since then.
Botako
Voiced by: Kōsei Tomita→Masako Nozawa (1973), Kikumi Umeda (2005)
Botako (ボタ子, Botako) is a snobby and mean girl that rarely appears.
Jamako
Voiced by: Rihoko Yoshida (1973)
Jamako (ジャマ子), along with Debuko, one of Shizuka's friends in the 1973 anime.
Debuko
Voiced by: Noriko Tsukase (1973)
Debuko (デブ子, Debuko), along with Jamako, is one of Shizuka's friends in the 1973 anime.
Matsushiba Factory's Manager
He blamed himself for Doraemon being an outmode but after seeing Doraemon and Nobita's friendship and brotherhood, he aborted his reset in one episode.
Yasuo
A character often seen with Gian and Suneo playing in vacant lot or in the baseball field. He is always seen wearing a baseball cap and often appears with Haruo.
Haruo
A character often seen with Gian and Suneo playing in vacant lot or in the baseball field. He is moderately fat and often appears with Yasuo.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Parkers#:~:text=It%20centers%20on%20the%20relationship,the%20local%20Santa%20Monica%20College. | The Parkers | The Parkers is an American television sitcom created by Ralph Farquhar, Sara V. Finney and Vida Spears. The series ran for five seasons from August 30, 1999, to May 10, 2004, on UPN as a spin-off to Moesha. It stars Mo'Nique, Countess Vaughn, Mari Morrow, Dorien Wilson, Jenna von Oÿ, Ken L. and Yvette Wilson. The show centers on the relationship between a mother and daughter, Nikki and Kim Parker, who reside outside of Los Angeles in Santa Monica, California, with both attending Santa Monica College. The series was produced by Big Ticket Television, in association with Saradipity Productions and Regan Jon Productions, with Bill Boulware, Ralph Farquhar, Sara V. Finney, Vida Spears and Andrea Wiley serving as executive producers. 110 episodes were produced.
== Premise ==
This comedy series centers around a mother and daughter who both attend Santa Monica College. Nikki Parker was forced to drop out of high school, nearly 20 years earlier, when she discovered she was pregnant. As the time arrived for her daughter to go to college, Nikki decided to go as well as a way to get an experience and education that was taken from her so many years earlier. Through a series of hilarious situations, Nikki has to adjust to the fact that her daughter is growing up, while Kim realizes that Nikki has a lot more going on in her life beyond being a mother.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Kim Parker (Countess Vaughn): A ditzy college student and Nikki's daughter. Although she can be shallow, Kim has a kind heart and is close with Nikki. Kim is also a lead singer in the music group Free Style Unity, which also includes Stevie and T. At the end of the series, she fails out of Santa Monica College but becomes a successful fashion designer.
Nikki Parker, née Alexander (Mo'Nique): A boisterous, confident single mother, who embraces college life to the fullest. She is in love with Professor Oglevee, despite his apparent hatred of her. In the series finale, she eventually wins him over after five years of chasing him and they get married.
Desiree Littlejohn (Mari Morrow): Initially, the Parkers' neighbor and Nikki's friend. She only appears in the first season and is uncredited as a regular after six episodes. She is not seen after episode 13. It was stated that creator, Ralph Farquhar, wrote her off because he wanted a stronger dynamic with another one of his characters. She was replaced by Yvette Wilson.
Professor Stanley Oglevee (Dorien Wilson): A handsome professor at Santa Monica College. Although he prides himself on his intelligence, he often becomes embroiled in hare-brained schemes, often due to his own foolishness. Although he is initially repulsed by Nikki's affections, he eventually declares his love for her, and they marry in the series finale.
Stevie Alison Van Lowe (Jenna von Oÿ): A sarcastic, intelligent white college student as well as Kim's best friend. Stevie is from an affluent family and has a tempestuous relationship with her mother. She is also a member of the music group Free Style Unity, alongside Kim and T. Upon graduating from Santa Monica College, Stevie attends UCLA and goes into business with Kim.
Thaddeus Tyrell "T" Radcliffe (Ken Lawson): A flirtatious, attractive college student as well as friend to Kim and Stevie. He is also a member of the music group Free Style Unity. At the end of the series, T goes on to attend Berklee College of Music.
Andell Wilkerson (Yvette Wilson): Nikki's level-headed best friend. Andell originated as a regular character on Moesha and appears on The Parkers in a recurring role during the first season; she became a main character in the middle of Season 1. From Season 3 onward, she is the owner of a restaurant called Andell's. At the end of the series, she marries her boyfriend, Lester.
=== Recurring ===
Mel Parker (Thomas Mikal Ford): Nikki's rich ex-husband and Kim's father
Erica Willis (Porscha Coleman)
Regina Foster (Kara Brock): A snobbish and stuck-up colleague of Nikki, Kim, and Stevie's at Santa Monica College and also a member of the Triple-A Sorority.
Joe Woody (Dwight Woody): Works in the cafeteria at Santa Monica College. He previously played Coach Vines on Moesha.
Veronica Cooper (Paulette Braxton): On-and-off girlfriend of Professor Oglevee and occasional nemesis of Nikki.
Sophia Van Lowe (Shannon Tweed): Stevie's mother.
Gertrude "Gertie" Lowe (Kym Whitley): The organ player at Mount Zion, where Nikki is the choir director. She is occasionally a nemesis of Nikki. She has also known Nikki and Andell since high school.
Frederick "Freddy" Jones (Kel Mitchell): A flamboyant fashion design student who often has a conflict with Kim.
Hakeem Campbell (Lamont Bentley): Kim's longtime friend and former crush. He was previously on Moesha.
Niecy Jackson (Shar Jackson): Kim's best friend. She was also on Moesha.
Symone (Samantha Becker): A backup singer in the group Free Style Unity in Season 1.
Chandra Carrington (Lark Voorhies): Colleague of Nikki and Kim's at Santa Monica College and also a member the Triple A Sorority.
Jerel Goodrich (Trent Cameron): Kim's boyfriend turned fiancé; later ex-husband.
George and Shirley West/Alexander (Earl Billings and Aloma Wright): Nikki's adoptive parents.
Constance McFarland (Suzzanne Douglas): Nikki's haughty older sister.
Tiffany McFarland (Cherie Johnson): Nikki's niece.
Quincy DeJohn (George Wallace): Nikki's biological father.
Camille Oglevee (Veronica Redd): Professor Oglevee's mother. She tried to convince Kim to drop out of college to work for her.
Aunt Rita (Nancy Wilson): Nikki's aunt, who turned out to be her biological mother. She explained that she was unable to raise Nikki due to her career.
Evelyn "Nana" Smith (Isabel Sanford): Nikki's grandmother, who comes onto Professor Oglevee while visiting Nikki.
== Episodes ==
== Broadcast ==
=== Syndication ===
The Parkers has aired in syndication on BET, Centric (previously BET J), Fuse, UP, TV One, VH1, and MTV2.
Currently, the series airs reruns on Cleo TV and Dabl.
The series started streaming on Netflix on October 1, 2020.
=== International airings ===
In Europe, the show has aired in Ireland and the UK. In Ireland, it aired on RTÉ Two from 2000 to 2005, usually airing Thursdays at 7.00 pm. The first four seasons were aired in this evening time slot, with season five beginning in this timeslot and with the few remaining episodes moved to a late-night timeslot on Fridays. After the series finished on RTÉ Two, there have been no re-runs and no current plans to run the show again. It was also shown on UK channel Trouble, which was also available in Ireland. It usually aired weekdays from 2000 to 2004 but after it was completely removed, it was shown on a one-off weekend in late 2006, with episodes airing all day. In Australia, it aired on Fox8 and in Jamaica on TVJ.
== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
Although The Parkers premiered to mixed reviews and was criticized for its outrageous characters, the series was a ratings success for UPN. Its debut season ranked as the number one comedy on the network; it was the most popular show among black audiences, ahead of The WB’s The Steve Harvey Show. The success of the series has been credited to its ability to relate to many audiences, especially young people.
=== Ratings ===
The Parkers series finale aired on May 10, 2004, and drew in 3.6 million viewers.
=== Awards and nominations ===
=== Reunion ===
In 2009, cast members Countess Vaughn, Jenna von Oÿ, Ken Lawson, and Dorien Wilson appeared on The Mo'Nique Show for a full-length episode, "The Parkers Reunion." Series creator Sara V. Finney was part of the audience for the episode. Yvette Wilson didn't appear due to her busy work schedule.
=== Home media ===
The Parkers: The Complete Collection, containing all five seasons, was released on region 1 DVD in Canada via Visual Entertainment in a 14-disc set on 18 March 2016.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
The Parkers at IMDb
The Parkers at epguides.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junya_Watanabe | Junya Watanabe | Junya Watanabe (born 1961) is a Japanese fashion designer. He was mentored by Comme des Garçons designer Rei Kawakubo. He continues to work for Comme des Garçons; his atelier is located on the second floor of its Tokyo headquarters, and he produces four shows a year in Paris.
== Biography ==
Born in Fukushima, Japan in 1961, Watanabe attended Bunka Fashion College in Tokyo, graduating in 1984. Soon after, he began his apprenticeship at Comme des Garçons as a patternmaker.
In 1987, he was promoted to chief designer of Tricot knitwear line and then moved on to design for the Comme Des Garçons Homme line.
Starting in 1992, he has worked under his own name as part of Comme des Garçons, debuting his first at the concourse of Tokyo's Ryogoku Station the same year. He started his own line under the Comme Des Garçons name "Junya Watanabe Comme Des Garçons" in 1993 and began showing his womenswear in Paris that same year. He debuted a men's line in 2000. During the 2000-2001 Fall/Winter season, he introduced a new collection, called "Techno-culture".
In 2007, Watanabe was licensed by Converse to design a series of All-Star shoes. Other collaborations include Levi's, Hervier Productions, Seil Marschall, Carhartt, Nike, Merz b. Schwanen, The North Face, and ArkAir. In 2012, Watanabe designed the remote-control toy car The Hornet for the Tamiya Corporation, and released a matching pair of Reebok Pump shoes (Pump Furys).
In March 2016, Watanabe created a solar-powered jacket/coat for his FW16 menswear line. In 2020, he launched a capsule collection with Brooks Brothers. He also worked with Comme des Garçons and the video game designer Yoko Taro to develop a cosplay collection.
He currently continues to work for Comme des Garcons. His atelier is located on the second floor of the Comme des Garçons headquarters in Aoyama, Tokyo.
== Works ==
Watanabe often uses the word monozukuri to describe his work. Watanabe is interested in synthetic and technologically advanced textiles and fabrics, but also uses more traditional materials such as cotton. He has cited Pierre Cardin and Issey Miyake as influences.
Watanabe has been described as a "techno couture" designer, creating structured clothes out of modern materials. His 2015 show in Paris was criticized for his use of cultural appropriation. His work is considered more practical than his mentor, Rei Kawakubo's.
He works with a team of 30 people and an English translator.
== Personal life ==
He keeps a very low profile, not appearing for the customary bow at the end of his runway shows, which he presents four times a year in Paris. He rarely gives interviews to the press, and is reticent to talk about himself in general.
== In popular culture ==
Watanabe is heavily referenced in (and is the namesake for) a song by American rappers Kanye West and Playboi Carti, titled "Junya", from West's 2021 album Donda.
== References ==
== External links ==
Junya Watanabe at FMD
All of the collections, Vogue.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Amenta | Nina Amenta | Annamaria Beatrice "Nina" Amenta is an American computer scientist who works as the Tim Bucher Family Professor of Computer Science and the chair of the Computer Science Department at the University of California, Davis. She specializes in computational geometry and computer graphics, and is particularly known for her research in reconstructing surfaces from scattered data points.
Amenta grew up in Pittsburgh, and majored in classical civilization at Yale University, graduating in 1979. After working for over ten years as a computer programmer, she returned to graduate school, and earned her Ph.D. in 1994 from the University of California, Berkeley with a thesis on relations between Helly's theorem and generalized linear programming, supervised by Raimund Seidel. After postdoctoral study at The Geometry Center and Xerox PARC, she became a faculty member at the University of Texas at Austin, and moved to Davis in 2002. She became the Bucher Professor and department chair in 2013.
Amenta was co-chair of the Symposium on Computational Geometry in 2006, with Otfried Cheong.
== References ==
== External links ==
Google scholar profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkin_Prize_for_Organic_Chemistry | Perkin Prize for Organic Chemistry | The Perkin Prize for Organic Chemistry is a prestigious award established in 2008 by the Royal Society of Chemistry for sustained originality and achievement in research in any area of organic chemistry.
The prize is named after Sir William Henry Perkin (1838-1907), inventor of the first aniline dye, and is awarded on a biennial basis. The winner receives £5000, a medal and a certificate at an awards ceremony in November and undertakes a UK lecture tour.
== Winners ==
2009 (2009): Steven V. Ley, "for his outstanding creative work and innovative solutions in the art of organic synthesis"
2011 (2011): Stephen G. Davies, "for fundamental contributions that his research has made to the areas of stereocontrol in organometallic chemistry, asymmetric synthesis and total synthesis over 15 years"
2013 (2013): Varinder Aggarwal, "for his truly original contributions to the field of synthetic organic chemistry"
2015 (2015): Amos Smith, "for his continued outstanding contributions to new organic reaction development, complex natural product total synthesis, and new small molecules for medicinal chemistry"
2017 (2017): David A. Leigh, "for pioneering contributions to the synthesis and applications of complex catenanes, rotaxanes and molecular knots that underpin the field of artificial molecular machines"
2019 (2019): Sarah O'Connor, "for the discovery, enzymology and engineering of the biosynthetic pathways for complex natural products from plants."
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joeri_Verlinden | Joeri Verlinden | Joeri Verlinden (born 22 January 1988) is a Dutch swimmer who specializes in butterfly and freestyle. He is currently trained by Martin Truijens. He was previously trained by Marcel Wouda.
== Swimming career ==
Verlinden made his international debut at the European Short Course Swimming Championships 2006 in Helsinki where he started in all butterfly events finishing 34th in the 50 m, 32nd in the 100 m and 27th in the 200 m butterfly. At the 2007 Dutch Open Swim Cup he qualified for the European LC Championships in his hometown Eindhoven.
At the European Championships in March 2008 he ended 16th in the 50 m butterfly and 11th in the 100 m butterfly, he missed out for the 2008 Summer Olympics by 0.23 seconds. In the 200 m butterfly he ended 21st. In April he competed in the 2008 FINA Short Course World Championships and finished ex-aequo 17th in the 50 m butterfly and 16th in the 100 m. In the 4 × 100 m medley relay he swam a national record together with Bastiaan Tamminga, Robin van Aggele and Mitja Zastrow finishing 8th in the final.
Verlinden qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro in the 100 meter butterfly.
== Personal bests ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farooq_Abdullah#:~:text=Subsequently%2C%20Farooq%20Abdullah%20resigned%20in,the%20state's%20assembly%20was%20dismissed. | Farooq Abdullah | Farooq Abdullah (born 21 October 1937) is an Indian politician who serves as current president of the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference. He has served as the chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir on several occasions since 1982 till 2002, and as the union minister for New and Renewable Energy between 2009 and 2014. His father Sheikh Abdullah was the 1st elected chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir, while his son Omar Abdullah is the current chief minister.
== Early life and education ==
Farooq Abdullah was born to the veteran statesman and National Conference leader Sheikh Abdullah and Begum Akbar Jehan Abdullah. He studied at Tyndale Biscoe School, and subsequently received his MBBS degree from SMS Medical College, Jaipur. He subsequently travelled to the UK to practice medicine.
== Family ==
He is married to Molly, a nurse of British origin. They have a son, Omar, and three daughters, Safia, Hinna, and Sara. Their son Omar Abdullah is also involved in state and national politics, and is the chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir. Sara was married to Congress leader Sachin Pilot, but they divorced in late 2023.
== Political career ==
=== Entry into politics ===
At that time his father Sheikh Abdullah was serving as the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. Farooq
Abdullah was elected to the Lok Sabha unopposed as a founding party member of the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference from Srinagar Lok Sabha constituency in the 1980 General Election.
=== Chief Minister, 1982–1984 ===
Abdullah was a novice in the political arena of Jammu and Kashmir when he was appointed president of the National Conference in August 1981. His main qualification was that he was the son of Sheikh Abdullah. After his father's death in 1982, Farooq Abdullah became the chief minister of the state. In 1984, a faction of the National conference led by his brother-in-law Ghulam Mohammad Shah broke away, leading to the collapse of his government and his dismissal. Shah subsequently became the Chief Minister with the support of the Congress.
=== 1984–1996 ===
In 1986, G.M. Shah's government was dismissed after the communal 1986 Kashmir riots in South Kashmir, and a new National Conference–Congress government was sworn in with Abdullah as the chief minister, after the Rajiv-Farooq accord.
A new election was held in 1987 and the National Conference–Congress alliance won the election amid allegations of fraud and widespread election rigging by the National Conference. This period saw a rise in militancy in the state, with the return of trained militants in J&K and incidents that included the kidnapping of the daughter of the Home Minister Mufti Mohammad Sayeed. The period also witnessed the exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir Valley. Subsequently, Farooq Abdullah resigned in protest after Jagmohan was appointed the governor, and the state's assembly was dismissed.
He subsequently moved to the United Kingdom.
=== Chief Minister, 1996–2002 ===
After returning to India, and winning the Legislative Assembly elections in 1996, Abdullah was once again sworn in as chief minister of the state, his fifth time. His government lasted for a full six-year term. In 1999, the National Conference joined the Atal Bihari Vajpayee led National Democratic Alliance, and his son Omar Abdullah was subsequently appointed a union minister of state for External Affairs.
=== Subsequent political career ===
In the 2002 Legislative Assembly elections, Omar Abdullah was chosen to lead the National Conference, while Farooq Abdullah intended to continue his political career at the Central level. The National Conference lost the election and a coalition government headed by Mufti Mohammad Sayeed took office. On that year Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 2002 promised to make Abdullah the vice-president, but later reneged on his promise because of Abdul Kalam's nomination to President and Krishan Kant's disagree.
Farooq Abdullah was subsequently elected to the Rajya Sabha in 2002 from Jammu and Kashmir and re-elected in 2009. He resigned from the Rajya Sabha in May 2009 and won a seat in the Lok Sabha from Srinagar. Abdullah joined the United Progressive Alliance government as a Cabinet Minister of New and Renewable Energy.
Abdullah contested the Srinagar Lok Sabha seat again in the 2014 General Election, but was defeated by the People's Democratic Party candidate Tariq Hameed Karra. In 2017, Tariq Hameed Karra resigned from the position, leading to a by-election for the Srinagar parliamentary seat. Abdullah got 48,555 votes and defeated PDP candidate Nazir Ahmed Khan by 10,700 votes.
On 16 September 2019, Abdullah became the first mainstream politician to be detained under the Public Safety Act. Prior to this, Abdullah was under house arrest since the scrapping of Article 370 of the Constitution of India. He was released from house detention under the PSA after seven and a half months on 13 March 2020.
In 2022, before the election of the President of India, Mamata Bannerjee along with several other opposition leaders had proposed Abdullah's name as the Opposition's candidate. But Abdullah declined the offer stating that he wanted to remain in active politics for more years and concentrated on the Kashmir Union Territory issue.
=== 370 Hearing ===
After his son Omar Abdullah, Farooq Abdullah made his presence in the Supreme court of India in relation to Article 370 hearing.
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Manning_O%27Connor#:~:text=Eleanor%20Manning%20O'Connor%20was,building%20contractor%20in%20Lynn%2C%20Massachusetts. | Eleanor Manning O'Connor | Eleanor Manning O'Connor (June 27, 1884 – July 12, 1973) was an American architect and educator passionate about the creation of decent public housing for all.
== Early life and education ==
Eleanor Manning O'Connor was born in 1884 to Delia Josephine Grady and James Manning, a building contractor in Lynn, Massachusetts. Her father was the son of Irish immigrants, John Manning and Ellen Horgan. Eleanor attended Lynn Classical High School. She received an S.B. degree in architecture from M.I.T. in 1906 with a thesis entitled "Design for a Country Residence." She served as the president of Cleofan, MIT's club for women, in her senior year.
== Architectural practice ==
Two years after graduation, O'Connor accepted a position as a draftsman with another architect and MIT graduate, Lois Lilley Howe. In 1912, she took an extended leave of absence and traveled in Europe with her associate and classmate Eliza J. Newkirk Rogers, creating watercolors of the buildings she observed.
She cut short the trip to accept an offer of partnership from Howe and joined the firm calling themselves Howe and Manning,
America's fourth firm of female architects, later Howe, Manning & Almy, Inc.
The firm frequently worked on remodeling and renovating outdated structures and O'Connor coined the term "renovising" to describe their work.
In the 1920s, O'Connor worked with Lois Howe and other architects on the Village of Mariemont, a planned community in Hamilton County, Ohio.
During this period one of her major works was a commission from WPA for low-cost housing in an Irish neighborhood in South Boston called the Old Harbor Housing Project, constructed 1933-1938. She worked with other architects in a collaboration known as the Seventeen Associated Architects. This project, consisting of three story apartments and two story townhouses was distinguished for its residential appeal as compared to the sterile atmosphere of most public housing. Biographer Doris Cole says that O'Connor was the partner most concerned about social issues and her concerns reflected the detailing, choice of materials and attention to proportion that contribute to the appeal of the project. Subsequently, O'Connor served on numerous housing commissions and councils at the city, state and national levels.
== Educator ==
After WWI, O'Connor began lecturing at Simmons College as a Special Instructor of Architecture and later of Housing, a position that she held for 50 years
. During the 1930s she also taught at Pine Manor Junior College, Chamberlain School for Retailing, and Garland College.
She lectured frequently in the New England area on housing throughout her career.
== Collaboration with Johnson O'Connor ==
In 1931, Eleanor Manning married the American psychometrician, researcher, and educator Johnson O'Connor, founder of the Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation. At the foundation, she championed the causes of women and encouraged women to enter into the fields of engineering, medicines and science.
O'Connor died in Mexico in 1973 while researching Indian cultures and is buried beside her husband in Newport Beach, California. She was survived by O'Connor's engineer son, Chadwell O'Connor.
== Writings ==
Eleanor Manning, "Architecture as a Profession for Women", "Simmons Review", Simmons College, April 1934, 71-75
Eleanor Manning, "Buildings for the National Welfare", National Altrusan, March 1935.
== See also ==
Howe, Manning & Almy, Inc.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Sarah Allaback, "The First American Women Architects", University of Illinois Press, 2008, (ISBN 0252033213)
Doris Cole; Karen Cord Taylor; Sylvia Moore, "The lady architects : Lois Lilley Howe, Eleanor Manning, and Mary Almy : 1893-1937", Midmarch Arts Press, 1990, (ISBN 1877675016)
Boston Globe, "Eleanor O'Connor, architect and teacher", July 13, 1973.
MIT Institute Archives and Special Collections, Manuscript Collection MC 9.
Wyatt, George. "Johnson O'Connor: A Portrait From Memory", EPM Publications, Inc., 2002.
== External links ==
Watercolors by Eleanor Manning O'Connor Archived 2016-03-05 at the Wayback Machine
Johnson O'Connor: A Portrait From Memory
Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuleleua_Paletasala_Tovale#:~:text=On%2028%20July%202021%20he,the%20Prime%20Minister%20and%20Cabinet. | Manuleleua Paletasala Tovale | Manuleleua Paletasala Tovale is a Samoan politician and former member of the Legislative Assembly of Samoa. He is a member of the FAST Party.
He was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Samoa in the 2021 Samoan general election. An election petition against him was struck out in June 2021. On 28 July 2021 he was appointed Associate Minister for the Prime Minister and Cabinet. On 17 January 2025 he was fired as an associate minister by prime minister Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa after supporting her expulsion from the FAST party.
He lost his seat in the 2025 Samoan general election.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zippo_Pine_Bar#:~:text=He%20was%20the%201972%20AQHA,Bit%20Association%20Hall%20of%20Fame. | Zippo Pine Bar | Zippo Pine Bar (1969-1998) is the leading Western Pleasure sire of Quarter Horses.
== Life ==
Zippo Pine Bar was a 1969 sorrel son of Zippo Pat Bars out of Dollie Pine, a daughter of Poco Pine. Poco Pine was a son of Poco Bueno. Dollie Pine's dam was a descendant of Joe Moore, a half brother to Joe Reed P-3 and himself a descendant of Traveler. Norman Reynolds bought Zippo Pine Bar as a weanling at Lloyd Geweke's dispersal sale in 1969, hoping for a halter horse.
== Show career ==
During his show career, he earned from the American Quarter Horse Association an AQHA Championship, as well as a Performance Register of Merit and a Superior Western Pleasure Horse Award. He was the 1972 AQHA High Point Junior Western Pleasure Stallion and the 1972 AQHA High Point Junior Western Riding Horse. In 1992, he was inducted into the National Snaffle Bit Association Hall of Fame.
== Breeding record ==
He sired 1648 Quarter horse foals, 68 Appaloosas, and 72 Paints which collectively have earned over 50,000 show points. Five of his offspring have been inducted into the NSBA Hall of Fame — Mr Zippo Pine, Zippo By Moonlight, Zips Chocolate Chip, Zippos Mr Good Bar, and Zippos Amblin Easy. His son Zippos Mr Good Bar also was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2019. In 2000, Zippos Mr Good Bar was inducted as well into the National Snaffle Bit Association Hall of Fame.
Others of his influential offspring include Melody Zipper, Flashy Zipper, Zippo Cash Bar, Zippo Jack Bar, Zippos Honeybee and Don't Skip Zip. In 1991 his offspring won World Championships in Western Pleasure in the AQHA, the American Paint Horse Association (or APHA) and the Appaloosa Horse Club (or ApHC).
== Death and honors ==
He was euthanized on January 12, 1998, at age 29 following a major stroke.
He was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2000.
== Pedigree ==
== See also ==
List of historical horses
== Notes ==
== References ==
All Breed Pedigree Database Pedigree of Zippo Pine Bar accessed on June 22, 2007
- Zippo Pine Bar accessed on September 2, 2017
AQHA Hall of Fame accessed on September 2, 2017
Close, Pat and Roy Jo Sartin, ed. Legends 4: Outstanding Quarter Horse Stallions and Mares Colorado Springs:Western Horseman 2002 ISBN 0-911647-49-X
Ehringer, Gavin "Living Legends: Zippo Pine Bars" Horse & Rider p. 38-41
NSBA Hall of Fame accessed on July 5, 2007
Pitzer, Andrea Laycock The Most Influential Quarter Horse Sires Tacoma, Washington:Premier Publishing 1987
== External links ==
Zippo Pine Bar at Quarter Horse Directory
Zippo Pine Bar Information
Zippo Pine Bar at Quarter Horse Legends |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland_Fair#:~:text=An%20adult%20is%20limited%20to,harvested%20a%201%2C046%20pound%20pumpkin. | Cumberland Fair | The Cumberland Fair is an annual farmers' fair held in Cumberland, Maine, United States, at the Cumberland Fairgrounds. It is put on by the Cumberland Farmers' Club and is usually held the last week in September.
== Events ==
The annual Maine State Pumpkin and Squash Weigh-Off is held at the fair. The winner of the event receives $500. An adult is limited to one entry in the giant squash and pumpkin weigh-off. The 2015 winner of this event was Edwin Pierpont, who harvested a 1,046 pound pumpkin.
== History ==
The inaugural Cumberland Fair was held for two days, on October 10 and 11, 1868 in the center of town in the back of what is now Greely Junior High School. The land was provided by Capt. Enos Blanchard. On show were foods, handicrafts, vegetables of all shapes and sizes and also steers, especially in the traditional ox-pull. Horse racing was also featured.
There was no fair in 1919, 1942-44 nor 2020, although the latter year saw the 4H livestock show & auction go on.
== References ==
== External links ==
Cumberland Fair Web site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiharu_Shiota | Chiharu Shiota | Chiharu Shiota (塩田 千春, Shiota Chiharu) (born 1972) is a Japanese performance and installation artist and belongs to a generation of artists who have gained international attention in the twenty-first century for body-related art. Shiota has lived and worked in Berlin, Germany since 1996. Educated in Japan, Australia, and Germany, Shiota interweaves materiality and the psychic perception of the space to explore ideas around the body and flesh, personal narratives that engage with memory, territory, and alienation. Her signature installations, which consist of dazzling, intricate networks of threads stretching across gallery rooms, made the artist rise to fame in the 2000s. Shiota has exhibited worldwide. She made her debut in Japan at the Yokohama Triennale in 2001 with Memory of Skin and represented Japan in the 56th Venice Biennale in 2015.
== Early life, education and teaching ==
Shiota was born in Osaka. Her parents ran a business manufacturing fish boxes, producing a thousand wooden boxes a day. She wanted to be an artist since she was twelve. Although her parents didn't directly support her desire to be an artist and worried about her, she was able to formally study art. She studied at the Kyoto Seika University in Kyoto from 1992 to 1996, was an exchange student at Canberra School of Art, Australian National University, 1993 and a student at Hochschule für Bildende Künste, Braunschweig, from 1997 to 1999 and at Universität der Künste, Berlin, from 1999 to 2002 and was Artist in Residence at Akademie Schloss Solitude, Stuttgart, Germany. In an interview with Andrea Jahn, Shiota mentions that her first installation work was Becoming Painting (1994), which took place while she was studying abroad in Canberra, Australia, was created with red enamel paint she used on her body. "Taking part in Becoming Painting was indeed an act of liberation. It was my first physical piece of work, using my whole body, rather than a skillful artwork." Shiota first studied under contemporary sculptor Saburo Muraoka while at Kyoto Seika University. In Berlin, she was a student of Rebecca Horn and in Braunschweig studied with Marina Abramović.
== Work ==
Shiota's oeuvre links various aspects of art performances, sculpture and installation practices. Mostly renowned for her vast, room-spanning webs of threads or hoses, she links abstract networks with concrete everyday objects such as keys, window frames, dresses, shoes, boats and suitcases. Her early works are performance pieces, many of which were recorded in photographs and video, in which, for example, she uses mud, while later large-scale installations integrate personal objects (e.g. shoes) given to her by other people. In the early works of Shiota while at Seika University in Kyoto, including From DNA to DNA (1994) and Becoming Painting (1994), elements like woollen threads and paint set an elemental foundation for her future creation. Materials and colours carry particular meanings in her artistic work, which menstruation blood is used as artistic material and red threads come to signify human relationships. Thin plastic tubing filled with blood-like liquid is also occasionally used to suggest the umbilical support of a body, symbolizing nurturing and the beginning of a new life.
Shiota acknowledges her teacher Marina Abramovic's influence during her formative years and refers to Christian Boltanski's work as a source of inspiration for some of her later installation works. Places matter to her work and she is strongly interested in psychogeography, the relationship between psyche and space. Shiota's thread installation works developed from the artist's experience of moving between places out of which evolved the desire to cover her possessions in yarn thereby marking a personal territory. In an interview she states that she could not have made her large-scale installations, A Room of Memory (2009) and Memory of Skin (2005), without living in Berlin. She has also created work in collaboration with choreographers and composers such as Toshio Hosokawa, Sasha Waltz and Stefan Goldmann.
=== Boundary and dwelling: House of Windows (2005) ===
Arriving in Berlin in 1999, Shiota witnessed a Berlin with lingering Cold War ideological and cultural relics at the turn of the millennium. With the political tension gradually weakening, Berlin had transformed itself into a major economic and commercial center. Although equally fascinated by the forward-moving scenes and the renewal of the urban landscape, Shiota turned to look at the historic, abandoned part of the city. Over several years, the artist collected hundreds of old windows from construction sites in former East Berlin out of her curiosity of how residents from the two sides viewed each other’s way of life. House of Windows (2005), shown at Shiota’s solo exhibition Raum at Haus am Lützowplatz in Berlin and later at the 3rd Fukuoka Asian Art Triennale at the Fukuoka Asian Art Museum in Japan, presents a delicate assemblage of approximately two hundred disposed windows in the shape of a house. Equating windows as skin that divides the flesh and the outer world, Shiota explores the physical boundaries that stood in the fast-changing urban realm and draws a parallel between that and the body and therefore, interpersonal boundaries. Personally, as still a new transplant to Berlin, Shiota moved frequently from one place to another and dislocation has become an inherent part of her life. Thus, through the creation of works such as House of Windows, Shiota probes into the in-betweenness as she was feeling culturally and artistically distant to both her home country and current place of residence. Standing as an extremely fragile dwelling, House of Windows evokes the liminal boundaries between the personal and the historical through visual narratives embedded in used objects.
=== Cobweb installations ===
Since the 2000s, Shiota continues to produce cobweb-like installations at institutions worldwide, which became her signature set of works. These installations vary significantly from one to another, fitting the scale of the gallery rooms and incorporating found objects of various kinds. In creating the work at each exhibiting venue, Shiota often engages with the symbolism and stories contained in used objects that she was able to collect. The objects range from beds (Breathing from Earth (2000), During Sleep (2000/2005), One Place (2001), Traces of Memory (2013), Sleeping is like death (2016)), to dresses (After the Dream (2011), Labyrinth of Memory (2012)), to shoes (DNA (2004), Over the Continents (2008), Traces of Life (2008)), to keys (The Key in the Hand (2015)) and chairs Infinity Lines (2017). Dresses indicate a second skin, a divide between the self and the world. The curved contours of keys resemble those of the human body. The bodily contact that all of these above objects carries constitutes numerous lived experiences that intrigues the artist. In Shiota’s constructions, the red or black strings stretches from, reaches, surrounds, connects, encloses, and obscures the collected objects in varying ways. At each installation, Shiota and her assistants would spend hours straight in completing the work. The artist views the crisscrossing threads as human relationships that would get tangled, cut, loosened or charged with tension, and these experiences are constantly present in the creation processes of the artist, which adds a layer of performative nature to Shiota’s work that is often unseen to the audience.
=== Women’s experiences, Dialogue with Absence (2010) ===
In the recent decade, Shiota has created large-scale installations that evoke the lived experiences of women. In Dialogue with Absence (2010), an oversized white wedding dress is hung high up on the wall. On the ground lays several peristaltic pumps, from where red liquid depart and reach the dress via numerous plastic tubes attached onto the dress. This part-medical, part-ghostly scene poses questions about womanhood. The dress seems to embody an ideal version of a married woman, who is drained by societal burdens. The injection of the blood could also suggest that societal expectations are fed to her continuously. A disturbing, nightmare-like composition, Dialogue may also be autobiographical, pointing to the artist’s own battling with cancer.
=== Great Hammam of Pristina, Manifesta 14 ===
In an attempt to use neglected sites in Pristina as art exhibition spaces for Manifesta 14, Shiota hung hundreds of red yarn threads from the Great Hammam’s ceiling. The venue counted over 150,000 visitors.
== Community Projects ==
Besides art creation, Shiota has taken part in realising community-based projects outside her place of residence. Further Memory (2010) is a tunnel-like structure she has built in Teshima Island, Japan for the Setouchi International Art Festival. The medium of 600 used local windows is reminiscent of Shiota's House of Windows (2005), with unique memories attached to its frames and glasses. With the end of the tunnel facing the farmed rice field and ocean, it shows an appreciation for the ecological beauty and the islanders' connection with the environment, rendering a sense of hope and openness in spite of its depopulation over decades.
== Selected Exhibitions (2010-2025) ==
2010 :
Dialogue with Absence, Galerie Christophe Gaillard, Paris Wall, Kenji Taki Gallery, Nagoya
2015 :
The Key in the Hand, Japanese Pavilion, Biennale di Venezia
2022 :
The Soul Trembles, Gallery of Modern Art, Brisbane
2024 :
The Unsettled Soul, Kunsthalle Praha, Prague
Between Worlds, Istanbul Modern, Istanbul
2024-2025 :
The Soul Trembles, Grand Palais, Paris
== References ==
== Further reading ==
2003 :
Chiharu Shiota / a-i-r- laboratory / December 2003, Centre for Contemporary Art, Ujazdowski Castle, Warsaw, Poland, ISBN 83-85142-87-8
The Way Into Silence, solo show, Württembergischer Kunstverein Stuttgart, Hrsg: Andrea Jahn, Verlag Das Wunderhorn, ISBN 3-88423-211-8
2005 : Chiharu Shiota: Raum / Room, Haus am Lützowplatz Berlin, Germany, ISBN 3-934833-17-9
2007 : From In Silence – Chiharu Shiota, Kanagawa Kenmin Hall, Kanagawa Arts Foundation, Kanagawa, Japan
2008 :
Chiharu Shiota, Zustand des Seins / État d´Être / State of Being, CentrePasquArt, Biel / Bienne, Suisse, Verlag für Moderne Kunst Nürnberg, ISBN 978-3-940748-44-7
Chiharu Shiota - Breath of the Spirit, National Museum of Art Osaka, Osaka, Japan
2009 :
Chiharu Shiota, Unconscious Anxiety, Galerie Christophe Gaillard, France
Chiharu Shiota - When Mind Takes Shape, lecture book of Kobe Design
2011 Chiharu Shiota, edited by Caroline Stummel, Gervasuti Foundation, Venice in cooperation with Haunch of Venison, Hatje Cantz, ISBN 978-3-7757-3156-0
University, Shinjuku Shobo, Japan, ISBN 978-4-88008-395-7
2014:
Chiharu Shiota, Las líneas de la mano, Casa Asia, España, ISBN 978-1-940291-36-9
Yoshimoto, Midori. "Beyond ‘Japanese/Women Artists’: Transnational Dialogues in the Art of Nobuho Nagasawa and Chiharu Shiota." Third Text 28, no. 1 (2014): 67–81.
2019 Shiota Chiharu: The Soul Trembles, Mori Art Museum, Japan, ISBN 978-4-568-10519-3
Heinz-Norbert Jocks: Chiharu Shiota. I hope, in: Kunstforum International, Nr. 273, Cologne 2021, p. 258-260.
2025 : Tardigrades et intrigues/Nos quotidiennes (with French poet Etienne Vaunac), Epousées par l'écorce, Aix-en-Provence (ISBN : 9782958552862, https://www.editionsepouseesparlecorce.com/tardigrades-et-intrigues-nos-quotidiennes). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance_of_Tara_Calico | Disappearance of Tara Calico | Tara Leigh Calico (born February 28, 1969) is an American woman who disappeared near her home in Belen, New Mexico, on September 20, 1988. She is widely believed to have been kidnapped. In July 1989, a Polaroid photo of an unidentified young woman and boy, gagged and seemingly bound, was televised to the public after it was found in a convenience store parking lot in Port St. Joe, Florida. Family friends thought the woman resembled Calico and contacted her mother, who then met with investigators and examined the Polaroid. She believed it was her daughter after taking "time, growth and lack of makeup" into consideration, and noted that a scar on the woman's leg was identical to one that Calico had. Scotland Yard analyzed the photo and concluded that the woman was Calico, but a second analysis by the Los Alamos National Laboratory disagreed. An FBI analysis of the photo was inconclusive.
Calico's case received extensive coverage on television programs such as A Current Affair, Unsolved Mysteries, and America's Most Wanted. It was also profiled on The Oprah Winfrey Show and 48 Hours.
== Disappearance ==
On Tuesday, September 20, 1988, Calico left her home at about 9:30 A.M. to go on her daily bike ride along New Mexico State Road 47. She rode that route almost every morning and was sometimes accompanied by her mother, Patty Doel. However, Doel stopped riding with Calico after she felt that she had been stalked by a motorist. She advised her daughter to think about carrying mace, but Calico rejected the idea. On the morning of Calico's disappearance, she had told Doel to come and get her if she was not home by noon, as she had plans to play tennis with her boyfriend at 12:30. When her daughter did not return, Doel went searching for her along Calico's usual bike route but could not find her; she then contacted the police. Pieces of Calico's Sony Walkman and a cassette tape were later discovered along the road. Doel believed that she might have dropped them in an attempt to mark her trail. Several people saw Calico riding her bicycle, which has never been found. No one witnessed her presumed abduction, although several witnesses observed a light-colored pickup truck (possibly a 1953 Ford) with a camper shell following closely behind her.
== Photographs ==
=== Toyota van ===
On June 15, 1989, a Polaroid photo of an unidentified young woman and a boy, both gagged with black duct tape and seemingly bound, was discovered in the parking lot of a convenience store in Port St. Joe, Florida. The woman who found the photo said that it was in a parking space where a white windowless Toyota cargo van had been parked when she arrived at the store. She said that the van was being driven by a man with a mustache who appeared to be in his 30s. Police set up roadblocks to intercept the vehicle, but the man has never been identified. According to Polaroid officials, the picture had to have been taken after May 1989 because the particular film used in the photograph was not available until then.
The photo was broadcast on A Current Affair in July, and Doel was contacted by friends who had seen the show and thought the woman resembled Calico. Relatives of Michael Henley, also of New Mexico, who had disappeared in April 1988, saw the episode and said that they believed he was the boy in the photo.
Doel and Henley's parents both met with investigators and examined the Polaroid. Doel said that she was "convinced" it was Calico. She also noted that a scar on the woman's leg was identical to one that Calico had received in a car accident. In addition, a paperback copy of V.C. Andrews' My Sweet Audrina, said to be one of Calico's favorite books, can be seen lying next to the woman. Scotland Yard analyzed the photo and concluded that the woman was Calico, but a second analysis by the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) disagreed; a forensic scientist at LANL said that the woman is "definitely not Tara". An FBI analysis of the photo was inconclusive.
Henley's mother said that she was "almost certain" it was Michael in the Polaroid. The identification of the boy in the photograph as Henley is considered unlikely: his remains were discovered in June 1990 in the Zuñi Mountains, about 7 miles (11 km) from his family's campsite from which he had disappeared and 75 miles (121 km) from where Calico disappeared. Police believe that Henley wandered off and subsequently died of exposure.
=== Other photos ===
Two other Polaroid photographs, possibly of Calico, have surfaced over the years. The first was found near a construction site in Montecito, California, on July 19, 1989, and is a blurry photo of a girl's face with tape covering her mouth and light blue striped fabric behind her, "similar to that on the pillow in the Toyota van photo". It was taken on film that was not available until June 1989. The second shows "a woman loosely bound in gauze, her eyes covered with more gauze and large black-framed glasses", with a male passenger beside her on an Amtrak train. The film used was not available until February 1990. Calico's mother believed the first one was Tara, but thought that the second may have been a hoax. Her sister stated, "They had a striking, uncalming resemblance. As for me, I will not rule them out. But keep in mind our family has had to identify many other photographs and all but those three were ruled out." The Doe Network maintained a case file on all three polaroid photographs, which was closed for unknown reasons.
In 2009, twenty years after the Polaroid photo was found and shared by the media, pictures of a boy were sent to the Port St. Joe police chief, David Barnes. He received two letters, postmarked June 10 and August 10, 2009, from Albuquerque, New Mexico. One letter contained a photo, printed on copy paper, of a young boy with sandy brown hair. Someone had drawn a black band in ink on the photo, over the boy's mouth, as if it were covered in tape as in the 1989 picture. The second letter contained an original image of the boy. On August 12, The Star newspaper in Port St. Joe received a third letter, also postmarked in Albuquerque on August 10 and depicting the same image, of a boy with black marker drawn over his mouth. The boy has not been confirmed to be the same one as in the previous photo. None of the letters contained a return address or a note indicating the child's identity, making the officials there believe it may have something to do with the disappearance of Tara Calico. The letters were sent at the same time that a self-proclaimed psychic had called about Calico, saying that she had met a runaway in California with whom she worked in a strip club; this girl was eventually murdered. The caller said she had dreams suggesting the runaway may have been Calico and that she may be buried in California. Searches did not lead to any discoveries. The photos were given to the FBI for further investigation in hope of finding fingerprints or possible DNA evidence.
== Later developments ==
In late August 1993, Calico's family received a tip from a "sincere and concerned" woman who had heard the sound of digging the day after Calico's disappearance, at a site about 7 miles (11 km) south of Belen. Authorities subsequently conducted excavations at the site using backhoes.
In 1998, Calico was declared officially dead. A judge ruled her death a homicide.
In 2008, Rene Rivera, the sheriff of Valencia County, reported that he received information that two teenagers had accidentally hit Calico with a truck, panicked, and subsequently killed her. According to Rivera, the boys, who knew Calico, drove up behind her in a truck and some form of an accident followed. Calico later died and those responsible covered up the crime. Rivera stated that he knew the names of those involved, but that, without a body, he could not make a case. He did not release the evidence that led him to this conclusion. Calico's stepfather, John Doel, said that the sheriff should not have made these comments if he was not willing to arrest anyone and that strong circumstantial evidence should be enough for a conviction.
In October 2013, a six-person task force was established to reinvestigate Calico's disappearance. As of 2017, no arrests have been made and the case remains open.
On October 1, 2019, the FBI announced that they are "offering a reward of up to $20,000 for precise details leading to the identification or location of Tara Leigh Calico and information leading to the arrest and conviction of those responsible for her disappearance."
In September 2021, the Valencia County Sheriff's Office and the New Mexico State Police issued a statement that they have a new lead in the case, and that the focus of a sealed warrant for an unknown private residence located within Valencia County has been issued; however, no further details were provided.
On June 13, 2023, the Valencia County Sheriff’s Office announced a breakthrough in the 1988 disappearance. Sheriff Denise Vigil and other law enforcement officers spoke at a press conference regarding the Calico case. "At this time, law enforcement believes there is sufficient evidence to submit this investigation to the district attorney's office for review of potential charges," Vigil said. "Currently, the identities and specifics of the persons of interest are sealed by the court and will remain so until a court order otherwise".
== Family ==
Her father, David J. Calico, was beaten and mugged by two men in Albuquerque, New Mexico. He died as a result on November 2, 2002, at the age of 64.
Her mother, Patty Doel, died on May 11, 2006, in Port Charlotte, Florida, from health complications after a series of strokes.
== See also ==
List of people who disappeared mysteriously: 1910–1990
== References ==
== External links ==
Case File 257DFNM, The Doe Network
Tara Leigh Calico, The Charley Project
Vanished: The Tara Calico Story, documentary by a friend of Calico (Vanished: The Tara Calico Story at IMDb)
Gutierrez Krueger, Joline (June 8, 2006). "Patty Doel waited for Tara until the day she died". Albuquerque Tribune. Albuquerque, New Mexico. Archived from the original on March 7, 2008. Retrieved September 12, 2014.
Official police report |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelia_Parker#Curatorial | Cornelia Parker | Cornelia Ann Parker (born 14 July 1956) is an English visual artist, best known for her sculpture and installation art.
== Life and career ==
Parker was born in 1956 in Cheshire, England. Her childhood with a mentally fragile mother and a violent father had a strong influence on her. Her German mother was a nurse in the Luftwaffe during the Second World War; her British grandfather fought in the Battle of the Somme in the First World War.
Parker studied at the Gloucestershire College of Art and Design (1974–1975) and Wolverhampton Polytechnic (1975–1978). She received her MFA from Reading University in 1982 and honorary doctorates from the University of Wolverhampton in 2000, the University of Birmingham (2005), the University of Gloucestershire (2008) and the University of Manchester (2017).
In 1997, Parker was shortlisted for the Turner Prize along with Christine Borland, Angela Bulloch, and Gillian Wearing (who won the prize). She was Honorary Professor at the University of Manchester 2015–2018 and between 2016 and 2019 was Visiting Fellow at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. She was appointed Honorary Fellow at Trinity Hall, Cambridge in 2020.
Cornelia Parker's first solo museum exhibition was at the Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston in 2000. In 2019 she had a survey exhibition at MCA Sydney. A major survey exhibition of her work opened at Tate Britain in May 2022.
She has one daughter, Lily, with her former husband Jeff McMillan, and lives and works in London.
== Work ==
Parker is best known for large-scale installations such as Cold Dark Matter: An Exploded View (1991) – first shown at the Chisenhale Gallery in Bow, East London – for which she had a garden shed blown up by the British Army and suspended the fragments as if suspending the explosion process in time. In the centre was a light which cast the shadows of the wood dramatically on the walls of the room. This inspired an orchestral composition of the same name by Joo Yeon Sir.
In contrast, in 1997 at the Turner Prize exhibition, Parker exhibited Mass (Colder Darker Matter) (1997), suspending the charred remains of a church that had been struck by lightning in Texas. Eight years later, Parker made a companion piece "Anti-Mass" (2005), using charcoal from a black congregation church in Kentucky, which had been destroyed by arson. Hanging Fire (Suspected Arson) (1999) is another example of Parker's suspended sculptures, featuring charred remains of an actual case of suspected arson.
The Maybe (1995) at the Serpentine Gallery, London, was a performance piece conceived by Tilda Swinton, who lay, apparently asleep, inside a vitrine. She asked Parker to collaborate with her on the project, and to create an installation in which she could sleep. Swinton's original idea was to lie in state as Snow White in a glass coffin, but through the collaboration with Parker the idea evolved into her appearing as herself and not as an actor posing as a fictional character. Parker filled the Serpentine with glass cases containing relics that belonged to famous historical figures, such as the pillow and blanket from Freud's couch, Mrs. Simpson's ice skates, Charles Dickens' quill pen and Queen Victoria's stocking. A version of the piece was later re-performed in Rome (1996) and then MoMA, New York (2013) without Parker's involvement.
Avoided Object is an ongoing series of smaller works which have been developed in liaison with various institutions, including the Royal Armouries, British Police Forces, Colt Firearms and Madame Tussauds.
Parker has made other interventions involving historical artworks. In 1998 in her solo show at the Serpentine Gallery she exhibited the backs of Turner paintings (Room for Margins) as works in their own right, she wrapped Rodin's The Kiss sculpture in Tate Britain with a mile of string (2003) as her contribution to the 2003 Tate Triennial Days Like These at Tate Britain. The intervention was titled The Distance (A Kiss With String Attached). She re-staged this piece as part of her mid-career retrospective at the Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester, in 2015 and at Tate Britain in 2022.
Subconscious of a Monument (2005) is composed of fragments of dry soil suspended on wires from the gallery ceiling. These lumps are the now-desiccated clay which was removed from beneath the Leaning Tower of Pisa in order to prevent its collapse.
These "avoided" objects have often had their identities transformed by being burned, shot, squashed, stretched, drawn, exploded, cut, or simply dropped off cliffs. Cartoon deaths have long held a fascination for Parker: "Tom being run over by a steamroller or Jerry riddled with bullet holes." Sometimes the object's demise has been orchestrated, or it may have occurred accidentally or by natural causes. According to Parker:They might be 'preempted' objects that have not yet achieved a fully formed identity, having been plucked prematurely from the production line like Embryo Firearms 1995. They may not even be classified as objects: things like cracks, creases, shadows, dust or dirt The Negative of Whispers 1997: Earplugs made with fluff gathered in the Whispering Gallery, St Paul's Cathedral). Or they might be those territories you want to avoid psychologically, such as the backs, underbellies or tarnished surfaces of things."Another example of this work is Pornographic Drawings (1997), using ink made by the artist who used solvent to dissolve (pornographic) video tape, confiscated by HM Customs and Excise.
I resurrect things that have been killed off... My work is all about the potential of materials—even when it looks like they've lost all possibilities.
In 2009, for the opening of Jupiter Artland, a sculpture park near Edinburgh, Parker created a firework display titled Nocturne: A Moon Landing containing a lunar meteorite. Therefore, the moon "landed on Jupiter". The following year Parker made Landscape with Gun and Tree for Jupiter Artland, a nine-metre-tall cast iron and Corten steel shotgun leaning against a tree. It was inspired by the painting Mr and Mrs Andrews by Thomas Gainsborough, where Mr Andrews poses with a gun slung over his arm. The shotgun used in the piece is a facsimile of the one owned by Robert Wilson, one of the founders of Jupiter Artland.
For the Folkestone Triennial in 2011, Parker created The Folkestone Mermaid, her version of one of the popular tourist attractions in Copenhagen, The Little Mermaid. Through a process of open submission, Parker chose Georgina Baker, 38 year old mother of two, Folkestone born and bred. Unlike the idealised Copenhagen version, this is a life-size, life-cast sculpture, celebrating womankind.
To celebrate the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta, Parker created Magna Carta (An Embroidery), a hand-embroidered representation of the Wikipedia article on Magna Carta as it was on 15 June 2014, completed in 2015. Embroiderers included members of the Embroiderers Guild, HM prisoners, Peers, MP's, judges, human rights lawyers, a US ambassador and his staff, and various public figures including Edward Snowden, Julian Assange, Jimmy Wales, Jarvis Cocker and Doreen Lawrence.
Whilst Magna Carta (An Embroidery) was on display at the British Library, Parker presented One More Time, a Terrace Wires commission for St Pancras International Station, London, co-presented by HS1 Ltd. and the Royal Academy of Arts.
In 2016 Parker became the first female artist to be commissioned to create a new work for the Roof Garden of the Met in New York. Transitional Object (PsychoBarn) is a scaled-down replica of the house from the 1960 Hitchcock film Psycho and was constructed using a salvaged red barn.
Parker continued her work as a curator for the Found exhibition for The Foundling Museum, which incorporated sixty-eight artists from an array of creative disciplines, as well as contributing her own piece, A Little Drop of Gin. This limited-edition print, nicknamed 'mother's ruin', was a photogravure using a 1750s gin glass and droppings of gin. Parker was named Artist of the Year in the 2016 Apollo Awards for her involvement and contributions in the art world.
Parker appeared in the BBC Four television series What Do Artists Do All Day?, a BBC Scotland production, first broadcast in 2013. In the programme she talks about her life and work. In May 2015, Parker was included in the Brilliant Ideas series broadcast by Bloomberg TV in which she reveals her inspirations and discusses some of her best-loved works. In summer 2016, BBC One broadcast "Danger! Cornelia Parker" as part of the TV series Imagine. In autumn 2016 she was included in Gaga for Dada, a programme to mark the 100th anniversary of Dada, presented by Vic Reeves. She also contributed to the BBC Four production Bricks! broadcast on 21 September 2016, marking the 40th anniversary of Carl Andre's sculpture Equivalent VIII, better known as "The Tate Bricks".
On 1 May 2017 Parker was chosen as the official election artist for the 2017 United Kingdom general election; she was the first woman to take on that role.
In 2017, Parker made a series of blackboard drawings with the collaboration of 5- to 10-year-old schoolchildren from Torriano Primary School. The children were asked by the artist to copy out news headlines collected from various UK and US newspapers. "At that age, children have a barely formed view of the news and world affairs—they don't yet have a vote, but the political turmoil unfolding in their young lives will have a profound effect on their futures."
In November 2019 Parker opened her first major retrospective exhibition in Australia at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney for the Tenth Sydney International Art Series.
In May 2022 Parker exhibited 100 artworks at Tate Britain in her largest solo exhibition to date. She showed several of her films, Chomskian Abstract 2007, Made in Bethlehem 2012, War Machine 2015, American Gothic 2016, Left, Right & Centre 2017, Election Abstract 2018, Thatcher’s Finger 2018 and Flag 2022. Tabish Khan, reviewing the exhibition for Culture Whisper, said "Conceptual art can often be seen as abstruse but Cornelia Parker is able to make it accessible and playful, yet she also adds a level of intelligent rigour to her work that challenges us to think about the wider world we live in. It’s precisely what conceptual art should be."
In May 2023, her photograph "Snap" was used as the cover artwork for the Peter Gabriel song "Four Kinds of Horses".
In November 2024, Parker's glass rendition of the chandelier featured in Van Eyck's The Arnolfini Portrait was suspended in the Procuratie Vecchie in St Mark's Square, Venice. This work was created as part of Murano Illumina il Mondo (“Murano Lights Up the World”) and was the first time in living memory that artworks were permitted to be displayed in the colonnade.
== Curatorial ==
In 2011 Parker curated an exhibition titled Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain for the Collections Gallery at the Whitechapel Gallery in London using selected works from the Government Art Collection arranged as a colour spectrum.
For the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 2014, Parker curated the Black and White Room which included a number of well-known artists who she thought should be future Royal Academicians.
In 2016, as part of her Hogarth Fellowship at the Foundling Museum, Parker curated a group exhibition titled FOUND presenting works from over sixty artists from a range of creative disciplines, asked to respond to the theme of "found", reflecting on the museum's heritage.
== Honours and recognition ==
In 2010 Parker was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts, London and appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2010 Birthday Honours. In 2000, 2005 and 2008 and 2017 she received Honorary Doctorates from the Universities of Wolverhampton, Birmingham, and Gloucestershire and Manchester respectively.
Parker won the Artist of the Year Apollo Award in 2016. Other shortlisted artists were Carmen Herrera, David Hockney, Ragnar Kjartansson, Jannis Kounellis and Helen Marten.
Parker was named the official Election Artist for the 2017 general election in the United Kingdom. In this role she observed the election campaign leading up to the vote on 8 June, and was required to produce a piece of art in response. Parker created two films and a series of 14 photographic works as a result of this commission, which were previewed on BBC Newsnight on 2 February 2018 and made available online via the UK Parliament website prior to an exhibition in Westminster Hall.
She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to the arts.
== Politics ==
In politics, prior to the 2015 general election, she was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the Green Party's Caroline Lucas.
== See also ==
Art of the United Kingdom
Book Works
== References ==
== External links ==
Tate: Cold Dark Matter: An Exploded View
Tate: Cornelia Parker: Talking Art Cornelia Parker interviewed by writer and curator Lisa LeFeuvre. 31 May 2008
Tateshots: Cornelia Parker's 'Folkestone Mermaid' The artist talks about her work for Folkestone Triennial 2011. 23 June 2011
Sculptor and Artist Cornelia Parker (video)
IMAGINE: DANGER! Cornelia Parker First Broadcast July 2016, the artist discusses her work with Alan Yentob |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balen_Shah#:~:text=He%20defeated%20Nepali%20Congress%20candidate,assembly%20elected%20at%20the%20elections. | Balen Shah | Balen Shah (born 27 April 1990) is a Nepalese politician and former rapper who is currently serving as the 15th mayor of Kathmandu since 2022. He is the first independent candidate to be elected as the mayor of Kathmandu.
Born to a family of Maithil Madhesi origin, Shah has been a part of the Nepalese hip-hop industry since 2012. In the 2022 local election, Shah was elected mayor, defeating Nepali Congress candidate Sirjana Singh and CPN (UML) candidate Keshav Sthapit.
As mayor, Shah's campaigns include waste management and road traffic control. Shah has been highly critical of India and supported the irredentist Greater Nepal claims. In 2023, he placed a map of Greater Nepal in his personal office, an act that caused considerable controversy in India.
== Early life and education ==
Balen Shah was born on 27 April 1990 in Naradevi, Kathmandu to a family of Maithil Madhesi origin. He is the youngest son of Ram Narayan Shah, an Ayurvedic practitioner, and his wife Dhruvadevi Shah. His parents moved to Kathmandu from Mahottari District of Madhesh Province after his father was posted to Naradevi Ayurvedic Hospital.
Shah attended V.S. Niketan Higher Secondary School for his 10+2 studies. He received a bachelor's degree (BE) in civil engineering from Himalayan Whitehouse International College. He also received a master's degree (MTech) in structural engineering from Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU) in Karnataka, India. Balen Shah has been awarded a KU Researcher's Fellowship for his PhD studies in Civil Engineering at Kathmandu University and his topic of study is the "Conservation of Newa Heritage Structure to promote Tourism and Economy”.
== Music career ==
From an early age, Shah was interested in music and poetry. He released his first single, Sadak Balak, which he wrote while in the ninth grade, in 2012. He rose to prominence among Nephop fans in 2013 after his appearance on the YouTube battle rap series Raw Barz.
In early July 2022, he attracted controversy over the use of a sacred crown in Nephopko Shreepech, a hip-hop reality TV show in which he served as a judge.
== Political career ==
=== Mayor of Kathmandu (2022–present) ===
As one of the first moves upon taking office, Shah introduced live telecasts of municipal council meetings, marking the first time such a practice was implemented in the city.
==== Solid waste management ====
On 6 June 2022, an agreement was reached between the Ministry of Urban Development and the newly elected representatives to commence garbage disposal from 7 June and on 18 August 2022, following a four-point agreement between the locals and government officials, Balen directed private companies to handle the disposal of all uncollected solid waste.
==== Demolition of illegally-built structures ====
Shah instructed to uncover the Tukucha River by demolishing the private properties built above the river, as part of city beautification and river conservation effort. The businesses affected by the campaign filed a writ petition in the court. Patan High Court subsequently issued the interim order barring the Kathmandu city government in the demolition drive.
He made a request to the Nepal Police to ensure compliance with the law and order by removing all police sub-stations constructed on sidewalks without proper authorization from the municipality. He also clashed with Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal, after the mayor's office removed the construction materials including wire fencing on the grounds of Tribhuvan International Airport, that were built without proper approval from the city. CAAN wrote letter to mayor Balen seeking explanation for his forceful entry to the restricted area and asked the KMC Mayor to furnish clarification as to why he should not be punished as per the Clause 25(1) of the CAAN Act. KMC Mayor moved to high court demanding the notice given by CAAN to be scrapped. The Patan high court issued short-term stay order on the notice. However, the high court scrapped the petition filed by KMC Mayor.
Balen's office issued a 7-day public notice to vacate landless squatters on the river banks, which led to a conflict between the residents and the municipal police during the slum demolition attempt. The clash resulted in several injuries. Balen later expressed his concern about the Home Ministry's perceived lack of assistance during the incident. Prior to this, Balen had expressed dissatisfaction with the federal government when Kathmandu's garbage collection was interrupted for two months. Following the confrontation with the riverbank settlers, tensions between the federal government and the Kathmandu metropolitan office escalated, eventually leading Balen to instruct the cessation of garbage collection from Singha Durbar, the seat of the federal government.
Education
Kathmandu Metro under Mayor Balen launched 'Textbook-free-Friday' program in community schools which aimed at helping students learn technical skills and engage in other extracurricular activities.
==== Use of force towards street vendors ====
The Kathmandu Municipal Government, led by Shah, has faced criticism from organizations like Human Rights Watch due to allegations of employing disproportionate use of force against street vendors. His policies have also led to the emergence of small-scale protests by social activists, triggered by the circulation of videos showing the municipal police chasing down, beating and confiscating vendors' properties. Critics of Shah's crackdown on street vendors argue that since nearly half of the country's economy relies on informal businesses, such actions adversely impact the standard of living of the urban poor without offering viable alternative solutions.
In September 2023, the political activist known as Iih stood for 199 hours outside Kathmandu City Hall, urging the mayor to allow street vendors to conduct business without interference until an alternative solution could be proposed. Support for the protest came from figures like Kathmandu-4 MP Gagan Thapa, former Deputy Prime Minister Kamal Thapa, and former Finance Minister Surendra Pandey. Addressing the protest, Mayor Shah stated on Facebook that he was enforcing existing laws established by lawmakers such as MP Thapa. He also argued that restricting street vendors does not effectively address poverty and expressed concern about the injustice faced by those whose property had been confiscated during road expansion initiatives of the city. The protest concluded with an agreement between Kathmandu Metropolitan City and Iih, aiming to develop an alternative plan for street vendors, temporary permits for specific areas and times, and the return of confiscated goods to their owners.
== Controversies ==
Mayor Shah of Kathmandu often fights with the national government and big political groups. A major incident happened when his wife's car was stopped for a security check; he got angry and threatened to burn down Singha Durbar, the main government building. He also once stopped collecting trash from Singha Durbar to protest a lack of help with managing waste and people living in slums. He frequently argues with Politicials like KP Sharma Oli, and recently, he posted a very critical message online about major political parties and other countries like the US, India, and China, which he later removed.
Shah uses strong and sometimes aggressive methods to manage the city. He has removed illegal buildings, uncovered the hidden Tukucha River, and cleared street vendors.
He put a "Greater Nepal" map in his office, which upset India. He also banned Indian movies in Kathmandu temporarily after one film said "Sita is the daughter of India," ignoring a court order to lift the ban.
In Genzi Protest of Nepal the Nepal Student Union (NSU), the student wing of the Nepali Congress party, filed a police complaint against Shah, accusing him of inciting the violence that damaged national heritage sites. The KMC faced widespread criticism for allegedly failing to deploy adequate measures to protect major structures during the most violent periods of the unrest. Shah rejected these claims, stating that city teams worked around the clock to ensure public safety and protect infrastructure.
== Views ==
=== Opposition to India ===
Shah is known for his support of the Greater Nepal theory that claims states of Northeast India to be "returned" to Nepal. In 2023, he placed a map of Greater Nepal in his office, which gained outrage in India.
Shah sparked controversy when he imposed a ban on screening Indian movies within the city limits, demanding the removal of the line "Sita is the daughter of India" from the movie Adipurush. In response to his decision, a petition was filed in the Supreme Court, leading to the issuance of an interim order by the Patan High Court against Shah's ban. In defiance of the court's order, Shah took to Facebook, stating his refusal to comply, arguing that the court's decision was contrary to the country's interests, and further accusing both the federal government and the courts of being under the influence of India. Following Shah's statement on Facebook, a writ petition was subsequently filed in the Supreme Court, accusing him of contempt of court. Despite his outburst on social media, Shah relented the very next day and allowed the screening of Indian films in Kathmandu.
== Personal life ==
Shah is married to Sabina Kafle, a public health professional. He lives with his family in Gairigaun, Tinkune.
== Electoral history ==
=== 2022 Kathmandu mayoral election ===
Balen Shah had been mulling over his plans for candidacy since 2020 and on 17 December 2021 announced that he would be running for the mayoral race as an independent candidate through his Facebook Page. His campaign focused on waste management, road traffic control, public service delivery, anti-corruption, and preservation of cultural heritage of the city.
Shah was elected on 26 May 2022, winning 38.6% of the votes cast. He defeated Nepali Congress candidate Sirjana Shrestha and former mayor and CPN (UML) candidate Keshav Sthapit by a margin of over 23,000 votes.
Shah was sworn in as mayor on 30 May 2022 and administered the oath of office to other members of the municipal assembly elected at the elections.
== Awards and recognitions ==
TIME Magazine included Shah in ‘The 100 emerging leaders who are shaping the future’ list of 2023.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Balen Shah at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Games#Editions | African Games | The African Games, formally known as the All-Africa Games or the Pan African Games, are a continental multi-sport event held every four years, organized by the African Union with the Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa and the Association of African Sports Confederation.
All of the competing nations are from the African continent. The first Games were held in 1965 in Brazzaville, Congo. The International Olympic Committee granted these Games official recognition as a continental multi-sport event, along with the Asian Games and Pan American Games. Since 1999, the Games have also included athletes with a disability.
The Supreme Council for Sport in Africa (SCSA) was the organizing body for the Games. On 26 July 2013, the Extraordinary Assembly of the SCSA held in Abidjan, Ivory Coast on the sidelines of the 5th Session of the African Union Conference of Sports Ministers recommended the dissolution of the SCSA and transfer of all its functions, assets & liabilities to the African Union Commission. The organization of the African Games is now managed by three parts, the AU (the owners of the game), the ANOCA (occupying the technical aspects) and the AASC (developing marketing policy, sponsorship and research resources).
After running previous 11 editions as the All-Africa Games, the games has been renamed the African Games. The decision for the name change was arrived at, during the Executive Council meeting of the African Union held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in January 2012. 54 countries were participating in the most recent edition in Morocco 2019. In 2023, the 13th edition of the game was hosted in Accra, Ghana. It was aim to use sports for national and continental development, aligning with Ghana's transformative agenda and the African Union's Agenda 2063, "Africa We Want."
== History ==
=== Beginning ===
Modern Olympics founder Pierre de Coubertin conceived the Pan African Games as early as 1920. The colonial powers who ruled Africa at the time were wary of the idea, suspecting the unifying aspect of sport among African people would cause them to assert their independence.
Attempts were made to host the games in Algiers, Algeria in 1925 and Alexandria, Egypt in 1928, but despite considerable preparations taken by coordinators, the efforts failed. The International Olympic Committee's (IOC) first African member, Greek-born Egyptian sprinter Angelo Bolanachi, donated funds to erect a stadium, but still the Games were set back for another three decades.
=== The Friendship Games ===
In the early 1960s, French-speaking countries of Africa including France organized the Friendship Games. The Games were organized by Madagascar (1960) and then Ivory Coast (1961). The third games were set for Senegal in 1963. Before they were completed, African Ministers of Youth and Sport met in Paris in 1962; as a few English-speaking countries were already participating, they rechristened the Games as the Pan African Games. The Games were granted official recognition by the IOC as being on par with other continental Games such as the Asian Games and the Pan American Games.
=== The games ===
In July 1965, the first games were held in Brazzaville, Congo, now called the All-Africa Games. From 30 countries, around 2,500 athletes competed. Egypt topped the medal count for the first Games.
In 1966, the SCSA was organized in Bamako; it manages the All-Africa Games. The second edition were awarded to Mali in 1969, but a military coup forced the cancellation of the Games. Lagos, Nigeria stepped in as host for the Games in 1971. Those Games were finally held in 1973 due to the Biafra War, which had just ended in Nigeria.
In 1977, the 3rd Games were scheduled to take place in Algeria but due to technical reasons had to be postponed for a year and were held in 1978. Continuing the pattern, the next Games were scheduled to take place in Kenya in 1983, but were pushed back to 1985 and finally took place in Nairobi in 1987.
The four-year Olympic rhythm has not missed a beat since, and the Games have been organized in Cairo, Harare, Johannesburg, and Abuja. In 2007, Algiers once again hosted, becoming the first repeat host. The 2011 edition of the All-Africa Games was held in Maputo, Mozambique in September 2011. Brazzaville hosted the 2015 edition in honor of the Games' 50th anniversary.
== Participation ==
All 53 members affiliated to the Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa (ANOCA) are eligible to take part in the Games. In history, the 53 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) have sent competitors to the Games.
South Africa was banned since the beginning of the games in the 1965 All-Africa Games till the 1995 All-Africa Games because Apartheid officially ended when it was invited for the first time to compete the games.
Morocco was banned from the games from the 1987 All-Africa Games to the 2015 African Games because of a political dispute over Western Sahara. Morocco claims the territory as its "Southern Provinces" and controls 80% of it while the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, which claims to be a sovereign state, controls the remaining 20% as the "Free Zone". In 2018, after the Moroccan government signed its treaty of return to the African Union, the country also pledged to return to the African Games. Rabat, Morocco hosted the 2019 African Games.
== Editions ==
=== Unofficial editions ===
1925 Algiers, Algeria - Not held
1928 Alexandria, Egypt - Not held
1960 African Friendship Games - Madagascar - French-speaking countries of Africa
1961 African Friendship Games - Ivory Coast - French-speaking countries of Africa
1963 African Friendship Games - Senegal - Not held
== Sports ==
35 sports, 2 demonstration sports and 6 Para sports were presented in African Games history until 2019 African Games (also 1991 Diving and 1999 Netball were demonstration).
== All time Medal Table ==
50 nations have won at least a single medal in the African Games, from 54 National Olympic Committees participating throughout the history of the Games. 43 NOCs have won at least a single gold medal.
== Legacy ==
After hearing about the Pan-African Games whilst on a business trip to Congo, Soviet Union-Armenian diplomat Ashot Melik-Shahnazaryan got the idea to create the Pan-Armenian Games.
== See also ==
Sport in Africa
African Youth Games
African School Games
African Para Games
All-Africa University Games
Asian Games
South Asian Games
West Asian Games
Central Asian Games
Southeast Asian Games
European Games
Pacific Games
Pan American Games
South American Games
== References ==
== External links ==
Background from official website (archived 22 July 2013)
Medal winners in various events (archived 27 April 2006)
Event at Ultraviewdirectory (archived 7 October 2011) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangabandhu_Sheikh_Mujibur_Rahman_Novo_Theatre#Design | Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Novo Theatre | Novo Theatre, Dhaka (formerly Bhasani Novo Theatre and Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Novo Theatre) is a planetarium on Bijoy Sarani Avenue of Tejgaon area in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
== History ==
The Novo Theatre opened to public on 25 September 2004. It was previously named Bhashani Novo Theatre. It was made autonomous by Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Novo Theatre Bill 2010. The space center was commissioned by the Ministry of Science and Communication Technology of the Government of Bangladesh.
On March 20, 2025, the interim government of Bangladesh, through an ordinance, changed the name of the Novo Theater from Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Novo Theater to Novo Theater.
== Description ==
Built on 5.46 acres of land, its spaces range in size from its 21-meter dome, seating 275 people; to three-meter inflatable and portable domes where people sit on the floor.
== Design ==
The planetarium was designed by architect Ali Imam. The Planetarium dome simulates Earth and its cool blue sky. This dome-shaped theater was built with the latest equipment, enabling visitors to soar into space as well as experience the thrills of an interplanetary journey in a three-dimensional environment. The curved ceiling represents the sky and shows moving images of planets and stars through projection onto a large-screen dome at an angle of 120 degrees.
== Features ==
This planetarium features three kinds of exhibits. They Journey to Infinity presents a celestial show of stars, planets and other heavenly bodies in virtual reality. The ai amader Bangladesh features Bangabandhu Sheik Mujibur Rahman's 7 March lecture, while The Grand Canyon describes North America's settlement clan, Garikhad, which existed in The Grand Canyon four thousand years ago.
Visitors need not look up in the dome to watch the show. Instead, they feel they are watching space live, with everything around them, presented by 150 projectors. The planetarium added a new capsule simulator and smart-step floor and 3D video. In 2013 the planetarium added a Nuclear Industrial Information Centre.
== See also ==
List of planetariums
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Novo Theatre, Dhaka at Wikimedia Commons
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Library_%26_Museum | Morgan Library & Museum | The Morgan Library & Museum (formerly the Pierpont Morgan Library; colloquially the Morgan) is a museum and research library in New York City, New York, United States. Completed in 1906 as the private library of the banker J. P. Morgan, the institution is housed at 225 Madison Avenue in the Murray Hill neighborhood of Manhattan. As of 2024, the museum is directed by Colin B. Bailey and governed by a board of trustees.
The site was formerly occupied by several Phelps family residences, one of which was sold to J. P. Morgan in 1880. After collecting thousands of objects in the late 19th century, Morgan erected the main building between 1902 and 1906, with Belle da Costa Greene serving as its first librarian for more than four decades. The library was made a public institution in 1924 by J. P. Morgan's son John Pierpont Morgan Jr., in accordance with his father's will, and further expansions were completed in 1928, 1962, and 1991. The Morgan Library was renamed the Morgan Library & Museum after the completion of a major expansion in 2006. Further renovations were completed in 2010 and 2022.
The Morgan Library & Museum is composed of several structures. The main building was designed by Charles McKim of the firm of McKim, Mead and White, with an annex designed by Benjamin Wistar Morris. A 19th-century Italianate brownstone house at 231 Madison Avenue, built by Isaac Newton Phelps, is also part of the grounds. The complex includes three additional structures, including a glass entrance building designed by Renzo Piano and Beyer Blinder Belle. The main building and its interior is a New York City designated landmark and a National Historic Landmark, while the house at 231 Madison Avenue is a designated city landmark.
The Morgan Library & Museum's collection has more than 350,000 objects, which include illuminated manuscripts, authors' original manuscripts, books, and sheets of music. The Morgan also houses collections of drawings, photographs, paintings, maps, and other objects. In addition to its permanent collection, the museum has hosted temporary exhibitions, as well as events such as concerts and lectures. Both the collection and the original building's architecture have received praise over the years, while the annexes' architecture has received mixed commentary.
== History ==
=== Background ===
==== Phelps Stokes/Dodge houses ====
In the second half of the 19th century, the Morgan Library & Museum's site was occupied by four brownstone houses on the east side of Madison Avenue, between 36th Street to the south and 37th Street to the north. The houses were all built in 1852 or 1853 by members of the Phelps Stokes/Dodge merchant family. Three houses were built along Madison Avenue on lots measuring 65 feet (20 m) wide by 157 feet (48 m) deep, while a fourth house to the east measured 18 feet (5.5 m) wide and stretched 197.5 feet (60.2 m) between 37th and 36th Streets. All the houses were designed in an Italianate style with pink brownstone. A driveway and stables were located behind the homes. The Madison Avenue houses, from north to south, were owned by Isaac Newton Phelps, William E. Dodge, and John Jay Phelps, while the 37th Street house was owned by George D. Phelps. The houses were separated from each other by gardens. The surrounding neighborhood of Murray Hill was not yet developed at the time, but began to grow after the American Civil War.
Isaac Newton Phelps's daughter Helen married Anson Phelps Stokes in 1865. Their son, the architect Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, was born in the Isaac Newton Phelps house at 231 Madison Avenue two years later. Helen Phelps inherited the house following her father's death. In 1888, she doubled the size of her house and added an attic; the architect R. H. Robertson designed the expansion.
The banker John Pierpont Morgan, who lived at 6 East 40th Street in the 1870s, was looking to buy his own house by 1880. He wished to live in Murray Hill, where many of his and his wife's friends and business contacts lived. Morgan sought to buy John Jay Phelps's house at 219 Madison Avenue, at the corner with 36th Street, which was offered for $225,000. He acquired the house in 1880 and renovated it over the following two years, moving there in 1882. The exterior design was largely retained, but the interior was extensively renovated by the Herter Brothers.
==== Morgan collection ====
Morgan had collected handwriting samples as early as the 1850s, and he also acquired pictures and stained glass pieces throughout the years. In the late 19th century, Morgan became one of the most influential financiers in the United States. As his wealth grew, Morgan amassed a collection of fine art, inspired by the collection of his father Junius Spencer Morgan, and he also began collecting rare books and other bindings at his nephew Junius's suggestion. The fine art was subject to import taxes and was stored in England; since books were not subject to import taxes, they were stored in the basement of his New York residence. J. P. Morgan's collection included 160 titles by 1883.
The collection grew quickly after his father died in 1890. Morgan began acquiring historically important manuscripts after his father obtained Walter Scott's original manuscript of the book Guy Mannering. From 1899 to 1902 alone, he took over three collectors' libraries, which included hundreds of illuminated manuscripts, prints, and other manuscripts. Morgan also acquired smaller collections, such as French literature, medieval chivalry, and American manuscript collections. Morgan may have collected these objects exclusively for pleasure and not for investment purposes. Morgan brought his art collection to the U.S. because an 1897 law allowed him to do it without paying import taxes, and also because he wanted to preserve the objects for the American people.
=== Development of library ===
By 1900, Morgan's collection took up more space than was available in his residence, and his son-in-law described the basement as being packed with piles of objects. Some of his collection had to be stored at the Lenox Library. Morgan was unable to expand the house due to an 18-foot-wide (5.5 m) driveway east of it. While part of Morgan's collection was stored in the basement of his house, other items were loaned to institutions or placed in storage.
==== Site acquisition ====
In 1900, the plots north and east of J. P. Morgan's house were placed for sale after the death of Melissa Stokes Dodge, who lived in the Dodge mansion just north of Morgan's house. That January, he bought a 75-by-100-foot (23 by 30 m) plot of land on 36th Street, for a library. The site had been occupied by two brownstone homes at 35 and 37 East 36th Street, which Morgan promptly razed. In 1902, Morgan acquired two more lots on 36th Street with a total frontage of 50 feet (15 m). On the far eastern side of that plot, McKim, Mead & White designed a six-story house at 33 East 36th Street for Morgan's daughter Louisa and her husband Herbert Satterlee. The Satterlees' house was made of limestone, as contrasted with the brownstones on Madison Avenue, and was connected to Morgan's own home by tunnels. The Satterlee residence measured 28 feet (8.5 m) wide, and Morgan used the 135-foot-wide (41 m) plot between his house and the Satterlees' home for his new library.
Morgan acquired William E. Dodge's home in April 1903. While the Satterlee house was under construction, the couple moved into the Dodge mansion. By late 1904, Morgan had also purchased the old Isaac Newton Stokes house at 229 Madison Avenue for his son J. P. Morgan Jr., who was known as "Jack". Jack initially lived nearby at 22 Park Avenue. When Jack and his wife Jane Norton Grew moved into 229 Madison Avenue in 1905, he commissioned a major renovation of the interior and renumbered it as 231 Madison Avenue. Jack Morgan also performed $1,900 in changes to the house's exterior. J. P. Morgan came to own two-thirds of the city block; his holdings by 1907 included the whole 197.5-foot (60.2 m) frontage on Madison Avenue, stretching 300 feet (91 m) on 36th Street and 167 feet (51 m) on 37th Street.
==== Construction ====
Morgan first hired Warren and Wetmore to design a Baroque-style library, which would have had a heavily decorated upper section. Whitney Warren of Warren and Wetmore had then just completed the elaborately decorated New York Yacht Club Building, and Warren had wanted to design a domed structure. Morgan's preference for an austere structure may have led him to reject Warren and Wetmore. He instead hired Charles McKim of McKim, Mead & White to design the library in 1902. C. T. Wills was hired as the builder. The library was to be a classical marble structure with a simple design; Morgan had told McKim that he wanted "a gem". McKim's designs were traditional for their time, while those who wanted more fashionable designs typically hired McKim's partner Stanford White.
At the time of the library's planning, restrictive covenants in Murray Hill prohibited the construction of museums there, but the library was originally not planned as a museum. While McKim was responsible for the overall design, Morgan had final say over the aspects of the plan. An initial proposal called for a projecting central mass flanked by recessed wings, which Morgan deemed unwieldy. The second version of the plan reduced the size of the central mass and added a recessed entrance. Morgan also rejected a proposal for a Greek temple–like structure topped by a portico. The final designs called for the central section and wings to be the same distance from the street. Morgan insisted the library be made of marble, even though his whole family except for his daughter Louisa lived in a brownstone house. Morgan originally planned to use white marble, but he used pinkish-gray Tennessee marble instead after a neighbor told him that white marble would make the building look like a mausoleum.
By early 1903, workers were laying the foundation for the library. Construction began that April, and the library was being dubbed as "Mr. Morgan's jewel case" by the next year. Few details of the library were given out during construction, as Morgan prohibited the workers from talking to the press. The Wall Street Journal reported in June 1906 that Morgan had "wanted the most perfect structure that human hands could erect and was willing to pay whatever it cost". For example, the usage of dry masonry marble blocks, an uncommon construction method that eliminated the need for joints made of mortar, added $50,000 to the cost of construction. McKim had suggested the dry masonry blocks to Morgan, who readily agreed to pay the extra cost. To fit New York City's climate, tinfoil sheeting was placed between the blocks. In addition, the stonework contractor nearly went out of business because the builders would not use any stones with cracks.
Morgan was impressed with the quality of the work and often upheld the library as an accomplishment of McKim's. This was because McKim was not only responsible for selecting the marble from Rome but also for hiring the library's decorators and craftsmen. The final design was more representative of the work of William M. Kendall from McKim, Mead & White. Morgan acquired two hundred cases of books, which were temporarily stored in the Lenox Library and moved to Morgan's personal library starting in December 1905. Around the same time, Morgan hired Belle da Costa Greene as his personal librarian; she remained in charge of the collection for the next four decades. Toward the library's completion, Morgan reportedly requested that the entire library be shortened by one foot.
=== Private library ===
==== Opening and early years ====
Morgan first used his office in November 1906 with a reception for the Metropolitan Museum of Art's purchasing committee. The decorative details were not completed until January 1907, and the collection was relocated into the library later that year. Morgan's library had cost $1.2 million (equivalent to $31.305 million in 2024). During the Panic of 1907, the presidents of the city's banks and trust companies were locked in the library overnight until they agreed on a plan to stop the financial crisis. To allow people to see his new library from Madison Avenue, Morgan demolished the Dodge house in 1907–1908 and replaced it with a garden designed by Beatrix Farrand.
As the librarian, Greene was tasked with expanding the collection, as well as cataloging and researching the history of each item. She frequently searched for rare volumes in back alleys, but initially tended to avoid auctions and rarely spent more than $10,000 on a book without permission. Greene tended to acquire items created before the 16th century, since Morgan believed that other libraries were able to adequately care for newer items. Morgan also decided to import the rest of his collection and display it at his library. To avoid paying import taxes, he was required to open the library to the public on certain days of the week. Morgan sometimes acquired art on short notice; in one case, he bought a Vermeer painting minutes after learning about the artist. He also refused to buy works that he believed were too expensive, and, although Morgan sometimes bought whole collections, in other instances he acquired a small number of pieces from a collection.
Morgan frequently met with foreign bankers in the library's study, and he often opted to work in the library rather than in his downtown office. Among Morgan's larger acquisitions in the late 1900s and early 1910s was a collection of rare American authors' manuscripts from merchant S. H. Wakeman in 1909. The Wall Street Journal wrote in 1911 that "Mr. Morgan buys books as some financiers buy a thousand shares of stock"; in some years, he spent half his income on the collection. Acquisitions continued until his death in March 1913. Morgan had bought thousands of objects since 1899, including 600 manuscripts and 3,000 medieval items.
==== After J. P. Morgan's death ====
Morgan's estate was valued at $128 million (about $2.98 billion in 2024), over half of which lay in the worth of his collection. J. P. Morgan bequeathed all except one piece in the collection to the library, with the request that Jack make the collection "permanently available for the instruction and pleasure of the American people". The month after J. P. Morgan's death, the New York state legislature granted a two-year exemption enabling Jack to import his father's overseas collection without having to pay import duties. Jack did not publicly show interest in his father's art collection and reportedly did not expand it in the year after his father died. Jack sold off much of the overseas collection rather than importing it, but he decided to keep the items that were already in his father's library. During 1914, the collection was displayed in full at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the only time the whole collection was displayed.
The import duty exemption expired in April 1915, and Jack sold various items in the collection to pay the inheritance taxes and to raise money for the cash bequests in his father's will. The next year, the collection was valued at $7.5 million for taxation purposes. Jack and Jane Morgan continued to employ Greene as the librarian, adding items that personally interested them. Frances Morgan, Jack's mother and John Pierpont's widow, lived at J. P. Morgan's old residence until her death in November 1924. By then, despite Jack's opposition, the surrounding stretch of Madison Avenue was being redeveloped as a business street. Although Jane Morgan died in 1925, Jack continued to live at 231 Madison Avenue until his death in 1943, and the Satterlee home remained in the Morgan family until 1944. The United Lutheran Church in America bought 231 Madison Avenue for its headquarters in 1943 and built a five-story annex there in 1957. It was the only remaining brownstone house along the Murray Hill section of Madison Avenue by the 1960s.
=== Public institution ===
==== 1920s to 1940s ====
The Pierpont Morgan Library was incorporated as a public institution in March 1924, a month after Jack Morgan announced that he would transfer the collection to a board of trustees and provide a $1.5 million endowment for the library. The library's name reflected the fact that the elder J. P. Morgan had disliked being called by his first name and even his first initial. The Morgans transferred the library building, and the land under 219 Madison Avenue, to the Morgan Library. Greene was retained as the librarian. The Morgan Library was not a public library and initially only allowed researchers into the space; as Jack Morgan said, "one soiled thumb could undo the work of 900 years". Only ten scholars could initially enter the building at once. The library's collection continued to grow, with emphasis placed on rare items; for example, though only four items were acquired in 1926, all of these were unique manuscripts.
To accommodate additional scholars, the Morgan Library announced plans for an annex in January 1927. Though Jack initially denied that 219 Madison Avenue would be demolished, that house was ultimately razed. Benjamin Wistar Morris was hired to design the annex, while Marc Eidlitz & Son was hired to build it. The annex was completed in 1928. The Morgan Library continued to expand its collections; for instance, between 1936 and 1940, it acquired twelve manuscripts and dozens of drawings. In the 25 years after it became a public institution, the Morgan Library acquired 200 total manuscripts, 83 books, and hundreds of autographed letters and papers.
Through the early 1940s, the Morgan Library continued to limit access only to researchers, prompting city officials to request that the library's tax-exempt status be removed because it was not a public library. In December 1942, Morgan Library officials agreed to open the library to the general public, and city officials agreed not to fight the library's tax-exempt status. Many of the library's most valuable artifacts were transported to other locations in the U.S. in 1942 to protect them from possible World War II airstrikes; the objects were returned to the library in December 1944. The Fellows of the Pierpont Morgan Library was formed in 1949 to raise funds for the collections and distribute funds to scholars and publications. After Belle da Costa Greene retired from the library in 1948, Frederick Baldwin Adams Jr. was appointed as the Morgan's second director.
==== 1950s to mid-1980s ====
The Morgan Library started to host concerts and tours during the 1950s, and it also acquired items such as a collection of 1,375 letters from a British dealer. Officials began raising $3 million for an expansion of the library in 1959; the money was to fund modifications to the annex and a new lecture hall, as well as artifact purchases and new programs. By that November, the library had raised $550,000. In 1960, the main library and its annex were connected by a cloister structure. During the renovation, the operating hours of the east room and west room were expanded from three to six days a week. The renovation, designed by J. P. Morgan's nephew Alexander P. Morgan, was completed in 1962 and included office space, a gallery, and meeting space. In total, the renovation cost $1.4 million. By the early 1960s, the library was open six days a week (five days during the summer), and it charged no admission fee. Access to parts of the collection was limited to authorized researchers.
Adams retired as the Morgan's director in 1969 and was succeeded by Charles Ryskamp. During Ryskamp's 17-year tenure, the $11 million endowment was expanded to $38 million. By the early 1970s, the Morgan Library had several hundred fellows, or members, and Ryskamp wanted to attract more visitors to the library. The Morgan Library constructed a five-story addition with storage vaults and offices in 1975.
The library continued to acquire other collections in the 1970s and 1980s, including the musical manuscript collection of Mary Flagler Cary; 1,500 Italian drawings from János Scholz; Dannie Heineman's collection of letters, books, and newspaper clippings; part of Robin Lehman's music manuscript collection; and 75 rare manuscripts from William S. Glazier. Ryskamp also arranged various temporary exhibitions. During the 1980s, the library raised $1.5 million each year for its operating budget, in addition to funding for repairs. The institution received a $1 million grant for the preservation of its printed books (the largest donation it had ever received at the time) and a $600,000 matching grant for its conservation department in 1981. In the mid-1980s, the institution was officially renamed the Morgan Library.
==== 1980s and 1990s expansion ====
Ryskamp resigned as director in 1986 and was replaced the next year by Charles Eliot Pierce Jr. Pierce was the first director of the Morgan who was not associated with Princeton University. After he was appointed, Pierce sought to attract visitors; he would later recall that he was "disconcerted" by reports that previous visitors had been turned away from the library. In 1988, the Morgan Library bought 231 Madison Avenue from the Lutheran Church for $15 million. The library planned to spend $5 million restoring the house, and it also announced that it would raise $40 million for a capital campaign. The original buildings could display only one percent of the total collection at once, and the entire exhibition space consisted of two rooms and a corridor.
In 1989, the firm of Voorsanger and Mills designed a glass conservatory connecting 231 Madison Avenue and the main building's annex. The conservatory would expand the library's space to 45,000 square feet (4,200 m2), add a walled terrace on Madison Avenue, and make the structures wheelchair-accessible. Because the original building was a city landmark, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had to approve the plans. An early plan called for converting 231 Madison Avenue to exhibition galleries, but the house's internal structure made this impossible, so 231 Madison Avenue became offices and a bookstore. The library's artworks were also extensively cleaned, display cases were added to the original East Library, and the West Study was opened to the public. The expansion was finished in October 1991, initially with 275 pieces from the permanent collection, along with temporary exhibition space in the main building. The project was originally planned to cost $9–10 million, but it ultimately cost either $15 million or $30 million. The Morgan finished raising $40 million in November 1992.
Visitor numbers had increased by the mid-1990s, and the library had pay-what-you-wish admission fees. At the time, the library still had a reputation for being a rich enclave, and many board members were part of rich families. The library's acquisitions in the 1990s included part of Alice Tully's art collection, Carter Burden's collection of over 30,000 American literary volumes, and Pierre Matisse's collection of 2,000 letters from artists. The Morgan opened a drawing center on the second floor of the annex, designed by Beyer Blinder Belle, in 1999. The same year, the Morgan received $10 million from Eugene V. Thaw and Clare E. Thaw; these funds were used to establish the Thaw Conservation Center, completed in 2002. By the beginning of the 21st century, the library's facilities had become dated. Pierce said later: "We had a lecture hall, not a concert hall; a reading room that owed more to 1928 instead of 2006."
==== 2000s expansion ====
The Morgan's board began planning another expansion in the late 1990s. The board hosted an architectural design competition and selected three finalists, all of whose plans involved demolishing the 1991 conservatory. Ultimately, the board hired the Italian architect Renzo Piano (who had not participated in the original competition), along with Beyer Blinder Belle. Although Piano had not previously designed a building in New York City, he had been selected because of his experience designing buildings in various styles and geographical contexts. The plans called for new exhibit areas, a reading room, an auditorium, and more storage space. The Morgan planned to raise $25 million for maintenance and $100 million for the renovation itself. Despite the September 11 attacks, the Morgan decided to proceed with the expansion. The library presented preliminary plans to the LPC in January 2002. The LPC approved the proposal shortly afterward, despite concerns about the design from Manhattan Community Board 6 and the architect Robert A. M. Stern.
In May 2003, the Morgan Library's buildings were closed for construction and expansion, and the collection was placed into storage or moved to other institutions. At the time, the museum recorded about 200,000 annual visitors but wanted to accommodate twice that number. The library sponsored numerous traveling exhibitions around the country. All of the post-1928 annexes were demolished. Workers built most of the new spaces underground, excavating nearly 50,000 short tons (45,000 long tons; 45,000 t) of bedrock. The entrance was also relocated to Madison Avenue. In conjunction with the renovation, Pierce planned to rebrand the institution as a museum. The Morgan also continued to acquire objects during the renovation, such as the collection of the lyricist Fred Ebb. The project cost $106 million in total; the renovation did not include the main building.
The library reopened on April 29, 2006, and was renamed the Morgan Library & Museum. J. P. Morgan's private office and vault were also opened to the public. Following the renovation, the number of annual visitors increased to 223,000, but this number had declined to 150,000 by 2010. The museum also hosted concerts in its new auditorium, and it hired Restaurant Associates to operate a cafe there. Pierce retired as the museum's director in early 2007, saying that some museum members had opposed changes made during his tenure. William M. Griswold was hired as the museum's next director that April, overseeing the growth of its collections, exhibition programs, and curatorial departments. By the late 2000s, there was still not enough space for the museum's permanent collection. The museum began planning to restore the main building c. 2008.
==== 2010s to present ====
In May 2010, Griswold announced that the main building would be renovated, and the museum started providing audio guides about its collections. The renovation cost $4.5 million and included cleaning the marble facade, replacing electrical systems and lighting, and opening the North Room to the public. Beyer Blinder Belle designed the restoration, which was completed in October 2010. Alongside the main building's renovation, Griswold wanted to digitize the collection. The Morgan established a photography department in 2012. Griswold resigned as the Morgan's director in 2014, and Colin Bailey was appointed as the director of the Morgan Library & Museum the next year.
The Morgan Library & Museum announced in February 2019 that it would renovate the main building's facade. Integrated Conservation Resources restored the main building, completing the facade's restoration later that year. The landscape designer Todd Longstaffe-Gowan designed a garden surrounding the original building, since the neighborhood, at the time, lacked parkland. The LPC had initially opposed the garden, as the original building had never had a garden, but approved the project after learning that J. P. Morgan had wanted a garden around the library. The museum was temporarily closed from March to September 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the renovation was delayed as a result. The garden opened to the public in June 2022; the renovation had cost $13 million.
The Morgan Library & Museum celebrated its 100th anniversary as a public institution in 2024. To celebrate its centennial, the museum began raising $50 million in 2023, including $35 million for its endowment and $15 million for capital improvements. The heiress Katharine Rayner donated $10 million to endow the director's position, which was renamed in her honor in early 2024, and the Jerome L. Greene Foundation donated another $5 million.
== Collection ==
John Pierpont Morgan's original collection included porcelains, triptychs, books, and manuscripts. The collection of the Morgan Library & Museum contained more than 350,000 objects by the early 21st century. One late-20th-century reporter described the collection as including a variety of "almost random treasures". The library's online catalog, Corsair, contains records for many of the collection's objects.
=== Manuscripts and letters ===
The Morgan Library & Museum has long contained a collection of illuminated manuscripts, which date from the sixth to sixteenth centuries. As early as 1923, the Morgan Library counted 560 illuminated manuscripts in its collection, a number that had grown to over 1,100 by the 21st century. Among the manuscripts are the Morgan Bible, Morgan Beatus, Hours of Catherine of Cleves, Farnese Hours, Morgan Black Hours, and Codex Glazier, as well as an Anglo-Saxon Gospels manuscript.
The manuscript collection also contains authors' original manuscripts, many of them autographed. The library's early acquisitions included a Charles Dickens manuscript of A Christmas Carol; a J. M. Barrie manuscript; and original drawings for The Pickwick Papers and the Book of Job. The collection also includes manuscripts of poems by Robert Burns; nine of Walter Scott's novels; Alexander Pope's poem An Essay on Man; John Keats's poem Endymion; Francis Bacon's book Novum Organum, Edgar Allan Poe's short story "A Tale of the Ragged Mountains"; and Ernest Hemingway's short story "Three Stories and Ten Poems". There are also writings from Émile Zola, Victor Hugo, Marie Antoinette, George Sand, Alexandre Dumas, Thomas Moore, Jane Austen, John Milton, John Ruskin, and Honoré de Balzac. Other documents in the Morgan's collection are a collection of 64 Central European manuscripts and one of about two dozen original prints of the United States Declaration of Independence.
There are many letters in the collection, some dating as far back as ancient Babylonian times. The Morgan holds original letters by Napoleon, Horace Walpole, Voltaire, Francesco Filelfo, John Cheever, Thomas Pynchon, Vincent van Gogh, and George Beaumont. There is also a rare 1516 letter from Andrea Corsali with the first description of the Southern Cross.
The collection includes notebooks and journals as well. These include the notebooks of Percy Bysshe Shelley, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Tennessee Williams, and Henry David Thoreau. Diaries are also displayed, including those of Queen Victoria, pirate Bartholomew Sharp, writer E. B. White, and J. P. Morgan Sr. himself.
=== Musical collection ===
The Morgan Library & Museum also houses a sizable musical manuscript collection. A 1998 magazine article about the collection described it as containing 1,250 music manuscripts; 1,900 pieces of music-related literature; and 7,000 letters written by musicians. The music collection includes autographed and annotated libretti and scores from Ludwig van Beethoven, Johannes Brahms, Luigi Cherubini, Frédéric Chopin, Charles Gounod, George Frideric Handel, Joseph Haydn, Gustav Mahler, Gioachino Rossini, and Giuseppe Verdi. It also contains letters by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Felix Mendelssohn, and Richard Wagner, among other musicians.
The only significant music manuscript that Morgan bought in his lifetime was Beethoven's Violin Sonata in G major, Opus 96, which he acquired in 1907. Notable specific pieces include two sets of Schubert's Impromptus manuscripts; Andrea Antico's Motetti e Canzone, and Mozart's Haffner Symphony. The collection also contains the scraps of paper on which Bob Dylan jotted down "Blowin' in the Wind" and "It Ain't Me Babe". There are several pieces of Victorian-era musical artifacts, such as Gilbert and Sullivan manuscripts and related artifacts. In 2024, museum staff discovered an unpublished waltz by Chopin, dating from the 1830s, in the collection.
=== Books ===
The collection includes early printed Bibles and other religious works, among them three Gutenberg Bibles, one of six original copies of the first Italian Bible, one of three known copies of the Constance Missal, a rare copy of the Mainz Psalter, and the Golden Gospels of Henry III. The Morgan also contains material from ancient Egypt and medieval liturgical objects (including Coptic literature examples); William Blake's original drawings for his edition of the Book of Job; and concept drawings for Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince. The Morgan has a collection of ancient Near Eastern cylinder seals: small stone cylinders finely engraved with images for transfer to clay by rolling.
The Morgan contains various examples of Latin and Greek literary classics, along with more modern American and European printed books. The collection includes numerous examples of fine bookbinding. These include various bindings of Coptic manuscripts from the 9th and 10th centuries, the metalwork covers of the Lindau Gospels, copies of books by early British printer William Caxton, and a binding made for Christina, Queen of Sweden.
There are also children's books. For example, the collection includes a book with the first known printing of the rhyme "This Is the House That Jack Built". In addition, the collection contains the first editions or proofread versions of Struwwelpeter, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, and Max and Moritz.
=== Visual art ===
The Morgan contains a large collection of incunabula, prints, and drawings. The collection includes some Old Master paintings collected by Morgan, as well as objects like wedding portraits. The Old Master paintings include works by Hans Memling, Perugino, and Cima da Conegliano. Some Old Master works have been sold off over the years, such as Domenico Ghirlandaio's masterpiece Portrait of Giovanna Tornabuoni. The collection also includes numerous drawings from 13th-to-19th-century French masters such as Antoine Watteau, François Boucher, Jacques-Louis David, and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. The Morgan also holds a set of miniature Rajput paintings. Other notable artists of the Morgan Library & Museum include Jean de Brunhoff, Paul Cézanne, Gaston Phoebus, and Rembrandt van Rijn.
The Morgan's collection includes around 12,000 drawings and watercolors dating as far back as the 14th century, including 1,000 sheets from British artists and 3,000 sheets from Italian artists. Notable specific objects include twelve William Blake watercolors, the drawing Bathers by Renoir, eight Rembrandt etchings, and 54 drawings by Eugène Delacroix. The Morgan also has a photography department. The collection includes work from such photographers as Dennis Oppenheim and Henri Cartier-Bresson, and the photographs themselves are collected from various genres and time periods.
=== Other objects ===
Before J. P. Morgan died, he had acquired a variety of decorations such as a Persian carpet, Genoese and Chinese vases, and an Egyptian carved-stone group. The Washington Post reported in 1914 that the collections included "tapestries, bronzes and silver, Greek antiques, jeweled miniatures, porcelains, ancient jewelry, and wonderful books and manuscripts". Among these were royal jewels, 70 pieces of old German silver, 64 miniatures, a set of 15th-century marble and bronze objects, Chinese porcelain, and watches. Morgan also kept various "knickknacks" such as a four-thousand-year-old Babylonian figure found near Pompeii. The institution once had a reliquary that supposedly included Mary Magdalene's tooth, as well as Renaissance-era bronze medals, which have been sold off.
The modern-day museum has a silver-gilt figure of Le Roi de Bourges, and the 12th-century Stavelot Triptych. Other notable objects include stage and costume designs from the collection of Donald Oenslager and a map of the Palestine region from around 1300. The museum's Gilder Lehrman Collection also contains various maps.
=== Restitution claims ===
Over the years, there have been several restitution claims regarding alleged stolen artwork in the Morgan's collection.The Morgan returned two items to Germany in 2001 after the Morgan's officials confirmed that they had been stolen. In 2019, an Italian prosecutor claimed that the museum hosted a sacramentary that was stolen in 1925 from the municipality of Apiro. In 2023, the Morgan and several other institutions surrendered seven pieces painted by Egon Schiele after the New York County District Attorney determined that the works had been looted from the collection of Fritz Grünbaum, who was murdered in the Holocaust.
== Programming and events ==
Various events and programs are hosted at the Morgan, such as concerts, films, and lectures. The museum has hosted concerts and tours since the 1950s, and it began hosting regular concerts and recitals in Gilder Lehrman Hall in 2006. In addition, guided tours of the permanent collection are hosted each afternoon except Monday. The Morgan also operates several classes for school groups, including the "Exploring with the Morgan" course for humanities and the arts. Parties are hosted at the Morgan annually, such as the Young Fellows Summer Cocktail Party and Mr. Morgan's Winter Gala.
The Morgan hosts exhibits on a variety of topics throughout the year. In the mid-20th century, the Morgan's annual exhibits included showcases of recent acquisitions and rare books. Temporary exhibitions were staged in the annex buildings, while the main building was reserved for Morgan's main collection. Until the Morgan Library's expansion was completed in 1991, the institution had so little space that parts of the permanent collection had to be hidden from view whenever there was a temporary exhibition. Although the 1991 expansion allowed for more temporary exhibitions, the museum could host only one exhibition at once, and it often could not display its permanent collection. After the 2006 expansion, it could host multiple exhibitions at once.
== Buildings ==
=== Main building ===
The main building (also known as the McKim Building) was constructed between 1902 and 1906 as the original structure in the complex. It was designed in the Classical Revival style by Charles Follen McKim of McKim, Mead & White. The original building occupies a lot of 117 by 50 feet (36 by 15 m) and was intended to be built in a similar scale to contemporary New York Public Library branches. The center of the original structure contains an extension measuring 73.5 feet (22.4 m) long, giving the structure a "T" shape; this small wing was intended to connect to a similar structure along 37th Street. The original library building is placed behind a solid-bronze fence with hand-twisted bars.
==== Facade ====
The building has a facade of Tennessee marble, behind which is an air gap and an interior brick wall. McKim took his inspiration from the Villa Giulia, particularly the attic of its Nymphaeum. Further inspiration came from the 16th-century Villa Medici in Rome. The exterior walls are made of dry masonry, which allowed the marble blocks to be set evenly, thus requiring a minimal amount of mortar. Tinfoil sheeting was placed between the blocks to prevent moisture buildup; the tinfoil sheeting measures 1⁄64 inch (0.40 mm) thick and is laid between the horizontal joints. Charles T. Wills was responsible for the dry masonry construction. The Wall Street Journal reported upon the library's completion, "No other building in Europe or America was ever erected with this care."
The main entrance is a Palladian arch at the center of the 36th Street facade. It is composed of an arched opening 14 feet (4.3 m) wide, flanked by two openings under flat lintels, each of which is 9 feet (2.7 m) wide. There are two recessed niches on that facade, one on each side of the entrance. Surrounding the library is a garden, which covers 5,000 square feet (460 m2) and contains artifacts from J. P. Morgan's collection. The garden also contains pathways embedded with pebbles, which Sicilian craftsman Orazio Porto laid manually.
The central archway contains a portico with a groin vaulted ceiling, supported by two Ionic columns on each side. A flight of steps, leading to the main entrance, is flanked by two lionesses sculpted by Edward Clark Potter, who would later create the two lions that guard the New York Public Library Main Branch. Above the entranceway are allegorical roundels and panels, which was originally given to Andrew O'Connor and then reassigned to Adolph Weinman after O'Connor could not complete his contract. These panels depict tragic and lyric poetry. The portico has a geometric mosaic tile floor with marble. Inside the portico is a 16th-century pair of bronze doors, imported from Florence and made in the style of Lorenzo Ghiberti's doors at the Florence Baptistery. Each door contains five carved bronze panels, which depict allegorical scenes. By the 21st century, the doors were opened extremely infrequently. There are six Doric style pilasters flanking the main entrance.
==== Interior ====
The interior of the main library building is richly decorated, with a polychrome rotunda. It leads to three public rooms: Morgan's private study to the west, the librarian's office to the north, and the original library to the east. Each of the three rooms had dozens of bookcase doors. As a fireproofing measure, almost nothing in the library was made of wood, except for the bookcases' frames and some doors. The bookcases had glass shelves and were covered with steel grilles. Morgan also had a steel vault where he kept his most valuable manuscripts, such as about 600 Renaissance and medieval manuscripts. There were asbestos shutters that could seal off the building's windows if necessary. The main building contains 14,700 square feet (1,370 m2) of space and has displayed over 300 objects since 2010.
The rotunda has a ceiling with murals and plasterwork inspired by Raphael, created by H. Siddons Mowbray. On the north side of the ceiling is a half-dome with ten relief panels in a blue-and-white color scheme. The lunette panels on the west, east, and south sides of the ceiling, measuring 23 feet (7.0 m) high, allude to material in Morgan's collection. There is also a dome with roundels and decorative rectangular panels, as well as an octagonal central skylight. The rotunda floor is clad with multicolored marble, patterned after the floor of the Villa Pia in Vatican City, and features a porphyry centerpiece. The walls contain mosaic baseboards and are separated into panels with vertical pilasters, topped by Composite style pilasters. When the library opened, the rotunda was furnished with two 15th-century chairs and a bronze bust by Benvenuto Cellini. Following a 2010 renovation, the rotunda has several display cases. The doorways to the rooms on the east and west are made of white marble, topped by marble entablatures and flanked by green marble columns.
Morgan's study is the West Room. The design of the study reflected Morgan's tastes; as his son-in-law Herbert Satterlee said, "No one could really know Mr. Morgan at all unless he had seen him in the West Room." The West Room contains low wooden bookshelves as well as a fireplace with a marble mantelpiece. The decorative elements include stained glass panels in the study's windows, as well as a wall covering of red damask. The current damask covering replicates a pattern that was displayed at Rome's Chigi Palace. The coffered ceiling was reportedly purchased in Italian cardinal's palace. The artist James Wall Finn painted coats-of-arms onto the ceiling based on Italian bookplates from Morgan's collection. Finn's work was designed in such an authentic manner that it was frequently mistaken as part of the ceiling's original design. By 2010, the room displayed some of the objects that Morgan collected.
To the north or rear of the rotunda is the original librarian's office. During the mid-20th century, the room was also used as a directors' office. Since 2010, the office has been open to the public as a gallery known as the North Room. The space hosts ancient Roman, Greek, and Near Eastern objects, as well as items such as Egyptian figures and ancient seals. Bookcases are placed on a mezzanine, while the main level includes display cases.
The East Room (also the library room) is the largest room in the main building and has triple-tiered bookcases. The bookcases were lined with asbestos and encased in glass; the original Plexiglas was replaced with acrylic in 2010. Some of the bookcases can be moved, providing access to a stairway to the upper tiers and to a secret compartment. On the east wall of the East Room is a fireplace with a tapestry showing the "Triumph of Avarice". The fireplace itself dates from the 15th century and was imported from Italy. Mowbray designed eighteen lunettes and spandrels atop each wall, modeled after the work of Pinturicchio. The figures in the lunettes alternate between allegorical female muses and notable artists, explorers, or teachers. Zodiac symbols are placed on the spandrels, as the signs of the zodiac were particularly important to J. P. Morgan. Two additional spandrels contain allegorical motifs that depict changing seasons.
=== Madison Avenue and 36th Street annex ===
The corner of Madison Avenue and 36th Street contains a two-story Italianate style structure designed by Benjamin Wistar Morris, with space for offices, exhibitions, and a research library. The annex, made of the same Tennessee marble as the original, was completed in 1928. It measures 90.67 by 60.5 feet (28 by 18 m), with a later 26-by-30-foot (7.9 by 9.1 m) addition. The Morris annex is accessed by a 22-foot-wide (6.7 m) stair facing 36th Street. Compared with the main building, the Morris annex is simpler in design.
The Morris annex included a bookstore until 1991, when it became a gallery space. After 2006, the gallery space was split up, and the partitions there were removed. At the center of the Morris annex is the Marble Hall, flanked by the Morgan Stanley Galleries West and East.
=== 231 Madison Avenue ===
Also part of the library grounds is 231 Madison Avenue, an Italianate brownstone house on the southeast corner of Madison Avenue and East 37th Street, which was the home of Isaac Newton Phelps and later J. P. "Jack" Morgan Jr. The house contains the Morgan Shop on its northern side, facing 37th Street, and the Morgan Dining Room on its southern side. The house is set behind a barricade composed of a wrought-iron fence atop a brownstone ledge. The house was originally three stories tall and faced with pink stone, but after R. H. Robertson's renovation of 1888, became four stories tall with a raised basement. An office annex to the east, built in 1957, was originally faced with brick. Before the Morgan acquired it in 1988, it was a headquarters of the Lutheran Church.
==== Facade ====
The New York Herald Tribune wrote in 1943 that the facade had "a slight suggestion of French Renaissance influence". The Madison Avenue facade is divided vertically into three bays. An entrance stoop with a balustrade leads up to a central portico with two Corinthian columns flanked by rectangular sash windows. The second and third stories each have three rectangular windows, and a cornice runs above the third story. The attic contains small Ionic colonettes and pediments.
Along 37th Street, the water table containing the raised basement is topped by a molding. The original 1853 house to the west and the 1888 extension to the east are divided by a pier. The original section of the house is three bays wide, with a balcony and pediment on the first floor, and oval windows and an oriel window on the second. Within the 1888 extension, the first floor contains a projecting three-sided bay and a windowless arch, and the other two stories contain various windows. The cornice above the third floor, as well as the attic, in both the original house and its extension are similar to on Madison Avenue.
The southern facade of the house faces the rest of the library and is mostly obscured behind the 2006 addition. The westernmost portion of that facade, near Madison Avenue, contains rounded first- and second-story windows. There are also three-sided angled windows at the center of that facade.
==== Interior ====
Inside the house were 45 rooms. These spaces included a ballroom and 12 restrooms; in addition, the house had 22 fireplaces. After the museum's 1991 expansion, the house contained offices, conference rooms, meeting areas, and a gift shop. In addition, the ground-floor spaces were converted to lecture spaces. Following a 2006 renovation, one of the house's first-floor rooms was converted to a dining room, while the shop was relocated to another space. Inside the residence's attic is the 5,600-square-foot (520 m2) Thaw Conservation Center, which is composed of spaces such as a library, reception area, and conservation rooms.
=== Entrance building and other annexes ===
In 2006, three structures were completed to designs by Renzo Piano, who worked alongside preservation architect Beyer Blinder Belle. There are four galleries in this section of the museum: the Clare Eddy Thaw Gallery, the Morgan Stanley Galleries West and East, and the Engelhard Gallery. The facades of the new above-ground buildings contain pinkish steel-and-glass curtain walls and are set back slightly from the museum's other structures. The buildings expanded the Morgan Library's area by 75,000 square feet (7,000 m2), much of which is below ground.
==== Entrance building ====
The primary structure in that grouping is a four-story, steel-and-glass entrance building on Madison Avenue. The structure links McKim's library building, the annex, and the Phelps Stokes/Morgan house. The steel structural members are covered in rose-tinted paint as an allusion to the designs of main library and Phelps Stokes/Morgan house. Although externally inconspicuous, the building links the interior spaces of the complex. Inside the structure, a glass elevator links the different levels.
The entrance building contains the JPMorgan Chase Lobby, a space clad in cherry wood. Stairs lead up to the Morgan Shop and Morgan Dining Room, and there is an admission counter and coat room. The south wall has a corridor to the Morris annex and stairs to the second-floor Engelhard Gallery, the latter of which is a temporary-exhibition space. The Sherman Fairchild Reading Room, the museum's research library, is located on the top floor of the Madison Avenue pavilion and has balconies and a skylight. At the northeast corner of the entrance building is Gilder Lehrman Hall, an auditorium about 65 feet (20 m) below street level. Lehrman Hall has 280 seats. New storage rooms were also created by drilling into Manhattan's bedrock schist. The underground rooms exten 55 feet (17 m) deep and contain much of the Morgan Library's collection.
==== Adjacent structures ====
Gilbert Court, a covered courtyard at the center of the complex, surrounds the entrance building on the north, east, and south. The courtyard is topped by a 50-foot-tall (15 m) glass roof. On the south wall of the court is the Clare Eddy Thaw Gallery, a 20-by-20-by-20-foot (6.1 m × 6.1 m × 6.1 m) space inspired by Renaissance chambers that Piano observed in Italy. At the court's southeast corner, stairs lead up to the original Morgan Library building, connecting to a vestibule between Morgan's study (the West Library) and the rotunda. There is also a structure next to 231 Madison Avenue, with ancillary areas and offices, in addition to a loading dock.
=== Former structures ===
The 2006 annexes replaced all of the additions built after 1928. These included a glass conservatory called the Garden Court, which was designed by Bartholomew Voorsanger of Voorsanger & Associates and completed in 1991. The Garden Court had a curved roof measuring 42 feet (13 m) tall. Under the roof was a vaulted space with plants selected by landscape architect Dan Kiley. The roof was supported by a 55-foot-long (17 m) truss and was covered by clear laminated glass to allow the plants to grow. The space also had metal-and-translucent-glass wall panels and a limestone wall on Madison Avenue. There was a vestibule connecting with the Morris annex to the south.
The post-1928 annexes also included a cloister structure between the main building and the Morris annex, built in 1960. A five-story, 26-by-30-foot (7.9 by 9.1 m) expansion was built in 1975 and designed by Platt, Wyckoff & Coles, with storage vaults and offices.
== Operation ==
=== Management ===
The Morgan Library & Museum is operated by a nonprofit organization of the same name, which is dedicated to conserving the artworks in the museum's collection. Colin Bailey has been the director of the Morgan Library & Museum since 2015. As a result of a 2024 donation from Katharine Rayner, the director's position is known as the Katharine J. Rayner Director until 2049. The museum is administered by a board of trustees. As of March 2024, Robert K. Steel and G. Scott Clemons were the co-presidents of the museum's board of trustees.
Until 1981, the president of the museum was a Morgan family member. Previous museum presidents have included Jack Morgan's sons Junius Spencer Morgan III and Henry Sturgis Morgan. Other notable people in the museum's history have included Felice Stampfle, who was appointed the first Curator of Drawings and Prints at the Morgan Library in 1945. Some of the museum's past staff have donated objects to the collection, such as longtime librarian Curt F. Bühler, who donated illuminated manuscripts upon his death in 1985.
=== Attendance and funding ===
As of 2024, the museum accommodates 250,000 in-person visitors annually, while its online programming serves seven million additional people each year. Starting in January 2024, college students have been able to visit for free on the first Sunday of each month. The museum also allows visitors to reserve tickets for free admission on Friday evenings. According to the Condé Nast Traveler, most visitors are tourists, though local residents also visit the museum whenever there was an event or new exhibition.
Jack Morgan established a $1.5 million endowment fund for the Pierpont Morgan Library when it was opened to researchers in 1924. The endowment had grown to $53.5 million by the mid-1990s and $105 million by the early 2000s. In 2023, the museum recorded revenue of $23.7 million, expenses of $31.4 million, total assets of $386 million, and liabilities of $19.5 million.
== Reception and commentary ==
=== Collection commentary ===
A correspondent for the London Times, in 1908, characterized John Pierpont Morgan as "probably the greatest collector of things splendid and beautiful and rare who has ever lived". In 1927, after the library became a research institution, one writer for the New York Herald Tribune called it "a temple of white marble, most fair and proportionate yet with an air of secret exclusiveness". A writer for The Christian Science Monitor said in 1961 that the library housed "one of the most important private art collections in the world", and the Los Angeles Times wrote in 1966 that the Morgan Library was "a source of aesthetic refreshment and intellectual stimulation in any season". Another writer in 1969 described the Morgan as shunning publicity and that the collection of illuminated manuscripts, book bindings, and drawings was "unsurpassed in the Western Hemisphere".
A Newsweek article from 1970 described the library as having a "regal atmosphere", and a 1974 article from the same magazine called the library a symbol of the "patronage and connoisseurship" of the early 20th century. The Globe and Mail described the library in 1980 as a "treasure trove of early art". A writer for The New York Times Magazine said in 1994 that she felt the library was inviting, despite its formidable appearance.
In 1998, a reporter for The Journal News described the library as "a hushed and shady refuge from the city's sweltering asphalt". During the 2000s, a writer for the Chicago Tribune said that, although the Morgan was "a bibliophile's vision of paradise on Earth", it had a lower profile than other New York City museums because of its location. A 21st-century review from the Condé Nast Traveler said: "The Morgan is like a multi-hyphenate millennial—only instead of actress/model/influencer/whatever leads to early retirement, it's museum/library/landmark/historic site/music venue." A Fodor's review described the museum as having an "exceptional" collection of artifacts.
=== Architectural reception ===
==== Architectural commentary ====
Several publications praised the library after its completion. In 1906, the Real Estate Record and Guide wrote of McKim, Mead & White: "the new Morgan Library, in Thirty-sixth street, is among their most carefully studied designs." The library building was described in another publication as "one of the Seven Wonders of the Edwardian World", while Architectural Review called it "icy and exquisite". In a 1932 survey of 50 American architects, eleven ranked the Morgan Library as the United States' best building. A 1969 news article described the interiors' opulence as "almost indescribable", and Newsweek called Morgan's study as emblematic of "his taste, his power and his vanity". Morgan's private study was described by historian Wayne Andrews as "one of the greatest achievements of American interior decoration". Paul Goldberger wrote in 1981 that the main building's facade represented "rigorous, not fanciful, classicism" and the interiors were "very rich and very cold".
The annexes received mixed reviews. Architectural historian Robert A. M. Stern said the 1928 addition "did not frame McKim's jewel box so much as sidle up to it like an unattractive sibling", and Washington Post reporter Benjamin Forgey said it was "not nearly so exquisite" as the original structure. Conversely, Norval White and Elliot Willensky thought the 1928 annex "modestly defers to its master". Goldberger described the Garden Court in 1991 as having "a sleek, almost brittle quality", and Forgey described the conservatory as helping create "a definable low-rise historical place in high-rise New York".
When the Piano annex opened in 2006, Ada Louise Huxtable wrote that the museum was "cool in its understated excellence, its laid-back drama, the refinement of its details", as opposed to the old museum, which was "hot" because it was outwardly extravagant. Although Newsday and the Wall Street Journal both described the new entrance atrium as inviting, the Architectural Record criticized the atrium as not being distinctive. The Financial Times wrote that the 2006 annex's "luminous steel and glass spaces, was as radically different to the heavy stone and dense ornament of the library as was possible". Zachary Woolfe of The New York Times wrote of Lehrman Hall in 2025: "The space is precipitously raked and feels stifling, with flinty acoustics."
==== Landmark designations ====
231 Madison Avenue was designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) in 1965, being one of the first structures protected under New York City's landmarks law. The Lutheran Church, then the owner of 231 Madison Avenue, had hoped to erect an office structure on the site of the Phelps Stokes/Morgan house and heavily opposed the house's designation. As a result, in 1974, the landmark status was removed from that house following a New York Court of Appeals ruling. After the Morgan acquired 231 Madison Avenue, that house was re-designated as a city landmark in 2002; the Morgan did not oppose the designation.
In 1952, the Municipal Art Society and the Society of Architects' New York chapter published a list of 20 buildings in the city that should "be preserved at all costs". The main library building on 36th Street was the only 20th-century building on that list. The LPC designated the exterior of the library's main building as a city landmark in 1966, and that structure was declared a National Historic Landmark the same year. In 1982, the main library building's interior was designated a city landmark. After the 1991 renovation made the main building wheelchair-accessible, the LPC gave the library an excellence award.
=== Media ===
The Morgan has also occasionally appeared in works of popular culture. E. L. Doctorow's 1975 novel Ragtime and its 1981 film adaptation depicted the library as a symbol of the wealthy. In addition, part of the Netflix TV series Dash & Lily was filmed in the museum.
== See also ==
List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City
List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
== References ==
=== Informational notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
=== Further reading ===
== External links ==
Official website
Virtual tour of the Morgan Library & Museum provided by Google Arts & Culture |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Toronto | List of mayors of Toronto | Toronto's first mayor, William Lyon Mackenzie, was appointed in 1834 after his Reform coalition won the new City of Toronto's first election and he was chosen by the Reformers. The most recent election to the office of mayor was a by-election on June 26, 2023 in which Olivia Chow was elected. Chow formally took office on July 12, 2023.
If a vacancy occurs, the City of Toronto Act explicitly states that the deputy mayor of Toronto assumes certain limited mayoral powers, but remains deputy mayor during a vacancy. They do not become an acting or interim mayor.
== History ==
From 1834 to 1857, and again from 1867 to 1873, Toronto mayors were not elected directly by the public. Instead, after each annual election of aldermen and councilmen, the assembled council would elect one of their members as mayor. For all other years, mayors were directly elected by popular vote, except in rare cases where a mayor was appointed by council to fill an unexpired term of office. Prior to 1834, Toronto municipal leadership was governed by the Chairman of the General Quarter Session of Peace of the Home District Council.
Through 1955 the term of office for the mayor and council was one year; it then varied between two and three years until a four-year term was adopted starting in 2006. (See List of Toronto municipal elections.)
John Tory, who served from 2014 to 2023, resigned as mayor in February 2023; Deputy Mayor Jennifer McKelvie had assumed some mayoral responsibilities as a result until a successor was chosen.
The "City of Toronto" has changed substantially over the years: the city annexed or amalgamated with neighbouring communities or areas 49 times from in 1883 to 1967. The most sweeping change was in 1998, when the six municipalities comprising Metropolitan Toronto—East York, Etobicoke, North York, Scarborough, York, and the former city of Toronto–and its regional government were amalgamated into a single City of Toronto (colloquially dubbed the "megacity") by an act of the provincial government. The newly created position of mayor for the resulting single-tier mega-city replaced all of the mayors of the former Metro municipalities. It also abolished the office of the Metro Chairman, which had formerly been the most senior political figure in the Metro government before amalgamation.
According to Victor Loring Russell, author of Mayors of Toronto Volume I, 14 out of the first 29 mayors were lawyers. According to Mark Maloney who is writing The History of the Mayors of Toronto, 58 of Toronto's 64 mayors (up to Ford) have been Protestant, white, English-speaking, Anglo-Saxon, property-owning males. There have been three women (Hall, Rowlands, and Chow) and three Jewish mayors (Phillips, Givens and Lastman). According to Jewish religious law Tory is also Jewish, because his matrilineal line is Jewish, but he does not consider himself as Jewish.
Art Eggleton is the longest-serving mayor of Toronto, serving from 1980 until 1991. Eggleton later served in federal politics from 1993 until 2004, and was appointed to the Senate of Canada in 2005. David Breakenridge Read held the post of mayor of Toronto for the shortest period; Read was mayor for only fifty days in 1858.
No Toronto mayor has been removed from office. Toronto's 64th mayor, Rob Ford, lost a conflict of interest trial in 2012, and was ordered to vacate his position; but the ruling was stayed pending an appeal, which Ford won to remain in office. Due to his substance abuse admission and controversy in 2013, Council stripped him of many powers on November 15, transferring them to the deputy mayor. From May until July, 2014, Ford took a leave of absence from the mayoralty to enter drug rehabilitation.
== Original City of Toronto era ==
== Metro Toronto era (1953–1997) ==
From 1953, Toronto was part of a federated municipality known as Metropolitan Toronto. This regional entity had the same boundaries as present-day Toronto, but consisted of the City of Toronto and 12 other municipalities, each with its own mayor and council. From 1953 to 1997, the most senior political figure in the Metropolitan Toronto government was the Chairman of the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto (for a list of Metro Chairmen, see Chairman of the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto). In 1967, (during the incumbency of William Dennison), an internal amalgamation eliminated the seven smallest municipalities in Metropolitan Toronto. Of these, the villages of Forest Hill and Swansea were amalgamated into the City of Toronto.
== Post-amalgamation era ==
As of 1998, Metropolitan Toronto and all its constituent municipalities were amalgamated into a single City of Toronto. Under the City of Toronto Act, 2006, the mayor is the head of council and the chief executive officer of the City.
The deputy mayor is appointed by the mayor from among the elected members of the City Council. The deputy mayor acts in place of the mayor whenever the incumbent is unable to be present to perform his normal functions and duties, assists the mayor, and serves as vice-chair of the city council's executive committee.
On November 18, 2013, city council removed most powers from the office of mayor for the term of the current Council, including chairing the executive committee. These powers were given to the office of the deputy mayor, held by Norm Kelly at the time of the motion. The action occurred after Mayor Rob Ford admitted to drug abuse. On May 1, 2014, Ford started a leave of absence for drug rehabilitation. Kelly took over the remainder of the mayoral duties and powers at that time. When Rob Ford returned on July 1, he once again returned to having the duties he had immediately prior to the leave.
On February 10, 2023, Mayor John Tory announced that he would resign as the mayor, after admitting that he had had a multi-year affair with a former staffer during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tory also said that the relationship had been referred to the City's integrity commissioner for review. Deputy Mayor Jennifer McKelvie performed the duties of the mayor's office with limited powers, until the election of Tory's successor. On June 26, 2023, Chow was elected as mayor of Toronto. She took office on July 12, 2023.
== Post-mayoral honours ==
A few former mayors have been honoured with places, things or buildings named in their honour. Unless otherwise stated the following are all located in Toronto:
George William Allan – Allan Gardens
William Henry Boulton – Boulton Avenue
David Crombie – David Crombie Park
Art Eggleton – Art Eggleton Park
Thomas Foster – Thomas Foster Memorial Temple in Uxbridge, Ontario, built by him privately and named after his death.
Barbara Hall – Barbara Hall Park
Allan A. Lamport – Lamport Stadium
Mel Lastman – Mel Lastman Square
William Lyon Mackenzie – current Toronto Fire Services fireboat WL Mackenzie and William Lyon Mackenzie Collegiate Institute
Alexander Manning – Manning Arcade (c. 1884 and demolished 1954 after 1953 fires) and Manning Chambers (annex to Old City Hall and demolished to make way for Toronto City Hall 1960s)
Sam McBride – current Toronto Island ferry boat Sam McBride
George Monro – Munro Park (former amusement park, now residential area) and Munro Park Avenue
Nathan Phillips – Nathan Phillips Square
June Rowlands – June Rowlands Park
Robert Hood Saunders – R.H. Saunders – St. Lawrence Station, a power station dam power dam in Cornwall, Ontario
Joseph Sheard – (The Mayor) Joseph Sheard Parkette
Donald Dean Summerville – Donald Dean Summerville Swimming Pool
Rob Ford – Rob Ford Stadium in Etobicoke (formerly Centennial Park Stadium)
== See also ==
List of Toronto municipal elections
Metro Chairman – the most senior political figure in Metropolitan Toronto until 1997
List of reeves of the former townships and villages in Toronto
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Russell, Victor (1982). Mayors of Toronto, Volume 1 1834–1899. Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills Press. ISBN 0-919822-77-0.
== External links ==
"Chronological list of Mayors of Toronto". City of Toronto. February 5, 2018.
Maloney, Mark (January 3, 2010). "Toronto's mayors: Scoundrels, rogues and socialists". Toronto Star. Retrieved October 28, 2014. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pankaj_Mithal | Pankaj Mithal | Pankaj Mithal (born 17 June 1961) is a judge of the Supreme Court of India and a former Chief Justice of the Rajasthan High Court. Previously, he has also served as the Chief Justice of the Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh High Court and Judge of the Allahabad High Court.
== Early life and education ==
He was born in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, on 17 June 1961, into a family of lawyers. He received his early education at St. Mary's Academy, Meerut, which is affiliated to the Indian School Certificate (I.S.C.) Board. He joined the B.Com. (Honours) at the University of Allahabad and graduated in 1982. Later, he joined Meerut College for his legal studies and obtained his law degree from Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut. He is now living in New Delhi, Delhi.
== Family history ==
His grandfather, Babu Brij Nath Mithal, was a lawyer of western U.P. He was the Honorary Head of the law department at the Meerut College. The Boys Hostel of the law department at Meerut College was named 'B.N.M. Hostel' (Brij Nath Mithal Hostel) in his honour.
His uncle Sri Raghuvar Dayal Mithal (1910-1981) and the eldest son of Brij Nath Mithal were also stalwarts of the Meerut Bar who dominated the civil side for over four decades. He was offered Judgeship of the High Court of Judicature at Allahabad twice, but he declined it for personal reasons.
His father, Justice Narendra Nath Mithal (6 April 1930 – 7 April 1996) was also a leading civil lawyer of the District Court, Meerut. He served as the District Government Counsel (Civil) for several years before being elevated to the Bench at the High Court of Judicature at Allahabad in the year 1978. He was among the few persons who were directly elevated to the Bench from the District Bar. He served as a Judge of High Court of Judicature at Allahabad from 14 December 1978 to 8 April 1992.
== Career ==
He was enrolled in the Bar Council of Uttar Pradesh in 1985 and started practising at the High Court as an advocate.
He served as the Standing Counsel for the Uttar Pradesh Awas Evam Vikas Parishad and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar University, Agra. He was elevated to the Bench as an Additional Judge on 7 July 2006 and was later made a permanent Judge of the High Court of Judicature at Allahabad on 2 July 2008.
He was the Chairman of La Martinière College, Lucknow (both boys' and girls' wings).
He was elevated as Chief Justice of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh High Court on 4 January 2021. He was transferred as Chief Justice of Rajasthan High Court on 14 October 2022.
The Governor of Uttar Pradesh nominated Justice Mithal twice as a member of the Executive Council of Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidhyapith, Varanasi, and presently, the Governor of U.P. has nominated him as a member of the Executive Council of Choudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut.
He was elevated as Judge of Supreme Court of India on 6 February 2023.
== References ==
== External links ==
Profile of Justice Pankaj Mithal
https://www.livelaw.in/news-updates/chief-justice-pankaj-mithal-jammu-kashmir-high-court-oath-taking-ceremony-167944 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVS-01#:~:text=the%20mass%20market.-,Launch,configuration%20on%2029%20May%202023. | NVS-01 | NVS-01 is the first in the series of second generation navigation satellite and the ninth satellite in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (NVS), with an alternate name of, IRNSS-1J. It will augment the existing satellite and bolster the capability of the NavIC constellation by adding more robustness and new features. ISRO already launched IRNSS 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F, 1G, 1H and 1I. The satellite is intended to replace IRNSS-1G and augment the constellation of geosynchronous navigation satellites after IRNSS-1I.
== Payload ==
NVS-01 has two types of payloads, navigation payload and the ranging payload. The navigation payload transmits navigation service signals to the users. This payload is operating in L1 band, L5 band and S band. A highly stable Rubidium atomic clock is part of the navigation payload of the satellite. Failure of the imported Rubidium atomic clocks across the fleet of previous generation of satellite led to the creation of an indigenous option. NVS-01 is the first navigation satellite to host the indigenous clock.
The ranging payload consists of transponder which is operated in CDMA mode for two-way range measurements. The IRNSS satellites continuously emits time stamped navigation signals, which are received by the ground-based user receivers. The information is then processed by the receivers to derive their own position, velocity and time. The system provides seamless, uninterrupted services under all weather conditions.
The new generation of navigation satellite features a new and improved encryption system for bolstering the communication of the satellite specially for the restricted users.
== Satellite ==
The satellite will help in maintaining the continuity that was lagging due to the failure of Rubidium Atomic clocks in previous satellites whilst bolstering the feature set with new bands and longer life. The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System space segment consists of seven satellites. With the new series of satellites, ISRO aims to tap into the low power satellite navigation segment like Smart Watches and fitness trackers whilst cementing its Navigation system by allowing it to seamlessly integrate and interoperate with the existing Navigation system. The inclusion of the civilian L1 band will further bolsters Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System position in the mass market.
== Launch ==
NVS-01 was successfully launched by 15th flight of GSLV (GSLV-F12) in Mk2 configuration on 29 May 2023 and successfully placed into Orbit.
== References ==
== See also ==
Communication-Centric Intelligence Satellite (CCI-Sat)
GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation (GAGAN)
Satellite navigation
== External links ==
ISRO Future Programmes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Lambert_Mellon | Rachel Lambert Mellon | Rachel Lambert "Bunny" Mellon (August 9, 1910 – March 17, 2014) was an American horticulturalist, gardener, philanthropist, and art collector. She designed and planted a number of significant gardens, including the White House Rose Garden, and assembled one of the largest collections of rare horticultural books. Mellon was the second wife of philanthropist and horse breeder Paul Mellon.
== Background ==
Rachel Lowe Lambert, nicknamed Bunny by her mother, was the eldest child of Gerard Barnes Lambert, president of the Gillette Safety Razor Company and a founder of Warner–Lambert, and his wife, Rachel Parkhill Lowe. Her paternal grandfather, chemist Jordan Lambert, was the inventor of Listerine, which was later marketed by her father. She had a brother and a sister: Gerard Barnes Lambert, Jr. (1912–1947; married Elsa Cover), who died in a 1947 plane crash, and Lily McCarthy (1914–2006; married twice, to William Wilson Fleming and John Gilman McCarthy, respectively).
Lambert attended Miss Fine's School (Princeton, New Jersey) and the Foxcroft School (Middleburg, Virginia). Her parents divorced in 1933, and both subsequently remarried.
On November 25, 1932, Lambert married Stacy Barcroft Lloyd Jr. of Ardmore, Pennsylvania, at Trinity Church, Princeton. He served in the Office of Strategic Services during World War II. They divorced in 1948. They had two children: Stacy Barcroft Lloyd III, and Eliza Winn Lloyd. Eliza predeceased her mother.
Lambert and her first husband became close friends of the banking heir and art collector Paul Mellon and his first wife, Mary Conover, who died of an asthma attack in 1946. After Lambert divorced Lloyd, she and Paul Mellon were married on May 1, 1948. By this marriage, she became the stepmother of Timothy Mellon and Catherine Conover Mellon (later Mrs. John Warner and now known as Catherine Conover). Together, the couple collected and donated more than a thousand works of art, mostly eighteenth- and nineteenth-century European paintings, to the National Gallery of Art and established the Yale Center for British Art. The couple bred and raced thoroughbred horses, including Sea Hero, winner of the 1993 Kentucky Derby.
Mellon was long known for her discretion and limited public exposure. She offered only a handful of interviews to journalists in her lifetime. In a 1969 New York Times article with the Mellons, she proclaimed that "nothing should be noticed." Although this remark was made in reference to garden design, it has frequently been taken to encapsulate her attitude toward personal privacy and lifestyle choices.
== Gardening career ==
Although she had no formal training, Mellon read widely in horticulture and made contributions to several landmark gardens. Her interests in gardening were first cultivated while watching Olmsted Brothers gardeners tend the formal gardens at "Albemarle", her family's Princeton estate. Mellon amassed a large collection of horticultural books and was regarded as an authority on American horticulture. Her work was strongly influenced by French gardeners André Le Nôtre and Jean-Baptiste de La Quintinie.
Mellon designed landscapes for many of the Mellons' properties, including the French-inspired gardens of their estate, Oak Spring Farms. A longtime friendship with the Kennedy family was initiated by a 1958 visit to Oak Spring Farms by Jacqueline Kennedy, whom Mellon later advised on fine arts and antiques during the Kennedy White House restoration.
In 1961, President John F. Kennedy asked Mellon to redesign the White House Rose Garden. Mellon created more open space for public ceremonies and introduced American species of plants, as well as Magnolia soulangeana. She next began to work on the White House's East Garden, but her work was interrupted by Kennedy's assassination. After his funeral, for which Mellon arranged flowers, Lady Bird Johnson asked Mellon to resume her work on the White House grounds. Mellon completed her work on the garden in close collaboration with Irvin Williams who, among other responsibilities, she tasked with finding and introducing magnolia trees to the garden. Initially blocked from doing so by the National Park Service, Williams secretly removed the trees from the Tidal Basin and transported them to the White House himself.
After Jacqueline Kennedy left the White House, Mellon was asked to design landscapes for Kennedy's home in Martha's Vineyard, the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, and River Farm, the headquarters of the American Horticultural Society. In France, Mellon created a landscape design for the home of Hubert de Givenchy and assisted with a restoration of the potager du Roi in Versailles.
== Wealth and collections ==
As most of her assets were invested in trusts, it was difficult to estimate Mellon's wealth, but her family and husband's fortune and fixed assets suggest she was exceptionally wealthy.
She maintained homes in Antigua, Nantucket and Oyster Harbors, Cape Cod, two apartments in Paris, and a townhouse in New York City. These properties were sold in the years preceding her death. Her main residence, Oak Spring Farms, was a 4,000-acre (1,600 ha) estate in Virginia, that had its own 1-mile (1,600 m) long airstrip to accommodate her Falcon 2000.
Mellon gathered a sizable collection of works by artist Mark Rothko, having purchased many of his 1950s works directly from his New York studio. In a 2010 interview, she spoke of having purchased a total of thirteen works by Rothko. One of the works, No. 20 (Yellow Expanse), completed in 1955 was considered one of the largest Rothko works in private hands. The painting measured 10 by 15 feet.
On November 10, 2014, items from Mellon's collection of paintings, jewelry, furniture, and decorative objects were auctioned at Sotheby's in New York for a total of $158.7 million, including Untitled (Yellow, Orange, Yellow, Light Orange) by Rothko, which sold for $36.5 million, and another Rothko that went for $39.9 million. Three of her most important paintings, two by Rothko and one by Richard Diebenkorn, were sold privately before the Sotheby's auction for a reported $250 million. Proceeds from the sales benefited the Gerard B. Lambert Foundation, a charitable entity established by Mellon in memory of her father.
== Honors ==
International Best Dressed List (1975)
Officier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
The Royal Horticultural Society's The Veitch Memorial Medal (1987)
The Henry Shaw Award
American Horticultural Society Landscape Design Award
== Later years ==
Mellon's second husband, Paul Mellon, died in 1999, aged 91. Shortly thereafter, in May 2000, her daughter Eliza was hit by a truck while crossing a Manhattan street, causing a severe brain injury and full-body paralysis. Eliza spent the remaining eight years of her life under round-the-clock care at Oak Spring Farms, and died in 2008. Caroline Kennedy, daughter of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, sat beside Mrs. Mellon during the funeral.
Mellon was a long-time Democrat whose political views often conflicted with those of her husband. In 2004, she expressed interest in presidential candidate John Edwards because he reminded her of President Kennedy, but when she called his campaign office with an offer to help, her name was not recognized and the call went unreturned. She was an early financier of Edwards' 2008 Democratic primary run, offering an initial US$1 million commitment to his campaign, and eventually contributing more than $3.5 million to organizations supporting his candidacy.
At the request of campaign operative Andrew Young, the commitment morphed to include underwriting Edwards' personal expenses. Beginning in May 2007, Mellon contributed more than $725,000 to John Edwards' personal accounts over an eight-month period, writing checks disguised as furniture purchases. During this period Mellon wrote a note to Young stating: "from now on, all haircuts, etc. that are necessary and important for his campaign—please send the bills to me... It is a way to help our friend without government restrictions." The funds were secretly used to support Rielle Hunter, a campaign videographer with whom Edwards had an extra-marital affair and child. When Mellon became aware of the use of her funds for this purpose, she reportedly came to regret the donations, but maintained that Edwards "would have been a great president." While investigating Edwards, the Federal Bureau of Investigation interviewed Mellon at Oak Spring on two occasions in 2010. In December 2010, four of her relatives were subpoenaed to appear before a grand jury.
On June 3, 2011, Edwards was indicted on using campaign funds to help cover up an affair and pregnancy during the 2008 presidential campaign. Just one week prior to his indictment, in late May 2011, Edwards visited Mellon at her Upperville estate. Following his indictment, the judge forbade Edwards to speak with any potential witnesses.
In 2010, it was reported that Mellon had lost $5.75 million to investment adviser and convicted Ponzi scheme operator Kenneth I. Starr.
== Death ==
Described as a resilient centenarian, a bout with cancer and ongoing macular degeneration nonetheless slowed her activity. She was forced to give up gardening by 2011, although she continued to swim, do Pilates, and give the rare interview.
On March 17, 2014, Mellon died at her Upperville, Virginia, home of natural causes. She was 103 years old. Her funeral was held at Trinity Episcopal Church in Upperville, which the Mellons had gifted to the community in 1960. She was eulogized by her friend Frank Langella, who described himself as "a rough Jersey kid" whom Mellon taught "how to listen, dress, never be vulgar, respect all people, be humble, avoid hubris, write thank-you notes, never boast, be curious and 'above all, be loyal'". Her grandson, Stacy Lloyd IV, remembered Mellon as "Granbunny" and how she taught him to find beauty in everything. Her friend Bette Midler performed her hit song The Rose.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Abbott James A., and Elaine M. Rice. Designing Camelot: The Kennedy White House Restoration. Van Nostrand Reinhold: 1998; ISBN 0-442-02532-7.
Raphael, Sandra, Heins, Greg, Tomasi, Lucia Tongiorgi, and Willis, Tony. The Oak Spring Garden Library. 4 Vols. Yale University Press: 1989-2009. ISBN 0965450805, 9780300242553, 9780300241464, 9780300242546
Langella, Frank. Dropped Names: Famous Men and Women As I Knew Them. HarperCollins: 2012; ISBN 9780062094483.
== External links ==
Oak Spring Garden Library infosite; accessed August 22, 2014.
Grayson-Jockey Club Research Foundation, Inc. website; accessed August 22, 2014.
Wine & Country Life Magazine, "Discover Bunny Mellon's Oak Spring Garden" published April 2021
Wine & Country Life Magazine, "The Allee, Greenhouse and Topiaries at Oak Spring Farm" published April 2021 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_Burgess#:~:text=She%20created%20the%20Nick%20Jr,%2Din%2Dcharge%20of%20production.&text=Pittsburgh%2C%20Pennsylvania%2C%20U.S. | Janice Burgess | Janice Burgess (March 1, 1952 – March 2, 2024) was an American television executive, screenwriter and producer for Nickelodeon. She created the Nick Jr. series The Backyardigans and worked as a writer and story editor for Nickelodeon's revival of Winx Club. Both shows were produced at the Nickelodeon Animation Studio. Burgess joined Nickelodeon in 1995 as executive-in-charge of production.
== Early life and education ==
Burgess was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where she grew up in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood and attended the Ellis School. She frequently played in her backyard, and she later used those memories as inspiration for The Backyardigans. "I really remember it as a wonderful, happy, safe place... you could have these great adventures just romping around. From there, you could go anywhere or do anything." She loved musicals, and her mother frequently played a wide array of music. Planning to become an art historian, she graduated from Brandeis University in 1974 with a bachelor's degree in art history.
== Career ==
According to an interview with Investor's Business Daily, Burgess did not enjoy traveling "in art circles with collectors and high society," so she sought out a different career after college. She volunteered for a job at the public television station WQED, where she was put in charge of craft services.
In the early 1990s, Burgess held positions at the Children's Television Workshop, including as an assistant travel coordinator for 3-2-1 Contact and project manager for Ghostwriter. For the latter, she coordinated the efforts of a tie-in magazine and teacher materials with the content and goals of the television show. It was during this job that she was notified of an opening at Nickelodeon; Burgess joked that she interviewed for the job "about 11,000 times." She was hired as the executive in charge of production for Nick Jr., overseeing the development of Blue's Clues and Little Bill. Burgess later became the vice president of Nickelodeon's Nick Jr. division.
=== The Backyardigans ===
While working as an executive, Burgess attended scripting and concept development meetings, where she enjoyed helping the creative teams with characters and storylines. Burgess was eventually given the opportunity to transition to a creative role by the senior vice president of Nick Jr, Brown Johnson. She asked Burgess to develop an idea for a new Nick Jr. show, and Burgess produced a pilot episode called "Me and My Friends" at Nickelodeon Studios Florida in 1998. The pilot was a live-action, full-body puppet show that featured music and dance; it was not picked up for a full series. Several months after the rejection, Brown Johnson asked Burgess to retool the concept, as she liked the characters and music from Burgess's pilot and felt the show would work better in animation.
Using the characters from "Me and My Friends," Burgess wrote a second pilot, which was produced at Nickelodeon's New York studio in 2002. The show, now fully animated and renamed The Backyardigans, was greenlit for a full season of 20 episodes. Reflecting on the shift to animation, Burgess said, "Sometimes your first attempt is just not all that great. In this case, my second attempt was much better." The Backyardigans premiered on Nickelodeon on October 11, 2004.
Burgess served as executive producer for The Backyardigans throughout its run of four seasons. In 2006, she described her work on the show positively: "making The Backyardigans has become sort of like an adventure that I go on with my friends. Of course, we get paid, but we do get to be carefree in our work, enjoy each other, hang around a lot, travel a little bit, and make up stuff."
Burgess drew inspiration from action films when writing episodes of the show, as she wanted to adapt high-stakes stories for a young audience. She also was inspired by memories of playing in her own childhood backyard. The series received eight Daytime Emmy Award nominations, and Burgess won the 2008 Emmy for Outstanding Special Class Animated Program. After The Backyardigans wrapped production in 2010 on the fourth and final season, much of the series' staff members regrouped to work on Nickelodeon's Winx Club, including Burgess. She worked as a writer, story editor, and creative consultant on the action-adventure series.
== Death ==
Burgess died in hospice care in Manhattan on March 2, 2024, the day after her 72nd birthday. She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 2018, six years prior to her death.
== References ==
== External links ==
Janice Burgess at IMDb
The Backyardigans at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock_Zonfrillo#Death | Jock Zonfrillo | Barry "Jock" Zonfrillo (4 August 1976 – 1 May 2023) was a Scottish chef, television presenter and restaurateur. He was the founder of the Orana Foundation and a judge on MasterChef Australia.
== Early life ==
Zonfrillo was born in Glasgow, Scotland and raised in Ayr. His father, Ivan, was a barber and his mother, Sarah, was a hairdresser. His mother's family is Scottish from Dalmellington, Ayrshire, while his father is from Scauri, Italy. He had an older sister, Carla. Zonfrillo attended Belmont Academy in Ayr.
== Career ==
=== Rise to head chef ===
Zonfrillo started working in kitchens at the age of 12 as a part-time dishwasher at the restaurant in which his older sister was waitressing. He started learning to cook at the restaurant three weeks later when one of the chefs had a motorbike accident. Zonfrillo left school at age 15 and started an apprenticeship in the kitchens of The Turnberry Hotel. He stated that he started taking drugs, including heroin at this time. In 1993, at the age of 16, Zonfrillo was named Young Scottish Chef of the Year.
After completing his apprenticeship, Zonfrillo got a job at the one-Michelin-starred Arkle Restaurant in Chester. While working at Arkle, he claimed that he started selling drugs to fund his heroin addiction. Zonfrillo was fired from the restaurant after a foul-mouthed outburst that was overheard in the dining room.
Zonfrillo next travelled to London where he worked for Marco Pierre White at The Restaurant Marco Pierre White. He also worked at Quaglino's and at Chapter One with David Cavalier before heading to Australia in 1994 for 12 months. As a traveller, he was rejected by many of the restaurants he wanted to work at until he was hired by Dietmar Sawyere at Restaurant 41 in Sydney. Starting out as a line cook, Zonfrillo rose to become sous-chef after two months.
When his visa expired, Zonfrillo returned to London and worked for three months at Gordon Ramsay's Aubergine. He subsequently resumed working for White at the Oak Room and Les Saveurs, before joining Pharmacy. Zonfrillo was appointed to his first head chef position, at age 22, at The Tresanton Hotel in Cornwall.
=== Move to Australia ===
Zonfrillo immigrated to Australia in 2000. He stated that he quit heroin cold turkey upon arrival in Sydney, and remained clean since then. He became head chef of Restaurant 41 where he began using Australian native ingredients in his cooking. In 2002, Zonfrillo set fire to the pants of an apprentice chef for working too slowly. The chef, Martin Krammer, sued Zonfrillo after suffering burns to his hand and was awarded damages in excess of $75,000 in 2007. In May 2007, Zonfrillo was declared bankrupt after a creditor's petition from Krammer was successful in the Federal Magistrates Court. According to Krammer, "He [Zonfrillo] never paid me a cent."
Zonfrillo was fired from Restaurant 41 after the incident. He started importing and selling kitchen equipment and doing some consultancy, then briefly worked at the Austral after moving to Adelaide. In 2011, Zonfrillo was named head chef at Penfolds Magill Estate Restaurant in South Australia but left after 18 months.
=== Restaurants ===
In November 2013, he opened Orana and Street ADL in Adelaide replacing Street ADL with Bistro Blackwood in September 2017. In August 2017, Orana was named Australia's 2018 Restaurant of the Year by Gourmet Traveller magazine; the same year Zonfrillo was named Australia's 2018 Hottest Chef in The Australian. In October 2018, Orana was named Australia's 2019 Restaurant of the Year by The Good Food Guide, as well as being a three hatted restaurant in the 2019 and 2020 Chef Hat Awards.
In 2016 and 2017, Zonfrillo ran a fixed food truck called Nonna Mallozzi, serving Italian food. Zonfrillo opened a bar called Mallozzi in December 2018. He closed it in July 2019 after posting losses exceeding $140,000 in the time it was open. In late 2019, Bistro Blackwood closed, followed by Orana in March 2020. On 5 October 2020, the companies which operated the restaurants entered into voluntary administration, with substantial unpaid debts, amounting to approximately $3.2 million. A preliminary report filed by the administrators with ASIC in October 2020, recorded that initial investigations were being undertaken into whether the restaurant companies were trading while insolvent, if there had been unfair preferences or potential breaches of director duties, and concerning related party loans. Zonfrillo also had to sell his family home in the Adelaide Hills after the closure of Orana.
=== The Orana Foundation ===
In 2016, Zonfrillo started The Orana Foundation, to preserve historical cooking techniques and ingredients of Indigenous Australians. The foundation was awarded The Good Food Guide Food for Good Award in October 2017. One of the foundation's projects was a database of 1,443 Aboriginal food plants created in partnership with the University of Adelaide. Launched in September 2020, the database provided information about the plants' nutritional profile, taste, flavour, and optimal methods of preparation and cooking.
Questions were raised by The Australian in August 2020 regarding Zonfrillo's management of the foundation. Zonfrillo launched defamation proceedings in the Federal Court of Australia against the newspaper. The Australian's publisher Nationwide News settled the court case. An apology was printed in The Australian newspaper on 17 December 2020 and published on their website.
=== Television ===
In 2014, Zonfrillo hosted the Discovery Channel show Nomad Chef which saw him travel to communities in 10 countries to learn how they gather ingredients and cook. In 2015, he hosted the cooking reality television series Restaurant Revolution. In 2016, Zonfrillo co-hosted Chef Exchange with chef Qu Jianmin from Adelaide's sister city Qingdao. Running for two seasons, the show focused on the two chefs exploring each other's food and wine cultures.
In October 2019, Zonfrillo was announced as one of the new judges for MasterChef Australia, alongside Melissa Leong and Andy Allen. He had previously appeared as a guest chef on the show across three seasons.
In July 2020, Zonfrillo was announced as one of the judges for Junior MasterChef Australia in 2020.
=== Other work ===
Zonfrillo was programming director of the Tasting Australia food festival from 2016 to 2019.
In July 2021, Zonfrillo began selling "worry beads" bracelets with skulls on them for up to $500 each, under the brand Caim.
=== Memoir ===
On 28 July 2021, Simon & Schuster published Zonfrillo's memoir, Last Shot. A subsequent feature in The Sydney Morning Herald questioned his stories, notably his claims of having visited "hundreds of Indigenous communities", as well as stories of his drug use. Marco Pierre White, referred to as a father figure in the book, stated that "almost everything he has written about me is untrue". Simon & Schuster replied that the book was "a historical account written from the personal knowledge of the subject writing it."
== Personal life ==
Zonfrillo met his first wife, Kelly, in Sydney in 1996. They separated in 2002.
On 1 January 2017, Zonfrillo married his third wife, Lauren Fried. The couple met on Twitter in October 2014. In February 2018, Fried and Zonfrillo had a son who was born two months premature and weighed only 1.2 kg. Fried and Zonfrillo had a daughter in October 2020. Zonfrillo had two other daughters from his two previous marriages.
After the closure of his restaurants, Zonfrillo and his family relocated to Melbourne around March 2020. Prior to his death, the family resided in Carlton and moved to Rome, Italy in 2023.
Daily Mail Australia reported that he had been battling bowel cancer since 2021, and that when he was not filming MasterChef, he was receiving treatment for the disease.
== Death ==
Zonfrillo died in Melbourne, Australia, on 1 May 2023, at age 46. His body was found after police were called to conduct a welfare check at Zagame's House hotel. There was no immediate confirmation of his cause of death, but the police were not treating the death as suspicious and were preparing a report for the coroner. The 15th season of MasterChef Australia, which Zonfrillo had already filmed, was scheduled to premiere on 1 May 2023 but was postponed to 7 May. It was preceded by a special episode of The Sunday Project reflecting on Zonfrillo's life. His funeral was held at the Macquarie Park Cemetery and Crematorium on 13 May 2023 and attended by around 200 people.
== Recognitions ==
1993 Young Scottish Chef of the Year – The Federation of Chefs Scotland
2014 South Australian Best New Restaurant and South Australian Restaurant of the Year – The Advertiser Food Awards
2015 South Australian Restaurant of the Year – The Advertiser Food Awards
2015 Chef of The Year – Restaurant & Catering Awards
2015 and 2016 Australia's Hot 50 Restaurants – The Australian
2017 Hottest Chef & Hottest South Australian Restaurant – The Australian
2017 Food for Good Award – The Good Food Guide
2018 Australian Restaurant of the Year – Gourmet Traveller magazine
2018 Australia's Hottest Chef – The Australian
2018 Australian Food for Good Award – The Good Food Guide
2018 Basque Culinary World Prize – Basque Culinary Center
2019 Australian Restaurant of the Year – The Good Food Guide.
== Filmography ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes_Moore#:~:text=In%20January%202021%2C%20Speaker%20of,%2C%20government%2C%20and%20private%20corporations. | Wes Moore | Westley Watende Omari Moore (born October 15, 1978) is an American politician, businessman, author, and former U.S. Army officer, serving as the 63rd governor of Maryland since 2023.
Moore was born in Maryland and raised primarily in New York. He graduated from Johns Hopkins University and received a master's degree from Wolfson College, Oxford, as a Rhodes Scholar. After several years in the U.S. Army and Army Reserve, he became an investment banker in New York. Between 2010 and 2015, Moore published five books, including a young-adult novel. He served as CEO of the Robin Hood Foundation from 2017 to 2021. Moore authored The Other Wes Moore and The Work. He also hosted Beyond Belief on the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN), and was executive producer and a writer for Coming Back with Wes Moore on PBS.
Moore is a member of the Democratic Party. He won the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, becoming Maryland's first African-American governor and the third African-American person elected governor of any U.S. state.
== Early life and education ==
Moore was born in Takoma Park, Maryland in 1978, to William Westley Moore Jr., a broadcast news journalist, and Joy Thomas Moore, a daughter of immigrants from Cuba and Jamaica, and a news media professional. His maternal grandfather, James Thomas, a Jamaican immigrant, was the first black minister in the history of the Dutch Reformed Church. His grandmother, Winell Thomas, a Cuban who moved to Jamaica before immigrating to the U.S., was a retired schoolteacher. His grandmother's stepfather was Chinese.
On April 16, 1982, when Moore was three years old, his father died of acute epiglottitis. In the summer of 1984, Moore's mother took him and his two sisters to live in the Bronx, New York, with her parents. His occasional babysitter was Kamala Harris' stepmother, Carol Kirlew. Moore attended Riverdale Country School. When his grades declined and he became involved in petty crime, his mother enrolled him in Valley Forge Military Academy and College. Moore's family moved back to Maryland after his mother's employer, the Annie E. Casey Foundation, relocated to Baltimore.
In 1998, Moore graduated Phi Theta Kappa from Valley Forge with an associate degree, completed the requirements for the United States Army's early commissioning program, and was appointed a second lieutenant of Military Intelligence in the Army Reserve. He then attended Johns Hopkins University, from which he graduated Phi Beta Kappa with a B.A. in international relations and economics in 2001. At Johns Hopkins, he also played wide receiver for the Johns Hopkins Blue Jays football team for two seasons, served as the chair of the university's Men of the NAACP branch, and was initiated into the Omicron Delta Kappa honor society, and Sigma Sigma chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha. In 1998 and 1999, Moore interned for Baltimore Mayor Kurt Schmoke. He later became involved with the March of Dimes before serving in the Army. He also interned at the United States Department of Homeland Security under Secretary Tom Ridge.
After graduating, he attended Wolfson College, Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar, where he earned a master's degree in international relations in 2004 and submitted a thesis titled Rise and Ramifications of Radical Islam in the Western Hemisphere. He then served in the 82nd Airborne Division and was deployed to Afghanistan from 2005 to 2006, attaining the rank of captain. He left the Army in 2014.
== Career ==
In February 2006, Moore was named a White House Fellow to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. He later worked as an investment banker at Deutsche Bank in Manhattan and at Citibank from 2007 to 2012 while living in Jersey City, New Jersey. In 2009, Moore was included on Crain’s New York Business's "40 Under 40" list.
In 2010, Moore founded a television production company, Omari Productions, to create content for networks such as the Oprah Winfrey Network, PBS, HBO, and NBC. In May 2014, he produced a three-part PBS series, Coming Back with Wes Moore, which followed the lives and experiences of returning veterans.
In 2014, Moore founded BridgeEdU, a company that provided services to support students in their transition to college. Students participating in BridgeEdU paid $500 into the program with varying fees. BridgeEdU was not able to achieve financial stability and was acquired by student financial services company Edquity in 2019, mostly for its database of clients. A Baltimore Banner interview with former BridgeEdU students found that the short-lived company had mixed results. Moore was the commencement speaker at Utah Valley University's class of 2014 graduation ceremony.
In September 2016, Moore produced All the Difference, a PBS documentary that followed the lives of two young African-American men from the South Side of Chicago from high school through college and beyond. Later that month, he launched Future City, an interview-based talk show with Baltimore's WYPR station.
From June 2017 until May 2021, Moore was CEO of the Robin Hood Foundation, a charitable organization that attempts to alleviate problems caused by poverty in New York City. It works mainly through funding schools, food pantries and shelters. It also administers a disaster relief fund. During his tenure as CEO, the organization also raised more than $650 million, including $230 million in 2020 to provide increased need for assistance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Moore also sought to expand his advocacy to include America's poor and transform the organization into a national force in the poverty fight. Moore served on Under Armour's board of directors from September 2020 to November 2022, resigning from the board shortly after becoming governor-elect.
=== Books ===
On April 27, 2010, Spiegel & Grau published his first book, The Other Wes Moore. The 200-page book explores the lives of two young Baltimore boys who shared the same name and race, but largely different familial histories that leads them both down very different paths. In December 2012, Moore announced that The Other Wes Moore would be developed into a feature film, with Oprah Winfrey attached as an executive producer. In September 2013, Ember published his second book, Discovering Wes Moore. The book maintains the message and story set out in The Other Wes Moore, but is more accessible to young adults. In April 2021, Unanimous Media announced it would adapt The Other Wes Moore into a feature film. As of June 2022, a film has yet to be produced.
In January 2015, Moore wrote his third book, The Work. In November 2016, he wrote This Way Home, a young adult novel about Elijah, a high school basketball player, who emerges from a standoff with a local gang after they attempt to recruit him to their basketball team, and he refuses. In March 2020, Moore and former Baltimore Sun education reporter Erica L. Green wrote Five Days: The Fiery Reckoning of an American City, which explores the 2015 Baltimore protests from the perspectives of eight Baltimoreans who experienced it on the front lines.
=== Political activities ===
Moore first expressed interest in politics in June 1996, telling a New York Times reporter that he planned to attend law school and enter politics after two years at Valley Forge. Moore first expressed interest in running for governor of Maryland during an interview with The Baltimore Sun in 2006, later telling The Baltimore Sun in October 2022 that he felt the idea of holding elected office only started to feel like a real possibility in 2020, when he was about to leave his job running Robin Hood.
Moore gave a speech at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, supporting Barack Obama for president. In 2013, he said that he had "no interest" in running for public office, instead focusing on his business and volunteer work. Later that year, Attorney General Doug Gansler said that he considered choosing Moore as his running mate in the 2014 Maryland gubernatorial election, in which he ran with state delegate Jolene Ivey.
In April 2015, following the 2015 Baltimore protests, Moore said that the demonstrations in Baltimore were a "long time coming" and that Baltimore "must seize this moment to redress systemic problems and grow." Moore attended the funeral for Freddie Gray but left early to catch a plane to Boston for a speech he was giving on urban poverty. He later said he "felt guilty being away, but it wasn't just that. An audience in Boston would listen to me talk about poverty, but at a historic moment in my own city's history, I was MIA." On the eighth anniversary of Gray's death in April 2023, Moore made a tweet calling his death a turning point for not just those who knew Gray personally, but the entire city.
In February 2017, Governor Larry Hogan nominated Moore to serve on the University System of Maryland Board of Regents. In October 2020, Moore was named to serve on the transition team of Baltimore mayor-elect Brandon Scott. In January 2021, Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates Adrienne A. Jones consulted with Moore to craft her "black agenda" to tackle racial inequalities in housing, health, banking, government, and private corporations.
=== Controversies ===
In June 2013, a Baltimore Sun investigation alleged that Moore was improperly receiving homestead property tax credits and owed back taxes to the city of Baltimore. Moore told The Sun that he was unaware of any issues with the home's taxes and wanted to pay what he owed immediately. In October 2022, Baltimore Brew reported that Moore had not paid any water and sewage charges since March 2021, owing $21,200 to the city of Baltimore. Moore settled his outstanding bills shortly after the article was published.
In April 2022, the family of Baltimore County Police Sergeant Bruce Prothero, whose murder in 2000 is highlighted in The Other Wes Moore, accused Moore of making contradictory statements about where the proceeds of the book went, saying that the family "directed no donations" to anywhere, including the nonprofits Moore named. The family also complained that Moore exaggerated his role in their son's life.
CNN accused Moore of embellishing his childhood and where he actually grew up. Shortly after the article was published, Moore created a website that attempted to rebut the allegations.
On November 19, 2024, Moore was cited with a Bronze Star Medal for meritorious service in Afghanistan. Lieutenant General Michael R. Fenzel pinned the decoration on Moore on December 14. Fenzel recommended Moore for the Bronze Star in 2006 and encouraged Moore to list the award in his application for a White House fellowship. Fenzel assumed the medal would have been awarded by the time the fellows were named. In his view, Moore's medal was awarded 20 years late. Moore failed to correct journalists who referred to him as a Bronze Star recipient, and he apologized for the mistake.
A Capital News Service article highlighted Moore's connections to various industries, including pharmaceutical, technology, beauty and retail giants, and the Green Thumb Industries cannabis company. Moore left Green Thumb Industries in March 2022, and said in October that he would use a blind trust to hold his assets and resign from every board position if elected governor. In May 2023, Moore finalized his trust, making him the first governor to have one since Bob Ehrlich. In May 2025, after similar conflict of interest concerns were raised about former governor Larry Hogan during his 2024 U.S. Senate campaign, Moore signed into law a bill requiring future governors to put their assets into a blind trust or sign an agreement not to participate in decisions affecting their businesses.
In December 2025, the Washington Free Beacon accused Moore of exaggerating his academic and military achievements on his 2006 White House fellowship application, in which he claimed to have graduated Oxford a year and a half earlier than he had, did not submit his doctoral thesis, was working toward a doctorate at Oxford, and was a "foremost expert" on Islamic extremism who authored four articles and featured in two books on the threat of radical Islam in Latin America. A spokesperson for Moore disputed the claims made by the Free Beacon, saying that Moore had submitted his thesis and that the website would be spreading a conspiracy theory by suggesting otherwise, though his office was unable to locate the four articles Moore claimed to have contributed to.
== Governor of Maryland ==
=== Elections ===
==== 2022 ====
In February 2021, Moore announced he was considering a run for governor of Maryland in the 2022 election. He launched his campaign on June 7, 2021, emphasizing "work, wages, and wealth" and running on the slogan "leave no one behind". His running mate was Aruna Miller, a former state delegate who represented Maryland's 15th district from 2010 to 2019.
During the primary, Moore was endorsed by House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, Prince George's County executive Angela Alsobrooks, television host Oprah Winfrey, and former Governor Parris Glendening. He also received backing from the Maryland State Education Association and VoteVets.org.
On April 6, 2022, Moore filed a complaint with the Maryland State Board of Elections against the gubernatorial campaign of John King Jr., accusing "an unidentified party" of anonymously disseminating "false and disparaging information regarding Wes Moore via electronic mail and social media in an orchestrated attempt to disparage Mr. Moore and damage his candidacy." The complaint also suggested that King "may be responsible for this smear campaign", which the King campaign denied. In April 2024, King's campaign was fined $2,000 after prosecutors connected the email address to an IP address used by Joseph O'Hearn, King's campaign manager.
Moore won the Democratic primary on July 19, 2022, defeating former Democratic National Committee chairman Tom Perez and Comptroller Peter Franchot with 32.4% of the vote. During the general election, Moore twice campaigned with U.S. President Joe Biden. He also campaigned on reclaiming "patriotism" from Republicans, highlighting his service in the U.S. Army while also bringing attention to Republican nominee and state delegate Dan Cox's participation in the January 6 United States Capitol attack. Moore defeated Cox in the general election, and became Maryland's first black governor and the first veteran to be elected governor since William Donald Schaefer.
In December 2022, Moore was elected to serve as finance chair of the Democratic Governors Association.
==== 2026 ====
On September 9, 2025, Moore announced that he would run for re-election to a second term.
=== Tenure ===
Moore was sworn in on January 18, 2023. He took the oath of office on a Bible owned by abolitionist Frederick Douglass, as well as his grandfather's Bible. The morning before his inauguration, Moore participated in a wreath-laying ceremony at the Kunta Kinte-Alex Haley Memorial at the Annapolis City Dock to "acknowledge the journey" that led to him becoming the third elected black governor in U.S. history. Later that night, he held a celebratory event at the Baltimore Convention Center.
As governor, Moore testified for several of his administration's bills, making him the first governor to do so since Martin O'Malley. During his first term, his legislative priorities included establishing a "service year option" for high school graduates, removing regulations around new housing development, and supporting military families through health care benefits, tax cuts, and employment opportunities. He has also sought to undo or revise many of his predecessor's decisions, including the cancellation of the Baltimore Red Line, the withholding of state funding for training abortion care providers, and plans to expand portions of the Capital Beltway and Interstate 270 using high-occupancy toll lanes.
The Francis Scott Key Bridge collapse occurred during Moore's tenure, after which he supported and signed into law legislation to provide financial assistance to workers and businesses affected by the subsequent closure of the Port of Baltimore. Following the disaster, Moore has urged Congress to pass legislation that would have the federal government cover the costs of rebuilding the bridge. In December 2024, President Joe Biden signed into law a continuing resolution bill that included a provision to fully fund the Francis Scott Key Bridge replacement.
== Personal life ==
Moore met Dawn Flythe in Washington, D.C. in 2002. They moved to the Riverside community in Baltimore in 2006. The couple eloped in Las Vegas while he was on a brief leave from Afghanistan and were married by an Elvis impersonator. Their official wedding ceremony was held on July 6, 2007. They have two children, born in 2011 and 2013.
In late 2008, the Moores moved from Riverside to Guilford, where they lived until Moore's election as governor in 2022. From 2015 to 2023, he attended services at the Southern Baptist Church in east Baltimore. They reside in Government House, the official residence of the Maryland governor and First Family in Annapolis, Maryland.
Moore holds honorary degrees from Lafayette College, Skidmore College, Lincoln University, and the University of the Commonwealth Caribbean. He is a member of the Sons of the American Revolution; his ancestor Prince Ames served in the Massachusetts Militia in the Revolutionary War.
Moore is a fan of the Baltimore Ravens, Baltimore Orioles, and New York Knicks.
=== Military decorations and badges ===
Moore's decorations and medals include:
== Electoral history ==
== Bibliography ==
The other Wes Moore : one name, two fates, New York : Spiegel & Grau, 2010. ISBN 9780385528191
Discovering Wes Moore : My Story, New York : Ember (Random House), 2013. ISBN 9780385741682, 9780385741675, 9780375986703
The work : searching for a life that matters, New York : Spiegel & Grau, 2015. ISBN 9780812983845
Wes Moore; Shawn Goodman, This way home, New York : Delacorte Press, 2015. ISBN 9780385741699
Wes Moore; Erica L Green, Five days : the fiery reckoning of an American city, New York : One World, 2020. ISBN 9780525512363
== See also ==
List of minority governors and lieutenant governors in the United States
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
The Office of Governor Wes Moore official government website
Wes Moore for Maryland campaign website
Appearances on C-SPAN
Profile at Vote Smart
Wes Moore at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_Lectureship_Prize#:~:text=1958%3A%20Leopold%20Ru%C5%BEi%C4%8Dka | Faraday Lectureship Prize | The Faraday Lectureship Prize, previously known simply as the Faraday Lectureship, is awarded once every two years (approximately) by the Royal Society of Chemistry for "exceptional contributions to physical or theoretical chemistry". Named after Michael Faraday, the first Faraday Lecture was given in 1869, two years after Faraday's death, by Jean-Baptiste Dumas. As of 2009, the prize was worth £5000, with the recipient also receiving a medal and a certificate. As the name suggests, the recipient also gives a public lecture describing their work.
== Winners ==
Source: RSC
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Event data as RDF |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2015_Nepal_earthquake | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | The April 2015 Nepal earthquake (also known as the Gorkha earthquake) killed 8,962 people and injured 21,952 across the countries of Nepal, India, China and Bangladesh. It occurred at 11:56 Nepal Standard Time on Saturday 25 April 2015, with a magnitude of Mw 7.8–7.9 or Ms 8.1 and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of X (Extreme). Its epicenter was east of Gorkha District at Barpak, Gorkha, roughly 85 km (53 mi) northwest of central Kathmandu, and its hypocenter was at a depth of approximately 8.2 km (5.1 mi). It was the worst natural disaster to strike Nepal since the 1934 Nepal–India earthquake. The ground motion recorded in Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, was of low frequency, which, along with its occurrence at an hour when many people in rural areas were working outdoors, decreased the loss of human lives.
The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing 22 people, the deadliest incident on the mountain on record. The earthquake triggered another huge avalanche in the Langtang valley, where 250 people were reported missing.
Hundreds of thousands of Nepalese were made homeless with entire villages flattened across many districts of the country. Centuries-old buildings were destroyed at UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the Kathmandu Valley, including some at the Kathmandu Durbar Square, the Patan Durbar Square, the Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the Changu Narayan Temple, the Boudhanath stupa, and the Swayambhunath stupa. Geophysicists and other experts had warned for decades that Nepal was vulnerable to a deadly earthquake, particularly because of its geology, urbanization, and architecture. Dharahara, also called Bhimsen Tower, a nine-storey 61.88-metre (203.0 ft) tall tower, was destroyed. It was a part of the architecture of Kathmandu recognized by UNESCO.
Continued aftershocks occurred throughout Nepal at intervals of 15–20 minutes, with one shock reaching a magnitude of 6.7 on 26 April at 12:54:08 NST. The country also had a continued risk of landslides.
A major aftershock occurred on 12 May 2015 at 12:50 NST with a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.3. The epicenter was near the Chinese border between the capital, Kathmandu, and Mount Everest. More than 200 people were killed and over 2,500 were injured by this aftershock, and many were left homeless.
== Earthquake ==
The earthquake occurred on 25 April 2015 at 11:56 am NST (06:11:25 UTC) at a depth of approximately 8.2 km (5.1 mi) (which is considered shallow and therefore more damaging than quakes that originate deeper in the ground), with its epicentre approximately 34 km (21 mi) southeast of Lamjung, Nepal, lasting approximately 50 seconds. The earthquake was initially reported as Mww 7.5 by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) before it was quickly upgraded to Mww 7.8, while the Global Centroid Moment Tensor (GCMT) reported a magnitude of Mw 7.9. The China Earthquake Networks Center (CENC) reported the earthquake's magnitude to be 8.1 Ms . The India Meteorological Department (IMD) said two powerful quakes were registered in Nepal at 06:11 UTC and 06:45 UTC. The first quake had its epicenter was identified at a distance of 80 km to the northwest of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. Bharatpur was the nearest major city to the main earthquake, 53 km (33 mi) as the crow flies from the epicenter. The second earthquake was somewhat less powerful at 6.6 Mw . It occurred 65 km (40 mi) east of Kathmandu and its seismic focus lay at a depth of 10 km (6.2 mi) below the earth's surface. Over 38 aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 Mw or greater occurred in the day following the initial earthquake, including one of 6.8 Mw .
According to the USGS, the earthquake was caused by a sudden short sharp upthrust along the convergent boundary where the Indian plate, carrying India, is slowly diving underneath the Eurasian plate, carrying much of Europe and Asia. Kathmandu, situated on a block of crust approximately 120 km (74 miles) wide and 60 km (37 miles) long, rapidly shifted 3 m (10 ft) to the south in a matter of just 30 seconds.
The risk of a large earthquake was well known beforehand. In 2013, in an interview with seismologist Vinod Kumar Gaur, The Hindu quoted him as saying, "Calculations show that there is sufficient accumulated energy [in the Main Frontal Thrust], now to produce an 8-magnitude earthquake. I cannot say when. It may not happen tomorrow, but it could possibly happen sometime this century, or wait longer to produce a much larger one." According to Brian Tucker, founder of a nonprofit organization devoted to reducing casualties from natural disasters, some government officials had expressed confidence that such an earthquake would not occur again. Tucker recounted a conversation he had with a government official in the 1990s who said, "We don't have to worry about earthquakes anymore, because we already had an earthquake." The previous earthquake to which he referred occurred in 1934. In fact, the 600-km-long Central Himalayan Gap hadn't ruptured since 1505.
== Geology ==
Nepal lies towards the southern limit of the diffuse collisional boundary where the Indian plate underthrusts the Eurasian plate, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one-third of the 2,400 km (1,500 mi) long Himalayas. Geologically, the Nepal Himalayas are subdivided into five tectonic zones from north to south, east to west, and almost parallel to sub-parallel. These five distinct morpho-geotectonic zones are: (1) Terai Plain; (2) Sub Himalaya (Shivalik Range); (3) Lesser Himalaya (Mahabharat Range and mid valleys); (4) Higher Himalaya; and (5) Inner Himalaya (Tibetan Tethys). Each of these zones is clearly identified by its morphological, geological, and tectonic features.
The convergence rate between the plates in central Nepal is about 45 mm (1.8 in) per year. The location, magnitude, and focal mechanism of the earthquake suggest that it was caused by a slip along the Main Frontal Thrust.
The earthquake's effects were amplified in Kathmandu as it sits on the Kathmandu Basin, which contains up to 600 m (2,000 ft) of sedimentary rocks, representing the infilling of a lake.
Based on a study published in 2014, of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a great earthquake occurs every 750 ± 140 and 870 ± 350 years in the east Nepal region. A study from 2015 found a 700-year delay between earthquakes in the region. The study also suggests that because of tectonic stress buildup, the 1934 earthquake and the 2015 quake are connected, following a historic earthquake pattern. A 2016 study on historical great (M ≥ 8) earthquake pairs and cycles found that associated great earthquakes are likely to occur in the West China region through the 2020s.
=== Intensity ===
According to the USGS website, the maximum intensity was VIII (Severe), however certain reports state an intensity of X (Extreme) or higher. In most of Kathmandu the intensity was VIII-IX, as evidenced by the numerous undamaged water towers installed on top of undamaged multi story buildings. Tremors were felt in the neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Gujarat, in the National Capital Region around New Delhi and as far south as Karnataka. Damage was extensive in northern Bihar and minor damage was also reported from parts of Odisha. Shaking was felt in high-rise buildings as far as Kochi in the southern state of Kerala. The intensity in Patna was V (Moderate). The intensity was IV (Light) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The earthquake was also experienced across southwest China, ranging from the Tibet Autonomous Region to Chengdu, which is 1,900 km (1,200 mi) away from the epicenter. Tremors were felt in Pakistan and Bhutan.
=== Aftershocks ===
A series of aftershocks began immediately after the mainshock, at intervals of 15–30 minutes, with one aftershock reaching 6.6Mw within 34 minutes of the initial quake. A major aftershock of magnitude 6.9 Mw occurred on 26 April 2015 in the same region at 12:54 NST (07:08 UTC), with an epicenter located about 17 km (11 mi) south of Kodari, Nepal. The aftershock caused fresh avalanches on Mount Everest and was felt in many places in northern India including Kolkata, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri, and Assam. The aftershock caused a landslide on the Koshi Highway, which blocked the section of the road between Bhedetar and Mulghat.
A model of GeoGateway, based on a United States Geological Survey mechanism of a near-horizontal fault as well as the location of aftershocks showed that the fault had an 11° dip towards the north, striking at 295°, was 50 km (31 mi) wide, 150 km (93 mi) long, and had a dip slip of 3 m (9.8 ft). The USGS says the aftershock registered at a shallow depth of 10 km (6.2 mi).
As of 24 May 2016, 459 aftershocks had occurred with different epicenters and magnitudes equal to or above 4 Mw (out of which 51 aftershocks are equal to or above 5 Mw and 5 aftershocks above 6 Mw) and more than 20,000 aftershocks less than 4 Mw.
=== 12 May 2015 earthquake ===
A second major earthquake occurred on 12 May 2015 at 12:50 NST with a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.3Mw 18 km (11 mi) southeast of Kodari. The epicenter was near the Chinese border between the capital city of Kathmandu and Mount Everest. It struck at a depth of 18.5 km (11.5 miles). This earthquake occurred along the same fault as the original magnitude 7.8 earthquake of 25 April but further to the east. As such, it is considered an aftershock of the 25 April quake. Tremors were also felt in northern parts of India including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and other North-Indian States. At least 153 people died in Nepal as a result of the aftershock and about 2,500 were injured. 62 others died in India, two in Bangladesh, and one in China.
== Aftermath ==
Disastrous events in very poor and politically paralyzed nations such as Nepal often become a long drawn out chain of events, in that one disaster feeds into another for years or even decades on end. The aftereffects of the earthquake had subsequent effects on a myriad of things: human trafficking, labour cost and availability, rental and property cost burdens, urbanization, private and public debt burdens, mental health, politics, tourism, disease, and damage to the healthcare system. A survey some 30 months later found only 12% of the reconstruction money had been distributed, and those without land were locked out of financial support, exacerbating the social divide and feeding marginalization.
=== More direct effects ===
Some disasters that came with the monsoon season were suspected to be related to the earthquake. There was a landslip on 11 June, killing 53 people. Meanwhile, a glacial lake had burst in the particularly hard-hit Solukhumbhu district. Whether or not the quake contributed to such events is often unknown and unresearched, but it is certainly possible.
=== Casualties ===
==== Nepal ====
The earthquake killed at least 8,857 people in Nepal and injured nearly three times as many. The rural death toll may have been minimized by the fact that most villagers were outdoors working when the quake hit. As of 15 May, 6,271 people, including 1,700 from the 12 May aftershock, were still receiving treatment for their injuries. Nearly 3.5 million people were left homeless, causing around 2.6 million internal displacements.
The Himalayan Times reported that as many as 20,000 foreign nationals may have been visiting Nepal at the time of the earthquake, although reports of foreign deaths were relatively low.
==== India ====
A total of 78 deaths were reported in India – including 58 in Bihar, 16 in Uttar Pradesh, 3 in West Bengal and 1 in Rajasthan.
==== China ====
Twenty-seven people were confirmed dead, 383 were injured and 4 were missing, all from the Tibet Autonomous Region.
The quake destroyed 2,500 houses and damaged 24,700 others across 19 counties in Tibet, affecting nearly 300,000 people, among whom 47,500 were displaced, while a total of 82 temples were also damaged. The counties of Gyirong, Nyalam and Tingri in Xigazê were worst hit, where nearly 80 percent of the houses in the three counties collapsed.
==== Bangladesh ====
Four people were killed and 18 districts were affected by the earthquake in Bangladesh. A six-story building partially collapsed and two garment factories tilted in Dhaka. A 22-year-old man died when trying to flee the Dhaka Medical College in a panic. In Tangail, a woman died trying to escape a building. Another woman was crushed to death by a collapsed wall while a teacher died of a heart attack during the earthquake.
==== Avalanches on Mount Everest ====
This earthquake caused avalanches on Mount Everest. At least 19 died, with at least 120 others injured or missing.
==== Landslides in the Langtang Valley ====
In the Langtang valley located in Langtang National Park, 329 people were reported missing after an avalanche hit the village of Ghodatabela and the village of Langtang. The avalanche was estimated to have been two to three kilometres wide. Ghodatabela was an area popular on the Langtang trekking route. The village of Langtang was destroyed by the avalanche. Smaller settlements on the outskirts of Langtang were buried during the earthquake, such as Chyamki, Thangsyap, and Mundu. Twelve locals and two foreigners were believed to have survived. Smaller landslides occurred in the Trishuli River Valley with reports of significant damage at Mailung, Simle, and Archale. On 4 May it was announced that 52 bodies had been found in the Langtang area, of which seven were bodies of foreigners.
According to geological models, the frequency and intensity of future landslides in the Langtang Valley is due to increase in the coming decades. This is attributable directly to the effect of the earthquake, which caused widespread fracturing in the grounds of the Langtang area.
=== Damage ===
Thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country, with entire villages flattened, especially those near the epicenter.
The Tribhuvan International Airport serving Kathmandu was closed immediately after the earthquake, but was re-opened later in the day for relief operations and, later, for some commercial flights. It subsequently shut down operations sporadically due to aftershocks, and on 3 May was closed temporarily to the largest planes for fear of runway damage. During strong aftershocks, the airport opened all boarding-lounge exit doors onto the tarmac, allowing people who were waiting post security and immigration to flee to the open spaces of the runway tarmac. Many remained outside as planes were delayed and the airport swelled to capacity. The airport facilities suffered damage and there was no running water or operating toilets in the airport lounges. Few airport workers were at their posts; most were killed in the earthquake or had to deal with its aftereffects.
Flights resumed from Pokhara, to the west of the epicentre, on 27 April.
Several of the churches in the Kathmandu valley were destroyed. As Saturday is the principal day of Christian worship in Nepal, 500 people were reported to have died in the collapses.
Several temples on Kathmandu Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, collapsed, as did the Dharahara tower, built in 1832; the collapse of the latter structure killed at least 180 people, Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, previously damaged in an earlier quake, tilted several inches further. The northern side of Janaki Mandir in Janakpur was reported to have been damaged. Several temples, including Kasthamandap, Panchtale temple, the top levels of the nine-story Basantapur Durbar, the Dasa Avtar temple and two shrines located behind the Shiva Parvati temple were demolished by the quake. Some other monuments including the Taleju Bhawani Temple partially collapsed.
The top of the Jaya Bageshwari Temple in Gaushala and some parts of the Pashupatinath Temple, Swyambhunath, Boudhanath Stupa, Ratna Mandir, inside Rani Pokhari, and Durbar High School have been destroyed.
In Patan, the Char Narayan Mandir, the statue of Yog Narendra Malla, a pati inside Patan Durbar Square, the Taleju Temple, the Hari Shankar, Uma Maheshwar Temple and the Machhindranath Temple in Bungamati were destroyed. In Tripureshwar, the Kal Mochan Ghat, a temple inspired by Mughal architecture, was completely destroyed and the nearby Tripura Sundari also suffered significant damage. In Bhaktapur, several monuments, including the Phasi Deva temple, the Chardham temple and the 17th century Vatsala Durga Temple were fully or partially destroyed.
Outside the Valley, the Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, the Gorkha Durbar, the Palanchok Bhagwati, in Kabhrepalanchok District, the Rani Mahal in Palpa District, the Churiyamai in Makwanpur District, the Dolakha Bhimsensthan in Dolakha District, and the Nuwakot Durbar suffered varying degrees of damage. Historian Prushottam Lochan Shrestha stated, "We have lost most of the monuments that had been designated as World Heritage Sites in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur District, Nepal. They cannot be restored to their original states." The northeastern parts of India also received major damage. Heavy shocks were felt in the states of Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and others. Huge damage was caused to the property and the lives of the people.
=== Economic loss ===
Concern was expressed that harvests could be reduced or lost this season as people affected by the earthquake would have only a short time to plant crops before the onset of the Monsoon rains.
Nepal, with a total Gross Domestic Product of US$19.921 billion (according to a 2012 estimate), is one of Asia's poorest countries, and has little ability to fund a major reconstruction effort on its own. Even before the quake, the Asian Development Bank estimated that it would need to spend about four times more than it currently does annually on infrastructure through to 2020 to attract investment. The U.S. Geological Survey initially estimated economic losses from the tremor at 9 per cent to 50 per cent of gross domestic product, with a best guess of 35 per cent. "It's too hard for now to tell the extent of the damage and the effect on Nepal's GDP", according to Hun Kim, an Asian Development Bank (ADB) official. The ADB said on the 28th that it would provide a US$3 million grant to Nepal for immediate relief efforts, and up to US$200 million for the first phase of rehabilitation.
Rajiv Biswas, an economist at a Colorado-based consultancy, said that rebuilding the economy will need international effort over the next few years as it could "easily exceed" US$5 billion.
More recent studies estimate the damage from the earthquake to be closer to US$10 billion (which would be around 50% of Nepals GDP at the time).
=== Social effects ===
It was reported that the survivors were preyed upon by human traffickers involved in the supply of girls and women to the brothels of South Asia. These traffickers took advantage of the chaos that resulted from the aftermath of the earthquake. The most affected were women from poor communities who lost their homes. In response to the unsafe conditions of the temporary campsites, international organizations implemented Safety Committees which were provided cash grants for necessities like additional toilets and bathrooms.
=== Most affected ===
Single women had very little access to relief, according to a report by the Inter-party Women's Alliance (IPWA). The report also found that violence and rapes against women and minors have increased after the earthquake. Additionally, the earthquake has significantly affected certain groups of people. Tibeto-Burman peoples were hardest hit as they tend to inhabit the higher slopes of mountains as opposed to the central valleys and are less educated and connected. All of these factors make them harder to access. According to a government survey, malnutrition in children has worsened considerably some 3 months after the quake, with the most undernourished being Tamang and Chepang peoples. Before the quake, 41 percent of children under five were stunted, 29 percent were underweight and 11 percent were emaciated, according to the World Food Programme.
=== Disease ===
Though a feared mass cholera outbreak failed to materialize (there were sporadic reports), other outbreaks were reported. At least 13 people died of scrub typhus while 240 people were taken ill since the disease was first diagnosed in the country in August 2015 until September 2016. The mental and emotional impact of an earthquake is the other invisible disaster. Medical Doctors from India, Ramachandra Kamath, Edmond Fernandes and Prakash Narayan stated that elderly care in disaster was more important than women and child focused one for Nepal earthquake and absence of military support for medical aid providers impacted relief work.
== Rescue and relief ==
About 90% of soldiers from the Nepalese Army were sent to the stricken areas in the aftermath of the earthquake under Operation Sankat Mochan, with volunteers mobilized from other parts of the country. Rainfall and aftershocks were factors complicating the rescue efforts, with potential secondary effects like additional landslides and further building collapses being concerns. Impassable roads and damaged communications infrastructure posed substantial challenges to rescue efforts. Survivors were found up to a week after the earthquake.
As of 1 May international aid agencies like Médecins Sans Frontières and the Red Cross were able to start medically evacuating the critically wounded by helicopter from outlying areas, initially cut-off from the capital city, Kathmandu, and treating others in mobile and makeshift facilities. There was concern about epidemics due to the shortage of clean water, the makeshift nature of living conditions and the lack of toilets.
Emergency workers were able to identify four men who had been trapped in rubble, and rescue them, using advanced heartbeat detection. The four men were trapped in up to ten feet of rubble in the village of Chautara, north of Kathmandu. An international team of rescuers from several countries using FINDER devices found two sets of men under two different collapsed buildings.
Volunteers used crisis mapping to help plan emergency aid work. Local organization Kathmandu Living Labs helped coordinate local knowledge on the ground and collaborated with international crisis mapping and humanitarian organizations. Public volunteers from around the world participated in crowdmapping and added details into online maps. Information was mapped from data input from social media, satellite pictures and drones of passable roads, collapsed houses, stranded, shelterless and starving people, who needed help, and from messages and contact details of people willing to help. On-site volunteers verified these mapping details wherever they could to reduce errors. The technologies used by Kathmandu Living Labs were built on top of existing open source solutions which allowed them to work in a fast and cost effective manner.
Digital mappers, through the Kathmandu Living Labs, were already charting the densely populated Kathmandu Valley, and then focused on earthquake relief. "They were doing an inventory in the poorer communities where they didn't have a very good sense of the quality of buildings," says Cowan, whose students helped add Kathmandu's buildings and roads to OpenStreetMap. First responders, from Nepalese citizens to the Red Cross, the Nepal army and the United Nations used this data. The Nepal earthquake crisis mapping utilized experience gained and lessons learned about planning emergency aid work from earthquakes in Haiti and Indonesia.
India pledged to donate $1 billion in cash and materials to Nepal. India's External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj said "I am happy to announce Government of India's pledge for Nepal's post-earthquake reconstruction of Nepali Rupees 10,000 crores, equivalent to one billion US dollars, one fourth of it as Grant." The International Conference on Nepal's Reconstruction has been organised by the Nepalese government to raise funds for rebuilding the country.
Reports are also coming in of sub-standard relief materials and inedible food being sent to Nepal by many of the foreign aid agencies.
A United States Marine Corps helicopter crashed on 12 May while involved in delivering relief supplies. The Bell UH-1Y Venom crashed at Charikot, roughly 45 miles (72 kilometres) east of Kathmandu. Two Nepalese soldiers and six American Marines died in the crash.
Need-fulfillment application, Getmii, launched a special pilot version in partnership with the Red Cross to double daily blood donors at the Kathmandu donation center using the app.
Imaging technologies such as satellites and smartphones, were instrumental to relief efforts in Nepal. GLIMS, group of volunteer scientists from nine nations, were able to provide rapid, systematic mapping of the damaged area, allowing the investigation of earthquake-induced geo-hazard processes that provided information to relief and recovery officials on the same timeframe as those operations were occurring.
Charities and Crowdfunding platforms received over $230 million in donations from support groups. The money was used to provide medical supplies, for reconstruction of damaged buildings including schools and hospitals, and building orphanages for the victims among other things.
== Repair and reconstruction ==
=== Monuments ===
UNESCO and the Ministry of Culture began strengthening damaged monuments in danger of collapsing before the monsoon season. Subsequent restoration of collapsed structures, including historic houses is planned. Architectural drawings exist that provide plans for reconstruction. According to UNESCO, more than 30 monuments in the Kathmandu Valley collapsed in the quakes, and another 120 incurred partial damage. Repair estimates are $160 million to restore 1,000 damaged and destroyed monasteries, temples, historic houses, and shrines across the country. The destruction is concentrated in the Kathmandu Valley. UNESCO designated seven groups of multi-ethnic monuments clustered in the valley as a single World Heritage Site, including Swayambhu, the three squares namely Durbar square of Kathmandu, Patan Durbar Square, and Bhaktapur Durbar Square, and the Hindu temples of Pashupatinath and Changu Narayan. Out of them only three were damaged in the quakes—three Durbar squares, the temple of Changu Narayan, and the 1655 temple in Sankhu. Drones fly above cultural heritage sites to provide 3D images of the damage to use for planning repairs.
=== Nepal Rural Housing Reconstruction Program ===
After an international donors conference held in Kathmandu on 25 June 2015 a multi donor trust fund of US$4.4 billion was established to aid the reconstruction of affected housing in 14 districts of Nepal. This covered 66 per cent of the country's total recovery and reconstruction needs of US$6.7 billion. Implementation of the Program consisted of five phases i.e. Survey, Identification and Validation, Enrollment, Reconstruction and Completion. The data collection for the program was done digitally using tablets and resulted in collection of over 10 TB of data. The data was openly released to the public by the National Planning Commission and is available for download on their website.
== International aid ==
A total of $3bn was pledged by donors to help rebuild Nepal. UNICEF said close to 1.7 million children had been driven out into the open, and were in desperate need of drinking water, psychological counsel, temporary shelters, sanitation and protection from disease outbreak. It distributed water, tents, hygiene kits, water purification tablets and buckets. Numerous other organizations provided similar support.
India was the first to respond within hours, being Nepal's immediate neighbour, with Operation Maitri which provided rescue and relief by its armed forces. It also evacuated its own and other countries' stranded nationals. India has been the largest aid donor to Nepal following the earthquake with a billion dollar support apart from other non-monetary reliefs extended. China, the Asian Development Bank and the United Kingdom provided significant bilateral aid and other nations and organisations provided aid, rescue teams and helicopters as requested by the Nepalese government.
On 26 April 2015, international aid agencies and governments mobilized rescue workers and aid for the earthquake. They faced challenges in both getting assistance to Nepal and ferrying people to remote areas as the country had few helicopters. Relief efforts were also hampered by Nepalese government insistence on routing aid through the Prime Minister's Disaster Relief Fund and its National Emergency Operation Center. After concerns were raised, it was clarified that "Non-profits" or NGOs already in the country could continue receiving aid directly and bypass the official fund. Aid mismatch and supply of "leftovers" by donors, aid diversion in Nepal, mistrust over control of the distribution of funds and supplies, congestion and customs delays at Kathmandu's airport and border check posts were also reported. On 3 May 2015, restrictions were placed on heavy aircraft flying in aid supplies after new cracks were noticed on the runway at the Tribhuvan International Airport, Nepal's only airport able to handle larger jet aircraft.
The list below gives a break-up of pledged donations, by each nation, along with aid in kind, delivered immediately.
== See also ==
Economy of Nepal
Foreign aid to Nepal
Geology of the Himalaya
List of avalanches
List of earthquakes in 2015
List of earthquakes in China
List of earthquakes in India
List of earthquakes in Nepal
List of earthquakes in South Asia
List of people who died climbing Mount Everest
List of World Heritage Sites in Nepal
Operation Sahayogi Haat
Politics of Nepal
== References ==
== External links ==
Deadly earthquake Nepal on Earthquake Report Website
USGS Earthquake Hazards Program on USGS Website
National Seismological Center Nepali National Seismological Centre
Tectonics & Earthquakes of Himalaya and the 2015 Earthquake in Nepal – IRIS Consortium
The 25 April 2015, Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake: An Expected Event that Defied Expectations – United States Geological Survey
ReliefWeb's main page for this event.
The International Seismological Centre has a bibliography and/or authoritative data for this event.
Nepal Earthquake Open Data Portal (Archived 17 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine) by National Planning Commission has structural and socioeconomic data of over 1 million household and 762 thousand buildings of districts most severely effected by the earthquake.
A number of digital resources relating to the earthquake and the aftermath are hosted by SOAS Digital Collections. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_arap_Moi | Daniel arap Moi | Daniel Toroitich arap Moi ( MOH-ee; 2 September 1924 – 4 February 2020) was a Kenyan politician who served as the second president of Kenya from 1978 to 2002. He is the country's longest-serving president to date. Moi previously served as the third vice president of Kenya from 1967 to 1978 under President Jomo Kenyatta, becoming the president following the latter's death.
Born into the Tugen sub-group of the Kalenjin people in the Kenyan Rift Valley, Moi studied as a boy at the Africa Inland Mission school before training as a teacher at the Tambach teachers training college, working in that profession until 1955. He then entered politics and was elected a member of the Legislative Council for Rift Valley. As independence approached, Moi joined the Kenyan delegation which travelled to London for the Lancaster House Conferences, where the country's first post-independence constitution was drafted. In 1960, he founded the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) as a rival party to Kenyatta's Kenya African National Union (KANU). Following independence in 1963, Kenyatta who became Prime Minister and later President of the new nation, convinced Moi to merge the two parties. Kenyatta appointed Moi to his government in 1964 and then promoted him to vice-president in 1967. Despite opposition from a Kikuyu elite known as the Kiambu Mafia, Kenyatta retained Moi as his Vice President. Moi took over as president when Kenyatta died in 1978.
Initially popular both nationally and in Western countries, who saw his regime as countering against influences from the Eastern Bloc-aligned governments of Ethiopia and Tanzania, Moi's popularity fell around 1990 as the economy stagnated after the end of the Cold War. Following the agitation and external pressure, he was forced to allow multiparty elections in 1991. He then led his party, KANU, to victory in the 1992 and 1997 elections, both of which have generally been regarded as neither free nor fair by independent observers. Constitutionally barred from seeking a third term, Moi chose Uhuru Kenyatta as his successor, but Kenyatta was defeated by opposition leader Mwai Kibaki in the 2002 general election, and Kibaki succeeded Moi as president. Kenyatta would eventually win the presidency in the 2013 election.
Moi's regime was deemed dictatorial especially before 1992 when Kenya was a one-party state. Human rights organisations such as Amnesty International, as well as a special investigation by the United Nations, accused Moi of human rights abuses during his presidency. Inquiries held after the end of his presidency found evidence that Moi and his sons had engaged in significant levels of corruption, including the 1990s Goldenberg scandal.
== Early life and entry into politics ==
Moi was born Toroitich arap (son of) Moi, Toroitich meaning "welcome home the cattle", in the Rift Valley village of Kuriengwo, which is now in Sacho division of Baringo County. Moi's father, Kimoi arap Chebii, died in 1928. Moi was only four then and little is known about his mother, Kabon. What is known is that Tuitoek, his elder brother, became his guardian. Moi was one of the herdsboys from Sacho location recommended to join the new Africa Inland Mission (AIM) School at Kabartonjo in 1934 before it was shifted to Kapsabet. He was from the Tugen sub-group of the Kalenjin people.
At the African Mission School at Kabartonjo, Moi became a Christian and adopted the name Daniel. Moi attended Tambach Teachers Training College after its relocation from Kabartonjo from 1945 to 1947. This is after the colonial government denied him a chance to enroll at Alliance High School. He later attended Kagumo Teacher's College, and taught classes at Tambach Teacher's Training College. Later he became the headmaster of a school in the Keiyo District. He worked as a teacher from 1946 until 1955.
Moi entered politics in 1955 when he was elected Member of the Legislative Council for Rift Valley. He was the chosen replacement of Dr. John ole Tameno, the former representative who had had to quit due to heavy drinking and suspected connections to the freedom movement. In 1957 Moi was re-elected Member of the Legislative Council for Rift Valley. Moi was part of the Kenyan delegation at the Lancaster House Conferences in London, which drafted the country's first post-independence constitution, and in 1961, he became Minister of Education in the pre-independence government.
In 1960 he founded the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) with Ronald Ngala as a political alternative to the Kenya African National Union (KANU) led by Jomo Kenyatta. KADU pressed for a federalist constitution, while KANU was in favour of a centralized government. The advantage lay with the numerically stronger KANU, and the first post-independence constitution emphasised national unity, structuring the country as a unitary state.
== Vice-Presidency ==
After Kenya gained independence on 12 December 1963, Kenyatta convinced Moi that KADU and KANU should merge to complete the process of decolonisation. Accordingly, KADU dissolved and joined KANU in 1964. The only real challenge to KANU's dominance came from the Kenya People's Union, starting in 1966. That party was banned in 1969, and from that point onward Kenya was a de facto one-party state dominated by the Kĩkũyũ-Luo alliance. However, with an eye on the fertile lands of the Rift Valley populated by members of Moi's Kalenjin tribe, Kenyatta secured their support by first promoting Moi to Minister for Home Affairs in 1964, and then to Vice-President in 1967. As a member of a minority tribe Moi was also an acceptable compromise for the major tribes. Moi was elected to the Kenyan parliament in 1963 from Baringo North. From 1966 until his retirement in 2002, he served as the MP for Baringo Central in addition to his various other offices.
However, Moi faced opposition from the tribe Kikuyu elite known as the Kiambu Mafia, who would have preferred one of their own to accede to the presidency. This resulted in an attempt by the constitutional drafting group to change the constitution to prevent the vice-president automatically assuming power in the event of the president's death. However, many senior Kikuyu politicians, including Mwai Kibaki and Charles Njonjo, as well as Kenyatta himself, opposed such a change to the order of succession, fearing it might lead to political instability if Kenyatta died, given his advanced age and perennial illnesses. Thus, Moi's position as successor to Kenyatta was safeguarded.
== Presidency ==
When Jomo Kenyatta died on 22 August 1978, Moi became the acting president. Per the Constitution, a special presidential election for the balance of Kenyatta's term was to be held on 8 November, 90 days later. However, a Cabinet meeting decided that no one else was interested in running for presidency, thus various politicians began campaigning across the country for Moi to be declared the president unopposed. He was therefore sworn in as the second President of Kenya on 14 October 1978 as a result of the walkover electoral process.
In the beginning, Moi was popular with widespread support all over the country. He toured the country and came into contact with the people everywhere, which was in great contrast to Kenyatta's imperious style of leadership from behind closed doors. However, political realities dictated that he would continue to be beholden to the system of government that Kenyatta had created and to whose headship he had acceded, including the nearly dictatorial powers vested in his office. Despite his popularity, Moi was still unable to fully consolidate his power. From the beginning, anti-communism was an important theme of Moi's government; speaking on the new President's behalf, Vice-President Mwai Kibaki bluntly stated, "There is no room for Communists in Kenya."
On 1 August 1982, lower-level Air Force personnel, led by Senior Private Grade-I Hezekiah Ochuka and backed by university students, attempted a coup d'état to oust Moi. The revolt was quickly suppressed by military and police forces commanded by Chief of General Staff Mahamoud Mohamed. There may have been two or even three independent groups attempting to seize power at the same time, for differing reasons, but the most serious was led by prominent Kikuyu politicians and members of the police and armed forces.
Moi took the opportunity to dismiss political opponents and consolidate his power. He reduced the influence of Kenyatta's men in the cabinet through a long-running judicial enquiry that resulted in the identification of key Kenyatta men as traitors. Moi pardoned them but not before establishing their traitor status in the public view. The main conspirators in the coup, including Ochuka, were sentenced to death, marking the last judicial executions in Kenya. Moi appointed loyalists to key positions and changed the constitution to formally make KANU the only legally permitted party in the country. But this made little difference to the political situation, as all significant opposition parties had been outlawed since 1969. Kenya's academics and other intelligentsia did not accept this and educational institutions across the country became sites of movements that sought to introduce democratic reforms. However, Kenyan secret police infiltrated these groups and many of their members were exiled. Marxism could no longer be taught at Kenyan universities. The remaining opposition at home went underground.
Starting in the late 1980s, Moi's regime faced the end of the Cold War, as well as a national economic stagnation under rising oil prices and falling prices of agricultural commodities. Western governments also became more hostile to the KANU regime, a change of policy from the time of the Cold War, when Kenya had been viewed as an important regional stabilizer, preventing the spread of Soviet influence beyond Ethiopia, Somalia, and Tanzania. During that time, Kenya had received much foreign aid, and the country was accepted as a stable, if authoritarian, regime with Moi and the KANU firmly in charge. Western allies overlooked the increasing degree of political repression, including the use of torture at the infamous Nyayo House torture chambers. Some of the evidence of these torture cells was exposed in 2003 after opposition leader Mwai Kibaki became president.
With the fall of the Soviet Union and a lessening need to counter socialist influence in the region, Western policymakers changed their toward Moi and other pro-Western Third World authoritarian regimes. They increasingly regarded Moi as a despotic ruler rather than an important regional stabilizer. Foreign aid was withheld pending compliance with economic and political reforms. One of the key conditions imposed on his regime, especially by the United States through fiery ambassador Smith Hempstone, was the restoration of a multi-party system. Despite his own lack of enthusiasm for the reintroduction of a multi-party system, Moi managed to win over his party who were against the reform. Moi announced his intention to repeal Section 2(A) of the constitution, lifting the ban on opposition parties, at a KANU conference in Kasarani in December 1991. Despite fierce debate and opposition from many delegates, the conference passed the motion unanimously.
Regardless of the presence of opposition parties, Moi and the KANU clinched power in the first multi-party elections in 1992, and once again in 1997. Both elections were marred by political violence on both the government and opposition forces. Moi skillfully exploited Kenya's mix of ethnic tensions in these contests, gaining a plurality in both elections through a mix of picking votes across the country while his opponents' support was more concentrated, attracting votes from smaller tribes, and the Luhya, and taking advantage of fears of Kikuyu domination over the non-Kikuyu majority. In the absence of an effective and organised opposition, Moi had no difficulty in winning. Although it is also suspected that electoral fraud may have occurred, the key to his victory in both elections was a divided opposition. In 1992 he polled 36.3% of the votes, and in 1997 he received 40.4%, but both were comfortable victories due to vote-splitting between the various opposition groups, which failed to unify and field one opposition candidate.
== Criticism and corruption allegations ==
In 1999, the findings of NGOs like Amnesty International and a special investigation by the United Nations were published, and they indicated that human rights abuses were prevalent in Kenya under the Moi regime.
Reporting on corruption and human rights abuses by British reporter Mary Anne Fitzgerald from 1987 to 1988 resulted in her being vilified by the government and finally deported. Moi was implicated in the 1990s' Goldenberg scandal and subsequent cover-ups, where the Kenyan government subsidised exports of gold far in excess of the foreign currency earnings of exporters. In this case, the gold was smuggled from Congo, as Kenya has negligible gold reserves. The Goldenberg scandal cost Kenya the equivalent of more than 10% of the country's annual GDP.
Inquiries that began at the request of foreign aid donors never amounted to anything substantial during Moi's presidency. Although it appears that the peaceful transition of power to Mwai Kibaki may have involved an understanding that Moi would not stand trial for offences committed during his presidency, foreign aid donors reiterated their requests, and Kibaki reopened the inquiry. As the inquiry progressed, Moi, his two sons; Philip and Gideon (now a Senator), and his daughter, June, as well as a host of high-ranking Kenyans, were implicated. In a testimony delivered in late July 2003, Treasury Permanent Secretary Joseph Magari recounted that in 1991 Moi ordered him to pay Ksh34.5 million ($460,000) to Goldenberg, contrary to the laws then in force.
Wangari Maathai discussed Moi's actions during the 1980s and early 1990s, systematically attempting to dismantle the Greenbelt Movement after Maathai voiced displeasure at the government's attempts to build an office tower in Uhuru Park. According to Maathai, Moi's actions included removing the Greenbelt Movement from government office space and attempting to cut off funding from international donors by limiting funding through government sanctioned bodies. Maathai also discussed Moi's tactics during the beginning of the multiparty movement in the 1990s (see Forum for the Restoration of Democracy) whereby Moi announced the military would take over the government before the December 1992 elections. Maathai received communication during that time that an assassination list had been drawn up, and noted the mysterious deaths of Bishop Alexander Muge and Robert Ouko. The Release Political Prisoners party was also formed in the early 1990s to secure the release of political prisoners of the Moi regime and to protest state-sanctioned torture and random imprisonment. The police dispersed the protestors and many of the mothers of these political prisoners from Freedom Corner in Uhuru Park on March 3, 1992. After a year-long vigil and hunger strike by many of the mothers of these political prisoners in the Anglican All Saints Cathedral near Uhuru Park, the government released 51 prisoners en masse in early 1993.
In October 2006, Moi was found by the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes to have taken a bribe from a Pakistani businessman, to award a monopoly of duty-free shops at the country's international airports in Mombasa and Nairobi. The businessman, Ali Nasir, claimed to have paid Moi US$2 million in cash to obtain government approval for the World Duty Free Limited investment in Kenya.
On 31 August 2007, WikiLeaks published a secret report that laid bare a web of shell companies, secret trusts and front men that his entourage had used to channel hundreds of millions of pounds into nearly 30 countries.
== Retirement ==
Moi was constitutionally barred from running in the 2002 presidential elections. Some of his supporters flirted with the idea of amending the constitution to allow him to run for a third term, but Moi preferred to retire, choosing Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya's first President, as his successor. However, Mwai Kibaki was elected president by a two to one majority over Kenyatta, which was confirmed on 29 December 2002. At that point Kibaki required the use of a wheelchair, having narrowly escaped death in a road accident on the campaign trail. Moi handed over power in a poorly organised ceremony that had one of the largest crowds ever seen in Nairobi in attendance. The crowd was openly hostile to Moi.
After leaving office in December 2002, Moi lived in retirement, largely shunned by the political establishment. Nevertheless, he still retained some popularity with the masses, and his presence never failed to gather a crowd. He spoke out against a proposal for a new constitution in 2005, which according to him, the document was contrary to the aspirations of the Kenyan people. After the proposal was defeated in a November 2005 constitutional referendum, President Kibaki called Moi to arrange for a meeting to discuss the way forward.
On 25 July 2007, Kibaki appointed Moi as special peace envoy to Sudan, referring to Moi's "vast experience and knowledge of African affairs" and "his stature as an elder statesman". In his capacity as peace envoy, Moi's primary task was to help secure peace in southern Sudan where an agreement, signed in early 2005, was being implemented. At the time, the Kenyan press speculated that Moi and Kibaki were planning an alliance ahead of the December 2007 election. On 28 August 2007, Moi announced his support for Kibaki's re-election and said that he would campaign for Kibaki. He sharply criticised the two opposition Orange Democratic Movement factions, arguing that they were tribal in nature.
Moi owned the Kiptagich Tea Factory, established in 1979, which has been involved in controversy. In 2009, the factory was under the threat of being closed down by the government during the Mau Forest evictions.
== Personal life ==
Moi was married to Lena Moi (née Helena Bomett) from 1950 until their separation in 1974, before his assumption of the presidency. Lena's parents, the Paul Bomett family, were pioneer Christians in Eldama Ravine. They respected Moi, the young, tall, handsome and well-mannered orphan boy.
It was at the Bometts that Moi sought shelter during school holidays, unable to return home, 160 kilometres away, like the older boys. He would also stay at the home of the Christian family of Isaiah Chesire, the father of Kanu's nominated MP Zipporah Kittony, and former Eldoret North MP Reuben Chesire.
In 1950, after leaving Kagumo Teacher's College, Moi, who had been dating Lena, married her in a church wedding officiated by Erik Barnett, the son of Albert Barnett (after whom Kabarnet Town is named) at the AIC mission in Eldama Ravine after he paid two heifers, one ox, and four sheep to the Bomett family. Moi's long-time friend, Francis Cherogony, was the best man. With the marriage, Lena abandoned her career as a teacher and immersed herself in bringing up her family, settling down with Moi at Tambach Government School, where his first two children, Jennifer and Jonathan Kipkemboi, were born in 1952 and 1953 respectively.
Daniel arap Moi had eight children: five sons and three daughters. Among the children are Gideon Moi, who had a political career of his own in Kenya and Jonathan Toroitich (a former rally driver, died 2019) and Philip Moi (a retired army officer). His older and only brother William Tuitoek died in 1995. He was a lifelong member of the Africa Inland Mission Church, following his enrollment at the church's school with fellow acquaintance Sammy C. and Philip M. in 1934.
Moi was the founder and patron of major schools in Kenya which include Moi Educational Centre, Kabarak High School, Kabarak University and Sunshine Secondary Schools, and Sacho Primary and Secondary, among others.
== Death ==
In October 2019, retired president Moi was hospitalized under critical condition at The Nairobi Hospital due to complications of pleural effusion. He was discharged in November 2019, only to be hospitalized again days later for knee surgery. He developed respiratory complications and underwent a tracheotomy. A month later, he suffered from gastrointestinal hemorrhage which led to multiple organ failure, and was placed on life-support.
Moi died at The Nairobi Hospital in the early morning of 4 February 2020, at the age of 95; however, during Moi's memorial service on 9 February 2020 at his Kabarnet Gardens home in Nairobi, his son Raymond, told congregants that he was 105 years old at the time of his death. Moi's body was lain at parliament building for public view for three days, from 8 February to 10 February 2020. A state funeral service was conducted at Nyayo Stadium on 11 February 2020, before the burial in his Kabarak home in Nakuru county. He was buried at his Kabarak home on 12 February 2020, complete with military honors which included a 19-gun salute followed by a missing man formation flyby. His grave is next to his former wife, Lena Bomett Moi, on the grounds of his home and farm in Kabarak.
== Legacy ==
=== Eponyms ===
Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital
Moi Air Base, Nairobi
Moi International Airport, Mombasa
Moi International Sports Centre, Kasarani, Nairobi
Moi Stadium, Kisumu.
Moi Stadium, Embu
Moi University, Eldoret
Roads and streets:
Moi Avenue (Mombasa)
Moi Avenue (Nairobi)
A number of institutions of learning
Moi Girls High School, Eldoret among others
== See also ==
Politics of Kenya
Presidency of Daniel arap Moi
== References ==
== External links ==
Moi Africa Institute
Presentation to the National Summit on Africa, Washington, DC (USA) – February 2000 (an AFRICAN CONNECTIONS documentary) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Brighton_Pier,_Christchurch | New Brighton Pier, Christchurch | There have been two New Brighton Piers in the Christchurch, New Zealand, suburb of New Brighton. The first pier, of wooden construction, opened on 18 January 1894 and was demolished on 12 October 1965. The current concrete pier was opened on 1 November 1997. It is one of the icons of Christchurch.
== First pier ==
The first pier was built from timber. Construction began in 1891 and it was officially opened by the Governor of New Zealand, the Lord Glasgow, on 18 January 1894. Other dignitaries who attended the opening included the Mayor of Christchurch (Walter Cooper), the Mayor of Linwood (J. R. Brunt), and two members of the House of Representatives (George John Smith and William Whitehouse Collins). It started raining just as the opening ceremony finished, and planned fireworks were postponed. The pier had been built to a length of 700 feet (210 m). There were plans to build an octagonal end to the pier including a large building, but this was never carried out. Over time, the pier decayed. The city council ordered the pier to be demolished, and this was done during just four and a half hours in the early morning of 12 October 1965 on a receding tide.
== Second pier ==
For 30 years, the New Brighton community rallied for another pier to be built. The Pier and Foreshore Society had campaigned to save the original pier, and the group continued lobbying for a new pier. When NZ$2m had been raised, this was matched by funding from Christchurch City Council and a new pier was designed using reinforced concrete. The new pier was built in exactly the same location, and was officially opened on 1 November 1997. It spans 300 metres (980 ft), which makes it the longest ocean pier in Australasia. The New Brighton Pier is held as the icon of New Brighton and later the icon of Christchurch after the 22 February 2011 earthquake that significantly damaged Christchurch's Cathedral. The pier is one of Christchurch's tourist attractions. Currently the New Brighton Pier is the venue of a number of events, such as regular skate on the Pier events and the annual Guy Fawkes fireworks display held on 5 November every year. The pier sustained some damage in the various earthquakes, which was exacerbated in the 2016 Christchurch earthquake. Repairs started in February 2017, took 16 months, and cost NZ$8.5m. New Brighton pier reopened again in May 2018.
== References ==
== External links ==
Christchurch City Libraries: Photographs of New Brighton pier construction |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_(TV_series) | Physical (TV series) | Physical is an American comedy-drama television series created by Annie Weisman. The series premiered on Apple TV+ on June 18, 2021. In August 2021, the series was renewed for a second season ahead of its first season finale, which premiered in June 2022. In August 2022, the series was renewed for a third season. The third and final season premiered in August 2023.
== Premise ==
Set in 1980s San Diego, Physical is a dark comedy following Sheila Rubin (Rose Byrne) through her journey of self-discovery via aerobics.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Rose Byrne as Sheila D. Rubin, a housewife struggling between her straining marriage, lifelong battle with bulimia, and newfound obsession with aerobics
Rory Scovel as Danny Rubin, Sheila's eco-conscious and liberal husband
Paul Sparks as John Breem, a conservative Mormon mall owner who begins an affair with Sheila
Della Saba as Bunny Kazam, an aerobics instructor and Tyler's girlfriend (seasons 1-2; guest season 3)
Lou Taylor Pucci as Tyler, a surfer and Bunny's boyfriend (seasons 1-2; guest season 3)
Dierdre Friel as Greta Hauser, a housewife who becomes Sheila's best friend and business partner
Geoffrey Arend as Jerry Goldman, an old friend of Sheila and Danny who becomes Danny's campaign manager (season 1; guest seasons 2 & 3)
Ashley Liao as Simone (season 1)
Zooey Deschanel as Kelly Kilmartin, a sitcom star and aerobics instructor who also acts as a manifestation of Sheila's mental illness (season 3)
=== Recurring ===
Ian Gomez as Ernie Hauser, a tech pioneer and Greta's husband
Erin Pineda as Maria Breem, John's wife
Grace Kelly Quigley as Maya Rubin, Sheila and Danny's daughter
Al Madrigal as Jack Logan, a friend of Danny and Sheila's and Tanya's husband (season 1)
Mary Holland as Tanya Logan, a friend of Danny and Sheila's and Jack's wife (season 1; guest season 2)
Wallace Langham as Auggie Cartwright (season 2; guest season 1)
Murray Bartlett as Vinnie Green, an aerobics instructor (season 2)
Anna Gunn as Marika Green, Vinnie’s wife (season 2; guest season 3)
Tawny Newsome as Wanda (season 2)
Donny Divanian as Kevin Cartwright, Auggie’s son (season 2)
Emjay Anthony as Zeke Breem, John and Maria's son (season 2-3; portrayed by Ian Ousley in season 1)
Jillian Armenante as Harriet, an ally Sheila meets in rehab (season 3; guest season 2)
Paloma Esparza Rabinov as Fidelia, Sheila’s assistant (season 3; guest season 2)
Casey Wilson as Deb, Danny's sister (season 3)
José Zúñiga as Carlos, a restaurateur who grows close to Sheila (season 3)
== Episodes ==
=== Series overview ===
=== Season 1 (2021) ===
=== Season 2 (2022) ===
=== Season 3 (2023) ===
== Production ==
=== Development ===
In January 2020, it was reported that Apple was nearing a series order for Physical, created and written by Annie Weisman, with Tomorrow Studios set to produce. In December 2020, Craig Gillespie, Liza Johnson, and Stephanie Laing were announced as directors for the series, with Gillespie set to direct the pilot episode. The series is a half-hour long and consists of ten episodes.
On August 4, 2021, Apple TV+ renewed the series for a second season. On August 11, 2022, Apple TV+ renewed the series for a third season.
=== Casting ===
In January 2020, Rose Byrne was reported as headlining Physical. In December 2020, it was announced that Byrne was playing the role of Sheila Rubin, with Paul Sparks, Rory Scovel, Lou Taylor Pucci, Della Saba, Dierdre Friel, and Ashley Liao joining the cast. Geoffrey Arend joined the cast in January 2021, with Ian Gomez joining in April 2021. In October 2022, Zooey Deschanel joined the cast for the third season.
=== Filming ===
Filming for the first season began in November 2020 and ended in March 2021. The second season began filming in November 2021 and ended in March 2022.
== Release ==
The series premiered on June 18, 2021, on Apple TV + globally with the first three episodes available immediately and the rest debuting on a weekly basis, every Friday. The second season premiered on June 3, 2022. The third and final season was released on August 2, 2023.
== Reception ==
On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds an approval rating of 65% based on 51 critic reviews, with an average rating of 6.40/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Not even a magnetic performance from Rose Byrne can save Physical from its exhausting parade of unpleasant characters and plot choices."
However German magazine Spiegel praised the show for maintaining its satirical take on shallow consumerism beyond the initial episodes, noting that it "thankfully doesn't develop into the edifying but mendacious self-empowerment drama that convention would demand, and some critics apparently expected," and suggested that this may have been the reason for the poor ratings from American reviewers.
The second season has an approval rating of 92% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 11 critic reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Rose Byrne's blood, sweat, and tears are finally given a worthy bedrock as Physical finds its gyrating groove in this much-improved sophomore season."
The third and final season has an approval rating of 93% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 critic reviews. The website's critics consensus reads: "Physical packs it in with a final season that, much like a good workout, is bracing but pays off with a satisfying endorphin rush."
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Physical at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Kreisky#:~:text=In%201951%2C%20he%20returned%20to,of%20Staff%20and%20political%20adviser. | Bruno Kreisky | Bruno Kreisky (German: [ˈbʁuːno ˈkʁaɪ̯ski]; 22 January 1911 – 29 July 1990) was an Austrian social democratic politician who served as foreign minister from 1959 to 1966 and as chancellor from 1970 to 1983. Aged 72, he was the oldest chancellor after World War II.
Kreisky's 13-year tenure was the longest of any chancellor in republican Austria and, as an influential political figure in Western European social democracy, he worked closely with like-minded leaders Willy Brandt of West Germany and Olof Palme of Sweden in the Socialist International.
== Life and political career ==
Kreisky was born in Margareten, a district of Vienna, to a non-observant Jewish family. His parents were Max (Markus) Kreisky (1876, Klattau – 1944) and Irene Kreisky née Felix (1884, Třebíč – 1969). His father worked as a textile manufacturer. Shocked by the level of poverty and violence in Austria during the 1920s, he joined the youth wing of the Socialist Party of Austria (SPÖ) in 1925 at age 15. In 1927, he joined the Young Socialist Workers against the wishes of his parents. In 1929, he began studying law at the University of Vienna at the advice of Otto Bauer, who urged him to study law rather than medicine, as he had originally planned. He remained politically active during this period. In 1931, he left the Jewish religious community, becoming agnostic. In 1934, when the Socialist Party was banned by the Dollfuss dictatorship, he became active in underground political work. He was arrested in January 1935 and convicted of high treason, but was released in June 1936. In March 1938, the Austrian state was incorporated into Germany through the Anschluss, and in September, Kreisky escaped the Nazi persecution of Austrian Jews and the coming Holocaust by emigrating to Sweden, where he remained until 1945. On 23 April 1942, he married Vera Fürth (30 December 1916 – 5 December 1988) and had one son and one daughter.
He returned to Austria in May 1946, but he was soon back in Stockholm, assigned to the Austrian legation. In 1951, he returned to Vienna, where Federal President Theodor Körner appointed him Assistant Chief of Staff and political adviser. In 1953, he was appointed Undersecretary in the Foreign Affairs Department of the Austrian Chancellery, and in this position he took part in negotiating the 1955 Austrian State Treaty, which ended the four-power occupation of Austria and restored Austria's independence and neutrality.
Kreisky was elected to the Austrian parliament, the Nationalrat, as a Socialist during the 1956 election. He was elected to the Party Executive along with Bruno Pittermann, Felix Slavik, and Franz Olah, and thus became a member of the central leadership body of the party. After the 1959 election, he became foreign minister in the coalition cabinet of Chancellor Julius Raab (ÖVP), a post he continued to hold under Raab's successors Alfons Gorbach (1961–1964) and Josef Klaus (1964–1966). He played a leading role in setting up the European Free Trade Association, helped solve the South Tyrol question with Italy, and proposed a "Marshall Plan" for the countries of the Third World.
In 1966, the ÖVP under Klaus won an absolute majority in the Nationalrat. Klaus had enough parliamentary support to govern alone; indeed, during the campaign, he had called for an end to the grand coalition that had governed Austria since 1945. Memories of the hyperpartisanship that characterised the First Republic were still strong, so he approached Kreisky with new coalition terms. While Kreisky and the other Socialist leadership supported retaining the coalition, the rank and file balked at the proposed terms, and talks broke down. Kreisky resigned from the cabinet, and the ÖVP formed the first one-party government of the Second Republic. The Socialists retained some power and were informally consulted on all major decisions. In February 1967, Kreisky was elected chairman of the Socialist Party. At the March 1970 elections, the Socialists won 81 seats, two short of a majority. Kreisky became the first Socialist Chancellor since 1920, heading the first purely left-wing government in modern Austrian history. He was also Austria's first Jewish chancellor. Kreisky's government was tolerated by the then national-liberal Freedom Party in return for electoral reforms that expanded the Nationalrat and increased the proportionality of votes. Following the passage of these reforms, he called fresh elections in October 1971. Although the reforms were intended to benefit smaller parties, the Socialists won a strong majority government with 93 seats. They also won half the popular vote, something no Austrian party had ever achieved in a free election. Kreisky was reelected in 1975 and 1979 elections, each time winning comfortable majorities in the Nationalrat.
Kreisky turned 70 in 1981, and by this time the voters had become increasingly uncomfortable with what they saw as his complacency and preoccupation with international issues. At the 1983 election, the Socialists lost their absolute majority in the Nationalrat. Kreisky declined to form a minority government and resigned, nominating Fred Sinowatz, his Minister of Education, as his successor. His health was declining, and in 1984, he had an emergency kidney transplant. During his final years, he occasionally made bitter remarks directed at his party, which had made him their honorary chairman. He died in Vienna in July 1990.
== Political views and programs ==
In office, Kreisky and his close ally, Justice Minister Christian Broda, pursued a policy of liberal reform in a country which had a tradition of conservative Roman Catholicism. He reformed Austria's family law and its prisons, and he decriminalized abortion and homosexuality. Nevertheless, he sought to bridge the gap between the Catholic Church and the Austrian Socialist movement and found a willing collaborator in the then Cardinal Archbishop of Vienna, Franz König. Kreisky promised to reduce the mandatory military service from nine to six months. After his election, military service was reduced to eight months (if performed in one stretch, or six months plus eight weeks if broken into two segments).
During Kreisky's premiership, a wide range of progressive reforms was carried out. Amongst other reforms, employee benefits were expanded, the workweek was cut to 40 hours, and legislation providing for equality for women was passed. Kreisky's government established language rights for the country's Slovene and Croatian minorities. Following the 1974 oil shock, Kreisky committed Austria to developing nuclear power to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, although this policy was eventually abandoned after a referendum held in 1978. A moderate reform of the penal code was carried out, discrimination against illegitimate children was eliminated, marriage grants were introduced, a mother-child pass (a prenatal/post-natal care and infant health program) was established, a major reform of the penal code was carried out, and sex equality legislation was passed. In addition, four weeks of annual vacation were introduced, the office of ombudsman was established, the law of parentage was reordered, consumer protection legislation was passed, and social security coverage of the self-employed was introduced. In 1979, restrictions on redundancy and the dismissal of employees were made.
Widows' pensions were indexed in 1970, and in 1972, free medical checks for healthy people were made available, while optional health insurance for students was introduced. Periods of study, illness, and unemployment were allowed pensionable status, and in 1974 family and birth benefits were indexed. The 1973 Special Subsidies Act introduced subsidies for those made redundant as a result of structural changes. The Wage Continuation Act of 1974 introduced wage continuation for workers in private enterprises in cases of sickness. In 1976, accident insurance was extended to work-related activities. The Night-shift/Heavy Manual Work Act of 1981 introduced preventive healthcare and a special early retirement pension for heavy manual workers.
Full sick pay was extended to blue-collar unions in 1974, and family benefits were expanded to include full school transport (1971), a marriage payment (1972), payment for school books (1974), and a birth payment (1976). In 1978, due to a change from tax allowances to direct payments for children, family benefits increased significantly. Between 1973 and 1980, expenditure on health and education rose on average by 13.7% and by 12.9% per annum, respectively. In education, pupil/teacher ratios fell sharply and a new university law was passed in 1975 in order to make higher education more democratic. The educational sector was significantly expanded under Kreisky, greatly increasing the numbers of Austrians receiving a university education.
The 1972 Crime Victims Act established the principles of compensation for health damages caused (directly or indirectly) by crimes punishable by more than 6 months' imprisonment. The 1974 Town Renovation Act dealt with the renovation of residential town areas, while the 1975 Housing Property Act established the property rights of house- and flat-owners. In 1975, housing supplements were extended to cover the costs of housing improvements. In 1974, the work prohibition periods before and after work birth were extended up to 8 weeks, and in 1976, the regulations were extended to adoptive mothers. A 1981 law adapted pension schemes to changes in the families' load equalisation scheme, and introduced a widowers' pension equivalent to the widows' pension. In 1976, accident insurance for pupils and students was introduced, while an act passed that same year enabled people to undertake the care of close relatives who were ill. Under the Bankruptcy Wage Continuation Act of 1979, claims against bankrupt firms were paid from a special fund. In 1982, a maternity allowance payable for 16 weeks was introduced for self-employed women.
Although the 1955 State Treaty prevented Austria from joining the European Union, he supported European integration.
Kreisky questioned Zionism as a solution to the problems faced by the Jewish people, claiming that Jews were not an ethnic group or race, but rather a religious group. He even equated claims of the existence of the Jewish people as a distinctive nationality to Nazi claims of a Jewish race, and suggested that such ideas raised questions about Jewish dual loyalty. Kreisky referred to Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin as a terrorist, and had a stormy relationship with Israeli prime minister Golda Meir, especially during the 1973 hostage taking. He once said that he was "the only politician in Europe Golda Meir can't blackmail." He cultivated friendly relations with Arab leaders such as Anwar Sadat and Muammar Gaddafi, and in 1980, Austria established relations with the Palestine Liberation Organisation.
Kreisky was notable for his allegedly apologetic approach to former Nazi party members and contemporary far-right Austrian politicians. For example, Kreisky described far-right populist Jörg Haider as "a political talent worth watching". In 1967, neo-Nazi Austrian leader Norbert Burger declared that he had no objections to Kreisky despite his Jewish background, claiming that he was simply a "German" and neither a religious Jew nor a Zionist. Kreisky felt that he had never personally suffered as a Jew, but only as a socialist. Following his election in 1970, Kreisky wanted to demonstrate that he was indeed "Chancellor of all Austrians", and appointed four politicians with Nazi backgrounds to his cabinet. When Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal reported that these four members of Kreisky's cabinet were former Nazis, Kreisky did not remove them from the government, though one did resign. They were former SS-Untersturmführer Hans Öllinger, who took part in flamethrower commandos, "fire brigades" that killed survivors after storming villages; Otto Rösch was a teacher at the NPEA/Napola Traiskirchen, an elite NSDAP school for the training of future National Socialist leaders; and
Erwin Frühbauer and Josef Moser, Nazi Party members. Kreisky responded that everybody had the right to make political mistakes in their youth. This incident marked the beginning of a bitter conflict, which did not end until Kreisky died. At a party conference, his secretary Leopold Gratz claimed that Wiesenthal was operating a "secret police and surveillance centre" and was in no way allowed to defame democratically elected politicians. Kreisky later on said that Wiesenthal "makes a living telling the world that Austria is anti-Semitic. What else can he do?"; he went on to call Wiesenthal a former Gestapo agent, based on Czechoslovak intelligence papers which turned out to be fakes, and wanted a parliamentary investigation of Wiesenthal's Jewish Documentary Center in Vienna. He claimed that Wiesenthal was employing mafia methods.
In 1986, Wiesenthal filed a libel lawsuit (although Kreisky had the power to declare immunity if he so chose), and when Kreisky later accused Wiesenthal of being an agent of the Gestapo, working with the Judenrat in Lvov, these accusations were incorporated into the lawsuit as well.Three years later the court found Kreisky guilty of defamation and sentenced him to pay a [suspended] substantial fine. of 270,000 schillings for defamation. The suit was decided in Wiesenthal's favour in 1989, but after Kreisky's death nine months later, his heirs refused to pay. Wiesenthal later commented: "Kreisky lost, and instead of paying the fine, he died." When the relevant archives were later opened for research, no evidence was found that Wiesenthal had been a collaborator. In 1975, Kreisky proposed that his Social Democratic Party should form a coalition with the Freedom Party, headed by Friedrich Peter. SS-Obersturmführer Friedrich Peter served in the 1st SS Infantry Brigade was attached to Einsatzgruppe C. Postwar Chairman of the Freedom Party [died 25 September 2005]; Kreisky supported Peter and said that Wiesenthal was a "crypto-racist" who himself was responsible for antisemitism in Austria.
In 1976, the Bruno Kreisky Foundation for Outstanding Achievements in the Area of Human Rights was founded to mark Kreisky's 65th birthday. Every two years, the Bruno Kreisky Human Rights Prize is awarded to an international figure who has advanced the cause of human rights.
Later in his life, Kreisky tried to help some Soviet dissidents. In particular, in 1983, he sent a letter to the Soviet premier Yuri Andropov demanding the release of dissident Yuri Orlov, but Andropov left Kreisky's letter unanswered.
== Legacy ==
Today, Kreisky's chancellorship is the subject of both controversy and nostalgia. Many of his former supporters see in Kreisky the last socialist of the old school and look back admiringly at an era when the standard of living was noticeably rising, when the welfare state was in full swing and when, by means of a state-funded programme promoting equality of opportunity, working class children were encouraged to stay on at school and eventually receive higher education. All this resulted in a decade of prosperity and optimism about the future.
Conservatives criticise Kreisky's policy of deficit spending, expressed in his famous comment during the 1979 election campaign that he preferred that the state run up high debts rather than see people become unemployed. They hold Kreisky responsible for Austria's subsequent economic difficulties.
Despite this criticism, Kreisky did much to transform Austria during his time in office, with considerable improvements in working conditions, a dramatic rise in the average standard of living, and a significant expansion of the welfare state, and arguably remains the most successful socialist Chancellor of Austria.
== See also ==
Chancellor of Austria for a complete list of Federal Chancellors since the founding of the Republic in 1918
Kreisky-Peter-Wiesenthal affair
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bischof, Günter, and Anton Pelinka, eds. The Kreisky Era in Austria (Transaction Publishers, 1994).
Kreisky, Bruno, et al. The Struggle for a Democratic Austria: Bruno Kreisky on Peace and Social Justice (Berghahn Books, 2000).
Secher, H. Pierre. Bruno Kreisky, Chancellor of Austria: A Political Biography (Dorrance Publ., 1993).
Vivekanandan, Bhagavathi. Global Visions of Olof Palme, Bruno Kreisky and Willy Brandt: International Peace and Security, Co-operation, and Development (Springer, 2016).
Wilsford, David, ed. Political Leaders of Contemporary Western Europe: A Biographical Dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp. 259–65
== External links ==
The Bruno Kreisky Foundation
Kreisky's dicta(in German)
The Kreisky Years
100 Years Bruno Kreisky For the 100'th Birthday of Bruno Kreisky – Overview about his political work |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Rosa_de_Osos | Santa Rosa de Osos | Santa Rosa de Osos is a middle city and municipality of Colombia located in the northern of the department of Antioquia. Bounded on the north with the municipalities of Yarumal and Angostura, on the east with Guadalupe and Carolina del Principe, on the south with the municipalities of Donmatías, San Pedro de los Milagros and Entrerríos, and on the west with Belmira and San José de la Montaña.
== History ==
=== Summary of the history of Santa Rosa de Osos ===
Before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors, Indians Nutabes inhabiting the territory of Santa Rosa de Osos' , were fighters and agile. Working tissue cotton and exploited the gold. They had patriarchal social organization and believed in life after death, hence buried their dead with utensils, jewelry, food and clothing.
The northern region of Antioquia where today this municipality is located is a valley that in 1541, discovered the captain Spanish 'conquistador' Francisco Vallejo. The captain called it "Valley of the Bears" because there were there many of these animals. And by 1600 explorers and colonists found gold metal abundance in the region.
They came by the hundreds, led by another captain, Antonio Serrano y Espejo, whom he corresponded decree the foundation of a settlement on the site, in 1636, which was approved by His Majesty the King Philip IV of Spain.
In 1659 district stands in parish, from the bishop of Popayan Bishop Jacinto Vasco de Contreras y Velarde and changes the name to 'San Jacinto de los Osos' .
In 1792 was renamed 'Villa de Nuestra Señora de Chiquinquirá de los Osos' . In 1811 he acquired the name it has today, Santa Rosa de Osos' . The district was built as a municipality in 1814 ordered by the dictator Juan del Corral.
In 1917 the Diocese of Santa Rosa de Osos by order of Pope Benedicto XV was established, and investment by Yarce Betancur family, one of the most powerful families in those days and founders of one of the santarosan´s schools.
By 1924 was appointed the Bishop Miguel Angel Builes Gomez (missionary bishop of Colombia), who led their destinations for over forty years and founded four religious communities of great importance to the diocese and to the Colombian Catholic Church (the Sisters Teresitas Comtemplativas, Teresitas Missionary Sisters, the Daughters of Our Lady of Mercy and the Xaverian Yarumal) Missionaries.
Currently, runs the destinies of the diocese the Bishop Jorge Alberto Ossa Soto.
Perhaps that is why this district acquired the nickname The City Religious' . Its history is full of events and characters that defined their Catholic vocation and, therefore, many of its attractions are related to religious tourism: the Cathedral, chapels and monuments that show the fervor that has characterized the santarosan people.
Santa Rosa is a great producer of milk and water for the metropolitan area of Aburrá Valley, which has enabled the construction of reservoirs as the Lakes Riogrande I and II .
=== Discovery and colonization of Valle De Los Osos ===
Marshal Jorge Robledo arrived in nearby Anzá in September 1541, from this place he sent several commissions, including one led by Captain Francisco Vallejo. This came with 40 men heading for the "Llanos de Ovejas" (Current district of San Pedro de los Milagros), the same San Pedro and Entrerríos. Then, later that same year he discovered a very cold temperature valley which he called "" Bear´s Valley "" by many who found.
This valley was inhabited by indigenous Nutabes that forced to Vallejo to leave the industry because of the hostilities shown by the native people. How these Indians did not appear to abundant wealth, "the Bear´s Valley" not made interesting for the ambitious Spanish conquerors; they left in oblivion this place for nearly a century.
The apparent poverty of the inhabitants, the Spaniards led to believe that the earth lacked precious minerals and the territory remained "virgin" and state neglect for a long time; although Don Andres De Valdivia and Don Gaspar De Rodas visit in the mid-sixteenth century the Valley of the Bears in the office of governor of the city of Santa Fe de Antioquia; territory to which it belonged at the time.
The first colonizations occurred at the hands of Pedro Gutierrez Colmenero (first mayor of the town of Medellin (1675)) and Don Antonio De Mesa, both natives of Jerez with Juan Nuño De Sotomayor discovered in 1645 the minerals of the valley and began operating in the streams: San Juan, La Trinidad, Orobajo, San Jose, San Antonio, Santa Ana and San Lorenzo. How also in the Guadalupe River and Los Martires stream.
While Gutierrez Colmenero toiled these mines, Fernando Toro Zapata, captain and official judge of the royal house of the city of Santa Fe de Antioquia, came to work the mines of the Caruquia stream.
=== The Rancheria ===
The first village was located south of the current city, on the site now occupied by the Arenales neighborhood, which was called to the eighteenth century La Rancheria; the ore of this place was owned by Captain Ignacio Velez De Rivero, like the chapel that existed there in 1740; where the Catholic tradition that the city would have evoked.
The rich mineral deposits that were found near the Bramadora, San Juan and San Antonio streams, just at the precise moment when the city of Antioquia gold was running out; attracted a lot of people from this and . Cáceres estimated that there were over 700 black people dedicated exclusively to tilling mining and more than 500 Spaniards or children of Spaniards in 1650, which in its most, were wealthy gentlemen and distinguished at the time.
'Destruction of the topography of the urban center of the current Santa Rosa:' In the early years of this settlement gold extraction was done with relative ease on the banks of streams and rivers, always they are characterized by having a calm path; however difficult tilling went slowly when there was need to undertake work on sections of the flow points where it was necessary to conduct the streams in canoes, through the trees or poles anchored to the floor. But often there were points where the waters could not climb, finding far apart or higher than the level thereof; this work forced to the people to carry on their backs the material to be transformed into the precious metal, where in rainy seasons had to fill large reservoirs of water to be used in the ore beneficiation process. Given the "technological" low knowledge of the time large tracts of land were excavated pits between 10 and 30 meters deep, depending on where it was located the mine site. How many times the material should be taken to other places for washing, gradually the land was changed as it progressed mining, to the point that nowadays huge scars within the city limits of the city are.
These processes were improved by then hearer Mon and Velarde who established laws for mining processes, accompanied by Monsieur Laneret or Moneret that the late seventeenth century began riding mills, a much more modern technology for the time.
=== Party of San Jacinto de los Osos ===
In the early eighteenth century began a large immigration from Medellin and Rionegro, the population increased so that by 1770 the name was changed to San Jacinto of the Bears. The first priest was Juan Bautista Dávila Knight, but on previously had lived in the village of Toro Jacinto, who came with Pedro Martin de Mora and Fray Pedro Simon; who wrote a story about the mines.
San Jacinto was so widening the eighteenth century there were five chapels outside the parish, among which stands out the Tierradentro. The parish chapel was dedicated in honor of Our Lady of Guadalupe. It was built to commemorate a miracle happened to the person of Pedro Bustamante, Spanish adventurer, who finding himself alone and harassed by the natives, he asked for help to the Virgin of Guadalupe, and come Juan Torres to his aid. However this native mauled Juan and Pedro escaped prodigiously appearing to his soldiers when they celebrated their funeral. The story brings what Dr. Julio Cesar Garcia as happened on the banks of Rio Grande, and this miracle that may give the name to Guadalupe River, although there is no hard historical facts that so affirm.
The village cemetery was located where today the Simon Bolivar Park, the main square of the town. For its construction helped Don Pedro Rodriguez de Zea in 1775, who was then serving as governor Site of Los Osos and who gave permission for the foundation of the current municipalities of Yarumal, Don Matías and Carolina del Principe.
The customs of San Jacinto de los Osos were varied; the main celebrations were held in honor of the patron saint, Our Lady of Guadalupe and Our Lady of Chiquinquirá later. The arrival of the bishop of Popayán, the marriage of a rich or the coronation of a Spanish monarch was cause for celebration.
==== The Sombrerón ====
One of the hidden stories of the past of Santa Rosa de Osos, is the great discrimination that existed towards the colored races. Although Antioquia was characterized as one of the first areas where freedom was given to the slaves, it did not happen in the valley where today the municipality sits, in it all kinds of inhuman treatment were given to the community black by the Spaniards. Within this macabre piece of history, known for its cruelty the marriage of Don Juan Jose Salazar and María del Pardo, who had for pleasure favorite whipping the backs of their slaves and load them with chains. Their acts of cruelty also extended to animals, it is said that flayed the cows to apply salt and then put to death cattle in the midst of the most excruciating pain and howls.
Don Juan Jose Salazar who worked in La Trinidad mine, and the site currently occupied by the town of Gómez Plata, was characterized by wearing a huge hat, so he was nicknamed "The Sombrerón". At his death, all residents of the region agreed to apply eternal punishment and among in to simple people the belief that every night going through the town, after death, accompanied by his 2 large dogs. The belief became popular and later became a famous urban legend.
In Hoyorrico, santarosan district, it belongs to the historic mine and Chapel of La Trinidad, today remember this character in the name of one of its ancient streets.
=== Villa de Nuestra Señora del Rosario de Chiquinquirá de los Osos ===
In 1792 was governor of the province Francisco Baraya and La Campa, was erected in Villa, taking the name in English of Village of Our Lady of the Rosary of Chiquinquirá of the Bears, this fact corresponded to a new mining boom where characters recognized how Zulaibar, they replaced the old wealthy businessmen eighteenth century and established their forming a society of considerable economic and cultural wealth companies.
Much of these developments were brought about by a scientific growth of gold mining; Lode mines began to benefit from huge returns, how in Las Cruces and Las Animas streams.
Gold fell into a deep decline and this activity was quickly replaced by agriculture and livestock, creating better quality of life to its inhabitants, who were already living in an unhealthy environment caused by the exploitation of minerals.
This respite was given to the land of Santa Rosa de Osos it has generdo to become a green city, which has remained so for more than 100 consecutive years with huge economic returns that put the municipality as a pantry of food and water for considered the most prosperous country in the region in terms of quality of life.
== General ==
Foundation: On 18 August 1636
Erection in municipality, 1814
Founder: Spanish captain Antonio Serrano and Mirror
Names: Eternal City, Pearl of the North, home to artists and scholars, Athens Cultural de Antioquia, Horizons Unlimited City, Vatican of Antioquia.
Its name is due to the memory of Santa Rosa de Lima and spectacled bears that abounded in the region.
== Infrastructure and transportation ==
=== Public space and urban planning ===
The municipality has a good population projection, which has driven a large urban development in recent times, where they have built whole neighborhoods and demolished old houses for the construction of buildings, the urban perimeter every day is more extensive and is planning to develop residential projects with all services, however parallel to the large private development, there are problems with the development of roads and public space, as most of its streets, avenues and parks are in disrepair, due to increased traffic automotive and low maintenance are given, a fact that also occurs in their districts, which do not even have a well-defined main park. Part of monuments and public furniture (benches, lamps, wastebaskets, etc.) are also affected apart from state abandonment by the action of vandals and disrespectful people streaking and destroy elements of public space.
Among its parks we are:
Simon Bolivar Park.
Pedro Justo Berrío Park.
Marco Tobón Mejía-Lion Park.
San Antonio Park.
Cristo Rey.
El Portal.
=== Transport and communications ===
Santa Rosa de Osos has a transport terminal; where they operate offices of various carriers and social services; maintains routes of constant public service with all its districts and the vast majority of their villages, their terminal leave regularly daily in addition to public service routes to municipalities in the region how San Jose de la Montaña, Entrerríos, San Pedro de los Milagros, Don Matías and Carolina del Príncipe and communicates with the city of Medellín, departmental capital through various public service routes that depart and arrive every few minutes.
=== Sport ===
Within the sports infrastructure, the city has 3 coliseums covered: The CIC of El Alto De La Mina, the Minor and Antonio Roldan Betancur, the municipal court of synthetic grass, the athletic complex with its athletic track, bicicross track, tennis court, and multisport covered more than 10 plates spread between neighborhoods, districts and villages, plus another lot of the same but to open air across the city. In the district Riogrande, the neighborhood Alto De La Mina and St. Thomas Aquinas Seminary there are soccer fields with good specifications.
=== Hospitality and tourism ===
Santa Rosa also has an excellent hotel infrastructure with high capacity and wide range of amenities for everyone. It has several museums, monuments and historical buildings that stand between its many churches.
=== Health ===
For coverage of 36,063 inhabitants, the municipality has a hospital primary care and three health institutions (IPS) in its urban center.
SANTA ROSA PROSALCO.
MEDICAL CENTER SANTA ROSA DE OSOS LTDA.
CIMA HEADQUARTERS NORTH-San Juan de Dios Hospital.
IPS NORTH SAN MARCOS DE LEON S.A.S
=== Communications ===
Santa Rosa has various companies how UNE-EDATEL that provide fixed telephony services and internet almost the entire population, the cell phone has excellent coverage in the city and rural areas, where companies that dominate this service are Claro, Movistar and Tigo.
Within the municipality actively operate two local radio stations: "Radio Más" and "Radio Mi Tierra" that are responsible for local information sharing within the city perimeter.
There is also a company own television in Santa Rosa de Osos, called CAPSOS whose programming grid, currently has more than 60 channels in all genres and themes, with the purpose to give viewers the choice of a wide offer that recreate their need for information, education and entertainment.
The contribution of partners can continuously enter services performed on a monthly basis and is subject to regulations.
The second projection line is through the various processes of information and communication, reflected in its own channel CAPSOS TV, the medium in which the collective imagination of the impacted community are reflected, cultural idiosyncrasies reflected and audiovisual memory is created the work of the santarrosana history.
"Through the contents of the channel is to generate spaces where the community has a voice and with input from our environment, as an alternative response to other media, are builders of their own development from the large communal dimension."
The most important in rural areas in the television service company is DIRECTV
=== Public Services ===
Santa Rosa de Osos has electricity service in practically all the municipality, provided by EPM. It has a good system of public lighting as much of the department, with great coverage.
The urban center on the other hand has a modern network of domestic gas, provided by EPM.
The water and sewer service, is provided by the company Sustainable Water Supply and Sewerage S.A (AASSA); having a huge coverage of drinking water in the urban center, which has a modern water purification plant with good flow and uninterrupted service; thanks to its supply sources: The streams Chichi and Agua Mala (Tenche river source) falling by gravity from the Cerro San José; besides the stream Las Cruces feeding by pumping the water system generating an efficient aqueduct.
The sewage system has weaknesses, as some sectors do not have networks, providing their discharges directly to water sources, many places have community septic tanks; however urban streams have an unfortunate quality; highlighting the stream Agüitas Claras, passing northwest of the city and also has its birth in the same, between sectors of El Hoyo, the 33 and Villa Cruz. This stream has its natural source in the call stream Vinagrera and Caño El Hoyo, run by sectors of 33, El Hoyo, La Quinta, Boston, Tuberías, among others, and is the recipient of 55% of water waste of urban seat of Santa Rosa, without treatment, taking them with it to the Bramadora stream and this in turn the Grande river.
The remaining 45% goes to the basin of the Guadalupe River, where 12% falls to stream the Portal which flows into the stream San Jose in the south of the city without treatment and the other 33% directly down the Guadalupe River between Variant sectors, Barro Blanco, Los Chorros and El Turco.
Part of the water discharged to the Guadalupe River are conducted by a collector that leads to the plant wastewater treatment Turco, which operates under the acceptable levels of pollution required by the standard, but that still leaves visibly affected the river .
The districts and some rural villages each have their community service aqueduct, which is administered by the various community associations, basic sanitation is provided by the mayor, most septic tanks that meet quality standards.
Some farms make use of water concessions or craft deposits of the various streams for domestic consumption.
== Demography ==
The population was estimated to be 37,864 in 2020. In 2016, the total population was 36,103 people. The urban population comprised 19,012 people and 17,091 people were part of the rural population. In 2005, the literacy level was 91.3%.
=== Ethnography ===
According to the figures presented by DANE of the census 2005, the composition ethnographic of the municipality is:
Mestizos & whites (84,0%)
Afro-Colombians (16,0%)
== Political geography ==
The municipality owns 5 official districts, Aragon, Hoyorrico, San Pablo, Riogrande and San Isidro. For its part, the Town known as Caney is waiting for the update of the municipal PBOT that is currently developed and would legally give the title Of district.
The municipality has more than 72 rural Villages.
Communications: It is communicated by road with the municipalities of Yarumal, Angostura, Carolina, Donmatías, Entrerríos and San José de la Montaña.
Santa Rosa de Osos, is located mostly in the North highlands with an average height of 2550 meters above sea level, the areas that do not correspond to the high plateau are located on steep and deep slopes in the districts of San Pablo and San Isidro, where the height descends abruptly reaching hot and temperate thermal floors.
Its 812 square kilometers are divided into 805 square kilometers in rural area and 7 square kilometers in urban area.
The territorial extension of Santa Rosa de Osos is slightly superior to the nation of Kiribati and more than 400 times the surface of Monaco.
== Climate ==
== References ==
== External links ==
https://dsro.org
https://web.archive.org/web/20071210102549/http://catedralsantarosadeosos.org/ |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Rattler | Iron Rattler | Iron Rattler is a steel roller coaster located at Six Flags Fiesta Texas in San Antonio. The ride originally opened in 1992 as Rattler, the tallest wooden roller coaster in the world. It was converted to steel in 2013 by Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC), led by designer Alan Schilke, and reopened as Iron Rattler. RMC installed their patented I-Box track onto Rattler's existing wooden structure, increasing the drop height from 124 to 171 feet (38 to 52 m) and the maximum speed from 65 to 70 mph (105 to 113 km/h). A notable addition to its layout was a zero-g roll inversion, which was a first among hybrid coasters made of wood and steel.
The original wooden Rattler was constructed by the now-defunct and controversial Roller Coaster Corporation of America, featuring a height of 179 feet (55 m) and a drop of 166 feet (51 m). Rattler's first drop was heavily modified and reduced to 124 feet (38 m) by 1994. The transformation of the ride to Iron Rattler was well received, and it has frequently ranked in the top 50 among the world's best steel coasters in the annual Golden Ticket Awards publication from Amusement Today.
== History ==
=== Wooden coaster ===
The Rattler had been constructed by Roller Coaster Corporation of America. When the coaster debuted on March 14, 1992, it was the tallest and fastest wooden coaster in the world, with a height of 179 feet (55 m), a first drop of 166 feet (51 m), outdoing its then-rival, Mean Streak at Ohio's Cedar Point. Designer John Pierce stated that the original plans kept changing as park co-developers Gaylord Entertainment Company insisted on having the tallest wooden coaster in the world. It held this title until 1994, when the bottom valley of the first drop was raised by 42 feet changing the overall drop from 166 to 124 feet (51 to 38 m).
In late 2009, Six Flags Over Texas closed its Texas Giant wooden roller coaster for a $10 million renovation which took more than a year to complete. Idaho-based firm Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC) replaced the wooden track with a new steel I-Box track, retaining a wooden support structure. The refurbishment was ultimately a success with "resoundingly positive reviews from riders". The park's parent company, Six Flags, immediately began looking for other rides in its chain which would benefit from a similar overhaul.
=== Hybrid refurbishment ===
At the IAAPA 2011 Trade Show, Alan Schilke of RMC revealed that the company had two projects that it would be working on for 2013 openings – one of which was an I-Box conversion of a wooden roller coaster. It was later revealed by the Spokane Journal of Business that The Rattler would be completely refurbished in 2013 with new track and trains in a manner similar to that used by the company on the New Texas Giant at Six Flags Over Texas in 2011. Although Six Flags had not publicly confirmed its plans, the park announced that The Rattler would close on August 5, 2012. At the end of the operating day on August 5, 2012, park personnel and select enthusiasts took the final ride, after which, The Rattler, as a wood coaster, ceased operation.
Six Flags Fiesta Texas announced in August 2012 that the now-closed Rattler would be revamped into a steel-tracked coaster called Iron Rattler. The renovation would be performed by Rocky Mountain Construction and would feature the I-Box steel track on some of the original wooden coaster supports, Rattler-themed trains supplied by Gerstlauer, and a barrel roll. The new ride would open for the 2013 season.
The National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives announced on April 16, 2013, that the first rides of Iron Rattler, taking place on the evening of May 17, 2013, would be auctioned off with proceeds going to the museum. A soft-opening was held to the media on May 15, 2013. The grand opening of the Iron Rattler took place May 25, 2013. Following the deadly incident on the New Texas Giant on July 19, 2013, Six Flags Fiesta Texas temporarily closed Iron Rattler, pending investigation findings from its sister park, because the two rides share several similarities. In under a month, Iron Rattler reopened on August 14 with seat belts as another added restraint to the two trains.
== Characteristics ==
Iron Rattler is located in the Western-themed Crackaxle Canyon area of Fiesta Texas, sitting next to the Road Runner Express and The Gully Washer. It is Rocky Mountain Construction's second installation of I-Box track, and the first to feature a barrel roll inversion. Iron Rattler operates with two Rattler-themed trains manufactured by Gerstlauer. Each train is made up of six cars which seat riders in two rows of two. Riders are restrained through the use of a lap bar and a seat belt.
The table below compares the original Rattler, with the updated Iron Rattler ride. The original ride by the Roller Coaster Corporation of America was approximately 1,800 feet (550 m) longer due to a 900° helix atop the quarry walls. The refurbished ride by Rocky Mountain Construction features a steeper and longer first drop, thus achieving a faster speed.
== Ride experience ==
The ride begins by exiting out of the station and turning around under Road Runner Express. It ascends a 179-foot-tall (55 m) chain lift hill, before dropping 171 feet (52 m) at an angle of 81°. The track then ascends to the top of the quarry wall where it enters a 110° over-banked turn. A 95° over-banked turn leads to the left, back off the quarry wall. The ride then rises into the zero-g roll which sits atop the quarry wall. A camelback hill is followed by two more over-banked turns measuring 98° and 93°, respectively. The ride then drops back off the quarry wall and enters a tunnel near its base. The tunnel features fog and lighting effects. After exiting the tunnel, the train enters brake run and returns to the station.
== Reception ==
Iron Rattler has generally been well received. Keith Miller of Funworld Magazine described the ride as "wonderfully smooth" highlighting the slow cresting of the lift hill as an "enjoyable element". He concludes by stating "there's not one restful moment on this ride". Arthur Levine of About.com gave the ride 4.5 out of 5 stars. Levine applauded Six Flags for replacing a bad wooden roller coaster with "a wonderful, remarkably smooth, thoroughly fun and enjoyable ride". He also gives kudos to Rocky Mountain Construction who manufactured the I-Box track and redesigned the ride. Brenda Solis of KLQB described the ride as "the most intense, craziest roller coaster ever". She also compared the renovated ride to the original ride, stating "the old Rattler wasn't as scary or intense or fast as the new one".
Before Iron Rattler's debut year, Rattler was only ranked once in the Amusement Today's Golden Ticket Awards for the 2011 Top 50 Wooden Coasters ranked at 47 in the world, since the creation of the award in 1998. After the renovation in 2013, Iron Rattler was ranked highly by the voters. The ride was ranked the second-best new ride of 2013 with 19% of the vote. It also ranked at position 11 for the world's best steel roller coasters its debut year.
== Awards ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Iron Rattler at the Roller Coaster DataBase
Iron Rattler at Rocky Mountain Construction |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._S._Ramaiah_Medical_College | M. S. Ramaiah Medical College | Ramaiah Medical College (RMC), previously known as M. S. Ramaiah Medical College (MSRMC), is a tertiary health care center and a medical college situated in Bangalore, Karnataka. The Ramaiah Medical College (RMC) was established in 1979 by the Gokula Education Foundation and was founded by the Late Sri. M S Ramaiah. It is an autonomous institute and affiliated with the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Bengaluru.
The MS Ramaiah Medical College was founded by the Late Sri Mathikere Sampangi Ramaiah in 1979 and as a requisite for medical education, the M. S. Ramaiah Teaching Hospital was founded. With a vision of a multi-speciality centre, the M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Nephro–Urology, M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Oncology and M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Cardiology was set up; the founding of M. S. Ramaiah Medical Teaching Hospital was done in the year 1985. Ramaiah Medical College Hospital is the associated teaching health facility, and is known for its free health camps and awareness programmes.
The MS Ramaiah Medical College is now a part of the MSR Group of Institutions, and since 2022, has been affiliated to the new Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences.
== Rankings ==
RMC was ranked 26th among medical colleges in India in 2024 by India Today.
Ramaiah Medical College was ranked 46th by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2024.
== Campus & facilities ==
The campus occupies a spacious area of 65 acres and provides various facilities to students like:
Library
Hostel
Laboratories
Cafeteria
Sports Complex
Counselling Cell
Auditorium
Security facility including students tracking system
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Do_They_Call_Me_Mr._Happy%3F | Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? | Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? is the sixth full-length album by Vancouver punk rock group Nomeansno. Released in 1993, it is their second album recorded by the original two-piece lineup of brothers Rob and John Wright following Mama (1982), and first after the departure of longtime guitarist Andy Kerr. Here the band mostly replaced its hardcore punk sound with slower songs influenced by heavy metal and progressive rock. The album was well-received by critics and praised for its balance of heaviness and subtlety, showcasing the dynamics of the band in its original incarnation.
== Background and recording ==
Brothers Rob and John Wright formed Nomeansno in 1979 as a two-piece, first making home recordings and then rehearsing as a bass-and-drums duo. Their self-released 1982 debut album, Mama, features material written and performed in this incarnation. In 1983, guitarist Andy Kerr joined, and the band proceeded to sign to Alternative Tentacles records and issue four albums and several EPs. Kerr departed the band after touring late in 1991 and emigrated to the Netherlands. The Wright brothers then turned their focus towards The Hanson Brothers, their Ramones-influenced side project, while Rob also began working on solo material under the name Mr. Wrong.
In February 1993, the brothers began working on material for a sixth Nomeansno album. Rob Wright, the band's bass player, also played the guitar parts during the recording sessions. Demo tracks for the album were recorded at Dollhouse Studio. The final versions were recorded at Cecil English's Profile Sound Studios. The record was engineered by Brian Else, produced by Nomeansno, and mixed by Else, Nomeansno, and longtime roadie Craig Bougie. The band experimented in the studio; the final track, "Cats, Sex, and Nazis", features audio samples of Faith No More's "We Care a Lot", songs by The Residents and Deep Purple, and a previously released Nomeansno song, "I Am Wrong".
Three of the ten songs included on the final album were originally written during Kerr's tenure: "I Need You," "Cats, Sex, and Nazis," and "Happy Bridge." The former two of these songs had originally been recorded with Kerr as outtakes from the sessions for their previous album, 0 + 2 = 1, while the latter was initially recorded as a demo. The versions with Kerr were later released on the 0 + 2 = 1 ½ retrospective compilation. Of the seven other tracks on Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy?, four ("The Land of the Living," "The River," "Machine," and "Lullaby") were taken from the Mr. Wrong set and the remainder were new compositions. Four outtakes from these recording sessions were later issued on the compilation album Mr. Right & Mr. Wrong: One Down & Two to Go.
== Release ==
Alternative Tentacles issued the album in 1993 as a ten-track CD and seven-track LP. For the supporting tour, the Wright brothers expanded Nomeansno to include guitarist Tom Holliston and second drummer Ken Kempster, both members of the Hanson Brothers. Holliston would remain with the band until their 2016 breakup. He later called Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? his favorite Nomeansno record.
The album fell out of print when Nomeansno bought the rights to their back catalogue from Alternative Tentacles. Although they have reissued many of their records on their own Wrong Records imprint, Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? has not been reissued.
== Reception ==
Why Do They Call Me Mr. Happy? was well received by critics and became a fan favorite. Writing for The Guardian, critic John Doran called it "the high watermark of western civilization" in a 2016 retrospective review. AllMusic critic Ned Raggett praised the album for hitting "amazing rock epic heights" having "sheer lift and charge." Raggett furthermore praised the album's simultaneous power and subtlety and awarded the record 4.5 out of 5 stars. Writing for Rock Hard magazine, critic Jan Jaedike called the album a challenging listen due to its heaviness and repetition, but ultimately assessed it as rewarding. Jaedike gave the album 7.5 out of 10 stars.
== Track listing ==
All songs written by Nomeansno, except 5, 7, and 10 written by Nomeansno and Andy Kerr.
"The Land of the Living" – 5:09
"The River" – 6:19
"Machine" – 7:48
"Madness and Death" – 4:46
"Happy Bridge" – 1:23
"Kill Everyone Now" – 8:06
"I Need You" – 7:03
"Slowly Melting" – 6:46
"Lullaby" – 3:39
"Cats, Sex and Nazis" – 7:51
Note: the above track listing is that of the CD issue (1993, Alternative Tentacles). The LP issue (1993, Alternative Tentacles) includes tracks 1 through 6 and 10 only.
== Personnel ==
Nomeansno
John Wright (Mr. Right) – vocals, drums, keyboards, horns (track 10)
Rob Wright (Mr. Wrong) – vocals, bass, guitar
Additional musicians
Mark Critchley – horns (track 10)
Production and artwork
Craig Bougie – mixing
Brian (Who) Else – engineering, mixing
George Horn – mastering
Prod Nattrass – sequencing
John Yates – artwork
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emory_and_Henry_College | Emory and Henry College | Emory & Henry University (E&H or Emory) is a private university in Emory, Virginia, United States. The campus comprises 335 acres (1.36 km2) of Washington County, which is part of the Appalachian highlands of Southwest Virginia. Founded in 1836, Emory & Henry University is the oldest institution of higher learning in Southwest Virginia. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges but was placed on probation in June 2025 because of concerns about the institution's finances.
== History ==
Emory & Henry University is named after John Emory, a renowned Methodist bishop, and Patrick Henry, an American patriot and Virginia's first governor, though some research suggests the name honors Henry's sister Elizabeth Henry Campbell Russell, who lived in nearby Saltville and Chilhowie. The college was founded upon the principles of vital faith and civic engagement by Creed Fulton, a Methodist minister; Colonel William Byars; Tobias Smyth, a Methodist farmer; and Alexander Findlay, a Methodist businessman.
The foundation for Wiley Hall was laid on September 30, 1836. The board of trustees hired Charles Collins as the institution's first president (1838–1852), with classes beginning in the spring of 1838 with 60 students enrolled.
The college closed in April 1861 during the Civil War and was commandeered by the Confederate States of America in 1862, operating as a hospital until 1865. During this time, the campus saw battle during the Battle of Saltville. The hospital was the setting of Lieutenant Smith's murder on October 7, 1864, by Champ Ferguson. After the war ended, the college reopened.
=== Martha Washington College ===
The administrative operation of Martha Washington College, a Methodist-affiliated school for women located in Abingdon, Virginia, was merged with that of Emory & Henry College in 1918. At its November 1918 session held in Johnson City, Tennessee, the Holston Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, decided to merge Martha Washington College with Emory & Henry College; all of the property of Martha Washington, including its 8-acre Abingdon campus, would be transferred to Emory & Henry in exchange for Emory & Henry assuming the debts of Martha Washington and operating Martha Washington College as a "co-ordinate woman's college". This arrangement lasted for about a decade, until Martha Washington College completely closed in 1931.
=== World War II and beyond ===
During World War II, Emory & Henry was one of 131 US colleges and universities that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.
Emory and Henry College's name officially changed on August 1, 2024, to Emory and Henry University.
In June 2025, the university was placed on "Probation for Good Cause" status by its accreditor, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, after the accreditor's board found significant non-compliance with its standards for financial responsibility. Probation for Good Cause is the most serious sanction the accreditor can apply to a university short of revoking its accreditation.
== Campus ==
Located in the Virginia Highlands, the Emory & Henry central campus encompasses 168 acres (0.68 km2) and is surrounded by an additional 167 undeveloped acres in the village of Emory. The entire central campus is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the Virginia Landmarks Register.
=== Buildings ===
With many campus buildings dating from the mid-19th century, several major academic buildings are part of a historic district that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including Wiley Hall, which was built 1838 and was used as a Confederate hospital during the Civil War. In recent years, Emory & Henry has experienced a building boom, most notably with the construction of the James H. Brooks Field House, a major expansion of Byars Hall, and the construction of the Woodrow W. McGlothlin Center for the Arts.
Residence halls
Emory & Henry boasts modern and newly renovated campus housing. Among the residence halls are the newly built Elm and Hickory halls, which feature double occupancy rooms, each with its own bathroom. In the Emory "village" students enjoy Prillaman and Linden houses, modern residences that feature single and double occupancy rooms in a home-like setting. Other residence halls include Stuart Hall, Martha Washington Hall and Hillman Hall.
Academics
Academic buildings include McGlothlin-Street Hall which includes Emory & Henry's science programs as well as programs in education, political science, business and history. Historic Byars Hall was recently expanded to include classrooms, rehearsal spaces and office space for the Division of Visual and Performing Arts. The Hermesian and Calliopean rooms, which are home to the college's historic debate societies, have been restored to their early elegance. Students also attend classes on the main E&H campus in the Creed Fulton Observatory, Miller Hall and Wiley Hall.
Other buildings
Other campus buildings include Memorial Chapel, Kelly Library, the King Athletic Center, Brook Field House, Martin-Brock Student Center, Van Dyke, Emily Williams House, and Tobias-Smyth Cabin (a reconstructed log house which was home to one of the college's founders; now a museum and meeting place).
== Academics ==
Emory & Henry University's liberal arts academic program is based upon a required four-year core curriculum of history, literature, and culture. The college has more than 25 academic programs of study, offers more than 50 bachelor degrees, and offers master's degrees in education and community and organizational leadership. The college's programs in public policy and community service and international studies have been nationally recognized.
== Athletics ==
Emory and Henry University's sports teams, nicknamed the "Wasps," participate in NCAA Division II in the South Atlantic Conference (SAC). The college sponsors a wide range of athletic teams, including men's teams in football, soccer, basketball, baseball, cheer and dance, golf, equestrian, lacrosse, track and field, cross country, and tennis, as well as women's teams in cross country, volleyball, basketball, softball, soccer, cheer and dance, golf, rugby, equestrian, lacrosse, track and field, tennis, and swimming.
=== Mascot ===
The official Emory & Henry mascot is the Wasp. While there are many rumored origins of the nickname, the most commonly accepted story is that Emory & Henry was first called the Wasps after the football team played its first game in Neyland Stadium at the University of Tennessee. Despite the Volunteers from Tennessee being heavily favored, they only held a 6-0 lead at halftime, this is due to the defensive efforts of Emory & Henry. The local Knoxville newspapers described the college team as the "Wasps" because of the tenacious and swarming defense they displayed, akin to the persistence of wasps in protecting their nest. This description was inspired by the distinctive uniforms worn by the Emory & Henry players, which included blue-gold striped socks and jerseys adorned with blue-gold stripes on the chest and sleeves.
== Student activities ==
There are more than 70 student organizations active on Emory and Henry's campus. Community service projects are also a way that many students, especially Bonner Scholars, spend their free time. Often students mountain bike or hike on the numerous trails in nearby Damascus or Abingdon, or participate in rock climbing, kayaking or other outdoor sports. Sports such as football, basketball, soccer, baseball, and volleyball are offered as both intercollegiate and intramural sports.
=== Greek life ===
Emory and Henry allows both local and national social fraternities and sororities, but currently only one national organization exists on campus.
The currently recognized social sororities on campus are Alpha Beta Chi, Delta Omicron Pi, Delta Rho Delta, Kappa Phi Alpha, Pi Sigma Kappa, Sigma Upsilon Nu, and Zeta Phi.
The currently recognized local social fraternities on campus are Beta Lambda Zeta, C Phi C, Dom-I-Necher, Phi Gamma Phi, Phi Pi Alpha, Pi Delta Chi, Sigma Alpha Kappa, Sigma Iota, and Theta Chi Epsilon.
The national fraternity on campus is Kappa Sigma.
=== Student media ===
The Whitetopper student newspaper, established in 1921
EHC-TV, student produced television news program
WEHC-FM 90.7, the college's official radio station
== Traditions ==
Traditions at Emory and Henry University include:
Service Plunge – the college's annual "Service Plunge" is a tradition and a requirement of all incoming freshmen in which they perform community service for a day during the first month of school (usually a Saturday).
Running of the Bulls – The Running of the Bulls is a bi-annual event in which girls who are pledging a sorority are sent running out of the front door of Wiley-Jackson (MaWa) and are told to run towards the sorority which they intend to pledge. The event, although short, is often attended by much of the student population due to its humorous nature.
The Rock – Every athletic team that plays their games at Fred Selfe Stadium touches a giant rock taken from the late Fred Selfe's hometown. Coach Selfe was a long-time assistant coach for the Emory and Henry football team who died of cancer and whose saying "Trust in your teammates, trust in yourself" is painted in the football locker room. Touching the Rock is seen as not only a unifying gesture, but it is supposed to also be a "recognition of all those who wore the blue and gold before you."
The Duck Pond – Emory and Henry is known for having ducks year round at its duck pond. This is because the pond is naturally heated due to a spring (which can be seen in the corner closest to Wiley Hall in the foundations of the old well house).
== Rankings and recognition ==
In the 2024 edition of Best Colleges, Emory & Henry University has achieved a ranking of #21 among Regional Universities in the South.
Notably, Emory & Henry University received the Corporation for National and Community Service Presidential Award from President Obama in March 2010. This distinction marked a historic milestone as Emory & Henry became the first higher education institution in Virginia to receive this award for their contributions to national and community service.
== Notable alumni ==
=== Literature, television and arts ===
J. Fred Essary (1903) – journalist
Kermit Hunter (Re-1931) – playwright and English professor
Samuel W. Small (1871) – journalist, evangelist, prohibitionist
=== Education ===
Henry DeLamar Clayton – President of the University of Alabama from 1886 to 1889; Confederate general during Civil War
Joe L. Kincheloe (1972) – author on education, culture, and politics
=== Military ===
James Patton Brownlow – Brevet Brigadier General of the 1st Tennessee Volunteer Cavalry Regiment (Union) during the Civil War
Thomas T. Handy (enrolled 1908–1911) – Deputy Chief of Staff of the US Army in World War II; signed the orders to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima
Frank Rowlett (1929) – cryptologist who cracked the Japanese code during World War II
Robert G. Shaver – lawyer, Confederate States Army colonel, and Ku Klux Klan leader.
J.E.B. Stuart (enrolled 1848–1850) – US Army officer and later a Confederate general during the Civil War
=== Science, research, and medicine ===
John Young (1955) – Naval officer and NASA astronaut who was the ninth man to walk on the Moon
J.B. Wolfe – Academic Psychologist and Behavioral Scientist PhD; chair of the Department Of Psychology at the University of Mississippi for 30 years
=== Politics and government ===
Toni Atkins (1984) – First openly gay Speaker of the California State Assembly and President pro tempore of the California State Senate; former acting mayor of San Diego
Henry Bowen – elected to the Virginia House of Delegates from 1869 to 1873; served two terms in the US House of Representatives
B. B. Comer (1869) – Governor of Alabama from 1907 to 1911
John M. Fleming (1851) – Tennessee state legislator and newspaper editor
John Goode (1848) – Virginia Congressman, Solicitor General of the U.S.
Morgan Griffith (1980) – elected to the US House of Representatives in 2011 representing Virginia's 9th Congressional District; served in the Virginia House of Delegates from 1994 to 2011 and was elected House Majority Leader in the House of Delegates in 2000, becoming the first Republican in Virginia to hold that position.
Joseph P. Johnson (1952) – served in the Virginia House of Delegates from 1966 to 1970; and again from 1990 to 2014
George C. Peery (1894) – Governor of Virginia from 1934 to 1938
James Buchanan Richmond - Nineteenth-century politician and judge; member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1874 and 1875; elected to the 46th Congress (March 4, 1879-March 3, 1881) representing Virginia's 9th Congressional District; appointed county judge of Scott County 1886-1892; was delegate to the Virginia constitutional convention at Richmond in 1901 and 1902
Robert P. Shuler (1903) - evangelist and political figure whose attracted a large audience and drew controversy with his attacks on politicians and police officials
Thomas Slater Smith, Former Texas Attorney General and Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives
Harley Orrin Staggers (1931) – US Congressman from 1949 to 1981; represented West Virginia's 2nd Congressional District for 32 years
Henry Carter Stuart (1874) – Governor of Virginia from 1914 to 1918
=== Business ===
Harold Arthur Poling (1940s) – CEO and Chairman of the Ford Motor Company from 1990 to 1993
Richard Joshua Reynolds (enrolled 1868–1870) – founder of R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company
=== Sports and athletics ===
Larry Bales (1968) – former football and baseball college coach
Glenn Roberts (1930s) – credited as the originator of the modern-day jumpshot in basketball; All-American; scored over 2,000 career points
Sonny Wade (1969) – 1968 All-American quarterback; drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in 1969; later played for the Alouettes in the CFL; Grey Cup champion
Montie Weaver (1927) – pitched for the Washington Senators and the Boston Red Sox from 1931 to 1939
Mike Young (1986) – Division I college basketball Head Coach at Virginia Tech
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Athletics website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuPaul%27s_Drag_Race_season_1#:~:text=The%20winner%20of%20the%20first,the%20Logo%20Drag%20Race%20tour. | RuPaul's Drag Race season 1 | The first season of RuPaul's Drag Race premiered in the United States on February 2, 2009, on Logo, and ended on March 23 of the same year. Nine contestants were selected to compete in the running of becoming "America's Next Drag Superstar." The first season was filmed during the summer of 2008. The winner of the first season won a cash prize of $20,000, $5,000 worth of MAC Cosmetics, was featured in an LA Eyeworks campaign, and joined the Logo Drag Race tour. One of the nine contestants to compete on RuPaul's Drag Race, Nina Flowers was determined by an audience vote via the show's official website.
The theme song playing during the runway every episode was "Cover Girl" from RuPaul's album Champion. This season, and season one of All Stars, are the only seasons to not feature a "Snatch Game" challenge episode, in which the contestants must impersonate a celebrity of their choosing while improvising witty responses to nonsensical riddles, in a format similar to vintage game shows such as Hollywood Squares or Match Game.
The winner of the first season of RuPaul's Drag Race was BeBe Zahara Benet, with DJ Nina Flowers as the runner-up.
In late 2013, Logo re-aired the first season, which was titled RuPaul's Drag Race: The Lost Season, with featured commentary from RuPaul.
== Contestants ==
Ages, names, and cities stated are at time of filming.
Notes:
== Contestant progress ==
Legend:
== Lip syncs ==
Legend:
== Guest judges ==
Listed in chronological order:
Bob Mackie, fashion designer
Mike Ruiz, photographer
Frank Gatson, director and choreographer
Michelle Williams, singer and actress
Howard Bragman, writer and lecturer
Debra Wilson, actress and comedian
Gordon Espinet, make-up artist
Jenny Shimizu, model and actress
Lucy Lawless, actress and singer
Robin Antin, dancer, choreographer, and actress
Jeffrey Moran, Absolut Vodka marketing/branding executive
María Conchita Alonso, singer-songwriter and actress
== Episodes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (U.S.)
RuPaul's Drag Race at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencing_at_the_1964_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_team_foil | Fencing at the 1964 Summer Olympics – Women's team foil | The women's team foil was one of eight fencing events on the fencing at the 1964 Summer Olympics programme. It was the second appearance of the event. The competition was held from October 16 – 17 1964. 47 fencers from 10 nations competed.
== Medalists ==
== Results ==
=== Round 1 ===
Ties between teams were broken by individual victories (in parentheses), then by touches received.
=== Championship rounds ===
== Rosters ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Tokyo Organizing Committee (1964). The Games of the XVIII Olympiad: Tokyo 1964, vol. 2. |
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