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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narinder_Kumar_Gupta | Narinder Kumar Gupta | Narinder Kumar Gupta is a research scientist, educator, and engineer. Born 22 August 1942 in Mirpur, Jammu and Kashmir, India, he is a Professor of Mechanics at the Indian Institute of Technology in Delhi. Gupta works in the area of large deformations of metals and composites at low, medium and high rates of loading. His research stimulates the development of constitutive behaviour of materials, understanding of the basic mechanics of large deformation, design for crashworthiness of road and air vehicles, design for safety in defence applications and in design of metal forming processes.
== Education ==
He received his Bachelor of Science from the Jammu and Kashmir University in 1960, his Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering from the Regional Engineering College, Srinagar (Now NIT Srinagar) in 1966 and his PhD from the IIT Delhi under Prof. B. Karunes in 1972.
He did his post-doctoral studies in Cambridge University under Professor W. Johnson (1977) and as Alexander von Humboldt fellow at Ruhr University Bochum under Professor Th. J. Lehmann (1981).
== Profession ==
Gupta has been a faculty member in the department of applied mechanics at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi since 1971 and has been a full professor since 1987 and retired in 2005. He continued as Henry Ford Chair Emeritus Professor from 2005 to 2010, and then as emeritus professor till 2011. He was invited as Mercator Guest Professor at RWTH Aachen, supported by the German Research Foundation for one year (2011–2012).
Gupta continued to work as "INSA (Indian National Science Academy) Senior Scientist" at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, from 2012 to 2017. He was also associated for a period (2013–14) with the Supercomputer Education and Research Center, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Presently, he continues with his academic work as an "INSA Honorary Scientist" since 2017 at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi.
== Activity fields ==
Gupta works in the area of large deformations of metals and composites at low, medium and high rates of loading. His research finds application in development of constitutive behaviour of materials, understanding of the basic mechanics of large deformation, design for crashworthiness of road and air vehicles, design for safety in defence applications and in design of metal forming processes.
He has been instrumental in setting up the India's first and internationally recognised low and medium velocity impact testing laboratory in the Department of Applied Mechanics at the IIT Delhi and has fostered and nurtured this area in India.
He has published over 350 scientific papers (with over 5000 citations) in peer-reviewed national and international journals and conference proceedings, edited eight books, mentored nearly 40 PhD and 75 MTech students, and undertaken national and international research and consultancy projects. He has been a visiting professor and fellow and invited to deliver guest lectures in universities in Armenia, Australia, Brazil, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Malaysia, Norway, Poland, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Thailand, Trinidad, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and United States.
He was invited to deliver a keynote lecture at the 2008 World Congress of the International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics (ICTAM), held in Adelaide, Australia. The German National Academy of Sciences, Leopoldina, invited him to deliver a lecture at an annual event in 2012 along with the German scientist Prof. M. Kleiner, who was then the President of DFG. Gupta delivered the "K S Krishnan memorial lecture" during the annual meeting of the INSA at Lucknow in 2013. In 2014, he delivered a plenary lecture to the 39th Solid Mechanics Conference held in Poland. He has been invited to deliver national lectures, which include Taylor memorial, Seth memorial, Bhatnagar memorial, Karunes memorial and Joga Rao memorial, and also numerous inaugural, keynote and invited lectures in major conferences and reputed institutions in India.
He has been on the Editorial advisory boards of the International Journal of Mechanical Sciences (1981–1985), the International Journal of Impact Engineering, the International Journal of Crashworthiness (1996–2007), the Latin American Journal of Solids and Structures, Thin Walled Structures, Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures (2006–2011), the Journal of Aeronautics Society of India, Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy, Sadhana, Defence Science Journal and Everyman's Science. He is president of the Indian Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, past president of the Indian Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics and past president of the Indian Society of Mechanical Engineers. He was vice-president of the Indian National Science Academy and chairman of the National Committee of the academy for IUTAM (International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics) and IMU (International Mathematical Union). He has been member of IUTAM Bureau( 2008–2012) and Congress Committee (2008 - 2018). He is member or chairman of several other national and international academic bodies. He is fellow of the Indian National Science Academy, the Indian National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Sciences, India, the Aeronautical Society of India, the Institution of Engineers, India and The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS).
Gupta's expertise in the mechanics of large deformation of metals and composites under impact loading has greatly augmented India's advance in technology, in particular, defence and aerospace researches. He helped found IMPLAST, an international event held regularly in India and countries across the world, including Australia (2000), Germany (2007), and the USA (2010). The last IMPLAST held in India was in 2016, and the recent was held in Republic of Korea in 2019. He also initiated a series of Indo-Russian workshops in "Theoretical and Applied Mechanics", held in both India and Russia. Gupta has edited nearly a dozen volumes of IMPLAST and Indo-Russian workshops, which the scientific community has very well received. These events provide a forum for Indian scientists to interact with several known international scientists. Gupta has been a voice of India in international forums in articulating the country's long-term vision on key scientific and technical issues.
== Honours ==
Gupta was conferred Padma Shri by the President of India in 1991.
Professor Gupta is recipient of J.C. Bose Memorial Award, the O. P. Bhasin Award, the Millennium Plaques of Honour (ISCA) Award, the Erskine (New Zealand) Award, the Alexander von Humboldt (Germany) Research Award and several other honours and awards. He has been conferred Doctor Honoris Causa by the Russian Academy of Sciences and Mercator Professorship of DFG and DRDO Academy excellence award.
Gupta is Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy, Indian National Academy of Engineering, National Academy of Sciences, India and the Third World Academy of Sciences.
The esteem that Gupta enjoys nationally and internationally is shown by the fact that conferences to honour his contributions were held on his 60th and 70th birthday in India in 2002 and 2012, On his 65th birthday in Bochum, Germany, in 2007, and was honoured on 70th in Singapore in 2012. Special issues of the International Journal of Impact Engineering, Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy and Defence Science Journal were devoted to his birthdays. These issues received contributions from highly regarded international scientists. A special issue to honour his contributions has been published by the International Journal of Impact Engineering, in 2017.
Gupta has been named as one of five Honorary Members - honoured as one of the top five world scientists in the area of impact mechanics - by the International Society of Impact Engineering.
In 2019 Prof. Gupta is awarded prestigious "DRDO Academy Excellence Award"
== Personal ==
Gupta and his wife Rashmi Gupta ,have two sons, Shivanshu and Shalav.
== Selected publications ==
N. K. Gupta and S. K. Sinha (1990); "Collapse of a laterally compressed square tube resting on a flat base". International Journal of Solids and Structures, 26, 601‑615
N. K. Gupta and A. Meyers (1992); "Considerations of translated yield surfaces". International Journal of Plasticity, 8, 729‑740
N. K. Gupta and V. Madhu (1997); "An Experimental Study of normal and oblique impact of a hard core projectile on single and layered plates". International Journal of Impact Engineering, 27, 901 – 918
N. K. Gupta, (2002) "IMPLAST symposia and large deformations – a perspective", International Journal of Impact Engineering, 27, 901 – 918
O. T. Bruhns, N. K. Gupta, A. Meyers and H. Xiao (2003), "Bending of an elastoplastic strip with isotropic and kinematic hardening". Archive of Applied Mechanics, Volume 72, pages 759–778, 2003
N. K. Gupta and Nagesh, (2006) "Collapse mode transitions of thin tubes with wall thickness, end condition and shape eccentricity", International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 48, 210–223
N. K. Gupta, M. A. Iqbal and G. S. Sekhon (2007), "Effect of projectile nose shape, impact velocity, and target thickness on the deformation behaviour of thin aluminium targets", International Journal of Solids and Structures, 44, 3411–343
N. K. Gupta, N. Mohamed Sheriff and R. Velmurugan, (2007) "Experimental and numerical investigations into collapse behavior of thin spherical shells under drop hammer impact", International Journal of Solids and Structures, 44, 3136–3155
M. Klaus, H. _G. Reimerdes and N. K. Gupta (2012), "Experimental and Numerical investigations of residual strength after impact of sandwich panels", International Journal of Impact Engineering, 44, 50–58
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Ngige#:~:text=In%20August%2C%202006%2C%20an%20Election,Progressives%20Grand%20Alliance%20(APGA). | Chris Ngige | Chris Nwabueze Ngige (born 8 August 1952) is a Nigerian politician and medical doctor who served as minister of Labour and Employment of Nigeria under President Muhammadu Buhari's administration from 2015 to 2023. He was elected Senator for Anambra Central Constituency in April 2011. He was the governor of Anambra State in Nigeria from May 2003 to March 2006 under the People's Democratic Party (PDP).
== Background ==
A medical doctor by profession, Ngige graduated from the University of Nigeria-Nsukka in 1979. Chris immediately went into the civil service, serving at the National Assembly and state house clinics at different times. He retired in 1998 as a deputy director in the Federal Ministry of Health.
== Political career ==
Dr. Chris Nwabueze Ngige entered politics, becoming a member of the People's Democratic Party (PDP). In 1999, he was Assistant National Secretary and Zonal Secretary of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) in the South East region of Nigeria.
In 2003, he was elected governor of Anambra State in controversial circumstances. He quickly broke ranks with his political godfather, Chris Uba the brother of Andy Uba, after an unsuccessful attempt on 10 July 2003 to have him removed from office, through a fabricated letter of resignation which the state assembly accepted. In August, 2006, an Election Tribunal led by Justice Nabaruma nullified Ngige's 2003 victory. He appealed to the Nigerian Federal Court of Appeal, but the annulment was confirmed on 15 March 2006, in a judgment awarding victory to Peter Obi of the All Progressives Grand Alliance (APGA). No further appeals were possible, and Ngige accepted the judgment in good faith, calling on the people of Anambra to give their support to his successor.
Following Peter Obi's subsequent impeachment, Ngige attempted to participate in state governorship elections in April 2007, but was frustrated by the Independent National Electoral Commission and federal 'disqualification', even after a Federal High Court had voided the disqualification. In the final event, Obi's impeachment was overturned anyway, and Obi served out his four years. At the time, Ngige was also severely criticized for appearing naked at the dreaded Okija voodoo shrine during his campaign to be made governor.
On 6 February 2010, Ngige again contested for the governorship of Anambra State. Other notable politicians who contested with him included Andy Uba, Charles Soludo, Nicholas Ukachukwu, Mrs. Uche Ekwunife, Ralph Nwosu, and the incumbent governor, Peter Obi. In all, there were 25 candidates for that election. Peter Obi won that election and started his second term as the governor of Anambra State.
In April 2011, Ngige ran for election for senator of Anambra Central, on the Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN) platform. After voting problems in some areas of the constituency on 9 April, the election in these areas was held on 25 April and Ngige was declared the winner over former Minister of Information and Communications Professor Dora Akunyili of the APGA, with 69,765 votes to Akunyili's 69,292.
Ngige's tenure as a senator of the Federal Republic of Nigeria ended following his defeat in the 2015 election by Hon. Mrs Uche Ekwunife who was sworn in as the senator representing Anambra Central Senatorial District in the 8th National Assembly of Nigeria.
On 11 November 2015, Ngige was named minister of Labour and Employment by President Muhammadu Buhari. In 2019, Chris Ngige was nominated by President Muhammadu Buhari as a returning minister for screening by the National Assembly. On 21 August 2019, he was sworn in by the president as the Minister of Labour and Employment.
On 19 April 2022, Ngige declared interest to run for the post of the President of the Republic of Nigeria under the All Progressive Congress (APC)'s banner. The experienced politician, who had served as Governor of Anambra State, Senator and Minister described himself as "jack of all trade and masters of all".
== Controversies and fraud allegations ==
=== Electoral and political controversies ===
Ngige's 2003 election as Governor of Anambra State was controversial. His victory was later nullified in March 2006 by the Court of Appeal, which declared Peter Obi of the APGA the rightful winner. He accepted the ruling. A 2012 profile also noted his election was annulled by the courts on grounds of "electoral malpractice".
=== 2025 fraud charges and arraignment ===
On 12 December 2025, Ngige was arraigned before the Federal Capital Territory High Court in Gwarinpa, Abuja, on an eight-count charge filed by the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC). The charges relate to his tenure as the supervising minister of the Nigeria Social Insurance Trust Fund (NSITF) between September 2015 and May 2023. The EFCC alleges Ngige used his position to confer unfair advantages on companies linked to his associates by awarding contracts. The charges are brought under Sections 19 and 17(a) of the Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Act, 2000.
Ngige is separately accused of corruptly accepting monetary gifts totaling ₦119.78 million from these contractors. The funds were allegedly funneled through entities named the "Dr Chris Nwabueze Ngige Campaign Organisation" and the "Senator (Dr) Chris Ngige Scholarship Scheme".
Ngige pleaded not guilty to all charges.
== See also ==
Cabinet of Nigeria
List of governors of Anambra State
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Nuhu Ribadu for President campaign website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CrazySexyCool | CrazySexyCool | CrazySexyCool is the second studio album by American girl group TLC, released on November 15, 1994, by LaFace and Arista Records. Following the group's record deal, they released their debut album Ooooooohhh... On the TLC Tip in 1992 to positive reviews and commercial success. The group began working on a follow-up in 1993 but experienced an unproductive recording process due to personal issues, notably those of member Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes, who was struggling with alcoholism and her volatile relationship with football player Andre Rison. The album's recording lasted until September 1994, with Lopes' role diminished while she was in rehab.
CrazySexyCool saw the group reunite with producers Dallas Austin, Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds, and Jermaine Dupri, as well as new collaborators Organized Noize and Chucky Thompson. It also featured contributions from Sean "Puffy" Combs, who helped with the notable hip hop soul sound; the album featured hip hop beats, funk, deep grooves, propulsive rhythms, and smooth production. The album's lyrical content was seen as a departure from the group's debut and was seen as a coming-of-age project which explored themes such as sexuality, romanticism, inexperience, and youthful optimism.
CrazySexyCool was met with critical acclaim and commercial success, peaking at number three on the Billboard 200, a chart on which it stayed for over two years. It has been certified 12-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), making TLC the first girl group in history to be awarded diamond status. It has since sold over 23 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling album by an American girl group. It has also been featured on Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die, and was listed as a "New Classic" by Entertainment Weekly in 2008. The album was ranked at number seven on Billboard's list of the best diamond-certified albums of all time.
== Background ==
=== Debut album ===
On February 28, 1991, Tionne Watkins and Lisa Lopes signed production, management, and publishing deals with Pebbitone, with Perri Reid becoming their general manager. The two-member TLC-Skee made its first recorded appearance on a track for LaFace act Damian Dame's self-titled 1991 LP. Pebbles found the third member in Rozonda Thomas, one of Damian Dame's part-time backup dancers.
Thomas was signed to the act in April 1991, at about which time the group's name was shortened to TLC. To maintain TLC's name as an acronym for the girls' names, Watkins became "T-Boz", Lopes became "Left-Eye", and Thomas became "Chilli." The girls were then signed to LaFace in May through the production deal with Pebbitone; their records would be distributed by Arista Records/BMG. TLC was immediately set up to go into the studio with Reid and Edmonds, Dallas Austin, Jermaine Dupri, and Marley Marl producing their first album, Ooooooohhh... On the TLC Tip. The new trio debuted as backing vocalists on "Rebel (With a Cause)", a track on Jermaine Jackson's sole album for LaFace, You Said (1991).
Production on Ooooooohhh... On the TLC Tip wrapped up in December 1991. The album reached number 14 on the US Billboard 200 and number three on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. According to Nielsen SoundScan, it has sold 2.5 million copies in the US. It was eventually certified four-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping four million copies in the US.
=== Personal struggles ===
Lopes was often vocal about her personal life and difficult past. She readily admitted that she had come from an abusive, alcoholic background and struggled with alcohol problems herself. These problems became headline news in 1994, when she set fire to Andre Rison's tennis shoes in a bathtub, which ultimately spread to the mansion they shared, destroying it. Lopes claimed that Rison had beaten her after a night out, and she set fire to his shoes to get back at him. However, she said burning down the house was an accident. Lopes later revealed that she did not have a lot of freedom within the relationship and was abused mentally and physically, having released all her frustrations on the night of the fire.
Lopes, who was sentenced to five years probation and therapy at a halfway house, was never able to shake the incident from her reputation. Her relationship with Rison continued to make headlines, with rumors of an imminent wedding, later debunked by People magazine.
== Recording ==
The album's recording began in late 1993 and continued through till September 1994. The album was recorded at numerous studios, including Doppler Studios, Bosstown Recording Studios, KrossWire Studio and GADaddy's; D.A.R.P. Studios in Atlanta, Georgia; the Music Grinder Studios in Los Angeles, California; and The Hit Factory in New York City.
During the album's recording, Lopes was forced to have less of an input, as she had pled guilty in an arson accident and was sent to a rehab facility as punishment. The rehab facility only released her for a couple of recording sessions, during which time she cut just a handful of album-worthy rap verses.
For the album's production and writing, the group worked with producers including Babyface, Dallas Austin, Jermaine Dupri and more. Thomas stated that they had used these producers because they always worked with them stating that they worked with Dallas, Babyface, and Dupri on the first album "the only thing we had new was Organized Noize." Phife Dawg from A Tribe Called Quest did the interludes. However, during the album's recording, the band members were not always in the studio together; sometimes they went in one by one due to scheduling conflicts.
"Waterfalls" was written by Lopes with Marqueze Etheridge and Organized Noize, who also produced the song. Watkins and Thomas perform the song with Lopes, who also provides a rap. The background vocals are performed by the members of TLC, as well as Debra Killings and Cee-Lo Green. Speaking of Green's involvement, Watkins said, "He was in Goodie Mob, we grew up together, we go way back. He did and it was amazing! I love his voice."
The lyrics of the song reference 1990s issues such as violence associated with illegal drug trade and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. At the end of the second verse, Watkins sings, "His health is fading and he doesn't know why / Three letters took him to his final resting place." She said that it was important for the group to "get the message across without seeming like preaching."
== Music and lyrics ==
CrazySexyCool was noted as a departure from the group's debut, and was seen as move away from the group's predominantly rap connections. The songs on the album contained sensual R&B sounds built over edgy hip-hop beats; containing propulsive rhythms along with clap-commanding high production, bouncy funk elements and smooth rhythms.
The album's lyrical content was also seen as a departure from Ooooooohhh... On the TLC Tip. A reviewer from Entertainment Weekly stated that compared to the lyrical content of their debut, which was seen as "kiddie-cute hip-hop", CrazySexyCool is filled with adult-female sexuality, and "hide- and-seek coyness." It was seen as a coming-of-age sophomore album, according to Sheldon Pearce from Consequence of Sound, who stated the album had themes of "guileless and horny twenty something" lyrics that harmlessly explored sexuality and romanticism with the "naïveté that comes from inexperience and youthful optimism." The album lyrics also touch upon themes of relationships from both the impassioned and erotic sides.
== Release and promotion ==
To promote CrazySexyCool, TLC—along with Boyz II Men, Montell Jordan, and Mary J. Blige—performed in the annual Budweiser Superfest Tour in early 1995, consisting of 23 dates in North America. The Atlanta, Chicago and Indianapolis shows featured an expanded roster of performers, including Blackstreet and Monica.
All four singles from the album reached the top five of the Billboard Hot 100, two of them reaching number one.
Lead single, "Creep", topped the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks, and was one of the biggest singles of 1995, coming in at number three in Billboard Year-End Hot 100 Singles of 1995. It also reached number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.
The second single, "Red Light Special", peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100, and number three on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.
The third single, "Waterfalls", became TLC's most successful song, spending seven weeks at number one. It was also the second-biggest single of 1995 according to Billboard, earning TLC two songs in the top three of the 1995 Billboard year-end chart. Internationally, the song reached the top five in several countries.
"Diggin' on You" was released as the album's fourth and final single, and reached number five on the Billboard Hot 100. It also reached number seven on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.
== Critical reception ==
CrazySexyCool was met with critical acclaim. In his review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the album as a "smooth, seductive collection of contemporary soul reminiscent of both Philly soul and Prince", adding that the material was "consistently strong". Erlewine continued to write that the album is "powered" by new jack swing and hip-hop beats with influences of mid-tempo funk, deep grooves, horns and guitar lines. He also referred to "Waterfalls" as "one of the classic R&B songs of the '90s".
In Rolling Stone's review for "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", the article stated that TLC "emerged with the most effervescent and soulful girl-group R&B anyone had seen since the Supremes."
In 2010, Rolling Stone listed the album at number 43 on their "100 Greatest Albums of the 90s". They stated: "Left Eye, Chilli and T-Boz looked like a one-shot when they first emerged from the nascent Atlanta with 1992's Ain't 2 Proud 2 Beg. But CrazySexyCool was a real shocker, packed bumper to bumper with great songs, sassy vocals and voluptuous beats for burning down the house. 'Creep' celebrates the kicks of illicit lust on the down low, 'Waterfalls' digs deep into Memphis soul and 'If I Was Your Girlfriend' does Prince better than The Artist has all decade. The showstopper: 'Red Light Special', an impossibly steamy make-out ballad that undresses and caresses everyone with ears to hear it. CrazySexyCool established TLC as pop pros who could do it all, combining the body slam of hip-hop and the giddy uplift of a jump-rope rhyme without breaking a nail."
In a 2015 article for Consequence of Sound, music critics Michael Madden and Sheldon Pearce write about how the album has impacted artists well into today's era whose R&B sound has been heavily influenced by strong hip-hop elements. "There should probably be more talk of TLC's role in forging the current R&B landscape, which is heavily, if not entirely, influenced by hip-hop culture now. The two genres have seemingly been grafted onto one another, and there's something of a codependent relationship between the two. To that effect, there's something to be said for that dynamic existing here, too, how the album's sequencing contributes to the music's effectiveness and how it still translates to the modern day."
== Commercial performance ==
CrazySexyCool debuted at number 15 on the US Billboard 200, selling 77,500 copies in its first week. On the issue dated July 29, 1995, the album peaked at number three with 117,000 units sold. The album was certified 12-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on October 11, 2019, and as of July 2017, it had sold 7.7 million copies in the United States, becoming the best-selling album by a female group in the country; it had sold an additional 1.27 million copies through the BMG Music Club as of February 2003. Internationally, it reached number one in New Zealand, as well as the top five in Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. As of July 2006, CrazySexyCool had sold over 23 million copies worldwide.
== Accolades ==
CrazySexyCool was nominated for six Grammy Awards at the 1996 Grammy Awards. "Waterfalls" was nominated for the Record of the Year. Two of the album's nominations were for its songwriters: Dallas Austin for "Creep", and Babyface for "Red Light Special". TLC ended up winning two awards, Best R&B Album and Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for "Creep".
TLC also received multiple wins and nominations at the Billboard Music Awards, American Music Awards and Soul Train Music Awards, including Artist of the Year at the 1995 Billboard Music Awards. At the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards, TLC won four awards for the video to "Waterfalls", including Video of the Year and the Viewer's Choice Award.
== Celebration of CrazySexyCool ==
Celebration of CrazySexyCool is a concert tour of American group TLC. This tour, serving as a celebration of the first album by a girl group to reach Diamond status, comes 27 years after the album release. Consisting of 18 dates across the United States, this tour celebrates what Chilli describes as "the album that really put [TLC] on the map", as the group perform selected songs from the 1994 album, as well as other hits.
=== Set list ===
This set list is from the September 14, 2021 concert in Sterling Heights. It is not intended to represent all concerts for the tour.
"Creep"
"Hat 2 da Back"
"Kick Your Game"
"Girl Talk"
"Case of the Fake People"
"Ain't 2 Proud 2 Beg"
"What About Your Friends"
"Silly Ho"
"FanMail"
"Way Back"
"American Gold"
"Sumthin' Wicked This Way Comes"
"Unpretty"
"Take Our Time"
"Red Light Special"
"Diggin' on You"
"Baby-Baby-Baby"
"No Scrubs"
"Waterfalls"
== Track listing ==
=== Notes ===
^[a] signifies a co-producer
The single vinyl LP edition omits "Case of the Fake People" and "Intermission-lude".
=== Sample credits ===
"Creep" contains a sample of "Hey Young World" by Slick Rick.
"Switch" contains a sample of "Mr. Big Stuff" by Jean Knight.
== Personnel ==
Credits adapted from the liner notes of CrazySexyCool.
=== Musicians ===
=== Technical ===
=== Artwork ===
Davett Singletary – creative direction
Christopher Stern – art direction
Dah Len – photography
== Charts ==
== Certifications and sales ==
== See also ==
List of best-selling albums by women
List of best-selling albums in the United States
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Bari_(professor) | Abdul Bari (professor) | Abdul Bari (1892–1947) was an Indian freedom activist, academic and social reformer. He sought to bring about social reform in Indian society by awakening people through education. He had a vision of India free from slavery, social inequality, and communal disharmony. He took part in the freedom movement, for which he was killed. He was against the Two-nation theory.
== Early life and education ==
Abdul Bari was born on 21 January 1884 to Md Qurban Ali as the eldest of 4 children. He was born in Kansua but was a resident of Koilwar. He was a descendant of Malik Ibrahim Baya, a 14th century sufi saint and warrior.
He got admitted in the T. K. Ghosh Academy, Patna and completed his matriculation from the same. Later in 1918, he completed Master of Arts from Patna University.
In 1937, he made his first historical agreement with the TISCO (now Tata Steel) management.
Bari served as the president of the Bihar Pradesh Congress Committee from 1946 until his death on 28 March 1947. He was killed by three men who shot at him after an altercation by Bari Path in Khusrupur, Bihar Province, during a stopover on his return from Dhanbad to Patna. In his tribute, Mahatma Gandhi stated that Bari "lived like a fakir in the service of his countrymen." Then Congress President J. B. Kripalani said, "His death has robbed India [sic] one of its bravest and most selfless soldiers of freedom. He was utterly free from communal bias and knew himself only as an Indian. His was a dedicated life filled with a passion for the service of the working classes."
On the first death anniversary of Bari, Rajendra Prasad recalled his contribution to the nation through a message dated 22 March 1948 published in Mazdur Avaz.
== Personal life ==
Abdul Bari was married to Zulaikha Begum, a resident of Koilwar. They had 2 sons (Salahuddin Bari and Shahabuddin Bari) and 3 daughters (Tahira, Hamida, Saeeda) together.
== Legacy ==
The Government of Bihar named Bari Path, a Road and Abdul Bari Bridge, a Bridge as a tribute to Abdul Bari.
On March 20, 2021 and On March 28, 2024, The Tata Workers Union led by Sanjiv Kumar Chowdhary, the president of TWU paid tribute to Abdul Bari on his death anniversary.
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
Asthanvi, Ashraf (2012). Professor Abdul Bari: Azeem Mujahid-e-Azadi Aur Bihar Ke Memar (in Hindi) (1st ed.). Patna: Better World Mission.
Sahil, Afroz Alam (2019). Professor Abdul Bari: Azaadi ki Ladaai ka ek Krantikaari Yodhha (in Hindi) (1st ed.). New Delhi: INSAAN International Publication.
== Sources ==
Dr. Rajendra Prasad: Correspondence and Select documents Volume 8 by Valmiki Choudhary published by Centenary Publication
At the feet of Mahatma Gandhi by Rajendra Prasad published by Asia Publication House
History of the Freedom Movement in Bihar by Kalikinkar Datta published by Govt. of Bihar.
Bihar through the Ages by Ritu Chaturvedi published by Sarup & Sons
My Days With Gandhi by Nirmal Kumar Bose
Working together: Labour-management Co-operation in Training and in Technological and other Changes by Alan Gladstone, Muneto Ozaki published by International Labour Office, Geneva
The Politics of the Labour Movement: An Essay on Differential Aspirations by Dilip Simeon
History of The Indian Iron and Steel Co. Ltd by Dr. N.R.Srinivasan
Official website of Tata Workers Union
== External links ==
Official website of Tata Workers Union
The Politics of the Labour Movement: An Essay on Differential Aspirations
Prof. Abdul Bari Technical Centre
Tata workers union pays homage to Prof. Abdul Bari
About Shahabad |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoarthritis#:~:text=As%20of%202004%2C%20osteoarthritis%20globally,among%20291%20disease%20conditions%20assessed. | Osteoarthritis | Osteoarthritis is a type of degenerative joint disease that results from breakdown of joint cartilage and underlying bone. A form of arthritis, it is believed to be the fourth leading cause of disability in the world, with an estimated 240 million people worldwide having activity-limiting osteoarthritis. The most common symptoms are joint pain and stiffness. Usually the symptoms progress slowly over years. Other symptoms may include joint swelling, decreased range of motion, and, when the back is affected, weakness or numbness of the arms and legs. The most commonly involved joints are the two near the ends of the fingers and the joint at the base of the thumbs, the knee and hip joints, and the joints of the neck and lower back. The symptoms can interfere with work and normal daily activities. Unlike some other types of arthritis, only the joints, not internal organs, are affected.
Possible causes include previous joint injury, abnormal joint or limb development, and inherited factors. Risk is greater in those who are overweight, have legs of different lengths, or have jobs that result in high levels of joint stress. Osteoarthritis is believed to be caused by mechanical stress on the joint and low grade inflammatory processes. It develops as cartilage is lost and the underlying bone becomes affected. As pain may make it difficult to exercise, muscle loss may occur. Diagnosis is typically based on signs and symptoms, with medical imaging and other tests used to support or rule out other problems. In contrast to rheumatoid arthritis, in osteoarthritis the joints do not become hot or red.
Treatment includes exercise, decreasing joint stress such as by rest or use of a cane, support groups, and pain medications. Weight loss may help in those who are overweight. Pain medications may include paracetamol (acetaminophen) as well as NSAIDs such as naproxen or ibuprofen. Long-term opioid use is not recommended due to lack of information on benefits as well as risks of addiction and other side effects. Joint replacement surgery may be an option if there is ongoing disability despite other treatments. More than 90% of hip and knee joint replacements are due to osteoarthritis. An artificial hip or knee joint typically lasts more than 20 years.
Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, affecting about 237 million people or 3.3% of the world's population as of 2015. It becomes more common as people age. Among those over 60 years old, about 10% of males and 18% of females are affected. Osteoarthritis is the cause of about 2% of years lived with disability. Those with osteoarthritis of the hips or knees (the most commonly affected large joints) have a 20% increased risk of mortality, possibly due to reduced activity levels.
== Signs and symptoms ==
The main symptom of osteoarthritis is pain, causing loss of ability and often stiffness. The pain is typically made worse by prolonged activity and relieved by rest. Stiffness is most common in the morning, and typically lasts less than thirty minutes after beginning daily activities, but may return after periods of inactivity (such as prolonged sitting). Pain with ascending/descending stairs or getting in or out of a car or the bath is associated with osteoarthritis of the patellofemoral joint (the joint behind the kneecap), as this joint is stressed with knee flexion. Osteoarthritis can cause a crackling noise (called "crepitus") when the affected joint is moved, especially the shoulder and knee joints. A person may also complain of joint locking and joint instability. These symptoms would affect their daily activities due to pain and stiffness. Some people report increased pain associated with cold temperature, high humidity, or a drop in barometric pressure, but studies have had mixed results.
Osteoarthritis commonly affects the hands, feet, spine, and the large weight-bearing joints, such as the hips and knees, although any joint in the body can be affected. As osteoarthritis progresses, movement patterns (such as gait), are typically affected.
In smaller joints, such as at the fingers, hard bony enlargements, called Heberden's nodes (on the distal interphalangeal joints) or Bouchard's nodes (on the proximal interphalangeal joints), may form, and though they are not necessarily painful, they do limit the movement of the fingers significantly. Osteoarthritis of the toes may be a factor causing formation of bunions.
== Causes ==
Damage from mechanical stress with insufficient self-repair by joints is believed to be the primary cause of osteoarthritis. Sources of this stress may include misalignments of bones caused by congenital or pathogenic causes; mechanical injury; excess body weight; loss of strength in the muscles supporting a joint; and impairment of peripheral nerves, leading to sudden or uncoordinated movements. The risk of osteoarthritis increases with aging, history of joint injury, or family history of osteoarthritis. However exercise, including running in the absence of injury, has not been found to increase the risk of knee osteoarthritis. Nor has cracking one's knuckles been found to play a role.
=== Primary ===
The development of osteoarthritis is correlated with a history of previous joint injury and with obesity, especially with respect to the hips and knees. Osteoarthritis of the hips and knees is twice as common in those with obesity. Changes in sex hormone levels may play a role in the development of osteoarthritis, as it is more prevalent among post-menopausal women than among men of the same age. Women also tend to have more severe symptoms and imaging findings for hip and knee osteoarthritis as compared to men. Conflicting evidence exists for the differences in hip and knee osteoarthritis in African Americans and Caucasians.
==== Occupational ====
Increased risk of developing knee and hip osteoarthritis was found among those who work with manual handling (e.g., lifting), have physically demanding work, walk at work, and have climbing tasks at work (e.g., climb stairs or ladders). With hip osteoarthritis, in particular, increased risk of development over time was found among those who work in bent or twisted positions. For knee osteoarthritis, in particular, increased risk was found among those who work in a kneeling or squatting position, experience heavy lifting in combination with a kneeling or squatting posture, and work standing up. Women and men have similar occupational risks for the development of osteoarthritis.
=== Secondary ===
Certain medical conditions or injuries can increase the risk of osteoarthritis:
Alkaptonuria
Congenital disorders of joints
Diabetes doubles the risk of having a joint replacement due to osteoarthritis, and people with diabetes have joint replacements at a younger age than those without diabetes.
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
Injury to joints or ligaments (such as the ACL)
Ligamentous deterioration or instability
Marfan syndrome
Obesity
Joint infection
== Pathophysiology ==
While osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease that may cause gross cartilage loss and morphological damage to other joint tissues, more subtle biochemical changes occur in the earliest stages of osteoarthritis progression. The water content of healthy cartilage is finely balanced by compressive force driving water out and hydrostatic and osmotic pressure drawing water in. Collagen fibres exert the compressive force, whereas the Gibbs–Donnan effect and cartilage proteoglycans create osmotic pressure which tends to draw water in.
However, during the onset of osteoarthritis, the collagen matrix becomes more disorganized, and there is a decrease in proteoglycan content within cartilage. The breakdown of collagen fibers results in a net increase in water content. This increase occurs because whilst there is an overall loss of proteoglycans (and thus a decreased osmotic pull), it is outweighed by a loss of collagen.
Other structures within the joint can also be affected. The ligaments within the joint become thickened and fibrotic, and the menisci can become damaged and wear away. Menisci can be completely absent by the time a person undergoes a joint replacement. New bone outgrowths, called "spurs" or osteophytes, can form on the margins of the joints, possibly in an attempt to improve the congruence of the articular cartilage surfaces in the absence of the menisci. The subchondral bone volume increases and becomes less mineralized (hypo mineralization). All these changes can cause problems functioning. The pain in an osteoarthritic joint has been related to thickened synovium and to subchondral bone lesions.
The inflammation of the joint lining (synovium) in osteoarthritis is characterized by involving macrophages via activation of the innate immune system (as compared to T-cell activation in the joint lining of people with rheumatoid arthritis). Pro-inflammation cytokines in osteoarthritis stimulate matrix metalloproteinases which leads to degradation and remodeling of the joint. Tissue damage or degradation of the articular cartilage or synovium leads to further release of inflammatory cytokines, driving the process.
== Diagnosis ==
Diagnosis is made with reasonable certainty based on history and clinical examination. X-rays may confirm the diagnosis. The typical changes seen on X-ray include: joint space narrowing, subchondral sclerosis (increased bone formation around the joint), subchondral cyst formation, and osteophytes. The combination of knee pain and osteophytes on x-ray or hip pain and osteophytes on x-ray, has good sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of osteoarthritis of those joints. X-rays may not correlate with the findings on physical examination or with the degree of pain, especially in the early course of osteoarthritis, where imaging findings may be relatively normal.
In 1990, the American College of Rheumatology, using data from a multi-center study, developed a set of criteria for the diagnosis of hand osteoarthritis based on hard tissue enlargement and swelling of certain joints. These criteria were found to be 92% sensitive and 98% specific for hand osteoarthritis versus other entities such as rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropathies.
=== Classification ===
Several classification systems are used for the gradation of osteoarthritis:
WOMAC scale, taking into account pain, stiffness and functional limitation.
Kellgren-Lawrence grading scale for osteoarthritis of the knee. It uses only projectional radiography features.
Tönnis classification for osteoarthritis of the hip joint, also using only projectional radiography features.
== Management ==
Lifestyle modification (such as weight loss and exercise) and pain medications are the mainstays of treatment. Acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol) and NSAIDs (available as oral or topical formulations) are first line pain medications for symptomatic treatment of osteoarthritis. Medications that alter the course of the disease have not been found as of 2025. For overweight people, weight loss may help relieve pain due to hip arthritis. Recommendations include modification of risk factors through weight loss, increasing physical activity or exercise, healthy diet, management of contributing co-morbidities and adjustment of occupational factors that may contribute to osteoarthritis.
Successful management of the condition is often made more difficult by differing priorities and poor communication between clinicians and people with osteoarthritis. Realistic treatment goals can be achieved by developing a shared understanding of the condition, actively listening to patient concerns, avoiding medical jargon, and tailoring treatment plans to the patient's needs. Recent research suggests that remote peer mentorship may help to improve self-management among people with hip or knee osteoarthritis who are experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage.
=== Exercise ===
Weight loss in those who are overweight or obese and exercise provide long-term benefit and are recommended in all people with osteoarthritis. Weight loss and exercise are the most safe and effective long-term treatments, in contrast to short-term treatments which usually have risk of long-term harm. Therapeutic exercise programs, such as aerobics and walking, may reduce pain and improve physical functioning for up to 6 months after the end of the program.
High-impact exercise can increase the risk of joint injury, whereas low or moderate-impact exercise, such as walking or swimming, is safer for people with osteoarthritis.
Moderate exercise may be beneficial with respect to pain and function in those with osteoarthritis of the knee and hip. These exercises should occur at least three times per week, under supervision, and focused on specific forms of exercise found to be most beneficial for this form of osteoarthritis.
While some evidence supports certain physical therapies, evidence for a combined program is limited. Providing clear advice, making exercises enjoyable, and reassuring people about the importance of doing exercises may lead to greater benefit and more participation. Some evidence suggests that supervised exercise therapy may improve exercise adherence, with knee osteoarthritis, supervised exercise has shown the best results.
=== Physical measures ===
There is not enough evidence to determine the effectiveness of massage therapy. The evidence for manual therapy is inconclusive. A 2015 review indicated that aquatic therapy is safe, effective, and can be an adjunct therapy for knee osteoarthritis. Among people with hip and knee osteoarthritis, water exercise may reduce pain and disability, and increase quality of life in the short term. Hydrotherapy might also be an advantage in the management of pain, disability, and quality of life.
Functional, gait, and balance training have been recommended to address impairments of position sense, balance, and strength in individuals with lower extremity arthritis, as these can contribute to a higher rate of falls in older individuals. For people with hand osteoarthritis, exercises may provide small benefits for improving hand function, reducing pain, and relieving finger joint stiffness.
A study showed that there is low-quality evidence that weak knee extensor muscles increase the risk of knee osteoarthritis. Strengthening of the knee extensors could prevent knee osteoarthritis.
Lateral wedge insoles and neutral insoles do not appear to be useful in osteoarthritis of the knee. Knee braces may help, but their usefulness has also been disputed.
=== Thermotherapy ===
For pain management, heat can be used to relieve stiffness, and cold can relieve muscle spasms and pain. The use of ice or cold packs may be beneficial; however, further research is needed. A 2003 Cochrane review of 7 studies between 1969 and 1999 found ice massage to be of significant benefit in improving range of motion and function, though not necessarily relief of pain. Cold packs could decrease swelling, but hot packs did not affect swelling. Heat therapy could increase circulation, thereby reducing pain and stiffness, but with the risk of inflammation and edema. Another review found no evidence of benefit from placing hot packs on joints.
=== Medication ===
==== By mouth ====
The pain medication paracetamol (acetaminophen) or NSAIDs are first line treatments for osteoarthritis related pain. With paracetamol, pain relief does not differ according to dosage. However, a 2015 review found acetaminophen to have only a small short-term benefit with some concerns on abnormal results for liver function test. For mild to moderate symptoms effectiveness of acetaminophen is similar to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as naproxen, though for more severe symptoms, NSAIDs may be more effective. NSAIDs are associated with greater side effects such as gastrointestinal bleeding.
Another class of NSAIDs, COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as celecoxib) are equally effective when compared to nonselective NSAIDs, and have lower rates of adverse gastrointestinal effects, but higher rates of cardiovascular disease such as myocardial infarction. They are also more expensive than non-specific NSAIDs. Benefits and risks vary in individuals and need consideration when making treatment decisions, and further unbiased research comparing NSAIDS and COX-2 selective inhibitors is needed. The COX-2 selective inhibitor rofecoxib was removed from the market in 2004, as cardiovascular events were associated with long term use.
Education is helpful in self-management of arthritis, and can provide coping methods leading to about 20% more pain relief when compared to NSAIDs alone.
Failure to achieve the desired pain relief in osteoarthritis after two weeks of therapy should trigger reassessment of dosage and pain medication. Opioids by mouth, including both weak opioids such as tramadol and stronger opioids, are also often prescribed. Their appropriateness is uncertain, and opioids are often recommended only when first-line therapies have failed or are contraindicated. This is due to their small benefit and relatively large risk of side effects. The use of tramadol likely does not improve pain or physical function and likely increases the incidence of adverse side effects. Oral steroids are not recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis.
Use of the antibiotic doxycycline orally for treating osteoarthritis is not associated with clinical improvements in function or joint pain and long term use is associated with a high risk of side effects.
A 2018 meta-analysis found that oral collagen supplementation for the treatment of osteoarthritis reduces stiffness, but does not improve pain and functional limitation.
==== Topical ====
There are several NSAIDs available for topical use, including diclofenac, which may provide symptomatic relief of osteoarthritis. Recessed joints (joints located deep within the body, rather than near the skin surface, such as the hips) may be less responsive to treatment with topical therapies. Transdermal opioid pain medications are not typically recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis. The use of topical capsaicin to treat osteoarthritis is controversial, as some reviews found benefit while others did not.
==== Joint injections ====
Intra-articular injections of steroids, hyaluronic acid, or platelet-rich plasma may be used for pain relief in people with knee osteoarthritis.
Local drug delivery by intra-articular injection may be more effective and safer in terms of increased bioavailability, less systemic exposure and reduced adverse events. Several intra-articular medications for symptomatic treatment are available.
===== Steroids =====
Joint injection of glucocorticoids (such as hydrocortisone) leads to short-term pain relief that may last between a few weeks and a few months.
A 2015 Cochrane review found that intra-articular corticosteroid injections of the knee did not benefit quality of life and had no effect on knee joint space; clinical effects one to six weeks after injection could not be determined clearly due to poor study quality. Another 2015 study reported negative effects of intra-articular corticosteroid injections at higher doses, and a 2017 trial showed reduction in cartilage thickness with intra-articular triamcinolone every 12 weeks for 2 years compared to placebo. A 2018 study found that intra-articular triamcinolone is associated with an increase in intraocular pressure.
===== Hyaluronic acid =====
The highest quality studies for hyaluronic acid injections of the hip and knee only showed a minor benefit. In other studies, injections of hyaluronic acid have not produced improvement compared to placebo for knee arthritis, but did increase risk of further pain. In ankle osteoarthritis, evidence is unclear.
===== Platelet-rich plasma =====
The effectiveness of injections of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is unclear; there are suggestions that such injections improve function but not pain, and are associated with increased risk. A 2014 Cochrane review of studies involving PRP found the evidence to be insufficient.
=== Radiotherapy ===
Low-dose radiotherapy has been shown to improve pain and mobility of affected joints, primarily in extremities. It is approximately 70-90% effective, with minimal side effects.
=== Ablation of knee sensory nerves ===
Radiofrequency ablation of sensory knee nerves, also called genicular neurotomy or genicular RFA, is an outpatient procedure used to reduce pain from knee osteoarthritis.
In the procedure for genicular RFA, a guide cannula is first directed under local anesthesia and imaging (ultrasound or fluoroscopy) to each target genicular nerve, then the radiofrequency electrode is passed through the cannula, and the electrode tip is heated to about 80 °C (176 °F) for one minute to cauterize a small segment of the nerve. The heat destroys that segment of the nerve, which is prevented from sending pain signals to the brain.
As of 2023, reviews of clinical outcomes indicated that efficacy for reducing knee pain was achieved by ablating three or more branches of the genicular nerve (one of the articular branches of the tibial nerve). Other sources indicate 4-5 genicular nerve targets may be justified for ablation to optimize pain relief, while a 2022 analysis indicated that as many as 10 genicular nerve targets for RFA would produce better long-term relief of knee pain.
Knee pain relief of 50% or more following genicular RFA may last from several months to two years, and can be repeated by the same outpatient procedure when pain recurs.
Injection of phenol may be used as a neurolytic treatment of sensory knee nerves to relieve chronic pain from knee osteoarthritis.
=== Surgery ===
==== Bone fusion ====
Arthrodesis (fusion) of the bones may be an option in some types of osteoarthritis. An example is ankle osteoarthritis, in which ankle fusion may be used in severe cases not responsive to other therapies.
==== Joint replacement ====
If the impact of symptoms of osteoarthritis on quality of life is significant and more conservative management is ineffective, joint replacement surgery may be used. Evidence supports joint replacement for both knees and hips as it is both clinically effective and cost-effective.
People who underwent total knee replacement had improved quality of life, were feeling better compared to those who did not have surgery, and may have short- and long-term benefits for quality of life in terms of pain and function. The risk of death within the first 90 days after hip and knee replacements is less than 1%. The risk of serious complications (such as prosthetic joint infections which may require removal of the artificial joint, blood clots, joint dislocations) is less than 5% after hip or knee replacements. 90% of people with a hip replacement and 80% of those with a knee replacement reported little or no arthritis related pain after the procedure. Less than 10% of artificial knees and less than 20% of artificial hips required replacements over 20 years after the initial surgery. Arthroscopic debridement of the knee, also known as "joint resurfacing" is not recommended for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis and has a limited role in people who have osteoarthritis with a meniscal tear who have failed other treatments.
==== Shoulder replacement ====
For people who have shoulder osteoarthritis and do not respond to medications, surgical options include a shoulder hemiarthroplasty (replacing a part of the joint) and a total shoulder arthroplasty (replacing the joint). Demand for this treatment is expected to increase by 750% by the year 2030. There are different options for shoulder replacement surgeries, however there is a lack of evidence in the form of high-quality randomized controlled trials to determine which type of shoulder replacement surgery is most effective in different situations, what are the risks involved with different approaches, or how the procedure compares to other treatment options. There is some low-quality evidence that indicates that when comparing total shoulder arthroplasty over hemiarthroplasty, no large clinical benefit was detected in the short term. It is not clear if the risk of harm differs between total shoulder arthroplasty and a hemiarthroplasty approach.
==== Other surgical options ====
Osteotomy may be useful in people with knee osteoarthritis, but has not been well studied, and it is unclear whether it is more effective than non-surgical treatments or other types of surgery. Arthroscopic surgery is largely not recommended, as it does not improve outcomes in knee osteoarthritis, and may result in harm. It is unclear whether surgery is beneficial in people with mild to moderate knee osteoarthritis.
=== Unverified treatments ===
==== Glucosamine and chondroitin ====
The effectiveness of glucosamine is controversial. Reviews have found it to be equal to or slightly better than placebo. A difference may exist between glucosamine sulfate and glucosamine hydrochloride, with glucosamine sulfate showing a benefit and glucosamine hydrochloride not. The evidence for glucosamine sulfate affecting osteoarthritis progression is somewhat unclear and if present likely modest. The Osteoarthritis Research Society International recommends that glucosamine be discontinued if no effect is observed after six months and the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence no longer recommends its use. Despite the difficulty in determining the efficacy of glucosamine, it remains a treatment option. The European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis (ESCEO) recommends glucosamine sulfate and chondroitin sulfate for knee osteoarthritis. Its use as a therapy for osteoarthritis is usually safe.
A 2015 Cochrane review of clinical trials of chondroitin found that most were of low quality, but that there was some evidence of short-term improvement in pain and few side effects; it does not appear to improve or maintain the health of affected joints.
==== Supplements ====
Avocado–soybean unsaponifiables (ASU) is an extract made from avocado oil and soybean oil sold under many brand names worldwide as a dietary supplement and as a prescription drug in France. A 2014 Cochrane review found that while ASU might help relieve pain in the short term for some people with osteoarthritis, it does not appear to improve or maintain the health of affected joints. The review noted a high-quality, two-year clinical trial comparing ASU to chondroitin – which has uncertain efficacy in osteoarthritis – with no difference between the two agents. The review also found there is insufficient evidence of ASU safety.
Only a few moderate-quality studies of Boswellia serrata showed small improvements in pain and function. Curcumin and s-adenosyl methionine (SAMe) showed little effect in improving pain. A 2009 Cochrane review recommended against the routine use of SAMe, as there has not been sufficient high-quality clinical research to prove its effect.
A 2021 review found that hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) had no benefit in reducing pain and improving physical function in hand or knee osteoarthritis, and the off-label use of HCQ for people with osteoarthritis should be discouraged. There is no evidence for the use of colchicine for treating the pain of hand or knee arthritis.
There is limited evidence to support the use of hyaluronan, methylsulfonylmethane, rose hip, capsaicin, or vitamin D.
==== Acupuncture and other interventions ====
While acupuncture leads to improvements in pain relief, this improvement is small and may be of questionable importance. Waiting list–controlled trials for peripheral joint osteoarthritis do show clinically relevant benefits, but these may be due to placebo effects. Acupuncture does not seem to produce long-term benefits.
Electrostimulation techniques such as TENS have been used to treat osteoarthritis in the knee. However, there is no conclusive evidence to show that it reduces pain or disability. A Cochrane review of low-level laser therapy found unclear evidence of benefit, whereas another review found short-term pain relief for osteoarthritic knees.
Further research is needed to determine if balneotherapy for osteoarthritis (mineral baths or spa treatments) improves a person's quality of life or ability to function.
There is low-quality evidence that therapeutic ultrasound may be beneficial for people with osteoarthritis of the knee; however, further research is needed to confirm and determine the degree and significance of this potential benefit. Therapeutic ultrasound is safe and reduces pain and improves physical function in knee osteoarthritis. While phonophoresis does not improve functions, it may offer greater pain relief than standard non-drug ultrasound.
There is weak evidence suggesting that electromagnetic field treatment may result in moderate pain relief; however, further research is necessary, and it is not known if electromagnetic field treatment can improve quality of life or function.
== Epidemiology ==
Globally, as of 2010, approximately 250 million people had osteoarthritis of the knee (3.6% of the population). Hip osteoarthritis affects about 0.85% of the population.
As of 2004, osteoarthritis globally causes moderate to severe disability in 43.4 million people. Together, knee and hip osteoarthritis had a ranking for disability globally of 11th among 291 disease conditions assessed.
=== Middle East and North Africa (MENA) ===
In the Middle East and North Africa from 1990 to 2019, the prevalence of people with hip osteoarthritis increased three–fold over the three decades, a total of 1.28 million cases. It increased 2.88-fold, from 6.16 million cases to 17.75 million, between 1990 and 2019 for knee osteoarthritis. Hand osteoarthritis in MENA also increased 2.7-fold, from 1.6 million cases to 4.3 million from 1990 to 2019.
=== United States ===
As of 2012, osteoarthritis affected 52.5 million people in the United States, approximately 50% of whom were 65 years or older. It is estimated that 80% of the population have radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis by age 65, although only 60% of those will have symptoms. The rate of osteoarthritis in the United States is forecast to be 78 million (26%) adults by 2040.
In the United States, there were approximately 964,000 hospitalizations for osteoarthritis in 2011, a rate of 31 stays per 10,000 population. With an aggregate cost of $14.8 billion ($15,400 per stay), it was the second-most expensive condition seen in US hospital stays in 2011. By payer, it was the second-most costly condition billed to Medicare and private insurance.
=== Europe ===
In Europe, the number of individuals affected by osteoarthritis has increased from 27.9 million in 1990 to 50.8 million in 2019. Hand osteoarthritis was the second most prevalent type, affecting an estimated 12.5 million people. In 2019, knee osteoarthritis was the 18th most common cause of years lived with disability (YLDs) in Europe, accounting for 1.28% of all YLDs. This has increased from 1.12% in 1990.
=== India ===
In India, the number of individuals affected by osteoarthritis has increased from 23.46 million in 1990 to 62.35 million in 2019. Knee osteoarthritis was the most prevalent type of osteoarthritis, followed by hand osteoarthritis. In 2019, osteoarthritis was the 20th most common cause of years lived with disability (YLDs) in India, accounting for 1.48% of all YLDs, which increased from 1.25% and 23rd most common cause in 1990.
== History ==
=== Etymology ===
Osteoarthritis is derived from the prefix osteo- (from Ancient Greek: ὀστέον, romanized: ostéon, lit. 'bone') combined with arthritis (from ἀρθρῖτῐς, arthrîtis, lit. ''of or in the joint''), which is itself derived from arthr- (from ἄρθρον, árthron, lit. ''joint, limb'') and -itis (from -ῖτις, -îtis, lit. ''pertaining to''), the latter suffix having come to be associated with inflammation. The -itis of osteoarthritis could be considered misleading as inflammation is not a conspicuous feature. Some clinicians refer to this condition as osteoarthrosis to signify the lack of inflammatory response, the suffix -osis (from -ωσις, -ōsis, lit. ''(abnormal) state, condition, or action'') simply referring to the pathosis itself.
== Other animals ==
Osteoarthritis has been reported in several species of animals all over the world, including marine animals and even some fossils; including but not limited to: cats, many rodents, cattle, deer, rabbits, sheep, camels, elephants, buffalo, hyena, lions, mules, pigs, tigers, kangaroos, dolphins, dugong, and horses.
Osteoarthritis has been reported in fossils of the large carnivorous dinosaur Allosaurus fragilis.
== Research ==
=== Therapies ===
Pharmaceutical agents that will alter the natural history of disease progression by arresting joint structural change and ameliorating symptoms are termed as disease modifying therapy. Therapies under investigation include the following:
Strontium ranelate – may decrease degeneration in osteoarthritis and improve outcomes
Gene therapy – Gene transfer strategies aim to target the disease process rather than the symptoms. Cell-mediated gene therapy is also being studied. One version was approved in South Korea for the treatment of moderate knee osteoarthritis, but later revoked for the mislabeling and the false reporting of an ingredient used. The drug was administered intra-articularly.
The anti-IL-1β monoclonal antibody canakinumab showed a reduced incidence of knee and hip replacements in those with osteoarthritis in a long term trial. IL-1β is a cytokine involved in joint destruction in osteoarthritis.
=== Cause ===
As well as attempting to find disease-modifying agents for osteoarthritis, there is emerging evidence that a system-based approach is necessary to find the causes of osteoarthritis. A study conducted by scientists at the University of Twente found that osmolarity induced intracellular molecular crowding might drive the disease pathology.
=== Diagnostic biomarkers ===
Guidelines outlining requirements for inclusion of soluble biomarkers in osteoarthritis clinical trials were published in 2015, but there are no validated biomarkers used clinically to detect osteoarthritis, as of 2021.
A 2015 systematic review of biomarkers for osteoarthritis, looking for molecules that could be used for risk assessments, found 37 different biochemical markers of bone and cartilage turnover in 25 publications. The strongest evidence was for urinary C-terminal telopeptide of type II collagen (uCTX-II) as a prognostic marker for knee osteoarthritis progression, and serum cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) levels as a prognostic marker for incidence of both knee and hip osteoarthritis. A review of biomarkers in hip osteoarthritis also found associations with uCTX-II. Procollagen type II C-terminal propeptide (PIICP) levels reflect type II collagen synthesis in body and within joint fluid PIICP levels can be used as a prognostic marker for early osteoarthritis.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Osteoarthritis". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp#:~:text=In%20April%202022%2C%20WhatsApp%20announced,opening%20up%20smaller%20discussion%20groups. | WhatsApp | WhatsApp (officially WhatsApp Messenger), owned by Meta Platforms, is an American social media, instant messaging (IM), and Voice over IP (VoIP) service accessible via desktop and mobile app. It allows users to send text messages, voice messages, and video messages, make voice and video calls, and share images, documents, user locations, and other content. The service requires a cellular mobile telephone number to register. WhatsApp was launched in May 2009. In January 2018, WhatsApp released a standalone business app called WhatsApp Business which can communicate with the standard WhatsApp client. As of May 2025, the service had 3 billion monthly active users, making it the most used messenger app. The name of the app is meant to sound like "what's up".
The service was created by WhatsApp Inc. of Mountain View, California, which was acquired by Facebook in February 2014 for approximately US$19.3 billion. It became the world's most popular messaging application in 2015, with 900 million users, and had more than 2 billion active users worldwide in February 2020. WhatsApp Business had approximately 200 million monthly users in 2023. By 2016, it had become the primary means of Internet communication in regions including the Americas, the Indian subcontinent, and large parts of Europe and Africa.
== History ==
=== 2009–2014 ===
WhatsApp was founded by Brian Acton and Jan Koum, former employees of Yahoo! Koum incorporated WhatsApp Inc. in California on February 24, 2009. A month earlier, after Koum purchased an iPhone, he and Acton decided to create an app for the App Store. The idea started off as an app that would display statuses in a phone's Contacts menu, showing if a person was at work or on a call.
Their discussions often took place at the home of Koum's Russian friend Alex Fishman in West San Jose. They realized that to take the idea further, they would need an iPhone developer. Fishman visited RentACoder.com, found Russian developer Igor Solomennikov, and introduced him to Koum.
Koum named the app WhatsApp to sound like "what's up" and it was published on the Apple App Store and BlackBerry App World in May and June 2009 respectively. However, when early versions of WhatsApp kept crashing, Koum considered giving up and looking for a new job. Acton encouraged him to wait for a "few more months".
In June 2009, when the app had been downloaded by only a handful of Fishman's Russian-speaking friends, Apple launched push technology, allowing users to be pinged even when not using the app. Koum updated WhatsApp so that everyone in the user's network would be notified when a user's status changed. This new facility, to Koum's surprise, was used by users to ping "each other with jokey custom statuses like, 'I woke up late' or 'I'm on my way.'" Fishman said, "At some point it sort of became instant messaging".
WhatsApp 2.0, released for iPhone in August 2009, featured a purpose-designed messaging component; the number of active users suddenly increased to 250,000.
Although Acton was working on another startup idea, he decided to join the company. In October 2009, Acton persuaded five former friends at Yahoo! to invest $250,000 in seed funding, and Acton became a co-founder and was given a stake. He officially joined WhatsApp on November 1. Koum then hired a friend in Los Angeles, Chris Peiffer, to develop a BlackBerry version, which arrived two months later. Subsequently, WhatsApp for Symbian OS was added in May 2010, and for Android OS in August 2010. In 2010 Google made multiple acquisition offers for WhatsApp, which were all declined.
To cover the cost of sending verification texts to users, WhatsApp was changed from a free service to a paid one. In December 2009, the ability to send photos was added to the iOS version. By early 2011, WhatsApp was one of the top 20 apps in the U.S. Apple App Store.
In April 2011, Sequoia Capital invested about $8 million for more than 15% of the company, after months of negotiation by Sequoia partner Jim Goetz.
By February 2013, WhatsApp had about 200 million active users and 50 staff members. Sequoia invested another $50 million at a $1.5 billion valuation. Some time in 2013 WhatsApp acquired Santa Clara–based startup SkyMobius, the developers of Vtok, a video and voice calling app.
As of December 2013, the service had 400 million monthly active users. That year, the company had $148 million in expenses and a net loss of $138 million.
=== 2014–2015 ===
On February 19, 2014, one year after the venture capital financing round at a $1.5 billion valuation, Facebook, Inc. (now Meta Platforms) agreed to acquire the company for US$19 billion, its largest acquisition to date. At the time, it was the largest acquisition of a venture-capital-backed company in history. Sequoia Capital received an approximate 5,000% return on its initial investment. Facebook paid $4 billion in cash, $12 billion in Facebook shares, and an additional $3 billion in restricted stock units granted to WhatsApp's founders Koum and Acton. Employee stock was scheduled to vest over four years subsequent to closing. Days after the announcement, WhatsApp users experienced a loss of service, leading to anger across social media.
The acquisition was influenced by the data provided by Onavo, Facebook's research app for monitoring competitors and trending usage of social activities on mobile phones, as well as startups that were performing "unusually well".
The acquisition caused many users to try, or move to, other message services. Telegram claimed that it acquired 8 million new users, and Line, 2 million.
At a keynote presentation at the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona in February 2014, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg said that Facebook's acquisition of WhatsApp was closely related to the Internet.org vision. A TechCrunch article said about Zuckerberg's vision:The idea, he said, is to develop a group of basic internet services that would be free of charge to use – "a 911 for the internet". These could be a social networking service like Facebook, a messaging service, maybe search and other things like weather. Providing a bundle of these free of charge to users will work like a gateway drug of sorts – users who may be able to afford data services and phones these days just don't see the point of why they would pay for those data services. This would give them some context for why they are important, and that will lead them to pay for more services like this – or so the hope goes.
Three days after announcing the Facebook purchase, Koum said they were working to introduce voice calls. He also said that new mobile phones would be sold in Germany with the WhatsApp brand, and that their ultimate goal was to be on all smartphones.
In August 2014, WhatsApp was the most popular messaging app in the world, with more than 600 million users. By early January 2015, WhatsApp had 700 million monthly users and over 30 billion messages every day. In April 2015, Forbes predicted that between 2012 and 2018, the telecommunications industry would lose $386 billion because of "over-the-top" services like WhatsApp and Skype. That month, WhatsApp had over 800 million users. By September 2015, it had grown to 900 million; and by February 2016, one billion.
On November 30, 2015, the Android WhatsApp client made links to Telegram unclickable and not copyable. Multiple sources confirmed that it was intentional, not a bug, and that it had been implemented when the Android source code that recognized Telegram URLs had been identified. (The word "telegram" appeared in WhatsApp's code.) Some considered it an anti-competitive measure; WhatsApp offered no explanation.
=== 2016–2019 ===
On January 18, 2016, WhatsApp's co-founder Jan Koum announced that it would no longer charge users a $1 annual subscription fee, in an effort to remove a barrier faced by users without payment cards. He also said that the app would not display any third-party ads, and that it would have new features such as the ability to communicate with businesses.
On May 18, 2017, the European Commission announced that it was fining Facebook €110 million for "providing misleading information about WhatsApp takeover" in 2014. The Commission said that in 2014 when Facebook acquired the messaging app, it "falsely claimed it was technically impossible to automatically combine user information from Facebook and WhatsApp." However, in the summer of 2016, WhatsApp had begun sharing user information with its parent company, allowing information such as phone numbers to be used for targeted Facebook advertisements. Facebook acknowledged the breach, but said the errors in their 2014 filings were "not intentional".
In September 2017, WhatsApp's co-founder Brian Acton left the company to start a nonprofit group, later revealed as the Signal Foundation, which developed the WhatsApp competitor Signal. He explained his reasons for leaving in an interview with Forbes a year later. WhatsApp also announced a forthcoming business platform to enable companies to provide customer service at scale, and airlines KLM and Aeroméxico announced their participation in the testing. Both airlines had previously launched customer services on the Facebook Messenger platform.
In January 2018, WhatsApp launched WhatsApp Business for small business use.
In April 2018, WhatsApp co-founder and CEO Jan Koum announced he would be leaving the company. By leaving before November 2018, due to concerns about privacy, advertising, and monetization by Facebook, Acton and Koum were initially believed to have given up $1.3 billion in unvested stock options, however, it was later reported that Koum retained $450M worth of options via a "rest and vest" program. Facebook later announced that Koum's replacement would be Chris Daniels.
On November 25, 2019, WhatsApp announced an investment of $250,000 through a partnership with Startup India to provide 500 startups with Facebook ad credits of $500 each.
In December 2019, WhatsApp announced that a new update would lock out any Apple users who had not updated to iOS 9 or higher and Samsung, Huawei, Sony and Google users who had not updated to version 4.0 by February 1, 2020. The company also reported that Windows Phone operating systems would no longer be supported after December 31, 2019. WhatsApp was announced to be the 3rd most downloaded mobile phone app of the decade 2010–2019.
=== Since 2020 ===
In March 2020, WhatsApp partnered with the World Health Organization and UNICEF to provide messaging hotlines for people to get information on the COVID-19 pandemic. In the same month, WhatsApp began testing a feature to help users find out more information and context about information they receive to help combat misinformation.
In January 2021, WhatsApp announced a controversial new privacy policy allowing WhatsApp to share data with its parent company, Facebook. This led many users to delete WhatsApp and instead use services such as Signal and Telegram. However, the WhatsApp privacy policy does not apply in the EU, since it violates the principles of GDPR. Facing criticism, WhatsApp postponed the update to May 15, 2021, and had no plans to limit functionality of users, nor nag users who did not approve the new terms.
The 2021 Facebook outage affected other platforms owned by Facebook, such as Instagram and WhatsApp.
In May 2022, WhatsApp launched its Cloud API services (now known as WhatsApp Business Platform) for larger businesses requiring features beyond the WhatsApp Business App. The Cloud API enables businesses to integrate WhatsApp with other software, have a central WhatsApp account for multiple users and implement advanced automation.
In August 2022, WhatsApp launched an integration with JioMart, available only to users in India. Local users can text special numbers in the app to launch an in-app shopping process, where they can order groceries.
In March 2024, Meta announced that WhatsApp would let third-party messaging services enable interoperability with WhatsApp, a requirement of the EU's Digital Markets Act (DMA). This allows users to send messages between other messaging apps and WhatsApp while maintaining end-to-end encryption.
== Features ==
=== Presence ===
On February 24, 2017, WhatsApp launched a new Status feature similar to Snapchat and Facebook stories. WhatsApp has rolled out a feature called 'Voice Status Updates', which allows users to record voice notes and share them as their status on the app.
WhatsApp has the facility to hide users' online status ("Last Seen"). In December 2021, WhatsApp changed the default setting from "everyone" to only people in the user's contacts or who have been conversed with ("nobody" is also an option). In 2022, WhatsApp added the ability for users to turn off their online status.
=== General texting ===
In October 2018, the "Swipe to Reply" option was added to the Android beta version, 16 months after it was introduced for iOS.
In early 2020, WhatsApp launched its "dark mode" for iPhone and Android devices – a new design consisting of a darker palette.
In October 2020, WhatsApp rolled out a feature allowing users to mute both individuals and group chats forever. The mute options are "8 hours", "1 week", and "Always". The "Always" option replaced the "1 year" option that was originally part of the settings.
In May 2023, WhatsApp allowed users to edit messages, aligning itself with competitors such as Telegram and Signal which already offered this feature. According to the company, messages could be edited within a 15-minute window after being sent. Edited messages were tagged as "edited" to inform recipients that the content had been modified. Text formatting options like code blocks, quote blocks, and bulleted lists also became available for the first time.
In October 2024, WhatsApp expanded their chat filter feature, adding the ability for users to create custom lists that contain specific chats of their choice.
=== Voice and video calling and notes ===
In August 2013, WhatsApp added voice messages to their apps, giving users a way to send short audio recordings directly in their chats.
Voice calls between two accounts were added to the app in March and April 2015. By June 2016, the company's blog reported more than 100 million voice calls per day were being placed on WhatsApp.
In November 2016, video calls between two accounts were introduced.
Later in September 2018, WhatsApp introduced group audio and video call features.
In July 2023, video messages were added to WhatsApp. Similar to voice messages, this feature allows users to record and send short videos directly in a chat. This lets users share videos of themselves more quickly, and without adding anything to their device's gallery. Currently, video messages are limited to 60 seconds.
In November 2023, WhatsApp added a "voice chat" feature for groups with more than 32 members. Unlike their 32-person group calls, starting a voice chat does not call all group members directly; they instead receive a notification to join the voice chat.
In December 2023, WhatsApp's "View Once" feature expanded to include voice messages. Voice messages sent this way are deleted after the recipient listens to them the first time.
In June 2024, improvements were made to voice and video calls, allowing up to 32 participants in video calls, adding audio to screen sharing, and introducing a new codec to increase call reliability.
In November 2024, the ability to transcribe voice messages was added, allowing users to read out what was said in a voice message, rather than listening to the audio.
In December 2024, WhatsApp introduced several new video calling features, including the ability to select specific participants from a group to make a call, rather than calling all group members. Visual effects also became available, adding visual filters to a user's video feed.
=== File sharing ===
In November 2010, a slate of improvements for the iOS version of WhatsApp were released, including the ability to search for messages in your chat history, trimming long videos to a sendable size, the ability to cancel media messages as they upload or download, and previewing photos before sending them. In March 2012, WhatsApp improved its location-sharing function, allowing users to share not only their location, but also the location of places, such as restaurants or hotels.
In July 2017, WhatsApp added support for file uploads of all file types, with a limit of 100 MB. Previously between March 2016 and May 2017, only limited file types categorised as images (JPG, PNG, GIF), videos (MP4, AVI), and documents (CSV, DOC/DOCX, PDF, PPT/PPTX, RTF, TXT, XLS/XLSX), were allowed to be shared for file attachments.
In July 2021, WhatsApp announced forthcoming support for sending uncompressed images and videos in 3 options: Auto, Best Quality and Data Saver.
In May 2022, the file upload limit was raised from 100 MB to 2 GB, and the maximum group size increased to 512 members.
=== Security and encryption ===
On November 10, 2016, WhatsApp launched a beta version of two-factor authentication for Android users, which allowed them to use their email addresses for further protection. Also in November 2016, Facebook ceased collecting WhatsApp data for advertising in Europe.
In October 2019, WhatsApp officially launched a new fingerprint app-locking feature for Android users.
In July 2021, WhatsApp announced forthcoming support for end-to-end encryption for backups stored in Facebook's cloud.
In August 2021, WhatsApp launched a feature that allows chat history to be transferred between mobile operating systems. This was implemented only on Samsung phones, with plans to expand to Android and iOS "soon".
In October 2023 they also introduced passkey support, where a user can verify their login with on-device biometrics, rather than SMS. In November 2023, WhatsApp also began rolling out support for sending login codes to a linked email address, rather than via SMS. In a later update on November 30, WhatsApp added a Secret Code feature, which allows those who use locked chats to enter a unique password that hides those chats from view when unlocking the app.
=== Linked and multi-device support ===
In January 2015, WhatsApp launched a web client that allowed users to scan a QR code with their mobile app, mirroring their chats to their browser. The web client was not standalone, and required the user's phone to stay on and connected to the internet. It was also not available for iOS users on launch, due to limitations from Apple. Since then, linked devices support has expanded and more information is written in the Platform Support part of this article.
In July 2021 the company was also testing multi-device support, allowing computer users to run WhatsApp without an active phone session.
In April 2023, the app rolled out a feature that would allow account access across multiple phones, in a shift that would make it more like competitors. Messages would still be end-to-end encrypted. WhatsApp officially rolled out the Companion mode for Android users, allowing linking up to five Android phones to a single account. Now, the feature is also made available to iOS users, allowing them to link up to four iPhones.
In October 2023, support for logging in to multiple (meaning two) accounts was added, allowing users to switch between different WhatsApp accounts in the same app.
=== Stickers and avatars ===
On October 25, 2018, WhatsApp announced support for Stickers. Unlike other platforms, WhatsApp requires third-party apps to add Stickers to WhatsApp.
In March 2021, WhatsApp started rolling out support for third-party animated stickers, initially in Iran, Brazil and Indonesia, then worldwide.
In December 2022, WhatsApp launched 3D digital avatars. Users are able to use an avatar as their profile picture or use it for stickers during instant messaging, similar to those offered by Bitmoji or Memoji.
=== Communities and Channels ===
In April 2022, WhatsApp announced undated plans to roll out a Communities feature allowing several group chats to exist in a shared space, getting unified notifications and opening up smaller discussion groups. The company also announced plans to implement reactions, the ability for administrators to delete messages in groups and voice calls up to 32 participants.
In June 2023, a feature called WhatsApp Channels was launched which allows content creators, public figures and organizations to send newsletter-like broadcasts to large numbers of users. Unlike messages in groups or private chats, channels are not end-to-end encrypted. Channels were initially only available to users in Colombia and Singapore, then later Egypt, Chile, Malaysia, Morocco, Ukraine, Kenya and Peru before becoming widely available in September 2023.
=== Artificial intelligence ===
In April 2024, an AI-powered "Smart Assistant" became widely available in WhatsApp, allowing users to ask it questions or have it complete tasks such as generating images. The assistant is based on the LLaMa 3 model, and is also available on other Meta platforms like Facebook and Instagram. WhatsApp also introduced chat filters, allowing users to sort their chats by All, Unread or Groups.
In September 2024, WhatsApp expanded support for Meta AI, allowing users to send text and photos to Meta AI to ask questions, identify objects, translate text or edit pictures.
In December 2024, WhatsApp introduced a reverse image search feature, allowing users to verify image authenticity directly within the app using Google Search.
=== About ===
In November 2025, WhatsApp announced that they would update their About feature, which allows users to add a short message to explain what they are doing. By default, it is set to disappear in 24 hours, but it can be set for a longer amount of time and can be restricted for viewing by other contacts in the Settings menu. According to WhatsApp, this update was made for the incoming Christmas period for users to inform their contacts on their activities during the holidays. Prior to the update, the feature was "largely hidden within the apps menus" and difficult to find, with the reason for updating being that WhatsApp wanted the feature to be used more often. Engadget called the revamped feature "WhatsApp’s version of an AIM away message" and likened it to Instagram's and Facebook's Notes.
== Platform support ==
Currently, WhatsApp's principal platforms, which are fully supported, are devices supporting mobile telephony running Android, and iPhones. As of 2025, the software requires at least Android version 5.0 or iOS version 15.1 respectively. This table details platform support history.
=== Linked devices ===
Linked devices are secondary devices running the WhatsApp messenger software. They link to and sync with WhatsApp actively running on a supported primary phone. Up to four linked devices can be added per user account. Linked devices automatically log out after 14 days of inactivity on the primary phone. Linked devices allow the service to be used on multiple other platforms like desktop computers and smartwatches (e.g. WhatsApp Web, Facebook Portal), but also on other smartphones (called companions).
Originally it was required for the primary phone to keep an online connection to WhatsApp for linked devices to work, but now WhatsApp can run on linked devices without such requirement. This ability (named multi-device support) began testing in July 2021 and rolled out to all users in April 2023.
==== WhatsApp Web ====
WhatsApp was officially made available for PCs through a web client, under the name WhatsApp Web, released on January 21, 2015. WhatsApp Web is accessed through web.whatsapp.com and access is granted after the user scans their personal QR code through their mobile WhatsApp client. The desktop version was first only available to Android, BlackBerry, and Windows Phone users. Later on, it also added support for iOS, Nokia Series 40, and Nokia S60 (Symbian).
Previously the WhatsApp user's handset had to be connected to the Internet for the browser application to function but as of an update in October 2021 (and integrated by default in WhatsApp as of April 2022) that is no longer the case. When this multi-device feature was first introduced to Android and iOS users, it could only show messages for the last three months on the Web version, because the Web version was syncing with the phone. Since the complete roll out of this feature, users cannot check old messages before this period on the Web version anymore.
There are similar unofficial WhatsApp solutions for macOS, such as the open-source ChitChat, previously known as WhatsMac.
==== Windows and Mac ====
On May 10, 2016, the messenger was introduced for both Microsoft Windows and macOS operating systems. Support for video and voice calls from desktop clients was later added. Similar to the WhatsApp Web format, the app, which synchronises with a user's mobile device, is available for download on the website. It supported operating systems Windows 8 and OS X 10.10 and higher.
In 2023, WhatsApp replaced the Electron-based apps with native versions for their respective platforms. The Windows version is based on UWP while the Mac version is a port of the iOS version using Catalyst technology.
In July 2025, WhatsApp stopped developing the Windows UWP-based app due to poor support and deprecation of the UWP framework by Microsoft. WhatsApp for Windows transitioned over to the Microsoft Edge WebView2 framework, marking a return to utilising a web-based framework (just like Electron previously) instead of a native framework. The WebView2-based app has been criticised for its sluggish performance, high RAM usage, and requirement to keep the app running in the background to receive push notifications, compared to the previous native version.
==== iPad ====
WhatsApp has been officially supported for iPads and its iPadOS since May 27, 2025. Similarly to WhatsApp for web, Windows, Mac, and smartwatches, the iPad is a type of linked device that connects and syncs to WhatsApp running on a smartphone.
==== Smartwatches ====
WhatsApp added support for Android Wear (now called Wear OS) in 2014.
== Technical ==
WhatsApp uses a customized version of the open standard Extensible messaging and presence protocol (XMPP). A 2019 document released by the DOJ confirms this by naming "FunXMPP" as the protocol used by WhatsApp. The document was part of a lawsuit by WhatsApp and Meta against the NSO Group for their Pegasus malware. Upon installation, it creates a user account using the user's phone number as the username (Jabber ID: [phone number]@s.whatsapp.net).
WhatsApp automatically compares all the phone numbers from the device's address book with its central database of WhatsApp users to automatically add contacts to the user's WhatsApp contact list. Previously the Android and Nokia Series 40 versions used an MD5-hashed, reversed-version of the phone's IMEI as a password, while the iOS version used the phone's Wi-Fi MAC address instead of the IMEI. A 2012 update implemented generation of a random password on the server side. Alternatively a user can also contact any other WhatsApp user through the URL https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=[phone number] where [phone number] is the number of the contact including the country code.
Some devices using dual SIMs may not be compatible with WhatsApp, though there are unofficial workarounds to install the app.
In February 2015, WhatsApp implemented voice calling, which helped WhatsApp to attract a different segment of the user population. WhatsApp's voice codec is Opus, which uses the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) and linear predictive coding (LPC) audio compression algorithms. WhatsApp uses Opus at 8–16 kHz sampling rates. On November 14, 2016, WhatsApp added video calling for users using Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone devices.
In November 2017, WhatsApp implemented a feature giving users seven minutes to delete messages sent by mistake.
Multimedia messages are sent by uploading the image, audio or video to be sent to an HTTP server and then sending a link to the content along with its Base64 encoded thumbnail, if applicable.
WhatsApp uses a "store and forward" mechanism for exchanging messages between two users. When a user sends a message, it is stored on a WhatsApp server, which tries to forward it to the addressee, and repeatedly requests acknowledgement of receipt. When the message is acknowledged, the server deletes it; if undelivered after 30 days, it is also deleted.
=== End-to-end encryption ===
On November 18, 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced a partnership with WhatsApp to provide end-to-end encryption by incorporating the encryption protocol used in Signal into each WhatsApp client platform. Open Whisper Systems said that they had already incorporated the protocol into the latest WhatsApp client for Android, and that support for other clients, group/media messages, and key verification would be coming soon after. WhatsApp confirmed the partnership to reporters, but there was no announcement or documentation about the encryption feature on the official website, and further requests for comment were declined. In April 2015, German magazine Heise security used ARP spoofing to confirm that the protocol had been implemented for Android-to-Android messages, and that WhatsApp messages from or to iPhones running iOS were still not end-to-end encrypted. They expressed the concern that regular WhatsApp users still could not tell the difference between end-to-end encrypted messages and regular messages.
On April 5, 2016, WhatsApp and Open Whisper Systems announced that they had finished adding end-to-end encryption to "every form of communication" on WhatsApp, and that users could now verify each other's keys. Users were also given the option to enable a trust on first use mechanism to be notified if a correspondent's key changes. According to a white paper that was released along with the announcement, WhatsApp messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol. WhatsApp calls are encrypted with SRTP, and all client-server communications are "layered within a separate encrypted channel".
On October 14, 2021, WhatsApp rolled out end-to-end encryption for backups on Android and iOS. The feature has to be turned on by the user and provides the option to encrypt the backup either with a password or a 64-digit encryption key.
The application can store encrypted copies of the chat messages onto the SD card, but chat messages are also stored unencrypted in the SQLite database file "msgstore.db".
WhatsApp uses the Sender Keys protocol.
=== WhatsApp Payments ===
WhatsApp Payments (marketed as WhatsApp Pay) is a peer-to-peer money transfer feature. The service became generally available in India and Brazil, and in Singapore for WhatsApp Business transactions only.
==== India ====
In July 2017, WhatsApp received permission from the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) to enter into partnership with multiple Indian banks, for transactions over Unified Payments Interface (UPI), which relies on mobile phone numbers to make account-to-account transfers. In November 2020, UPI payments via WhatsApp were initially restricted to 20 million users, and to 100 million users in April 2022, and became generally available to everyone in August 2022.
=== Facebook/WhatsApp cryptocurrency project, 2019–2022 ===
On February 28, 2019, The New York Times reported that Facebook was "hoping to succeed where Bitcoin failed" by developing an in-house cryptocurrency that would be incorporated into WhatsApp. The project reportedly involved more than 50 engineers under the direction of former PayPal president David A. Marcus. This "Facebook coin" would reportedly be a stablecoin pegged to the value of a basket of different foreign currencies.
In June 2019, Facebook said that the project would be named Libra, and that a digital wallet named "Calibra" was to be integrated into Facebook and WhatsApp. After financial regulators in many regions raised concerns, Facebook stated that the currency, renamed Diem since December 2020, would require a government-issued ID for verification, and the wallet app would have fraud protection. Calibra was rebranded to Novi in May 2020.
Meta (formerly Facebook) ended its Novi project on September 1, 2022.
== Controversies and criticism ==
=== Misinformation ===
WhatsApp has repeatedly imposed limits on message forwarding in response to the spread of misinformation in countries including India and Australia. The measure, first introduced in 2018 to combat spam, was expanded and remained active in 2021. WhatsApp stated that the forwarding limits had helped to curb the spread of misinformation regarding COVID-19.
==== Murders in India ====
In India, WhatsApp encouraged people to report messages that were fraudulent or incited violence after lynch mobs in India murdered innocent people because of malicious WhatsApp messages falsely accusing the victims of intending to abduct children. There were a series of incidents between 2017 and 2020, after which WhatsApp announced changes for Indian users of the platform that labels forwarded messages as such.
==== 2018 elections in Brazil ====
In an investigation on the use of social media in politics, it was found that WhatsApp was being abused for the spread of fake news in the 2018 presidential elections in Brazil. It was reported that US$3 million was spent in illegal concealed contributions related to this practice.
Researchers and journalists called on WhatsApp's parent company, Facebook, to adopt measures similar to those adopted in India and restrict the spread of hoaxes and fake news.
=== Security and privacy ===
WhatsApp was initially criticized for its lack of encryption, sending information as plaintext. Encryption was first added in May 2012. End-to-end encryption was only fully implemented in April 2016 after a two-year process. As of September 2021, it is known that WhatsApp makes extensive use of outside contractors and artificial intelligence systems to examine certain user messages, images and videos (those that have been flagged by users as possibly abusive); and turns over to law enforcement metadata including critical account and location information.
In 2016, WhatsApp was widely praised for the addition of end-to-end encryption and earned a 6 out of 7 points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's "Secure Messaging Scorecard". WhatsApp was criticized by security researchers and the Electronic Frontier Foundation for using backups that are not covered by end-to-end encryption and allow messages to be accessed by third-parties.
In May 2019, a security vulnerability in WhatsApp was found and fixed that allowed a remote person to install spyware by making a call which did not need to be answered.
In September 2019, WhatsApp was criticized for its implementation of a 'delete for everyone' feature. iOS users can elect to save media to their camera roll automatically. When a user deletes media for everyone, WhatsApp does not delete images saved in the iOS camera roll and so those users are able to keep the images. WhatsApp released a statement saying that "the feature is working properly", and that images stored in the camera roll cannot be deleted due to Apple's security layers.
In November 2019, WhatsApp released a new privacy feature that let users decide who can add them to groups.
In December 2019, WhatsApp confirmed a security flaw that would allow hackers to use a malicious GIF image file to gain access to the recipient's data. When the recipient opened the gallery within WhatsApp, even if not sending the malicious image, the hack is triggered and the device and its contents become vulnerable. The flaw was patched and users were encouraged to update WhatsApp.
On December 17, 2019, WhatsApp fixed a security flaw that allowed cyber attackers to repeatedly crash the messaging application for all members of group chat, which could only be fixed by forcing the complete uninstall and reinstall of the app. The bug was discovered by Check Point in August 2019 and reported to WhatsApp. It was fixed in version 2.19.246 onwards.
For security purposes, since February 1, 2020, WhatsApp has been made unavailable on smartphones using legacy operating systems like Android 2.3.7 or older and iPhone iOS 8 or older that are no longer updated by their providers.
In April 2020, the NSO Group held its governmental clients accountable for the allegation of human rights abuses by WhatsApp. In its revelation via documents received from court, the group claimed that the lawsuit brought against the company by WhatsApp threatened to infringe on its clients' "national security and foreign policy concerns". However, the company did not reveal names of the end users, which according to a research by Citizen Lab include, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates.
On December 16, 2020, a claim that WhatsApp gave Google access to private messages was included in the anti-trust case against the latter. As the complaint was heavily redacted due to being an ongoing case, it did not disclose whether this was alleged tampering with the app's end-to-end encryption, or Google accessing user backups.
In January 2021, WhatsApp announced an updated privacy policy which stated that WhatsApp would share user data with Facebook and its "family of companies" beginning February 2021. Previously, users could opt-out of such data sharing, but the new policy removed this option. The new privacy policy would not apply within the EU, as it is illegal under the GDPR. Facebook and WhatsApp were widely criticized for this move. The enforcement of the privacy policy was postponed from February 8 to May 15, 2021, WhatsApp announced they had no plans to limit the functionality of the app for those who did not approve the new terms.
On October 15, 2021, WhatsApp announced that it would begin offering an end-to-end encryption service for chat backups, meaning no third party (including both WhatsApp and the cloud storage vendor) would have access to a user's information. This new encryption feature added an additional layer of protection to chat backups stored either on Apple iCloud or Google Drive.
On November 29, 2021, an FBI document was uncovered by Rolling Stone, revealing that WhatsApp responds to warrants and subpoenas from law enforcement within minutes, providing user metadata to the authorities. The metadata includes the user's contact information and address book.
In January 2022, an unsealed surveillance application revealed that WhatsApp started tracking seven users from China and Macau in November 2021, based on a request from US DEA investigators. The app collected data on who the users contacted and how often, and when and how they were using the app. This is reportedly not an isolated occurrence, as federal agencies can use the Electronic Communications Privacy Act to covertly track users without submitting any probable cause or linking a user's number to their identity.
At the beginning of 2022, it was revealed that San Diego–based startup Boldend had developed tools to hack WhatsApp's encryption, gaining access to user data, at some point since the startup's inception in 2017. The vulnerability was reportedly patched in January 2021. Boldend is financed, in part, by Peter Thiel, a notable investor in Facebook.
In September 2022, a critical security issue in WhatsApp's Android video call feature was reported. An integer overflow bug allowed a malicious user to take full control of the victim's application once a video call between two WhatsApp users was established. The issue was patched on the day it was officially reported.
In 2025, WhatsApp alerted 90 journalists and other members of civil society that they had been targeted by spyware used by the Israeli technology company Paragon Solutions.In April 2025, a group of Austrian researchers were able to extract 3.5 billion users' phone numbers by being able to make a hundred million contact discovery requests an hour, a flaw that exposed previous warnings from researchers in 2017 were not addressed. The researchers notified, Meta (who updated the enumeration problem in October), and deleted their copy of the phone numbers.
==== UK institutions ====
As of 2023, WhatsApp is widely used by government institutions in the UK, although such use is viewed as problematical since it hinders the public, including journalists, from obtaining accurate government records when making freedom of information requests.
The information commissioner has said that the use of WhatsApp posed risks to transparency since members of Parliament, government ministers, and officials who wished to avoid scrutiny might use WhatsApp despite there being official channels. Transparency campaigners have challenged the practice in court.
Notably, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the UK government routinely used WhatsApp to make decisions on managing the crisis, including on personal rather than government-issued devices. When the official inquiry into the pandemic began seeking evidence in May 2023, this presented issues for its ability to gather the material it sought. A personal device of the former Prime Minister, Boris Johnson, had been compromised by a security breach, and it was claimed that it could not be switched on to recover messages. Further, the Cabinet Office had claimed that since many messages were not relevant to the inquiry, it only needed to hand over material it had
selected as being relevant. The High Court, in a judicial review sought by the Cabinet Office, declared that all documents sought by the inquiry were to be handed over unredacted.
In 2018, it was reported that around 500,000 National Health Service (NHS) staff used WhatsApp and other instant messaging systems at work and around 29,000 had faced disciplinary action for doing so. Higher usage was reported by frontline clinical staff to keep up with care needs, even though NHS trust policies do not permit their use.
==== Mods and fake versions ====
In March 2019, WhatsApp released a guide for users who had installed unofficial modified versions of WhatsApp and warned that it may ban those using unofficial clients.
==== WhatsApp snooping scandal ====
In May 2019, WhatsApp was attacked by hackers who installed spyware on a number of victims' smartphones. The hack, allegedly developed by Israeli surveillance technology firm NSO Group, injected malware onto WhatsApp users' phones via a remote-exploit bug in the app's Voice over IP calling functions. A Wired report noted the attack was able to inject malware via calls to the targeted phone, even if the user did not answer the call.
In October 2019, WhatsApp filed a lawsuit against NSO Group in a San Francisco court, claiming that the alleged cyberattack violated US laws including the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). According to WhatsApp, the exploit "targeted at least 100 human-rights defenders, journalists and other members of civil society" among a total of 1,400 users in 20 countries.
In April 2020, the NSO Group held its governmental clients accountable for the allegation of human rights abuses by WhatsApp. In its revelation via documents received via court, the group claimed that the lawsuit brought against the company by WhatsApp threatened to infringe on its clients' "national security and foreign policy concerns". However, the company did not reveal the names of the end users, which according to research by Citizen Lab include, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates.
In July 2020, a US federal judge ruled that the lawsuit against NSO group could proceed. NSO Group filed a motion to have the lawsuit dismissed, but the judge denied all of its arguments.
==== Jeff Bezos phone hack ====
In January 2020, a digital forensic analysis revealed that the Amazon founder Jeff Bezos received an encrypted message on WhatsApp from the official account of Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. The message reportedly contained a malicious file, the receipt of which resulted in Bezos' phone being hacked. The United Nations' special rapporteur David Kaye and Agnes Callamard later confirmed that Jeff Bezos' phone was hacked through WhatsApp, as he was one of the targets of Saudi's hit list of individuals close to The Washington Post journalist Jamal Khashoggi.
==== FBI ====
In 2021, an FBI document obtained through a Freedom of Information request by Property of the People, Inc., a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, revealed that WhatsApp and iMessage are vulnerable to law-enforcement real-time searches.
==== Tek Fog ====
In January 2022, an investigation by The Wire claimed that BJP, an Indian political party, allegedly used an app called Tek Fog which was capable of hacking inactive WhatsApp accounts en masse to mass message their contacts with propaganda. According to the report, a whistleblower with app access was able to hack a test WhatsApp account controlled by reporters "within minutes." It was later determined that staff of their Meta investigative team had been duped by false information; The Wire fired the staff member involved and issued a formal apology to its readers.
=== Terrorism ===
In December 2015, it was reported that terrorist organization ISIS had been using WhatsApp to plot the November 2015 Paris attacks. According to The Independent, ISIS also uses WhatsApp to traffic sex slaves.
In March 2017, British Home Secretary Amber Rudd said encryption capabilities of messaging tools like WhatsApp are unacceptable, as news reported that Khalid Masood used the application several minutes before perpetrating the 2017 Westminster attack. Rudd publicly called for police and intelligence agencies to be given access to WhatsApp and other encrypted messaging services to prevent future terror attacks.
In April 2017, the perpetrator of the Stockholm truck attack reportedly used WhatsApp to exchange messages with an ISIS supporter shortly before and after the incident. The messages involved discussing how to make an explosive device and a confession to the attack.
In April 2017, nearly 300 WhatsApp groups with about 250 members each were reportedly being used to mobilize stone-pelters in Jammu and Kashmir to disrupt security forces' operations at encounter sites. According to police, 90% of these groups were closed down after police contacted their admins. Further, after a six-month probe which involved the infiltration of 79 WhatsApp groups, the National Investigation Agency reported that out of about 6386 members and admins of these groups, about 1000 were residents of Pakistan and gulf nations. Further, for their help in negating anti-terror operations, the Indian stone pelters were getting funded through barter trade from Pakistan and other indirect means.
In May 2022, the FBI stated that an ISIS sympathizer, who was plotting to assassinate George W. Bush, was arrested based on his WhatsApp data. According to the arrest warrant for the suspect, his WhatsApp account was placed under surveillance.
=== Scams and malware ===
There are numerous ongoing scams on WhatsApp that let hackers spread viruses or malware. In May 2016, some WhatsApp users were reported to have been tricked into downloading a third-party application called WhatsApp Gold, which was part of a scam that infected the users' phones with malware. A message that promises to allow access to their WhatsApp friends' conversations, or their contact lists, has become the most popular hit against anyone who uses the application in Brazil. Clicking on the message actually sends paid text messages. Since December 2016, more than 1.5 million people have clicked and lost money.
Another application called GB WhatsApp is considered malicious by cybersecurity firm Symantec because it usually performs some unauthorized operations on end-user devices.
=== Bans ===
==== China ====
WhatsApp is owned by Meta, whose main social media service Facebook has been blocked in China since 2009. In September 2017, security researchers reported to The New York Times that the WhatsApp service had been completely blocked in China. On April 19, 2024, Apple removed WhatsApp from the App Store in China, citing government orders that stemmed from national security concerns.
==== Iran ====
On May 9, 2014, the government of Iran announced that it had proposed to block the access to WhatsApp service to Iranian residents. "The reason for this is the assumption of WhatsApp by the Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, who is an American Zionist", said Abdolsamad Khorramabadi, head of the country's Committee on Internet Crimes. Subsequently, Iranian president Hassan Rouhani issued an order to the Ministry of ICT to stop filtering WhatsApp. It was blocked permanently until Meta answers September 2022.
==== Turkey ====
Turkey temporarily banned WhatsApp in 2016, following the assassination of the Russian ambassador to Turkey.
==== Brazil ====
On March 1, 2016, Diego Dzodan, Facebook's vice-president for Latin America was arrested in Brazil for not cooperating with an investigation in which WhatsApp conversations were requested. On March 2, 2016, at dawn the next day, Dzodan was released because the Court of Appeal held that the arrest was disproportionate and unreasonable.
On May 2, 2016, mobile providers in Brazil were ordered to block WhatsApp for 72 hours for the service's second failure to cooperate with criminal court orders. Once again, the block was lifted following an appeal, after less than 24 hours.
Brazil's Central Bank issued an order to payment card companies Visa and Mastercard on June 23, 2020, to stop working with WhatsApp on its new electronic payment system. A statement from the Bank asserted the decision to block the Facebook-owned company's latest offering was taken to "preserve an adequate competitive environment" in the mobile payments space and to ensure "functioning of a payment system that's interchangeable, fast, secure, transparent, open and cheap."
==== Uganda ====
The government of Uganda banned WhatsApp and Facebook, along with other social media platforms, to enforce a tax on the use of social media. Users are to be charged USh.200/= per day to access these services according to the new law set by parliament.
==== United Arab Emirates (UAE) ====
The United Arab Emirates banned WhatsApp video chat and VoIP call applications in as early as 2013 due to what is often reported as an effort to protect the commercial interests of their home grown nationally owned telecom providers (du and Etisalat). Their app ToTok has received press suggesting it is able to spy on users.
==== Cuba ====
In July 2021, the Cuban government blocked access to several social media platforms, including WhatsApp, to curb the spread of information during the anti-government protests.
==== Switzerland ====
In December 2021, the Swiss army banned the use of WhatsApp and several other non-Swiss encrypted messaging services by army personnel. The ban was prompted by concerns of US authorities potentially accessing user data for such apps because of the CLOUD Act. The army recommended that all army personnel use Threema instead, as the service is based in Switzerland.
==== Zambia ====
In August 2021, the digital rights organization Access Now reported that WhatsApp along with several other social media apps was being blocked in Zambia for the duration of the general election. The organization reported a massive drop-off in traffic for the blocked services, though the country's government made no official statements about the block.
==== Saudi Arabia ====
The Saudi Central Bank (SAMA) has prohibited local banks from using instant messaging applications like WhatsApp for customer communication. This decision aims to enhance data security and protect customer information.
==== Russia ====
28 November 2025 Russia threatens full ban on WhatsApp.
==== Third-party clients ====
In mid-2013, WhatsApp Inc. filed for the DMCA takedown of the discussion thread on the XDA Developers forums about the then popular third-party client "WhatsApp Plus".
In 2015, some third-party WhatsApp clients that were reverse-engineering the WhatsApp mobile app, received a cease and desist to stop activities that were violating WhatsApp legal terms. As a result, users of third-party WhatsApp clients were also banned.
== WhatsApp Business ==
WhatsApp launched two business-oriented apps in January 2018, separated by the intended userbase:
A WhatsApp Business app for small companies
An Enterprise Solution known as WhatsApp Business Platform for bigger companies with global customer bases, such as airlines, e-commerce retailers and banks, who would be able to offer customer service and conversational commerce (e-commerce) via WhatsApp chat, using live agents or chatbots (as far back as 2015, companies like Meteordesk had provided unofficial solutions for enterprises to attend to large numbers of users, but these were shut down by WhatsApp)
This solution was originally available as on-premise only, but in 2022, WhatsApp Cloud API became available. The on-premise API has been deprecated and will be fully sunset on October 23, 2025.
As WhatsApp API does not have a frontend interface, businesses need to subscribe through one of Meta's approved Business Solution Providers. Examples of these include respond.io, Gupshup, Trengo, Wati and Manychat.
In October 2020, Facebook announced the introduction of pricing tiers for services offered via the WhatsApp Business API, charged on a per-conversation basis. On July 1, 2025, a new pricing tier system came into effect which charges per-message rather than per-conversation.
== User statistics ==
WhatsApp handled ten billion messages per day in August 2012, growing from two billion in April 2012, and one billion the previous October. On June 13, 2013, WhatsApp announced that they had reached their new daily record by processing 27 billion messages. According to the Financial Times, WhatsApp "has done to SMS on mobile phones what Skype did to international calling on landlines".
By April 22, 2014, WhatsApp had over 500 million monthly active users, 700 million photos and 100 million videos were being shared daily, and the messaging system was handling more than 10 billion messages each day.
On August 24, 2014, Koum announced on his Twitter account that WhatsApp had over 600 million active users worldwide. At that point WhatsApp was adding about 25 million new users every month, or 833,000 active users per day.
In May 2017, it was reported that WhatsApp users spend over 340 million minutes on video calls each day on the app. This is the equivalent of roughly 646 years of video calls per day.
By February 2017, WhatsApp had over 1.2 billion users globally, reaching 1.5 billion monthly active users by the end of 2017.
In January 2020, WhatsApp reached over 5 billion installs on Google Play Store making it only the second non-Google app to achieve this milestone.
In February 2020, WhatsApp had over 2 billion users globally.
In May 2025, Meta reported WhatsApp had over 3 billion monthly active users globally.
=== Specific markets ===
India is by far WhatsApp's largest market in terms of total number of users. In May 2014, WhatsApp crossed 50 million monthly active users in India, which is also its largest country by the number of monthly active users, then 70 million in October 2014, making users in India 10% of WhatsApp's total user base. In February 2017, WhatsApp reached 200 million monthly active users in India.
Israel is one of WhatsApp's strongest markets in terms of ubiquitous usage. According to Globes, already by 2013 the application was installed on 92% of all smartphones, with 86% of users reporting daily use.
In July 2024, WhatsApp reached 100 million users in the United States.
=== Competition ===
WhatsApp competes with messaging services including iMessage (estimated 1.3 billion active users), WeChat (1.26 billion active users), Telegram (900 million users), Viber (260 million active users), LINE (217 million active users), KakaoTalk (57 million active users), and Signal (70 million active users). Both Telegram and Signal in particular were reported to get registration spikes during WhatsApp outages and controversies.
WhatsApp has increasingly drawn its innovation from competing services, such as a Telegram-inspired web version and features for groups. In 2016, WhatsApp was accused of copying features from a then-unreleased version of iMessage.
== See also ==
Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients
Comparison of user features of messaging platforms
Comparison of VoIP software – Voice over IP software comparison
Criticism of Facebook
Instagram – Social media platform owned by Meta
List of most-downloaded Google Play applications
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Media related to WhatsApp at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._B._Gajendragadkar | P. B. Gajendragadkar | Pralhad Balacharya Gajendragadkar (16 March 1901 – 12 June 1981) was the 7th Chief Justice of India, serving from February 1964 to March 1966.
== Early life and career ==
Prahlad Balacharya Gajendragadkar was born into a Deshastha Madhva Brahmin family on 16 March 1901 to Gajendragadkar Balacharya in Satara, Bombay Presidency. Gajendragadkar's family migrated from Gajendragad, a town in Dharwad district in Karnataka to Satara (now part of Maharashtra). Gajendragadkar's father Bal-Acharya (Teacher) was a Sanskrit Vidwan (scholar). P. B. Gajendragadkar, the youngest son of Bal-Acharya followed his older brother Ashvathama-Acharys to Mumbai. He passed M.A. from Deccan College (Pune) in 1924 and LL.B. with honors from the ILS Law College in 1926 and joined the Bombay Bar on the Appellate side. In the early days, he edited the 'Hindu Law Quarterly. His critical edition of the classic 'Dattaka Mimamsa' earned him a great reputation for scholarship. He became the acknowledged leader of the Bombay Bar, well known for his forensic skill and legal acumen. He was influenced by Jawaharlal Nehru's rationality and scholasticism.
In 1945, he was appointed a Judge of the Bombay High Court. In January 1956, he was elevated to the Supreme Court Bench and rose to become the Chief Justice of India in 1964. His contribution to the development of Constitutional and Industrial Law has been hailed as great and unique. Over the course of his tenure of the Supreme Court, he authored 494 judgements and sat on 1,337 benches.
Gajendragadkar intervened and got the then Chief Justice of the Madras High Court S. Ramachandra Iyer to resign after a lawyer G. Vasantha Pai found evidence that he forged his date of birth to avoid compulsory retirement at the age of 60 as the case filed by Pai would severely damage the judiciary and he got Ramachandra Iyer to resign before the case came up for hearing this led the case to be dismissed as he had already resigned his lordship.
At the request of the Government of India, he headed a number of commissions such as the Central Law Commission, National Commission on Labour and the Bank Award Commission. At the request of Indira Gandhi, then the Prime Minister of India, he held the honorary office of the Gandhigram Rural Institute in Southern India.
He served twice as the President of Social Reform Conference and organized campaigns for eradicating the evils of casteism, untouchability, superstition and obscurantism to promote national integration and unity.
Gajendragadkar also carried forward the Madhva tradition of Vedanta and Mimasa. He served as the General Editor of 'The Ten Classical Upanishads', a series sponsored by the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Like his father, Gajendragadkar was also a Mukhasta-vidwan.
== Personal life ==
Gajendragadkar had 2 daughters, Dr. (Mrs.) Sharad Jahagirdar, a renowned gynaecologist who resided in Mumbai, and Asha Kirtane, an artist residing in Pune. His eldest daughter, Dr. (Mrs.) Sharad Jahagirdar married Justice Raghavendra Jahagirdar who served as a judge on the Bombay High Court.
== Education ==
Satara High School (1911 to 1918)
Karnatak College, Dharwar (1918–1920)
Deccan College (Pune) (1920 to 1924)
Dakshina Fellow (1922–24)
Bhagwandas Purshotamdas Sanskrit Scholar (1922–24)
ILS Law College (1924–26)
== Positions held ==
Judge Bombay High Court 1945–57
Judge, Supreme Court - 1957
Chief Justice of India from 1 February 1964. Retired on 15 March 1966
Honorary Vice-Chancellor of the University of Mumbai (1967)
== Books ==
Open Library P. B. Gajendragadkar
== Awards ==
In 1972, Gajendragadkar was awarded the Padma Vibhushan award from the Government of India.
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000). A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, 3rd Edition. Motilal Banarsidass (2008 Reprint). ISBN 978-8120815759. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jitendra_Kumar_Maheshwari | Jitendra Kumar Maheshwari | Jitendra Kumar Maheshwari (born 29 June 1961) is a judge of the Supreme Court of India. He was formerly chief justice of the Sikkim and Andhra Pradesh high courts and judge of Madhya Pradesh High Court. He was born in Joura, Madhya Pradesh. He was a practicing lawyer in Gwalior before he got elevated to the bench.
== Early life and education ==
Maheshwari was born on 29 June 1961 in a small town named Joura of Morena District, Madhya Pradesh. He graduated in arts in 1982 and passed LL.B. in 1985 and completed LL.M in 1991.
== Career ==
He enrolled as an advocate with the Bar Council of Madhya Pradesh on 22 November 1985. He practiced in civil, criminal, constitutional, service, and tax matters. He was the elected member of the M.P. State Bar Council.
He was appointed as additional judge of the High Court of Madhya Pradesh on 25 November 2005 and was confirmed as permanent judge on 25 November 2008.
He was a part of various committees, pertaining to betterment of administration of Madhya Pradesh High court and continued till 06 October 2019. He was elevated as Chief Justice of Andhra Pradesh High Court and assumed office on 07 October 2019. He was the first Chief Justice of the newly established Andhra Pradesh High Court. In January 2021 the Supreme Court collegium swapped the chief justices of Andhra Pradesh and Sikkim high courts. Subsequently, Justice Maheshwari was transferred as the Chief Justice of the High Court of Sikkim on January 06, 2021.
In August 2021, the Supreme Court collegium led CJI N. V. Ramana has recommended his name along with 8 other high court judges to be appointed to Supreme Court of India. He has taken oath as a Judge of the Supreme Court of India on August 31, 2021.
He is currently member of Five member supreme court collegium since 14 May 2025 after retirement of CJI Sanjiv Khanna.
== References ==
Singh, Chandeep (30 August 2019). "3. 2019.08.22-Andhra Pradesh-J.K. Maheshwari". Bar & Bench. Retrieved 30 August 2019. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar:_The_Last_Airbender | Avatar: The Last Airbender | Avatar: The Last Airbender, also known as Avatar: The Legend of Aang in some regions, is an American animated fantasy action television series created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko. Produced by Nickelodeon Animation Studio, it originally aired on Nickelodeon for three seasons from February 2005 to July 2008.
Avatar is set in a largely Asian-inspired world in which some people can telekinetically manipulate one of the four elements—water, earth, fire or air—through practices known as "bending", inspired by Chinese martial arts. The only individual who can bend all four elements, the "Avatar", is responsible for maintaining harmony among the world's four nations, and serves as the link between the physical and spirit worlds. The series follows the journey of twelve-year-old Aang, the current Avatar and last survivor of his nation, the Air Nomads, along with his friends Katara, Sokka, and Toph, as they strive to end the Fire Nation's war against the other nations and defeat Fire Lord Ozai before he conquers the world. The series also follows Zuko—the exiled prince of the Fire Nation, seeking to restore his lost honor by capturing Aang, accompanied by his uncle Iroh—and later, his sister Azula. Avatar is presented and animated in a style that combines Japanese anime influences with those of American cartoons and relies on the imagery of primarily Chinese culture, with various other influences from different East Asian, Southeast Asian, South Asian, North Asian, and indigenous American cultures.
Avatar: The Last Airbender was a ratings success and received widespread acclaim from critics and audiences, with high praise given to its characters, cultural references, art direction, voice acting, soundtrack, humor, ending, and thematic content. The series explores themes rarely touched on in youth entertainment, such as war, genocide, sexism, gender roles, imperialism, totalitarianism, class warfare, political corruption, indoctrination, animal cruelty, and free choice. It won five Annie Awards, a Genesis Award, a Primetime Emmy Award, a Kids' Choice Award, and a Peabody Award. Since its release, the show has been regarded by critics as one of the most acclaimed series of the 21st century, and one of the greatest animated television series of all time.
The extended Avatar franchise includes an ongoing comics series, a prequel novel series, an animated sequel series, and a live-action film, as well as a live-action remake series produced for Netflix. The complete series was released on Blu-ray in June 2018 in honor of the tenth anniversary of its finale and was made available to stream on Netflix in the United States and Canada in May 2020, on Paramount+ in June 2020, and on Amazon Prime Video in January 2021.
== Series overview ==
=== Setting ===
Avatar: The Last Airbender is set in a world where human civilization consists of four nations, named after the four classical elements: the Water Tribe, the Earth Kingdom, the Fire Nation, and the Air Nomads. In each nation, certain people, known as "benders" (waterbenders, earthbenders, firebenders, and airbenders), have the ability to telekinetically manipulate and control the element corresponding to their nation, using gestures based on Chinese martial arts. The "Avatar" is the only individual with the ability to bend all four elements.
The Avatar is an international arbiter whose duty is to maintain harmony among the four nations, and act as a mediator between humans and spirits. When the Avatar dies, their spirit is reincarnated in a new body, who will be born to parents in the next nation in a set order known as the Avatar cycle: Fire, Air, Water, and Earth. By tradition, the new Avatar will travel the world to learn all four bending arts, after which they will begin in earnest their role as global peacekeeper. The Avatar can enter a condition known as the "Avatar State", in which they temporarily gain the skills and knowledge of all their past incarnations. Although this is when they are at their most powerful, if the Avatar were ever killed while in the Avatar State, the reincarnation cycle would be broken and the Avatar would cease to exist.
=== Synopsis ===
A century ago, young Avatar Aang, afraid of his new responsibilities, fled from his home and was forced into the ocean by a storm. He encased himself and his sky bison Appa in suspended animation in an iceberg near the South Pole. Shortly afterward, Fire Lord Sozin, the ruler of the Fire Nation, launched a world war to expand his nation's empire. Knowing that the Avatar must be an Air Nomad, he and his army carried out a genocide against the Air Nomads, which he timed with the arrival of a comet that gives firebenders tremendous power. A hundred years later, siblings Katara and Sokka, teenagers of the Southern Water Tribe, accidentally discover Aang and revive him.
In the first season, Aang travels with Katara and Sokka to the Northern Water Tribe to learn waterbending and be prepared to defeat the Fire Nation. Prince Zuko, the banished son of Fire Lord Ozai, pursues them, accompanied by his uncle Iroh, hoping to capture the Avatar in order to restore his honor. Aang is also pursued by Zhao, a Fire Nation admiral aspiring to win Ozai's favor. When his navy attacks the Northern Water Tribe, Zhao kills the moon spirit; Yue, the princess of the tribe, sacrifices her life to revive it, and Aang drives off the enemy fleet.
In the second season, Aang learns earthbending from Toph Beifong, a blind earthbending prodigy. Zuko and Iroh become refugees in the Earth Kingdom, eventually settling in its capital Ba Sing Se. Aang's group travels to Ba Sing Se to seek the Earth King's support for an attack on the Fire Nation during an upcoming solar eclipse, during which firebenders will be powerless. Both groups are pursued by Azula, Zuko's younger sister. Azula infiltrates Ba Sing Se and instigates a coup d'état against the Earth King, bringing the capital under Fire Nation control. Zuko betrays Iroh and returns to the Fire Nation.
In the third season, Aang and his allies invade the Fire Nation during the eclipse, but are forced to retreat. Zuko abandons the Fire Nation to teach Aang firebending. Aang, raised to respect all life, wrestles with the possibility that he will have to kill Ozai to end the war. When Sozin's comet returns, Aang confronts Ozai and uses his Avatar powers to strip Ozai of his firebending ability; meanwhile, Aang's friends liberate Ba Sing Se, destroy the Fire Nation airship fleet, and capture Azula. Zuko is crowned the new Fire Lord and the war comes to an end.
=== Episodes ===
The series consists of sixty-one episodes. The first episode—an-hour-long premiere—aired on February 21, 2005, on Nickelodeon. The series concluded with a two-hour television movie broadcast on July 19, 2008. Each season of the series is known as a "book", in which each episode is referred to as a "chapter". Each book takes its name from one of the elements Aang must master: Water, Earth, and Fire. The show's first two seasons each consists of twenty episodes and the third season twenty-one. The entire series has been released on DVD in regions 1, 2, and 4.
As of May 2020, the complete series is available on Netflix in the United States. It became the most popular show on U.S. Netflix within the first week of its release there, despite not being featured on the main page. The show broke the record for longest consecutive appearance on Netflix's daily top ten list, with 60 straight days on the list, one of only two shows in the top ten record holders that was not a Netflix original series as of July 2020. Later in June 2020, the complete series became available on Paramount+ (at the time CBS All Access) and later on Amazon Prime Video in January 2021.
== Voice cast ==
Zach Tyler Eisen as Aang
Mae Whitman as Katara
Jack De Sena as Sokka
Dante Basco as Zuko
Jessie Flower as Toph Beifong
Mako and Greg Baldwin as Iroh
Dee Bradley Baker as Appa, Momo
Grey Griffin as Azula
Mark Hamill as Ozai
== Development ==
=== Conception and production ===
The creators and producers of Avatar: The Last Airbender, Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, met at a Halloween party in 1995 during their time as students in the Rhode Island School of Design, and began their professional partnership later that year when Konietzko assisted DiMartino in painting backgrounds and cels for the latter's student film. DiMartino and Konietzko moved to Los Angeles in 1996 and 1998 respectively to pursue careers in the animation industry. In between jobs, DiMartino animated a short titled Atomic Love that he pitched as a TV series, but was unsuccessful due to the amount of robot-based animated series already in development. During Konietzko's stint as an art director on Invader Zim, he and DiMartino formulated the idea of pitching a coming-to-age series based on their childhoods, but were too busy with their respective jobs to solidify the concept. When Invader Zim was abruptly canceled in January 2002, Konietzko declared to DiMartino his resolution to get their idea made at all costs.
By this time, Konietzko had established a good relationship with Nickelodeon head of development Eric Coleman, who was interested in the prospect of Konietzko creating and pitching his own show. Upon the end of his job on Invader Zim, Konietzko met with Coleman, introduced him to DiMartino and discussed their intent to create a series that held heart and integrity while meeting the network's commercial requirements. Although their meeting went well, Coleman revealed that the network was not looking for coming-of-age stories based on human characters. He added that the network was following the success of the Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter film series and was thus searching for non-violent action and adventure concepts with an emphasis on legends and lore. Lastly, he established that the show would require the point-of-view of either a kid hero or a non-human character, emphasizing that middle-aged human protagonists would be off-brand for Nickelodeon. Konietzko concluded the meeting with the promise of a pitch along those directives within a month.
DiMartino and Konietzko indiscriminately laid out their conceptual sketches in their effort to establish a new idea. Among them was a sketch that Konietzko created during his time on Invader Zim, which featured a robot cyclops monkey with an arrow on his head and holding a staff, a balding middle-aged man in a futuristic outfit, and a bipedal polar bear-dog hybrid. Konietzko cited Cowboy Bebop as the sketch's primary influence, describing the sketch as a "half-baked" attempt at a similar science fiction adventure concept. Recalling Coleman's advice against middle-aged main characters, Konietzko redrew the human character as a boy, but retained his baldness and transferred the robot's staff and arrow to him. After adding the new drawing to the collection of sketches, Konietzko began drawing other fanciful animal hybrids, which culminated in a drawing of a good-natured and nomadic "Huck Finnesque" boy herding a group of flying bison-manatee hybrids. The sketch was influenced by the works of renowned anime film director Hayao Miyazaki, of whom Konietzko and DiMartino were fans.
DiMartino drew inspiration for what would become the Southern Water Tribe from a documentary on the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, and he pitched Konietzko the idea of a group of people similarly trapped in the South Pole. Two weeks after their meeting with Coleman, Konietzko was suddenly inspired by DiMartino's idea and formulated a concept of a group of children in the South Pole who were terrorized by "fire people" and rescued by the young nomad from his earlier drawing. Konietzko and DiMartino reconvened that evening and began developing the series' setting over the next two weeks. Although DiMartino and Konietzko were themselves fans of the two successful British fantasy series that Nickelodeon sought to emulate, the pair chose to differentiate their own series by inserting influences from Asian cultures and philosophies, traditional martial arts, yoga, anime, and Hong Kong cinema. The co-creators successfully pitched the concept to Coleman with early sketches of Aang, Katara, and Sokka, three color images depicting the desired action, adventure, and magic aspects, and a description of the series' characters, setting and full story arc. The series was introduced to the public in a teaser reel at Comic-Con in July 2004, and premiered on February 21, 2005.
According to head writer Aaron Ehasz, Konietzko and DiMartino originally envisioned the series as three seasons long. However, Nickelodeon asked Ehasz about his ideas for a potential fourth season, which he later discussed with both Konietzko and DiMartino. Ehasz believed that a fourth season would be created, but this plan was interrupted when Konietzko and DiMartino decided to focus on assisting M. Night Shyamalan as executive producers for The Last Airbender film. Ehasz claims that Shyamalan insisted they create a fourth season, but Konietzko and DiMartino wanted to work on the live-action film and reverted to the original three-season plan. Konietzko and DiMartino have denied Ehasz's statements, asserting that a fourth season was never considered by them or Nickelodeon. Shyamalan has made comments that align with Ehasz's, such as acknowledging uncertainty at the time about whether the series would conclude after three seasons. He also mentioned that while he was supportive of the co-creators continuing the animated series beyond three seasons, he refused to sign on for the live-action adaptation if that happened because he wanted to direct a trilogy.
=== Pilot ===
A pilot episode for the series was made in 2003. It was animated by Tin House, Inc., written by DiMartino and Konietzko, and directed by Dave Filoni. Mitchel Musso voiced Aang in this pilot but was later replaced by Zach Tyler Eisen when the show began production. In the episode, Sokka and his sister Kya (renamed to Katara by the time the series aired) must travel the world to find masters for Aang, who is the Avatar; however, they must evade a critical foe, Prince Zuko of the Fire Nation, who wants to capture Aang.
This episode was first publicly released as one of the extras in the NTSC season 1 DVD box set, which were not available with the previously released individual volumes. As the PAL box set lacks extras, the episode was not made available on DVD in PAL regions. The episode was released with audio commentary from the creators which, unlike commentary on other episodes in the season, is not possible to disable on the DVD set. On June 14, 2010, the unaired pilot was made available with and without commentary for the first time via the iTunes Store. In 2020, the pilot was streamed on Twitch.
=== Influences ===
The series is notable for its extensive influence from East Asian culture, art and mythology for its universe, especially Chinese culture. Its creators employed cultural consultant Edwin Zane and Chinese calligrapher Siu-Leung Lee to help determine its art direction and settings. The creators have cited Chinese art and history, Hinduism, Taoism and Buddhism, and yoga as the strongest influences on the series.
Jeremy Zuckerman and Benjamin Wynn created the series' music and sound design together in the early developmental stages and then went on to divide the tasks, with Zuckerman taking on the musical composition and Wynn the sound design. They experimented with a wide range of instruments, including the guzheng, pipa, and duduk, to match the show's Asian-influenced setting.
The art style of the fictitious locations featured in the series are based on real locations in Asia. Sites such as the Forbidden City and the Great Wall of China in Beijing were inspirations for the Earth Kingdom city of Ba Sing Se, and Water Tribe locations were based on Inuit and Sireniki cultures. According to Ehasz, early Fire Nation designs were based on Japanese culture. To avoid accidentally making broad statements, they redesigned many settings and peoples to be more "broadly inspired". For the final design, the creators went with a more Chinese style for the Fire Nation's clothing and architecture. For instance, the Fire Temple was based on the Yellow Crane Tower, as its flame-like architectural elements were considered a perfect motif for the Fire Nation architecture, according to the creators.
The gestures used by the "bender" characters are derived from Chinese martial arts, for which the creators employed Sifu Kisu of the Harmonious Fist Chinese Athletic Association as a consultant. Each fighting style is unique to the "benders" who use them or characters who are aligned to a certain element. For example, practitioners of "waterbending" use movements influenced by tai chi and focus on alignment, body structure, breath, and visualization. Hung Gar was the inspiration for practitioners of "earthbending", and was chosen for its firmly rooted stances and powerful strikes as a representation of the solidity of earth. Northern Shaolin, which uses strong arm and leg movements, was chosen to represent "firebending". Bagua, which uses dynamic circular movements and quick directional changes, was used for "airbending". The Chu Gar Southern Praying Mantis style can be seen practiced by the earthbender, Toph, who develops a unique fighting style as a result of her blindness. Asian cinema also influenced the presentation of these martial-art bending moves.
== Themes ==
The series addresses many topics rarely touched on in youth entertainment, including issues relating to war, genocide, imperialism, colonialism and totalitarianism, gender discrimination and female empowerment, marginalization and oppression, and spirituality, as well as philosophical questions surrounding fate, destiny, and free will.
The show is set during a period in which the world is engulfed in an imperialistic war initiated by the Fire Nation. While war is a constant backdrop, the show depicts these effects through the eyes of common people—the oppressed Earth Kingdom citizens as well as indoctrinated Fire Nation schoolchildren—to show how war can and does make victims of everyone. While the Fire Nation is presented as the instigator of violence, the show also depicts the systemic inequality experienced by residents in the Earth Kingdom city of Ba Sing Se as well as the nefarious activities of the city's corrupt secret police. These situations show the corrupting nature of power and the nuances of good and evil. The show introduces viewers to genocide early on when protagonist Aang visits his former home in the Southern Air Temple. He arrives to discover his people have been massacred and displays a range of emotions, such as rage, guilt, and sadness.
The character Zuko and his relationship with his father and Uncle Iroh is the main redemption arc of the series, and represents the show's message that destiny is not binding but rather can be changed. In season two, Zuko struggles to conform to the destiny and path determined by his father, but Iroh prods him, asking, "who are you, what do you want?"
The show also represents a diverse cast of characters in order to tackle the issue of marginalization. For example, in introducing a blind character like Toph and a paraplegic boy like Teo, the show depicts characters with vulnerabilities overcoming their physical and societal limitations. This is also true when it comes to the show's female characters. For example, female protagonist Katara faces systemic sexism when she reaches the Northern Water Tribe to learn waterbending, only to learn that girls and women are prohibited from doing so; a rule that is deeply ingrained within the culture. In another example, her brother Sokka initially espouses sexist viewpoints and is dismissive of the all-female Kyoshi Warriors, but learns to respect and appreciate their skills and mature as a person and fighter. According to Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku, these themes represent the show's message that it is more important to be oneself than to hew to societal expectations.
== Reception ==
=== Ratings ===
Avatar: The Last Airbender was the highest-rated animated television series in its demographic at its premiere; an average of 1.1 million viewers watched each new episode. It had 5.6 million viewers for its highest-rated episode and was a highly rated part of the Nicktoons lineup beyond its 6-to-11-year-old target demographic. A one-hour special, The Secret of the Fire Nation, consisting of the episodes "The Serpent's Pass" and "The Drill", aired on September 15, 2006, and attracted 4.1 million viewers. According to the Nielsen ratings, the special was the fifth highest-rated cable television program that week. In 2007, Avatar: The Last Airbender was syndicated in more than 105 countries and was one of Nickelodeon's top-rated programs. The series ranked first on Nickelodeon in Germany, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Colombia.
The four-part series finale, "Sozin's Comet", had the highest ratings of the series. Its first airing averaged 5.6 million viewers, 95 percent more than Nickelodeon had in mid-July 2007. During the week of July 14, it was the most-viewed program by the under-14 demographic. The finale's popularity was reflected in online media; Rise of the Phoenix King, a Nick.com online game based on "Sozin's Comet", had almost 815,000 plays in three days.
=== Critical response ===
Avatar: The Last Airbender received universal acclaim. As of July 2020, the show has a critics score of 100% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 23 reviews. Max Nicholson of IGN called it a "must-watch" and described it as "one of the greatest animated series of all time". Nick Hartel of DVD Talk called the series a remarkable, "child friendly show" whose legacy "should endure for years to come". Erik Amaya of Bleeding Cool described the series as "impressive in its sophistication" and "fantastic". Henry Glasheen of SLUG Magazine called the series "adventurous and exciting", a "classic" and occasionally moving. According to Brittany Lovely of Hypable, it tells "complex and beautiful" stories. Joe Corey of Inside Pulse described the series as an anime-action hybrid. Chris Mitchell of Popzara called it one of the best shows to air on Nickelodeon, praising the series' background music and voice acting. D. F. Smith of IGN recommended it to viewers who enjoy action-adventure cartoons.
Rob Keyes of Screen Rant called the series "one of the greatest cartoons ever made". Mike Noyes of Inside Pulse recommended it to viewers who enjoy "great" adventure. Gord Lacey of TVShowsOnDVD.com called the series "one of the finest animated shows ever". According to Todd Douglass Jr., of DVD Talk, adults will enjoy the series as much as children do. Joshua Miller of CHUD.com called it "phenomenal" and "one of the most well animated programs (children's or adult) American TV has ever had"; according to Miller, the series is heavily influenced by anime. Tim Janson of Cinefantastique described it as "one of the most engaging animated shows produced". Dennis Amith of J!ENT called the series "one of the best animated TV series shown in the US by American creators". Amith praised its sophisticated storylines, edginess, humor, and action. Franco "Cricket" Te of Nerd Society described Avatar: The Last Airbender as "one of the best cartoon[s]" he had ever seen, recommending the series for its characters and plot. Scott Thill of Wired called the series engaging and its setting, influenced by the Eastern world, "fantastic".
Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku said the series should be considered part of the Golden Age of Television, and recommended "the sophisticated kids show" to others.
The show's writing and themes have been widely lauded by critics. Michael S. Mammano of Den of Geek called the plot "smartly-written" and praised the animation. Nicole Clark, writing for Vice News, stated that the show's narrative depth was "its greatest asset", and praised the story's "emotional authenticity" and how it "expose[d] very young viewers to darker subject matter, like genocide and authoritarianism, while giving them a framework for understanding these issues." Jenifer Rosenberg of ComicMix praised the program's emphasis on family, friends, community, and education. According to Hartel, the series touches on themes of "genocide and self-doubt" without frightening younger children; rogue characters are redeemable, sending an important message that people can change and are not bonded to "destiny". Chris Mitchell called the plot "fantastic". D. F. Smith compared the series' plot to Japanese anime, calling its tone and dialogue "very American" and praising the humor leavening an epic, dramatic theme suitable for all ages. Rob Keyes also praised the series' humor and affecting plot, saying, "[It] will capture your hearts".
According to Noyes, the series amalgamates elements of "classic fantasy epics". Douglass Jr. called the plot engaging, well-thought-out, and meaningful, stating that the series' concept was "well-realized", with a consistent story. Douglass wrote that the characters "[have] a real sense of progression", and praised the writers for their humor, drama, and emotion. Joshua Miller called the series surprisingly dark despite its "silly" theme, saying that the plot is livelier than that of Lost and, similar to the latter show, emphasizes character development. According to Miller, its writing was "true adult levels of storytelling". Janson described the series as more than fantasy- and superhero-themed, seeing the characters as central and relatable. "Cricket" Te praised the series' use of Buddhist philosophies and the diverse presentation of its themes of courage and life. Hamilton praised the series for encouraging its audience to be themselves and for its quiet progressivism.
Critics also praised Avatar: The Last Airbender's character development, art, animation, and choreography; Eric Amaya enjoyed the expressive animation that complemented the writing. According to Amaya, elements were influenced by the work of Hayao Miyazaki. Douglass Jr. called the character development interesting, while Nicole Clark wrote that the show "managed to do what so few shows even today have: assemble a cast of characters that depicts the world as it is, with a range of identities and experiences." Rosenburg praised the series' portrayal of its female characters as "strong, responsible, [and] intelligent". According to Miller, the bender characters' use of bending for everyday activities brought "depth and believability" to the Avatar world. Miller called the series' designs "rich and immersive", with each nation having its own, detailed look. He praised the action scenes as "well rendered", comparing the development of the Avatar world to that of The Lord of the Rings, and the fight choreography as "wonderful in its most minor details". Smith enjoyed the series' detailed backgrounds. Te praised each episode's color palette and the choreography's combination of martial arts and magic. Hartel criticized the animation, although he found it an improvement over previous Nickelodeon shows. Mitchell called the animation fluid. Te agreed, noting its manga influence. According to Brittany Lovely, non-bender characters in battle are "overshadowed" by their bender counterparts. Joe Corey called the animation's action and environments a "great achievement", and Keyes praised the series' fight choreography. According to Hamilton, the action sequences in the series were amazing while being child-appropriate and exciting.
=== Legacy ===
Avatar: The Last Airbender became a cult classic and had a large impact in the 2010s on how networks viewed animated programs; subsequent children's shows would often blur the lines between youth and adult programming, featuring more adult themes.
Multiple media publications have hailed Avatar as one of the greatest animated television series of all time. In 2013, TV Guide included Avatar in its 60 greatest cartoons of all-time list. In 2018, Vanity Fair ranked the series as the 11th-best animated TV show. IndieWire ranked Avatar at number 36 on its 2018 list of the "50 Best Animated Series Of All Time".
The series experienced a resurgence in popularity following its addition to Netflix on May 15, 2020; it reached the number-one position on the platform's top series in the U.S. four days after release, and was the most-popular film or show for the week of May 14–21. The series maintained a spot within Netflix's top ten series for a record-setting 60 days, the most of any show since the company debuted its list of top series in February 2020. The series would become the most-streamed children's series on the platform for the year. Both fans and co-creators DiMartino and Konietzko attributed Avatar's renewed popularity to its relevance to contemporary events, including the COVID-19 pandemic and racial unrest in the U.S., with DiMartino remarking: "The major issues in the stories—genocide, totalitarianism, systemic injustice, abuse—sadly, these have been pervasive issues throughout history and continue to be. The show is a reflection of our world. But now, we happen to be living through a time in which all these problems have been exacerbated."
=== Awards and nominations ===
== Adaptations ==
=== Film adaptation ===
The series' first season was the basis of the 2010 live-action film The Last Airbender, which was written and directed by M. Night Shyamalan and stars Noah Ringer as Aang, Nicola Peltz as Katara, Jackson Rathbone as Sokka, Dev Patel as Zuko, and Shaun Toub as Iroh. Although the film originally shared the title of the television series, the title The Last Airbender was used because producers feared it would be confused with James Cameron's film Avatar. It was intended as the first of a trilogy of films, each of which would be based upon one of the three television seasons. The film was universally panned for its writing, acting, whitewashed cast, and Shyamalan's direction; it has a 5% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes and earned five Razzies at the 31st Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Picture; some critics have described it as one of the worst films ever made.
=== Live-action series remake ===
Netflix announced in September 2018 that a "reimagined" live-action remake of Avatar was to start production in 2019. The series' original creators, DiMartino and Konietzko, were to be the executive producers and showrunners. On August 12, 2020, DiMartino and Konietzko both revealed on their social media that they had departed the show due to creative differences. In February 2021, Albert Kim was reported to have been brought on as showrunner. The first season was released on Netflix on February 22, 2024 to mixed reviews. On March 6, 2024, Netflix renewed the show for a second and third season.
== Sequels and follow-ups ==
=== Television series ===
The Legend of Korra, a sequel series to Avatar: The Last Airbender, premiered on Nickelodeon on April 14, 2012. It was written and produced by Avatar creators Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, the creators and producers of the original series. The show was initially titled Avatar: Legend of Korra, then The Last Airbender: Legend of Korra; its events occur seventy years after the end of Avatar: The Last Airbender. The series' protagonist is Korra, a 17-year-old girl from the Southern Water Tribe who is the incarnation of the Avatar after Aang's death. The series ran for 4 seasons, ending after 52 episodes on December 19, 2014.
On February 20, 2025, 20 years after the original show debuted, it was announced that a new sequel titled Avatar: Seven Havens was green-lit. The series will consist of 26 episodes, spread across two seasons, and will be produced by DiMartino and Konietzko.
=== Animated film ===
In February 2021, along with the announcement of the formation of Avatar Studios, it was reported that the studio's first project would be an animated theatrical film that would begin production later in 2021. In June 2022, it was announced that Lauren Montgomery, a former storyboard artist on Avatar and a supervising producer for Korra, would serve as director. In April 2024, Paramount revealed the film's tentative title, Aang: The Last Airbender, along with the casting of Eric Nam as Aang, Dionne Quan as Toph, Jessica Matten as Katara, Román Zaragoza as Sokka, and Dave Bautista as an antagonist. The film is set to be released theatrically on October 9, 2026, by Paramount Pictures.
== Other media ==
=== Books ===
Several books based on the show have been published. Dark Horse Comics published an art book titled Avatar: The Last Airbender – The Art of the Animated Series on June 2, 2010, with 184 pages of original art from the series. A second edition of the book was released on November 25, 2020, featuring a new cover and eight new pages.
Chronicles of the Avatar is a series of novels that tell the stories of the Avatars before Aang. The series began with the young adult novel duology focusing on Avatar Kyoshi, which was written by F. C. Yee. The first book, Avatar: The Last Airbender – The Rise of Kyoshi, was published in July 2019 by Abrams Children's Books. The second part in the series, titled The Shadow of Kyoshi, was released on July 21, 2020. The duology was followed by the third novel The Dawn of Yangchen, also written by Yee and released on July 19, 2022. Yee's fourth novel in the series, The Legacy of Yangchen, was released on July 18, 2023. The fifth book of the series, titled The Reckoning of Roku, focuses on Avatar Roku and will be written by Randy Ribay and released on July 23, 2024.
=== Comics ===
Several comic-book short stories were published in Nickelodeon Magazine, and Dark Horse published Avatar: The Last Airbender – The Lost Adventures—a collection of these and new comics—on June 15, 2011.
Dark Horse published a graphic-novel series by Gene Yang that continues Aang's story after the Hundred Years' War. Avatar: The Last Airbender – The Promise, published in three volumes in 2012, explores the fate of the Fire Nation colonies that become The Legend of Korra's United Republic. This series was translated into Hebrew in 2016–2017. A second set of three comic books, Avatar: The Last Airbender – The Search, focuses on Zuko and Azula, and the fate of their mother Ursa. The second set was translated into Hebrew in 2018–2019. The third set, Avatar: The Last Airbender – The Rift, shifts the focus to Aang, the creation of Republic City, and Toph's relationship with her family. The Rift was followed by Avatar: The Last Airbender – Smoke and Shadow about a resistance force in the Fire Nation against Firelord Zuko, who at the end of the original series assumed the throne. The fifth graphic novel was Avatar: The Last Airbender – North and South, which follows the events of Smoke and Shadow and is about Katara and Sokka returning to the Water Tribe to see various changes to their homeland. The next graphic novel is titled Imbalance and was released in October 2018. The series explores the emerging conflict between the benders and non-benders that becomes the center for the conflict in the first season of the sequel, The Legend of Korra. Unlike the previous five books it was written by Faith Erin Hicks.
In 2020, Dark Horse began publishing standalone comics, the first of which was Katara and the Pirate's Silver which was written by Faith Erin Hicks and Tim Hedrick and follows Katara aligning herself with a group of pirates after she gets separated from the rest of Team Avatar. The comic was released on October 13, 2020. It was followed by Toph Beifong's Metalbending Academy on February 17, 2021, which follows Toph in between the events of The Rift and Smoke and Shadow. This was followed by Suki, Alone, released on June 27, 2021, and follows Suki when she was imprisoned after the events of the episode "Appa's Lost Days". These three standalone comics were released in a boxed set in November 2021 under the name Team Avatar Treasury. This was followed by 2023's Azula in the Spirit Temple, and 2024's The Bounty Hunter and the Tea Brewer, which focuses on Iroh and June the Bounty Hunter.
=== Video games ===
A video-game trilogy based on the series has been released. The Avatar: The Last Airbender video game was released on October 10, 2006, and Avatar: The Last Airbender – The Burning Earth was released on October 16, 2007. Avatar: The Last Airbender – Into the Inferno was released on October 13, 2008. Avatar: Legends of the Arena, a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) for Microsoft Windows, was released on September 15, 2008, by Nickelodeon. Players can create their own character and interact with other players around the world. Avatar: The Last Airbender was THQ's bestselling Nickelodeon game in 2006 and was one of Sony CEA's Greatest Hits. Aang and Zuko appear as skins for Merlin and Susano, respectively, in Smite. A turn-based role-playing game by Navigation Games, titled Avatar Generations, was released in early 2023 for iOS and Android. In September 2023, GameMill Entertainment released Avatar: The Last Airbender - Quest for Balance, which loosely adapts the events of the entire show. Avatar: The Last Airbender characters and locations are also featured in several Nickelodeon crossover games, including Nickelodeon Kart Racers 2: Grand Prix and 3: Slime Speedway, and the Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl series. Avatar themed content is set to be released as downloadable content in Sonic Racing: CrossWorlds.
=== Concert ===
In October 2023, Nickelodeon and GEA Live announced Avatar: The Last Airbender in Concert, an ongoing concert tour featuring Zuckerman's score for the series. The tour was initially announced for four dates and locations in the UK, US, and France, and premiered in London, England on January 21, 2024. The concert runs for over two hours and the music is performed by an orchestral ensemble, while several moments from the series are displayed on a large screen. Zuckerman, in assistance with DiMartino, Konietzko, and original editor Jeff Adams expanded the series' score and compositions for the concert. The concert is produced by Nickelodeon, GEA Live, and Senbla.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Konietzko, Bryan; DiMartino, Michael Dante (2010). Avatar, The Last Airbender: The Art of the Animated Series. Dark Horse. ISBN 978-1-62115-798-4.
== External links ==
Avatar: The Last Airbender at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwadwo_Baah-Wiredu | Kwadwo Baah-Wiredu | Kwadwo Baah-Wiredu (1952 – 24 September 2008) was a Ghanaian politician and a chartered accountant. He was Member of Parliament for Asante Akim North Constituency from January 1997 until his death on 24 September 2008. He served as a Minister of state at different ministries under the Kufuor government from 2001.
== Early life and education ==
Baah-Wiredu was born in Asante Akim Agogo. He started his secondary education at the Kumasi High School in 1967. He obtained the GCE Ordinary Level Certificate in 1972. He had his sixth form education at Prempeh College, also in Kumasi. Baah-Wiredu proceeded to the University of Ghana in 1974 and obtained a B.Sc. in Administration (Accounting option). He then did a four-year course with the Institute of Chartered Accountants qualifying as a chartered accountant in 1985.
== Career ==
Kwadwo Baah-Wiredu worked within various positions with Ghana Airways and Volta River Authority. He worked as a senior consultant on computer-systems and as finance manager of Ananse Systems. Prior to becoming a member of Parliament, he was a partner in Asante Wiredu and Associates, an accounting firm.
== Politics ==
=== Member of Parliament ===
Baah-Wiredu began his political career in 1997 as Member of Parliament for Asante Akim following his victory at the 1996 Ghanaian General Election. He was one of the campaigners against the Union government (UNIGOV) concept promoted by General Acheampong's Supreme Military Council in 1978. He joined the New Patriotic Party when it was formed in 1992. He became an MP in the Second Parliament of the Fourth Republic after the 1996 parliamentary elections and since retained his seat.
=== Minister of state ===
He became a Minister in John Kufuor's NPP government in 2001. He held the portfolios of Local Government and Rural Development (2001–2003) and Education, Youth and Sports (2003–2005).He became the Minister for Finance and Economic Planning in 2005. In 2005, he was the first Finance Minister in Ghana's history to present the country's Budget Statement and Economic Policy to Parliament before the arrival of that fiscal year with his budget for the fiscal year 2006. Since then, this has become a norm for all successive Finance Ministers.
== Elections ==
In the year 2000, Baah-Wiredu won the general elections as the member of parliament for the Asante Akim North constituency of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. He won on the ticket of the New Patriotic Party. His constituency was a part of the 31 parliamentary seats out of 33 seats won by the New Patriotic Party in that election for the Ashanti Region. The New Patriotic Party won a majority total of 99 parliamentary seats out of 200 seats. He was elected with 32,341 votes out of 45,227 total valid votes cast. This was equivalent to 72.3% of the total valid votes cast. He was elected over Kofi Opoku Manu of the National Democratic Congress, Kwabena Anafi of the Convention People's Party, James K. Baah of the People's National Convention, Emmanuel K. Adade of the New Reformed Party and Joseph B Frimpong of the United Ghana Movement. These candidates won 11,852, 168, 151, 130 and 75 votes out of the total valid votes cast respectively. These were equivalent to 26.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.3% and 0.2% respectively of total valid votes cast.
Baah-Wiredu was elected as the member of parliament for the Asante Akim North constituency of the Ashanti Region of Ghana in the 2004 Ghanaian general elections. He won on the ticket of the New Patriotic Party. His constituency was a part of the 36 parliamentary seats out of 39 seats won by the New Patriotic Party in that election for the Ashanti Region. The New Patriotic Party won a majority total of 128 parliamentary seats out of 230 seats. He was elected with 40,497 votes out of 53,098 total valid votes cast equivalent to 76.3% of total valid votes cast. He was elected over Atobrah Isaac of the Peoples' National Convention, Thomas Osei Bonsu Nkansah of the National Democratic Congress and Kwabena Anarfi of the Convention People's Party. These candidates obtained 0.8%, 21.6% and 1.3% respectively of total valid votes cast.
== Personal life ==
Baah-Wiredu was married with 6 children.
== Death ==
On 24 September 2008, Baah-Wiredu died in South Africa where he had been receiving medical treatment for a short illness.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme | United Nations Environment Programme | The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations System. It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972. Its mandate is to provide leadership, deliver science and develop solutions on a wide range of issues, including climate change, the management of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and green economic development. The organization also develops international environmental agreements; publishes and promotes environmental science and helps national governments achieve environmental targets.
As a member of the United Nations Development Group, UNEP aims to help the world meet the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. UNEP hosts the secretariats of several multilateral environmental agreements and research bodies, including The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), The Minamata Convention on Mercury, The Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions, The Convention on Migratory Species and The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), among others.
In 1988, the World Meteorological Organization and UNEP established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). UNEP is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol. UNEP sometimes uses the alternative name UN Environment. The headquarters of the agency is in Nairobi, Kenya.
== History ==
In the 1970s, the need for environmental governance at a global level was not universally accepted, particularly by developing nations. Some argued that environmental concerns were not a priority for nations in poverty. The leadership of Canadian diplomat Maurice Strong convinced many of the developing nations' governments that they needed to prioritize this issue. In the words of Nigerian professor Adebayo Adedeji: "Mr. Strong, through the sincerity of his advocacy, soon made it clear that all of us, irrespective of the stage of our development, have a large stake in the matter."
After developing organizations such as the International Labour Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization, the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (the Stockholm Conference) was convened. In this conference various topics were discussed such as pollution, marine life, protection of resources, environmental change, and disasters relating to natural and biological change. This conference resulted in a Declaration on the Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration) and the establishment of an environmental management body, which was later named the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). UNEP was established by General Assembly Resolution 2997. Headquarters were established in Nairobi, Kenya, with a staff of 300, including 100 professionals in a variety of fields, and with a five-year fund of more than US$100 million. At the time, US$40 million were pledged by the United States and the remainder by 50 other nations. The 'Voluntary Indicative Scale of Contribution' established in 2002 has the role to increase the supporters of the UNEP. The finances related to all programs of UNEP is voluntarily contributed by Member states of the United Nations. The Environmental Fund, which all nations of UNEP invest in, is the core source of UNEP's programs. Between 1974 and 1986 UNEP produced more than 200 technical guidelines or manuals on environment including forest and water management, pest control, pollution monitoring, the relationship between chemical use and health, and management of industry.
The location of the headquarters proved to be a major controversy, with developed countries preferring Geneva, where several other UN offices are based, while developing countries preferred Nairobi, as that would be the first international organization headquartered in the Global South. At first, Mexico City, New Delhi, and Cairo were also competing to be the headquarters, but they pulled out to support Nairobi. Many of the developing countries were "not particularly supportive of creating a new formal institution for environmental governance", but supported its creation as an act of "Southern solidarity".
In 2000, the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, based in Cambridge and sponsored by IUCN, became part of UNEP.
== Governance ==
=== Executive director ===
In December 1972, the UN General Assembly unanimously elected Maurice Strong to be the first head of UN Environment. He was also secretary-general of both the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment and the Earth Summit (1992).
The position was then held for 17 years (1975–1992) by Mostafa Kamal Tolba, who was instrumental in bringing environmental considerations to the forefront of global thinking and action. Under his leadership, UN Environment's most widely acclaimed success—the historic 1987 agreement to protect the ozone layer—the Montreal Protocol was negotiated. He was succeeded by Elizabeth Dowdeswell (1992–1998), Klaus Töpfer (1998–2006), Achim Steiner (2006–2016), and Erik Solheim (2016–2018).
UNEP's acting executive director, Joyce Msuya, took office in November 2018 following the resignation of Erik Solheim. Prior to that appointment, she was UNEP's deputy executive director. Inger Andersen was appointed executive director of UNEP by UN secretary-general António Guterres in February 2019.
=== List of executive directors ===
=== Environment Assembly ===
The United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) is UNEP's governing body. Created in 2012 to replace the Governing Council, it currently has 193 members and meets every two years.
The first session of the assembly took place in Nairobi from 23-27 June 2014.
The sixth session (UNEA-6) took place in Nairobi, Kenya, from 26 February to 1 March 2024, and the seventh session (UNEA-7) is scheduled to take place from 8 to 12 December 2025, also in Nairobi. The theme for UNEA-7 is "Advancing sustainable solutions for a resilient planet".
=== Structure ===
UNEP's structure includes eight divisions:
Science Division: aims to provide scientifically credible environmental assessments and information for sustainable development. It reports on the state of the global environment, assesses policies, and aims to provide an early warning of emerging environmental threats. It is responsible for the monitoring and reporting of the environment regarding the 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals.
Policy and Programme Division: makes the policy and programme of the UNEP. This division ensures other divisions are coordinated.
Ecosystems Division: supports countries in conserving, restoring and managing their ecosystems. It addresses the environmental causes and consequences of disasters and conflicts. It helps countries reduce pollution from land-based activities, increase resilience to climate change, and think about the environment in their development planning.
Economy Division: assists large businesses in their efforts to be more environmentally conscious. It has three main branches: Chemicals and Health, Energy and Climate, and Resources and Markets.
Governance Affairs Office: engages member states and other relevant groups to use UNEP's work. The office serves UNEP's governing body, the United Nations Environment Assembly, and its subsidiary organ, the Committee of Permanent Representatives, and manages their meetings. It helps strengthen the visibility, authority and impact of the Assembly as an authoritative voice on the environment.
Law Division: helps to develop environmental law. Works with countries to combat environmental crime and meet international environmental commitments. The law division aims to improve cooperation between lawmakers around the world who are making environmental laws.
Communication Division: develops and disseminates UNEP's messages. It delivers them to governments and individuals through digital and traditional media channels.
Corporate Services Division: handles UNEP's corporate interests such as management and exposure to financial risk.
== Topic areas ==
UNEP's main activities are related to:
Climate action
Disasters and conflicts ("to minimize the environmental causes and consequences of crises")
Nature Action ("conservation, restoration and the sustainable use of nature")
Global environmental governance (the UNEP website states that "UNEP is committed to supporting countries in developing and implementing integrated environmental policies").
Data collection and reporting (UNEP provides information and data on the global environment to stakeholders including governments, non-governmental organizations and the public for them to engage in realizing the Sustainable Development Goals. For example, the UN environment Live Platform and Online Access to Research in Environment (OARE) provide transparent information collected by UNEP.)
Chemicals and waste
Resource efficiency
== Advocacy ==
UNEP uses its position to raise awareness for a range of issues.
=== Climate change ===
Already in 1989, UNEP published a statement predicting that "entire nations could be wiped off the face of the Earth by sea level rise if the global warming trend is not reversed by the year 2000". In 2005, UNEP issued a joint statement with the United Nations University predicting that "50 million people could become environmental refugees by 2010, fleeing the effects of climate change". This was reinforced in 2008, by Srgjan Kerim, President of the UN General Assembly, who estimated that there would be between 50 million and 200 million environmental migrants by 2010.
At the fifth Magdeburg Environmental Forum held in 2008, in Magdeburg, Germany, UNEP and car manufacturer Daimler AG called for the establishment of infrastructure for electric vehicles. At this international conference 250 politicians and representatives of non-government organizations discussed future road transportation under the motto of "Sustainable Mobility–the Post-2012 CO2 Agenda".
=== Various initiatives ===
==== International Environmental Education Programme (1975–1995) ====
For two decades, UNESCO and UNEP led the International Environmental Education Programme (1975–1995), which set out a vision for, and gave practical guidance on how to mobilize education for environmental awareness. In 1976 UNESCO launched an environmental education newsletter Connect as the official organ of the UNESCO-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme (IEEP). Until 2007 it served as a clearinghouse to exchange information on environmental education in general and to promote the aims and activities of the IEEP in particular, as well as being a network for institutions and individuals interested and active in environment education.
==== Circular economy ====
UNEP is the co-chair and a founding partner (along with groups such as the Ellen MacArthur Foundation) for the Platform for Accelerating the Circular Economy, which is a public-private partnership of over 50 global organizations and governments seeking to support the transition to a global circular economy.
==== The Regional Seas Programme ====
Established in 1974, this is the world's only legal programme for the purpose of protecting the oceans and seas at the regional level. More than 143 countries participate in 18 regional programmes established by the Regional Seas Conventions and Action Plans, with 14 of them underpinned by legally binding international conventions, such as the Helsinki Convention, the Oslo Dumping Convention, the Barcelona Convention or the Bucharest Convention. The RSCAPs include the Caribbean region, East Asian seas, East African region, Mediterranean Basin, Pacific Northwest region, West African region, Caspian Sea, Black Sea region, Northeast Pacific region, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, ROPME Sea Area, South Asian seas, Southeast Pacific region, Pacific region, Arctic region, Antarctic region, Baltic Sea, and Northeast Atlantic region. Each programme consists of countries which share the same sea and manages this sea at the regional level. The programmes are controlled by secretariats or Regional Coordinating Units and Regional Activity Centers. UNEP protects seas by promoting international conventions through education and training.
The Mediterranean Action Plan of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP/MAP) was established in 1975 as the first regional action plan under the Regional Seas Programme.
==== Faith for Earth Initiative ====
Launched in 2017, the initiative's goal is to encourage and collaborate with faith-based organizations to protect the environment and invest in green resources. In 2020, UNEP published a book with the Parliament of the World's Religions Climate Action Program entitled, "Faith for Earth: A Call for Action." The book serves as an educational resource for students, teachers, and leaders across the world and highlights the role that faith-based organizations can play in addressing critical environmental issues.
== Other activities ==
=== Awards programs ===
Several awards programs have been established to recognize outstanding work in the environmental field. The Global 500 Roll of Honour was initiated in 1987 and ended in 2003. Its 2005 successor, Champions of the Earth, and a similar award, Young Champions of the Earth, are given annually to entrepreneurs, scientists, policy leaders, upcoming talent, individuals and organizations who make significant positive impacts on resources and the environment in their areas.
=== International years ===
UN assigns specific years to topics to raise awareness and engagement. The following years pertain to environmental topics:
2007 – International Year of the Dolphin: International Patron of the Year of the Dolphin was H.S.H. Prince Albert II of Monaco, with Special Ambassador to the cause being Nick Carter of the Backstreet Boys musical group.
2010 – International Year of Biodiversity
2011 – International Year of Forests
2012 – International Year for Sustainable Energy for All
2013 – International Year of Water Cooperation
2014 – International Year of Family Farming
2015 – International Year of Light and Light-based Technologies
2016 – International Year of Pulses
2017 – International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development
2020 – International Year of Plant Health
2021 – International Year of Fruits and Vegetables
See international observance and list of environmental dates.
== Notable achievements ==
UNEP has registered several successes, such as the 1987 Montreal Protocol for limiting emissions of gases blamed for thinning the planet's protective ozone layer, and the 2017 Minamata Convention, a treaty to limit toxic mercury.
UNEP has sponsored the development of solar loan programmes, with attractive return rates, to buffer the initial deployment costs and entice consumers to consider and purchase solar PV systems. The most famous example is the solar loan programme sponsored by UNEP that helped 100,000 people finance solar power systems in India. Success in India's solar programme has led to similar projects in other parts of the developing world, including Tunisia, Morocco, Indonesia and Mexico.
In 2001, UNEP alerted about the destruction of the Marshlands when it released satellite images showing that 90 percent of the marsh had been lost. The UNEP "support for environmental management of the Iraqi Marshland" began in 2004, to manage the marshland area in an environmentally sound manner.
UNEP has a programme for young people known as Tunza. Within this programme are other projects like the AEO for Youth.
== Reform ==
Following the 2007 publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report, the Paris Call for Action, presented by French president Jacques Chirac and supported by 46 countries, called for the UNEP to be replaced by a new and more powerful "United Nations Environment Organization", to be modeled on the World Health Organization. The 46 countries included the European Union nations, but notably did not include the United States, Saudi Arabia, Russia, and China, the top four emitters of greenhouse gases.
In December 2012, following the Rio+20 Summit, a decision by the General Assembly of the United Nations to "strengthen and upgrade" the UNEP and establish universal membership of its governing body was confirmed. In other words, it was reorganized by applying the existing executive member system (58 member states) from 1973 to 2013 to a universal member system (all UN member states). It was implemented in 2014.
== Funding ==
The European Investment Bank and the United Nations Environment Programme created the Renewable Energy Performance Platform (REPP) in 2015 to assist a United Nations project dubbed Sustainable Energy for All. Renewable Energy Performance Platform was established with $67 million from the United Kingdom's International Climate Finance initiative, administered by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, in 2015, and $128 million in 2018. REPP was established with a five-year goal of improving energy access for at least two million people in Sub-Saharan Africa. It has so far invested around $45 million to renewable energy projects in 13 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Solar power and hydropower are among the energy methods used in the projects.
=== Funding complications ===
In September 2018, a series of allegations were made against the executive director of the UNEP, Eric Solheim, at that time, including excessive number of days spent outside the headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya. As a result, Eric Solheim resigned. Several donor countries withdrew their donation in the aftermath of the allegation, including the Dutch government who announced it would withhold $8 million in funding to UNEP until nepotism issues were resolved. Sweden and Denmark stopped funding as well. A spokesman for the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs said the freezing of funds was probably unprecedented.
== See also ==
== References ==
=== Sources ===
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA (license statement/permission). Text taken from Issues and trends in Education for Sustainable Development, 26, 27, UNESCO.
== Further reading ==
Borowy, Iris. "Before UNEP: who was in charge of the global environment? The struggle for institutional responsibility 1968–72." Journal of Global History 14.1 (2019): 87–106.
United Nations Environment Programme. "Natural Allies: UNEP and Civil Society." Nairobi: United Nations Foundation, 2004.
Paul Berthoud, A Professional Life Narrative, 2008, worked with UNEP and offers testimony from the inside of the early years of the organization.
Dodds, F., Strauss, M., with Strong, M., 2012, Only One Earth: The Long Road via Rio to Sustainable Development. London Earthscan
== External links ==
Official website
UNEP Finance Initiative
Frankfurt School – UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance
United Nations Environment Programme – World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC)
UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development
UNEP/GRID-Europe
UNEP GEO Data Portal
Sindrom Kodok Pada Manusia (Indonesia Language)
Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment
UNEP Regional Seas Programme
Resources on United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Archived 2023-07-10 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agusta_A.106#:~:text=Main%20rotor%20diameter%3A%209.50%C2%A0m%20(31%C2%A0ft%202%C2%A0in) | Agusta A.106 | The Agusta A.106 was a single-seat light helicopter designed to provide an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) platform for the Impavido-class destroyers of the Italian Navy. The aircraft was provided with a sophisticated electronics suite by Ferranti for autostabilisation and contact identification. Two torpedoes could be slung under the fuselage. The tail and two-bladed main rotor could be folded for shipboard stowage, and the skid undercarriage had fittings for flotation bags.
Two prototypes were built, the first flying in November 1965. A pre-production batch of 5 was cancelled by the Navy in 1973.
== Operators ==
Italy
Italian Navy (Marina Militare) for evaluation only
== Specifications ==
Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1969-70 General characteristics
Crew: one, pilot
Length: 8.00 m (26 ft 3 in)
Height: 2.5 m (8 ft 2.5 in)
Empty weight: 590 kg (1,300 lb)
Gross weight: 1,400 kg (3,086 lb)
Powerplant: 1 × Turbomeca-Agusta TA.230 , 224 kW (300 hp)
Main rotor diameter: 9.50 m (31 ft 2 in)
Main rotor area: 70.9 m2 (763 sq ft)
Performance
Maximum speed: 176 km/h (109 mph, 95 kn)
Range: 740 km (460 mi, 400 nmi)
Endurance: 4 hours 30 minutes
Service ceiling: 3,000 m (9,800 ft)
Rate of climb: 6.2 m/s (1,220 ft/min)
Armament
2 × Mk.44 torpedoes or
10 × depth charges or
2 × 7.62 mm machine-guns and 10 × 80 mm rockets
== See also ==
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Westland Wasp
== References ==
Taylor, John W.R. (1969). Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1969-70. London: Jane's Yearbooks.
Taylor, Michael J. H. (1989). Jane's Encyclopedia of Aviation. London: Studio Editions. p. 40.
Simpson, R. W. (1998). Airlife's Helicopters and Rotorcraft. Ramsbury: Airlife Publishing. pp. 32, 36. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naproxen#:~:text=PubChem%20CID,156391 | Naproxen | Naproxen, sold under the brand name Aleve among others, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to treat pain, menstrual cramps, and inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, gout and fever. It is taken orally. It is available in immediate and delayed release formulations. Onset of effects is within an hour and lasts for up to twelve hours. Naproxen is also available in salt form, naproxen sodium, which has better solubility when taken orally.
Common side effects include dizziness, headache, bruising, allergic reactions, heartburn, and stomach pain. Severe side effects include an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, gastrointestinal bleeding, and stomach ulcers. The heart disease risk may be lower than with other NSAIDs. It is not recommended in people with kidney problems. Use is not recommended in the third trimester of pregnancy.
Naproxen is a nonselective COX inhibitor. As an NSAID, naproxen appears to exert its anti-inflammatory action by reducing the production of inflammatory mediators called prostaglandins. It is metabolized by the liver to inactive metabolites.
Naproxen was patented in 1967 and approved for medical use in the United States in 1976. In the United States it is available over-the-counter and as a generic medication. In 2023, it was the 103rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 6 million prescriptions. Naproxen is a therapeutic alternative on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
== Medical uses ==
Naproxen's medical uses are related to its mechanism of action as an anti-inflammatory compound. Naproxen is used to treat a variety of inflammatory conditions and symptoms that are due to excessive inflammation, such as pain and fever (naproxen has fever-reducing, or antipyretic, properties in addition to its anti-inflammatory activity). Naproxen's anti-inflammatory properties relieve pain caused by inflammatory conditions such as migraine, osteoarthritis, kidney stones, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, gout, ankylosing spondylitis, menstrual cramps, tendinitis, and bursitis. Naproxen has also proven effective for acute post-operative pain.
Naproxen sodium is used as a "bridge therapy" in medication-overuse headache to slowly take patients off other medications.
=== Available formulations ===
Naproxen sodium is available as both an immediate-release and an extended-release tablet. The extended-release formulations (sometimes called "sustained release", or "enteric coated") take longer to take effect than the immediate-release formulations and therefore are less useful when immediate pain relief is desired. Extended-release formulations are more useful for the treatment of chronic, or long-lasting, conditions, in which long-term pain relief is desirable.
=== Pregnancy and lactation ===
As with all non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs), naproxen use should be avoided in pregnancy due to the importance of prostaglandins in vascular and renal function in the fetus. NSAIDs should especially be avoided in the third trimester. Small amounts of naproxen are excreted in breast milk. However, adverse effects are uncommon in infants breastfed from a mother taking naproxen.
== Adverse effects ==
Common adverse effects include dizziness, drowsiness, headache, rash, bruising, and gastrointestinal upset. Heavy use is associated with an increased risk of end-stage renal disease and kidney failure. Naproxen may cause muscle cramps in the legs in 3% of people.
In October 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the prescribing information to be updated for all nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications to describe the risk of kidney problems in unborn babies that result in low amniotic fluid. They recommend avoiding NSAIDs in pregnant women at 20 weeks or later in pregnancy.
=== Gastrointestinal ===
As with other non-COX-2 selective NSAIDs, naproxen can cause gastrointestinal problems, such as heartburn, constipation, diarrhea, ulcers and stomach bleeding. Naproxen should be taken orally with, or just after food, to decrease the risk of gastrointestinal side effects. Persons with a history of ulcers or inflammatory bowel disease should consult a doctor before taking naproxen. In U.S. markets, naproxen is sold with boxed warnings about the risk of gastrointestinal ulceration or bleeding. Naproxen poses an intermediate risk of stomach ulcers compared with ibuprofen, which is low-risk, and indometacin, which is high-risk. To reduce stomach ulceration risk, it is often combined with a proton-pump inhibitor (a medication that reduces stomach acid production) during long-term treatment of those with pre-existing stomach ulcers or a history of developing stomach ulcers while on NSAIDs.
=== Cardiovascular ===
COX-2 selective and nonselective NSAIDs have been linked to increases in the number of serious and potentially fatal cardiovascular events, such as myocardial infarctions and strokes. Naproxen is, however, associated with the smallest overall cardiovascular risks. Cardiovascular risk must be considered when prescribing any nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. The drug had roughly 50% of the associated risk of stroke compared with ibuprofen and was also associated with a reduced number of myocardial infarctions compared with control groups.
A study found that high-dose naproxen induced near-complete suppression of platelet thromboxane throughout the dosing interval and appeared not to increase cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, whereas other non-aspirin high-dose NSAID regimens had only transient effects on platelet COX-1 and were associated with a small but definite vascular hazard. Conversely, naproxen was associated with higher rates of upper gastrointestinal bleeding complications compared with other NSAIDs.
== Drug-drug interactions ==
Naproxen may interact with antidepressants, lithium, methotrexate, probenecid, warfarin and other blood thinners, heart or blood pressure medications, including diuretics, or steroid medicines such as prednisone.
NSAIDs such as naproxen may interfere with and reduce the efficacy of SSRI antidepressants, as well as increase the risk of bleeding greater than the individual bleeding risk of either class of agent, when taken together. Naproxen is not contraindicated in the presence of SSRIs, though concomitant use of the medications should be done with caution. Alcohol consumption increases the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding when combined with NSAIDs like naproxen in a dose-dependent manner (that is, the higher the dose of naproxen, the higher the risk of bleeding). The risk is highest for people who are heavy drinkers.
== Pharmacology ==
=== Mechanism of action ===
Naproxen works by reversibly inhibiting both the COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes as a non-selective coxib.
=== Pharmacokinetics ===
Naproxen is a minor substrate of CYP1A2 and CYP2C9. It is extensively metabolized in the liver to 6-O-desmethylnaproxen, and both the parent drug and the desmethyl metabolite undergo further metabolism to their respective acylglucuronide conjugated metabolites. An analysis of two clinical trials shows that naproxen's time to peak plasma concentration occurs between 2 and 4 hours after oral administration (the naproxen sodium formulation of the medication reaches peak plasma concentrations within 1–2 hours).
=== Pharmacogenetics ===
The pharmacogenetics of naproxen has been studied to better understand its adverse effects. In 1998, a small pharmacokinetic (PK) study failed to show that differences in a patient's ability to clear naproxen from the body could account for differences in a patient's risk of experiencing the adverse effect of a serious gastrointestinal bleed while taking naproxen. However, the study failed to account for differences in the activity of CYP2C9, a drug-metabolizing enzyme that is necessary for clearing naproxen. Studies on the relationship between CYP2C9 genotype and NSAID-induced gastrointestinal bleeds have shown that genetic variants in CYP2C9 that reduce the clearance of major CYP2C9 substrates (like naproxen) increase the risk of NSAID-induced gastrointestinal bleeds, especially for homozygous defective variants.
== Chemistry ==
Naproxen is a member of the 2-arylpropionic acid (profen) family of NSAIDs. The free acid is an odorless, white to off-white crystalline substance. Naproxen free base is lipid-soluble and practically insoluble in water, while naproxen sodium and many other salts are freely soluble in water, often soluble in methanol, and sparingly soluble in alcohol; check the specific solubility of each salt before use. Naproxen has a melting point of 152–155 °C, while naproxen salts tend to have higher melting points.
=== Synthesis ===
Naproxen has been industrially produced by Syntex starting from 2-naphthol as follows:
== Society and culture ==
=== Brand names ===
Naproxen and naproxen sodium are marketed under various brand names, including Accord, Aleve, Anaprox, Antalgin, Apranax, Feminax Ultra, Flanax, Inza, Maxidol, Nalgesin, Naposin, Naprelan, Naprogesic, Naprosyn, Narocin, Pronaxen, Proxen, Soproxen, and Xenifar. It is also available as the combination naproxen/esomeprazole magnesium in delayed-release tablets under the brand name Vimovo.
=== Access restrictions ===
Syntex first marketed naproxen in 1976, as the prescription drug Naprosyn. They first marketed naproxen sodium under the brand name Anaprox in 1980. It remains a prescription-only drug in much of the world. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it as an over-the-counter (OTC) drug in 1994. OTC preparations of naproxen in the U.S. are mainly marketed by Bayer HealthCare under the brand name Aleve and generic store brand formulations in 220 mg tablets. In Australia, packets of 275 mg tablets of naproxen sodium are Schedule 2 pharmacy medicines, with a maximum daily dose of five tablets or 1375 mg. In the United Kingdom, 250 mg tablets of naproxen were approved for OTC sale under the brand name Feminax Ultra in 2008, for the treatment of primary dysmenorrhoea in women aged 15 to 50. In the Netherlands, 220 mg and 275 mg tablets are available OTC in drugstores, 550 mg is OTC only at pharmacies. Aleve became available over the counter in some provinces in Canada on 14 July 2009, but not British Columbia, Quebec or Newfoundland and Labrador; it subsequently became available OTC in British Columbia in January 2010 and Quebec in 2023.
== Ecological effects ==
Naproxen has been found in groundwater and drinking water in concentrations high enough to have adverse effects on invertebrates including fungi, algae, bacteria and fishes. Naproxen is not thoroughly removed by conventional water treatment methods, and its degradation pathways in the environment are limited. Some methods more successfully remove naproxen from wastewater, including metal-organic complexes and porous carbon. Although the levels are generally low enough to not be acutely toxic, sub-lethal effects may still occur, such as reduced photosynthetic ability.
== Research ==
Naproxen may have antiviral activity against influenza. In laboratory research, it blocks the RNA-binding groove of the nucleoprotein of the virus, preventing the formation of the ribonucleoprotein complex—thus taking the viral nucleoproteins out of circulation.
== Veterinary use ==
=== Horses ===
Naproxen is given by mouth to horses at a dose of 10 mg/kg and has shown to have a wide safety margin (no toxicity when given at three times the recommended dose for 42 days). It is more effective for myositis than the commonly used NSAID phenylbutazone, and has shown especially good results for treatment of equine exertional rhabdomyolysis, a disease of muscle breakdown; it is less commonly used for musculoskeletal disease.
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Luxon#Personal_life | Christopher Luxon | Christopher Mark Luxon (born 19 July 1970) is a New Zealand politician and businessman who has served as the 42nd prime minister of New Zealand since 2023. A member of the National Party, he has been member of Parliament (MP) for Botany since 2020 and previously served as leader of the Opposition from 2021 to 2023. Prior to entering politics, he was the chief executive officer (CEO) of Air New Zealand from 2013 to 2019.
Luxon grew up in Howick in East Auckland before studying commerce at the University of Canterbury. He joined Unilever in 1993 and held senior roles at Unilever Canada, becoming president and CEO of the subsidiary in 2008. In 2011, he left Unilever Canada and joined Air New Zealand as group general manager and became CEO in 2013. After stepping down as CEO of Air New Zealand in 2019, Luxon won the pre-selection for the safe National Party seat of Botany in East Auckland. He won the National Party leadership unopposed on 30 November 2021, eight months after giving his maiden speech, after the ousting of his predecessor. Luxon led his party to a plurality of seats at the 2023 general election. Luxon signed a coalition deal with ACT New Zealand and New Zealand First to form a majority, and was sworn in as prime minister on 27 November 2023.
Under Luxon's premiership, the Sixth National Government of New Zealand has shrunk New Zealand's civil service and attempted to boost the economy through international tourism. The government introduced cuts to healthcare expenditure, reintroduced the three-strikes sentencing law and a pilot military-style boot camp for youth offenders, and enacted NZD$14.7 billion in tax cuts. The government replaced the Three Waters reform programme with the Local Water Done Well policy, and minimised co-governance initiatives while discouraging the use of the Māori language alongside the English language in the public service. His government has contributed to the construction of the City Rail Link metro system in Central Auckland, and agreed to support the controversial Treaty Principles Bill to its first reading. In foreign policy, his government has increased military spending and Five Eyes cooperation in a general pro-United States shift. Luxon's coalition dynamics with his deputy prime ministers Winston Peters and David Seymour have proved controversial, given they have openly challenged his authority.
== Early life ==
Christopher Mark Luxon was born in Christchurch on 19 July 1970, to a Roman Catholic family of Irish, Scottish and English descent. He lived in Christchurch until the age of seven, when his family moved to Howick in Auckland. His father, Graham Luxon, worked for Johnson & Johnson as a sales executive and his mother, Kathleen Luxon (née Turnbull), worked as a psychotherapist and counsellor. After a year at Saint Kentigern College and another year at Howick College, the family returned to Christchurch and Luxon spent three years at Christchurch Boys' High School. While there, he won the prize for senior debating. He subsequently studied at the University of Canterbury from 1989 to 1992, gaining a Master of Commerce (Business Administration) degree. During his high school and university years, Luxon worked part-time at McDonald's and as a porter at the Parkroyal Hotel.
== Business career ==
=== Unilever ===
Luxon worked for Unilever from 1993 to 2011, starting in Wellington as a management trainee for two years, leaving for Sydney in 1995. He worked his way up in the company, working in Sydney until 2000, in London from 2000 to 2003, and then Chicago from 2003 to 2008, becoming "Global Deodorants and Grooming Category" Director. In 2008 when Unilever restructured, he became president of the company's Canadian operations, based in Toronto.
=== Air New Zealand ===
Luxon joined Air New Zealand as group general manager in May 2011 and was named the chief executive officer on 19 June 2012, taking up the role at the end of that year. During his eight-year leadership, Air New Zealand profits grew to record levels. Important contributors to this were a booming tourism market; the company's decision to stop operating under-performing regional routes; and the cutting of hundreds of jobs. The company was named Australia's most trusted brand several times.
In 2014, Luxon joined the board of Virgin Australia representing Air New Zealand, which was then a major shareholder. In 2016, Air NZ decided it was no longer in its best interest to maintain a close connection with another airline so it sold its 25.9% stake in Virgin Australia. Luxon consequently left the Virgin board.
Luxon resigned from Air NZ in 2019, and hinted at a possible career with the National Party.
== Personal wealth ==
As at March 2024, his net worth was estimated to be between NZ$21 million and NZ$30 million, which makes him the second-wealthiest leader of the National Party, after former Prime Minister John Key. He then owned seven properties, including a home in Remuera valued at NZ$7.68 million, and a other assets collectively valued at over NZ$21 million. In late 2024, Luxon stated, "Let's be clear, I'm wealthy," in response to questions about his property sales and financial position.
After becoming prime minister, Luxon stayed in his own Wellington apartment and claimed a NZ$52,000 accommodation allowance, to which he said he was entitled. After public scrutiny began, he quickly changed his position, saying: "It's clear that the issue of my accommodation allowance is becoming a distraction" and "As such, I have decided today that I will no longer claim the allowance and will repay anything I have received since I became Prime Minister."
Luxon sold three of his properties in 2024 with Stuff estimating he could have made up to $769,500 in profit.
== Early political career ==
=== Member of Parliament ===
After Jami-Lee Ross resigned from National over accusations of fraud against the party, Luxon secured the National Party candidacy for the Botany electorate, which has always been won by National and was regarded as a safe seat for them, in November 2019. He won in a selection contest with National Party list MP Agnes Loheni, Howick Local Board deputy chair Katrina Bungard, cancer drug campaigner Troy Elliott, and tech businessman Jake Bezzant, who was later selected as National's candidate for Upper Harbour.
=== In Opposition (2020–2023) ===
Amid a sweep of National seats lost to Labour in the 2020 general election, Luxon won Botany with 52% of the vote. In his maiden speech, Luxon praised Martin Luther King Jr. and Kate Sheppard as part of a defence of Christians such as himself in public life, claiming that being Christian had become an identity that "it has become acceptable to stereotype as being extreme." He was appointed as the spokesperson for local government, research, science, manufacturing and land information, as well as associate spokesperson for transport in the Shadow Cabinet of Judith Collins.
After the removal of Collins as party leader on 25 November, Luxon was cited as a potential replacement. On 30 November, following Bridges's withdrawal from the running at the National Party leadership election, Luxon was announced as the party's leader.
As Leader of the Opposition, Luxon used public funding to pay for Māori language (te reo) lessons. Luxon defended using taxpayer money to pay for his Māori language lessons, stating that "developing better skills in te reo was highly relevant to his role as Opposition leader and a potential Prime Minister. Once he became Prime Minister, the National-led coalition government considered discontinuing incentive payments for public servants to learn the Māori language.
== Prime Minister (2023–present) ==
On 14 October 2023, Christopher Luxon led the National Party to victory in the 2023 general election, winning 48 seats and 38.1% of the party vote – but not enough to govern outright. Luxon retained his Botany electorate seat with 67% of the vote. National required two coalition partners and his negotiations with ACT and New Zealand First took till 24 November. Luxon was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Dame Cindy Kiro on 27 November.
New Zealanders can be positive about the future. Change won't be easy and it won't be quick, because Labour has left us a lot to repair and to rebuild, and the books are not in good shape. But I tell you there's nothing that can't be done by a Government that actually knows what it's doing.
=== Economic growth ===
On 18 February 2024 Luxon delivered his first State of the Nation address, in which he blamed the previous Labour Government for what he called the "precarious state of the economy". Luxon stated that his Government would focus on restoring the economy by cutting taxes (by $14.7 billion), reducing public spending and "red tape". Tax Justice Aotearoa have described the tax changes as regressive, arguing that they disproportionately benefit higher-income earners, landlords and property investors.
Nevertheless, Luxon has made economic growth the central theme of his government's agenda, arguing it is the solution to New Zealand's problems and key to improving living standards for all Kiwis. His government is prioritising growth in sectors such as tourism, international education, mining, and agriculture, aiming to make it easier for these industries to expand and attract investment, and is using quarterly action plans to maintain momentum, monitor progress, and ensure the public service remains focused on delivery.
However, much of the country's capital is tied up in unproductive and expensive housing, an issue which is not being addressed by Luxon's government. Productivity is also affected by stress and mental health issues of employees. Unions tend to see the Government as anti-worker, pointing to many changes that have had negative impacts on people and services, such as the abolition of Fair Pay Agreement laws and pay equity laws in May 2025. Concerns also exist about the government's structural deficit and the risk that tax cuts could undermine economic stability if not matched by spending restraint or genuine productivity gains.
On 7 May 2025, Luxon and Tourism Minister Louise Upston announced the Government would end the requirement for overseas visitors to provide certified translations of supporting documents in a bid to boost international tourism.
==== Public sector cutbacks ====
As part of reducing Government spending, in late 2023, Luxon's government began implementing significant cutbacks to New Zealand's public service. He describes these measures as part of a drive for fiscal discipline, with the stated aim of reducing what the government describes as "wasteful spending" and redirecting resources towards frontline services and tax relief. In 2024 alone, more than 800 jobs were cut in a single day across five major departments, including Kāinga Ora, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, Statistics New Zealand, the New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), and the Ministry of Education. Radio New Zealand reports that if vacancies are included in the calculation, 9,500 public sector jobs have been cut. More than 240 government programmes have been scaled down or scrapped, particularly those initiated under the previous Labour government. Luxon has consistently articulated the rationale for these cuts, amounting to about $6 billion and publicly defended the scale of job losses.
==== Health sector ====
Luxon's government has also focused on cutting public expenditures on healthcare. In 2024, Health New Zealand (Te Whatu Ora) faced serious financial challenges, with reports of a $130 million per month shortfall and a projected $1.4 billion deficit by year-end. The government cited a lack of financial controls and poor cash flow analysis within the organisation, leading to the replacement of the board with a commissioner to improve performance and accountability. Luxon claimed there was a bloated bureaucracy, with 14 layers of management between the chief executive and the patient.
There have also been multiple high-profile resignations, including the Director-General of Health, the Chief Executive of Health NZ, and the Director of Public Health. Luxon claimed these were independent decisions, while critics linked them to ongoing sector pressures and unmet targets, especially around emergency department (ED) wait times. On 19 January 2025, Luxon announced that Simeon Brown would be appointed as the next Minister of Health, taking over from Shane Reti.
Despite these frequent changes in personnel, little progress has been made. Emergency departments have experienced increased wait times and staffing shortages. Access to GPs and primary care has been difficult, with long waits for appointments and concerns about the sustainability of general practice. In response to concerns about long waiting lists, Luxon said that if he had an infection, he would rather see a nurse practitioner to get antibiotics. He told Kerre Woodham on NewstalkZB: "I don't need to book a GP appointment."
==== Taxing cigarettes ====
In February 2024, National-led coalition government repealed New Zealand's world leading smoke-free legislation which would have made it illegal for anyone born in 2008 or later to legally purchase tobacco. The decision to repeal New Zealand's smokefree legislation is likely to raise or preserve approximately NZ$10.3 billion in tobacco excise tax revenue for the government by 2040, helping to fund other tax cuts.
Researchers from the University of Otago warned that thousands of New Zealanders will continue to die needlessly, and that the repeal "flies in the face of robust research evidence." Chris Hipkins suggested the government is "firmly in the pocket of the tobacco industry."
==== Overseas investment ====
On 1 September 2025, Luxon confirmed the Government would amend the Overseas Investment Amendment Act 2018 to allow investor visa holders to buy homes with a minimum value of NZ$5million.
=== Law and order ===
In May 2024, Luxon said violent crime was up 33 per cent and retail crime had more than doubled since 2018, and that restoring law and order was a government priority. In response, the coalition government introduced laws banning gang patches and insignia in public places; made gang membership an aggravating factor in sentencing, increased the penalties for gang-related offending, and enacted measures to prevent gang members from gathering in public and from communicating with each other. It has also empowered police with greater authority to search gang members for firearms, particularly through the Firearms Prohibition Orders Legislation Amendment Act 2024, which came into effect in March 2025.
On 6 May 2024, Luxon and Police and Corrections Minister Mark Mitchell announced that the Government would allocate NZ$1.9 billion from the upcoming 2024 New Zealand budget to training 470 new corrections officers and adding 810 beds to Waikeria Prison.
==== Sentencing ====
Luxon's Government has reinstated the controversial "three-strikes" legislation, that was repealed by the Labour government in 2022. The new law has 42 qualifying offences and increases mandatory sentencing for repeat serious offenders. It comes into effect on 17 June 2025.
The government has also abolished legal aid funding for section 27 cultural reports, which previously allowed for sentence reductions when the defendant had endured systemic deprivation growing up.
To address the growing prison population, the Government has provided $78 million to extend rehabilitation programs to prisoners on remand and an additional $472 million for overall prison capacity and staff.
==== Youth crime ====
In mid November 2022, Luxon announced that the National Party's youth crime policies would include a new Young Serious Offender category for juvenile offenders and would establish boot camps known as Youth Offender Military Academies. In early March 2024, the Government confirmed the Military Style Academy would be run by Oranga Tamariki (the Ministry for Children), claiming it would be different from previous boot camps and have a rehabilitative and trauma-informed care approach. The three-month boot camp commenced on 29 July 2024 at an Oranga Tamariki youth justice facility in Palmerston North, followed by a nine-month community phase.
Multiple studies, official data, and expert commentary spanning several decades indicate that boot camps do not reduce reoffending. When Chief Children's Commissioner Claire Achmad expressed concerns, Luxon defended the pilot programme, saying:
"I don't care what you say about whether it does or doesn't work. We can have that intellectual conversation all day long, but we are, dammit, going to try something different because we cannot carry on getting the results that we've been getting (sic)."
=== Treaty Principles Bill ===
As part of the coalition agreement with David Seymour, Luxon agreed to support the Treaty Principles Bill at its first reading and send it to a select committee. Luxon made it clear that National would not support the bill beyond that stage or allow it to become law. He has emphasised that the bill does a disservice to the Treaty of Waitangi by oversimplifying 184 years of complex debate and discussion around the Treaty. The bill sparked heated debate in Parliament with MPs describing it as "divisive" and a "wrecking ball" to Crown-Māori relations.
=== Environmental issues ===
In early December 2023, Luxon along with Cyclone Recovery Minister Mark Mitchell and Transport and Local Government Minister Simeon Brown, visited Hawke's Bay to meet with local leaders and local National MPs Katie Nimon and Catherine Wedd to discuss government support for post-flood and Cyclone Gabrielle relief efforts in the region. During the visit, Luxon confirmed that the Government would pause work on restoring the Napier-Wairoa railway line to focus on repairing State Highway 2.
On 11 February 2024, Luxon and Emergency Management and Recovery Minister Mark Mitchell announced that the Government would contribute NZ$63 million to aid the removal of sediment and debris caused by Cyclone Gabrielle in the Hawke's Bay and Gisborne District.
=== Cabinet reshuffles ===
In late April 2024, Luxon stripped Melissa Lee of her Media and Communications ministerial portfolio and Penny Simmonds of her Disability Issues portfolio during a cabinet reshuffle. Lee had faced criticism for her response to Warner Bros. Discovery's closure of Newshub while Simmonds had faced criticism over her handling of changes to disability funding and services. Lee was also relieved of her Cabinet position. Luxon appointed Paul Goldsmith to the Media and Communications portfolio, Louise Upston to the Disability Issues portfolio and promoted Climate Change and Revenue Minister Simon Watts to the Cabinet.
=== Local government ===
On 5 May 2024 Luxon, Local Government Minister Simeon Brown and Mayor of Auckland Wayne Brown jointly announced that Auckland would avoid a 25.8 percent rates increase as part of the Government's Local Water Done Well plan.
During Local Government New Zealand's annual conference held on 21 August 2024, Luxon called on local and regional councils to focus on rubbish collection, water infrastructure and other local assets. He also criticised so-called "nice to have projects" such as the Tākina convention centre. Luxon also confirmed that Cabinet had agreed to revise the Local Government Act and scrap the four wellbeing provisions in that legislation.
On 23 June 2025, Luxon said he was open to abolishing regional councils as part of the Government's reform of the Resource Management Act 1991.
=== Education ===
In early August 2024, Luxon and Education Minister Erica Stanford announced plans to introduce a new mathematics curriculum from early 2025 with a focus on raising student standards and achievement. In response, the New Zealand Educational Institute expressed concerns that rapid changes to the maths and literacy curriculum and the short teaching training timeframe would strain the teaching workforce without delivering on its goals.
In early August 2025, Luxon and Stanford confirmed that the Government would scrap the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) secondary school qualification over the next five years.
=== Abuse survivors ===
On 10 November 2024, Luxon delivered the New Zealand Government's national apology to survivors of abuse in state and faith-based care at Parliament, stating "it was horrific. It was heartbreaking. It was wrong. And it should never have happened.." Luxon also announced that the Government was introducing legislation to combat abuse in care including banning strip searches on children and strengthening security checks for people working with children.
=== Social welfare ===
In August 2022, Luxon warned young unemployed people their "free ride" under Labour would come to an end if he won the 2023 election, saying: "To young people who don't want to work you might have a free ride under Labour, but under National, it ends". He further stated National would make sweeping cuts to the Ministry of Social Development in favour of privatised employment agencies and "not keep funding failure".
In August 2024, Luxon and Louise Upston, announced a "traffic light" regime for welfare was introduced, setting out escalating consequences for beneficiaries who fail to meet job-seeking or other obligations. From early 2025, jobseeker beneficiaries are required to reapply for their benefit every six months, instead of annually, and a new community work sanction was introduced requiring beneficiaries to "build skills and confidence." When interviewed shortly afterwards on TVNZ and then on RNZ's Morning Report, Luxon was unable to answer questions about how much beneficiaries actually receive.
In October 2025, Luxon and Upston confirmed that the Government would tighten welfare eligibility criteria for 18 and 19-year old teenagers; with those having parents earning over NZ$65,000 being ineligible for Jobseeker and other emergency benefits from November 2026. 18 and 19 year olds, with dependent children, or who were estranged from their parents would still be eligible for welfare assistance. He said: We're here to help and support as much as we can, but you also have to take responsibility for that and actually just consigning you to a life of welfare for 18 years is unacceptable.
=== Foreign affairs ===
Since becoming prime minister, Luxon has made overseas trips to Australia, the Pacific, south east Asia, Japan, the United States where he also met Chinese leaders. Details of these trips are described here:
According to The Economist and Foreign Policy magazine, New Zealand foreign policy under the National-led coalition government had shifted away from China in favour of closer relations with its traditional Five Eyes partners, the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and Canada. During an interview with The Economist, Luxon said that he was looking to "diversify New Zealand's diplomatic and trade relationships away from its reliance on China." The magazine described this shift as New Zealand's biggest pivot since the ANZUS dispute in 1986 that was triggered by New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.
Foreign Policy columnist Derek Grossman wrote that Luxon and Foreign Minister Winston Peters were continuing a thaw in New Zealand–United States relations that began under National prime minister John Key in 2010 and was continued by Labour prime minister Jacinda Ardern and Chris Hipkins. Notable examples of this pro-US shift included the Royal New Zealand Navy sending a ship to sail through the disputed Taiwan Strait and the National-led government's expressed interest in partnering with AUKUS and NATO.
In late August 2024, Luxon expressed support for Taiwan's participation in the Pacific Islands Forum in response to Chinese plans to lobby for member states to exclude Taiwan from attending the Forum's 2025 event.
==== Defence spending ====
In April 2025, Luxon announced the Government will allocate $12 billion into defence spending over the next four years. Luxon said it was time New Zealand "pulls its weight" internationally. This will bring New Zealand's spending on defence up to 2% of its GDP, up from 1%. The Child Poverty Action Group pointed out that the $12 billion allocated for defence matches the Treasury's estimate needed to halve child poverty by 2028. The group notes the auditor-general's criticism of Luxon's government for its lack of a coherent plan to address rising child poverty, underscoring public concerns about resource allocation between defence and social welfare.
==== Australia ====
On 20 December 2023, Luxon made his first state visit as head of government to Sydney where he met Australian prime minister Anthony Albanese. During his visit, Luxon affirmed New Zealand's nuclear-free policy but expressed openness to joining the non-nuclear pillar of the AUKUS agreement, but also stated that New Zealand was keen to do its share of "heavy lifting" in the Australia–New Zealand defence relationship. Luxon and Albanese also talked about the contribution of New Zealander Australians to Australia.
Between 9 and 10 August 2025, Luxon hosted Albanese in Queenstown for the annual bilateral head of government talks. During the meeting, the two heads of government discussed various trade and defence issues, the Gaza war and Australia's 501 deportation policy. Other local and civil society leaders attended the bilateral meeting including Mayor of Queenstown-Lakes Glyn Lewers, Southland MP Joseph Mooney, Ngai Tahu Tipene O'Regan and Edward Ellison, and New Zealand actor and film-maker Cliff Curtis. The two leaders also laid wreaths at a memorial to fallen ANZAC soldiers in Arrowtown on 10 August.
===== 501 deportation policy =====
Luxon has consistently expressed strong opposition to Australia's 501 deportation policy, particularly when it results in people with minimal ties to New Zealand being deported. He has repeatedly called the policy "regrettable" and "not right." He has expressed disappointment that Australia reversed its previous, more lenient approach, which took into account the length of time someone had lived in Australia and their family connections before deporting them. He has stated, "It's just not right that people who have no connection to New Zealand are deported to New Zealand."
Following his discussions with Albanese, Luxon said: "We respect the fact that Australia has its own policies around deportation," but hoped that common sense would prevail.
=== Coalition dynamics ===
Luxon's leadership and ability to govern effectively have been challenged by the roles and actions of his coalition partners, David Seymour (ACT) and Winston Peters (NZ First). A recurring concern is his perceived lack of control over his coalition partners. A poll in April 2024 found that 51% of respondents say Luxon is the decision maker in government.
David Seymour has openly challenged Luxon's authority, particularly around contentious issues like the Treaty Principles Bill. Seymour's public skepticism about Luxon's commitments and his willingness to contradict the prime minister in public have reinforced perceptions of Luxon's weak leadership. Seymour even asserts that Luxon cannot unilaterally sack ACT ministers which highlights the limits of Luxon's executive power within the coalition.
On the other hand, Winston Peters is seen as an unpredictable and influential force, who has not hesitated to critique government policy or his own coalition's fiscal plans. In March 2024, he undercut finance minister Nicola Willis by claiming a $5.6b fiscal hole would result from her intended tax cuts.
==== Communication style ====
Luxon's background as a corporate executive is often cited as influencing his communication style, sometimes to his detriment. He has been criticised for using business jargon – such as referring to voters as "customers"- and for appearing out of touch with ordinary New Zealanders. Janet Wilson, former chief press secretary for the National Party said he memorises talking points and sounds like a 'talking robot'.
Luxon has also been repeatedly criticised for avoiding direct answers to straightforward questions, particularly in high-profile media interviews. A notable example occurred during the Andrew Bayly resignation saga, where Luxon was pressed multiple times by Mike Hosking to state whether he would have sacked Bayly if he had not resigned. Luxon sidestepped the question for several minutes, eventually conceding that he would have "demoted" Bayly and that "you can call it sacked" – a performance that was widely described as evasive.
Luxon's approach to coalition management and controversial legislation has also drawn criticism for being diffident and weak. His handling of the ACT Party's Treaty Principles Bill – supporting its introduction, but pledging to vote against it later – has been seen by some as lacking conviction and clarity, further reinforcing perceptions of indecisiveness. Luxon claimed that allowing the Treaty Principles Bill a first reading was "worth it to form government".
=== Public opinion ===
In April 2024, a 1News-Verian poll was released, showing the National-ACT-New Zealand First coalition government convincingly behind the left bloc of Labour, the Green Party and Te Pāti Māori. It also cast doubt on the strength of Luxon's leadership compared to that of his coalition partners Winston Peters and David Seymour, with 51% of respondents believing Luxon was the decision-maker in the government.
A subsequent poll by Talbot Mills suggested a Labour-led government would have a bare majority of 62 seats, while Roy Morgan found 54% of those they surveyed believed New Zealand was heading in "the wrong direction", with just 35% believing it was in the right direction. In June, a poll showed Luxon fall behind opposition leader Chris Hipkins in net favourability for the first time.
Opinion polls show that Luxon's lack of popularity has deepened over his first 18 months in office. His net favourability is notably lower than previous first-term Prime Ministers such as Helen Clark, John Key, and Jacinda Ardern. Max Rashbrooke, senior research associate at the Institute for Governance and Policy Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, says a common criticism is "Luxon's inability to articulate what he stands for" or what he is trying to achieve for the country. Six months later, in October 2025, The Post/Freshwater Strategy poll found that 27% of voters view Luxon positively, while 51% have an unfavourable view.
== Political positions ==
Luxon is an evangelical Christian who is recognised as a social conservative. In his maiden parliamentary speech, Luxon defined himself as centre-right and moderate; the government he leads has been described as conservative and right-wing, and one of the most so since the 1990s. Luxon supports low taxes, making cuts to the Ministry of Social Development, establishing military-style boot-camps for young offenders, and introducing stringent anti-gang legislation, and is opposed to welfare dependency and to co-governance with Māori.
In November 2019, Luxon said he was against abortion, euthanasia, and legalising recreational cannabis, though at the same time he supported medicinal use of cannabis. He also at the time supported a "no jab, no pay" policy for sanctioning welfare beneficiaries who did not vaccinate their children; however, following his election as leader of the National Party, Luxon said he did not support cutting the benefits of parents who do not vaccinate their children against COVID-19. Luxon has also firmly stood against efforts to reform New Zealand's water system.
=== Abortion ===
Luxon's views on abortion received media attention following his election as National's leader. He confirmed that his personal views are anti-abortion, but said National will not contest the Abortion Legislation Act 2020 should he become prime minister. After previously declining to answer when asked if he believes abortion to be tantamount to murder, he said in an interview with Newshub that he is "a pro-life person," and when asked again about the murder comparison, he responded "that's what a pro-life position is."
=== Conflict in Gaza ===
In response to the Gaza war, Luxon stated that he was shocked and saddened by Hamas's overnight attacks against Israel. Luxon condemned Hamas' attacks and stated that Israel had a right to defend itself.
He later committed New Zealand to active military support, saying "I want us to be in lockstep with our partners who have common interests and actually be right there with them at that time." In January 2024, he authorised deployment of 6 NZDF personnel to support military action against Houthi forces in the Red Sea, saying "it's about us standing up for things that we believe in, and we can either talk about them or we can actually do something about it as well and make sure that we put real capability alongside our words".
On 30 January 2024, Luxon announced that New Zealand would be suspending its annual NZ$1 million aid to UNRWA (the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East) following allegations that several UNRWA workers had participated in the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel. His announcement followed a decision by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade to review New Zealand's aid to UNRWA. On 29 February 2024, Luxon announced New Zealand's designation of Hamas in its entirety as a terrorist entity.
As the war on Gaza unfolded, Luxon's position changed. On 2 December 2024, Luxon confirmed that New Zealand would comply with an International Criminal Court (ICC) arrest warrant in the event that Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu visited New Zealand. During a press conference, he stated, "We believe in the international rules-based system, we support the ICC, and we would be obligated to do so." In June 2025, he described New Zealand's sanctions on Israeli ministers Bezalel Smotrich and Itamar Ben-Gvir as "entirely appropriate".
On 9 August 2025, Luxon and Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese called for a ceasefire in Gaza and opposed Israeli plans to occupy Gaza City. On 13 August 2025, Luxon made remarks in Parliament criticising Israel's conduct of its war in Gaza, describing it as "utterly, utterly appalling." He also said that "I think Netanyahu has gone way too far. I think he has lost the plot."
=== Conversion therapy ===
In late November 2021, Luxon said the practice of conversion therapy was "abhorrent". In early February 2022, he said he supports New Zealand's LGBT+ community and announced that National MPs would be allowed a conscience vote on the Conversion Practices Prohibition Legislation Bill. The Bill passed its third and final reading on 15 February 2022, with Luxon voting in favour of the Bill's passage.
=== COVID-19 pandemic ===
Although Luxon frequently criticised the Labour Government's strategy for managing the COVID-19 pandemic, on 8 January 2022, he stated that the National Party strongly support COVID-19 vaccination, and described vaccination as the best protection for people and their families.
=== Defence and security ===
In response to US president Donald Trump's announcement during the 2025 APEC Summit that the United States would resume nuclear testing, Luxon expressed disapproval of US plans to resume nuclear testing and reiterated his commitment to New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.
=== Extending parliamentary term ===
On 20 September 2024, Luxon said that the coalition government was open to holding a referendum to extend the parliamentary term from three to four years at the 2026 general election. On 27 February 2025, the government introduced the Term of Parliament (Enabling 4-year Term) Legislation Amendment Bill to conduct a referendum.
=== Immigration ===
On 3 May 2023, Luxon acknowledged the historical sensitivity around the dawn raids of the 1970s which disproportionately targeted Pasifika New Zealanders. However, he stated that Immigration New Zealand needed to "reserve the option" to use police raids against individuals involved in serious criminal offending or who posed a security risk to New Zealand. Luxon also stated there were 14,000 overstayers in New Zealand. Luxon's remarks came in response to media coverage of the agency's recent dawn raid tactics against visa overstayers, which had attracted criticism from Deputy Prime Minister Carmel Sepuloni for re-traumatising the Pasifika community.
On 11 December 2023, Luxon stated that New Zealand's 118,000 annual net migration rate was unsustainable and that infrastructure needed to be managed better to support growth. Luxon made these remarks after the Australian Government announced a new migration strategy to address pressure on housing and infrastructure in Australia.
=== Māori issues ===
In late January 2023, Luxon stated that National opposed co-governance in the delivery of public services such as health, education and critical infrastructure. Nevertheless, he expressed support for "self-driven" initiatives within the Māori community such as Whānau Ora, kohanga reo and charter schools. On 25 January, Luxon stated that the existence of Māori seats "doesn't make a lot of sense."
During Waitangi Day on 6 February 2023, Luxon described the Treaty of Waitangi as a "challenging, imperfect but ultimately inspiring document through which New Zealand had sought to understand what was intended by those who signed it." While acknowledging that the New Zealand Crown had not upheld the Treaty's promises and obligations, he expressed hope that the Treaty settlement process would be completed by 2030.
During a Question Time in Parliament on 20 August 2024, Luxon said that he believed that Māori ceded sovereignty to the New Zealand Crown by signing the Treaty of Waitangi. When questioned by Green co-leader Chlöe Swarbrick, Luxon reiterated that the Treaty was New Zealand's founding document and said that it had protected both Māori and Crown interests.
On 19 December 2024, Luxon confirmed that he would not be attending events at the Waitangi Treaty Grounds on 4 February 2025, stating that it was his intention to celebrate Waitangi Day around New Zealand with different iwi. National Waitangi Trust chairperson Pita Tipene expressed disappointment with Luxon's decision while Labour leader Chris Hipkins said that Luxon was "running away from problems of his own creation."
=== Monarchy ===
Luxon has described himself as a "soft republican" and believes that New Zealand will "ultimately" become a republic, but that the change would not happen "in my Government and in my time."
=== School meals ===
On 1 March 2025, Luxon said that the school lunch programme was experiencing "teething issues" in response to quality and delivery issues with the Government's new school lunch programme. He added that Associate Education Minister Seymour "will work his way through those issues... and I expect he will [find a solution]." On 4 March, Luxon stated during a press conference that parents who were dissatisfied with the school lunch programme should "make a marmite sandwich and put an apple in a bag". Luxon's remarks drew criticism from Hora Hora School principal and Tai Tokerau Principals' Association spokesman Pat Newman, Child Poverty Action Group executive officer Sarita Divis, East Otago High School principal Helen Newcombe, who argued that school lunches were needed to improve the health and educational outcomes of students and combat child poverty. In response to criticism, Luxon defended his remarks and reiterated the Government's commitment to addressing problems with the school lunch programme.
=== Sex education ===
While Luxon regards sex education as important to the school curriculum, in February 2024 he stated that it should be age appropriate and that parents should be able to withdraw their children from sex education classes if they choose.
=== Transgender rights ===
When asked in March 2023 if anti-transgender activist Posie Parker should be allowed to enter New Zealand, Luxon said that he affirmed people's right to free speech but that he "absolutely" supported the rights of New Zealand's transgender community. In mid-August, Luxon said that he believes there is no need for laws specifying which toilets transgender people can use. During a TVNZ debate with Prime Minister Chris Hipkins in September, he said that the participation of transgender people in sports is an issue that should be left to sporting bodies.
== Personal life ==
=== Family ===
Luxon met his wife Amanda at a church youth group and they married on 8 January 1994 when he was 23. They have a son and daughter. The couple share the same faith, saying "it quietly guides what they care about".
In late July 2022, Luxon confirmed he was on a family holiday in Hawaii during the parliamentary recess when a Facebook video post published on 21 July implied he was visiting Te Puke at that time. Luxon attributed the confusion to a delay in his social media team updating his whereabouts over the previous week, which he said was a mistake.
=== Religion ===
Luxon had a Catholic upbringing, describes himself as a Christian or non-denominational Christian, and has been described as an evangelical Christian. He has attended a Baptist church in Auckland as a child; a Presbyterian church in Australia; an Anglican church in England; and non-denominational churches in the United States, Canada and New Zealand. After he returned to New Zealand in 2011 he attended the Upper Room church in Auckland. In 2021 he said he had not attended a church for five or six years.
=== Interests ===
Luxon enjoys DIY, listening to country music, waterskiing and fishing.
Luxon is a supporter of the Crusaders rugby union team and Auckland FC in association football. He attended Auckland FC's first ever match in the A-League Men in 2024, where he was pranked by an Auckland FC fan who flicked his nose while posing for a photo.
== Awards ==
In 2015, Luxon was named the Deloitte Top 200 CEO of the Year for his leadership at Air New Zealand.
In 2019, Luxon won a BLAKE Award for his sustainability initiatives at Air New Zealand.
== See also ==
List of current heads of state and government
List of heads of the executive by approval rating
== References ==
== External links ==
Profile on the New Zealand Parliament website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dornot | Dornot | Dornot (French pronunciation: [dɔʁno]; German: Dorningen) is a former commune in the Moselle department in north-eastern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune Ancy-Dornot. It is situated on the left bank of the river Moselle. Its population was 162 in 2022.
== History ==
In September 1944, American General George S. Patton led Walton Walker's XX Corps in a botched attempt to cross the Moselle at Dornot. The fierce fighting led to a defensive victory for the Germans. See Lorraine Campaign.
== See also ==
Communes of the Moselle department
Parc naturel régional de Lorraine
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_P._Robbins#:~:text=The%20Mathematical%20Association%20of%20America,Line%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Integer%20Sequences. | David P. Robbins | David Peter Robbins (12 August 1942 in Brooklyn – 4 September 2003 in Princeton) was an American mathematician. He is most famous for introducing alternating sign matrices. He is also known for his work on generalizations of Heron's formula on the area of polygons, due to which Robbins pentagons (cyclic pentagons with integer side lengths and areas) were named after him.
Robbins grew up in Manhattan, where he attended the Fieldston School. He studied at Harvard, where his undergraduate advisor was Andrew Gleason. He went to MIT to do his graduate work and, after a hiatus during which he taught at Fieldston, finished his Ph.D. in 1970. He then taught at MIT, Phillips Exeter Academy, Hamilton College and Washington and Lee University. In 1980 he moved to Princeton, New Jersey and worked at the Institute for Defense Analyses Center for Communications Research there until his death from pancreatic cancer.
A symposium was held in Robbins' honor in June 2003, the papers from which were published as a special issue of the journal Advances in Applied Mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America established a prize named in his honor in 2005, given every three years to one or more researchers in algebra, combinatorics, or discrete mathematics. The first winner of the prize, in 2008, was Neil Sloane for the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.
The American Mathematical Society has another prize, the David P. Robbins Prize (AMS) with the same name the first winners of which were Samuel P. Ferguson and Thomas C. Hales for their work on the Kepler conjecture.
== See also ==
Robbins constant, the average distance between two random points in a unit cube
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Air_Force#2000s | German Air Force | The German Air Force (German: Luftwaffe, lit. ''air weapon'', pronounced [ˈlʊftvafə] ) is the aerial warfare branch of the Bundeswehr, the armed forces of Germany. The German Air Force (as part of the Bundeswehr) was founded in 1956 during the era of the Cold War as the aerial warfare branch of the armed forces of West Germany. After the reunification of West and East Germany in 1990, it integrated parts of the air force of the former German Democratic Republic, which itself had been founded in 1956 as part of the National People's Army. There is no organizational continuity between the current Luftwaffe of the Bundeswehr and the former Luftwaffe of the Wehrmacht founded in 1935, which was completely disbanded in 1945/46 after World War II. The term Luftwaffe that is used for both the historic and the current German air force is the German-language generic designation of any air force.
The commander of the German Air Force is Lieutenant General Holger Neumann. As of 2015, the German Air Force uses eleven air bases, two of which host no flying units. Furthermore, the Air Force has a presence at three civil airports. In 2012, the German Air Force had an authorized strength of 28,475 active airmen and 4,914 reservists.
== History ==
After World War II, German aviation was severely curtailed, and military aviation was completely forbidden after the Allied Control Commission disbanded the Nazi-era Luftwaffe in August 1946. This changed in 1955 when West Germany joined NATO, as the Western Allies believed that Germany was needed to counter the increasing military threat posed by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. Therefore, on 9 January 1956, a new German Air Force called Luftwaffe was founded as a branch of the new Bundeswehr.
Many well-known fighter pilots of the Wehrmacht's Luftwaffe joined the new post-war air force and underwent refresher training in the US before returning to West Germany to upgrade on the latest U.S.-supplied hardware. These included Erich Hartmann, Gerhard Barkhorn, Günther Rall and Johannes Steinhoff. Steinhoff became commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, with Rall as his immediate successor. Another pilot of World War II, Josef Kammhuber, also made a significant career in the post-war Luftwaffe, retiring in 1962 as Chief Inspector of the Air Force (Inspekteur der Luftwaffe).
Despite the partial reliance of the new air force on airmen who had served in the Wehrmacht's air arm, there was no organizational continuity between the old and the new Luftwaffe. This is in line with the policy of the Bundeswehr on the whole, which does not consider itself a successor of the Wehrmacht and does not follow the traditions of any other previous German military organization.
=== First years ===
The first volunteers of the Luftwaffe arrived at the Nörvenich Air Base in January 1956. In the same year, the Luftwaffe was given with its first aircraft, the US-made Republic F-84 Thunderstreak. At first, the Luftwaffe was divided into two operational commands, one in Northern Germany, aligned with the British-led Second Allied Tactical Air Force, and the other in Southern Germany, aligned with the American-led Fourth Allied Tactical Air Force.
In 1957, the Luftwaffe took command of the Army Air Defence Troops located in Rendsburg and began the expansion of its own air defense missile capabilities. The first squadron to be declared operational was the Air Transport Wing 61 at Erding Air Base, followed by the 31st Fighter-Bomber Squadron at Büchel Air Base. In 1958, the Luftwaffe received its first conscripts. In 1959, the Luftwaffe declared the 11th Missile Group in Kaufbeuren armed with MGM-1 Matador surface-to-surface tactical nuclear cruise missiles operational. The same year Fighter Wing 71 (Jagdgeschwader 71) equipped with Canadair CL-13 fighters became operational at Ahlhorner Heide Air Base. All aircraft sported—and continue to sport—the Iron Cross on the fuselage, harking back to the pre-March 1918 days of World War I, while the national flag of West Germany is displayed on the tail.
=== Cold War ===
In 1963, the Luftwaffe saw its first major reorganization. The two operational Air Force Group Commands – Command North and Command South were both split into two mixed Air Force divisions containing flying and air defense units and one Support division. Additionally, a 7th Air Force division was raised in Schleswig-Holstein containing flying units, missile units, support units, and the German Navy's naval aviation and placed under command of Allied Forces Baltic Approaches.
In 1960, the Luftwaffe received its first Lockheed F-104 Starfighter jets. The Starfighter remained in service for the entire duration of the Cold War, with the last being taken out of service in 1991. The Luftwaffe received 916 Starfighters, 292 of which crashed, resulting in the deaths of 116 pilots. The disastrous service record of the Starfighter led to the Starfighter crisis in 1966 as a reaction to 27 Starfighter crashes with 17 casualties in 1965 alone. The West German public referred to the Starfighter as the Witwenmacher (widow-maker), fliegender Sarg (flying coffin), Fallfighter (falling fighter) and Erdnagel (tent peg, literally "ground nail").
On 25 August 1966, the German Defence Minister Kai-Uwe von Hassel relieved the Chief Inspector of the Air Force Generalleutnant Werner Panitzki, and transferred Colonel Erich Hartmann, commanding officer of the 71st Fighter Squadron, as both had publicly criticized the acquisition of the Starfighter as a "purely political decision". On 2 September 1966, Johannes Steinhoff, with Günther Rall as deputy, became the new Chief Inspector of the Air Force. Steinhoff and his deputy Günther Rall noted that the non-German F-104s proved much safer. The Americans blamed the high loss rate of the Luftwaffe F-104s on the extremely low-level and aggressive flying of German pilots rather than any faults in the aircraft. Steinhoff and Rall went to America to learn to fly the Starfighter under Lockheed instruction and noted some specifics in the training (a lack of mountain and foggy-weather training), combined with handling capabilities (rapidly initiated, high G turns) of the aircraft that could cause accidents. Steinhoff and Rall, therefore, changed the training regimen for the F-104 pilots, and the accident rates fell to those comparable or better than other air forces. They also brought about the high level of training and professionalism seen today throughout the Luftwaffe, and the start of a strategic direction for Luftwaffe pilots to engage in tactical and combat training outside of Germany. However, the F-104 never lived down its reputation as a "widow-maker", and was replaced by the Luftwaffe with the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter and the Panavia Tornado fighter-bomber in many units much earlier than in other national air forces.
On Steinhoff's initiative, the Luftwaffe opened the German Air Force Command USA/Canada (Deutsches Luftwaffenkommando USA/Kanada) in Fort Bliss, where the Luftwaffe trained its missile and air defense troops, and pilots received their basic training. At the same time, the Luftwaffe opened a Tactical Training Command in Beja, Portugal, where pilots were trained in Close Air Support missions.
Between 1967 and 1970, the Luftwaffe undertook a major reorganization of its forces. The two operational commands were disbanded and the four mixed Air Force divisions were divided into two flying divisions and two air defense divisions. The remainder of the units were divided into functional commands:
Air Force Operation Command (Luftwaffenführungsdienstkommando), with the signal regiments, the radar, and the signals intelligence units
Air Force Training Command (Luftwaffenausbildungskommando), with the schools and training regiments
Air Force Support Command (Luftwaffenunterstützungskommando), with all logistical, maintenance, and repair units, and the Material Office of the Air Force
Air Force Transport Command (Lufttransportkommando), with the air transport squadrons.
Over the next decade, the Luftwaffe received large amounts of new equipment, including in 1968 the first C-160 Transall transport planes, in 1974 the F-4 Phantom II fighter-bombers, in 1978 the first Alpha Jet Version A light attack jets and in 1979 the first of 212 Panavia Tornado fighters.
In 1986, the air defense forces began to replace their Nike Hercules missile systems with state-of-the-art surface-to-air missile systems: first to arrive was the MIM-104 Patriot system, followed one year later by Roland short-range missile system.
==== Nuclear sharing ====
Germany is participating in NATO's nuclear sharing concept. Nuclear sharing is a concept that involves member countries without nuclear weapons of their own in the planning for the use of nuclear weapons by NATO, and in particular, provides for the armed forces of these countries to be involved in delivering these weapons in the event of their use.
Soon after its founding, the German Air Force began to train with the US Seventeenth Air Force in handling, arming, and delivering nuclear weapons. At first, the F-104 Starfighter was intended to be used solely as a nuclear delivery platform, armed with nuclear air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, as well as nuclear bombs. The Tornado was the second air force plane fielded that was capable of delivering nuclear ammunition, although it was limited to delivering B61 nuclear bombs.
From 1965 through 1970, Missile Wings 1 and 2 fielded 16 Pershing 1 missile systems with nuclear warheads under U.S. Army custody. In 1970, the system was upgraded to Pershing 1a with 72 missiles. Although not directly affected by the 1988 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, the Luftwaffe unilaterally removed the Pershing 1a missiles from its inventory in 1991, and the missiles were destroyed. At the end of the Cold War, more than 100,000 soldiers served in the Luftwaffe.
The United States still lends nuclear weapons for hypothetical use by the Luftwaffe under the nuclear sharing agreement. In 2007, 22 B61 nuclear bombs were still kept in Germany, stored at the Büchel Air Base for use with Tornado IDS fighter-bombers of the Tactical Air Force Wing 33. The American nuclear weapons formerly stored at Nörvenich Air Base, Ramstein Air Base, and Memmingen Air Base were all withdrawn from Germany during the mid-and-late-1990s.
By international treaties between Germany and the "Big Four" powers in Europe (that formerly occupied Germany), East Germany was a nuclear-free zone. The Big Four powers are the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, and France, and the latter three have no nuclear weapons in Germany anymore.
=== Reunification ===
After German reunification in October 1990, the aircraft and personnel of the former GDR air force, the Luftstreitkräfte der NVA were taken. The remnants of the East German Air Force were placed under the newly formed 5th Air Force Division (5. Luftwaffendivision) in Strausberg. In 1993, the division was renamed 3rd Air Force Division (3. Luftwaffendivision), moved to Gatow in Berlin and in 1995 assigned to NATO. By 1990, the East German plane markings had been replaced by the Air Force Iron Cross, the first time Soviet-built aircraft had served in a NATO air force. However, as the Luftstreitkräfte der NVA were supplied exclusively with Eastern Bloc-produced aircraft, such as the Sukhoi Su-17, MiG-21, MiG-23 and MiG-29 fighters, most of the equipment was not compatible with the West German NATO equipment and therefore taken out of service and sold or given to new members of NATO in Eastern Europe, such as Poland and the Baltic states.
An exception to this was the Fighter Wing 3 "Vladimir Komarov " (Jagdfliegergeschwader 3 " Vladimir Komarov ") in Preschen Air Base. The Fighter Wing 3 flew brand new MiG-29 fighters. On 1 June 1993, the wing was renamed Fighter Wing 73 (Jagdgeschwader 73) and on 1 October 1994 completed its move to its new home at Laage Air Base. The pilots of JG 73 were some of the most experienced MiG-29 pilots in the world. One of their primary duties was to serve as aggressor pilots, training other pilots in dissimilar combat tactics. The United States sent a group of fighter pilots to Germany during the Red October exercise to practise tactics against the aircraft they were most likely to meet in real combat. The MiG-29s of JG 73 were fully integrated into the Luftwaffe's air defence structure and the first Soviet Bloc aircraft to be declared operational within NATO. With the introduction of the Eurofighter Typhoon imminent, the decision was taken to withdraw the MiG-29. All German MiG-29s, save one, were sold to Poland for the symbolic price of €1 apiece. On 9 August 2004, the last MiG-29s landed in Poland where they continue to serve in the 41st Tactical Squadron of the Polish Air Force.
=== Operations in the Balkans ===
The Luftwaffe experienced combat action for the first time since World War II during September 1995 in the course of Operation Deliberate Force, when six IDS Tornado fighter-bombers, equipped with forward looking infrared devices, and escorted by eight ECR Tornados, supported NATO's artillery missions on positions of the Bosnian Serbs around Sarajevo, Bosnia & Herzegovina.
In March 1999, the Luftwaffe became involved in a direct combat role as part of the Kosovo War along with the other NATO powers. This event was noted as significant in the British press with The Sun running the headline "Luftwaffe and the RAF into battle side by side". The Luftwaffe sent in Fighter Bomber Wing 32, equipped with ECR Tornados, which flew missions to suppress enemy air defenses in and around Kosovo.
These fighter-bombers were equipped with an electronic countermeasures pod, one AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile for self-defence, and an AGM-88 HARM air-to-ground missile (anti-radar). The bomber wing flew 2108 hours and 446 sorties, firing 236 HARM missiles at hostile targets. No manned Luftwaffe planes were lost in combat during this campaign.
=== 2000s ===
In 2005 and 2008, Luftwaffe F-4F Phantom II fighter planes took part in the Baltic Air Policing operation (of NATO), and these fighters were supplemented in 2009 by units flying the Typhoon.
In 2006, to support military operations in Afghanistan, the Luftwaffe sent over several Panavia Tornado reconnaissance planes from the 51st Reconnaissance Wing "Immelmann" (Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 "Immelmann"), stationed in Mazar-i-Sharif, Northern Afghanistan.
There have also been assorted German Army helicopters flying from the Luftwaffe Air Base in Mazar-i-Sharif. Also, Luftwaffe C-160 Transall have flown transport plane missions in and around Afghanistan.
Since the 1970s, the West German (and, post-reunification, German) Luftwaffe (as well as many other European air forces) has actively pursued the construction of European internationally made warplanes, such as the Panavia Tornado and the Eurofighter Typhoon introduced into the Luftwaffe in 2006.
On 13 January 2004, the Minister of Defence, Peter Struck, announced major changes in the future of the German armed forces. A major part of this announcement was a plan to cut the number of fighter planes from 426 in early 2004, to 265 by 2015. Assuming that the plans to order 180 Typhoons is carried out in full, and all of the F-4 Phantoms are removed from service, this would cut the number of Tornado fighter-bombers down to just 85.
In the past, the Bundesmarine's naval air wing (Marineflieger) received 112 Tornado IDS planes. However, in late 2004, the last unit of Bundesmarine Tornados was disbanded. The entire maritime combat role was assigned to the Luftwaffe, one unit of which has had its Tornado fighters equipped to carry Kormoran II missiles and American HARM missiles.
=== 2010s ===
As of 2014, a significant proportion of Germany's military aircraft was reported to be unserviceable. It was reported that around half of the Eurofighters and Tornados were not currently airworthy and that the aging C-160 fleet remained in limited service while awaiting the introduction of the Airbus A400M, the first of which was delivered in December 2014. Ursula von der Leyen admitted that, due to the poor state of the Bundeswehr's equipment, Germany was no longer able to fulfill its NATO commitments.
The German Air Force was one of the founding members of the European Air Transport Command headquartered in Eindhoven - The Netherlands and most of the Transport & Tanker assets have been transferred under EATC management. The replacement of four Airbus A310 MRTT by the Airbus A330 MRTT was approved in 2018 by joining the acquisition of four by the Royal Netherlands Air Force.
Future plans are the replacement of the aging Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion, which was acquired in the 1970s, by Boeing CH-47 Chinook or Sikorsky CH-53K King Stallion. A bid for a heavy transport helicopter program or STH (Schwerer Transporthubschrauber) was initiated in 2018. However, the award was suspended in 2020 due to the high price tag on both helicopters.
The Luftwaffe participated in the Israeli Air Force exercise "Blue Flag", the country's largest international air combat exercise, designed to simulate extreme combat scenarios. The German Air Force's six Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jets were from Tactical Air Force Squadron 73 Steinhoff from Rostock. It is the first German participation in the Blue Flag exercise.
In 2018, the Air Force issued a request for information from manufacturers about four potential aircraft to replace the aging Panavia Tornados - the Eurofighter Typhoon, F-15 Advanced Eagle, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and F-35 Lightning. In January 2019, it was announced that the F-35 Lightning had been dropped from the shortlist, with the Eurofighter Typhoon and Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet under consideration.
The German Air Force will acquire three C-130J Super Hercules Transport and three KC-130J Tanker Aircraft (delivery planned 2020–2021), which will be jointly operated with the French Air Force's two C-130J and two KC-130J Aircraft (delivery planned 2018–19).
=== 2020s ===
In April 2020, the German government announced its intention to gain approval for the purchase of 30 Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornets, 15 EA-18G Growlers, and 55 Eurofighter Typhoons as replacements for the Tornado fleet. However, as of the same month such approval was unlikely to occur before 2022. The Super Hornet was selected due to its compatibility with nuclear weapons and availability of an electronic attack version. As of March 2022, the Super Hornet has not been certified for the B61 Mod 12 nuclear bombs, but Dan Gillian, head of Boeing's Super Hornet program, previously stated that "We certainly think that we, working with the U.S. government, can meet the German requirements there on the [German's] timeline."
In December 2021, Air Transport Wing 63 in Hohn Air Base and with it, the last remaining German C-160 Transalls were disbanded, with the A400M and C-130J serving as the German tactical transport aircraft in the future.
In March 2022, German Minister of Defence Christine Lambrecht announced that Germany intends to buy 35 Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II fighter jets instead of Super Hornets to replace the Tornado, the only aircraft Germany possess capable of carrying US nuclear weapons. Another ten may be added to the initial order. Germany intends to also order 15 Eurofighter Typhoon electronic warfare aircraft in place of Growlers.
In April 2022, as a continuation of the STH program, Germany has chosen the CH-47F Chinook to replace its aging fleet of Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion. According to Reuters report, Germany will purchase 60 CH-47Fs with a contract worth around €5 billion (US$5.40 billion).
In August 2022, Germany sent six Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jets, three Airbus A330 MRTT tankers and four Airbus A400M Atlas transports to take part in Exercise Pitch Black in Australia, in the air force's largest peacetime deployment.
From 12 to 23 June 2023, the German Air Force hosted Air Defender 23, the largest exercise of NATO air forces since its creation with 25 nations and up to 10,000 troops participating.
== Structure ==
The current commander of the German Air Force is Lieutenant General Holger Neumann. The Inspector of the Air Force (Inspekteur der Luftwaffe) is the commander of Air Force Command (Kommando Luftwaffe), a body created in 2013 by the merger of the Air Force Office (Luftwaffenamt), German Air Staff (Führungsstab der Luftwaffe), and Air Force Forces Command (Luftwaffenführungskommando). Similar to the Air Staff of the United States Air Force, the German Air Force Command is a force-providing command, not an operational command. The Air Force Command is tasked with ensuring the combat readiness of the German Air Force combat units, which during operations would either be commanded by a NATO command or the Joint Operations Command of the Bundeswehr. The Air Force command directly controls three higher commands.
The creation of the Air Force Command was part of a reorganization of the Bundeswehr as a whole, announced by Thomas de Maizière in 2011, which also involved the Air Force shrinking to 23,000 soldiers and thus undergoing major restructuring at all levels. In addition to the higher command authorities, the three air divisions, the Air Force Training Command, and Air Force Weapon Systems Command were disbanded. The three surface-to-air missile units will merge into a single wing in Husum in Northern Germany. The wing fields 14 MIM-104 Patriot and 4 MANTIS systems. The three air transport wings will be merged into a single wing based at Wunstorf Air Base, which will field 40 A400M Atlas transport planes. The Luftwaffe will field three Multirole Eurofighter Wings, each with two squadrons for a total of 143 Eurofighter Typhoon. A fighter-bomber wing fielding Panavia Tornado IDS planes remains in service at Büchel Air Base. The Reconnaissance Wing 51 will remain in service at Schleswig Air Base and add one drone squadron to its Panavia Tornado ECR squadron.
The Kommando Luftwaffe has two main elements subordinate to it:
Air Operations Command (Zentrum Luftoperationen der Luftwaffe), responsible for providing command and control to air operations
Air Force Forces Command (Luftwaffentruppenkommando)
Individual Air Force units are either part of the Air Force Operational Forces Command or the Support Forces Command. They only fall under the command of the Air Operations Command when on deployment or attached to EU or NATO organizations.
In 2021 also Space Component Command (de:Weltraumkommando der Bundeswehr) was created.
=== Air Operations Command ===
The main subordinate elements of the Air Operations Command are:
Air Operations Center (NATO CAOC Uedem), in Uedem, responsible for NATO's Integrated Air Defense System North of the Alps
Air Force Support Group (Luftwaffenunterstützungsgruppe), in Kalkar
Control and Reporting Center 2 (Einsatzführungsbereich 2), in Erndtebrück
Operations Squadron 21, in Erndtebrück
Operations Support Squadron 22, in Erndtebrück
Sensor Platoon I, in Lauda
Remote Radar Post 240 "Loneship", in Erndtebrück with GM 406F
Remote Radar Post 246 "Hardwheel", on Erbeskopf with HADR
Remote Radar Post 247 "Batman", in Lauda with GM 406F
Remote Radar Post 248 "Coldtrack", in Freising with GM 406F
Remote Radar Post 249 "Sweet Apple", in Meßstetten with HADR
Sensor Platoon II, in Auenhausen
Remote Radar Post 241 "Crabtree", in Marienbaum with Hughes HR-3000
Remote Radar Post 242 "Backwash", in Auenhausen with GM 406F
Remote Radar Post 243 "Silver Cork", in Visselhövede with GM 406F
Remote Radar Post 244 "Round up", in Brockzetel with HADR
Remote Radar Post 245 "Bugle", in Brekendorf with GM 406F
Control and Reporting Training Inspection 23, in Erndtebrück
Education and Training Center, in Erndtebrück
Education, Test and Training Group, in Erndtebrück
Control and Reporting Center 3 (Einsatzführungsbereich 3), in Schönewalde
Operations Squadron 31, in Schönewalde
Operations Support Squadron 32, in Schönewalde
Sensor Platoon III, in Cölpin
Remote Radar Post 351 "Matchpoint", in Putgarten with RRP-117
Remote Radar Post 352 "Mindreader", in Cölpin with RRP-117
Remote Radar Post 353 "Teddy Bear", in Tempelhof with RRP-117
Remote Radar Post 356 "", in Elmenhorst with RRP-117
Sensor Platoon IV, in Regen
Remote Radar Post 354 "Blackmoor", in Döbern with RRP-117
Remote Radar Post 355 "Royal Flash", in Gleina with RRP-117
Remote Radar Post 357 "", on Döbraberg with RRP-117
Remote Radar Post 358 "Snow Cap", on Großer Arber with RRP-117
Deployable Control and Reporting Centre, in Schönewalde
Air Force Command Support Center (Führungsunterstützungszentrum der Luftwaffe), in Köln-Wahn
German Representation at NATO's Allied Air Command, at Ramstein Air Base
German Representation at Joint Air Power Competence Centre, in Kalkar
German Representation at European Air Transport Command, in Eindhoven Air Base
German Representation at NATO Airborne Early Warning & Control Force Command, at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen
German Representation at Alliance Ground Surveillance, in Sigonella Air Base
=== Air Force Forces Command ===
The main subordinate elements of the Air Force Operational Forces Command are:
Directly subordinated institutions:
Air Force Air and Space Medicine Center, at Köln-Wahn Air Base
Subordinated flying units:
Tactical Air Force Wing 31 "Boelcke", at Nörvenich Air Base, with Eurofighter Typhoon
Tactical Air Force Wing 33, at Büchel Air Base, with Tornado IDS
Tactical Air Force Wing 51 "Immelmann", at Schleswig Air Base, with Tornado IDS/ECR
Tornado flight training returned from Holloman AFB, USA to Schleswig-Jagel as a squadron under the Immelmann Wing
Tactical Air Force Wing 71 "Richthofen", at Wittmundhafen Air Base, with Eurofighter Typhoon
Tactical Air Force Wing 73 "Steinhoff", at Laage Air Base, with Eurofighter Typhoon (Typhoon OCU)
Tactical Air Force Wing 74, at Neuburg Air Base, with Eurofighter Typhoon
Air Transport Wing 62, at Wunstorf Air Base with A400M Atlas
Helicopter Wing 64, at Laupheim Air Base and Holzdorf Air Base
Flying Group, at Laupheim Air Base with CH-53 Sea Stallion and H145M LUH SOF
Air Transport Group, at Holzdorf Air Base with CH-53 Sea Stallion
Executive Transport Wing, at Köln-Wahn Airport
1st Air Transport Squadron at Köln-Wahn Airport with Airbus A330 MRTT
2nd Air Transport Squadron at Köln-Wahn Airport with A340-300 VIP, Airbus A321, A319CJ, Global 5000 and
3rd Air Transport Squadron at Berlin-Tegel Airport with AS532 U2 Cougar
Air Force Tactical Training Command USA, Sheppard AFB, Texas
German Representation at Euro NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training, Sheppard AFB, Texas with T-6 Texan II and T-38C Talon
German Air Force Training Squadron 2, at NAS Pensacola, Florida
German Air Force Training Squadron 3, at Phoenix Goodyear Airport, Arizona
Electronic Warfare Flying Weapon Systems Center, in Kleinaitingen
Subordinated ground based units:
Air Defence Missile Wing 1 "Schleswig-Holstein", in Husum Air Base
Air Defence Missile Group 21, in Sanitz and Prangendorf with MIM-104 Patriot
Air Defence Missile Group 24, in Bad Sülze with MIM-104 Patriot
Air Defence Missile Group 26, in Husum Air Base with MIM-104 Patriot
Air Defence Missile Group 61, in Todendorf with MANTIS (assigned since April 2018 to the Royal Netherlands Army's Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command)
Air Defence Missiles Tactical Training and Instruction Center, in Fort Bliss, Texas
Air Defence Missiles Training Center, in Husum
Air Force Regiment "Friesland", at Jever Air Base
I Battalion (Infantry), at Jever Air Base
II Battalion (Logistics, Sappers, Firefighters), at Diepholz Air Base
III Battalion (Reserve infantry), at Jever Air Base
Air Force Officer School, in Fürstenfeldbruck
Air Force Non-Commissioned Officer School, in Appen and Heide
Air Force Training Battalion, in Germersheim
Air Force Support Group, at Köln-Wahn Air Base
Subordinated support units:
Weapon System Support Center 1, at Erding Air Base
Maintenance Center 11, at Erding Air Base
Maintenance Center 12, in Ummendorf
Maintenance Center 13, at Landsberg/Lech Air Base
Maintenance Center 14, at Ingolstadt/Manching Air Base
Weapon System Support Center 2, at Diepholz Air Base
Maintenance Center 21, at Diepholz Air Base (will move to Holzdorf Air Base)
Maintenance Center 23, at Wunstorf Air Base
Maintenance Center 24, at Trollenhagen Air Base (will move to Laage Air Base)
Maintenance Center 25, in Erndtebrück
Maintenance Center 26, at Wunstorf Air Base
Air Force Technical Training Center, at Faßberg Air Base
Air Force Technical Training Center North, at Faßberg Air Base
Air Force Technical Training Center South, at Kaufbeuren Air Base
Air Force Professional College, at Faßberg Air Base
German Representation at the NATO Programming Center, in Glons, Belgium
=== North American training centers ===
In light of the destroyed infrastructure of West Germany post–World War II, the restrictions on aircraft production placed on Germany and the later restrictive flying zones available for training pilots, the reconstructed Luftwaffe trained most of its pilots tactically away from Germany, mainly in the United States and Canada where most of its aircraft were sourced.
During the 1960s and 1970s, a very large number of Luftwaffe jet crashes—the Luftwaffe suffered a 36 percent crash rate for F-84F Thunderstreaks and an almost 30 percent loss of F-104 Starfighters—created considerable public demand for moving Luftwaffe combat training centers away from Germany.
As a result, the Luftwaffe set up two tactical training centers: one, like those of many of the NATO forces, at the Royal Canadian Air Force base at Goose Bay; and the second in a unique partnership with the United States Air Force at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico (F-104 pilots had already been trained at Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, since 1964). Both facilities provide access to large unpopulated areas, where tactical and combat training can take place without danger to large populations.
On 1 May 1996, the Luftwaffe established the German Air Force Tactical Training Center (TTC) in concert with the United States Air Force 20th Fighter Squadron at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico, which provides aircrew training in the F-4F Phantom II. The TTC served as the parent command for two German aircrew training squadrons. The F-4 Training Squadron oversaw all German F-4 student personnel affairs and provided German instructor pilots to cooperate in the contracted F-4 training program provided by the U.S. Air Force (20th Fighter Squadron). A second TTC unit, the Tornado Training Squadron, provided academic and tactical flying training, by German air force instructors, for German Tornado aircrews.
The first contingent of Tornado aircraft arrived at Holloman in March 1996. More than 300 German air force personnel were permanently assigned at Holloman to the TTC, the only unit of its kind in the United States. The German Air Force Flying Training Center was activated on 31 March 1996, with German Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Portz and U.S. Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Michael Ryan present. The Luftwaffe had stationed up to 800 personnel at Holloman for training exercises, due to limited training space in Europe.
In September 2004, the Luftwaffe announced a reduction in its training program by about 20%. By the end of 2006, 650 Luftwaffe personnel and 25 Tornado aircraft were assigned to Holloman.
On 12 April 2016, the Ministry of Defence decided to close the TTC by 2019 to consolidate the reduced operation of remaining Tornado aircraft in Germany. Approximately 450 personnel and 14 Tornado aircraft were stationed Holloman at the time. Training for the Tornado transitioned to the Tactical Air Force Wing 51 "Immelmann" at Schleswig Air Base and the remaining Air Force Tactical Training Command USA relocated to Sheppard Air Force Base by December 2019.
== Air bases ==
In 2020, the Air Force uses 12 air bases, four of which host no flying units. Furthermore, the Air Force has a presence at three civilian airports including Berlin Tegel airport which was closed in November 2020:
== Personnel ==
In 2012, the Air Force had an authorized strength of 44,565 active airmen/women and 4,914 reservists. The civil personnel within the Air Force is being reduced to 5,950 officials and employees. Most of the civilian employees work in maintenance and the Air Force Fire Department. On 20 September 2011 defense minister Thomas de Maizière announced that the Air Force would shrink to 23,000 airmen/women.
=== Training ===
The Luftwaffe has set up a total of 5 training institutions, namely the Offizierschule der Luftwaffe, Unteroffizierschule der Luftwaffe, Luftwaffenausbildungsbataillon, Fachschule der Luftwaffe and Technische Ausbildungszentrum der Luftwaffe, for training catering both personnel in active service and civilians willing to enter the Luftwaffe.
== Symbols, emblems and uniform ==
=== Roundel and serial number ===
Originally German Air Force aircraft carried an Iron Cross—appearing to be closely modeled on that used by the 1916–17 era Imperial German Luftstreitkräfte through the spring of 1918, but no longer have the white border around the crosses' "ends" (thusly resembling the orthogonal white "flanks" of the earlier, 1918–1945 era Balkenkreuz national marking)—as an identifying feature on all four wing positions and on both sides on the rear of the fuselage and a small tricolor German flag painted on the vertical stabilizer. Each aircraft also carried a serial number consisting of two letters, which identified the service and combat wing, followed by three numbers identifying the squadron and the number of the plane within the squadron, almost graphically resembling the USAF's own buzz numbers of the same period.
This system was changed in 1968. The large Iron Cross and serial numbers have since been replaced on all aircraft by a four-digit registration code, marked on the aircraft somewhat in the manner of the earlier alphanumeric Geschwaderkennung combat wing code characters used by their World War II predecessor—separated by an Iron Cross in the middle: the first pair of numbers identify the type of aircraft and the second pair are sequential for each type. For example, the Tornado IDS of the Air Force are numbered from 4301 to 4622, while the Tornado ECR of the Air Force is numbered from 4623 to 4657 and the numbers from 3001 to 3399 are being used for the Eurofighter. The 4-digit serial number is often portrayed in print with a "+" between the two pairs of numbers as a placeholder to indicate where the Iron Cross would separate the numbers when painted on the aircraft, for example the new A350 fleet (1001 to 1003) can be written as "10+01", etc.
=== Uniform ===
The ranks of the Air Force are identical to the ranks of the German Army. The Air Force field dress is the same as the army field dress. The dress uniform of the Air Force is dark blue with gold-yellow wings as collar patches. As headdress a dark blue side cap or dark blue peaked cap can be worn. Members of the German Air Force Regiment wear a dark blue beret.
=== Ranks ===
==== Commissioned officer ranks ====
The rank insignia of commissioned officers.
==== Other ranks ====
The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.
== Equipment ==
=== Aircraft ===
As per October 2025
NOTE: Germany is participating in the MRTT program for their aerial refueling needs, along with contracting Noordzee Helikopters Vlaanderen to provide H145 rotorcraft training
=== Other equipment ===
=== Planned investments ===
As of August 2025, Germany plans to invest €350 billion in new equipment through 2041. These investments come on top of the special fund of €100 billion. This includes the following estimated budgets:
German Air Force:
Aircraft and missiles: €34.2 billion
Satellite communications: €13.3 billion
== See also ==
Luftstreitkräfte der NVA
Glossary of German military terms
Kommando LSK/LV
List of military aircraft of Germany
Luftwaffenmuseum, Berlin
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Hundreds of books, magazines and articles have been written about the Luftwaffe. A select few are listed here.
Amadio, Jill (2002), Günther Rall: A Memoir, Seven Locks Press. ISBN 0-9715533-0-0.
Philpott, Bryan (1986), History of the German Air Force, Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-50293-7.
== External links ==
Official website (in German)
Luftwaffe museum (in German and English) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_and_Nikki_Newman#:~:text=However%2C%20Victor%20turned%20up%20at,shortly%20after%20she%20left%20Victor. | Victor and Nikki Newman | Victor and Nikki Newman are fictional characters and a supercouple from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. Victor is portrayed by Eric Braeden and Nikki is portrayed by Melody Thomas Scott. Together, they have shared three marriages and two children; Victoria and Nicholas Newman (Amelia Heinle and Joshua Morrow). The couple is often referred to by the portmanteau "Niktor" by fans on internet message boards and in magazines. Nikki was originally from the lower walks of life, having been a prostitute and stripper. After multiple failed relationships, she began a romance with Victor, who taught her about society. Nikki gave birth to Victoria in 1982, and the pair were married in 1984. Ashley Abbott (Eileen Davidson, Brenda Epperson) then came between Victor and Nikki, causing them to divorce and each of them remarrying to Ashley and Victor's nemesis, Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman), respectively. However, the pair continued to be linked to one another, with an affair between the two resulting in second child Nicholas.
The soap opera's writers originally detailed Victor and Nikki to marry and divorce or depart from each other in some form or fashion or continuous cycle, a take on the original supercouple formula. Their pairing, regarded as an "inspired decision", led to Victor and Nikki becoming the most successful supercouple on The Young and the Restless. Despite Victor marrying architect Diane Jenkins (Alex Donnelley) in 1997, Nikki suffered a gunshot wound the following year and came close to death, resulting in Victor supposedly divorcing Diane and remarrying Nikki on her deathbed. However, Victor and Diane's divorce was never legal, invalidating the pair's remarriage. An actual divorce between Victor and Diane took place, resulting in the reunion of Victor and Nikki. In September 2002, they remarried again at the site of their first wedding, which would last six years. In 2008, Nikki began an affair with the devious David Chow (Vincent Irizarry), resulting in the pair's second divorce. Scott has stated that she thinks the couple always has to get back together, but "not without a challenge". In March 2013, after four years of an on-and-off relationship, Victor and Nikki remarried for the third time, coinciding with the 40th anniversary of The Young and the Restless.
Victor and Nikki are recognized as one of daytime television's most prominent pairings, as well as receiving a positive response from critics throughout the years. Scott has also stated that she believes the pair "will always be a huge dynamic". Braeden has stated that he thought Victor and Nikki's storyline was an "honestly felt love story with great material for conflict with Nikki". The News & Advance cited Victor and Nikki with other romances considered "epic" of the early supercouple era.
== Development ==
Nikki was originally from the lower walks of life, having been a stripper. After multiple failed relationships, she began a romance with Victor, who taught her about society. They fell in love and had a baby, Victoria Newman (Heather Tom), and later a son Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow). The couple are widely considered a supercouple within the realm of soap operas. The writers of The Young and the Restless detailed characters Victor Newman and Nikki Reed to marry and divorce or depart from each other in some form or fashion in a continuous cycle. This has taken place for as long as the couple has been together, a take on the original supercouple formula. Soap Opera Digest relayed the beginning of the pairing's creation and their impact. The "inspired decision" led to Victor and Nikki becoming the series' most successful supercouple. In an interview with Dose magazine, Melody Thomas Scott said that the couple always has to get back together, but not without a challenge. She stated:
That's the writers' job to come up with something believable. I mean, that is always their challenge. Nikki and Victor have played this cycle over and over again and it’s very successful because people care about them. I would imagine just because I've watched the show for 33 years as well as played it – they've got to get back together! There’s nothing else they could do! They have to get back together, as for how, I don't know. The writers have a rough job coming up with something that I hope will be good!
The characters had their first wedding on the episode that aired on April 13, 1984.
== Storylines ==
=== 1981–2000 ===
Victor Newman met Nikki Reed, who, barely out of her teens, was working as a stripper at the Bayou. Victor was intrigued by her and took her home, where under his influence, she was transformed into a classy young lady. Victor is adamant at first that he has no romantic feelings for Nikki, but he soon succumbed to her charms and they had a night of passionate love-making. Victor cast this off as a mistake, and instead took up with a woman named Lorie Brooks, who in truth only wanted to be with Victor to write an exposé on him. Victor later admitted that he truly is in love with Nikki, and she eventually gives birth to a daughter, Victoria Newman, and the couple was married in a lavish ceremony two years later.
One of the greatest threats to Victor and Nikki's union is arguably Ashley Abbott, as some time later, Victor fell in love with her, who happens to be the sister of his archenemy Jack Abbott. Victor was heartbroken in discovering that Ashley had aborted his baby so that he would stay with a dying Nikki. Nikki later recovered, but intentionally hadn't informed Victor to stay clear of the threat Ashley posed. Yet, they share one final night of passion together, which resulted in the birth of Nicholas Newman. Victor and Nikki ended up divorcing after he lashed out at her for purposely providing information about Ashley's abortion to an unauthorized biographer — Leanna Love. Victor marries her, all while being unaware of her true intentions. The marriage is quickly annulled and Victor pays Leanna a settlement, but she remains a bothersome component in Victor's life on occasion. Victor then married Ashley by 1990, but the marriage ended after three years due to extreme marital problems. Nikki married Jack, which ended after four years when Victor told Jack he would give him Jabot Cosmetics if he divorced Nikki.
After Victor was blasted by Nikki, Ashley and teenaged Victoria, all resenting the control he tried to exert in their lives, he left town, and during his trip, he is robbed of his wallet, jewelry, and car. After his car is found with a body inside burned beyond recognition, word reaches Genoa City that Victor is dead. However, Victor turned up at the Kansas farm of the blind Hope Wilson just in time to rescue her from a rapist. After Victor lived with Hope, they grew close, and they returned to Genoa City and married. Afterward, Hope gave birth to a son, Victor Adam Newman, Jr., and shortly after she left Victor. Victor hoped to return to Nikki, but she was engaged to Brad Carlton. After Victor was shot by Mari Jo Mason, Nikki returned to his side until he decided to visit Hope again. By 1997, Victor married architect Diane Jenkins, Jack's ex-fiancée, but when Nikki was shot by her husband's ex-wife Veronica Landers, Victor left Diane to remarry Nikki on her deathbed, and eventually Nikki survived. They realized they wanted to be together, and thus led Victor to divorce Diane, although with his speedy marriage to Nikki, the divorce wasn't legal. Eventually, Diane reluctantly agreed to a legal divorce after she acquired millions in the divorce settlement in a very lengthy divorce. Yet, by that time Victor and Nikki had gone their separate ways again.
=== 2002–2011 ===
Two years later, Victor and Nikki remarried legally at the site of their first wedding. Nikki and Victor again started up the rocky aspect of their romance when Victor's unethical and illegal business practices harm Jabot, as Nikki had made a notable investment there. Nikki started to have horrible flashbacks of accidentally shooting Joshua Cassen when she was five years old, and she was stunned to discover that Joshua was the older brother of her new business associate Bobby Marsino, with whom she has a brief romance. Victor came to Nikki's rescue after Bobby's mob associates kidnapped her. Nikki moved on, and she and Victor partnered with Phyllis Summers to create a chain of Wellness Spas across the country. However, when Victor learns that Nick, married to Sharon Newman, had an affair with Phyllis, Victor fires her and returned to holding the reins of his company.
When Victor suffers a head injury while rescuing Nikki from a carjacking, Victor becomes epileptic. His loved ones were well off at the seemingly new laid-back personality Victor now encompasses, but they soon became worried for his health when he began experiencing seizures. Making things even more complicated, as well as bizarre, he suddenly developed a friendly relationship with his main enemy Jack. Nikki later became concerned that Jack was manipulating a vulnerable Victor for his own personal financial gain. After a while, Victor finally appeared in good health. Victor and Nikki had their ups and downs, but typically manage to find their way back to each other romantically through various situations. Victor's son Victor, Jr. returned to town, now going by Adam Newman. However, they divorce again, and Victor married Victoria's friend Sabrina Costelana, and Nikki married David Chow. The following year, Victor remarried Ashley, but Nikki and Victor reunited after he was shot by Patty Williams and given a heart transplant. They went to Europe, and Victor and Ashley divorced.
Victor returned from Belgium with Nikki on his arm. Victor declared himself as head of Newman Enterprises, and Victor and Nikki move back into their Ranch house, and helped discover and return their kidnapped infant granddaughter Faith Newman back to her parents Nick and Sharon. Adam ends up being found "dead", and Victoria and Nick were arrested. In order to protect his children, Victor takes the blame saying he did it for everything Adam did to his family. Victor is later released and Nick is the main suspect. However, there was a growing amount of proof to suggest that Adam killed Richard Hightower to fake his own death. In order to protect Nick, Victor went to Canada trying to find Adam. There he befriended Meggie McClaine and he ended up nearly being killed. Back at the Newman Ranch, Victor tries to rebuild his relationship with Nikki, but she felt that Meggie was in the way. Victor claimed that he was trying to protect her and she became Nikki's personal assistant. In reality, she put together a scheme to get Nikki drinking again, therefore opening up the way for her to marry Victor. Once she marries him, she would kill him and get his money. Meggie eventually recruits Deacon Sharpe to help spike Nikki's drinks. Eventually, Deacon and Meggie set up Victor and Nikki to look like Nikki and Deacon were having an affair. Once Victor caught them, he sent Nikki to rehab, where Deacon soon ends up to continue scheming with Meggie. In rehab, he tried to actually help Nikki, and their relationship did turn romantic, especially when Meggie was able to elope with Victor. Meggie posted their wedding photo online and Nikki saw it, giving into romance with Deacon. Meggie fully revealed herself as a manipulative gold-digger targeting the Newman fortune as a widow after she mortally eliminates him. After apparently many spiked drinks, Victor appeared to suffer a heart attack, but stunningly unveiled his sobriety and caught her in a sting operation set up by him, Patrick Murphy, and the cops though Nikki didn't know. Meggie was arrested and Victor went to fill in Nikki, but before he did found her in bed with Deacon, blemishing the chances of another marriage. Victor explained that Meggie caused her alcoholic craving by spiking all her drinks to rid her from the ranch and get to him and his money.
=== 2011–present ===
Nikki continued her romance with Deacon, while Victor ended up remarrying Diane Jenkins. Nikki broke up with Deacon after his role in Meggie's scheme came to light, and Victor and Nikki eventually had an affair, but their reunion was short lived. Eventually, Victor sent Nikki back to rehab as her alcoholism issues had resurfaced. After a quick annulment from Victor, Diane posted pictures of him and Nikki in bed online. She was murdered months later. After Nikki returned—having escaped from rehab—memories of Diane's murder caught up with her. She then confessed to being the killer to Victor, who admitted to killing his ex-wife to protect Nikki.
Victor was jailed, and later married Sharon to keep Nikki away from him, though the marriage ended days later. Deacon blackmailed Nikki into marrying him, using fake information about Diane's murder. Nikki agreed, however this marriage was short lived. When Victor was released from jail, the two reunited again.
Victor brought Chelsea Lawson and her mother to town to ruin Victoria's marriage to Billy Abbott. When Nikki learned of this, she left him. Victor then pursued a genuine relationship with Sharon, much to everyone's dismay. Nikki moved on from Victor when she reunited with Jack after eighteen years apart, and ended up marrying him. Hours after this marriage, Victor eloped with Sharon, despite showing up at the wedding and unsuccessfully telling Nikki not to go through with it.
Yet soon after Victor disappeared and ended up in Los Angeles in amnesia. Sharon set out to get revenge by taking over Newman, while Nikki left Jack to try to find Victor. As a result of an explosion, it was believed that Victor died and the family was shocked. Yet, Victor actually survived.
Nikki and Victor reunited, while they set out to destroy Sharon and Tucker McCall who wanted to keep Victor away so he could take over Newman.
== Reception and impact ==
Victor and Nikki are recognized as one of daytime's most prominent couples. The couple has received positive reviews from critics throughout the years, The News & Advance cited Victor and Nikki with other romances considered "epic" of the early supercouple era. They have garnered a large fan following, being commonly referred to as "Niktor" on internet message boards. In addition, the couple's weddings have been reported by mainstream media. Melody Thomas Scott has said, "Let’s face facts: Victor and Nikki will always be a huge dynamic, they’ve been in a circular cycle for over 30 years! Finding a new leading man that you have chemistry with is like finding gold." Eric Braeden has said, "I love working with Melody [as well]. I always thought it was an honestly felt love story with great material for conflict with Nikki." Former As the World Turns actress Martha Byrne has said, "Young and Restless' Victor and Nikki are the perfect example of a couple who they can tear apart and put back together how many times? And [the writers] do it really well because they're so stable as characters that you can basically do anything with them now, and the audience will go on the journey with them." Daytime expert Michael Fairman stated: "Victor and Nikki just can’t, we mean can’t, ever get it together long enough to find any happiness with each other. So, many would say that they deserve each other and the baggage and betrayals that come along with their co-dependent relationship."
== See also ==
List of supercouples
== References ==
== External links ==
SoapCentral |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gokula | Gokula | Veer Gokula Jat (died 1 January 1670), also known as Gokul Dev, was a zamindar and chieftain who led a rebellion against the Mughal Empire during the reign of emperor Aurangzeb in the late 17th century. Gokula emerged as a symbol of resistance against Mughal oppression, particularly their discriminatory religious and economic policies. His leadership in the uprising of 1669 marked one of the earliest organised revolts against Mughal rule in India, influencing later rebellions and the rise of the Kingdom of Bharatpur.
In 1669, Gokula rallied approximately 20,000 Jats and other local farmers to resist oppressive Mughal taxation and religious policies. His forces achieved early successes, defeating and killing the Mughal Faujdar Abdul Nabi Khan at the Battle of Tilpat and destroying the Sadabad cantonment. However, the rebellion was crushed following the Tilpat's siege, where Gokula was captured after a four-day battle. Gokula was executed by dismemberment in Agra on 1 January 1670.
== Early life ==
Gokula (originally Ola or Gokul Dev) was born in a Hindu Jat family of Tilpat region (of Haga/Agre/Agha gotra) to Madu Haga and was the second of the family's four sons.
== Background ==
In the mid-17th century, the Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb faced growing discontent among its subjects, particularly in rural areas. The Jats, a predominantly agrarian community in the Mathura region (present-day Uttar Pradesh and Haryana), bore the brunt of heavy land revenue demands, often exceeding 50% of their produce. Aurangzeb’s reimposition of the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) in 1669, coupled with forced Islamic conversions, destruction of Hindu temples and prohibition on Hindu festivals, deepened the sentiments among Hindu communities, mostly the Jats, who revered Mathura as a sacred center of lord Krishna worship. The spark for rebellion came in 1669 when mughal Abdul Nabi’s oppressive measures, including excessive tax collection and interference in local religious practices, pushed the Jats to the breaking point.
== Rebellion ==
In early 1669, Gokula, as the chieftain of Tilpat, emerged as the leader of a peasant uprising against Mughal oppression. The rebellion was sparked by Abdul Nabi’s excesses and the burdensome tax regime. Gokula mobilised approximately 20,000 Jat farmers, along with Gujjars and Ahirs. In May 1669, the rebels attacked Mughal outposts. An early victory came at the Battle of Sahora, where Gokula’s forces killed Abdul Nabi, while he attempted to capture the village. The rebels destroyed the Mughal cantonment at Sadabad, sacking regions around Mathura and disrupting Mughal control.This inspired the Hindus to fight against the Mughal rulers, who were there to destroy all Hindu rebels and this fight continued for five months.
== 1st Battle of Tilpat (1669) ==
The Battle of Tilpat was fought between Hindu Jats and the Mughal Empire in 1669. Under Aurangzeb's rule, Mughal Subahdars (governors) imposed heavy taxes (jizya) on the non-Muslim farmers of this region due to unhealthy financial conditions of the empire resulting from the continuous military expansion in the southern regions of the subcontinent. Due to the imposition of heavy taxation and restriction on Hindu religious practices, dissatisfaction and anger arose among the Jats and it took the form of rebellion against the Mughal Empire during Aurangzeb's reign. In an effort to suppress the rebellion, Aurangzeb sent his commander Hasan Ali Khan with a large army contingent of Mughal soldiers as a reinforcement to the Sadabad cantonment commanded by Abdul Nabi Khan, who would later be killed by the Jats. Gokula Jat, son of Tilpat Zamindar Madu Singh, led the rebellion of farmers along with his uncle Uday Singh Jat. The first confrontations of the rebellion continued for 4 days with the seizing of Tilpat and the farmers' counterattacks. Gokula's leadership in the Jat uprising of 1669 marked one of the earliest organised revolts against Mughal rule in India by Hindus.
== 2nd Battle of Tilpat ==
In 1669, Gokula Dev, with 20,000 Jat farmers, fought the Mughals, about 20 miles from Tilpat. Abdul Nabi Khan, a Mughal faujdar, attacked them. While Khan was initially successful, he was killed by the Jats on 12 May 1669 (21st Dhu al Hijja, 1079 A.H.). Gokula Dev and his followers then retreated to Tilpat, where Hasan Ali Khan, an Aurangzeb-appointed Mughal officer, followed and besieged them with reinforcements of 10,000 musketeers, 5,000 rocketmen, and 250 artillery pieces. Amanulla, the Faujdar of the environs of Agra, was also sent to reinforce Hasan Ali Khan. Gokula and his followers were captured alive and taken first to Delhi, and then to Agra, where Gokula was executed by Emperor Aurangzeb's decree.
== Death ==
Gokula was brought to Agra, following his capture by the Mughal forces at the Battle of Tilpat. He was executed by having his limbs cut off, one by one, on a public platform in Agra. Gokula's son and daughter were forcibly converted to Islam by the Mughal authorities under Aurangzeb. These conversions were not voluntary and were part of the broader context of Mughal policies toward non-Muslim rebels during Aurangzeb’s reign. In addition, Gokula's followers were imprisoned. Meanwhile, innocent people involved in the fighting were released after proper inquiries, and the elderly and children were handed over to a court eunuch for care.
== Legacy ==
A Rajasthani poet, Balveer Singh Karuna, in his book Samarveer Gokula wrote that:
Slowly the water of self-respect started to awaken,
I decided to rebel by refusing to pay taxes.
You die only once in one birth
And wait in the graves till the doomsday
But we are immortal forever, the soul will not die
Only it will change its body and clothes again and again
== See also ==
Rajaram of Sinsini
Churaman
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bader_Award#:~:text=2002,Stuart%20Warren | Bader Award | The Bader Award is a prize for organic chemistry awarded annually by the Royal Society of Chemistry since 1989. The winner, who receives £2,000 and a medal, gives a lecture tour in the UK.
== Winners ==
Source:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boots_Adams#Retirement | Boots Adams | Kenneth Stanley "Boots" Adams (August 31, 1899 – March 30, 1975) was an American business executive, University of Kansas booster, and civic philanthropist of Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Adams began his career with the Phillips Petroleum Company in 1920 as a clerk in the warehouse department. Twelve years later, he was chosen by founder and president Frank Phillips to fill the newly created position of Assistant to the President. On April 26, 1938, Adams was elected president of Phillips Petroleum Company by the unanimous vote of the company's board of directors.
Upon succeeding Frank Phillips as president, Adams, then 38 years old, became one of the nation's youngest leaders of a major corporation. He remained in continuous service as the company's chief executive until his retirement in 1964. Although he retired from company operations, Adams continued serving as its board chairman until 1968; finishing his affiliation as a board member from 1968 to 1970. During his tenure, Adams grew the business into a major corporation by investing in natural gas and synthetic rubber operations.
== Early life ==
Kenneth Stanley Adams was born August 31, 1899, in Horton, Kansas. He was the son of John V. and Lavella Adams (née Stanley). His father was an engineer for the Rock Island Railroad. In 1902, the family provided room and board to many families affected by a flood, including some of John's co-workers. One of the male guests noticed that Kenneth had a pair of boots he wore even to bed. The man began calling him "Boots". From then on, Kenneth Adams adopted "Boots" as his nickname.
Adams graduated from Wyandotte High School in 1917, the same year brothers Lee Eldas "L.E." and Frank Phillips founded the Phillips Petroleum Company. After graduating, Adams moved to Dewey, Oklahoma and started his first job. He delivered ice in the neighboring town of Bartlesville. Adams said he was happy that the work involved heavy lifting because it helped him maintain his physical conditioning which he would need as a college athlete. He enrolled at the University of Kansas in the fall of 1917 and played on the university's football, baseball, and basketball teams. Although he would have graduated the following year, Adams dropped out of the university in 1920. He decided to place academics on hold and accept a position in the Phillips Petroleum Company.
On September 8, 1920, Adams married Barbara Blanche Keeler; whose brother, W. W. Keeler, would later become president and chief executive officer of Phillips Petroleum Corporation and Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. Their eldest son, Kenneth S. Jr., would himself become a business magnate and owner of the Tennessee Titans. In 1945, Boots and Blanche Adams were divorced. Boots Adams married Dorothy Glynn Stephens the following year.
== Career at Phillips Petroleum ==
In 1921, Boots Adams helped organize the Phillips 66ers, an amateur basketball team sponsored by the Phillips Petroleum Company. He also played that year on the team's inaugural roster. Because of his team affiliation, Adams was offered employment with the company. He began working as a warehouse clerk in 1920, and ascended to become the company's president. He was one of the youngest ever to lead a major corporation in the United States.
=== Early executive years ===
Boots Adams first entered the executive tier in 1932. Phillips Petroleum Company's founding president, Frank Phillips, appointed Adams as his assistant. He was promoted despite opposition from executive staff, who considered Boots and Phillips to be an odd team. Frank Phillips was resistant to incorporating Adams' ideas. Phillips instructed Adams: "I'm going to object to everything you do, but you go ahead and do it anyway."
Adams reconstituted the company's amateur basketball team. Phillips had stopped sponsoring it after the 1929–30 season, because of the great depression. Adams personally recruited Joe Fortenberry and Jack Ragland; both of them were Olympians from 1936. He teamed them with Chuck Hyatt, Tom Pickell, Jay Wallenstrom, and Bud Browning. Lastly, he recruited local favorites, Ray Ebling and Dave Perkins to complete the 1937 team.
The Phillips 66ers ended the season in first place. The team was favored to win the AAU tournament as well. Instead, Denver won the championship, 43–38, in Bartlesville. Columnist Chet Nelson called the game: "the greatest game Rocky Mountain fans ever witnessed." In 1958, Boots Adams was inducted into the Helms Foundation Amateur Basketball Hall of Fame.
According to Reference for Business, Phillips and Adams "often disagreed as to how the company should be run." Nevertheless, Adams was able to secure Frank Phillips' confidence, and the authority to move his ideas forward.
At the 1938 stockholders and board of directors annual meeting, company President Frank Phillips announced his plans to retire. He culminated his announcement saying he wanted K.S. Adams, "the fast-talking young man from Kansas with the big ideas, [to] be elected as the new president of Phillips Petroleum Company". The directors subsequently returned a unanimous vote in support of Phillips' recommendation.
=== Years as company president ===
Boots Adams wanted to diversify the company into emerging oil-related industries. After Adams became president of Phillips Petroleum, the company increased its acquisition of natural gas mining rights. Natural gas was burnt off at the wellhead in 1938 as a waste product of oil exploration and the mining rights were cheap. The increased share of natural gas mining reserves increased Phillips' profit when the commodity's value more than doubled by the end of World War II.
Adams supported a start-up venture called Pace Setter as well. He purchased a Pace Setter home and advocated for the concept. They sold modern-style homes that used a wide range of gas appliances. Adams knew of the existing profit potential as the use of natural gas increased. By 1955, the Phillips company had a "commanding share" of natural gas reserves, 13.3 trillion cubic feet worth approximately US$931,000,000 (equivalent to $10,927,973,913 in 2024). Dividends increased, satisfying stockholders, and workers benefited with wage increases commensurate with the company's bottom line.
Adams employed graduates of a variety of scientific disciplines. He advocated that research and technical expertise was needed for companies to compete in the emerging technological society. One of the newly hired professionals was Jack Graves, a geologist from the University of Oklahoma. Adams tasked Graves to evaluate an oil formation known locally as the Mississippi Chat. The evaluation resulted in a significant new discovery of oil. Phillips continued using the study over the following three years – striking a lot of new oil as a direct result.
Adams also diversified the company into the petrochemical industry, creating an additional revenue stream. Newly hired chemical engineers were used to research synthetic polymers (specifically petroleum-based polymers). He noticed the growth of companies like DuPont and Dow, who were doing well based on the economic value of patents. In particular, Adams wanted Phillips to be involved in developing synthetic rubber.
With significant advancements in place, it was already possible to produce a material similar to rubber. It was however, inferior in quality, and cost-prohibitive to produce. Adams was concerned because two processes showed an equal potential to emerge as the preferred manner of production. One depended on distilling an additive for reactivity, while the other used a petroleum-based reagent. Adams was hopeful that rubber would come to be polymerized by petrochemical means.
==== U.S. Synthetic Rubber Program ====
At the beginning of the US involvement in World War II, the supply of natural rubber from Southeast Asia was abruptly cut off. The government knew of the strategic importance of rubber and had instituted the Rubber Reserve Company (RRC) to stockpile reserves of rubber to mitigate the consequences of being cut off from supplies. But the RRC had only one million tons of rubber in reserve, while the military consumed about 600,000 tons annually. Victory would depend on a massive influx of synthetic rubber. The program's success would be measured by tonnage alone. Either sufficient quantities would be produced, giving the Allies a fighting chance or demand would not be satisfied, guaranteeing an inability to prevail.
Boots Adams joined the consortium, dedicating the resources of Phillips Petroleum Company to the effort dubbed GR-S (Government Rubber-Styrene). The program's success was an achievement of high magnitude for the entire group of participants. On August 29, 1998, the GR-S, (also called the U.S. Synthetic Rubber Program), was officially labeled as a National Historic Chemical Landmark. Its records are stored in the archives of the University of Akron in Akron, Ohio.
The market for synthetic rubber grew to become a US$60,000,000,000 (equivalent to $113,252,097,483 in 2024) a year industry by the turn of the century. And Phillips, now ConocoPhillips, retained its share of that market.
==== Spinning off subsidiaries ====
In 1948, Adams began spinning off assets from Phillips' diversification. He formed subsidiaries while retaining a controlling interest in the company and a share of any profits realized. The first company formed was the Phillips Chemical Company. In 1951, it secured lucrative patents for its discovery of polyethylene and further development of it into high-density polyethylene resin (HDPE). The first tangible product derived from the patents was a durable HDPE polyolefin plastic marketed as Marlex. Marlex was the material Wham-O contracted for use to produce its Hula Hoop, a 1950s toy that sold over 25 million units in its first four months on the market. The chemical subsidiary maintained its viability and continues returning profits to its parent company from Bartlesville. As of 2014, having merged with Chevron in 2000, Chevron Phillips Chemical Company operates as a 50-50 venture; splitting costs and profit shares equally. The new entity tossed a coin in its boardroom to settle on the company's name with Chevron winning the toss and electing to have their name appear first.
==== The Adams building ====
In 1949, Adams decided to consolidate the company's in house operations under one roof. The operations at that time were scattered across 38 different facilities. Adams also wanted the company's research laboratories to be fully modernized, to support the profits being generated from research and development. He contracted the architectural firm of Neville and Sharp of Kansas City, Missouri to build a 12-story, 457,000 square feet multipurpose headquarters. It occupied an entire city block in Bartlesville and was named the Adams building. The town also renamed Seventh Street, Adams Street, and in 1962, constructed the Adams Municipal Golf Course in his name. As of 2014, all three namesakes continue to bear Adams' name.
== Retirement ==
Boots Adams retired from his position as company president in 1964, after 44 years with the company. The following year the city of Bartlesville organized a parade and civic holiday to honor Boots Adams on his 66th birthday – and give thanks with a public celebration. The schools in Bartlesville were closed and the town itself was officially renamed Bootsville for the entire day. A huge birthday cake was mocked up to resemble an oil storage tank, and the Phillips 66 logo "stood tall" in its own pair of boots.
Several dignitaries were present as well including President Dwight D. Eisenhower; as both a personal friend of Boots' and a U.S. president, carrying the gratitude of a nation. Eisenhower was a direct beneficiary of the GR-S program and Adams' participation in it. He was arguably the single man with "the most to lose" if GR-S had failed.
The President adopted the hobby of painting in 1950, as a relaxing way to reduce stress. He presented Boots Adams with a portrait he had recently painted – depicting Adams seated at the head of a table, as chairman of the Phillips 66 board. The portrait was a prized heirloom of Adams' second wife, Dorothy Glynn, and remains in the family's care, having been passed on to the eldest daughter of Boots and Dorothy.
W. Clarke Wescoe, the University of Kansas' (KU) 10th chancellor attended as well; thanking Adams for his alumnus support, and philanthropic goodwill. In appreciation, Wescoe announced the university's decision to name its planned on-campus residential complex, the Adams Center. Stanley Learned, Boots Adams' successor as president of Phillips, as well as a KU alumnus himself, showed his support of the university's decision by donating US$100,000 (equivalent to $997,782 in 2024) for use "at the chancellors discretion".
== Death and legacy ==
Boots Adams died March 30, 1975, in Bartlesville, Oklahoma and is buried at Bartlesville's Memorial Park Cemetery. Under his leadership, Phillips Petroleum Company transformed from the US$317,000,000 (equivalent to $7,165,868,421 in 2024) entity entrusted to him, into a US$2,000,000,000 (equivalent to $20,276,824,034 in 2024) industry, with over 28,000 employees and 8,000 miles of oil pipeline.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Ingham, John N. Biographical Dictionary of American Business Leaders. "Adams, Kenneth Stanley." (1983) Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-23907-X (v. 1). Available on Google Books.
Knowles, Ruth Sheldon (March 1, 1980). The Greatest Gamblers: The Epic of American Oil Exploration. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-1654-9.
Atta, Dale Van (February 28, 2008). With Honor: Melvin Laird in War, Peace, and Politics. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-22680-0.
Penick, Monica Michelle (2007). The Pace Setter Houses: Livable Modernism in Postwar America. Ann Arbor, Michigan: ProQuest Publishing Company. UMI number 3290901
Robbins, Louise S. (January 15, 2001). The Dismissal of Miss Ruth Brown: Civil Rights, Censorship, and the American Library. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3314-0.
Wallis, Michael (1988). Oil Man: The Story Of Frank Phillips & The Birth Of Phillips Petroleum. New York, NY: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-312-13135-7.
Perkins, Scott W. (May 26, 2008). Building Bartlesville, (OK): 1945–2000. Mount Pleasant, SC: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-5051-0.
Grundman, Adolph H. (October 1, 2004). The Golden Age of Amateur Basketball: The Aau Tournament, 1921–1968. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7117-3.
== Further reading ==
Lobsenz, Norman M. (1965). The Boots Adams story. Bartlesville, OK: Phillips Petroleum Company. ISBN 978-1-122-71211-8.
== External links ==
Photograph showing Boots Adams with Frank Phillips and Phillips' wife |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_B._Jelks | Edward B. Jelks | Edward Baker Jelks (September 10, 1922 – December 22, 2021) was an American archaeologist trained as a prehistorian yet known for his contributions to historical archaeology and leadership roles in multiple anthropological organizations, including the Society for Historical Archaeology and the Society of Professional Archaeologists.
== Early life ==
Born in Macon, Georgia on September 10, 1922, Jelks spent his early years (1923–1930) in the Hollywood, Florida area. He moved to Texas in 1930, where he made his home until moving to Illinois in 1968.
== Education ==
Jelks entered the University of Texas at Austin in fall 1939. He began his academic career as a pre-med zoology major, but the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor led Jelks to enlist. He joined the Navy Hospital Corp as Hospital Apprentice First Class and was stationed in Guadalcanal, where he helped to develop a field hospital for invading American troops. After contracting malaria, Jelks was sent to a Navy hospital in Auckland, New Zealand, where he applied for Officers Training. Jelks completed Officers School and was sent to Oklahoma A & M (now Oklahoma State) to learn Japanese. The war ended shortly thereafter, and Jelks returned to the University of Texas to continue his education under the GI bill.
Jelks completed a Bachelor of Arts in English (his pre-war minor) and continued to work toward a Master of Arts (MA) in anthropology. There his coursework focused on North American archaeology and prehistory, specifically that of Texas. In 1950, Jelks, having fulfilled the requirements for the MA program except his thesis, was hired by Robert Stephenson as his assistant in the River Basin Surveys program. Jelks completed his thesis and received his MA in 1952.
Jelks later returned from archaeological fieldwork to the University of Texas at Austin and earned a Ph.D. in archaeology in 1965. Familiar with the direct historical approach, Jelks minored in history while completing his Ph.D., interested largely in the location of Spanish colonial sites in Texas. Jelks also directed the Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory at the University of Texas from 1958–1965.
== Archaeological career ==
Jelks began his archaeological career in Texas directing the River Basin Surveys (1951–1965). He was hired by Robert Stephenson, and when Stephenson returned to the University of Michigan in 1951, Jelks took over his position as director of the River Basin Surveys program in Texas. The River Basin Survey conducted excavations at both prehistoric and historic sites throughout Texas.
One of Jelks' primary interests in Texas archaeology was the location of 17th and 18th-century villages of the southern Wichita tribes, as well as the location of Spanish colonial sites. Excavations at the Stansbury Site in Hill County, Texas led Jelks to conduct library research to identify trade goods that were found. This process, one of looking for documented historic sites and locating them in the field, began to characterize Jelks' research.
Between 1954 and 1956, Jelks worked at Jamestown, Virginia as John L. Cotter's assistant. This was where Jelks met J. C. "Pinky" Harrington, a leader in the development of a methodology for historical archaeology. During the summer of 1955, Jelks was sent to conduct excavations at the Yorktown Battlefield.
After completing his Ph.D., Jelks was offered a position teaching the archaeology of Texas in the newly created anthropology department at Southern Methodist University. Jelks was hired as an associate professor, a position he held from September 1965 to 1968, and he taught both Texas prehistory and a graduate seminar in historical archaeology.
While teaching at Southern Methodist University, Jelks spent his summers working as an archaeologist for Parks Canada, excavating British artifacts of the early to mid-19th century at Signal Hill, Newfoundland. He began this project in summer 1965 and returned in summer 1966.
Between 1966 and 1967, Jelks was instrumental in founding the Society for Historical Archaeology. At the meeting of the Central States Anthropological Society in St. Louis in 1966, Jelks invited archaeologists interested in historical archeology to Southern Methodist University to discuss organizing a society around their common interest. While planning for this meeting, Jelks and fellow attendees, including John L. Cotter, assembled a "Committee of Fifteen," a group of fifteen leading practitioners in historical archaeology. This committee, along with nearly one hundred others, attended the first "International Conference on Historical Archaeology," held in Dallas, Texas from January 6–7, 1967. The conference drew a total of 112 attendees, with presentation of seventeen papers by scholars including Charles Cleland, James Deetz, Bernard Fontana, J.C. Harrington, and Roderick Sprague. Out of this meeting, the Society for Historical Archaeology (SHA) emerged. The SHA was officially incorporated on April 1, 1968, in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and John L. Cotter was elected to serve as its first president. Jelks served as its second president in 1968.
In 1968, Jelks left Texas for a teaching position at Illinois State University. There he organized an anthropology curriculum and taught undergraduate and graduate courses in archaeology, including a seminar in historical archaeology. He continued to involve students in archaeological work, particularly research involving French explorer La Salle's colonizing efforts. Jelks carried out exploratory excavations at the first location of La Salle's Fort St. Louis (1680) at Starved Rock, Illinois but failed to locate the site of La Salle's later Fort St. Louis near Peoria. In 1983, Jelks and ISU history professor Carl Ekberg did identify the first site of the French Fort de Chatres, built along the Mississippi River in southern Illinois in 1719.
Jelks also conducted excavations on Constitution Island for the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1971. West Point hoped to use archaeological data as a basis for restoring Revolutionary War period fortifications in honor of the approaching United States Bicentennial celebration. Jelks organized the project as a field school, allowing students to take part in the contracted work while earning course credit.
With the rise of cultural resource management (CRM) work, it became clear that organizations looking to contract with archaeologists had no manner of recognizing who was qualified to do professional work. Jelks and colleague Bob McGimsey were approached by the chief archaeologist of the National Park Service, Rex Wilson, at a Society for American Archaeology (SAA) conference in the early 1970s with a warning: If the profession would not certify qualified archaeologists, the government would do it instead. This frightened a number of archaeologists and led to the Airlie House Conference of 1974, sponsored by the Society for American Archaeology and financed by the National Park Service. At this conference, an SAA committee was appointed that would eventually form the Society of Professional Archaeologists (SOPA). Jelks chaired the final committee that met at the University of Arkansas in January 1976, electing officers for the new organization. Jelks, elected as SOPA's first president, then presented at the SAA annual meeting in spring 1976, urging members to join the new registry. SOPA was eventually replaced by the Register of Professional Archaeologists (RPA).
Jelks' other fieldwork of note included excavations at the Grand Village of the Kickapoo (late 18th-early 19th century) in McLean County, Illinois, the De Brum copra plantation (early 20th century) at Likiep Atoll in Micronesia, and America's first dude ranch, the Bar-B-C Dude Ranch (established in 1912), in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming.
== Retirement and death ==
Jelks retired from academic life in 1983. Jelks died in Denver on December 22, 2021, at the age of 99.
== Honors ==
Jelks was honored with the Society for Historical Archaeology's J. C. Harrington Award in 1988 for his contributions to the discipline of historical archaeology.
His other awards and honors include:
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
U. S. representative to the Pan American Institute of Geography and History (an agency of the Organization of American States)
Clarence H. Webb Award for Outstanding Contributions to Caddoan Archaeology
Curtis D. Tunnell Award for Lifetime Achievement in Texas Archaeology
With John L. Cotter, the Historic Preservation Award of the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (now Preservation Virginia)
Illinois Archaeological Survey's Career Achievement Award
Society of Professional Archaeologists' (SOPA) Distinguished Service Award
Register of Professional Archaeologists' (RPA) Distinguished Service Award
== See also ==
Historical archaeology
Society for Historical Archaeology
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amata_leucacma | Amata leucacma | Amata leucacma is a species of moth of the family Erebidae first described by Edward Meyrick in 1886. It is found in Queensland, Australia.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipilotti_Rist | Pipilotti Rist | Pipilotti Elisabeth Rist, birth name Elisabeth Charlotte Rist (born 21 June 1962 in Grabs) is a Swiss visual artist best known for creating experimental video art and installation art. Her work is often described as surreal, intimate, abstract art, having a preoccupation with the female body.
Rist's work is known for its multi-sensory qualities, with overlapping projected imagery that is highly saturated with color, paired with sound components that are part of a larger environment with spaces for viewers to rest or lounge. Rist's work often transforms the architecture or environment of a white cube gallery into a more tactile, auditory and visual experience.
== Early life and education ==
Pipilotti Rist was born in the Rhine Valley of Switzerland. Her father was a physician and her mother a teacher. She started going by "Pipilotti", a combination of her childhood nickname "Lotti" and her childhood hero, Astrid Lindgren's character Pippi Longstocking, in 1982. Prior to studying art and film, Rist studied theoretical physics in Vienna for one semester.
From 1982 to 1986 Rist studied commercial art, illustration, and photography at the University of Applied Arts Vienna in Vienna. She later studied video at the Basel School of Design, Switzerland. From 1988 through 1994, she was member of the music band and performance group Les Reines Prochaines. In 1997, her work was first featured in the Venice Biennial, where she was awarded the Premio 2000 Prize. From 2002 to 2003, she was invited by Professor Paul McCarthy to teach at UCLA as a visiting faculty member. From summer 2012 through to summer 2013, Rist spent a sabbatical in Somerset.
== Artwork ==
During her studies, Rist began making super 8 films. Her works generally last only a few minutes, borrowing from mass-media formats such as MTV and advertising, with alterations in their colors, speed, and sound. Her works generally treat issues related to gender, sexuality, and the human body.
Her colorful and musical works transmit a sense of happiness and simplicity. Rist's work is regarded as feminist by some art critics. Her works are held by many important art collections worldwide.
In I'm Not The Girl Who Misses Much (1986) Rist dances in front of a camera in a black dress with uncovered breasts. The images are often monochromatic and fuzzy. Rists repeatedly sings "I'm not the girl who misses much", a reference to the first line of the song "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" by the Beatles. As the video approaches its end, the image becomes increasingly blue and fuzzy and the sound stops.
Rist achieved notoriety with Pickelporno (Pimple porno) (1992), a work about the female body and sexual excitation. The fisheye camera moves over the bodies of a couple. The images are charged by intense colors, and are simultaneously strange, sensual, and ambiguous.
Sip my Ocean (1996) is an audio-video installation projected as a mirrored reflection on two adjoining walls, duplicating the video as sort of Rorschach inkblots. Besides a television and tea-cups other domestic items can be seen sinking slowly under the ocean surface. The video is intercut with dreamlike frames of bodies swimming underwater and other melancholic images such as colourful overlays of roses across the heavens. Slightly abstract and layered the visuals invite the viewer to reveal its depth beneath the surface. Accompanying the video is Rist singing Chris Isaak's "Wicked Game". Her voice is starting of sweetly but becomes gradually out of synchronicity with the song, ending in the shrieking chorus of “No, I don’t wanna fall in love”. Rist breaks the illusion of synchronicity in the video with the asynchrony of the audio and captures the human longing for and impossibility of being totally in tune with somebody else.
Ever Is Over All (1997) shows in slow-motion a young woman walking along a city street, smashing the windows of parked cars with a large hammer in the shape of a tropical flower. At one point a police officer greets her. The audio video installation has been purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
Rist's nine video segments titled Open My Glade were played once every hour on a screen at Times Square in New York City, a project of the Messages to the Public program, which was founded in 1980.
“I want to see how you see – a portrait of Cornelia Providori” (2003) is an audio-visual work spanning 5:16. The sound was created in collaboration with Andreas Guggisberg, with whom Rist often works with. The main subject is the dialectical tension between macro and micro and how the continents are mirrored on the human body. The technical components are two to four layers of edited images, intricately cut and stacked on top of each other.
Pour Your Body Out was a commissioned multimedia installation organized by Klaus Biesenbach and installed in the atrium of the Museum of Modern Art in early 2009. In an interview with Phong Bui published in The Brooklyn Rail, Rist said she chose the atrium for the installation "because it reminds me of a church's interior where you’re constantly reminded that the spirit is good and the body is bad. This spirit goes up in space but the body remains on the ground. This piece is really about bringing those two differences together."
Her first feature film, Pepperminta, had its world premiere at the 66th Venice International Film Festival in 2009. She summarized the plot as "a young woman and her friends on a quest to find the right color combinations and with these colors they can free other people from fear and make life better.”
When interviewed by The Guardian for a preview of her 2011 exhibition at London's Hayward gallery, Rist described her feminism: "Politically," she says, "I am a feminist, but personally, I am not. For me, the image of a woman in my art does not stand just for women: she stands for all humans. I hope a young guy can take just as much from my art as any woman."
Rist has likened her videos to that of women's handbags, hoping that they'd have “room in them for everything: painting, technology, language, music, lousy flowing pictures, poetry, commotion, premonitions of death, sex, and friendliness."
== Personal life ==
Rist lives and works in Zurich, Switzerland with her partner Balz Roth, an entrepreneur. The couple has a son, Himalaya.
== Collections ==
Rist's work is held in the permanent collections of museums and galleries including the Museum of Modern Art, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, the San Francisco MoMA, and the Utrecht Centraal Museum. Her installation, TV-Lüster, is on permanent display at the Kunstmuseum St. Gallen.
== Influence on other artists ==
Ever Is Over All was referenced in 2016 by Beyoncé in the film accompanying her album Lemonade in which the singer is seen walking down a city street smashing windows of parked cars with a baseball bat.
== Works ==
=== Architectural Art and Public Art ===
since 1995: Flying Room. Video projection on the ceiling of the UBS entrance hall, Buchs, St. Gallen
2000 and 2017: Open my Glade. Video installation on Times Square, New York
since 2001: Ein Blatt im Wind (A Leaf in the Wind). Swiss Embassy Berlin, Germany
since 2005: Stadtlounge (City lounge). Square and street design in St. Gallen, cooperation with Carlos Martinez
since 2010: Ceiling installation in the restaurant Le Loft on 18th floor of the Sofitel Hotel (Nouvel Tower), Vienna
since 2014: Münsteranerin. Permanent video installation in the entrance area of the Museum für Kunst und Kultur in Münster, Germany
since 2016: Monochrome Rose. Streetcar train in pink, Geneva
since 2020: Tastende Lichter (Inching lights). Permanent video installation on the façade of Kunsthaus Zürich
=== Audio and Video art ===
1986: I’m Not The Girl Who Misses Much
1988: Das Zimmer (1994/2000)(Entlastungen) Pipilottis Fehler
1992/1999: Eine Spitze in den Westen – ein Blick in den Osten (bzw. N-S) (A Peek Into The West – A Look Into The East)
1992: Pickelporno
1993: Blutraum (Blood room)
1993: Eindrücke verdauen (Digesting Impressions)
1993: Schminktischlein mit Feedback (Little Make-Up Table With Feedback)
1993: TV-Lüster
1994/99: Cintia
1994/2000/2007: Das Zimmer (The Room)
1994: Selbstlos im Lavabad
1994: Yoghurt On Skin – Velvet On TV
1995: Search Wolken / Suche Clouds (elektronischer Heiratsantrag) (Search Wolken / Such Clouds (Electronic Marriage Proposal))
1996: Sip My Ocean (Schlürfe meinen Ozean)
1997: Ever Is Over All
1998: Blauer Leibesbrief (Blue Bodily Lettre)
1999/2001, 2007, 2009: Kleines Vorstadthirn (Small Suburb Brain)
1999: Himalaya Goldsteins Stube (Himalaya Goldstein’s Living Room)
2000: Öffne meine Lichtung (Open my Glade (Flatten))
2000: Himalaya’s Sister’s Living Room
2000: Peeping Freedom Shutters for Olga Shapir
2000/2001: Supersubjektiv (Super Subjective)
2001/2005: Wach auf (Despierta)
2001: Expecting
2002: Der Kuchen steht in Flammen (The Cake is in Flames)
2003: Apfelbaum unschuldig auf dem Diamantenhügel (Apple Tree Innocent On Diamond Hill) (Manzano inocente en la colina de diamantes)
2004: Herz aufwühlen Herz ausspülen (Stir Heart Rinse Heart)
2005: Eine Freiheitsstatue für Löndön (A Liberty Statue for Löndön)
2005: Homo Sapiens Sapiens
2006: Celle selbst zu zweit, by Gutararist aka Gudrun Gut & Pipilotti Rist
2007: Ginas Mobile (Gina’s Mobile)
2008: Erleuchte (und kläre) meinen Raum (Enlight My Space )
2011: Cape Cod Chandelier
2014: Worry Will Vanish Horizon
2015: Wir verwurzeln (Seelenfarben)
2016: Pixelwald
2016: 4th Floor To Mildness
2017: Caressing Dinner Circle (Tender Roundelay Family) 5er table
2018: Sparkling Pond, Bold-Coloured Groove & Tender Fire (Please Walk In And Let The Colors Caress You)
2020: Fritzflasche (The Bottle of Fritz)
2023: Hand Me Your Trust
=== Feature Film ===
2009: Pepperminta
== Recognition ==
1997 – Renta Preis of the Kunsthalle Nürnberg
1998 – Nomination for the Hugo Boss Prize
1999 – Wolfgang Hahn Prize
2003 – Honorary Professorship from Berlin University of the Arts
2006 – Guggenheim Museums Young Collector's Council Annual Artist's Ball honouring Pipilotti Rist
2007 – St. Galler Kulturpreis der St. Gallischen Kulturstiftung
2009 – Special Award, Seville European Film Festival
2009 – Joan Miró Prize, Barcelona
2009 – Best Exhibition Of Digital, Video, or Film: "Pour Your Body Out (7354 Cubic Meters)" at Museum of Modern Art, New York. 26th annual awards, The International Association of Art Critics (AICA)
2010 – Cutting the Edge Award, Miami International Film Festival
2011 – Best Architects '11 Award
2012 – Bazaar Art, International Artist of the Year, Hong Kong, China
2013 – Zurich Festival Prize, Zürcher Festpiele
2014 – Baukoma Awards for Marketing and Architecture, Best Site Development
2021 – Elected Honorary Royal Academician (HonRA) on 9 September 2021
2024 – Culture Prize of the Canton of Zürich
== Further reading ==
Pipilotti Rist: Pixel Forest (2016). Editors: Massimiliano Gioni and Margot Norton. Contributors: Pipilotti Rist, Bice Curiger, Joan Jonas, Gloria Sutton, Juliana Engberg, Lisa Phillips. London, New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 9780714872766.
Grosenick, Uta; Riemschneider, Burkhard, eds. (2005). Art Now (25th anniversary ed.). Köln: Taschen. pp. 272–275. ISBN 9783822840931. OCLC 191239335.
Phelan, Peggy, Hans Ulrich Obrist, and Elisabeth Bronfen. Pipilotti Rist. London, New York: Phaidon, 2001. ISBN 0714839655
Ravenal, John B. Outer & Inner Space: Pipilotti Rist, Shirin Neshat, Jane & Louise Wilson, and the History of Video Art. Richmond, VA: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2002. ISBN 0917046617
Söll, Änne. Pipilotti Rist. Cologne: DuMont, 2005. ISBN 978-3832175788
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Pipilotti Rist at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goa | Goa | Goa ( GOH-ə; Konkani: [ɡõːj]; Portuguese: [ˈɡoɐ] ) is a state on the southwestern coast of India within the Konkan region, geographically separated from the Deccan highlands by the Western Ghats. It is bordered by the Indian states of Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the east and south, with the Arabian Sea forming its western coastline. It is India's smallest state by area and fourth-smallest by population. Panaji (also Panjim) is the state's capital, while Vasco da Gama is its largest city by population. The state's official language is Konkani, spoken by the majority of its inhabitants.
The Portuguese, who first voyaged to the subcontinent in the early 16th century as merchants, conquered it shortly thereafter. Goa became an overseas territory of the Portuguese Empire and part of what was then known as Portuguese India, remaining under Portuguese rule for approximately 451 years until its annexation by India in December 1961. The historic city of Margão, or Madgaon, still reflects the cultural legacy of colonisation.
Goa is one of India’s most developed small states and has the second-highest GDP per capita among all Indian states, more than twice the national average GDP per capita. The Eleventh Finance Commission of India named Goa the best-placed state in terms of infrastructure, while India's National Commission on Population ranked it as having the highest quality of life in the country based on 12 socio-economic indicators. It ranks highest among Indian states in the Human Development Index, and it is the only Indian state classified as very high on the index.
Goa attracts a significant influx of both international and domestic tourists annually due to its white-sand beaches, active nightlife, religious landmarks, and UNESCO World Heritage-listed architecture. It also boasts rich biodiversity, lying near the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot. The North Goa district draws more visitors owing to its numerous restaurants, accommodation options, and a vibrant nightlife. In contrast, South Goa is noted for its serene beaches and luxury resorts, catering primarily to high-end tourists seeking privacy and tranquility.
== Etymology ==
After the Bahmani-Bijapuri city of Goa was captured by Afonso de Albuquerque in 1510, and made the capital of the Estado da Índia, the city gave its name to the contiguous territories.
The origin of the city name Goa is unclear. In ancient literature, Goa was known by many names, such as Gomanchala, Gopakapattana, Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Govem, and Gomantak. Other historical names for Goa are Sindapur, Sandabur, and Mahassapatam.
== History ==
=== Prehistory ===
Rock art engravings found in Goa are one of the earliest known traces of human life in India. Goa, situated within the Shimoga-Goa Greenstone Belt in the Western Ghats (an area composed of metavolcanics, iron formations, and ferruginous quartzite), yields evidence for Acheulean occupation. Rock art engravings (petroglyphs) are present on laterite platforms and granite boulders in Usgalimal, near the west-flowing Kushavati river, and in Kajur. In Kajur, the rock engravings of animals, tectiforms, and other designs in granite have been associated with what is considered to be a megalithic stone circle, with a round granite stone in the centre. Petroglyphs, cones, stone-axe, and choppers dating to 10,000 years ago have been found in various locations in Goa, including Kazur, Mauxim, and the Mandovi-Zuari basin. Recently, these petroglyphs have been included in the tentative list of UNESCO world heritage sites.
Evidence of Paleolithic life is visible at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigao, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, and Aquem-Margaon. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds poses a problem for determining the exact time period.
Early Goan society underwent radical change when Indo-Aryan and Dravidian migrants amalgamated with the aboriginal locals, forming the base of early Goan culture.
=== Early history ===
In the 3rd century BC, Goa was part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Buddhist monks laid the foundation of Buddhism in Goa. Between the 2nd century BC and the 6th century AD, Goa was ruled by the Bhojas of Goa. The Chutus of Karwar also ruled some parts as feudatories of the Satavahanas of Kolhapur (2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD), Western Kshatrapas (around 150 AD), the Abhiras of Western Maharashtra, Bhojas of Goa, and the Konkan Mauryas as feudatories of the Kalachuris. The rule later passed to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 578 and 753, and later the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed from 753 to 963. From 765 to 1015, the Southern Silharas of Konkan ruled Goa as the feudatories of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Over the next few centuries, Goa was successively ruled by the Kadambas as the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. They patronised Jainism in Goa.
In 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. The kingdom's grip on the region was weak, and by 1370, it was forced to surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara Empire. The Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani Sultanate. After that dynasty crumbled, the area fell into the hands of the Sultanate of Bijapur, who established as their auxiliary capital the city known under the Portuguese as Velha Goa (or Old Goa).
=== Portuguese period ===
In 1510, the Portuguese defeated the ruling Bijapur sultan Yusuf Adil Shah with the help of a local ally, Thimmayya or Timoji, a privateer. They set up a permanent settlement in Velha Goa (Old Goa). This was the beginning of Portuguese colonial rule in Goa that would last for four and a half centuries, until its annexation by India in 1961. The Goa Inquisition, a formal tribunal, was established in 1560, and was finally abolished in 1812.
From the latter decades of the eighteenth century, the territory of Goa was composed of two segments: the central nucleus of the Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquests)—Bardes, Ilhas de Goa, and Salcette—which territories had been under Portuguese administration since the sixteenth century; and the Novas Conquistas (New Conquests)—Bicholim, Canacona, Pernem, Quepem, Sattari, and Sanguem—territories which had been successively added through the eighteenth century.
In 1787, Goa experienced its first revolt from its Catholic elite, with the Pinto Revolt led by a Goan noble family who revolted against the Portuguese due to racial discrimination in administration and clergy. They were betrayed by a member of the revolt. The Portuguese government executed some of the family members, while others, such as Abbe Faria, went on to join the French Revolution. This remains legend in Goa today.
In 1843, the Portuguese moved the capital to the Cidade da Nova Goa (City of New Goa), today known as Panaji (Panjim), from Velha Goa (Old Goa). By the mid-18th century, Portuguese expansions lost other possessions in India until their borders stabilised and formed the Goa, Daman and Diu, which included Silvassa prior to the Annexation, it was known as Estado da Índia in Portuguese.
Some wealthy Goan zamindars such as Baron Dempo and Viscount Deshprabhu were included in the Portuguese nobility, and were among the richest men in Independent India due to the mineral wealth of Goa.
=== Contemporary period ===
After India gained independence from British rule in 1947, India requested that Portuguese territories on the Indian subcontinent be ceded to India. Portugal refused to negotiate on the sovereignty of its Indian enclaves. On 19 December 1961, the Indian Army invaded with Operation Vijay resulting in the annexation of Goa, and of Daman and Diu islands into the Indian union. Goa, Daman and Diu, were organised as a single centrally administered union territory of India. On 16 January 1967 a referendum was held in Goa, to decide the future of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. It was the only referendum to have been held in independent India. The referendum offered the people of Goa a choice between continuing as a union territory or merging with the state of Maharashtra and the majority chose the former. On 30 May 1987, the union territory was split, and Goa was made India's twenty-fifth state, with Daman and Diu remaining a union territory.
== Geography ==
Goa encompasses an area of 3,702 km2 (1,429 sq mi). It lies between the latitudes 14°53′54″ N and 15°40′00″ N and longitudes 73°40′33″ E and 74°20′13″ E.
Goa is a part of the coastal country known as the Konkan, which is an escarpment rising up to the Western Ghats range of mountains, which separate it from the Deccan Plateau. The highest point is the Sonsogor Peak, with an altitude of 1,026 m (3,366 ft). Goa has a coastline of 160 km (99 mi).
Goa's seven major rivers are the Mandovi, Zuari, Terekhol, Chapora, Galgibag, Cumbarjua canal, Talpona, and the Sal. The Zuari and the Mandovi are the most important rivers, interspaced by the Cumbarjua canal, forming a major estuarine complex. These rivers are fed by the Southwest monsoon rain and their basin covers 69% of the state's geographical area. These rivers are some of the busiest in India. Goa has more than 40 estuarine, eight marine, and about 90 riverine islands. The total navigable length of Goa's rivers is 253 km (157 mi). Goa has more than 300 ancient water tanks built during the rule of the Kadamba dynasty and over 100 medicinal springs.
Mormugao harbour on the mouth of the Zuari river is considered one of the best natural harbours in South Asia.
Most of Goa's soil cover is made up of laterites rich in ferric-aluminium oxides and reddish in colour. Further inland and along the riverbanks, the soil is mostly alluvial and loamy. The soil is rich in minerals and humus, thus conducive to agriculture. Some of the oldest rocks in the Indian subcontinent are found in Goa between Molem and Anmod on Goa's border with Karnataka. The rocks are classified as Trondjemeitic Gneiss estimated to be 3,600 million years old, dated by rubidium isotope dating. A specimen of the rock is exhibited at Goa University.
=== Climate ===
Goa features an extreme tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification. Being in the torrid zone and near the Arabian Sea, the state has a hot and humid climate for most of the year. The month of May is usually the hottest, seeing daytime temperatures of over 35 °C (95 °F) coupled with high humidity due to proximity to the sea. Due to high humidity, the feels-like temperature may reach 48 °C or 118.4 °F during summer afternoons, which can cause severe discomfort and excessive sweating. Goa's three seasons are southwest monsoon period (June–September), post-monsoon period (October–January), and pre-monsoon period (February–May). Over 90 percent of the average annual rainfall (3,048 mm or 120 in) is received during the monsoon season.
=== Flora and fauna ===
Equatorial forest cover in Goa stands at 1,500 km2 (579 sq mi), most of which is owned by the government. Government-owned forest is estimated at 1,300 km2 (502 sq mi) while private is given as 200 km2 (77 sq mi).
Most of the forests in the state are located in the interior eastern regions of the state. The Western Ghats, which form most of eastern Goa, have been internationally recognised as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. In the February 1999 issue of National Geographic Magazine, Goa was compared with the Amazon and the Congo basins for its rich tropical biodiversity.
Goa's wildlife sanctuaries boast of more than 1512 documented species of plants, over 275 species of birds, over 48 kinds of animals and over 60 genera of reptiles. Nanda Lake is the first and the only Ramsar wetland site in Goa.
Goa is also known for its coconut cultivation. The coconut tree has been reclassified by the government as a palm (like grass), enabling farmers and real estate developers to clear land with fewer restrictions.
Rice is the main food crop, and pulses (legume), Ragi (Finger Millet), and other food crops are also grown. Main cash crops are arecanut, coconut, cashew nut, sugar cane, and fruits like banana, mango, and pineapple. Goa's state animal is the Gaur, the state bird is the Flame-throated Bulbul, and the state tree is the Indian Laurel.
The important forest products are bamboo canes, Maratha barks, chillar barks, and the bhirand. Coconut palm trees are common throughout Goa barring the elevated regions. A variety of deciduous trees, such as teak, Sal tree, cashew, and mango trees are present. Fruits include jackfruit, mango, pineapple, and blackberry. Goa's forests are rich in medicinal plants.
Foxes, wild boar and migratory birds are found in the jungles of Goa. The avifauna (bird species) includes kingfisher, myna and parrot. Numerous types of fish are also caught off the coast of Goa and in its rivers. Crab, lobster, shrimp, jellyfish, oysters, and catfish are the basis of the marine fishery. Goa also has a high snake population. Goa has many famous national parks, including the renowned Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary on the island of Chorão. Other wildlife sanctuaries include the Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Molem Wildlife Sanctuary, Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary, and Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary.
Goa has more than 33% of its geographic area under government forests (1,224.38 km2 or 472.74 sq mi) of which about 62% has been brought under Protected Areas (PA) of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Park. Since there is a substantial area under private forests and a large tract under cashew, mango, coconut, etc. plantations, the total forest and tree cover constitutes 56.6% of the geographic area.
== Demographics ==
=== Population ===
A native of Goa is called a Goenkar (Romi Konkani), Goan. Goa has a population of 1.459 million residents as of 2011, making it the fourth least populated state of India after Sikkim, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh. Population density of Goa is 394 per km2 which is higher than national average 382 per km2. Goa is the state with highest proportion of urban population with 62.17% of the population living in urban areas. The sex ratio is 973 females to 1,000 males. The birth rate was 15.70 per 1,000 people in 2007. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 1.74% and 10.23% of the population respectively. As of the 2011 census, over 76% of the population was born in Goa, while just over half of migrants to the state are from the neighbouring states of Karnataka and Maharashtra. As per a 2021 report, over 50% of the permanent resident population is of non-Goan origin, outnumbering the native ethnic Goan population.
According to the NITI Aayog's Fiscal Health Index 2025, Goa ranks third with a score of 53.6.
=== Languages ===
The Official Language Act, 1987, of the erstwhile Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu makes Konkani in the Devanagari script the sole official language of Goa, but provides that Marathi may also be used "for all or any of the official purposes". Portuguese was the sole official language during Portuguese colonial rule, but its use has declined drastically since the annexation of the territory by India. The government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to correspondence received in Marathi. There have been demands for according Konkani in the Roman script official status in the state. There is widespread support for keeping Konkani as the sole official language of Goa.
Konkani is spoken as a first language by about 66.11% of the people in the state, but almost all Goans can speak and understand Konkani. A large population of people can speak and understand English as well. Other linguistic groups in the state per the 2011 census are speakers of Marathi (10.89%), Hindi (8.64%), Kannada (4.65%), Urdu (2.83%), and Portuguese (1%).
Historically, Konkani was neither the official nor the administrative language of the many rulers of the State. Under the Kadambas (c. 960–1310), the court language was Kannada. When under Muslim rule (1312–1370 and 1469–1510), the official and cultural language was Persian. Various stones in the Archaeological Museum and Portrait Gallery from the period are inscribed in Kannada and Persian. During the period in between the two periods of Muslim rule, the Vijayanagara Empire, which had control of the state, mandated the use of Kannada and Telugu.
=== Religion ===
According to the 2011 census, in a population of 1,458,545 people, 66.1% were Hindu, 25.1% were Christian, 8.3% were Muslim, and 0.1% were Sikh. However, in September 2024, Goa Governor P.S. Sreedharan Pillai stated that the Muslim population of Goa has increased from 3% to 12% while the Christian population decreased from 36% to 25%. He later clarified that his remarks referred to "brain drain" and were not intended as a commentary on religious demographics.
In 1909, the Catholic Encyclopedia documented the total Catholic population in Portuguese Goa as 293,628 out of a total population of 365,291 (80.33%). Since the 20th century, the percentage of Goan Catholics has gradually declined caused by a combination of permanent emigration from Goa to cosmopolitan Indian cities (e.g. Mumbai, Pune, Bangalore) and foreign countries (e.g. Portugal, the United Kingdom) with the mass immigration of non-Christians from the rest of India since the 20th century. By 2021, ethnic Goans accounted for less than half of the state's residents.
The Catholics in Goa state and Daman and Diu union territory are served by the Metropolitan Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman, the primatial see of India, in which the titular Patriarchate of the East Indies is vested.
== Government and politics ==
The politics of Goa are a result of the uniqueness of this region due to 450 years of Portuguese rule, in comparison to two centuries of British rule experienced by most of the rest of India. The Indian National Congress was unable to achieve electoral success in the first two decades after the State's incorporation into India. Instead, the state was dominated by the regional political parties like Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party and the United Goans Party.
=== Government ===
Goa has two members of parliament (MP) elected from each district representing the state in the Lok Sabha (House of the People), the lower house of the national Parliament of India. It is also has one member of parliament in the Rajya Sabha (Council of the States), the upper house of the Indian parliament.
Goa's administrative capital is based in Panaji, often referred as Panjim in English, Pangim in Portuguese and Ponjê in Konkani, the official language of the state. It lies on the left bank of the Mandovi river. The seat of the Goa Legislative Assembly is in Porvorim, across the Mandovi from Panaji. The state's highest judiciary is the Goa Bench of the Bombay High Court, a branch of the Bombay High Court permanently seated at Panjim. Unlike other states, which follow the model of personal laws framed for individual religions introduced in the days of British Raj, the Portuguese Civil Code of Goa and Damaon, a uniform code based on the Napoleonic Code was retained in Goa as well as the union territory of Damaon, Diu & Silvassa.
Goa has a unicameral legislature, the Goa Legislative Assembly, of 40 members, headed by a speaker. The chief minister heads the executive, which is made up of the party or coalition elected with a majority in the legislature. The governor, the head of the state, is appointed by the president of India. After having stable governance for nearly thirty years up to 1990, Goa is now notorious for its political instability having seen fourteen governments in the span of the fifteen years between 1990 and 2005.
In March 2005, the assembly was dissolved by the Governor and President's Rule was declared, which suspended the legislature. A by-election in June 2005 saw the Indian National Congress coming back to power after winning three of the five seats that went to polls. The Congress Party and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) are the two largest parties in the state. In the assembly poll of 2007, the INC-led coalition won and formed the government. In the 2012 Vidhan Sabha Elections, the Bharatiya Janata Party along with the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party won a clear majority, forming the new government with Manohar Parrikar as the Chief Minister. Other parties include the United Goans Democratic Party, the Nationalist Congress Party.
In the 2017 assembly elections, the Indian National Congress gained the most seats, with the BJP coming in second. However, no party was able to gain a majority in the 40 member house. The BJP was invited to form the Government by Governor Mridula Sinha. The Congress claimed the use of money power to blame its struggle on BJP and took the case to the Supreme Court. However, the Manohar Parikkar led Government was able to prove its majority in the Supreme Court mandated "floor test".
In the 2022 Goa Legislative Assembly Elections, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) won 20 seats with support of 2 seats by MGP and 3 seats by independents while on 14 September 2022 when 8 Congress MLA switched party and joined BJP.
The current seats of NDA lies at 33 with 28 of BJP , 2 of MGP and 3 independents while the opposition Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (INDIA) with 7 seats consisting of Congress at 3 seats AAP with 2 seats GFP and RGP with 1 seats each.
=== Subdivisions ===
The state is divided into two civil districts—North Goa and South Goa. Each district is administered by a District Collector, appointed by the Government of Goa. These two districts are further divided into subdivisions and talukas, headed by a Deputy Collector-cum-Sub Divisional Officer and a Mamlatdar, respectively. The talukas are further divided into villages, each headed by a Talathi, who is responsible for land revenue and related matters.
Panaji (Panjim) is the headquarters of North Goa district and is also the capital of Goa. North Goa is further divided into three subdivisions—Panaji, Mapusa, and Bicholim; and five talukas (subdistricts)—Tiswadi (Panaji), Bardez (Mapusa), Pernem, Bicholim, and Sattari (Valpoi). Margao (Madgaon) is the headquarters of the South Goa district. It is also the cultural and commercial capital of Goa. South Goa is further divided into five subdivisions—Ponda, Mormugao-Vasco, Margao, Quepem, and Dharbandora; and seven talukas—Ponda, Mormugao, Salcete (Margao), Quepem, and Canacona (Chaudi), Sanguem, and Dharbandora. Goa has a total number of 334 villages.
=== Local governance ===
Goa's major cities are—Panaji, Margao, Vasco-Mormugao, Mapusa, Ponda, Bicholim, and Valpoi. Panaji (Panjim) has the only Municipal Corporation in Goa. There are thirteen Municipal Councils—Margao, Mormugao (merged with Vasco), Pernem, Mapusa, Bicholim, Sanquelim, Valpoi, Ponda, Cuncolim, Quepem, Curchorem, Sanguem, and Canacona. There are two Zilla Panchayats — South Goa and North Goa — and 191 Gram Panchayats for rural governance.
Local governance in Goa is administered through a two-tier system in rural areas and a municipal system in urban areas. Rural local bodies consist of the Zilla Panchayats at the district level and Gram Panchayats at the village level, functioning under the Goa Panchayat Raj Act, 1994. Urban areas are governed by municipal councils or municipal corporations in accordance with the Goa Municipalities Act, 1968, and the Corporation of the City of Panaji Act, 2002. These institutions are responsible for local administration, civic amenities, and community development within their respective jurisdictions.
== Economy ==
Goa's state domestic product for 2017 is estimated at $11 billion at current prices. Goa is India's richest state with the highest GDP per capita—two and a half times that of the country—with one of its fastest growth rates: 8.23% (yearly average 1990–2000). Tourism is Goa's primary industry: it gets 12% of foreign tourist arrivals in India. Goa has two main tourist seasons: winter and summer. In winter, tourists from abroad (mainly Europe) come, and summer (which, in Goa, is the rainy season) sees tourists from across India. Goa's net state domestic product (NSDP) was around US$7.24 billion in 2015–16.
The land away from the coast is rich in minerals and ores, and mining forms the second largest industry. Iron, bauxite, manganese, clays, limestone, and silica are mined. The Mormugao port handled 31.69 a million tonnes of cargo in 2007, which was 39% of India's total iron ore exports. Sesa Goa (now owned by Vedanta Resources) and Dempo are the lead miners. Rampant mining has been depleting the forest cover as well as posing a health hazard to the local population. Corporations are also mining illegally in some areas. During 2015–16, the total traffic handled by Mormugao port was recorded to be 20.78 million tonnes.
Agriculture, while of shrinking importance to the economy over the past four decades, offers part-time employment to a sizeable portion of the populace. Rice is the main agricultural crop, followed by areca, cashew, and coconut. Fishing employs about 40,000 people, though recent official figures indicate a decline in the importance of this sector and also a fall in the catch, due perhaps, to traditional fishing giving way to large-scale mechanised trawling.
Medium-scale industries include the manufacturing of pesticides, fertilizers, tires, tubes, footwear, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, wheat products, steel rolling, fruits and fish canning, cashew nuts, textiles, brewery products.
Currently, there are 16 planned SEZs in Goa. The Goa government has recently decided to not allow any more Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in Goa after strong opposition to them by political parties and the Goa Catholic Church.
Goa is also notable for its low-priced beer, wine, and spirits prices due to its very low excise duty on alcohol. Another main source of cash inflow to the state is remittance, from many of its citizens who work abroad, to their families. It is said to have some of the largest bank savings in the country.
In 1976, Goa became the first state in India to legalise some types of gambling. This enabled the state to levy taxes on gambling, strengthening the economy. Manohar Parrikar granted permanent licences to casinos in 2014. There are several casinos available in Goa. From 2018 to 2019, tax revenue from casinos reached ₹4.14 billion (equivalent to ₹5.1 billion or US$61 million in 2023).
Goa is the second state in India to achieve a 100 per cent automatic telephone system with a solid network of telephone exchanges. As of September 2017, Goa had a total installed power generation capacity of 547.88 MW. Goa is also one of the few states in India to achieve 100 per cent rural electrification.
== Tourism ==
Tourism is generally focused on the coastal areas of Goa, with lower tourist activity inland. In 2010, there were more than 2 million tourists reported to have visited Goa, about 1.2 million of whom were from abroad. As of 2013, Goa was a destination of choice for Indian and foreign tourists, particularly Britons who wanted to vacation outside their countries. The state was hopeful that changes could be made which would attract a more upscale demographic.
Goa stands 6th in the Top 10 Nightlife cities in the world in National Geographic Travel. One of the biggest tourist attractions in Goa is water sports. Beaches like Baga and Calangute offer jet-skiing, parasailing, banana boat rides, water scooter rides, and more. Patnem beach in Palolem stood third in CNN Travel's Top 20 Beaches in Asia.
Over 450 years of Portuguese rule and the influence of the Portuguese culture presents to visitors to Goa a cultural environment that is not found elsewhere in India. Goa is often described as a fusion between Eastern and Western culture with Portuguese culture having a dominant position in the state be it in its architectural, cultural or social settings. The state of Goa is famous for its excellent beaches, churches, and temples.
=== Historic sites and neighbourhoods ===
Goa has one World Heritage Site: the Bom Jesus Basilica with churches and convents of Old Goa. The basilica holds the mortal remains of Francis Xavier, regarded by many Catholics as the patron saint of Goa (the patron of the Archdiocese of Goa is actually Saint Joseph Vaz). These are both Portuguese-era monuments and reflect a strong European character. The relics are taken down for veneration and for public viewing, per the prerogative of the Church in Goa, not every ten or twelve years as popularly thought and propagated. The last exposition was held in 2014.
The Velhas Conquistas regions are known for Goa-Portuguese style architecture. There are many forts in Goa such as Tiracol, Chapora, Corjuem, Aguada, Reis Magos, Nanus, Mormugao, Fort Gaspar Dias and Cabo de Rama.
In many parts of Goa, mansions constructed in the Indo-Portuguese style architecture still stand, though, in some villages, most of them are in a dilapidated condition. Fontainhas in Panaji has been declared a cultural quarter, showcasing the life, architecture and culture of Goa. Influences from the Portuguese era are visible in some of Goa's temples, notably the Shanta Durga Temple, the Mangueshi Temple, the Shri Damodar Temple and the Mahalasa Temple. After 1961, many of these were demolished and reconstructed in the indigenous Indian style.
=== Museums and science centre ===
Goa has three important museums: the Goa State Museum, the Naval Aviation Museum and the National Institute of Oceanography. The aviation museum is one of three in India (the others are in Delhi and Bangalore). The Goa Science Centre is in Miramar, Panaji. The National Institute of Oceanography, India (NIO) is in Dona Paula. Museum of Goa is a privately owned contemporary art gallery in Pilerne Industrial Estate, near Calangute.
=== Beaches ===
Most of the beauty of Goa is present on the beaches. The coastline of about 103 kilometres (64 mi) has some of the most attractive beaches flanked by the Arabian Sea. The beaches of Goa are counted among the most beautiful in the world. Some of the beaches include Anjuna Beach, Baga beach, Bambolim Beach, Calangute Beach, Candolim Beach, Colva Beach, and Miramar Beach.Goa has around 54 beaches minimum by a tourist website, however including small minor beaches could take the count to 100+.
== Culture ==
Having been a Portuguese colony for over 450 years, Goan culture is an amalgamation of both Eastern and Western styles, with the latter having a more dominant role. The tableau of Goa showcases religious harmony by focusing on the Deepastambha, the Christian cross, and Ghode Modni followed by a chariot. European royal attire of kings is as much part of Goa's cultural heritage as are regional dances performed depicting a unique blend of different religions and cultures of this State. Prominent local festivals are Christmas, Easter, Carnival, Diwali, Shigmo, Chavoth, Samvatsar Padvo, Dasara etc. The Goan Carnival and Christmas-new year celebrations attract many tourists.
The Gomant Vibhushan, the highest civilian honour of the state of Goa, is given annually by the Government of Goa since 2010.
=== Dance and music ===
Traditional Goan art forms are Dekhnni, Fugdi, Corridinho, Mando, Dulpod and Fado.
Goan Hindus are very fond of Natak, Bhajan and Kirtan. Many famous Indian classical singers hail from Goa, including Mogubai Kurdikar, Kishori Amonkar, Kesarbai Kerkar, Jitendra Abhisheki and Pandit Prabhakar Karekar.
Other famous Goan singers and musicians are Lorna Cordeiro (Nightingale of Goa), Chris Perry and Alfred Rose (Melody King of Goa).
=== Theatre ===
Natak, Tiatr (most popular) and Zagor are the chief forms of Goa's traditional performance arts. Other forms are Ranmale, Dashavatari, Kalo, Goulankala, Lalit, Kala and Rathkala. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata along with more modern social subjects are narrated with song and dance.
Jagor, the traditional folk dance–drama, is performed by the Hindu Kunbi and Christian Gauda communities of Goa, to seek the Divine Grace for protection and prosperity of the crop. The literal meaning of Jagor is "jagran", or wakeful nights. The strong belief is that the night-long performance awakens the deities once a year and they continue to remain awake throughout the year guarding the village.
Perni Jagor is the ancient mask dance–drama of Goa, performed by Perni families, using well crafted and painted wooden masks, depicting various animals, birds, supernatural power, deities, demons, and social characters.
Gauda Jagor is an impression of social life that displays all the existing moods and modes of human characters. It is predominantly based on three main characters, Gharasher, Nikhandar, and Parpati, wearing shining dresses and headgear. The performance is accompanied by vibrant tunes of Goan folk instruments like Nagara/Dobe, Ghumat, Madale, and Kansale.
In some places, Jagor performances are held with the participation of both Hindus and the Christian community, whereby characters are played by Hindus and musical support is provided by Christian artistes.
Tiatr (Teatro) and its artists play a major role in keeping the Konkani language and music alive. Tiatrs are conducted solely in the Roman script of Konkani as it is primarily a Christian community-based act. They are played in scenes with music at regular intervals, the scenes are portrayals of daily life and are known to depict social and cultural scenarios. Tiatrs are regularly held especially on weekends mainly at Kala Academy, Panaji, Pai Tiatrist Hall at Ravindra Bhavan, Margao and most recent shows have also started at the new Ravindra Bhavan, Baina, Vasco. Western Musical Instruments such as Drums, Bass, Keyboards, and Trumpets are part of the show and most of them are played acoustically. It is one of Goa's few art forms that is renowned across the world with performances popular among Goans in the Middle-East, Americas and Europe.
=== Konkani cinema ===
Konkani cinema is an Indian film industry, where films are made in the Konkani language, which is spoken mainly in the Indian states of Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka and to a smaller extent in Kerala. Konkani films have been produced in Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala.
The first full-length Konkani film was Mogacho Anvddo, released on 24 April 1950, and was produced and directed by A. L.Jerry Braganza, a native of Mapusa, under the banner of ETICA Pictures. Hence, 24 April is celebrated as Konkani Film Day. Since 2004, starting from the 35th edition, the International Film Festival of India moved its permanent venue to Goa, it is annually held in the months of November and December. Konkani film Paltadcho manis has been included in the world's best films of 2009 list.
Konkani films are eligible for the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Konkani. The most commercially successful Konkani film, as of June 2011, is O Maria directed by Rajendra Talak. In 2012, the whole new change was adopted in Konkani Cinema by introducing Digital Theatrical Film The Victim directed by Milroy Goes. Some old Konkani films are Sukhachem Sopon, Amchem Noxib, Nirmonn, Mhoji Ghorkarn, Kortubancho Sonvsar, Jivit Amchem Oxem, Mog ani Moipas, Bhuierantlo Munis, Suzanne, Boglantt, Padri and Bhogsonne. Ujwadu is a 2011 Konkani film directed by Kasargod Chinna and produced by KJ Dhananjaya and Anuradha Padiyar.
=== Goan Film Movement ===
The Gen-Z Goan Film Movement, also known as the Goan New Wave, is a youth-driven development in Goan cinema that began in late 2024 and expanded rapidly through 2025. It is characterised by a rise in independently produced short films and documentaries by Goan filmmakers under the age of 25, several of which received international festival recognition.
The movement gained early visibility after the environmental short film The Awakening by filmmaker Rameez Shaikh won the South Asian Regional Award at the Don Bosco Global Youth Film Festival on 18 October 2024. The film was subsequently screened at the WAVES International Short Film Festival in January 2025 and at the Urban Adda Film Festival in June 2025.
A significant boost to documentary filmmaking within the movement came from Prachi Shirodkar and Mario Pimenta, whose film Bhaangar Kalakusar Karigiri won Best Documentary at the Miseentage Indian Film Festival on 22 August 2025, followed by selections at NanoCon in the United States and at Jackson Doc Fest in Tennessee.
During the same period, Pimenta’s environmental short Act To Achieve received its first international screening in the United Kingdom and was later selected for the Egyptian American Film Festival in New York. His experimental horror short RAW was screened at the Willlachen Comedy & Satire Filmprize in Vienna.
The movement expanded as other youth filmmakers attracted international attention. The environmental documentary Naturally Selected, created by Valanka, Shaurya, Aniza and Anaya with support from Fundação Oriente, was included in the lineup of the Footprint Film Festival on 31 October 2025.
By late 2025, Goan Gen-Z filmmakers had collectively achieved more than ten international festival selections across documentary, environmental, social awareness and experimental genres. The movement is credited with expanding the global visibility of Goan and Konkani cinema through low-budget production methods, mobile-phone filmmaking and emerging youth-led creative networks.
=== Food ===
Rice with fish curry (xit koddi in Konkani) is the staple diet in Goa. Goan cuisine is famous for its rich variety of fish dishes cooked with elaborate recipes. Coconut and coconut oil are widely used in Goan cooking along with chili peppers, spices, and vinegar, used in the Catholic cuisine, giving the food a unique flavor. Goan cuisine is heavily influenced by Portuguese cuisine.
Goan food may be divided into Goan Catholic and Goan Hindu cuisine with each showing very distinct tastes, characteristics, and cooking styles. Pork dishes such as Vindalho, Xacuti, chouriço, and Sorpotel are cooked for major occasions among the Goan Catholics. A mixed vegetable stew, known as Khatkhate, is a very popular dish during the celebrations of festivals, Hindu and Christian alike. Khatkhate contains at least five vegetables, fresh coconut, and special Goan spices that add to the aroma. Sannas, Hitt, are local rice cakes and Polle, Amboli, and Kailoleo are rice pancakes; all are native to Goa. A rich egg-based, multi-layered baked sweet known as bebinca is traditional at Christmas.
Stone chocolate is a type of handcrafted dark chocolate associated with Goan cuisine. It is made using traditional techniques and often incorporates local ingredients, including spices that reflect the region's culinary heritage. The chocolate is known for its smooth texture and rich flavor, influenced by Goa's tropical climate and unique cultural blend.
The most popular alcoholic beverage in Goa is feni. Cashew feni is made from the double distillation of the fermented fruit juice of the cashew tree, while coconut feni is made from the double distillation of the fermented sap of toddy palms. Urrak is another local liquor prepared from the single distillation of the fermented cashew fruit juice. In fact the bar culture is one of the unique aspects of the Goan villages where a local bar serves as a meeting point for villagers to unwind. Goa also has a rich wine culture due to Portuguese rule.
=== Architecture ===
The architecture of Goa is a combination of native Goan, Ottoman and Portuguese styles. Since the Portuguese ruled and governed for four centuries, many churches and houses bear a striking element of the Portuguese style of architecture. Goan Hindu houses do not show any Portuguese influence, though the modern temple architecture is an amalgam of original Goan temple style with Dravidian, Hemadpanti, Islamic, and Portuguese architecture. The original Goan temple architecture fell into disuse as the temples were demolished by the Portuguese and the Sthapati known as Thavayi in Konkani were converted to Christianity though the wooden work and the Kavi murals can still be seen.
== Transportation ==
=== Air ===
Goa is served by two international Airports. Goa International Airport, is a civil enclave at INS Hansa, a Naval airfield located at Dabolim, near Vasco da Gama while the Manohar International Airport is located in the North at Mopa.
Within five months of its inception, Mopa airport began handling 30 per cent of all air traffic of Goa.
The airports cater to scheduled domestic and international air services, with the new airport having started international operations from March 2023.
Goa has scheduled international connections to Doha, Dubai, Muscat, Sharjah and Kuwait in the Middle East by airlines like Air Arabia, Air India, GoAir, IndiGo, Oman Air, SpiceJet and Qatar Airways.
=== Road ===
Goa's public transport largely consists of privately operated buses linking the major towns to rural areas. Government-run buses, maintained by the Kadamba Transport Corporation, link major routes (like the Panaji–Margao route) and some remote parts of the state. The Corporation owns 15 bus stands, 4 depots and one Central workshop at Porvorim and a Head Office at Porvorim. In large towns such as Panaji and Margao, intra-city buses operate. However, public transport in Goa is less developed, and residents depend heavily on their own transportation, usually motorised two-wheelers and small family cars.
Goa has four National Highways passing through it. NH-66 (ex NH-17) runs along India's west coast and links Goa to Mumbai in the north and Mangalore to the south. NH-4A running across the state connects the capital Panaji to Belgaum in east, linking Goa to cities in the Deccan. The NH-366 (ex NH-17A) connects NH-66 to Mormugao Port from Cortalim. The new NH-566 (ex NH-17B) is a four-lane highway connecting Mormugao Port to NH-66 at Verna via Dabolim Airport, primarily built to ease pressure on the NH-366 for traffic to Dabolim Airport and Vasco da Gama. NH-768 (ex NH-4A) links Panaji and Ponda to Belgaum and NH-4. Goa has a total of 224 km (139 mi) of national highways, 232 km (144 mi) of state highway and 815 kilometres (506 miles) of district highway. National Highways in Goa are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states National Highways are grade separated highways 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8 lane access-controlled expressways.
Hired forms of transport include unmetered taxis and, in urban areas, auto rickshaws. Another form of transportation in Goa is the motorcycle taxi, operated by drivers who are locally called "pilots". These vehicles transport a single pillion rider, at fares that are usually negotiated. Other than buses, "pilots" tend to be the cheapest mode of transport. River crossings in Goa are serviced by flat-bottomed ferry boats, operated by the river navigation department.
Goa will get two new expressways in the coming years, which will connect the state and will enhance connectivity and commute with the rest of the country. They are as follows:
Nagpur–Goa Expressway: Proposed, to be completed by 2028/29.
Konkan Expressway: Proposed.
=== Rail ===
Goa has two rail lines – one run by the South Western Railway and the other by the Konkan Railway. The line run by the South Western Railway was built during the colonial era linking the port town of Vasco da Gama, Goa with Belgaum, Hubli, Karnataka via Margao. The Konkan Railway line, which was built during the 1990s, runs parallel to the coast connecting major cities on the western coast.
=== Metro ===
In 2018, a metro rail was planned by the NITI Aayog, linking the capital city of Panaji. In the future, it would be extended from South Goa till the coastal city of Karwar in Karnataka, close to the Kanataka-Goa border.
=== Skybus Metro ===
Indian scientist B. Rajaram started the ambitious Skybus Metro project under the Konkan Railway Corporation in partnership with Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML). Like the Wuppertal Schwebebahn in Germany, the scheme proposed an elevated, suspended railway layout where vehicles would swing from above lines. The objective was to minimise urban congestion by offering a quick and effective urban transportation alternative.
Despite its promise, the project encountered some obstacles, like as safety issues after a 2004 test run disaster. The idea ultimately faced shelving despite its early promise and creative approach to urban transportation.
Although the Skybus did not succeed, the idea demonstrated India's desire to investigate other forms of transportation, and Indian Railways was granted a patent for the system.
=== Sea ===
The Mormugao Port Trust near the city of Vasco handles mineral ore, petroleum, coal, and international containers. Much of the shipments consist of minerals and ores from Goa's hinterland. Panaji, which is on the banks of the Mandovi, has a minor port, which used to handle passengers steamers between Goa and Mumbai till the late 1980s. There was also a short-lived catamaran service linking Mumbai and Panaji operated by Damania Shipping in the 1990s.
== Education ==
Goa had India's earliest educational institutions built with European support. The Portuguese set up seminaries for religious education and parish schools for elementary education. Founded c. 1542 by Saint Francis Xavier, Saint Paul's College, Goa was a Jesuit school in Old Goa, which later became a college. St Paul's was once the main Jesuit institution in Asia. It housed the first printing press in India and published the first books in 1556.
Medical education began in 1801 with the offering of regular medical courses at the Royal and Military Hospital in the old City of Goa. Built-in 1842 as the Escola Médico-Cirúrgica de (Nova) Goa (Medical-Surgical School of Goa), Goa Medical College is one of Asia's oldest medical colleges and has one of the oldest medical libraries (since 1845). It houses the largest hospital in Goa and continues to provide medical training to this day.
According to the 2011 census, Goa has a literacy rate of 87%, with 90% of males and 84% of females being literate. Each taluka is made up of villages, each having a school run by the government. Private schools are preferred over government-run schools. All schools come under the Goa Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education, whose syllabus is prescribed by the state education department. There are also a few schools that subscribe to the all-India ICSE syllabus or the NIOS syllabus. Most students in Goa complete their high school with English as the medium of instruction. Most primary schools, however, use Konkani and Marathi (in private, but government-aided schools). As is the case in most of India, enrolment for vernacular media has seen a fall in numbers in favour of English medium education. Per a report published in The Times of India, 84% of Goan primary schools were run without an administrative head.
Some notable schools in Goa include Sharada Mandir School in Miramar, Loyola High School in Margao and The King's School in São José de Areal. After ten years of schooling, students join a Higher Secondary school, which offers courses in popular streams such as Science, Arts, Law, and Commerce. A student may also opt for a course in vocational studies. Additionally, they may join three-year diploma courses. Two years of college is followed by a professional degree programme. Goa University, the sole university in Goa, is located in Taleigão and most Goan colleges are affiliated with it.
There are six engineering colleges in the state. Goa Engineering College and National Institute of Technology Goa are government-funded colleges whereas the private engineering colleges include Don Bosco College of Engineering at Fatorda, Shree Rayeshwar Institute of Engineering and Information Technology at Shiroda, Agnel Institute of Technology, and Design (AITD), Assagao, Bardez and Padre Conceicao College of Engineering at Verna. In 2004, BITS Pilani one of the premier institutes in India, inaugurated its second campus, the BITS Pilani Goa Campus, at Zuarinagar near Dabolim. The Indian Institute of Technology Goa (IIT Goa) began functioning from its temporary campus, located in Goa Engineering College since 2016. The site for permanent campus was finalised in Cotarli, Sanguem.
There are colleges offering pharmacy, architecture and dentistry along with numerous private colleges offering law, arts, commerce and science. There are also two National Oceanographic Science related centres: the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research in Vasco da Gama and the National Institute of Oceanography in Dona Paula. Goa Institute of Management located at Sanquelim, near Panaji is one of India's premier business schools. In addition to the engineering colleges, there are government polytechnic institutions in Panaji, Bicholim and Curchorem, and aided institutions like Father Agnel Polytechnic in Verna and the Institute of Shipbuilding Technology in Vasco da Gama which impart technical and vocational training.
Other colleges in Goa include Shri Damodar College of Commerce and Economics, V.V.M's R.M. Salgaocar Higher Secondary School in Margao, G.V.M's S.N.J.A higher secondary school, Don Bosco College, D.M.'s College of Arts, Science and Commerce, St Xavier's College, Carmel College, The Parvatibai Chowgule College, Dhempe College, Damodar College, M. E. S. College of Arts & Commerce, S. S. Samiti's Higher Secondary School of Science and Rosary College of Commerce & Arts. As the result of renewed interest in the Portuguese language and culture, Portuguese at all levels of instruction is offered in many schools in Goa, largely private ones. In some cases, Goan students do student exchange programs in Portugal
== Media and communication ==
Historically, the media in Goa grew in the late 1800s before being clamped down on during the rule of António de Oliveira Salazar. The first printing press in Goa was founded in 1556. In 1886, Tipografia Rangel, one of the pioneers in widescale publishing was founded. Prior to this the only existing presses were those of the government and individual family presses existing to print the political newspapers such as O Ultramar. Tipografia Rangel was among the leaders in providing print media to a larger section of society in Goa.
Goa is served by almost all television channels available in India. Channels are received through cable in most parts of Goa. In the interior regions, channels are received via satellite dishes. Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster, has two free terrestrial channels on air.
DTH (Direct To Home) TV services are available from Dish TV, Videocon D2H, Tata Sky and DD Direct Plus. The All India Radio is the only radio channel in the state that broadcasts on both FM and AM bands. Two AM channels are broadcast, the primary channel at 1287 kHz and the Vividh Bharati channel at 1539 kHz. AIR's FM channel is called FM Rainbow and is broadcast at 105.4 MHz. A number of private FM radio channels are available, Big FM at 92.7 and Radio Indigo at 91.9 MHz. There is also an educational radio channel, Gyan Vani, run by IGNOU broadcast from Panaji at 107.8 MHz. In 2006, St Xavier's College, Mapusa, became the first college in the state to launch a campus community radio station "Voice of Xavier's".
Major cellular service operators include Bharti Airtel, Vodafone Essar, Idea Cellular (merged with Vodafone in 2018), Telenor, Reliance Infocomm, Tata DoCoMo, BSNL CellOne and Jio.
Local publications include the English language O Heraldo (Goa's oldest, once a Portuguese language paper), The Gomantak Times and The Navhind Times. In addition to these, The Times of India and The Indian Express are also received from Mumbai and Bangalore in the urban areas. The Times of India has recently started publication from Goa itself, serving the local population news directly from the state capital. Among the list of officially accredited newspapers are O Heraldo, The Navhind Times and The Gomantak Times in English; Bhaangar Bhuin in Konkani (Devanagari script); and Tarun Bharat, Gomantak, Navprabha, Goa Times, Sanatan Prabhat, Govadoot and Lokmat (all in Marathi). All are dailies. Other publications in the state include Planet Goa (English, monthly), Goa Today (English, monthly), Goan Observer (English, weekly), Vauraddeancho Ixtt (Roman-script Konkani, weekly) Goa Messenger, Vasco Watch, Gulab (Konkani, monthly), Bimb (Devanagari-script Konkani).
One electronic mailing list that is based in Goa is Goanet.
== Sports ==
Association football is the most popular sport in Goa and is embedded in Goan culture as a result of the Portuguese influence. Its origins in the state are traced back to 1883 when the visiting Irish priest Fr. William Robert Lyons established the sport as part of a "Christian education". On 22 December 1959, the Associação de Futebol de Goa was formed, which continues to administer the game in the state under the new name Goa Football Association. Goa, along with West Bengal, Kerala and Northeast India is the locus of football in India and is home to many football clubs in the national I-League. The state's football powerhouses include Salgaocar, Dempo, Churchill Brothers, Vasco, Sporting Clube de Goa and FC Goa. The first Unity World Cup was held in Goa in 2014. The state's main football stadium, Fatorda Stadium, is located at Margao and also hosts cricket matches. The state hosted few matches of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup and several matches of the 2022 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup in Fatorda Stadium.
A number of Goans have represented India in football and six of them, namely Samir Naik, Climax Lawrence, Brahmanand Sankhwalkar, Bruno Coutinho, Mauricio Afonso and Roberto Fernandes have all captained the national team. Goa has its own state football team and league, the Goa Professional League. It is probably the only state in India where cricket is not considered the most important of all sports. Goan's are avid football fans, particularly of the football teams from Portugal (Benfica, Sporting), and Brazil especially during major football events such as the European Cup and the World Cup championships. The Portuguese footballer Ronaldo and Brazilian Neymar, are revered superstar football players in Goa.
Goa also has its own cricket team. Dilip Sardesai and Shikha Pandey remain the only Goans to date to play international cricket for India. Another Goan cricketer, Suyash Prabhudessai was selected by the Royal Challengers Bangalore for a base price of ₹20 lakh in IPL 2021 and for ₹30 lakh in IPL 2022.
India (Goa) is a member of the Lusofonia Games which are hosted every four years in one of the Portuguese CPLP member countries, with 733 athletes from 11 countries. Most of the countries competing are countries that are members of the CPLP (Community of Portuguese Language Countries), but some are countries with significant Portuguese communities or have a history with Portugal. This event is similar in concept to the Commonwealth Games (for members of the Commonwealth of Nations) and the Jeux de la Francophonie (for the Francophone community).
== Notable people ==
== Organised crime ==
== See also ==
Konkan
LGBT rights in Goa
Portuguese Goa and Damaon
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
Jayne, Kingsley Garland (1911). "Goa" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 159–161.
Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. ISBN 81-206-0900-X.
== External links ==
Government
Government of Goa
Department of Tourism
General information
Geographic data related to Goa at OpenStreetMap |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linville_Gorge_Wilderness#:~:text=Prior%20to%20the%20European%20colonization%20of%20North%20America%2C%20virtually%20all%20of%20western%20North%20Carolina%20was%20inhabited%20by%20tribes%20of%20the%20Cherokee%20Indians.%20In%20the%20Cherokee%20language%2C%20the%20Linville%20River%20is%20called%20Ee%2Dsee%2Doh%2C%20which%20means%20%22river%20of%20many%20cliffs%22%20when%20literally%20translated. | Linville Gorge Wilderness | The Linville Gorge Wilderness ("The Grand Canyon of North Carolina") is the third largest wilderness area in North Carolina (after Shining Rock Wilderness and Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness) and one of only two wilderness gorges in the Southern United States (along with Bald River Gorge Wilderness in Tennessee). Maintained by the United States Forest Service, it comprises 11,786 acres (47.70 km2) around the Linville River, and is situated inside the Pisgah National Forest. The river is approximately 1,400 feet (430 m) below the ridge, thus hiking in and out of the Gorge is challenging and enjoyable for those who like serious hiking. The plant and animal community is extremely diverse, with a dense hardwood/pine forest and a wide variety of smaller trees and other plants as well as bear, fox, raccoon, trout, grouse, wild turkey, vultures, owls, hawks, copperheads, and timber rattlesnakes.
Popular tourist attractions in or near the wilderness are:
Linville Falls, a waterfall fed by the river and free to the public.
Wiseman's View, a rock outcrop near the center of the gorge that gives an excellent view of the interior of the gorge.
Linville Caverns, a privately maintained cave attraction accessible by automobile from U.S. Route 221.
== History ==
Prior to the European colonization of North America, virtually all of western North Carolina was inhabited by tribes of the Cherokee Indians. In the Cherokee language, the Linville River is called Ee-see-oh, which means "river of many cliffs" when literally translated. Early white settlers named the river Linville in honor of John and William Linville, explorers who were scalped by the Shawnee in the gorge in 1766.
The steepness of the sides, the depth of the gorge, and the peaks of the Jonas Ridge to the east and Linville Mountain to the west made settlement impractical in the 1800s and 1900s. In the early 20th century, logging was a major industry in the surrounding region, but the gorge itself was spared clearcutting. The forbidding nature of the terrain made resource extraction unprofitable, which is the primary reason why the gorge is one of the few remaining examples of old growth forest in the Blue Ridge Mountains range. No industrial logging ever took place within the gorge, and its virgin forests span 10,000 acres (40 km2). The gorge is remarkably free of manmade structures, and of the four major gorges in North Carolina, the Linville Gorge is the only one without a road in the bottom.
Formal protection of the area began in 1952, when the land was purchased with funds donated by John D. Rockefeller. When the Wilderness Act was approved by Congress and signed into law by President Johnson in 1964, the Linville Gorge Wilderness became one of the first formally designated Wilderness areas of the new National Wilderness Preservation System. It is the only gorge or canyon in the United States that was labeled a wilderness area in the initial year of the Wilderness Act that has never changed in acreage. It is managed by the Grandfather Ranger District of the United States Forest Service.
== Camping and hiking ==
Due to the nature of the terrain, hiking in the Linville Gorge can be a strenuous and challenging activity. Maps of the trail system are available through United States Forest Service offices and information facilities in the area, but it's important to remember that due to the Wilderness area designation, trails in the gorge are not the improved, well-marked, cleared and graded paths that visitors to state or national parks become accustomed to.
In order to maintain the quality of the wilderness, camping in the gorge is managed by the Grandfather Ranger District of the United States Forest Service. Group sizes are limited to no more than ten people, and free permits are required on weekends and holidays from 1 May until 31 October each year. Permits are restricted to one stay per group per month, and for no longer than three days and two nights per visit.
== Hunting and fishing ==
Game animals such as deer, black bear, wild turkey, and gray squirrel are common in the gorge. As part of the Pisgah Game Lands established by the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, hunting is legal in the area in keeping with local seasons and hunting regulations. In actual practice, hunting in the Linville Gorge is fairly rare, due to the difficult, inaccessible terrain and the presence of campers and hikers who are often unfamiliar with hunting seasons.
The Linville River is included in the NC Wildlife trout stocking program, and fishermen are occasionally seen in the gorge seeking brown, brook, and rainbow trout. Once again however, the terrain requires a long hike down the steep sides of the gorge to reach the river, and a long difficult hike back, so fishing is more common on the river above and below the gorge section.
== Climbing ==
Rock climbing is allowed anywhere in the area, but due to nesting peregrine falcons, certain areas are sometimes closed. Popular spots include Table Rock, The Amphitheater, The North Carolina Wall, Shortoff Mountain and Hawksbill Mountain. For adventurous climbers the Gold Coast Cliffs are a relatively unclimbed section of the gorge lying across from the other areas.
== Photo gallery ==
== See also ==
Blue Ridge Parkway
== References ==
== External links ==
Linville Gorge Wilderness
Linville Gorge Maps
Effects of Future Sulfate and Nitrate Deposition Scenarios on Linville Gorge and Shining Rock Wildernesses United States Department of Agriculture |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merryl_Wyn_Davies | Merryl Wyn Davies | Merryl Wyn Davies (23 June 1949 – 1 February 2021) was a Welsh Muslim scholar, writer and broadcaster. She specialised in Islam, and was the co-author of books and articles with Ziauddin Sardar. An exponent of Islamic anthropology, she was director of the Muslim Institute in London.
== Biography ==
Merryl Wyn Davies was born on 23 June 1949, in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales. She attended Cyfarthfa Grammar School for A levels. After reading anthropology at University College, London, she began a career in broadcasting and journalism. Following jobs with local Welsh newspapers, and a stint with BBC Radio, Davies spent a decade with BBC TV Religious programmes, working on such award-winning shows as ‘Everyman’, ‘Heart of the Matter’ and ‘Global Report’ and the series, Encounters with Islam.
She converted to Islam in 1981, at the age of 31. In 1985, she left the BBC to write independently and to work for the London-based Muslim magazine Inquiry. During the 1990s, she worked as advisor and speech writer for Anwar Ibrahim, a former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia and later the Leader of the Opposition; and produced the ‘Faces of Islam’ series for TV3 Malaysia. When Ibrahim was arrested, Wyn Davies fled, and moved to Singapore. She returned to the UK in 1996 and became Media Officer for the Muslim Council of Britain. In 2010, she joined the Muslim Institute of London to become its director.
== Thought ==
Davies pioneered a new approach to Islamic anthropology and a highly original critique of America based on Hollywood films. In her work, Knowing One Another: Shaping an Islamic Anthropology, Davies developed a new mode of inquiry which she described, "after ibn Khaldun, as ilm ul umran": a radical discourse shaped by dialogue between civilisations and cultures and based on an holistic understanding of what it means to be human.
In three books about the United States, co-written with Ziauddin Sardar, Davies developed "laws of American mythology" ("Fear is essential"; "Escape is the reason for being", "America is the idea of nation", "American democracy has the right to be imperial and express itself through empire", "cinema is the engine of empire", etc.) which, Davies argued, are essential to understanding the psychology of the United States.
== Death ==
Having returned to her "adopted country" of Malaysia in 2018, Merryl Wyn Davies died on 1 February 2021, aged 71, in Petaling Jaya, Kuala Lumpur, of a heart attack following a period of ill health.
== Books ==
Introducing Anthropology, Icon Books, Cambridge, 2002
Darwin and fundamentalism (2000)
Beyond Frontiers: Islam and Contemporary Needs, Mansell, London, 1989
Knowing one another: Shaping an Islamic anthropology (1988)
=== With Ziauddin Sardar ===
Will America Change? Icon Books, Cambridge, 2008
American Dream, Global Nightmare, Icon Books, Cambridge, 2004
The No Nonsense Guide to Islam, Verso, London, 2004
Why Do People Hate America?, Icon Books, London, 2003
Barbaric Others: A Manifesto on Western Racism, Pluto Press, London, 1993 (also with Ashis Nandy)
Distorted Imagination: Lessons from the Rushdie Affair, Grey Seal/Berita Publishing, London/Kuala Lumpur, 1990
Faces of Islam: Conversations on Contemporary Issues, Berita Books, Kuala Lumpur, 1989
== References ==
== External links ==
Musliminstitute.org |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Adebayo_Balogun#Later_career | Mustafa Adebayo Balogun | Mustafa Adebayo Balogun (25 August 1947 – 4 August 2022), widely known as Kumawu, was a Nigerian police officer, 11th Inspector General of Police from March 2002, but was forced to retire because of widespread charges of corruption in January 2005.
== Background ==
Balogun attended the University of Lagos, graduating in 1972 with a B.A. in Political Science. He joined the Nigeria Police Force in May 1973. While a police officer, he gained a law degree from the University of Ibadan. After working in various positions around the country, he became Principal Staff Officer to former Inspector-General of Police, Muhammadu Gambo, then Deputy Commissioner of Police in Edo State, and then Commissioner of Police first in Delta State and then in Rivers State and Abia State. He was appointed Assistant Inspector General of Police in A.I.G. Zone One Kano, the position he held when promoted to Inspector General of Police on 6 March 2002.
In November 2001, as A.I.G., Balogun reassured reporters that there were provisions to ensure the safety of businessmen in Nigeria through the outfit called Diplomatic Corp and Foreign National Protection Unit.
== Inspector General of Police ==
Balogun became IGP in March 2002, replacing Musiliu Smith.
He was responsible for overall police security during the April 2003 national elections, which were marred by reports of police abuses.
In August 2003, Balogun presented a paper on "Nigeria: Electoral Violence and National Security" in which he advocated improvements such as use of national identity cards, mass education, electoral law reforms, citizens participation in politics, good governance and establishment of a constitutional court.
In December 2003, Balogun organised extensive security measures across Nigeria to ensure that there were no disturbances during the Commonwealth of Nations summit.
Following various incidents in 2004 where reporters were beaten and their equipment damaged by policemen, Balogun made apologies and promised that those responsible would be punished.
Towards the end of 2004, newspapers published allegations of corruption on a massive scale, asserting that Balogun had pocketed public money and taken bribes from politicians and criminals. These led to his forced retirement in January 2005.
== Later career ==
On 4 April 2005, Balogun was arraigned at the Federal High Court, Abuja on charges involving about N13 billion obtained through money laundering, theft and other sources.
The Economic and Financial Crimes Commission under Nuhu Ribadu brought 70 charges against Balogun covering the period from 2002 to 2004. He made a plea bargain with the court in exchange for returning much of the property and money.
He was sentenced to six months in jail.
He was released on 9 February 2006 after serving his sentence, part of it in Abuja National Hospital.
In November 2008 and again in February 2009, the Chairman of the House Committee on Police Affairs, Abdul Ahmed Ningi, asked the Inspector General of Police Mike Okiro, to provide details of the money recovered from Balogun, a request that he passed on to the EFCC chairman, Mrs Farida Waziri. However, the EFCC stated that they did not have records of the exact properties recovered from Balogun.
It was said that some of the houses had been secretly sold to certain individuals at give-away prices.
In April 2009, the House of Representatives Committee on Police Affairs invited Balogun, Mike Okiro and Mrs Farida Waziri to explain how the N16 billion allegedly recovered from Balogun went missing.
He died on 4 August 2022.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Broadbent#:~:text=Broadbent%20received%20a%20Doctor%20of,the%20supervision%20of%20C.B.%20Macpherson. | Ed Broadbent | John Edward Broadbent (March 21, 1936 – January 11, 2024) was a Canadian social-democratic politician and political scientist. He was leader of the New Democratic Party (NDP) from 1975 to 1989, and a member of Parliament from 1968 to 1990 and from 2004 to 2006. He led the NDP through four federal elections. He oversaw a period of growth for the party with its parliamentary representation rising from 17 to 43 seats as of the 1988 federal election.
Broadbent also served as a vice-president of Socialist International from 1979 to 1989 and director of the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development from 1990 to 1996. Returning to politics in the 2004 federal election, he was elected to represent Ottawa Centre. He later chaired the Broadbent Institute, a policy think tank founded in 2011.
== Early life ==
John Edward Broadbent was born in Oshawa, Ontario, the son of Percy, who worked at General Motors, and Mary (Welsh) Broadbent, a homemaker.
In 1961, he married Yvonne Yamaoka, a Japanese Canadian town planner whose family had been interned by the federal government in World War II. They divorced in 1967.
Broadbent received a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in political science from the University of Toronto in 1966, with a thesis titled "The Good Society of John Stuart Mill," under the supervision of C.B. Macpherson.
== Early political career (1968–1975) ==
Broadbent was a university professor when he won a seat in the House of Commons of Canada in the riding of Oshawa—Whitby during the 1968 federal election. He defeated Progressive Conservative MP Michael Starr, a former cabinet minister (under John Diefenbaker) and acting leader of the opposition, by fifteen votes in a close three-way race. He began his parliamentary service in the 28th Canadian Parliament.
After Tommy Douglas retired from the leadership of the party, Broadbent stood to succeed him but was eliminated on the second ballot of the 1971 leadership convention; David Lewis became leader. In 1974, Lewis himself retired as leader, due to a disappointing electoral result for the NDP in that year's federal election and ill health. Broadbent won the 1975 leadership election to succeed Lewis, going on to lead the party through four national elections.
== Leader of the NDP (1975–1989) ==
In the 1979 federal election, the NDP under Broadbent boosted their seat count from 17 to 26 seats. In the 1980 election nine months later, Broadbent's NDP again experienced a boost of support from 27 to 32 seats. Following the election, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau approached Broadbent about the possibility of forming a coalition government even though his Liberals had just won a working majority government. Broadbent declined Trudeau's offer.
In the 1984 federal election, the NDP finished with 30 seats, just ten behind the Liberal Party led by John Turner.
After the election, Broadbent's personal popularity was consistently in first place among the leaders of federal parties. In 1987, he became the first NDP leader who took the party to first place in public opinion polling since it was founded. Some pundits predicted that the NDP could supplant Turner's Liberals as the primary opposition to the Brian Mulroney-led Progressive Conservatives. Like Turner, Broadbent supported Mulroney's proposed Meech Lake Accord (which proposed recognizing Quebec as a distinct society and extending provincial powers), which led to some dissent within the NDP.
In the 1988 federal election, the NDP under Broadbent won 43 seats, a record unchallenged until the 2011 federal election, when it won 103 seats. Despite the polling milestones prior to the election, the NDP was not successful in translating this into a major breakthrough, as they remained in third place (behind the second-place Liberals). Broadbent gained criticism for not making the NDP's opposition to the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement the main issue during the campaign, as the Liberals reaped most of the benefits from opposing the agreement.
On the international front, Broadbent served as a vice-president of Socialist International from 1979 to 1989, during which time Willy Brandt, the former chancellor of West Germany, was its president.
Broadbent stepped down after 14 and a half years as leader of the federal NDP at the 1989 Winnipeg Convention, when he was succeeded by Audrey McLaughlin. He also resigned his Oshawa seat in the House of Commons that year. The 1990 Oshawa federal by-election was held for the NDP by Michael Breaugh.
== Post-leadership (1989–2004) ==
In the decade following Broadbent's retirement from politics, the federal NDP declined in popularity. The party would not come close to the popularity that it had enjoyed under Broadbent until Jack Layton took over the leadership in 2003.
Broadbent was director of the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development from 1990 to 1996. In 1993, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was promoted to Companion in 2001.
Broadbent spent a year as Fellow at All Souls College, University of Oxford, in 1996–1997.
== Member of Parliament (2004–2006) ==
At Layton's invitation, Broadbent returned to politics in 2004. With the aid of a humorous and popular video clip, he successfully ran for Parliament in the riding of Ottawa Centre, where he lived later in life. He defeated the Liberal candidate, Richard J. Mahoney, a close ally of Prime Minister Paul Martin. In the NDP shadow cabinet, Broadbent was Critic for Democracy: Parliamentary & Electoral Reform, Corporate Accountability as well as Child Poverty. On May 4, 2005, he announced that he would not seek re-election in the 39th federal election so that he could spend time with his wife, Lucille, who was suffering from cancer. She died on November 17, 2006.
== After politics ==
In November 2008, Broadbent and former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien came out of retirement to help to negotiate a formal coalition agreement between the Liberals and the New Democratic Party, which the Bloc Québécois would support. It was to replace the Conservative government led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper and would have been the first coalition government in Canada since World War I, when Robert Borden governed as a Unionist. The idea died after Michaëlle Jean, the Governor General of Canada, prorogued Parliament in December 2008 at Harper's request.
Broadbent announced the creation of the Broadbent Institute on June 17, 2011, to explore social-democratic policy and ideas. It provides a vehicle for social-democratic and progressive academics, provides education, and trains activists. It is independent of the New Democratic Party. Three months later, he endorsed Brian Topp in his unsuccessful campaign during the 2012 leadership election.
In 2017, Broadbent voiced his support for the campaign for the establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organization that advocates for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system. Five years later, he published Seeking Social Democracy, a detailed reflection on his life and career, co-authored with academic Francis Abele, policy strategist Jonathan Sas, and journalist Luke Savage.
Until his death, he was a fellow in the School of Policy Studies at Queen's University.
== Personal life ==
In 1971, Broadbent married a Franco-Ontarian widow, Lucille Munroe. Munroe died of cancer on November 17, 2006, at the age of 71. Broadbent married the Marxist historian and political theorist Ellen Meiksins Wood, an old friend, in 2014. She was a political theorist and socialist historian, author of several books, and a professor at York University for three decades. She died of cancer at the couple's Ottawa home at 73 in January 2016.
Broadbent died on January 11, 2024, at the age of 87. His state funeral on January 28 at Carleton Dominion-Chalmers Centre in Ottawa was the first Canadian state funeral for a party leader who was never prime minister nor leader of the official opposition.
== Archives ==
There is an Ed Broadbent fonds at Library and Archives Canada.
== Books ==
The Liberal Rip–off: Trudeauism Versus the Politics of Equality, New Press 1970.
Democratic Equality: What Went Wrong? (as editor), University of Toronto Press 2001. ISBN 9780802083326
Seeking Social Democracy: Seven Decades in the Fight for Equality, with Frances Abele, Jonathan Sas, and Luke Savage, ECW Press 2023. ISBN 9781778522154
== References ==
== External links ==
How'd They Vote?: Ed Broadbent's voting history and quotes
Office of the Governor General of Canada. Order of Canada citation. Queen's Printer for Canada.
Ed Broadbent – Parliament of Canada biography
Ed Broadbent at IMDb
Article at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BraviSEAmo! | BraviSEAmo! | BraviSEAmo! (ブラヴィッシーモ! Buravisshiimo!) was a nighttime water show at Tokyo DisneySea. The show featured water, pyrotechnic, and firework effects and was performed on the lagoon of the Mediterranean Harbor. The show was directed by Yves Pépin from ECA2 and used little dialogue, instead featuring an orchestral score by Gavin Greenaway. BraviSEAmo! replaced Tokyo DisneySea's earlier nighttime show DisneySea Symphony, and was replaced by a new version of Fantasmic! in 2011. The show ran from July 17, 2004 to November 13, 2010 and was sponsored by NTT DoCoMo throughout its run.
== Synopsis ==
The show begins with the lights around Mediterranean Harbor darkening, and a pre-show musical portion plays while mist blows across the lagoon. As the pre-show ends, a horn call is heard, and spotlights form a large pentagram in the sky. Mickey Mouse then enters in an aquatic chariot pulled by sea horses. Mickey is dressed as a sea prince, with a flowing robe, a crown of large golden tasseled feathers, and a trident. After sailing around the lagoon, Mickey welcomes the audience "to this world of magic," sending fireworks out of his trident as low-level fireworks blanket the water in sparks. He asks if the audience wonders how such a mysterious place exists, and if they want to know the story "that only the Sea and Wind know." Mickey and chariot exit as a Male Narrator describes the story. In the far distant past, a Water Spirit and a Fire Spirit lived in this place, but each inhabited its own world without ever seeing the other's face. The story, and show, tell of their first meeting.
Fountains then begin to spray on the lagoon from stationary barges, forming water patterns in time with the gentle music of the Water Spirit Bellisea. This proceeds for several minutes until the music fades. It is replaced by the wordless female voice of Bellisea, who appears on the water in the form of a woman made from flowing water. Bellisea moves through the lagoon on a barge, her appearance created by water spraying from a metal scaffold to form her arms, hair, and skirt from water. After reaching the far end of the lagoon, the music fades and Bellisea disappears into slumber.
An aggressive drumbeat and thunder sound ring out as fireworks launch from Mount Prometheus, the volcano located adjacent to Mediterranean Harbor. Plumes of fire then shoot from the lagoon as the music speeds in intensity. The sound of male chanting, representing the voice of the Fire Spirit Prometeo, rings out as he emerges from under the water in the form of a mechanical phoenix. Fire burns on the lagoon in a rune-like shape, and flames shoot from Prometeo's wings. After remaining on the water for a moment, Prometo begins to retire.
It is then that Bellisea, reawakening, starts to sing from her end of the lagoon. Prometeo, taking notice, looks over to her. Bellisea continues to sing, and Prometeo joins, their voices harmonizing. Bellisea starts to move toward him, water streaming from her barge as fire flickers in unison from Prometeo's wings. As they come closer together, the fountains around the lagoon erupt, the music peaks, and symbolically, the two spirits fall in love. The show then enters its climax as the two spirits, 'swept away' by love, take on the aspects of one another. Prometeo's fiery wings change to curtains of sparks and his body sparkles with blue lights, and Bellisea launches fireworks from her barge. More fireworks shoot from Mount Prometheus, and low-level fireworks blanket the lagoon as Mickey, from off stage, exclaims "Bravissimo! Ha ha!" In a final blaze of fireworks and flurry of music, the show ends. Immediately following, the ending song "Swept Away" plays as Bellisea and Prometeo remain on the water, before finally vanishing from sight.
== Development ==
Although BraviSEAmo! was not the first nighttime show performed at Tokyo DisneySea, initial planning for the show began in 2002, the year after the park opened. Concept development began when Oriental Land Company show producer Koichi Sasamoto and his staff contacted French event designer ECA2 and Yves Pépin to brainstorm ideas. Sasamoto had previously produced shows for Tokyo Disneyland, while Pépin and its company ECA2 was known for creating the Eiffel Tower Millennium Show and Magical Sentosa show for the Sentosa Musical Fountain in Singapore; he subsequently went on to design a similar water show, Songs of the Sea, also for Sentosa. On the Walt Disney Creative Entertainment end, John Haupt served as the producer, while Thomas Tryon was the production manager. BraviSEAmo! was envisioned as being a summation of the entire Tokyo DisneySea. After deciding on the elemental love story concept, Sasamoto's team went to France to work out the practical effects details. Bruno Corsini of Marseille, who previously worked on the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, served as the lighting designer, while French-based Barbizon Lighting supplied the majority of the lighting equipment. Troy Starr, also of Barbizon, was the systems integrator. Christophe Berthonneau of Groupe F Pyrotechnie designed the fireworks for the show and provided 40 flame-throwers that were integrated into the Prometeo design.
Sasamoto's team then moved to Valencia, Spain where they visited a fireworks factory and built and tested a full-scale Prometeo prototype. It was at this stage of development that the flame-throwers were calibrated and the firework launchers were tested. After completing testing, Sasamoto returned to Japan and oversaw construction of the show-use Prometeo, which was manufactured by a firm specializing in precision machinery. After manufacturing, the show-use Prometeo was tested for 2 months in water conditions and installed in a 6-meter deep pit, which was constructed in the Mediterranean Harbor lagoon. The crucial difficulties worked out at this stage were ensuring that the electronics, flame-throwers, and fireworks could function even when underwater. Corsini also traveled to Japan, where he spent 1 month working out the lighting with the Japanese staff. Due to the park remaining open during this time, testing the light and water controls, as well as training the crew to use them, was conducted after the park closed each night at 11 pm. The size of the show-use Prometeo was 14 meters tall and 32 meters wide; the show-use Bellisea was 11 meters tall. The final development and production cost of BraviSEAmo! was 3 billion yen (nearly $37 million in 2011 dollars).
The BraviSEAmo! project and development included several technical firsts for Disney Parks shows. It was the first to use a Global Positioning System (GPS), which was used to track the four fountain barges and correctly locate them in the lagoon to ensure the fountains and pyrotechnic effects would be launched from their proper locations. The GPS was also used on the two largest show barges, the Mickey Chariot barge and the Bellisea barge, to help the operators correctly place them and hit marks in the lagoon. It was also the first to use a wireless LAN to handle all show communications, including lighting, fountain, and pyrotechnic controls. Wired Ethernet equipped with antennae were used for the land-based lighting dimmers, and standard Ethernet ports located around the lagoon were used for lighting programming positions. The use of wireless LAN was made possible by the lack of competing radio frequencies at the Tokyo Disney Resort.
The complex show lighting was run using DMX512 communication protocols. The Prometeo lighting rig consisted of 3,000 waterproof Japanese-made LEDs and 250 Birket Strobe-Brik strobe lights, as well as 2 narrow spot PAR lamps for Prometeo's eyes. Because the Prometeo rig had to remain underwater all day, the strobe controllers were all encased in stainless steel, and the strobe cables were waterproof. A total of 14 strobe controllers (eight 32-channel, two 16-channel, and four 8-channel) were used in all. The shore-based lighting equipment consisted of 42 Halto/Griven Rainbows, 42 Griven Everest CYM MSD700 fixtures, 10 Space Cannon Ireos Pro VHT 7 kW color-changing fixtures, Coemar NAT 2.5 kW and 4 kW fixtures using Tempest Lighting outdoor enclosures, 380 Pace PARs, 130 Hydrel waterproof PAR64s with custom dichroic color filters, and Aqua Signal marine floodlights. Electrol Engineering D625dx dimmers were used. The show was controlled using a High End Systems' Wholehog III console.
== Production ==
Daily preparation for each performance of BraviSEAmo! began at 1 am with 16 pyrotechnicians starting installation of the 850 fireworks used in the show. Pyrotechnic installation concluded at 12 pm. A total of 60 crew were trained for work on the show, of which 40 were actively involved in each performance. Each of the 4 fountain barges had a driver, while the Chariot and Bellisea barges each had a driver and a spotter. BraviSEAmo! was held once daily at 7:25 pm.
== Music ==
The score of BraviSEAmo! was composed, orchestrated, and conducted by Gavin Greenaway. Greenaway had previously composed the music for the Disney fireworks show IllumiNations: Reflections of Earth and parade Tapestry of Nations, both performed at Epcot. The score was recorded at Paramount Scoring Stage M in Hollywood, California by Tom Vicari. Bellisea's vocals were performed by singer Lisbeth Scott, known for her numerous film score performances. The theme song "Swept Away" was composed by Greenaway, with lyrics by Donna Elaine Miller, and was sung by Miller and Rick Logan. The vocals of the main show and "Swept Away" were recorded and mixed at the O'Henry Sound Studios in Burbank, California by Vicari. The score was mastered by Bob Katz at Digital Domain Mastering in Altamonte Springs, Florida.
While the dialogue of BraviSEAmo! is in Japanese, the ending song "Swept Away" was performed in English. A Japanese-language version was also created but was only used during the Tokyo DisneySea Season of Hearts promotional period, from February 14 to March 14, 2007. The alternate Japanese version was included on the BraviSEAmo! Complete album released in 2007.
== References ==
== External links ==
ECA2 Official Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar:_The_Last_Airbender_season_2 | Avatar: The Last Airbender season 2 | Book Two: Earth is the second season of Avatar: The Last Airbender, an American animated television series created and produced by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko for Nickelodeon. The series starred Zach Tyler Eisen, Mae Whitman, Jack DeSena, Jessie Flower, Dante Basco, Dee Bradley Baker, Mako Iwamatsu (in his final voice performance as Iroh before his death), and Grey DeLisle as the main character voices.
In the second season, Aang and his friends Katara and Sokka are on a quest to find an Earthbending teacher which finishes when they recruit Toph Beifong. After finding important information concerning the war with the Fire Nation, Appa ends up kidnapped. Their journey leads to Ba Sing Se, the capital of the Earth Kingdom, where they uncover a great internal government conspiracy. Meanwhile, due to their actions at the North Pole in Book One, Zuko and Iroh are declared traitors by the Fire Nation and desert their country, becoming fugitives in the Earth Kingdom. Pursuing both Zuko and Aang is Princess Azula, Zuko's younger prodigy sister.
The second season aired on Nickelodeon from March 17 to December 1, 2006, and consisted of 20 episodes. The season received considerable acclaim, with the series being called "consistently excellent." The series won multiple awards, including Best Character Animation in a Television Production from the 34th Annie Awards and Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation at the 2007 Emmy Awards.
Between January 23 and September 11, 2007, Paramount Home Entertainment released four DVD sets containing five episodes each before releasing the entire season as a boxset.
== Episodes ==
== Production ==
The season was produced by Nickelodeon Animation Studio and aired on Nickelodeon, both of which are owned by Viacom. The season's executive producers and co-creators are Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, who worked alongside head writer and co-producer Aaron Ehasz. Most of the individual episodes were directed by Ethan Spaulding, Lauren MacMullan and Giancarlo Volpe. Episodes were written by a team of writers, which consisted of Aaron Ehasz, Elizabeth Welch, Tim Hedrick, John O'Bryan; along with creators DiMartino and Konietzko.
The season's music was composed by "The Track Team", which consists of Jeremy Zuckerman and Benjamin Wynn, who were known to the show's creators because Zuckerman was Konietzko's roommate.
== Cast ==
Most of the main characters from the first season remained the same: Zach Tyler Eisen voices Aang, Mae Whitman voices Katara, Jack DeSena voices Sokka, Dee Bradley Baker voices both Appa and Momo, and Dante Basco voices Zuko.
In addition, several new characters appear: Jessie Flower voices Toph Beifong, Grey DeLisle voices Azula, Cricket Leigh voices Mai, Olivia Hack voices Ty Lee, and Clancy Brown voices Long Feng.
Mako Iwamatsu, who voiced Iroh in the first two seasons, died from throat cancer after production was completed; he was replaced by Greg Baldwin for the following season and The Legend of Korra. Credited under additional voices, Baldwin also voiced Iroh for brief portions in "The Tales of Ba Sing Se", "The Earth King", and "The Crossroads of Destiny", all of which were mixed in with Iwamatsu's recordings. This practice was similarly used with Master Splinter in TMNT, a character also voiced by Iwamatsu before his death.
In the episode "The Tales of Ba Sing Se", the segment titled "The Tale of Iroh" features a dedication to Mako at the end when Iroh is tearfully singing to mourn the loss of his only child, Lu Ten.
== Reception ==
In a review of the Volume 2 DVD Release for Book 2, Gabriel Powers from DVDActive.com described the series as one of the best children's series in recent times, making comparisons with Samurai Jack and Justice League, and complimented it for its depth and humour. Powers also comments:
Without dumbing down its characters, plots, or humour, and without overtly taming-up the action or peril, Avatar manages to enthral children and adults, ages 4 to 56...There is a genuine classic feel to the series, which uses actual Asian culture and lore as its base. Like Star Wars, the creative forces behind the show have tapped into that basic, generation spanning storytelling that will live long after the series' youngest fans are old and bitter.
For the video and audio quality, Powers says "Season two generally looks better than the bulk of season one, but still has some issues" concerning image sharpness. Rotten Tomatoes gave it an 87% fresh rating in 2008. Jamie S. Rich from DVD Talk says that "As a flat concept, Avatar the Last Airbender is nothing special, but in execution, it is head and shoulders above other children's entertainment", and that "as a whole, the look of Avatar is consistently excellent".
The show also received acclaim for its visual appeal. In the 34th Annie Awards, the show was nominated for and won the "Best Character Animation in a Television Production" award, for Jae-Myung Yu's animation in "The Blind Bandit", and the "Best Directing in an Animated Television Production" award, for the episode "The Drill". In 2007, the show was nominated for "Outstanding Animated Program" in the 2007 Emmy Awards for the "City of Walls and Secrets" episode, though it did not win. However, the show did win the "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation" award for Sang-Jin Kim's animation in the "Lake Laogai" episode.
== Home media release ==
Nickelodeon began releasing DVDs for Book 2 on January 23, 2007. The first four DVD releases contain one disc that consisted of five episodes each. The final DVD was the "Complete Book 2 Box Set", which contains all of the episodes in the season on four discs, and packaged with a special features disc. All of the DVD sets for Book 2 were released with Region 1 encoding, meaning that they can only play on North American DVD players. Book 2 was released on Region 2 on July 20, 2009.
== Notes ==
== References ==
General
"Season 2". Avatar: The Last Airbender. IGN. Archived from the original on September 29, 2008. Retrieved July 21, 2008.
"Season 2 DVD Information". TVShowsOnDVD.com. February 24, 2005. Archived from the original on September 15, 2008. Retrieved September 6, 2008.
Specific |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_O%27Reilly#Honours_and_awards | Rachel O'Reilly | Rachel Kerry O'Reilly is a British chemist and Professor at the University of Birmingham. She works at the interface of biology and materials, creating polymers that can mimic natural nanomaterials such as viruses and cells. She is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry and of the Royal Society.
== Education ==
O'Reilly was born in Holywood and educated in a grammar school. She has dyslexia. She studied Natural Sciences at the University of Cambridge, working with Brian F. G. Johnson on her Master's project, and graduated in 1999. She moved to Imperial College London to work with Vernon C. Gibson on catalyst design, earning a PhD in 2003.
== Career ==
O'Reilly joined Craig Hawker and Karen L. Wooley at Washington University in St. Louis. Here she demonstrated the fabrication of cross-linked polymer nanoparticles that were Click-ready. O'Reilly was awarded a 2004 Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 fellowship, and took up a research fellowship at Downing College, Cambridge, in 2005. At the University of Cambridge she was awarded a Royal Society Dorothy Hodgkin fellowship. She developed hollow polymeric nanocages that could selectively recognise substrates.
She joined the University of Warwick in 2009 as an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council career-acceleration fellow. Her fellowship explored water-soluble responsive polymer scaffolds that contained domains for catalysis as well as responsive polymers that could trigger the release of catalysts into the media surrounding them. She was appointed Professor in 2012 at the age of 34. That year she was the first ever UK winner of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Samsung Young Polymer Scientist prize. She appeared on Start the Week with Andrew Marr in 2012, where he described her as a "a chemist who does strange things with plastics". In 2013 she was awarded the American Chemical Society Hermann Mark Young Scholar award. She was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the University of Birmingham in 2017.
Alongside her research, O'Reilly is a keen geologist and enjoys travelling to volcanoes. She became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2013 and was named as one of the Royal Society of Chemistry's 175's Faces of Chemistry. In 2023 she was elected an Honorary Fellow of Downing College, Cambridge.
== Honours and awards ==
2025 – Member of the Order of the British Empire, for services to chemistry
2022 – Fellow of the Royal Society
2020 – Corday–Morgan Prize
2018 – Journal of Polymer Science Innovation Award
2016 – Royal Society of Chemistry Gibson-Fawcett award
2014 – Royal Society of Chemistry and Society of Chemical Industry, McBain Medal
2013 – American Chemical Society Hermann Mark Young Scholar award
2012 – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Samsung Young Polymer Scientist prize
2012 – Royal Society of Chemistry Hickinbottom Award
2008 – Royal Society of Chemistry Macro group UK Young Researcher medal
2007 – Royal Society of Chemistry Meldola Medal and Prize
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Comrie | Bernard Comrie | Bernard Sterling Comrie, (; born 23 May 1947) is a British linguist. Comrie is a specialist in linguistic typology, linguistic universals and on Caucasian languages.
== Personal life ==
=== Early life and education ===
Comrie was born in Sunderland, England on 23 May 1947. He earned his undergraduate and doctoral degrees in Modern and Medieval Languages and Linguistics from the University of Cambridge, where he also taught Russian and Linguistics until he moved to the Linguistics Department of the University of Southern California.
=== Personal life ===
He married linguistics professor Akiko Kumahira in 1985.
== Professional life ==
=== Academic career ===
For 17 years he was professor at and director of the former Department of Linguistics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, combined with a post as Distinguished Professor of Linguistics at the University of California, Santa Barbara, where he returned full-time from 1 June 2015. He has also taught at the University of Southern California and the University of California, Los Angeles.
=== Honours ===
Comrie was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), the United Kingdom's national academy for the humanities and social sciences. He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2000. In September 2017, he was awarded the Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics by the British Academy.
== Selected works ==
=== Books ===
The World's Major Languages (ed.), 1987, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-520521-9. Second edition: 2009, Routledge ISBN 978-0-415-35339-7.
Tense, 1985, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139165815.
The Languages of the Soviet Union, 1981, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Language Surveys), ISBN 0-521-23230-9 (hard covers) and ISBN 0-521-29877-6 (paperback)
Language Universals and Linguistic Typology: Syntax and Morphology, 1981, The University of Chicago Press.
Aspect: An Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related Problems, 1976, Cambridge University Press.
=== Articles ===
Comrie, Bernard. 1975. Causatives and universal grammar. Transactions of the Philological Society 1974. 1–32.
Comrie, Bernard. 1976. The syntax of causative constructions: Cross-language similarities and divergences. In Shibatani, Masayoshi (ed.), Syntax and Semantics 6: The Grammar of Causative Constructions, 261–312. New York: Academic Press.
Comrie, Bernard. 1978. Ergativity. In Lehmann, Winfred P. (ed.), Syntactic typology: Studies in the phenomenology of language, 329–394. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Comrie, Bernard. 1986. Markedness, grammar, people, and the world. In Eckman, Fred R. & Moravcsik, Edith A. & Wirth, Jessica R. (eds.), Markedness, 85–106. New York: Plenum.
Comrie, Bernard. 1999. Reference-tracking: Description and explanation. Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung 52(3–4). 335–346.
Comrie, Bernard. 2005. Alignment of case marking. In Haspelmath, Martin & Dryer, Matthew S. & Gil, David & Comrie, Bernard (eds.), The world atlas of language structures, 398–405. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ((http://wals.info/chapter/98))
Keenan, Edward L. & Comrie, Bernard. 1977. Noun phrase accessibility and universal grammar. Linguistic Inquiry 8. 63–99.
== References ==
== External links ==
Homepage at the Max Planck Institute |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Slav_Epic | The Slav Epic | The Slav Epic (Czech: Slovanská epopej) is a cycle of 20 large canvases painted by Czech Art Nouveau painter Alphonse Mucha between 1910 and 1928. The cycle depicts the mythology and history of Czechs and other Slavic peoples. In 1928, after finishing his monumental work, Mucha bestowed the cycle upon the city of Prague on the condition that the city build a special pavilion for it.
Prior to 2012, the work was a part of the permanent exhibition at the chateau in the town of Moravský Krumlov in the South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic. In 2012, all 20 works were moved and displayed together on the ground floor of the Veletržní Palace until 2016, in an exhibition organized by the National Gallery in Prague (exhibition catalogue: Alphonse Mucha – Slovanská epopej). The works are currently on display back in the town of Moravský Krumlov.
== Background ==
Alphonse Mucha spent many years working on The Slav Epic cycle, which he considered his life's masterwork. He had dreamed of completing such a series, a celebration of Slavic history, since the turn of the 20th century; however, his plans were limited by financial constraints. In 1909, he managed to obtain grants by an American philanthropist and keen admirer of the Slavic culture, Charles Richard Crane. He began by visiting the places he intended to depict in the cycle: Russia, Poland, and the Balkans, including the Orthodox Christian monasteries of Mount Athos. Additionally, he consulted historians regarding details of historical events in order to ensure an accurate depiction. In 1910, he rented part of the castle in Zbiroh and began working on the series.
Mucha continued working on the cycle for 18 years, gradually submitting paintings to the city of Prague as he completed them. In 1919, the first part of the series comprising eleven canvases was displayed in the Prague's Clementinum. In his opening speech, Mucha stated:
the mission of the Epic is not completed. Let it announce to foreign friends – and even to enemies – who we were, who we are, and what we hope for. May the strength of the Slav spirit command their respect, because from respect, love is born.
In 1921, five of the paintings were shown in New York and Chicago to great public acclaim.
In 1928, the complete cycle was displayed for the first time in the Trade Fair Palace in Prague, the Czechoslovak capital.
Alphonse Mucha died in July, 1939. Shortly before his death he was interrogated by the Gestapo, as he was an important exponent of public life in Czechoslovakia. During World War II, The Slav Epic was wrapped and hidden away to prevent seizure by the Nazis.
Following the Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948 and subsequent communist takeover of the country, Mucha was considered a decadent and bourgeois artist, estranged from the ideals of socialist realism. The building of a special pavilion for the exposition of The Slav Epic cycle became irrelevant and unimportant for the new communist regime. After the war, the paintings were moved to the chateau at Moravský Krumlov by a group of local patriots, and the cycle went on display there in 1963.
== Controversy ==
The city of Prague has waged a decade-long legal battle over the work which intensified in early 2010. Much consideration has been given to relocating The Slav Epic from Moravský Krumlov (where it had been displayed for almost 50 years), to Prague. The hope was that Prague, a city frequented by many thousands of tourists, would attract increased attention to the series of paintings. However, there is no suitable space for the work in Prague's galleries. Therefore, some Czech state institutions, such as the Office of the President of the Czech Republic, found it preferable to leave the paintings in their current location since there have been few problems there. Nevertheless, in early 2010, the city of Prague requested the return of The Slav Epic for restoration work and subsequent display. However, the Mucha Foundation, run by the artist's grandson John Mucha and his mother Geraldine, blocked the move as it would simply be a provisional measure. The City of Prague argued that not Alphonse Mucha but Charles R. Crane was the owner of the paintings and that he has donated the cycle to the City of Prague. According to the newspaper Mladá fronta DNES, the information was proved by contracts found in the city archives. The Foundation is in talks with the City of Prague for the construction of a permanent home for the work.
On 25 July 2010, over a thousand people gathered in Moravský Krumlov to protest the planned move of The Slav Epic from the town.
After a two-year dispute between Prague and the Moravian town of Moravský Krumlov, the renowned cycle of 20 monumental canvases was—in a move protested by conservationists and art historians alike—taken for display at the National Gallery's Veletržní Palace in 2012 and remained there until the end of 2016. In 2018, nine of the canvases of The Slav Epic were shown in Brno during the RE:PUBLIKA Festival. The exhibition combined two opposing worlds of renowned Art Nouveau artist Alphonse Mucha's works – the majestic Slav Epic and a unique collection of posters.
The paintings were controversially taken on a two year tour of Asia, returning to Prague in 2019.
== List of paintings ==
The work consists of 20 paintings, up to six metres tall and eight metres wide.
== See also ==
Pan-Slavism
List of works by Alphonse Mucha
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Dusza, Erin M. (2012). Epic Significance: Placing Alphonse Mucha's Czech Art in the Context of Pan-Slavism and Czech Nationalism. Georgia State University.
== External links ==
Media related to The Slav Epic at Wikimedia Commons
The Slav Epic - Themes and gallery (The Mucha Foundation)
"The Slav Epi'c: The Magnum Opus of Alphonse Mucha" (by John Price)
Website dedicated to The Slav Epic and its digitisation
Community website sharing news, articles and individuals' opinion about Mucha and his art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_S._Woolley | Alma S. Woolley | Alma S. Woolley (October 3, 1931, New York City – December 17, 2005, Baltimore) was an American nurse, nurse educator, nursing historian, and author. She led several schools of nursing, and authored a number of books and articles on nursing education, the history of nursing education, and nurses.
== Early years and education ==
Woolley grew up a child of the depression in the Bronx, New York City: Her father, hit by a truck, died on his way to a public hospital; her maternal grandmother who had worked in a sweatshop made all her clothes; her widowed mother worked as a stenographer for GM; but Woolley, who said "as a twelve year old, I admired the smart gray uniforms with the red trimming" of the Cadet Nurse Corps (during World War II), was selected to go to the elite all-girls Hunter College High School to which she commuted by public transport one hour each way. At Hunter, she won the all-city Latin Poetry Contest in 1949 and graduated second in her class, subsequently attending Queens College and then Cornell University's School of Nursing, which granted her a bachelor's degree in 1954. She subsequently joined the Visiting Nurse Service of New York, married, and worked at a number of hospitals including Mary Immaculate Hospital in Jamaica, Queens and, moving to Philadelphia with her husband, Arthur E. Woolley, at Philadelphia General Hospital, and Jefferson Medical College. She later became a nursing instructor at the University of Pennsylvania, enrolled in their graduate program and was granted an M.S. in medical-surgical nursing in 1965, an accomplishment which led to one of her early articles in The American Journal of Nursing, "My Lamp Is Refueled," explaining how and why she kept up with her field while rearing four small children.
== Career ==
Having moved to New Jersey with her husband and children in 1969, Woolley became an instructor at Atlantic Community College, but was soon offered the task of creating a B.S. degree program in nursing for The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey which had opened its doors in 1971. The original program she designed was for registered nurses, R.N.'s, without a university degree, to complete a Bachelor of Science in nursing. The transition of nursing education from that of R.N.'s trained in non-university programs, to 4-year B.S.N. programs or their equivalent was a matter of advocacy for Woolley as well as profession, and she subsequently published a number of pieces demonstrating the benefits of university-based nursing programs.
In 1980, she was awarded a doctorate in nursing education by the University of Pennsylvania. In 1981, she was appointed Director of the School of Nursing at Illinois Wesleyan University and the Caroline F. Rupert Professor of Nursing, and in 1986 left Wesleyan to become Dean of Georgetown University School of Nursing and Health Studies. In 1989 she received the Distinguished Alumnus Award from the Cornell School of Nursing Alumni Association. She stepped down as dean of Georgetown's School of Nursing in 1992 and returned to teaching and writing, retiring as professor emeritus of nursing in 1996, and becoming visiting professor at both the University of Maryland School of Nursing in Baltimore, Md, and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences.
She wrote or contributed to biographies of nurses including Maude Francis Essig who served with American combat troops in World War I, and Virginia Matthews Dunbar, an early advocate of university curricula for nurses.
Reflecting her view that "the history of nursing education is an important lacuna in general histories of nursing" and that "as part of public history in the United States, nursing education can cite many accomplishments in the realm of health care policy," Woolley also published histories of nursing schools, including "Nuns and Guns" and Learning, Faith and Caring. But before her death in 2005, she was working on oral histories of women who, like her, had been recently admitted as members to the once all-male Cosmos Club of Washington, D.C.
== References ==
== External links ==
Barbara Bates Center for the Study of the History of Nursing
Learning, Faith, and Caring.
Georgetown University School of Nursing and Health Studies |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piasecki_VZ-8_Airgeep | Piasecki VZ-8 Airgeep | The Piasecki VZ-8 Airgeep (company designation PA-59) was a prototype vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft developed by Piasecki Aircraft. The Airgeep was developed to fulfill a U.S. Army Transportation Research Command contract for a flying jeep in 1957. The flying jeep was envisioned to be smaller and easier to fly than a helicopter.
== Design and development ==
To meet the US Army's requirement, Piasecki's design featured two tandem, three-blade ducted rotors, with the crew of two seated between the two rotors. Power was by two 180 hp (134.2 kW) Lycoming O-360-A2A piston engines, driving the rotors by a central gearbox. The first of two aircraft ordered by the Army, initially designated the Model 59K Skycar (and later renamed Airgeep) by Piasecki and designated VZ-8P by the Army, flew on 22 September 1958.
It was re-engined with a single 425 hp (317 kW) Turbomeca Artouste IIB turboshaft replacing the two piston engines, flying in this form in June 1959. After being loaned to the U.S. Navy for evaluation as the Model 59N where it was fitted with floats, it was returned to the Army and its engine replaced by a lighter and more powerful 550 hp (410.1 kW) Garrett AiResearch TPE331-6 engine.
The second prototype was completed to a modified design, designated Model 59H AirGeep II by Piasecki and VZ-8P (B) by the Army. It was powered by two Artouste engines, with ejection seats for the pilot and co-pilot/gunner and a further three seats for passengers. It was also fitted with a powered tricycle undercarriage to increase mobility on land.
The AirGeep II's first flight occurred on 15 February 1962, piloted by "Tommy" Atkins.
While the Airgeep would normally operate close to the ground, it was capable of flying to several thousand feet, proving to be stable in flight. Flying low allowed it to evade detection by radar. Despite these qualities, and its superiority over the other two types evaluated by the US Army to meet the same requirement (the Chrysler VZ-6 and the Curtiss-Wright VZ-7), the Army decided that the "Flying Jeep concept [was] unsuitable for the modern battlefield", and concentrated on the development of conventional helicopters instead.
== Variants ==
Model 59K Skycar
Company designation for the first aircraft powered by two 180 hp (134.2 kW)) Lycoming O-360-A2A piston engines, given the military designation VZ-8P Airgeep. Later, the piston engines were replaced by a single 425 hp (316.9 kW)) Turbomeca Artouste IIB turboshaft engine.
Model 59N SeaGeep I
The first aircraft, (after the piston engines were replaced by a single Artouste), whilst on loan to the United States Navy, fitted with floats.
PA-59H AirGeep II
The second aircraft, military designation VZ-8P (B), completed with two 400 hp (298.3 kW)) Turbomeca Artouste IIC turboshaft engines and seats for up to five, including the crew.
VZ-8P Airgeep I
The military designation of the first aircraft as delivered
VZ-8P-1 Airgeep I
The first aircraft after the piston engines were replaced by a single 425 hp (316.9 kW) Turbomeca Artouste IIB.
VZ-8P-2 Airgeep I
The first aircraft after the Artouste engine was replaced by a lighter and more powerful 550 hp (410.1 kW)) Garrett AiResearch TPE331-6 engine.
VZ-8P (B) Airgeep II
The military designation of the second aircraft.
== Specifications (VZ-8P (B)) ==
Data from Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1962-63 Flying Jeeps: The US Army's Search for the Ultimate 'Vehicle' General characteristics
Crew: two (pilot and co-pilot/gunner)
Capacity: up to three passengers
Length: 24 ft 5 in (7.45 m)
Width: 9 ft 3 in (2.82 m)
Height: 5 ft 10 in (1.78 m)
Empty weight: 2,611 lb (1,184 kg)
Gross weight: 3,670 lb (1,665 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 4,800 lb (2,177 kg)
Powerplant: 2 × Turbomeca Artouste IIC turbo-shaft engines, 550 hp (410 kW) each
Main rotor diameter: 2 × 8 ft 2 in (2.5 m)
Performance
Maximum speed: 73 kn (85 mph, 136 km/h)
Cruise speed: 60 kn (70 mph, 112 km/h)
Range: 30 nmi (35 mi, 56 km)
Service ceiling: 3,000 ft (914 m)
Armament
Guns: Provision for one recoilless rifle - not fitted
== See also ==
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Avro Canada VZ-9 Avrocar
Curtiss-Wright VZ-7
Chrysler VZ-6
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Bibliography ===
Harding, Stephen. "Flying Jeeps: The US Army's Search for the Ultimate 'Vehicle'". Air Enthusiast, No. 73, January/February 1998. Stamford, Lincs, UK:Key Publishing. ISSN 0143-5450. pp. 10–12.
Taylor, John W.R. FRHistS. ARAeS (1962). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1962-63. London: Sampson, Low, Marston & Co Ltd.
Piasecki Tests Twin-Turbine and Seagoing VTOLs. // Aviation Week & Space Technology, May 7, 1962, v. 76, no. 19, p. 83.
== External links ==
Piasecki Aircraft Corporation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_visited_palaces_and_monuments | List of most visited palaces and monuments | This is a list of the most visited national monuments, including palaces, historical monuments and historic sites. Sources used to compile the list include an annual survey of the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions (ALVA) in the United Kingdom; the U.S. National Park Service list of National Monuments, Patrimonio Nacional of Spain, and the Italian, French, and Russian Ministries of Culture.
== List ==
== See also ==
List of most visited museums
List of most visited art museums
List of most visited museums by region
== Notes ==
^ii Statistics refer to the fiscal year ending 30 June 2017.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullard_Mountain | Bullard Mountain | Bullard Mountain is a 4,225-foot (1,288 m) mountain summit located in the Boundary Ranges, in the U.S. state of Alaska. The peak is situated immediately east of the terminus of Mendenhall Glacier, within Tongass National Forest, 9 mi (14 km) north-northwest of Juneau, and 6 mi (10 km) northeast of Juneau International Airport. McGinnis Mountain lies 3.7 mi (6 km) on the opposite side of the glacier, and Heintzleman Ridge lies 2.75 mi (4 km) to the south. Bullard Mountain is often seen and photographed with Mount Wrather, a 5,968-foot (1,819 m) summit 3.9 mi (6 km) to the north because they are together in the background behind Mendenhall Lake, a popular tourist and recreation area. Although modest in elevation, relief is significant since the mountain rises from this nearly sea-level lake in less than two miles. Precipitation runoff from the mountain drains into the lake via Nugget Creek and Nugget Falls. Bullard Mountain is named for Benjamin Bullard (1848-1933), a mining engineer who, in 1907, began mining on Nugget Creek where he later built a hydroelectric power plant.
== Climate ==
Based on the Köppen climate classification, Bullard Mountain is located in a subarctic climate zone with cold, snowy winters, and mild summers. Temperatures can drop below −20 °C with wind chill factors below −30 °C. This climate supports the Mendenhall Glacier to the mountain's west. The month of July offers the most favorable weather for viewing and climbing this peak.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of mountain peaks of Alaska
Geography of Alaska
== References ==
== External links ==
Weather forecast: Bullard Mountain
Bullard Mountain climbing blog with photos
Nugget Towers and Bullard Mountain: Flickr photo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_Lectureship_Prize#:~:text=1970%3A%20Gerhard%20Herzberg | Faraday Lectureship Prize | The Faraday Lectureship Prize, previously known simply as the Faraday Lectureship, is awarded once every two years (approximately) by the Royal Society of Chemistry for "exceptional contributions to physical or theoretical chemistry". Named after Michael Faraday, the first Faraday Lecture was given in 1869, two years after Faraday's death, by Jean-Baptiste Dumas. As of 2009, the prize was worth £5000, with the recipient also receiving a medal and a certificate. As the name suggests, the recipient also gives a public lecture describing their work.
== Winners ==
Source: RSC
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Event data as RDF |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olton_van_Genderen | Olton van Genderen | Olton Willem van Genderen (17 October 1921 – 9 November 1990) was a Surinamese civil servant and politician. He served as Deputy Prime Minister of Suriname from 24 December 1973 until the coup d'état of 25 February 1980. He was one of the main negotiators for the Independence of Suriname.
== Biography ==
Van Genderen was born on 17 October 1921 in Albina. He worked for the customs agency. In 1950s, he went to Rotterdam for four years, and became a licensed customs officer.
Van Genderen became active in the trade union and politics. He was given the honorary title Da Djendé (Ndyuka: Beautiful teacher). In 1958, he was first elected to the Estates of Suriname, and was re-elected five times. On 16 May 1967, he was elected Chairman of the Estates of Suriname, and served until 1 September 1969.
On 15 December 1973, he was re-elected as Chairman, however he resigned on 28 December, because on 24 December, he had been elected as Deputy Prime Minister of Suriname in the Arron cabinet. He also served as Minister of District Administration and Decentralisation.
The Arron government was in dialogue with the Dutch government about the Independence of Suriname, and van Genderen became one of the main negotiators. On 25 November 1975, Suriname became an independent country. In 1977, he was appointed Minister of the Interior which was the successor of Ministry of District Administration and Decentralisation.
On 25 February 1980, Desi Bouterse committed a coup d'état. Arron went into hiding, however van Genderen was captured. On 26 February, van Genderen and Minister Badrising announced the surrender of the government on television, and asked the population not to resist the military regime. On 28 February, Arron surrendered to the regime. Van Genderen was placed under house arrest until February 1981. On 19 June 1981, van Genderen was sentenced to four months imprisonment minus time served under house arrest, and a total fine of ƒ 55,000.
Van Genderen died on 9 November 1990, at the age of 69.
== Honours and legacy ==
Suriname: Commander in the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star.
Netherlands: Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau (1967).
Venezuela: Knight in the Order of Francisco de Miranda.
In 2021, the Emmastraat in Albina was renamed Olton Willem van Genderen Boulevard in his honour.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Olton van Genderen at Wikimedia Commons
Olton Willem van Genderen Foundation (in Dutch) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs | Josiah Willard Gibbs | Josiah Willard Gibbs (; February 11, 1839 – April 28, 1903) was an American mechanical engineer and scientist who made fundamental theoretical contributions to physics, chemistry, and mathematics. His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science. Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, he created statistical mechanics (a term that he coined), explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of ensembles of the possible states of a physical system composed of many particles. Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell's equations to problems in physical optics. As a mathematician, he created modern vector calculus (independently of the British scientist Oliver Heaviside, who carried out similar work during the same period) and described the Gibbs phenomenon in the theory of Fourier analysis.
In 1863, Yale University awarded Gibbs the first American doctorate in engineering. After a three-year sojourn in Europe, Gibbs spent the rest of his career at Yale, where he was a professor of mathematical physics from 1871 until his death in 1903. Working in relative isolation, he became the earliest theoretical scientist in the United States to earn an international reputation and was praised by Albert Einstein as "the greatest mind in American history". In 1901, Gibbs received what was then considered the highest honor awarded by the international scientific community, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London, "for his contributions to mathematical physics".
Commentators and biographers have remarked on the contrast between Gibbs's quiet, solitary life in turn of the century New England and the great international impact of his ideas. Though his work was almost entirely theoretical, the practical value of Gibbs's contributions became evident with the development of industrial chemistry during the first half of the 20th century. According to Robert A. Millikan, in pure science, Gibbs "did for statistical mechanics and thermodynamics what Laplace did for celestial mechanics and Maxwell did for electrodynamics, namely, made his field a well-nigh finished theoretical structure".
== Biography ==
=== Family background ===
Gibbs was born in New Haven, Connecticut. He belonged to an old Yankee family that had produced distinguished American clergymen and academics since the 17th century. He was the fourth of five children and the only son of Josiah Willard Gibbs Sr. and his wife Mary Anna, née Van Cleve. On his father's side, he was descended from Samuel Willard, who served as acting President of Harvard College from 1701 to 1707. On his mother's side, one of his ancestors was the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson, the first president of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University). Gibbs's given name, which he shared with his father and several other members of his extended family, derived from his ancestor Josiah Willard, who had been Secretary of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the 18th century. His paternal grandmother, Mercy (Prescott) Gibbs, was the sister of Rebecca Minot Prescott Sherman, the wife of American founding father Roger Sherman; and he was the second cousin of Roger Sherman Baldwin (see the Amistad case below).
The elder Gibbs was generally known to his family and colleagues as "Josiah", while the son was called "Willard". Josiah Gibbs was a linguist and theologian who served as professor of sacred literature at Yale Divinity School from 1824 until his death in 1861. He is chiefly remembered today as the abolitionist who found an interpreter for the African passengers of the ship Amistad, allowing them to testify during the trial that followed their rebellion against being sold as slaves.
=== Education ===
Willard Gibbs was educated at the Hopkins School and entered Yale College in 1854 at the age of 15. At Yale, Gibbs received prizes for excellence in mathematics and Latin, and he graduated in 1858, near the top of his class. He remained at Yale as a graduate student at the Sheffield Scientific School. At age 19, soon after his graduation from college, Gibbs was inducted into the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, a scholarly institution composed primarily of members of the Yale faculty.
Relatively few documents from the period survive and it is difficult to reconstruct the details of Gibbs's early career with precision. In the opinion of biographers, Gibbs's principal mentor and champion, both at Yale and in the Connecticut Academy, was probably the astronomer and mathematician Hubert Anson Newton, a leading authority on meteors, who remained Gibbs's lifelong friend and confidant. After the death of his father in 1861, Gibbs inherited enough money to make him financially independent.
Recurrent pulmonary trouble ailed the young Gibbs and his physicians were concerned that he might be susceptible to tuberculosis, which had killed his mother. He also suffered from astigmatism, whose treatment was then still largely unfamiliar to oculists, so that Gibbs had to diagnose himself and grind his own lenses. Though in later years he used glasses only for reading or other close work, Gibbs's delicate health and imperfect eyesight probably explain why he did not volunteer to fight in the Civil War of 1861–65. He was not conscripted and he remained at Yale for the duration of the war.
In 1863, Gibbs received the first Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD) in engineering granted in the US, for a thesis entitled "On the Form of the Teeth of Wheels in Spur Gearing", in which he used geometrical techniques to investigate the optimum design for gears. In 1861, Yale had become the first US university to offer a PhD degree and Gibbs's was only the fifth PhD granted in the US in any subject.
=== Career, 1863–1873 ===
After graduation, Gibbs was appointed as tutor at the college for a term of three years. During the first two years, he taught Latin, and during the third year, he taught "natural philosophy" (i.e., physics). In 1866, he patented a design for a railway brake and read a paper before the Connecticut Academy, entitled "The Proper Magnitude of the Units of Length", in which he proposed a scheme for rationalizing the system of units of measurement used in mechanics.
After his term as tutor ended, Gibbs traveled to Europe with his sisters. They spent the winter of 1866–67 in Paris, where Gibbs attended lectures at the Sorbonne and the Collège de France, given by such distinguished mathematical scientists as Joseph Liouville and Michel Chasles. Having undertaken a punishing regimen of study, Gibbs caught a serious cold and a doctor, fearing tuberculosis, advised him to rest on the Riviera, where he and his sisters spent several months and where he made a full recovery.
Moving to Berlin, Gibbs attended the lectures taught by mathematicians Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker, as well as by chemist Heinrich Gustav Magnus. In August 1867, Gibbs's sister Julia was married in Berlin to Addison Van Name, who had been Gibbs's classmate at Yale. The newly married couple returned to New Haven, leaving Gibbs and his sister Anna in Germany. In Heidelberg, Gibbs was exposed to the work of physicists Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz, and chemist Robert Bunsen. At the time, German academics were the leading authorities in the natural sciences, especially chemistry and thermodynamics.
Gibbs returned to Yale in June 1869 and briefly taught French to engineering students. It was probably also around this time that he worked on a new design for a steam-engine governor, his last significant investigation in mechanical engineering. In 1871, he was appointed Professor of Mathematical Physics at Yale, the first such professorship in the United States. Gibbs, who had independent means and had yet to publish anything, was assigned to teach graduate students exclusively and was hired without salary.
=== Career, 1873–1880 ===
Gibbs published his first work in 1873. His papers on the geometric representation of thermodynamic quantities appeared in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy. These papers introduced the use of different type phase diagrams, which were his favorite aids to the imagination process when doing research, rather than the mechanical models, such as the ones that Maxwell used in constructing his electromagnetic theory, which might not completely represent their corresponding phenomena. Although the journal had few readers capable of understanding Gibbs's work, he shared reprints with correspondents in Europe and received an enthusiastic response from James Clerk Maxwell at Cambridge. Maxwell even made, with his own hands, a clay model illustrating Gibbs's construct. He then produced two plaster casts of his model and mailed one to Gibbs. That cast is on display at the Yale physics department.
Maxwell included a chapter on Gibbs's work in the next edition of his Theory of Heat, published in 1875. He explained the usefulness of Gibbs's graphical methods in a lecture to the Chemical Society of London and even referred to it in the article on "Diagrams" that he wrote for the Encyclopædia Britannica. Prospects of collaboration between him and Gibbs were cut short by Maxwell's early death in 1879, aged 48. The joke later circulated in New Haven that "only one man lived who could understand Gibbs's papers. That was Maxwell, and now he is dead."
Gibbs then extended his thermodynamic analysis to multi-phase chemical systems (i.e., to systems composed of more than one form of matter) and considered a variety of concrete applications. He described that research in a monograph titled "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances", published by the Connecticut Academy in two parts that appeared respectively in 1875 and 1878. That work, which covers about three hundred pages and contains exactly seven hundred numbered mathematical equations, begins with a quotation from Rudolf Clausius that expresses what would later be called the first and second laws of thermodynamics: "The energy of the world is constant. The entropy of the world tends towards a maximum."
Gibbs's monograph rigorously and ingeniously applied his thermodynamic techniques to the interpretation of physico-chemical phenomena, explaining and relating what had previously been a mass of isolated facts and observations. The work has been described as "the Principia of thermodynamics" and as a work of "practically unlimited scope". It solidly laid the foundation for physical Chemistry. Wilhelm Ostwald, who translated Gibbs's monograph into German, referred to Gibbs as the "founder of chemical energetics". According to modern commentators,
It is universally recognised that its publication was an event of the first importance in the history of chemistry ... Nevertheless it was a number of years before its value was generally known, this delay was due largely to the fact that its mathematical form and rigorous deductive processes make it difficult reading for anyone, and especially so for students of experimental chemistry whom it most concerns.
Gibbs continued to work without pay until 1880, when the new Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland offered him a position paying $3,000 per year. In response, Yale offered him an annual salary of $2,000, which he was content to accept.
In 1879, Gibbs derived the Gibbs–Appell equation of motion, rediscovered in 1900 by Paul Émile Appell.
=== Career, 1880–1903 ===
From 1880 to 1884, Gibbs worked on developing the exterior algebra of Hermann Grassmann into a vector calculus well-suited to the needs of physicists. With this object in mind, Gibbs distinguished between the dot and cross products of two vectors and introduced the concept of dyadics. Similar work was carried out independently, and at around the same time, by the British mathematical physicist and engineer Oliver Heaviside. Gibbs sought to convince other physicists of the convenience of the vectorial approach over the quaternionic calculus of William Rowan Hamilton, which was then widely used by British scientists. This led him, in the early 1890s, to a controversy with Peter Guthrie Tait and others in the pages of Nature.
Gibbs's lecture notes on vector calculus were privately printed in 1881 and 1884 for the use of his students, and were later adapted by Edwin Bidwell Wilson into a textbook, Vector Analysis, published in 1901. That book helped to popularize the "del" notation that is widely used today in electrodynamics and fluid mechanics. In other mathematical work, he re-discovered the "Gibbs phenomenon" in the theory of Fourier series (which, unbeknownst to him and to later scholars, had been described fifty years before by an obscure English mathematician, Henry Wilbraham).
From 1882 to 1889, Gibbs wrote five papers on physical optics, in which he investigated birefringence and other optical phenomena and defended Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light against the mechanical theories of Lord Kelvin and others. In his work on optics, just as much as in his work on thermodynamics, Gibbs deliberately avoided speculating about the microscopic structure of matter and purposefully confined his research problems to those that can be solved from broad general principles and experimentally confirmed facts. The methods that he used were highly original and the obtained results showed decisively the correctness of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.
Gibbs coined the term statistical mechanics and introduced key concepts in the corresponding mathematical description of physical systems, including the notions of chemical potential (1876) and statistical ensemble (1902). Gibbs's derivation of the laws of thermodynamics from the statistical properties of systems consisting of many particles was presented in his highly influential textbook Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics, published in 1902, a year before his death.
Gibbs's retiring personality and intense focus on his work limited his accessibility to students. His principal protégé was Edwin Bidwell Wilson, who nonetheless explained that "except in the classroom I saw very little of Gibbs. He had a way, toward the end of the afternoon, of taking a stroll about the streets between his study in the old Sloane Laboratory and his home—a little exercise between work and dinner—and one might occasionally come across him at that time." Gibbs did supervise the doctoral thesis on mathematical economics written by Irving Fisher in 1891. After Gibbs's death, Fisher financed the publication of his Collected Works. Another distinguished student was Lee De Forest, later a pioneer of radio technology.
Gibbs died in New Haven on April 28, 1903, at the age of 64, the victim of an acute intestinal obstruction. A funeral was conducted two days later at his home on 121 High Street, and his body was buried in the nearby Grove Street Cemetery. In May, Yale organized a memorial meeting at the Sloane Laboratory. The eminent British physicist J. J. Thomson was in attendance and delivered a brief address.
=== Personal life and character ===
Gibbs never married, living all his life in his childhood home with his sister Julia and her husband Addison Van Name, who was the Yale librarian. Except for his customary summer vacations in the Adirondacks (at Keene Valley, New York) and later at the White Mountains (in Intervale, New Hampshire), his sojourn in Europe in 1866–1869 was almost the only time that Gibbs spent outside New Haven. He joined Yale's College Church (a Congregational church) at the end of his freshman year and remained a regular attendant for the rest of his life. Gibbs generally voted for the Republican candidate in presidential elections but, like other "Mugwumps", his concern over the growing corruption associated with machine politics led him to support Grover Cleveland, a conservative Democrat, in the election of 1884. Little else is known of his religious or political views, which he mostly kept to himself.
Gibbs did not produce a substantial personal correspondence, and many of his letters were later lost or destroyed. Beyond the technical writings concerning his research, he published only two other pieces: a brief obituary for Rudolf Clausius, one of the founders of the mathematical theory of thermodynamics, and a longer biographical memoir of his mentor at Yale, H. A. Newton. In Edward Bidwell Wilson's view,
Gibbs was not an advertiser for personal renown nor a propagandist for science; he was a scholar, scion of an old scholarly family, living before the days when research had become résearch ... Gibbs was not a freak, he had no striking ways, he was a kindly dignified gentleman.
According to Lynde Wheeler, who had been Gibbs's student at Yale, in his later years Gibbs
was always neatly dressed, usually wore a felt hat on the street, and never exhibited any of the physical mannerisms or eccentricities sometimes thought to be inseparable from genius ... His manner was cordial without being effusive and conveyed clearly the innate simplicity and sincerity of his nature.
He was a careful investor and financial manager, and at his death in 1903 his estate was valued at $100,000 (roughly $3.5 million today). For many years, he served as trustee, secretary, and treasurer of his alma mater, the Hopkins School. US President Chester A. Arthur appointed him as one of the commissioners to the National Conference of Electricians, which convened in Philadelphia in September 1884, and Gibbs presided over one of its sessions. A keen and skilled horseman, Gibbs was seen habitually in New Haven driving his sister's carriage. In an obituary published in the American Journal of Science, Gibbs's former student Henry A. Bumstead referred to Gibbs's personal character:
Unassuming in manner, genial and kindly in his intercourse with his fellow-men, never showing impatience or irritation, devoid of personal ambition of the baser sort or of the slightest desire to exalt himself, he went far toward realizing the ideal of the unselfish, Christian gentleman. In the minds of those who knew him, the greatness of his intellectual achievements will never overshadow the beauty and dignity of his life.
== Major scientific contributions ==
=== Chemical and electrochemical thermodynamics ===
Gibbs's papers from the 1870s introduced the idea of expressing the internal energy U of a system in terms of the entropy S, in addition to the usual state variables of volume V, pressure p, and temperature T. He also introduced the concept of the chemical potential
μ
{\displaystyle \mu }
of a given chemical species, defined to be the rate of the increase in U associated with the increase in the number N of molecules of that species (at constant entropy and volume). Thus, it was Gibbs who first combined the first and second laws of thermodynamics by expressing the infinitesimal change in the internal energy, dU, of a closed system in the form
d
U
=
T
d
S
−
p
d
V
+
∑
i
μ
i
d
N
i
,
{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} U=T\mathrm {d} S-p\,\mathrm {d} V+\sum _{i}\mu _{i}\,\mathrm {d} N_{i},}
where T is the absolute temperature, p is the pressure, dS is an infinitesimal change in entropy and dV is an infinitesimal change of volume. The last term is the sum, over all the chemical species in a chemical reaction, of the chemical potential, μi, of the i-th species, multiplied by the infinitesimal change in the number of moles, dNi of that species. By taking the Legendre transform of this expression, he defined the concepts of enthalpy H and Gibbs free energy G:
G
(
p
,
T
)
=
H
−
T
S
.
{\displaystyle G_{(p,T)}=H-TS.}
This compares to the expression for Helmholtz free energy A:
A
(
v
,
T
)
=
U
−
T
S
.
{\displaystyle A_{(v,T)}=U-TS.}
When the Gibbs free energy for a chemical reaction is negative, the reaction will proceed spontaneously. When a chemical system is at equilibrium, the change in Gibbs free energy is zero. An equilibrium constant is simply related to the free energy change when the reactants are in their standard states:
Δ
G
⊖
=
−
R
T
ln
K
⊖
.
{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\ominus }=-RT\ln K^{\ominus }.}
Chemical potential is usually defined as partial molar Gibbs free energy:
μ
i
=
(
∂
G
∂
N
i
)
T
,
P
,
N
j
≠
i
.
{\displaystyle \mu _{i}=\left({\frac {\partial G}{\partial N_{i}}}\right)_{T,P,N_{j\neq i}}.}
Gibbs also obtained what later came to be known as the "Gibbs–Duhem equation".
In an electrochemical reaction characterized by an electromotive force ℰ and an amount of transferred charge Q, Gibbs's starting equation becomes
d
U
=
T
d
S
−
p
d
V
+
E
d
Q
.
{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} U=T\mathrm {d} S-p\,\mathrm {d} V+{\mathcal {E}}\mathrm {d} Q.}
The publication of the paper "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" (1874–1878) is now regarded as a landmark in the development of chemistry. In it, Gibbs developed a rigorous mathematical theory for various transport phenomena, including adsorption, electrochemistry, and the Marangoni effect in fluid mixtures. He also formulated the phase rule
F
=
C
−
P
+
2
{\displaystyle F=C-P+2}
for the number F of variables that may be independently controlled in an equilibrium mixture of C components existing in P phases. The phase rule is very useful in diverse areas, such as metallurgy, mineralogy, and petrology. It can also be applied to various research problems in physical chemistry.
=== Statistical mechanics ===
Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, Gibbs founded "statistical mechanics", a term that he coined to identify the branch of theoretical physics that accounts for the observed thermodynamic properties of systems in terms of the statistics of ensembles of all possible physical states of a system composed of many particles. He introduced the concept of "phase of a mechanical system". He used the concept to define the microcanonical, canonical, and grand canonical ensembles; all related to the Gibbs measure, thus obtaining a more general formulation of the statistical properties of many-particle systems than Maxwell and Boltzmann had achieved before him.
Gibbs generalized Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy
S
{\displaystyle S}
by defining the entropy of an arbitrary ensemble as
S
=
−
k
B
∑
i
p
i
ln
p
i
,
{\displaystyle S=-k_{\text{B}}\,\sum _{i}p_{i}\ln p_{i},}
where
k
B
{\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}}
is the Boltzmann constant, while the sum is over all possible microstates
i
{\displaystyle i}
, with
p
i
{\displaystyle p_{i}}
the corresponding probability of the microstate (see Gibbs entropy formula). This same formula would later play a central role in Claude Shannon's information theory and is therefore often seen as the basis of the modern information-theoretical interpretation of thermodynamics.
According to Henri Poincaré, writing in 1904, even though Maxwell and Boltzmann had previously explained the irreversibility of macroscopic physical processes in probabilistic terms, "the one who has seen it most clearly, in a book too little read because it is a little difficult to read, is Gibbs, in his Elementary Principles of Statistical Mechanics". Gibbs's analysis of irreversibility, and his formulation of Boltzmann's H-theorem and of the ergodic hypothesis, were major influences on the mathematical physics of the 20th century.
Gibbs was well aware that the application of the equipartition theorem to large systems of classical particles failed to explain the measurements of the specific heats of both solids and gases, and he argued that this was evidence of the danger of basing thermodynamics on "hypotheses about the constitution of matter". Gibbs's own framework for statistical mechanics, based on ensembles of macroscopically indistinguishable microstates, could be carried over almost intact after the discovery that the microscopic laws of nature obey quantum rules, rather than the classical laws known to Gibbs and to his contemporaries. His resolution of the so-called "Gibbs paradox", about the entropy of the mixing of gases, is now often cited as a prefiguration of the indistinguishability of particles required by quantum physics.
=== Vector analysis ===
British scientists, including Maxwell, had relied on Hamilton's quaternions in order to express the dynamics of physical quantities, like the electric and magnetic fields, having both a magnitude and a direction in three-dimensional space. Following W. K. Clifford in his Elements of Dynamic (1888), Gibbs noted that the product of quaternions could be separated into two parts: a one-dimensional (scalar) quantity and a three-dimensional vector, so that the use of quaternions involved mathematical complications and redundancies that could be avoided in the interest of simplicity and to facilitate teaching. In his Yale classroom notes he defined two distinct types of products for a pair of vectors: a dot product (or scalar product) and a cross product (or vector product). He also introduced the now common notation for them. Through the 1901 textbook Vector Analysis prepared by E. B. Wilson from Gibbs notes, he was largely responsible for the development of the vector calculus techniques still used today in electrodynamics and fluid mechanics.
While he was working on vector analysis in the late 1870s, Gibbs discovered that his approach was similar to the one that Grassmann had taken in his "multiple algebra". Gibbs then sought to publicize Grassmann's work, stressing that it was both more general and historically prior to Hamilton's quaternionic algebra. To establish priority of Grassmann's ideas, Gibbs convinced Grassmann's heirs to seek the publication in Germany of the essay "Theorie der Ebbe und Flut" on tides that Grassmann had submitted in 1840 to the faculty at the University of Berlin, in which he had first introduced the notion of what would later be called a vector space (linear space).
As Gibbs had advocated in the 1880s and 1890s, quaternions were eventually all but abandoned by physicists in favor of the vectorial approach developed by him and, independently, by Oliver Heaviside. Gibbs applied his vector methods to the determination of planetary and comet orbits. He also developed the concept of mutually reciprocal triads of vectors that later proved to be of importance in crystallography.
=== Physical optics ===
Though Gibbs's research on physical optics is less well known today than his other work, it made a significant contribution to classical electromagnetism by applying Maxwell's equations to the theory of optical processes such as birefringence, dispersion, and optical activity. In that work, Gibbs showed that those processes could be accounted for by Maxwell's equations without any special assumptions about the microscopic structure of matter or about the nature of the medium in which electromagnetic waves were supposed to propagate (the so-called luminiferous ether). Gibbs also stressed that the absence of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave, which is needed to account for the observed properties of light, is automatically guaranteed by Maxwell's equations (by virtue of what is now called their "gauge invariance"), whereas in mechanical theories of light, such as Lord Kelvin's, it must be imposed as an ad hoc condition on the properties of the aether.
In his last paper on physical optics, Gibbs concluded that
it may be said for the electrical theory [of light] that it is not obliged to invent hypotheses, but only to apply the laws furnished by the science of electricity, and that it is difficult to account for the coincidences between the electrical and optical properties of media unless we regard the motions of light as electrical.
Shortly afterwards, the electromagnetic nature of light was demonstrated by the experiments of Heinrich Hertz in Germany.
== Scientific recognition ==
Gibbs worked at a time when there was little tradition of rigorous theoretical science in the United States. His research was not easily understandable to his students or his colleagues, and he made no effort to popularize his ideas or to simplify their exposition to make them more accessible. His seminal work on thermodynamics was published mostly in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, a journal edited by his librarian brother-in-law, which was little read in the US and even less so in Europe. When Gibbs submitted his long paper on the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances to the academy, both Elias Loomis and H. A. Newton protested that they did not understand Gibbs's work at all, but they helped to raise the money needed to pay for the typesetting of the many mathematical symbols in the paper. Several Yale faculty members, as well as business and professional men in New Haven, contributed funds for that purpose.
Even though it had been immediately embraced by Maxwell, Gibbs's graphical formulation of the laws of thermodynamics came into widespread use only in the mid 20th century, with the work of László Tisza and Herbert Callen. According to James Gerald Crowther,
in his later years [Gibbs] was a tall, dignified gentleman, with a healthy stride and ruddy complexion, performing his share of household chores, approachable and kind (if unintelligible) to students. Gibbs was highly esteemed by his friends, but American science was too preoccupied with practical questions to make much use of his profound theoretical work during his lifetime. He lived out his quiet life at Yale, deeply admired by a few able students but making no immediate impress on American science commensurate with his genius.
On the other hand, Gibbs did receive the major honors then possible for an academic scientist in the US. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1879 and received the 1880 Rumford Prize from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on chemical thermodynamics. In 1895, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1895. He was also awarded honorary doctorates by Princeton University and Williams College.
In Europe, Gibbs was inducted as honorary member of the London Mathematical Society in 1892 and elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1897. He was elected as corresponding member of the Prussian and French Academies of Science and received honorary doctorates from the universities of Dublin, Erlangen, and Christiania (now Oslo). The Royal Society further honored Gibbs in 1901 with the Copley Medal, then regarded as the highest international award in the natural sciences, noting that he had been "the first to apply the second law of thermodynamics to the exhaustive discussion of the relation between chemical, electrical and thermal energy and capacity for external work." Gibbs, who remained in New Haven, was represented at the award ceremony by Commander Richardson Clover, the US naval attaché in London.
In his autobiography, mathematician Gian-Carlo Rota tells of casually browsing the mathematical stacks of Sterling Library and stumbling on a handwritten mailing list, attached to some of Gibbs's course notes, which listed over two hundred notable scientists of his day, including Poincaré, Boltzmann, David Hilbert, and Ernst Mach. From this, Rota concluded that Gibbs's work was better known among the scientific elite of his day than the published material suggests. Lynde Wheeler reproduces that mailing list in an appendix to his biography of Gibbs. That Gibbs succeeded in interesting his European correspondents in his work is demonstrated by the fact that his monograph "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" was translated into German (then the leading language for chemistry) by Wilhelm Ostwald in 1892 and into French by Henri Louis Le Châtelier in 1899.
== Influence ==
Gibbs's most immediate and obvious influence was on physical chemistry and statistical mechanics, two disciplines which he greatly helped to found. During Gibbs's lifetime, his phase rule was experimentally validated by Dutch chemist H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom, who showed how to apply it in a variety of situations, thereby assuring it of widespread use. In industrial chemistry, Gibbs's thermodynamics found many applications during the early 20th century, from electrochemistry to the development of the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia.
When Dutch physicist J. D. van der Waals received the 1910 Nobel Prize "for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids" he acknowledged the great influence of Gibbs's work on that subject. Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize for his work on quantum mechanics, particularly his 1900 paper on Planck's law for quantized black-body radiation. That work was based largely on the thermodynamics of Kirchhoff, Boltzmann, and Gibbs. Planck declared that Gibbs's name "not only in America but in the whole world will ever be reckoned among the most renowned theoretical physicists of all times."
The first half of the 20th century saw the publication of two influential textbooks that soon came to be regarded as founding documents of chemical thermodynamics, both of which used and extended Gibbs's work in that field: these were Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Processes (1923), by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall, and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933), by Edward A. Guggenheim.
Chemist Frederick G. Donnan compared Gibbs to epoch-making scientists such as Isaac Newton, Joseph-Louis Lagrange and William Rowan Hamilton, stating:Gibbs ranks with men like Newton, Lagrange and Hamilton, who by the sheer force and power of their minds have produced those generalized statements of scientific law which mark epochs in the advance of exact knowledge.Physicist Robert Andrews Millikan compared the work of Gibbs to what Pierre-Simon Laplace and James Clerk Maxwell achieved, stating that:
He did for statistical mechanics and for thermodynamics what Laplace did for celestial mechanics and Maxwell did for electrodynamics, namely, made his field a well-nigh finished theoretical structure.Gibbs's work on statistical ensembles, as presented in his 1902 textbook, has had a great impact in both theoretical physics and in pure mathematics. According to mathematical physicist Arthur Wightman,
It is one of the striking features of the work of Gibbs, noticed by every student of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, that his formulations of physical concepts were so felicitously chosen that they have survived 100 years of turbulent development in theoretical physics and mathematics.
Initially unaware of Gibbs's contributions in that field, Albert Einstein wrote three papers on statistical mechanics, published between 1902 and 1904. After reading Gibbs's textbook (which was translated into German by Ernst Zermelo in 1905), Einstein declared that Gibbs's treatment was superior to his own and explained that he would not have written those papers if he had known Gibbs's work.
Gibbs's early papers on the use of graphical methods in thermodynamics reflect a powerfully original understanding of what mathematicians would later call "convex analysis", including ideas that, according to Barry Simon, "lay dormant for about seventy-five years". Important mathematical concepts based on Gibbs's work on thermodynamics and statistical mechanics include the Gibbs lemma in game theory, the Gibbs inequality in information theory, as well as Gibbs sampling in computational statistics.
The development of vector calculus was Gibbs's other great contribution to mathematics. The publication in 1901 of E. B. Wilson's textbook Vector Analysis, based on Gibbs's lectures at Yale, did much to propagate the use of vectorial methods and notation in both mathematics and theoretical physics, definitively displacing the quaternions that had until then been dominant in the scientific literature.
At Yale, Gibbs was also mentor to Lee De Forest, who went on to invent the triode amplifier and has been called the "father of radio". De Forest credited Gibbs's influence for the realization "that the leaders in electrical development would be those who pursued the higher theory of waves and oscillations and the transmission by these means of intelligence and power." Another student of Gibbs who played a significant role in the development of radio technology was Lynde Wheeler.
Gibbs also had an indirect influence on mathematical economics. He supervised the thesis of Irving Fisher, who received the first PhD in economics from Yale in 1891. In that work, published in 1892 as Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices, Fisher drew a direct analogy between Gibbsian equilibrium in physical and chemical systems, and the general equilibrium of markets, and he used Gibbs's vectorial notation. Gibbs's protégé Edwin Bidwell Wilson became, in turn, a mentor to leading American economist and Nobel Laureate Paul Samuelson. In 1947, Samuelson published Foundations of Economic Analysis, based on his doctoral dissertation, in which he used as epigraph a remark attributed to Gibbs: "Mathematics is a language." Samuelson later explained that in his understanding of prices his "debts were not primarily to Pareto or Slutsky, but to the great thermodynamicist, Willard Gibbs of Yale."
Mathematician Norbert Wiener cited Gibbs's use of probability in the formulation of statistical mechanics as "the first great revolution of twentieth century physics" and as a major influence on his conception of cybernetics. Wiener explained in the preface to his book The Human Use of Human Beings that it was "devoted to the impact of the Gibbsian point of view on modern life, both through the substantive changes it has made to working science, and through the changes it has made indirectly in our attitude to life in general."
== Commemoration ==
When the German physical chemist Walther Nernst visited Yale in 1906 to give the Silliman lecture, he was surprised to find no tangible memorial for Gibbs. Nernst donated his $500 lecture fee to the university to help pay for a suitable monument. This was finally unveiled in 1912, in the form of a bronze bas-relief by sculptor Lee Lawrie, installed in the Sloane Physics Laboratory. In 1910, the American Chemical Society established the Willard Gibbs Award for eminent work in pure or applied chemistry. In 1923, the American Mathematical Society endowed the Josiah Willard Gibbs Lectureship, "to show the public some idea of the aspects of mathematics and its applications".
In 1945, Yale University created the J. Willard Gibbs Professorship in Theoretical Chemistry, held until 1973 by Lars Onsager. Onsager, who much like Gibbs, focused on applying new mathematical ideas to problems in physical chemistry, won the 1968 Nobel Prize in chemistry. In addition to establishing the Josiah Willard Gibbs Laboratories and the J. Willard Gibbs Assistant Professorship in Mathematics, Yale has also hosted two symposia dedicated to Gibbs's life and work, one in 1989 and another on the centenary of his death, in 2003. Rutgers University endowed a J. Willard Gibbs Professorship of Thermomechanics, held as of 2014 by Bernard Coleman.
Gibbs was elected in 1950 to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans. The oceanographic research ship USNS Josiah Willard Gibbs (T-AGOR-1) was in service with the United States Navy from 1958 to 1971. Gibbs crater, near the eastern limb of the Moon, was named in the scientist's honor in 1964.
Edward Guggenheim introduced the symbol G for the Gibbs free energy in 1933, and this was used also by Dirk ter Haar in 1966. This notation is now universal and is recommended by the IUPAC. In 1960, William Giauque and others suggested the name "gibbs" (abbreviated gbs.) for the unit of entropy calorie per kelvin, but this usage did not become common, and the corresponding SI unit joule per kelvin carries no special name.
In 1954, a year before his death, Albert Einstein was asked by an interviewer who were the greatest thinkers that he had known. Einstein replied: "Lorentz", adding "I never met Willard Gibbs; perhaps, had I done so, I might have placed him beside Lorentz." Author Bill Bryson in his bestselling popular science book A Short History of Nearly Everything ranks Gibbs as "perhaps the most brilliant person that most people have never heard of".
In 1958, USS San Carlos was renamed USNS Josiah Willard Gibbs and re-designated as an oceanographic research ship.
=== In literature ===
In 1909, the American historian and novelist Henry Adams finished an essay entitled "The Rule of Phase Applied to History", in which he sought to apply Gibbs's phase rule and other thermodynamic concepts to a general theory of human history. William James, Henry Bumstead, and others criticized both Adams's tenuous grasp of the scientific concepts that he invoked, as well as the arbitrariness of his application of those concepts as metaphors for the evolution of human thought and society. The essay remained unpublished until it appeared posthumously in 1919, in The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma, edited by Henry Adams's younger brother Brooks.
In the 1930s, feminist poet Muriel Rukeyser became fascinated by Willard Gibbs and wrote a long poem about his life and work ("Gibbs", included in the collection A Turning Wind, published in 1939), as well as a book-length biography (Willard Gibbs, 1942). According to Rukeyser:
Willard Gibbs is the type of the imagination at work in the world. His story is that of an opening up which has had its effect on our lives and our thinking; and, it seems to me, it is the emblem of the naked imagination—which is called abstract and impractical, but whose discoveries can be used by anyone who is interested, in whatever "field"—an imagination which for me, more than that of any other figure in American thought, any poet, or political, or religious figure, stands for imagination at its essential points.
In 1946, Fortune magazine illustrated a cover story on "Fundamental Science" with a representation of the thermodynamic surface that Maxwell had built based on Gibbs's proposal. Rukeyser called this surface a "statue of water" and the magazine saw in it "the abstract creation of a great American scientist that lends itself to the symbolism of contemporary art forms." The artwork by Arthur Lidov also included Gibbs's mathematical expression of the phase rule for heterogeneous mixtures, as well as a radar screen, an oscilloscope waveform, Newton's apple, and a small rendition of a three-dimensional phase diagram.
Gibbs's nephew, Ralph Gibbs Van Name, a professor of physical chemistry at Yale, was unhappy with Rukeyser's biography, in part because of her lack of scientific training. Van Name had withheld the family papers from her and, after her book was published in 1942 to positive literary but mixed scientific reviews, he tried to encourage Gibbs's former students to produce a more technically oriented biography. Rukeyser's approach to Gibbs was also sharply criticized by Gibbs's former student and protégé Edwin Wilson. With Van Name's and Wilson's encouragement, physicist Lynde Wheeler published a new biography of Gibbs in 1951.
Both Gibbs and Rukeyser's biography of him figure prominently in the poetry collection True North (1997) by Stephanie Strickland. In fiction, Gibbs appears as the mentor to character Kit Traverse in Thomas Pynchon's novel Against the Day (2006). That novel also prominently discusses the birefringence of Iceland spar, an optical phenomenon that Gibbs investigated.
=== Gibbs stamp (2005) ===
In 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the American Scientists commemorative postage stamp series designed by artist Victor Stabin, depicting Gibbs, John von Neumann, Barbara McClintock, and Richard Feynman. The first day of issue ceremony for the series was held on May 4 at Yale University's Luce Hall and was attended by John Marburger, scientific advisor to the president of the United States, Rick Levin, president of Yale, and family members of the scientists honored, including physician John W. Gibbs, a distant cousin of Willard Gibbs.
Kenneth R. Jolls, a professor of chemical engineering at Iowa State University and an expert on graphical methods in thermodynamics, consulted on the design of the stamp honoring Gibbs. The stamp identifies Gibbs as a "thermodynamicist" and features a diagram from the 4th edition of Maxwell's Theory of Heat, published in 1875, which illustrates Gibbs's thermodynamic surface for water. Microprinting on the collar of Gibbs's portrait depicts his original mathematical equation for the change in the energy of a substance in terms of its entropy and the other state variables.
== Outline of principal work ==
Physical chemistry: free energy, phase diagram, phase rule, transport phenomena
Statistical mechanics: statistical ensemble, phase space, chemical potential, Gibbs entropy, Gibbs paradox
Mathematics: Vector Analysis, convex analysis, Gibbs phenomenon
Electromagnetism: Maxwell's equations, birefringence
== See also ==
Concentration of measure in physics
Thermodynamics of crystal growth
Governor (device)
List of notable textbooks in statistical mechanics
List of theoretical physicists
List of things named after Josiah W. Gibbs
Timeline of United States discoveries
Timeline of thermodynamics
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
=== Primary ===
L. P. Wheeler, E. O. Waters and S. W. Dudley (eds.),The Early Work of Willard Gibbs in Applied Mechanics, (New York: Henry Schuman, 1947). ISBN 1-881987-17-5. This contains previously unpublished work by Gibbs, from the period between 1863 and 1871.
J. W. Gibbs, "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances", Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 3, 108–248, 343–524, (1874–1878). Reproduced in both The Scientific Papers (1906), pp. 55–353 and The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs (1928), pp. 55–353.
E. B. Wilson, Vector Analysis, a text-book for the use of students of Mathematics and Physics, founded upon the Lectures of J. Willard Gibbs, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929 [1901]).
J. W. Gibbs, Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics, developed with especial reference to the rational foundation of thermodynamics, (New York: Dover Publications, 1960 [1902]).
Gibbs's other papers are included in both:
The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, in two volumes, eds. H. A. Bumstead and R. G. Van Name, (Woodbridge, CT: Ox Bow Press, 1993 [1906]). ISBN 0-918024-77-3, 1-881987-06-X. For scans of the 1906 printing, see vol. I and vol. II.
The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs, in two volumes, eds. W. R. Longley and R. G. Van Name, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957 [1928]). For scans of the 1928 printing, see vol. I and vol. II.
=== Secondary ===
Bumstead, H. A. (1903). "Josiah Willard Gibbs". American Journal of Science. s4-16 (93): 187–202. Bibcode:1903AmJS...16..187A. doi:10.2475/ajs.s4-16.93.187.. Reprinted with some additions in both The Scientific Papers, vol. I, pp. xiii–xxviiii (1906) and The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs, vol. I, pp. xiii–xxviiii (1928). Also available here [1].
D. G. Caldi and G. D. Mostow (editors) (1990) Proceedings of the Gibbs Symposium, Yale University, May 15–17, 1989, American Mathematical Society and American Institute of Physics
W. H. Cropper (2001) "The Greatest Simplicity: Willard Gibbs", in Great Physicists, Oxford University Press, pp. 106–123. ISBN 0-19-517324-4
M. J. Crowe (1967) A History of Vector Analysis: The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System, (New York: Dover, 1994) ISBN 0-486-67910-1
J. G. Crowther, Famous American Men of Science, (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1969 [1937]). ISBN 0-8369-0040-5
F. G. Donnan and A. E. Hass (editors), A Commentary on the Scientific Writings of J. Willard Gibbs, in two volumes, (New York: Arno, 1980 [1936]). ISBN 0-405-12544-5. Only vol I. is currently available online.
P. Duhem (1908) Josiah-Willard Gibbs à propos de la publication de ses Mémoires scientifiques, Paris: A. Herman
C. S. Hastings (1909) "Josiah Willard Gibbs", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, 6, 373–393
M. J. Klein, "Gibbs, Josiah Willard", in Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 5, (Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008), pp. 386–393.
M. Rukeyser, Willard Gibbs: American Genius, (Woodbridge, CT: Ox Bow Press, 1988 [1942]). ISBN 0-918024-57-9
R. J. Seeger (1974) J. Willard Gibbs, American mathematical physicist par excellence, Pergamon Press ISBN 0-08-018013-2
L. P. Wheeler, Josiah Willard Gibbs, The History of a Great Mind, (Woodbridge, CT: Ox Bow Press, 1998 [1951]). ISBN 1-881987-11-6
A. S. Wightman, "Convexity and the notion of equilibrium state in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics". Published as an introduction to R. B. Israel, Convexity in the Theory of Lattice Gases, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), pp. ix–lxxxv. ISBN 0-691-08209-X
E. B. Wilson (1931) "Reminiscences of Gibbs by a student and colleague", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 37, 401–416
== External links ==
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Josiah Willard Gibbs", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
"Josiah Willard Gibbs Archived May 1, 2015, at the Wayback Machine", in Selected Papers of Great American Scientists, American Institute of Physics, (2003 [1976])
Josiah Willard Gibbs at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
"Gibbs" by Muriel Rukeyser
Reflections on Gibbs: From Statistical Physics to the Amistad by Leo Kadanoff, Prof.
National Academy of Sciences, Biography, Josiah Willard Gibbs
Josiah Willard Gibbs Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_UEFA_Champions_League_group_stage | 2018–19 UEFA Champions League group stage | The 2018–19 UEFA Champions League group stage began on 18 September and ended on 12 December 2018. A total of 32 teams competed in the group stage to decide the 16 places in the knockout phase of the 2018–19 UEFA Champions League.
== Draw ==
The draw for the group stage was held on 30 August 2018, 18:00 CEST, at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco.
The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other. For the draw, the teams were seeded into four pots based on the following principles (Regulations Article 13.06):
Pot 1 contained the Champions League title holders, the Europa League title holders, and the champions of the top six associations based on their 2017 UEFA country coefficients. If either the Champions League or Europa League title holders were one of the champions of the top six associations, the champions of the association ranked seventh (and possibly eighth) were also seeded into Pot 1.
Pot 2, 3 and 4 contained the remaining teams, seeded based on their 2018 UEFA club coefficients.
On 17 July 2014, the UEFA emergency panel ruled that Ukrainian and Russian clubs would not be drawn against each other "until further notice" due to the political unrest between the countries.
Moreover, the draw was controlled for teams from the same association in order to split the teams evenly into the two sets of four groups (A–D, E–H) for maximum television coverage. On each matchday, one set of four groups played their matches on Tuesday, while the other set of four groups played their matches on Wednesday, with the two sets of groups alternating between each matchday. The following pairings were announced by UEFA after the group stage teams were confirmed:
The fixtures were decided after the draw, using a computer draw not shown to public, with the following match sequence (Regulations Article 16.02):
There were scheduling restrictions: for example, teams from the same city (e.g. Real Madrid and Atlético Madrid) in general were not scheduled to play at home on the same matchday (to avoid them playing at home on the same day or on consecutive days, due to logistics and crowd control), and teams from "winter countries" (e.g. Russia) were not scheduled to play at home on the last matchday (due to cold weather).
== Teams ==
Below were the participating teams (with their 2018 UEFA club coefficients), grouped by their seeding pot. They included:
26 teams which entered in this stage
6 winners of the play-off round (4 from Champions Path, 2 from League Path)
Notes
== Format ==
In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the Europa League round of 32.
=== Tiebreakers ===
Teams were ranked according to points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss), and if tied on points, the following tiebreaking criteria were applied, in the order given, to determine the rankings (Regulations Articles 17.01):
Points in head-to-head matches among tied teams;
Goal difference in head-to-head matches among tied teams;
Goals scored in head-to-head matches among tied teams;
Away goals scored in head-to-head matches among tied teams;
If more than two teams were tied, and after applying all head-to-head criteria above, a subset of teams were still tied, all head-to-head criteria above was reapplied exclusively to this subset of teams;
Goal difference in all group matches;
Goals scored in all group matches;
Away goals scored in all group matches;
Wins in all group matches;
Away wins in all group matches;
Disciplinary points (red card = 3 points, yellow card = 1 point, expulsion for two yellow cards in one match = 3 points);
UEFA club coefficient.
== Groups ==
The matchdays were 18–19 September, 2–3 October, 23–24 October, 6–7 November, 27–28 November, and 11–12 December 2018. The scheduled kickoff times were 21:00 CET/CEST, with two matches on each Tuesday and Wednesday scheduled for 18:55 CET/CEST.
Times are CET/CEST, as listed by UEFA (local times, if different, are in parentheses).
=== Group A ===
=== Group B ===
=== Group C ===
=== Group D ===
=== Group E ===
=== Group F ===
=== Group G ===
=== Group H ===
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gordon_(journalist) | Carl Gordon (journalist) | Carl Gordon (13 March 1931 – 2002) was a Scottish journalist best known for his reporting on the Lower Clyde region and his later work with The Herald.
== Early life and education ==
Gordon was born in Greenock and attended Mearns Street School and Greenock High School. His maternal grandfather was from Copenhagen, which encouraged his early interest in Scandinavian languages. By the time he left school at age 14, he had begun teaching himself Danish. His first employment was as a railway clerk in the Greenock area.
== Military service ==
In 1949 he was called up for National Service. After training with the Royal Army Service Corps (later the Royal Logistic Corps), he was posted to the War Office (now the Ministry of Defence). He left the Army in 1951 with the rank of sergeant.
== Journalism career ==
Gordon had aspired to become a journalist from an early age. Shortly after leaving the Army, he joined The Greenock Telegraph, where he eventually became the paper's first deputy news editor.
In 1967 he accepted a position as Greenock-based reporter for the Glasgow Herald and the Evening Times. His reporting beat included the Lower Clyde, covering areas such as Dunoon and Rothesay. During this period, the region experienced a high level of maritime activity, including ship launches, liner calls and busy docks, alongside coverage of local councils, the US base at the Holy Loch and the emerging oil industry.
As shipyards and heavy industry in the region declined in the 1970s, the need for a dedicated Lower Clyde correspondent diminished. Gordon transferred to Glasgow in 1979.
== Major stories ==
From Glasgow, Gordon covered several notable cases, including the sinking of the Kintyre fishing vessel Antares, in which four crew members died after the boat's nets were caught by the Royal Navy submarine HMS Trenchant . He also reported on the subsequent fatal accident inquiry.
In 1992 he covered the Arthur Thompson murder trial, which ran for 54 days at the High Court in Glasgow. At the time, it was one of the longest trials in Scottish criminal history. After the trial concluded, Lord McCluskey, the presiding judge, sent Gordon a note acknowledging his reporting. During the proceedings, Paul Ferris, who was acquitted, wrote to The Herald commenting on the newspaper's coverage.
== Later life ==
Gordon retired in 1994. He made frequent visits to Scandinavia, especially Denmark, where he had relatives and close friends, and he wrote travel pieces for The Herald focusing on locations less familiar to Scottish readers. He was a member of the Scandinavia Philatelic Society and the Greenock Philatelic Society.
In 1965 he married Arline June Bloomfield, who died in 1984 at the age of 37. They had one son and one daughter.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candela_Obscura#:~:text=Candela%20Obscura%20premiered%20at%2019,last%20Thursday%20of%20each%20month. | Candela Obscura | Candela Obscura is the name of both an American actual play web series and its spinoff tabletop role-playing game system.
The Candela Obscura show is a horror anthology series in which actors play a tabletop role-playing game of the same name. It was created by Taliesin Jaffe and Chris Lockey, directed by Steve Failows and produced by Failows and Maxwell James for Critical Role Productions. It is Critical Role's first series to use a game and a system owned by the company. Over the course of a few episodes, different casts of characters join the secret order Candela Obscura and form a circle to investigate several supernatural phenomena, guided by a Lightkeeper. The chapters of Candela Obscura are mostly conceived as self-contained miniseries, following a different set of characters within the same fictional universe called the Fairelands. It premiered on May 25, 2023, on Twitch and YouTube and is broadcast on the last Thursday of each month at 19:00 PT. The first chapter's video on demand was uploaded to YouTube two weeks after the first broadcast. However, with the second chapter, the VODs are now uploaded to Critical Role's YouTube channel on the Monday after the live stream.
The Candela Obscura game system is based on the Illuminated Worlds system. A quick start guide for Candela Obscura was published to coincide with the start of the show; the core rule book was released on November 14, 2023.
== Series ==
The series takes place in the Fairelands, a coastal valley found in the country of Hale, which is plagued by several types of magical horrors that bleed in the world through thinnings of The Flare, a boundary that separates the different realms that comprise this universe. After a cold wave, named the Shiver, hits the region, Hale is attacked by the Otherwhere, who wish to seize their resources. Following a six-year conflict, Hale ended up winning the war thanks to new military equipment created after the invention of the electricity. In 1907, the city of Newfaire is enjoying a period of prosperity, but mysteries that threaten the newfound peace lie under the city, in the ruins of the dead civilization that inhabited Oldfaire. A secret order, Candela Obscura, has dedicated centuries to the study and containment of these phenomena, which are examined by different circles of investigators guided by a Lightkeeper.
Each chapter is standalone from each other and feature different casts. During the first chapter, an inexperienced group of investigators, guided by Lightkeeper O'Neill, form the Circle of the Vassal and the Veil to investigate a new phenomenon in the district of the Steel.
=== Production and format ===
The concept for the game was created by Critical Role cast member Taliesin Jaffe and Chris Lockey, while the series was directed by Steve Failows and produced by Failows and Maxwell James. Development began before the COVID-19 pandemic, but was paused during lockdown. The series is divided in chapters, representing various story arcs guided by different game masters and composed by several episodes, which will each feature a distinct investigation. Chapters one to four are composed of three standalone episodes each. Jaffe, as the Lightkeeper, appears briefly at the start of each episode to provide a prologue.
=== Casting ===
The first chapter stars Jaffe as the Lightkeeper and fellow Critical Role regular cast members Laura Bailey and Ashley Johnson, alongside Anjali Bhimani and Robbie Daymond, who previously appeared on Critical Role's spin-off series Exandria Unlimited. The first chapter is led by Critical Role dungeon master Matthew Mercer as the chapter's game master. Bailey plays as the medium Arlo Black, Bhimani as the magician Charlotte "Charlie" Eaves, Johnson as the criminal August "Auggie" James, and Daymond as the professor Howard Margrove.
The second chapter is led by the Candela Obscura game designer Spenser Starke as the game master. Zehra Fazal joins the cast along with Critical Role regular cast members Marisha Ray, Travis Willingham and Exandria Unlimited: Calamity cast members Brennan Lee Mulligan and Luis Carazo. Carazo plays as the medium Marion Collodi, Fazal as Doctor Jinnah Basar, Mulligan as the soldier Sean Finnerty, Ray as the criminal Beatrix Monroe and Willingham as the journalist Nathaniel Trapp. Jaffe is the only returning cast member from Chapter 1; reprising the Lightkeeper role.
The third chapter is led by Aabria Iyengar as the game master with Noshir Dalal, Sam Riegel, Gina Darling, Ashly Burch and Liam O'Brien as players. Like the previous chapters, Jaffe reprises the Lightkeeper role. Burch plays as Doctor Elsie Roberts, Dalal as Professor Rajan Savarimuthu, Darling as the magician Cordelia Glask, O'Brien as the occultist Cosmo Grimm and Riegel as the soldier Oscar Grimm.
O'Brien returns in the fourth chapter as the game master with Jaffe, Aimee Carrero, Imari Williams, and Alexander Ward as players; Jaffe also reprises the Lightkeeper role.
Starke will return as the game master for the Candela Obscura Live one-shot special with Mercer, Bailey, Ray and guest star Khary Payton as players. Jaffe will act as the Master of Ceremonies. Ahead of the live show, the cast will create their characters and form their circle in front of the VIP ticket holders.
=== Broadcast ===
Candela Obscura premiered at 19:00 PT on May 25, 2023, on Critical Role's Twitch and YouTube channels; the series broadcasts on the last Thursday of each month. For the first chapter, the video on demand (VOD) was uploaded two weeks after the episodes' first broadcast. With the second chapter, the VOD schedule was changed to the Monday following. Additionally, the second chapter's premiere was simulcast live in Cinemark Theatres along with the regular Twitch and YouTube livestream on August 31, 2023. The premiere of the second chapter's third episode was delayed one week to accommodate the broadcast of the Critical Role special The Mighty Nein Reunion: Echoes of the Solstice which aired in the Candela Obscura timeslot. The fourth chapter's title, The Circle of the Crimson Mirror, and premiere date of February 29, 2024 was revealed in the last episode of the third chapter. A live show was recorded on May 25, 2024, at The United Theater on Broadway in Los Angeles; the special then premiered on May 30, 2024. The show went on hiatus in June 2024.
=== Episodes ===
== Game system ==
Candela Obscura is a role-playing game using the Illuminated Worlds role-playing game system, which was designed by Stras Acimovic and Layla Adelman for Darrington Press. The D6-system is best suited for short cinematic story arcs and character-focused narratives. Candela Obscura was created by Jaffe and Lockey, and designed and written by Spenser Starke and Rowan Hall. The show is titled after the game. Mercer, who is the Critical Role Dungeon Master and Candela Obscura show's first gamemaster, commented that "as a GM who's grown up on D&D, having a system that requires me to roll pretty much no dice at all allows me to be entirely present with the players. I wasn't sure if I would like that at first, but it turns out that having the players define the action gives them an extra aspect of immersion".
Polygon reported that the design of Candela Obscura takes "inspiration and some key mechanics from John Harper's beloved heist RPG Blades in the Dark as well as Free League Publishing's Nordic horror game Vaesen". In May 2023, Harper wrote, "it's very cool to see this iteration of Forged in the Dark design from the team at Darrington". On the development of the game system, Starke said he and Hall inherited the Illuminated Worlds system from Acimovic and Adelman, so for them "it was more about marrying the Candela Obscura concept in Taliesin's head with the scaffolding Stras and Layla had already developed". While it has "hallmarks" of the Forged in the Dark system due to Acimovic's design background, Starke commented:I love so much of what he and Layla crafted specifically for us here. To just hit on one aspect of that, the drive economy is such a player-focused mechanic that really lets you make decisions about when rolls are important to you. I also am really excited about the marks and scars system that Rowan and I developed for Candela specifically, which lets the impacts of the damage you take live with you and, quite literally, change you.
=== Publication ===
Darrington Press released the Candela Obscura Quickstart Guide on May 25, the show's premiere date, which introduces both the Candela Obscura setting and the game system. Darrington Press also ran gameplay sessions of Candela Obscura at Gen Con. The Candela Obscura Core Rulebook was released on November 14, 2023, with two hardcover editions and a digital edition on the Demiplane Nexus platform. Digital editions were then released on Roll20 and DriveThruRPG in December 2023.
Beadle & Grimm partnered with Darrington Press to create a Candela Obscura adventure module titled Horrors of the Fairelands; this sourcebook features eight adventure assignments. Beadle & Grimm is scheduled to release the Horrors of the Fairelands Premium Edition in February 2025 – along with the sourcebook, this edition will include items such as maps, art cards, physical props, other player handouts, and digital integration on various platforms. Following the release of the Premium Edition, Beadle & Grimm will release Horrors of the Fairelands as a standalone sourcebook.
== Reception ==
=== Web series ===
After the first episode, Polygon's Em Friedman compared Candela Obscura to actual play series such as Kollok and Dimension 20's campaign Shriek Week, which are all series based on systems with a single die that allow smoother gameplay and shift the focus on characters and world-building. Friedman also noted how the narrative presents clear phases, controlled by Mercer, and considered the series a good visual representation of the game. Friedman commented that "while Darrington Press is not branding Illuminated Worlds as a system nor Candela Obscura as a game specifically intended for performed play, it's clear that the rules are designed to get out of the way, avoiding lengthy rules lookups that can bog down live play". Linda Codega, for Io9, stated that while "Mercer is an incredible Game Master", his "style of play" made them feel that the "guardrails" in the first episode are "a little too high". Codega wrote that "rarely are there questions of difference raised between character decisions and GM intention, because in this episode of Candela Obscura the players and the GM are working in near-perfect sync. [...] While this gameplay style can be conducive to a collaborative storytelling process, in Candela Obscura, the result is a gaunt game that is, at best, just good". After the release of the second chapter's first episode, Tara McCauley of CBR commented positively on the transition between chapters – "the shift in tone and thematic exploration between the two parties showcases the enticing anthological capabilities of Candela Obscura". McCauley highlighted the "format and production" of the series which has led to "a more immersive, almost radio-play style, experience for audiences" and that the costuming of the cast in each arc adds "a theatrical dimension to the series' performances". McCauley also emphasized the impact of the set's lighting and sound design especially in scenes focused on a character's PTSD.
Gena McCrann of Dicebreaker called Starke's game master style "cinematic" and that "he lays out his scenes in the language of film". McCrann viewed the second chapter as a very "character-driven" arc with players who are also a surrogate audience which is emphasized when "they feel the same horror and joy and investment in this as we do". Christian Hoffer, for ComicBook.com in August 2023, highlighted the change in the VOD broadcast schedule for the second chapter noting that "while the VOD version of Candela Obscura Episode 1 had 1.1 million views, the finale of the three-arc chapter had 165,000 views by comparison". Hoffer commented that Ray, as creative director for Critical Role, stated "the two week window meant that it was initially hard for people to start watching on a live stream and then finish on the VOD version" so the aim of shorting the gap between initial broadcast and VOD is to increase viewership". In June 2024, Tara McCauley for The Escapist highlighted the "effortless" design of the show which allows the audience to "jump into Candela Obscura's narrative at any point" – "while Candela Obscura's three-episode arcs are easily digestible, The Circle of the Silver Screen's single-episode performance assures the swiftest on-ramp into Critical Role's horror venture". McCauley commented that the actual play "anthology's short-form narratives and manageable schedule present a draw to new audiences, especially those previously intimidated by the main show's extensive back catalog. However, as the series represents the company's foray into game publishing, it has plenty to entice long-time fans invested in the channel's growth beyond the confines of Dungeons & Dragons".
=== Tabletop role-playing game system ===
Codega wrote that there's "nothing wrong" with either "Candela Obscura (the game)" or "Candela Obscura (the performance). But both are, disappointingly, not doing anything particularly novel". After reviewing the Candela Obscura Quickstart Guide, Chase Carter for Dicebreaker felt "ambivalent" about the game's ability to create a bridge that would allow "the colloquial Critters an avenue into the rich vein of tabletop titles beyond Wizards of the Coast's shadow".
Critical reviews of the Candela Obscura tabletop role-playing game system tend to emphasize its inferiority to previous games in the horror genre, particularly its direct inspiration Blades in the Dark. Samantha Nelson wrote in the Polygon review "Critical Role’s Candela Obscura is but a pale shadow of its inspiration, Blades in the Dark" that the Newfaire setting "feels fairly homogeneous", that "the sample sessions play out like fairly bland procedurals", and that overall the game "might make a great way for the Critical Role crew to show off their acting talents, but it doesn’t seem as useful for someone who just wants to run a game at home with their friends." Dan Arndt, in a review of the Candela Obscura Core Rulebook for The Fandomentals, commented that his "biggest issue" was the game's "inability to actually create something that feels actually original, and part of that comes down to its failure as a piece of horror" since "horror works when it's being transgressive" and "Candela Obscura is so worried about making sure everyone feels 'safe' at the table, so worried that people won't think it's endorsing any bad actions, that it rips out its own teeth and shows you the gums. It's not even defanged because I don't think it even had fangs". Arndt opined that other horror games such as Vaesen and Blades In the Dark are better at "everything that Candela Obscura wants to do". Aaron Marks of the ENNIE Award nominated website Cannibal Halfling Gaming commented that "at the end of the day, we have a Forged in the Dark game, distilled for Actual Play use. Many of the setting principles of Blades in the Dark and Vaesen are there but dulled down, lightening up the darkness and removing any allusions to actual capitalist exploitation or actual commentary on Christian expansion and hegemony as existed in Vaesen".
Critics disagree about how well the game handles social justice issues. Nelson for Polygon wrote that Candela Obscura "makes vague efforts at exploring themes of social justice with plots involving corruption and police malfeasance, but they are hamstrung by the game’s explicit denial of intersectionality". However, Hayley McCullough, in a positive review for the American Journalism Historians Association, commented that while Candela Obscura incorporates cosmic horror, it "does not uncritically reproduce the problematic elements of Lovecraftian Horror" and instead "challenges the legacy of harm associated with the genre and its offshoots and encourages players to adopt inclusive styles of storytelling and gameplay as part of its rules".
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Justice_of_Bolivia#:~:text=The%20Supreme%20Court%20of%20Bolivia%20was%20composed%20of%2012%20ministers,the%20Supreme%20Court%20of%20Bolivia. | Supreme Court of Justice of Bolivia | The Supreme Court of Bolivia (Spanish: Corte Suprema de Justicia de Bolivia) was Bolivia's highest court from 1825 to 2012. It was located in Sucre, 410 kilometres to the south-east of La Paz, Bolivia's capital. The Court was created by the Supreme Decree (Decreto Supremo) of April 27, 1825, which transformed the Royal Audience of Charcas (Audiencia y Cancillería Real de La Plata de los Charcas) of imperial Spain into the Supreme Court of the newly independent country. The Supreme Court of Bolivia was officially inaugurated on July 16, 1827.
== Composition ==
The Supreme Court of Bolivia was composed of 12 ministers (judges) who served 10-year terms after election by the National Congress.
In 1827, Manuel María Urcullo became the first President of the Supreme Court of Bolivia. He was joined by Ministers (Judges) Mariano Guzmán, Juan de la Cruz Monje y Ortega, and Casimiro Olañeta. The following individuals were among the 56 ministers that served as the court's president:
José María Serrano
Casimiro Olañeta
José María Dalence
Manuel Sánchez de Velasco
Pantaleón Dalence
Belisario Boeto
Luis Paz
Ángel Sandóval
Mario C. Araoz
José Torrico Sierra
Manuel Durán Padilla
Raúl Romero Linares
Remberto Prado Montaño
Édgar Oblitas Fernández
Óscar Hassenteufel Salazar
Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé
Héctor Sandóval Parada
== Abolition ==
The court was superseded in January 2012 by the Supreme Court of Justice under the 2009 constitution.
== See also ==
Supreme Court of Justice (Bolivia)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia_2 | Nokia 2 | The Nokia 2 is a Nokia-branded budget Android smartphone by HMD Global. It was announced on 31 October 2017.
== Specifications ==
=== Hardware ===
The Nokia 2 has a 5.0-inch LTPS IPS LCD display, a quad-core 1.3 GHz Cortex-A7 Qualcomm Snapdragon 212 processor, 1 GB of RAM and 8 GB of internal storage that can be expanded using microSD cards up to 128 GB. The phone features a 4100 mAh battery, and is claimed to have two-day battery life. The device has an 8 MP rear camera with LED flash, and a 5 MP front-facing camera. It is available in pewter and black, pewter and white, and copper and black colours.
=== Software ===
The Nokia 2 launched with Android 7.1.1 Nougat, and can be upgraded to Android 8.1 Oreo. In June 2019, HMD stated they would not be updating the phone to Android 9 Pie, because the System-on-Chip which it runs on, is not powerful enough to offer satisfactory performance with Android Pie.
== Reception ==
The Nokia 2 received mixed reviews. Andrew Williams of TechRadar praised the phone’s battery life and pricing, while criticising the slow performance, poor cameras, and limited storage.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Georg_Thierack | Otto Georg Thierack | Otto Georg Thierack (19 April 1889 – 26 October 1946) was a German Nazi jurist and politician.
== Early life and career ==
Thierack was born in Wurzen in Saxony. He took part in the First World War from 1914 to 1918 as a volunteer, reaching the rank of lieutenant. He suffered a facial injury and was decorated with the Iron Cross, second class. After the war ended, he resumed his interrupted law studies and ended them in 1920 with his Assessor (junior lawyer) examination. In the same year, he was hired as a court Assessor in Saxony.
== Joining the Nazi Party ==
On 1 August 1932, Thierack joined the Nazi Party. After the Nazis seized power in 1933, he managed within a very short time to rise high in the ranks from a prosecutor to President of the People's Court (Volksgerichtshof). The groundwork on which this rise was built was not merely that Thierack had been a Nazi Party member, but rather also that he had been leader of the National Socialist jurists' organization, the so-called Rechtswahrerbund.
== Justice Minister of Saxony ==
Having been appointed Saxony's justice minister on 12 May 1933, it was Thierack's job to "nazify" the administration of justice within the region. After going through several mid-level professional posts, he became vice president of the Reich Court in 1935, and in May 1936 president of the Volksgerichtshof, which had been newly founded in 1934. He held this job, interrupted as it was by two stints in the armed forces, until August 1942, when he was succeeded in the position by Roland Freisler. On 20 August 1942, he succeeded Hans Frank as President of the Academy for German Law.
== Reich Minister of Justice ==
On 20 August 1942, Thierack assumed the office of Reich Minister of Justice. He introduced the monthly Richterbriefe in October 1942, in which were presented model – from the Nazi leaders' standpoint – decisions, with names left out, upon which German jurisprudence was to be based. He also introduced the so-called Vorschauen and Nachschauen ("previews" and "inspections"). After this, the higher state court presidents, in proceedings of public interest, had at least every two weeks to discuss with the public prosecutor's office and the State Court president – who had to pass this on the responsible criminal courts – how a case was to be judged before the court's decision.
When he became Reich Minister of Justice in August 1942, Thierack saw to it that the lengthy paperwork involved in clemency proceedings for those sentenced to death was greatly shortened. In September of that year, he caused all those in custody who were "Jews, Gypsies, Russians, Poles sentenced to over three years, Czechs, or Germans serving a sentence of over eight years" to be classified as "asocial elements" and transferred to Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler to be worked to death.
At Thierack's instigation, the execution shed at Plötzensee Prison in Berlin was outfitted with eight iron hooks in December 1942 so that several people could be put to death at once, by hanging (there had already been a guillotine there for quite a while). The mass executions began on 7 September 1943 but due to their rapidity some prisoners were hanged "by mistake". Thierack dismissed these as errors and demanded that the hangings continue. Thierack was named to continue as Minister of Justice in Hitler's political testament. He served in the brief Goebbels cabinet but was dismissed on 5 May 1945 by Hitler's successor, Reichspräsident Karl Dönitz.
== Arrest and suicide ==
The Allies arrested Thierack after the end of World War II. Before he was brought to trial before the court at the Nuremberg Judges' Trial, Thierack committed suicide in Sennelager, Paderborn, by poisoning himself.
== References ==
Notes
Bibliography
Braun, Konstanze (2005). Dr. Otto Georg Thierack (1889–1946). Rechtshistorische Reihe. Vol. 325. Bern/Frankfurt a.M. [u.a.]: Peter Lang. ISBN 363154457X.
== External links ==
Biographical overview at the German Historical Museum (in German)
Newspaper clippings about Otto Georg Thierack in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Joon-pyo | Hong Joon-pyo | Hong Joon-pyo (Korean: 홍준표; born 20 November 1953) is a South Korean retired politician and prosecutor who served as the mayor of Daegu from 2022 to 2025. He previously served as the governor of South Gyeongsang Province, a member of the National Assembly for five terms, and the party leader of the conservative Grand National Party in 2011 and its successor incarnation the Liberty Korea Party from 2017 to 2018.
He was the presidential nominee of the Liberty Korea Party in the 2017 South Korean presidential election and came in second place during the general election, losing to Moon Jae-in. Hong ran as a candidate in the 2022 South Korean presidential election for the nomination of the conservative People Power Party and came in second place during the primaries, narrowly losing to Yoon Suk Yeol. Hong was elected Mayor of Daegu in 2022, but he resigned to launch his third campaign for the presidency in the 2025 South Korean presidential election. Although he advanced from the first round, Hong ultimately failed to win the party primary, subsequently announcing his retirement from politics.
== Early life and education ==
He was born in Changnyeong, South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Hong graduated from Yeungnam High School and received a Bachelor of Laws degree from Korea University. Due to being underweight, he was discharged from the army after only fourteen months of service.
== Career ==
=== Entry into politics ===
In January 1996, Hong joined the New Korea Party. He was elected for the Songpa A constituency during the 1996 election and entered the National Assembly for the first time.
=== First tenure as party leader (2011) ===
Hong was formerly the chairperson of the Grand National Party (which changed its name to the Saenuri Party in 2012 and again changed its name to the Liberty Korea Party in 2017). He stepped down as the chairperson on 9 December 2011 and was replaced by future President Park Geun-hye.
==== Comments on Park Won-soon ====
On 20 October 2011, Hong criticized Seoul Mayor Park Won-soon's The Beautiful Foundation (아름다운재단) for sending money to left-wing citizen groups. Hong was known to have generated much criticism against Park Won-soon in regards to Park's possible allegation of extorting tax money for his oversea visits.
==== Comments on former Grand National Party ====
He considered to rename the Grand National Party to another name after Park Won-soon won the October 2011 election.
=== Governor of South Gyeongsang Province (2012–2017) ===
Hong was first elected as Governor of South Gyeongsang Province in 2012 and re-elected in 2014.
=== 2017 South Korean presidential election ===
Hong secured the nomination of the Liberty Korea Party. His campaign appealed to older, conservative voters with a platform describing Hong as a "strongman." Hong has stated he wanted to be a strong man similar to Park Chung Hee, a former Korean president and dictator who is popular with older conservatives and whose daughter Park Geun-hye was recently impeached amidst allegations of corruption.
Hong finished second among the five major candidates with 24% of the vote behind Moon Jae-in.
=== Second tenure as party leader (2017–2018) ===
Hong was elected as the leader of Liberty Korea Party following his loss in the presidential election. After leading the party to a massive loss in the 2018 local elections on 13 June 2018, Hong resigned as party leader on 14 June 2018.
=== Independent politician (2020–2021) ===
On 17 February 2020, the Liberty Korea Party dissolved and merged with several other parties to become the United Future Party. Hong left the United Future Party in March 2020 after party leaders decided not to give him a candidacy in any of the upcoming 2020 legislative elections. Running as an independent candidate, Hong won the National Assembly election of Suseong B in Daegu on 15 April 2020.
=== 2022 South Korean presidential election ===
On 24 June 2021, Hong rejoined the People Power Party (which had formerly been called the United Future Party until 2 September 2020) and signaled a presidential bid in the upcoming 2022 South Korean presidential election.
On 29 June 2021, Hong Joon-pyo officially entered the 2022 presidential election. He placed 2nd in the final round of the primaries behind the winner Yoon Seok-yeol, winning 41.5 percent of the votes. On 26 April 2022, Hong resigned from the National Assembly after he was chosen as the People Power's nominee for the mayor of Daegu. He went on to win the election for mayor of Daegu and begin his term on 1 July 2022.
Following the 2024 South Korean martial law crisis in December, Hong did not explicitly state his support for any side, but said he understood the "loyalty" of President Yoon Suk Yeol while describing his actions as reckless and "making a scene". Later that month, Hong said that he would run for president in the event of an early presidential election. In February 2025, Hong said that he would step down as mayor in the event that the impeachment of Yoon Suk Yeol was upheld.
=== 2025 South Korean presidential election ===
A day after the removal of Yoon Suk Yeol from office by the Constitutional Court of Korea, Hong expressed his interest in a presidential bid, saying in a statement on Facebook: "I have been thoroughly preparing for this election, considering it the final mission of my 30-year political career. Starting next week, I will proceed step by step with the necessary procedures." Shortly before officially announcing his campaign for the 2025 South Korean presidential election, Hong stepped down as Daegu mayor. He officially declared his candidacy on 14 April. Although he advanced from the first round, he ultimately failed to make it to the runoff in the primaries held by the People Power Party. After his loss, Hong announced that he would retire from politics and leave the People Power party. Hong stated: "I am very thankful that I can graduate from my political life today honorably and cleanly thanks to the care shown to me by party members and the public over the last 30 years."
== Political positions ==
Hong is famous for his right-wing populism, advocating for social conservatism and hawkish approaches to diplomatic issues.
=== Corporate corruption ===
Hong holds economically conservative views. He supports Korean conglomerates, also known as chaebols and wants to reduce the power of trade unions. When asked how he would respond to growing concerns around corrupt practices amongst chaebols, such as those that brought down former President Park Geun-hye's administration, he stated that he would reduce corruption by putting it through a "washing machine".
=== National security ===
Hong has supported maintaining a vigilant approach to national security, supporting the deployment of the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) from the United States. He supports "armed peace." Hong has stated that he supports the nuclear armament of South Korea.
=== Anti-LGBT stance ===
Hong has publicly indicated that he believes that AIDS and HIV are a result of homosexuality, in order to attract the support of conservative voters. In a televised presidential debate, Hong criticized Moon Jae-in on his stances on homosexuality and remarked gay soldiers were a source of weakness in Korean military.
Hong directed civil servants to obstruct the Daegu Queer Culture Festival in 2023 after attempts to halt the festival in court failed. Police intervened to allow the festival to proceed.
=== Death penalty ===
Hong supports the death penalty. In 2017, he said he would revive capital punishment if elected.
== See also ==
2017 South Korean presidential election
Cabinet of Lee Myung-bak
Liberty Korea Party
Right-wing populism
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Hong Joon-pyo at Wikimedia Commons
Hong Joon-pyo on Facebook |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy_(Anne-Marie_album) | Therapy (Anne-Marie album) | Therapy is the second studio album by English singer-songwriter Anne-Marie. It was released on 23 July 2021, through Major Tom's, Asylum Records, and Atlantic Records. The album, a pop record, was produced by TMS, who previously produced her debut studio album, Speak Your Mind (2018), alongside Digital Farm Animals, Mojam, Nathan Dawe, Grades, Sire Noah, Lostboye, Cameron Gower Poole, Oak, Jean-Marie, Rudimental, Elvira Anderfjärd, Blake Slatkin, and Fred Ball. The album features guest appearances from producers Digital Farm Animals, Nathan Dawe, and Rudimental, alongside KSI, Little Mix, Niall Horan (previously of One Direction), and MoStack. Raye also provided backing vocals on the opening track, "x2". Before the album released, four non-album singles preceded the album, included "To Be Young" (featuring Doja Cat).
The album was supported by four singles. The first, "Don't Play" (featuring KSI and Digital Farm Animals), was released on the 15th of January, 2021, and was successful in the United Kingdom, peaking at number 2 on the UK singles chart, Anne-Marie's highest-charting single as a lead artist as of 2025. It also peaked at number 9 on the Irish Singles Chart and was certified Platinum in the UK. The second single, "Way Too Long" (featuring Nathan Dawe and MoStack), was released on the 9th of April, 2021, and was modestly successful, peaking at number 37 in both the UK and Ireland and certifying Silver. The third single, "Our Song" (featuring Niall Horan), was released on the 21st of May, 2021, and was decently successful, peaking at number 13 in the UK and number 7 in Ireland, and certifying Platinum in the UK. The fourth and final single, "Kiss My (Uh-Oh)", was released on the 23rd of July, 2021, and peaked at number 10 on the UK singles chart, where it certified Platinum.
Upon its release, the album was positively received by music critics, who praised the guest appearances and Anne-Marie's vocals, but criticized its lack of a unique sound and confusing direction. Commercially, the album charted higher in the UK than its predecessor, Speak Your Mind, peaking at number 2 on the UK Albums Chart. It also charted at number 4 and number 2 in Ireland and Scotland, and at number 3 on Ultratop's Belgian Albums Chart in Flanders. The album would eventually be certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for equivalent sales of 100,000 units in the country. To promote the album, Anne-Marie went on the Dysfunctional Tour, which featured artists such as Gracey, Billen Ted, and Mimi Webb. A deluxe edition would later be released, featuring the non-album singles "To Be Young" with Doja Cat and "Birthday", alongside a guest appearance from JJ Lin.
== Background ==
Planning for Anne-Marie's second album began in 2019; in an interview with Music Week in March of that year, she provided information on her upcoming second studio album, stating "I love the studio. I was able to get in there and have some sort of therapy with my own brain for a week and that's going towards the next album". She further commented that "the first album was made up of so many songs that people had heard for years and that's amazing. But for me as a creative person, I'm writing something new all the time and all I want to do is put it out straight away. That wasn't the way it happened with [the debut] album so, for this next one, I'm hoping to be more active on writing and put something out straight away that's fresh and no one's heard before." During 2020, Anne-Marie released the standalone singles "Birthday", "Her", "To Be Young" (featuring American singer and rapper Doja Cat) and "Problems", with "Birthday" and "To Be Young" later appearing on the Japanese edition of Therapy.
On 15 January 2021, Anne-Marie released the lead single of Therapy, "Don't Play", in collaboration with British YouTuber and rapper-singer KSI and English DJ and producer Digital Farm Animals. On 9 April 2021, the second single "Way Too Long" was released in collaboration with English producer Nathan Dawe and British rapper MoStack. On 21 May 2021, the third single "Our Song", a collaboration with Niall Horan, was released. On that date, Anne-Marie announced the title, cover art, and release date of Therapy. She later announced that she would embark on the Dysfunctional Tour in 2022, and Therapy: The Live Experience on 7 August 2021 in support of the album.
On 6 July 2021, via Twitter, Anne-Marie created a website that involved her fans/followers to figure out the track-listing for the album, with new ones appearing daily. On 7 July 2021, random followers were sent DMs of one of two snippets of a song along with parts of the title. The track was revealed to be "Kiss My (Uh-Oh)" with British girlband Little Mix on 8 July 2021. The song samples "Never Leave You (Uh Oooh, Uh Oooh)" by Lumidee. The track was announced as the album's fourth single on 9 July 2021 along with its release date being 23 July 2021. A snippet of the song was released on TikTok. The cover was revealed on Anne-Marie's social media on 21 July 2021. On the day of release the song was accompanied by a music video was directed by Hannah Lux Davis. The music video parodies the 2011 comedy film Bridesmaids.
== Composition ==
Therapy was described by music critics as a genre-hopping pop album that draws influence from trance, indie, electronic, trap, UK garage, and pop rock. The opener, "x2", begins as a soulful song before turning into a revenge track. Lead single "Don't Play" was described as a 2-step-influenced UK garage track about heartache. "Kiss My (Uh-Oh)", a collaboration with Little Mix, was described as a calypso-pop number that was compared to the works of Beyoncé. It samples "Never Leave You (Uh Oooh, Uh Oooh)" by Lumidee. "Who I Am" was described as a pop song with lyrics of defiance and self-acceptance. "Unlovable", a collaboration with Rudimental, is a "fist-pumping" dance track. "Beautiful" sees the singer detailing her own insecurities over what NME described as swaying percussion. The tracks "Tell Your Girlfriend" and "Better Not Together" both contain lyrics about turning heartbreak into self-confidence. The title track serves as the closer for the album, being a trop-pop number.
== Promotion ==
=== Dysfunctional Tour ===
On 28 May 2021, Anne-Marie announced the Dysfunctional Tour, scheduled to take place from 3 to 11 May 2022 across cities in United Kingdom and Ireland. Tickets were released to the general public on 4 June at 10 am BST, with the option of pre-sale tickets given to those who pre-ordered Therapy through the singer's official website. The pre-sale tickets were available from 2 to 4 June (for the London and Leeds shows only). North American dates were announced on 30 November 2021. European shows were announced on 7 June 2022, while the Asian leg of the tour was announced on 15 July 2022.
In September 2022, venues announced that both European and North American legs of tour were cancelled due to the singer's scheduling conflict, however Anne-Marie did not issue an official statement. The tour ultimately ran for 2 legs and 11 shows, with Gracey, Billen Ted, and Mimi Webb appearing as supporting acts during the UK & Ireland leg.
==== Tour dates ====
==== Setlist ====
This setlist comes from opening night in Dublin on 3 May 2022, it does not represent the setlist for the remainder of the tour.
"Ciao Adios"
"x2"
"Alarm"
"Tell Your Girlfriend"
"Then"
"Rockabye"
"Therapy"
"Our Song"
"Breathing"
"Beautiful"
"Perfect to Me"
"Better Off"
"2002"
"Kiss My (Uh-Oh)"
"Way Too Long"
"Don't Play"
===== Encore =====
"Friends"
"Birthday"
== Critical reception ==
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Therapy has an average score of 65 based on six reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Ali Shutler of NME compared it favourably to her debut album, writing that while her previous effort "spent too much time playing it safe", "its follow-up Therapy doesn't make the same mistake". Referring to the record as "infinitely more confident" sonically, Shutler gave the album four out of five stars. Robin Murray, writing for Clash, was similarly favourable, rating the album seven out of ten. Murray wrote that the album "pushes her story to its next chapter, and while it features some surging highs, it doesn't quite dispel notions that Anne-Marie has yet to nail down a singular sound she can call her own". Ben Devlin of musicOMH gave the album four out of five stars writing, "her newest record is packed to the brim with famous faces on vocals, songwriting and production, but her relatable, unpretentious, sometimes playful delivery holds disparate sounds and moods together with ease."
Lauren Murphy, writing for The Irish Times was slightly more mixed, criticising songs such as "Beautiful" and "Better Not Together", but states "the majority [of the tracks] land with a thud rather than a glance here". Dani Blum of Pitchfork dubbed the album "crisply rendered [and] competently hooky", noting that it "promises a more personal self-portrait, but [the British singer] ends up disappearing into vague songwriting and anodyne dance-pop production." Michael Cragg of The Guardian was more negative, referring to the album as a "missed opportunity", criticising the amount of collaborators on the album for overshadowing the singer, while preferring the "moments when Anne-Marie's brand of plain-spoken yet vulnerable pop shines through". He ultimately rated the album two out of five stars.
== Commercial performance ==
=== Anglosphere ===
In its first charting week, Therapy opened at number two on the UK Albums Chart with sales of 18,260, of which 12,463 were physical copies. By the end of 2021, the album was positioned at number 98 on the chart. The album would eventually be certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for equivalent sales of 100,000 units. In Australia, the album charted at number 60 on the ARIA Charts. In New Zealand, the album charted at number 36 on the New Zealand Albums Chart.
=== Europe ===
In Austria, the album charted at number 15 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart. In Belgium, the album charted at number 50 on the Ultratop chart in Wallonia and number 3 on the same chart in Flanders. In the Netherlands, the album charted at number 19 on the Dutch Album Top 100 chart. In France, the album charted at number 135 on the French Albums Chart. In Germany, the album charted at number 22 on the Offizielle Deutsche Charts. In Hungary, the album charted at number 5 on the Hungarian Albums Chart. In Ireland, the album charted at number 4 on the Irish Albums Chart. In Lithuania, the album charted at number 54 on the Lithuanian Albums chart. In Slovakia, the album charted at number 78 on the Slovak Albums Chart. In Spain, the album charted at number 76 on the Spanish Albums Chart. In Switzerland, the album charted at number 36 on the Schweizer Hitparade chart.
=== Other countries ===
In Japan, the album charted at number 178 on the Japanese Albums Chart and number 66 on the Billboard Japan Hot Albums chart. In Scotland, the album charted at number 2 on the Scottish Albums Chart.
== Track listing ==
=== Notes ===
"Kiss My (Uh-Oh)" samples "Never Leave You (Uh Oooh, Uh Oooh)", written by Lumidee Cedeño, Teddy Mendez, Edwin Perez, Steven "Lenky" Marsden, Steven Marsden, Trevor Smith, and John Jackson, as performed by Lumidee.
^[m] indicates a main and vocal producer
^[a] indicates an additional producer
^[c] indicates a co-producer
^[v] indicates a vocal producer
== Personnel ==
Credits adapted from Tidal.
=== Musicians ===
=== Technical ===
=== Artwork ===
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Release history ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmiri_language | Kashmiri language | Kashmiri (English: kash-MEER-ee), also known by its endonym Koshur (Kashmiri: کٲشُر (Perso-Arabic, Official Script), pronounced [kəːʃur]), is an Indo-Aryan language of the Dardic branch spoken by around 7 million Kashmiris of the Kashmir region, primarily in the Kashmir Valley and surrounding hills of the Indian-administrated union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, over half the population of that territory. Kashmiri has split ergativity and the unusual verb-second word order.
Since 2020, it has been made an official language of Jammu and Kashmir along with Dogri, Hindi, Urdu and English. Kashmiri is also among the 22 scheduled languages of India.
Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Pakistani-administrated Azad Kashmir's population.
== Geographic distribution and status ==
There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India. Most Kashmiri speakers are located in the Kashmir Valley and other surrounding areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In the Kashmir Valley, Kashmiri speakers form the majority.
The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It was a part of the Eighth Schedule in the former constitution of Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state. After Hindi, Kashmiri is the second fastest growing language of India, followed by Meitei (Manipuri) as well as Gujarati in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India.
Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th centuries, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during the Dogra rule. In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time. Poguli and Kishtwari are closely related to Kashmiri, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.
Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Azad Kashmir's population. According to the 1998 Pakistan Census, there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir. Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir, particularly in the districts of Muzaffarabad (15%), Neelam (20%) and Hattian (15%), with very small minorities in Haveli (5%) and Bagh (2%). The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is distinct from, although still intelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north. In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue. The Kashmiri dialect of Neelum is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularly Kupwara. At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.
A process of language shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguist Tariq Rahman, as they gradually adopt local languages such as Pahari-Pothwari, Hindko or move towards the lingua franca Urdu. This has resulted in these languages gaining ground at the expense of Kashmiri. There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims of Azad Kashmir have seen as their identity symbol. Rahman notes that efforts to organise a Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir.
== Phonology ==
Kashmiri has a very large phoneme inventory: 32 vowels and 62 consonants, giving that vowel nasalization and consonant palatalization are phonemic and not phonetic. It has the following phonemes.
=== Vowels ===
The oral vowels are as follows:
The short high vowels are near-high, and the low vowels apart from /aː/ are near-low.
Nasalization is phonemic. All sixteen oral vowels have nasal counterparts.
=== Consonants ===
Palatalization is phonemic. All consonants apart from those in the post-alveolar/palatal column have palatalized counterparts.
=== Archaisms ===
Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from the Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the three sibilant consonants s ṣ ś of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit as dvi-, has developed into ba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, but du- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stop d). Seventy-two is dusatath in Kashmiri, bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, and dvisaptati in Sanskrit.
Certain features in Kashmiri even appear to stem from Indo-Aryan even predating the Vedic period. For instance, there was an /s/ > /h/ consonant shift in some words that had already occurred with Vedic Sanskrit (This tendency was complete in the Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian), yet is lacking in Kashmiri equivalents. The word rahit in Vedic Sanskrit and modern Hindi (meaning 'excluding' or 'without') corresponds to rost in Kashmiri. Similarly, sahit (meaning 'including' or 'with') corresponds to sost in Kashmiri.
== Writing system ==
There are three orthographical systems used to write the Kashmiri language: the Perso-Arabic script, the Devanagari script and the Sharada script. The Roman script is also sometimes informally used to write Kashmiri, especially online.
The Kashmiri language was traditionally written in the Sharada script from the 8th Century AD onwards. Between the 8th and the first quarter of the 20th century AD, Sharada was the primary script of inscriptional and literary production in Kashmir for Sanskrit and Kashmiri. With increased use of Persian script for writing Kashmiri in the 19th century AD, and the growth of other brahmic scripts such as Devanagari and Takri, the use of Sharada declined. The Sharada script is inadequate for writing modern Kashmiri because it lacks sufficient signs to represent Kashmiri vowels. Modern usage of Sharada is limited to religious ceremonies and rituals of Kashmiri Pandits, and for horoscope-writing by them.
Today Kashmiri is primarily written in Perso-Arabic (with some modifications, such as additions of new signs to represent Kashmiri vowels). Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the scripts that regularly indicates all vowel sounds.
The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script is recognized as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has been derived from Persian alphabet. The consonant inventory and their corresponding pronunciations of Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script doesn't differ from Perso-Arabic script, with the exception of the letter ژ, which is pronounced as /t͡s/ instead of /ʒ/. However, the vowel inventory of Kashmiri is significantly larger than other Perso-Arabic derived or influenced South Asian Perso-Arabic scripts. There are 17 vowels in Kashmiri, shown with diacritics, letters (alif, waw, ye), or both. In Kashmiri, the convention is that most vowel diacritics are written at all times.
Despite Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script cutting across religious boundaries and being used by both the Kashmiri Hindus and the Kashmiri Muslims, some attempts have been made to give a religious outlook regarding the script and make Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims, while the Kashmiri Devanagari script to be associated with some sections of Kashmiri Hindu community.
=== Perso-Arabic script ===
==== Consonants ====
==== Vowels ====
=== Devanagari ===
==== Consonants ====
==== Vowels ====
There have been a few versions of the Devanagari script for Kashmiri.
The 2002 version of the proposal is shown below. This version has readers and more content available on the Internet, even though this is an older proposal.
This version makes use of the vowels ॲ/ऑ and vowel signs
कॅ/कॉ for the schwa-like vowel [ə] and elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] that also exist in other Devanagari-based scripts such as Marathi and Hindi but are used for the sound of other vowels.
Tabulated below is the latest (2009) version of the proposal to spell the Kashmiri vowels with Devanagari.
The primary change in this version is the changed stand alone characters ॳ / ॴ and vowel signs कऺ / कऻ for the schwa-like vowel [ə] & elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] and a new stand alone vowel ॵ and vowel sign कॏ for the open-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ] which can be used instead of the consonant व standing-in for this vowel.
=== Sharada script ===
==== Consonants ====
==== Vowels ====
Vowel mark
== Grammar ==
Kashmiri is a fusional language with verb-second (V2) word order. Several of Kashmiri's grammatical features distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages.
=== Nouns ===
Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are no articles, nor is there any grammatical distinction for definiteness, although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or "generic" noun qualities.
==== Gender ====
The Kashmiri gender system is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, a morphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun. A relatively small group of feminine nouns have unique suppletion forms that are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms. The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms:
Some nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Urdu or English, follow a slightly different gender system. Notably, many words borrowed from Urdu have different genders in Kashmiri.
==== Case ====
There are five cases in Kashmiri: nominative, dative, ergative, ablative and vocative. Case is expressed via suffixation of the noun.
Kashmiri utilizes an ergative-absolutive case structure when the verb is in past simple tense. Thus, in these sentences, the subject of a transitive verb is marked in the ergative case and the object in nominative, which is identical to how the subject of an intransitive verb is marked. However, in sentences constructed in any other tense, or in past tense sentences with intransitive verbs, a nominative-dative paradigm is adopted, with objects (whether direct or indirect) generally marked in dative case.
Other case distinctions, such as locative, instrumental, genitive, comitative and allative, are marked by postpositions rather than suffixation.
==== Noun morphology ====
The following table illustrates Kashmiri noun declension according to gender, number and case.
=== Verbs ===
Kashmiri verbs are declined according to tense and person, and to a lesser extent, gender. Tense, along with certain distinctions of aspect, is formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem (minus the infinitive ending - /un/), and in many cases by the addition of various modal auxiliaries. Postpositions fulfill numerous adverbial and semantic roles.
==== Tense ====
Present tense in Kashmiri is an auxiliary construction formed by a combination of the copula and the imperfective suffix -/aːn/ added to the verb stem. The various copula forms agree with their subject according to gender and number, and are provided below with the verb /jun/ (to come):
Past tense in Kashmiri is significantly more complex than the other tenses, and is subdivided into three past tense distinctions. The past simple (sometimes called past proximate) refers to completed past actions. Past remote refers to actions that lack this in-built perfective aspect. Past indefinite refers to actions performed a long time ago, and is often used in historical narrative or storytelling contexts.
As described above, Kashmiri is a split-ergative language; in all three of these past tense forms, the subjects of transitive verbs are marked in the ergative case and direct objects in the nominative. Intransitive subjects are marked in the nominative. Nominative arguments, whether subjects or objects, dictate gender, number and person marking on the verb.
Verbs of the past simple tense are formed via the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, which usually undergoes certain uniform morphophonemic changes. First and third person verbs of this type do not take suffixes and agree with the nominative object in gender and number, but there are second person verb endings. The entire past simple tense paradigm of transitive verbs is illustrated below using the verb /parun/ ("to read"):
A group of irregular intransitive verbs (special intransitives), take a different set of endings in addition to the morphophonemic changes that affect most past tense verbs.
Intransitive verbs in the past simple are conjugated the same as intransitives in the past indefinite tense form.
In contrast to the Past simple, verb stems are unchanged in the past indefinite and past remote, although the addition of the tense suffixes does cause some morphophonetic change. Transitive verbs are declined according to the following paradigm:
As in the past simple, "special intransitive" verbs take a different set of endings in the past indefinite and past remote:
Regular intransitive verbs also take a different set of endings in the past indefinite and past remote, subject to some morphophonetic variation:
Future tense intransitive verbs are formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem:
The future tense of transitive verbs, however, is formed by adding suffixes that agree with both the subject and direct object according to number, in a complex fashion:
==== Aspect ====
There are two main aspectual distinctions in Kashmiri, perfective and imperfective. Both employ a participle formed by the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, as well as the fully conjugated auxiliary /aːsun/ ("to be")—which agrees according to gender, number and person with the object (for transitive verbs) or the subject (for intransitive verbs).
Like the auxiliary, the participle suffix used with the perfective aspect (expressing completed or concluded action) agrees in gender and number with the object (for transitive verbs) or subject (for intransitives) as illustrated below:
The imperfective (expressing habitual or progressive action) is simpler, taking the participle suffix -/aːn/ in all forms, with only the auxiliary showing agreement. A type of iterative aspect can be expressed by reduplicating the imperfective participle.
=== Pronouns ===
Pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case, although only third person pronouns are overtly gendered. Also in third person, a distinction is made between three degrees of proximity, called proximate, remote I and remote II.
There is also a dedicated genitive pronoun set, in contrast to the way that the genitive is constructed adverbially elsewhere. As with future tense, these forms agree with both the subject and direct object in person and number.
=== Adjectives ===
There are two kinds of adjectives in Kashmiri, those that agree with their referent noun (according to case, gender and number) and those that are not declined at all. Most adjectives are declined, and generally take the same endings and gender-specific stem changes as nouns. The declinable adjective endings are provided in the table below, using the adjective وۄزُل [ʋɔzul] ("red"):
Among those adjectives not declined are adjectives that end in -[lad̪] or -[ɨ], adjectives borrowed from other languages, and a few isolated irregulars.
The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed with the words ژۆر [t͡sor] ("more") and سؠٹھا [sʲaʈʰaː] ("most"), respectively.
=== Numerals ===
Within the Kashmir language, numerals are separated into cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers. These numeral forms, as well as their aggregative (both, all the five, etc.), multiplicative (two times, four times, etc.), and emphatic forms (only one, only three, etc.) are provided by the table below.
The ordinal number "1st" which is [ǝkʲum] أکیُٛم for its masculine gender and [ǝkim] أکِم for its feminine gender is also known as [ɡɔɖnʲuk] گۄڈنیُٛک and [ɡɔɖnit͡ʃ] گۄڈنِچ respectively.
== Vocabulary ==
Kashmiri is an Indo-Aryan language and was heavily influenced by Sanskrit, especially early on. After the arrival of Islamic rule in India, Kashmiri acquired many Persian loanwords. In modern times, Kashmiri vocabulary has imported words from
English, Hindustani and Punjabi.
=== Preservation of old Indo-Aryan vocabulary ===
Kashmiri retains several features of Old Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from the Vedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-form yodvai (meaning if), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use the word yadi instead.
=== First person pronoun ===
Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. The Indo-European root for this is reconstructed as *eǵHom, which is preserved in Sanskrit as aham and in Avestan Persian as azam. This contrasts with the m- form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such as ma(-m). However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced with m- in words such as ma-n and mai. However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' is ba/bi/bo in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the other me terms. 'Mine' is myon in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature include Dogri (aun vs me-), Gujarati (hu-n vs ma-ri), Konkani (hā̃v vs mhazo), and Braj (hau-M vs mai-M). The Iranian Pashto preserves it too (za vs. maa), as well as Nuristani languages, such as Askunu (âi vs iũ).
=== Variations ===
There are very minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims. For 'fire', a traditional Hindu uses the word اۆگُن [oɡun] while a Muslim more often uses the Arabic word نار [naːr].
== Sample text ==
=== Perso-Arabic script ===
Art. 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
سٲری اِنسان چھِ آزاد زامٕتؠ۔ وؠقار تہٕ حۆقوٗق چھِ ہِوی۔ تِمَن چھُ سوچ سَمَج عَطا کَرنہٕ آمُت تہٕ تِمَن پَزِ بٲے بَرادٔری ہٕنٛدِس جَذباتَس تَحَت اَکھ أکِس اَکار بَکار یُن ۔
[səːriː insaːn t͡ʃʰi aːzaːd zaːmɨtʲ . ʋʲaqaːr tɨ hoquːq t͡ʃʰi hiʋiː . timan t͡ʃʰu soːt͡ʃ samad͡ʒ ataː karnɨ aːmut tɨ timan pazi bəːj baraːdəriː hɨndis d͡ʒazbaːtas tahat akʰ əkis akaːr bakaːr jun]
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
=== Sharada script ===
Verses by Lalleshwari:
𑆏𑆩𑆶𑆅 𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆪 𑆃𑆗𑆶𑆫 𑆥𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆱𑆶𑆅 𑆩𑆳𑆬𑆴 𑆫𑆾𑆛𑆶𑆩 𑆮𑆶𑆤𑇀𑆢𑆱 𑆩𑆁𑆘 𑆱𑆶𑆅 𑆩𑆳𑆬𑆴 𑆑𑆤𑆴 𑆥𑇀𑆪𑆜 𑆓𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆠 𑆖𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆃𑆱𑆱 𑆱𑆳𑆱 𑆠 𑆱𑆥𑆤𑇀𑆪𑆱 𑆱𑆾𑆤𑇆
[oːmuj akuj at͡ʃʰur porum, suj maːli roʈum ʋɔndas manz, suj maːli kani pʲaʈʰ gorum tɨ t͡sorum, əːsɨs saːs tɨ sapnis sɔn.]
"I kept reciting the unique divine word "Om" and kept it safe in my heart through my resolute dedication and love. I was simply ash and by its divine grace got metamorphosed into gold."
𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆪 𑆏𑆀𑆑𑆳𑆫 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆤𑆳𑆨𑆴 𑆣𑆫𑆼 𑆑𑆶𑆩𑇀𑆮𑆪 𑆧𑇀𑆫𑆲𑇀𑆩𑆳𑆟𑇀𑆝𑆱 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆓𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆒 𑆩𑆶𑆪 𑆩𑆁𑆠𑇀𑆫 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆖𑇀𑆪𑆠𑆱 𑆑𑆫𑆼 𑆠𑆱 𑆱𑆳𑆱 𑆩𑆁𑆠𑇀𑆫 𑆑𑇀𑆪𑆳 𑆑𑆫𑆼𑇆
[akuj omkaːr jus naːbi dareː, kumbeː brahmaːnɖas sum gareː, akʰ suj mantʰɨr t͡sʲatas kareː, tas saːs mantʰɨr kjaː kareː.]
One who recites the divine word "Omkār" by devotion is capable to build a bridge between his own and the cosmic consciousness. By staying committed to this sacred word, one doesn't require any other mantra out of thousands others.
== See also ==
Kashmir Valley
Literature of Kashmir
Kashmiri Wikipedia
List of Kashmiri poets
List of topics on the land and the people of “Jammu and Kashmir”
Shina language
States of India by Kashmiri speakers
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links ==
Bhat, Roop Krishen (1982). Kashir Kitab level 1 : (state level school reader in Kashmiri for non-Kashmiri speaking students). Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Bhat, Roop Krishen (1988). Urdu Kashmiri Reader. JK Press.
Ganjoo, Triloki Nath (1979). Kạ̄shur-Hindi Reader. Kạ̄shur Department, University of Kashmir.
Grierson, George Abraham (1932). A dictionary of the Kashmiri language. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
Handoo, Jawaharlal; Handoo, Lalita (1975). Hindi-Kashmiri Common Words. Central Institute of Indian languages.
Handoo, Jawaharlal (1973). Kashmiri Phonetic Reader. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Hassan, Sheeba. "A pronouncing dictionary of Kashmiri language". Digital Dictionaries of South Asia. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
Hindi-Kashmiri Conversational Guide. Central Hindi Directorate, Government of India. 1990.
Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 1. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 2. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 3. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
Hinton, James Knowles (1885). A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs & Sayings: Explained and Illustrated From the Rich and Interesting Folklore of the Valley. Bombay: Education Society's Press.
Hook, Peter E. 1976. Is Kashmiri an SVO language? Indian Linguistics 37: 133–142.
"Indo Wordnet : A wordnet of Indian languages".
Kamil, Amin (1966). Achar Zan. Walidarul Kitabat.
Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class1
Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 2
Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 3
Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 6
Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 8
Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 10
Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri
Koul, Ashok K (2008). Lexical Borrowings in Kashmiri. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies. ISBN 9788186323298.
Koul, Omkar Nath (1985). An Intensive Course in Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages. ISBN 9780781801768.
Koul, Omkar Nath (1995). An intermediate course in Kashmiri Language. Central Institute of Indian Languages. ISBN 8173420270.
Koul, Omkar Nath (1992). A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs (PDF). Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies. ISBN 9788186323212.
Koul, Omkar Nath (2000). kəːʃir dəpitʲ dikʃənəriː (A dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs). Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Koul, Omkar Nath; Talashi, Rattan Lal (1999). Punjabi Kashmiri Kosh. Bhasha Vibhag Punjab.
Koul, Omkar Nath; Kumari, B Syamala (1996). Nursery Rhymes in Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Koul, Omkar N; Bhat, Roop Krishen; Betab, Brij Nath (2010). English – Kashmiri Administrative Terminology. New Delhi: Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology.
Koul, Omkar N; Raina, S.N.; Bhat, Roop Krishen (2000). Kashmiri-English Dictionary for Second Language Learners. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Library and Information Science Glossary (English-Hindi-Kashmiri). Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. 2018.
"Neab", Kashmiri Language Literary Magazine
Raina, Soom Nath (2011). An advance course in Kashmiri. Central institute of Indian languages.
"Sangarmal", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
Shauq, Shafi (2017). Kaesher Lugaat (A dictionary of the Kashmiri Language). Srinagar: Ali Mohammad and Sons.
"Soan Meeraas", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
Subbiah, Pon (2000). Tests of Language Proficiency : Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Tickoo, Jawahir Lal (2006). Kashmiri-English Dictionary. Indian Institute of Language Studies.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 1. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 2. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 3. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 4. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 5. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 6. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 7. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
the word koshur (𑆑𑆳𑆯𑆶𑆫𑇀) written on New Testament in Kashmiri (manuscript) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco_Bassanini | Franco Bassanini | Franco Bassanini (born 9 May 1940) is an Italian lawyer, politician, minister, and undersecretary of state.
== Career ==
Born in Milan, Bassanini was a deputy from 1979 to 1996 and a senator from 1996 to 2006. He served as the minister of public administration and regional affairs from 1996 to 2001 in the cabinets led by firstly Romano Prodi, then by Massimo D'Alema and lastly by Giuliano Amato.
Bassannini was president of Astrid, a think-tank specialising in the study of institutional and administrative reform. As a member of the administrative council of the ENA, he was called by Nicolas Sarkozy in 2007 to take part in the Commission pour la libération de la croissance française, presided over by Jacques Attali and designed to reform France's administration.
A member of Italy-USA Foundation, Bassanini served as the professor of constitutional law at the First University of Rome, and was the chairman of Cassa Depositi e Prestiti. He is also on the advisory board of the Official and Financial Institutions Forum (OMFIF), where he is regularly involved in meetings regarding the financial and monetary system.
== Electoral history ==
== Honours ==
Italy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, 13 January 2015.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachavita#:~:text=%22Proud%20chief%22.-,History,founded%20on%20November%2017%2C%201716. | Pachavita | Pachavita is a town and municipality in the Neira Province, part of the Colombian department of Boyacá. The urban centre is situated on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense at an altitude of 1,985 metres (6,512 ft) and at a distance of 85 kilometres (53 mi) from the department capital Tunja. The municipality borders Chinavita in the north, Tenza and La Capilla in the south, Garagoa in the east and Úmbita in the west.
== Etymology ==
The name Pachavita is derived from Chibcha; pacha = man, lord and vita = point, summit, peak; "Peak of the man". Another meaning is "Proud chief".
== History ==
Before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, the area of Pachavita was part of the loose Muisca Confederation. The Muisca had different rulers and the zaque of Hunza ruled over Pachavita.
Modern Pachavita was founded on November 17, 1716.
== Economy ==
Main economical activity of Pachavita are agriculture and dairy farming with products yuca, maize, bananas, arracacha, beans, lulo and cucumbers, eggs, peas and cheese.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padma_Shumsher_Jung_Bahadur_Rana | Padma Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana | Maharaja Sir Padma Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana (Nepali: पद्म शम्शेर जङ्गबहादुर राणा; 5 December 1882 – Calcutta, India, 11 April 1961) was the hereditary prime minister of Nepal and Maharaja of Lamjung and Kaski from 29 November 1945 to 30 April 1948 as the head of the Rana dynasty. He was one of the first prime ministers of Nepal in over a century to advocate for social development, and even proclaimed himself to be "A servant of the nation".
== Reforms ==
In his short tenure as the Prime Minister, he performed numerous reforms in Nepal including: -
He began construction of the first east-west highway in Nepal. The highway was mainly intended to expedite the transport of mail and is also sometimes called Postal Highway.
Citing the lack of proper education in Nepal, he sent several teachers to various countries abroad to train. In addition, he also established several schools and college including Padmodaya high school and Padma Kanya multiple campus, which was also the first college to be established in Nepal for women.
He held the first ever election in the history of Nepal in the form of a municipal election.
He introduced the Government Act of Nepal in 26, January, 1948, although it was never fully implemented.
== Retirement ==
His liberal views and acts of reformation had led him to be threatened by his own family and hence, fearing for his life, he left for India on 1 March 1948 under the pretext of having a medical examination. There he met Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who encouraged him to establish democracy in Nepal, but he decided to stay in India and not risk himself by returning to Nepal. He officially resigned from his position on 28 April 1948. Only after the fall of the Rana regime in 1951, did he occasionally visit Nepal. He remained in Calcutta until his death in 1961.
== Works ==
Rana, Pudma Jung Bahadur (1909). Life of Maharaja Sir Jung Bahadur of Nepal. ISBN 9789937331333. OCLC 654217945. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eger_V._Murphree | Eger V. Murphree | Eger Vaughan Murphree (November 3, 1898 – October 29, 1962) was an American chemist, best known for his co-invention of the process of fluid catalytic cracking.
== Biography ==
Murphree was born on November 3, 1898, in Bayonne, New Jersey, moving as a child to Kentucky. He graduated from Kentucky University with degrees in chemistry and mathematics in 1920, and a master's degree in chemistry in 1921. Murphree played college football as Kentucky as a tackle and was captain of the 1920 Kentucky Wildcats football team.
After teaching physics and math and coaching football for a year at Paris High School in Paris, Illinois, Murphree spent several years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a staff assistant and research associate in the Chemical Engineering Department. In 1930, he joined what was then Standard Oil of New Jersey.
During the Second World War Murphree was a member of the committee that organized the Manhattan Project and was widely recognized as a leader in the fields of synthetic toluene, butadiene and hydrocarbon synthesis, fluid cat cracking, fluid hydroforming, and fluid coking.
He was also involved in the early Manhattan Project as a member of the S-1 Section. Murphree was head of the centrifuge project (soon abandoned) and overall engineer for the Manhattan Project in June 1942. He struck Deputy District Engineer Kenneth Nichols as "more like the industrial engineers I was accustomed to dealing with. He was stable, conservative, thorough and precise". He was to have been on the Lewis Committee reviewing the entire project in November 1942, but was sick. He (and James Conant) disagreed with the committee recommendation to build only a small electromagnetic plant, and a full-size plant was built. In the 1950s he served in the Defense Department on scheduling missiles and coordinating the programs of the three services (as Nichols had done earlier).
From 1947 to 1962 he served as Vice President of research and engineering Standard Oil of New Jersey, the company later known as Exxon.
Among his awards were the Perkin Medal in 1950 and the Industrial Research Institute (IRI) Medal in 1953. The E. V. Murphree Award in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry awarded annually by the American Chemical Society is named in his honor.
Murphree died on October 29, 1962, at Overlook Hospital in Summit, New Jersey of coronary thrombosis.
== Legacy ==
Murphree was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1999.
== References ==
== External links ==
Eger V. Murphree
U.S. patent 2,451,804 Method of and Apparatus for Contacting Solids and Gases, October 19, 1948
Eger V. Murphree—Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylindrovertilla_kingi#:~:text=This%20terrestrial%20species%20is%20endemic%20to%20Australia. | Cylindrovertilla kingi | Cylindrovertilla kingi, common name King's amber pupasnail, is a species of small, air-breathing land snail, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs or micromolluscs in the family Vertiginidae, the whorl snails.
== Distribution ==
This terrestrial species is endemic to Australia.and occurs in New South Wales and Queensland
== References ==
Cox, J.C. 1864. Catalogue of Australian Land Shells. Sydney : John Alex Engel 44 pp.
Iredale, T. 1940. Guide to the land shells of New South Wales. Australian Naturalist 10: 227-236
Solem, A. 1991. Distribution and diversity patterns of Australian pupilloid land snails (Mollusca: Pulmonata: Pupillidae, s.l.). Veliger 34(3): 233-252
Stanisic, J., Shea, M., Potter, D. & Griffiths, O. 2010. Australian Land Snails. A field guide to eastern Australian species. Mauritius : Bioculture Press Vol. 1 595 pp.
== External links ==
Image at Australian Faunal Directory: Cylindrovertilla kingi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Afzal_Cheema | Mohammad Afzal Cheema | Justice Mohammad Afzal Cheema (Punjabi and Urdu: محمد افضل چیمہ; 1 January 1913 – 4 August 2008) was a Pakistani politician and judge. Justice Cheema is the only Pakistani to reach the top positions in all branches of state. He served as the acting President of Pakistan, Judge of the High Court and then Supreme Court of Pakistan, Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan, Federal Law Secretary, and Chairman of the Council of Islamic Ideology. He is considered the most prominent personality in the Cheema tribe and is commonly referred to as the "Chief of Cheemas".
== Early age and education ==
Justice Cheema was born in a small village named Kathore Kalan, 303 JB near Gojra, Toba Tek Singh in 1913. After graduation from Islamia College in 1932, he received his master's degree in English literature from the University of the Punjab in 1934. Later, circumstances forced him to return to his native village, where he oversaw the affairs of his family and the village following his father's sudden demise, who was the head of the village. A desire for continued professional education led him into the field of law in 1945. In 1947, he received his law degree and subsequently started a law practice in Lyallpur, now known as Faisalabad.
== Participation in the Pakistan movement ==
Justice Cheema played an active role in the Pakistan movement and supported Mohammad Ali Jinnah. He also participated in the gathering in Lahore on the 23 March 1940. He had several meetings with national poet Allama Iqbal and had cordial and personal relations with many Muslim leaders of the Indian subcontinent, including Mohammad Ali Bogra, Feroz Khan Noon, Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, Molvi Tamizuddin Khan.
== Political career ==
Justice Cheema was elected as member of the West Pakistan Legislative Assembly in one unit system in 1951 and later elected as the Deputy Opposition Leader. He became the member of the National Assembly of Pakistan in 1962 for Toba Tek Singh (The largest Constituency of the country at that time). Subsequently, he was elected Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan by a single vote, defeating the Treasury Candidate. Throughout his tenure as Senior Deputy Speaker, he served as the Speaker of the National Assembly because of the illness of Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan and absence of Fazul ul Qadir. Justice Cheema is the only Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan who had cast his Casting vote in the House twice: once in favour of the Treasury and once in favour of the Opposition. He also served as the Acting President of Pakistan in the absence of Field Marshal Ayub Khan more than three times.
== Judicial career ==
Besides his political career, Justice Cheema served as Judge of West Pakistan High Court and also as Federal Law Secretary. He headed the team which drafted the first complete, comprehensive constitution of Pakistan now known as the 1973 Constitution. He was elevated to the Supreme Court and retired as the Senior Most Judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan.
== Council of Islamic ideology ==
After his retirement from the Supreme Court, Cheema was made the full-time Chairman of Council of Islamic Ideology (Islami Nazeryati Council) and was responsible for the conversion of the parts of the Pakistani common law into Sharia Laws.
== International service ==
=== United Nations ===
Cheema led the Pakistani Delegation at the United Nations annual conference twice. He also represented Pakistan in the Annual Conference of the Parliamentarians held in Caracas, Venezuela as leader of the Pakistani delegation.
=== Muslim World League ===
Cheema served in the Muslim World League (MWL), an international Muslim organisation having observer status in the UN and OIC, as its Secretary General, Asian Branch for more than 15 years. His contribution as Secretary General of the MWL was in Humanitarian relief and Mediation for the Muslim Ummah and in particular for the Muslims of the Asian region.
His main accomplishments were:
Approval and Opening of the first Islamic Centre (largest in the Asian Region) in Xinjiang province in China.
Repatriation efforts for stranded Pakistanis often referred to as Biharis in Bangladesh
Contribution for the revival of the Islamic Values and the religion in various Asian States
Successful mediation among the various factions in Afghanistan
== Honours ==
He was awarded the Highest Civil Award of South Korea by President Roh Tae-woo for his endeavours in bringing Pakistan and South Korea closer through the establishment of diplomatic relations and for the formation of the Pak-Korea Friendship Association.
== Timeline ==
Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the West Pakistan Legislative Assembly. 1951–1955
Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly. 1962–1965.
Acting President of Pakistan. More than thrice. 1962–1965.
Judge of the West Pakistan/Lahore High Court. 1965–1973.
Federal Law Secretary. 1973–1975.
Judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. 1975–1979.
Chairman Council of Islamic Ideology. 1977–1980.
Secretary General of Muslim World League Asian Branch. 1980–2000.
== Book ==
The Qadiani Problem: A Legal and Historical Perspective : Working Paper, 1986.
Ijtehad and Islamization of Laws, 2010.
== References ==
[1]
[2]
[3]
== External links ==
"Punjab Legislative Assembly - Second Assembly (May 7, 1951 to October 14, 1955)".
http://www.na.gov.pk/en/deputyspeakers.php
http://cii.gov.pk/aboutcii/Listofchairmen.aspx |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_October_Revolution_Parade | 1990 October Revolution Parade | The 1990 October Revolution Parade was the last parade commemorating the 1917 October Revolution during the Soviet Union's existence. It celebrated the 73rd anniversary of the revolution.
== Description and particularities ==
Among those present were Mikhail Gorbachev, Nikolai Ryzhkov, Anatoly Lukyanov, Boris Yeltsin (first president of the Russian Federation), and Gavriil Popov. At the chimes of the Kremlin Clock, Gorbachev gave an address to the nation. It would be the second and last time a Soviet leader made an address on Lenin's Mausoleum during an October Revolution Day parade. It is the only Soviet parade when the inspection of troops are held after the President's speech and anthem, in contrast to the previous parades which the inspection of troops begin, followed by speech by the parade inspector and anthem, besides one of the few parades when the emblems of the Soviet Republics are not in display on the Red Square other than the 1990 Victory Day Parade, most possibly due to independence of Lithuania and Latvia (including Estonia although independence yet to be declared, but had changed its emblem, flag and official name to Republic of Estonia). After the anthem was played, the commander of the parade Colonel General Nikolai Kalinin reported to the parade inspector Marshal of the Soviet Union Dmitry Yazov. The parade of 1990 was the last military parade to feature military equipment, a sight that would not be seen until the 2008 Moscow Victory Day Parade 18 years later. Providing the music for the parade was the Massed Bands of the Moscow Military District, led by the director of the Military Band Service of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union, Major General Nikolai Mikhailov. It is also the only parade when the Soviet leadership on the grandstand moved down from the grandstand to lead the civilian demonstration after the military parade.
== Full order of the march past ==
At the front of the parade was the limousine carrying the commander of the parade, Colonel General Nikolai Kalinin.
Massed Bands
Corps of Drums of the Moscow Military Music College
Massed Military Bands of the Moscow Military District
Ground Column
Frunze Military Academy
V. I. Lenin Military Political Academy
Felix Dzerzhinsky Engineering Academy
Military Armored Forces Academy Marshal Rodion Malinovskovy
Military Academy of Chemical Defense and Control
Yuri Gagarin Air Force Academy
Prof. Nikolai Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy
Naval Engineering School
98th Guards Airborne Division
Moscow Border Guards Institute of the Border Defence Forces of the KGB "Moscow City Council"
336th Marine Brigade
OMSDON regiment
Suvorov Military Academy
Nakhimov Naval School
Moscow Military High Command Training School "Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR"
Mobile Column
2nd Guards Tamanskaya Motorized Rifle Division
BTR-80
BMP-2
98th Guards Airborne Division
BMD-2
4th Guards Kantermirovsky Tank Division
T-80
Rocket Forces and Artillery
2S3 Akatsiya
2S19 Msta
BM-21 Grad
RT-2PM Topol
== Music ==
Providing the ceremonial music for the parade was the massed bands of the Moscow Military District, under the overall direction of Major General Nikolay Mikhaylov.
Address and inspection
Moscow Parade Fanfare ("Московская Парадная Фанфара") with the tune of Comrades, we bravely march! ("Смело, товарищи, в ногу!")
State Anthem of the Soviet Union (Государственный Гимн Советского Союза) by Aleksandr Aleksandrov
Fanfare (Фанфара)
Slow March of the Officers Schools (Встречный Марш офицерских училищ) by Semyon Tchernetsky
Slow March of the Tankmen (Встречный Марш Танкистов) by Semyon Tchernetsky
Slow March of the Guards of the Navy (Гвардейский Встречный Марш Военно-Морского Флота) by Nikolay Ivanov-Radkevich
Jubilee Slow March "25 Years of the Red Army" (Юбилейный встречный марш "25 лет РККА) by Semyon Tchernetsky
Slow March (Встречный Марш) by Dmitriy Pertsev
Slow March of the Red Army (Встречный Марш Красной Армии) by Semyon Tchernetsky
Slow March Victory (Встречный Марш «Победа») by Yuriy Griboyedov
Slow March (Встречный Марш) by Severyan Ganichev
Slow March of the Guards of the Navy (Гвардейский Встречный Марш Военно-Морского Флота) by Nikolay Ivanov-Radkevich
Slow March (Встречный Марш) by Viktor Runov
Slav'sya (Славься) by Mikhail Glinka
Signal Everyone, listen! (Сигнал «Слушайте все!»)
Infantry Column
Fife and drums with trumpet tune of Comrades, we bravely march! ("Смело, товарищи, в ногу!") by *Leonid Radin
March Parade (Марш "Парад") by Vasiliy Dul'skiy
March Victory (Марш Победа) by Al'bert Arutyunov
In Defense of the Motherland (В защиту Родины) by Viktor Runov
On Guard for Peace ("На страже Мира") by Boris Diyev
Phalanx March ("Строевой Марш") by Dmitriy Pertsev
March Leningrad ("Марш Ленинград") by Viktor Runov
We are the Army of the People (Мы Армия Народа) by Georgiy Movsesyan
Sports March ("Спортивный Марш") by Valentin Volkov
March Victory Day (Марш "День Победы") by David Tukhmanov
Long Live Our State (Да здравствует наша держава) by Boris Aleksandrov
Mobile Column and Conclusion of the Military Segment
We Need One Victory ("Нам нужна одна Победа") by Bulat Okudzhava
March of the Tankmen (Марш Танкистов) by Semyon Tchernetsky
Warszawianka ("Варшавянка") by Józef Pławiński
Invincible and Legendary (Несокрушимая и легендарная) by Aleksandr Aleksandrov
== Parades in other cities of the USSR ==
Revolution Day parades and celebrations were also held in many Soviet republics and cities of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. For the first time in Soviet history, the traditional 7 November parade in Kyiv, the capital city of the Ukrainian SSR, was the only event held on the holiday, with the parade location in Kyiv was changed from Khreshchatyk Street to Victory Square (Ploshcha Peremohy) by order of the Kyiv City Council. It was also limited to a one-hour parade from 9 to 10 am. No full-size tanks were displayed at the parade. The parade was also the last one held in many republics, including the Tajik SSR and the Uzbek SSR.
On the other hand, the Revolution Day parade in the Lithuanian capital of Vilnius, was held contrary to parliamentary decree banning military parades "without a permit". The parade on Gediminas Avenue, which began at 10 am local time and had been rehearsed for over a week, marched past the Lithuanian Parliament to the Lenin Monument, where several thousand a rally of pro-Soviet demonstrators was held, with many demonstrators being bused in from outside of Lithuania. Chairman of the Supreme Council Vytautas Landsbergis and Prime Minister Kazimira Prunskienė both condemned the military parade as "psychological warfare" and an attempt by the Soviet authorities to "intimidate" breakaway republic. A similar situation occurred in the Latvian capital of Riga, where on 10 October the Supreme Council and the Riga City Executive Committee had announced that Gorbachev's decree on organizing military parades in local cities was not binding in Latvia.
== Attempted assassination of Gorbachev ==
At 11:00 AM, an hour after the parade began, an attempt to kill President Gorbachev was made by Alexander Shmonov. The two bullets he fired missed and he was tackled to the ground by crowds of demonstrators. Shmonov was the last would-be-assassin of the Soviet period before the USSR's dissolution in 1991. He was sent to forced treatment which took a heavy toll on his mental state. Three weeks prior to the parade, Shmonov bought a double-barreled hunting rifle. At the parade, Shmonov took out his rifle and was spotted immediately by the militsiya, and as he was taking aim, an officer ran over and jerked the rifle by the barrel as the crowd jumped on him. Soviet Central television did not broadcast the assassination attempt and resumed its regular broadcasting at 11:25 AM.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Full parade footage on YouTube
Raw parade footage on YouTube |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cab_Calloway#:~:text=In%201927%2C%20Calloway%20joined%20his,black%20musical%20revue%20Plantation%20Days. | Cab Calloway | Cabell Calloway III (December 25, 1907 – November 18, 1994) was an American jazz singer, songwriter and bandleader. He was a regular performer at the Cotton Club in Harlem, where he became a popular vocalist of the swing era. His niche of mixing jazz and vaudeville won him acclaim during a career that spanned over 65 years.
Calloway was a master of energetic scat singing and led one of the most popular dance bands in the United States from the early 1930s to the late 1940s. His band included trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie, Jonah Jones, and Adolphus "Doc" Cheatham, saxophonists Ben Webster and Leon "Chu" Berry, guitarist Danny Barker, bassist Milt Hinton, and drummer Cozy Cole.
Calloway had several hit records in the 1930s and 1940s, becoming the first African-American musician to sell one million copies of a record. He became known as the "Hi-de-ho" man of jazz for his most famous song, "Minnie the Moocher", originally recorded in 1931. He reached the Billboard charts in five consecutive decades (1930s–1970s). Calloway also made several stage, film, and television appearances. He had roles in Stormy Weather (1943), Porgy and Bess (1953), The Cincinnati Kid (1965), and Hello Dolly! (1967). In the 1980s, Calloway enjoyed a marked career resurgence following his appearance in the musical comedy film The Blues Brothers (1980).
Calloway was the first African-American to have a nationally syndicated radio program. In 1993, Calloway received the National Medal of Arts from the United States Congress. He posthumously received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2008. His song "Minnie the Moocher" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999, and added to the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry in 2019. In 2022, the National Film Registry selected his home films for preservation as "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant films". He was inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame and the International Jazz Hall of Fame.
== Early life ==
Cabell Calloway III was born in Rochester, New York, on December 25, 1907, to an African American family. His father, Cabell Calloway Jr., graduated from Lincoln University of Pennsylvania in 1898. His mother, Martha Eulalia Reed, was a Morgan State College graduate, teacher, and church organist, and worked as a lawyer and in real estate. The family moved to Baltimore, Maryland, in 1919. Soon after, his father died and his mother remarried to John Nelson Fortune.
Calloway grew up in the West Baltimore neighborhood of Druid Hill. He often skipped school to earn money by selling newspapers, shining shoes, and cooling down horses at the Pimlico racetrack where he developed an interest in racing and gambling on horses. After he was caught playing dice on the church steps, his mother sent him to Downingtown Industrial and Agricultural School in 1921, a reform school run by his mother's uncle in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
Calloway resumed hustling when he returned to Baltimore and worked as a caterer while he improved his education in school. He began private vocal lessons in 1922, and studied music throughout his formal schooling. Despite his parents' and teachers' disapproval of jazz, he began performing in nightclubs in Baltimore. His mentors included drummer Chick Webb and pianist Johnny Jones. Calloway joined his high school basketball team, and in his senior year he started playing professional basketball with the Baltimore Athenians, a team in the Negro Professional Basketball League. He graduated from Frederick Douglass High School in 1925. After this, he spent a short period of time at law school in Chicago but left to continue performing in nightclubs.
== Music career ==
=== 1927–1929: Early career ===
In 1927, Calloway joined his older sister, Blanche Calloway, on tour for the popular black musical revue Plantation Days. His sister became an accomplished bandleader before he did, and he often credited her as his inspiration for entering show business. Calloway's mother wanted him to be a lawyer like his father, so once the tour ended he enrolled at Crane College in Chicago, but he was more interested in singing and entertaining. While at Crane he refused the opportunity to play basketball for the Harlem Globetrotters to pursue a singing career.
Calloway spent most of his nights at ‘Black and tan clubs’ such as Chicago's Dreamland Café, Sunset Cafe, and Club Berlin, performing as a singer, drummer, and master of ceremonies. At Sunset Cafe, he was an understudy for singer Adelaide Hall. There he met and performed with Louis Armstrong, who taught him to sing in the scat style. He left school to sing with the Alabamians band.
In 1929, Calloway relocated to New York with the band. They opened at the Savoy Ballroom on September 20, 1929. When the Alabamians broke up, Armstrong recommended Calloway as a replacement singer in the musical revue Connie's Hot Chocolates. He established himself as a vocalist singing "Ain't Misbehavin'" by Fats Waller. While Calloway was performing in the revue, the Missourians asked him to front their band.
=== 1930–1955: Success ===
In 1930, the Missourians became known as Cab Calloway and His Orchestra. At the Cotton Club in Harlem, New York, the band was hired in 1931 to substitute for the Duke Ellington Orchestra while Ellington's band was on tour. Their popularity led to a permanent position. The band also performed twice a week for radio broadcasts on NBC. Calloway appeared on radio programs with Walter Winchell and Bing Crosby and was the first African American to have a nationally syndicated radio show. During the depths of the Great Depression, Calloway was earning $50,000 a year at 23 years old.In 1931, Calloway recorded his most famous song, "Minnie the Moocher". It was the first single record by an African American to sell a million copies. Calloway performed the song and two others, "St. James Infirmary Blues" and "The Old Man of the Mountain", in the Betty Boop cartoons Minnie the Moocher (1932), Snow-White (1933), and The Old Man of the Mountain (1933). Calloway performed voice-over for these cartoons, and through rotoscoping, his dance steps were the basis of the characters' movements.
As a result of the success of "Minnie the Moocher", Calloway became identified with its chorus, gaining the nickname "The Hi De Ho Man". He performed in the 1930s in a series of short films for Paramount. Calloway's and Ellington's groups were featured on film more than any other jazz orchestras of the era. In these films, Calloway can be seen performing a gliding backstep dance move, which some observers have described as the precursor to Michael Jackson's moonwalk. Calloway said 50 years later, "it was called The Buzz back then." The 1933 film International House featured Calloway performing his classic song, "Reefer Man", a tune about a man who smokes marijuana. Fredi Washington was cast as Calloway's love interest in Cab Calloway's Hi-De-Ho (1934). Lena Horne made her film debut as a dancer in Cab Calloway's Jitterbug Party (1935).
Calloway made his first Hollywood feature film appearance opposite Al Jolson in The Singing Kid (1936). He sang several duets with Jolson, and the film included Calloway's band and 22 Cotton Club dancers from New York. According to film critic Arthur Knight, the creators of the film intended to "erase and celebrate boundaries and differences, including most emphatically the color line...when Calloway begins singing in his characteristic style – in which the words are tools for exploring rhythm and stretching melody – it becomes clear that American culture is changing around Jolson and with (and through) Calloway".
In 1938, Calloway released Cab Calloway's Cat-ologue: A "Hepster's" Dictionary, the first dictionary published by an African American. It became the official jive language reference book of the New York Public Library. A revised version of the book was released with Professor Cab Calloway's Swingformation Bureau in 1939. He released the last edition, The New Cab Calloway's Hepsters Dictionary: Language of Jive, in 1944. On a BBC Radio documentary about the dictionary in 2014, Poet Lemn Sissay stated, "Cab Calloway was taking ownership of language for a people who, just a few generations before, had their own languages taken away."
Calloway's band in the 1930s and 1940s included many notable musicians, such as Ben Webster, Illinois Jacquet, Milt Hinton, Danny Barker, Doc Cheatham, Ed Swayze, Cozy Cole, Eddie Barefield, and Dizzy Gillespie. Calloway later recalled, "What I expected from my musicians was what I was selling: the right notes with precision, because I would build a whole song around a scat or dance step." Calloway and his band formed baseball and basketball teams. They played each other while on the road, played against local semi-pro teams, and played charity games.
In 1941, Calloway fired Gillespie from his orchestra after an onstage fracas erupted when Calloway was hit with spitballs. He wrongly accused Gillespie, who stabbed Calloway in the leg with a small knife.
From 1941 to 1942, Calloway hosted a weekly radio quiz show called The Cab Calloway Quizzicale. Calling himself "Doctor" Calloway, it was a parody of The College of Musical Knowledge, a radio contest created by bandleader Kay Kyser. During the years of World War II, Calloway entertained troops in United States before they departed overseas. The Calloway Orchestra also recorded songs full of social commentary including "Doing the Reactionary", "The Führer's Got the Jitters", "The Great Lie", "We'll Gather Lilacs", and "My Lament for V Day".
In 1943, Calloway appeared in the film Stormy Weather, one of the first mainstream Hollywood films with a black cast. The film featured other top performers of the time, including Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, Lena Horne, the Nicholas Brothers, and Fats Waller. Calloway would host Horne's character Selina Rogers as she performed the film's title song as part of a big all-star revue for World War II soldiers.
Calloway wrote a humorous pseudo-gossip column called "Coastin' with Cab" for Song Hits magazine. It was a collection of celebrity snippets, such as the following in the May 1946 issue: "Benny Goodman was dining at Ciro's steak house in New York when a very homely girl entered. 'If her face is her fortune,' Benny quipped, 'she'd be tax-free.'" In the late 1940s, however, Calloway's bad financial decisions and his gambling caused his band to break up.
=== 1956–1960: Cotton Club Revue ===
Calloway and his daughter Lael recorded "Little Child", an adaption of "Little Boy and the Old Man". Released on ABC-Paramount, the single charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1956.
For the second season, Lee Sherman was the choreographer of The Cotton Club Revue of 1958, which starred Calloway. The revue featured tap dancing prodigies Maurice Hines and Gregory Hines.
In March 1958, Calloway released his album Cotton Club Revue of 1958 on Gone Records. It was produced by George Goldner, conducted and arranged by Eddie Barefield. That year, Calloway appeared in the film St. Louis Blues, the life story of W.C. Handy, featuring Nat King Cole and Eartha Kitt.
The Cotton Club Revue of 1959 traveled to South America for engagements in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. They also stopped in Uruguay and Argentina before returning to North America which included a run on Broadway.
=== 1961–1993: Later years ===
Calloway remained a household name due to TV appearances and occasional concerts in the US and Europe. In 1961 and 1962, he toured with the Harlem Globetrotters, providing halftime entertainment during games.
Calloway was cast as "Yeller" in the film The Cincinnati Kid (1965) with Steve McQueen, Ann-Margret, and Edward G. Robinson. He appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show on March 19, 1967, with his daughter Chris Calloway. In 1967, he co-starred with Pearl Bailey as Horace Vandergelder in an all-black cast of Hello, Dolly! on Broadway during its original run. Chris Calloway also joined the cast as Minnie Fay. The new cast revived the flagging business for the show and RCA Victor released a new cast recording, rare for the time. In 1973–74, Calloway was featured in an unsuccessful Broadway revival of The Pajama Game with Hal Linden and Barbara McNair.
His autobiography, Of Minnie the Moocher and Me was published in 1976. It included his complete Hepster's Dictionary as an appendix. In 1978, Calloway released a disco version of "Minnie the Moocher" on RCA Victor which reached the Billboard R&B chart. Calloway was introduced to a new generation when he appeared in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers performing "Minnie the Moocher".
In 1985, Calloway and his Orchestra appeared at The Ritz London Hotel where he was filmed for a 60-minute BBC TV show called The Cotton Club Comes to the Ritz. Adelaide Hall, Doc Cheatham, Max Roach, and the Nicholas Brothers also appeared on the bill. A performance with the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra directed by Erich Kunzel in August 1988 was recorded on video and features a classic presentation of "Minnie the Moocher", 57 years after he first recorded it.
In January 1990, Calloway performed at the Meyerhoff Symphony Hall, with the Baltimore Symphony. That year he made a cameo in Janet Jackson's music video "Alright". He continued to perform at Jazz festivals, including the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival and Greenwood Jazz. In 1992, he embarked on a month-long tour of European jazz festivals. He was booked to headline "The Jazz Connection: The Jewish and African-American Relationship," at New York City's Avery Fisher Hall in 1993, but he pulled out due to a fall at home.
== Personal life ==
In January 1927, Calloway had a daughter named Camay with Zelma Proctor, a fellow student. His daughter was one of the first African-Americans to teach in a white school in Virginia. Calloway married his first wife Wenonah "Betty" Conacher in July 1928. They adopted a daughter named Constance and divorced in 1949. Calloway married Zulme "Nuffie" MacNeal on October 7, 1949. They lived in Long Beach on the South Shore of Long Island, New York, on the border with neighboring Lido Beach. In the 1950s, Calloway moved his family to Westchester County, New York, where he and Nuffie raised their daughters Chris Calloway (1945–2008), Cecilia "Lael" Eulalia Calloway, and Cabella Calloway (1952–2023).
Calloway was an Episcopalian.
=== Legal issues ===
In December 1945, Calloway and his friend Felix H. Payne Jr. were beaten by a police officer, William E. Todd, and arrested in Kansas City, Missouri after attempting to visit bandleader Lionel Hampton at the whites-only Pla-Mor Ballroom. They were taken to the hospital for injuries, then charged with intoxication and resisting arrest. When Hampton learned of the incident he refused to continue the concert. Todd said he was informed by the manager, who did not recognize Calloway, that they were attempting to enter. He claimed they refused to leave and struck him. Calloway and Payne denied his claims and maintained they had been sober; the charges were dismissed. In February 1946, six civil rights organizations, including the NAACP, demanded that Todd be fired, but he had already resigned after a pay cut.
In 1952, Calloway was arrested in Leesburg, Virginia on his way to the race track in Charles Town, West Virginia. He was charged with speeding and attempted bribery of a policeman.
== Death ==
On June 12, 1994, Calloway suffered a stroke at his home in Westchester County, New York. He died five months later from pneumonia on November 18, 1994, at the age of 86, at a nursing home in Hockessin, Delaware. A memorial service was held in his honor at Cathedral of St. John the Divine. He was survived by his wife, who died in 2008, five daughters, and seven grandsons. Calloway was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.
== Legacy ==
Music critics have written of his influence on later generations of entertainers such as James Brown, Michael Jackson, and Janet Jackson, as well as modern-day hip-hop performers. John Landis, who directed Calloway in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers, stated, "Cab Calloway is hip-hop." Journalist Timothy White noted in Billboard (August 14, 1993): "No living pathfinder in American popular music or its jazz and rock 'n' roll capillaries is so frequently emulated yet so seldom acknowledged as Cabell "Cab" Calloway. He arguably did more things first and better than any other band leader of his generation."
In 1998, the Cab Calloway Orchestra directed by Calloway's grandson Chris "CB" Calloway Brooks was formed. In 2009, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy released an album covering Calloway's music titled How Big Can You Get?: The Music of Cab Calloway. In 2012, Calloway's legacy was celebrated in an episode of PBS's American Masters titled "Cab Calloway: Sketches".
In 2019, plans were announced to demolish Calloway's boyhood home at 2216 Druid Hill Avenue in Baltimore, replacing the abandoned structure and the rest of that block with a park to be named Cab Calloway Legends Park in his honor. Family members and the National Trust for Historic Preservation advocated preservation of the house, however, as a significant artifact of African-American cultural heritage. Although the block is designated "historically significant" on the National Register of Historic Places, Baltimore City officials said at a hearing on July 9, 2019, that there is "extensive structural damage" to the Calloway house as well as adjacent ones. The Commission on Historical and Architectural Preservation's executive director, however, said that properties in worse condition than the Calloway House have been restored with financial support from a city tax credit program. Maryland Governor Larry Hogan also urged that demolition of the Calloway House be forestalled for its potential preservation as a historic house museum akin to the Louis Armstrong House in New York. Design options for the planned Cab Calloway Square may include an archway from the facade (pictured) as part of the Square's entrance, as proposed by architects working with Baltimore City and the Druid Heights Community Development Corporation, a nonprofit community-oriented group. Despite objections, the house was razed on September 5, 2020.
=== Awards and honors ===
In 1985, Town Supervisor Anthony F. Veteran issued a proclamation, declaring a ''Cab Calloway Day'' in Greenburgh, New York.
In 1990, Calloway was presented with the Beacons in Jazz Award from The New School in New York City. New York City Mayor David Dinkins proclaimed the day "Cab Calloway Day".
In 1992, the Cab Calloway School of the Arts was founded in Wilmington, Delaware.
In 1994, Calloway's daughter Camay Calloway Murphy founded the Cab Calloway Museum at Coppin State College in Baltimore, Maryland.
The New York Racing Association (NYRA) annually honors the jazz legend, a native of Rochester, New York, with a stakes races restricted to New York-bred three-year-olds, as part of their New York Stallion Series. First run in 2003, The Calloway has since undergone various distance and surface changes. The race is currently run at Saratoga Racecourse, Saratoga Springs, New York. The Cab Calloway Stakes celebrated its 13th renewal on July 24, 2019, and was won by Rinaldi.
In 2020 Calloway was inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame.
Calloway received the following accolades:
1967: Best Performance, Outer Critics Circle Awards (Hello, Dolly)
1987: Inducted into Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame
1990: Beacons in Jazz Award, The New School
1993: National Medal of Arts
1993: Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts, University of Rochester
1993: Cab Calloway School of the Arts dedicated in his name in Wilmington, Delaware
1995: Inducted into International Jazz Hall of Fame
1999: Grammy Hall of Fame Award for "Minnie the Moocher"
2008: Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
2019: "Minnie the Moocher" added to the Library of Congress National Recording Registry
== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
1943: Cab Calloway And His Orchestra (Brunswick)
1956: Cab Calloway (Epic)
1958: Cotton Club Revue 1958 (Gone Records)
1959: Hi De Hi De Ho (RCA Victor)
1962: Blues Makes Me Happy (Coral)
1968: Cab Calloway '68 (Pickwick International)
=== Select compilations ===
1968: Cab Calloway Sings The Blues (Vocalion)
1974: Hi De Ho Man (Columbia)
1981: Minnie The Moocher (RCA International)
1983: Mr. Hi. De. Ho. 1930–1931 (MCA)
1990: Cab Calloway: Best Of The Big Bands (Columbia)
1992: Cab Calloway & Co. (RCA)
1992: The King Of Hi-De-Ho 1934–1947 (Giants of Jazz)
1998: Jumpin' Jive (Camden)
2001: Cab Calloway and His Orchestra Volume 1: The Early Years 1930–1934 (JSP)
2003: Cab Calloway & His Orchestra Volume 2: 1935–1940 (JSP)
=== Charting singles ===
== Stage ==
== Filmography ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Calloway, Cab and Rollins, Bryant (1976). Of Minnie the Moocher and Me. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. ISBN 978-0-690-01032-9
== External links ==
Cab Calloway School of the Arts official website
NAMM Oral History Interview (1993)
Cab Calloway at IMDb
CALLOWAY, Cab (CHASE-FATIO Eleanor). Lugano: Swiss National Sound Archives. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Belding#:~:text=Belding%20was%20named%20Fellow%20of,their%20deployment%20in%20developing%20regions%22. | Elizabeth Belding | Elizabeth Michelle Belding is a computer scientist specializing in mobile computing and wireless networks.
She is a professor of computer science at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
== Education and career ==
Belding graduated from Florida State University in 1996 with two degrees: one in computer science and a second in applied mathematics. Both degrees were Summa Cum Laude with Honors.
She went to the University of California, Santa Barbara on a National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship, and
completed her Ph.D. in electrical and computer engineering in 2000. Her dissertation, under the name Elizabeth Michelle Royer, was Routing in Ad hoc Mobile Networks: On-Demand and Hierarchical Strategies, and was jointly supervised by P. Michael Melliar-Smith and Louise Moser.
She has been a member of the computer science faculty at the University of California, Santa Barbara since 2000.
== Recognition ==
Belding was named Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 2014 for "contributions to mobile and wireless networking and communication protocols".
She was elected as an ACM Fellow in 2018 for "contributions to communication in mobile networks and their deployment in developing regions".
One of her publications, on Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing in mobile networks, was selected for the SIGMOBILE Test of Time Award in 2018.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Elizabeth Belding publications indexed by Google Scholar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Abdullah | Omar Abdullah | Omar Abdullah (born 10 March 1970) is an Indian politician serving as the chief minister of union territory of Jammu and Kashmir since 2024 and also as the leader of the house in J&K Legislative Assembly. He had previously served as the 8th chief minister of the state of Jammu and Kashmir between 2009 and 2014, and is the current vice president of the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference, a position he has held since 2009 and also previously served as its president. Abdullah also served as a member of parliament in the Lok Sabha from 1998 to 2009, representing the Srinagar parliamentary constituency, and was a union minister of State for External Affairs.
The son of former Jammu and Kashmir State chief minister Farooq Abdullah, he joined politics in 1998 after being elected as the youngest member of the Lok Sabha, a feat he repeated in subsequent three elections. He was the union Minister of State for External Affairs in Atal Bihari Vajpayee's NDA government, from 23 July 2001 to 23 December 2002. He resigned from NDA government in October 2002 to concentrate on party work. During this time, he took a larger role in state politics. However, his party faced defeat in the 2002 state elections. However, him and his party were later elected in the 2008 state elections.
He became the youngest, and 11th chief minister of the state of Jammu and Kashmir after forming a government in coalition with the Indian National Congress, on 5 January 2009. He would serve in that position until 2015, after being defeated in the 2014 state elections. He was the last leader of opposition in the erstwhile state Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly, serving as an MLA from Beerwah constituency, before the assembly was dissolved in 2018 and the state of Jammu & Kashmir ceased to exist as on 6 August 2019 and became a union territory following the revocation of Article 370, which Abdullah fiercely opposed.
Following being arrested and detained in 2020, Abdullah returned to politics first in the 2024 Indian general election, where he was defeated for a seat. Despite initially refusing to run for a seat, Abdullah was elected as an MLA following the 2024 union territory elections, being elected the first chief minister of the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. He took office in October 2024.
== Personal life ==
Omar Abdullah was born on 10 March 1970 in Rochford, Essex, United Kingdom. He is a grandson of Sheikh Abdullah, and the only son of Farooq Abdullah, a physician and former Chief Minister of J&K. All three men have held the position of Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. His mother, Mollie, an Englishwoman and a nurse by profession, has said that she was not in favor of him joining politics. He studied at the Burn Hall School located at Sonwar Bagh, Srinagar and then at Lawrence School, Sanawar. He is a B.Com. graduate of Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics. He was employed with ITC Limited and The Oberoi Group till the age of 29 before entering politics. He did commence an MBA with the University of Strathclyde, however due to his election to the Lok Sabha, he dropped out from the course.
He is married to Payal Nath. She is the daughter of a retired army officer, Ram Nath. In September 2011, Omar confirmed that he and his wife have separated but their divorce is still pending in courts. His younger sister, Sara married Sachin Pilot, son of Rajesh Pilot, in 2004 but the couple divorced in 2023.
He had a role in director Apoorva Lakhia’s film, Mission Istanbul (2008) playing himself.
== Political career ==
In 1998, at the age of 28, Omar Abdullah was elected to the 12th Lok Sabha, becoming the youngest member. In 1998–99, he was a member of both the Committees on Transport and Tourism and the Ministry of Tourism's Consultative Committee. In 1999, he was elected to 13th Lok Sabha (2nd term as a Member of Parliament). On 13 October 1999, he took oath as Union Minister of State, Commerce and Industry. On 22 July 2001, he became the youngest Union Minister, when he was made Union Minister of State for External Affairs. He resigned from the post on 23 December 2002, to concentrate on party work.
On 23 June 2002, he became the President of the National Conference party, replacing his father, Farooq Abdullah. He lost his Ganderbal seat in the Kashmir assembly elections held in September–October 2002. Abdullah was re-elected as the National Conference party's president in 2006.
In March 2006, much to the disapproval of the centre Omar Abdullah had a one-on-one meeting with Pakistan's president, Pervez Musharraf, in Islamabad. This was the first meeting of its kind between a mainstream politician from Jammu & Kashmir and the Pakistani government, thereby re-enforcing Omar's growing commitment to the solution of the Jammu & Kashmir cause.
On 22 July 2008, Omar gave a speech during the 2008 Lok Sabha vote of confidence, which was praised and won him fans on the internet.
"I am a Muslim and I am an Indian, and I see no distinction between the two. I don't know why should I fear the nuclear deal. It is a deal between two countries which, I hope, will become two equals in the future. The enemies of Indian Muslims are not America or deals like these. The enemies are the same as the enemies of all those who are poor—poverty, hunger, lack of development and the absence of a voice". On 6 February 2020 the government of India booked him under the Public Safety Act (PSA) which was revoked on 24 March 2020.
Mr. Abdullah has been appointed a member of the Coordination Committee of the Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance at its Mumbai convention on 1 September 2023. The coordination committee will decide the national agenda, common campaign issues and common program of the country's main opposition alliance (I.N.D.I.A.).
In the 2024 Lok Sabha Election Omar Abdullah was defeated by Engineer Sheikh Abdul Rashid. In run up to the 2024 Lok Sabha polls, Omar Abdullah showed unwillingness to go for a seat sharing agreement with other political parties under the INDIA alliance in Jammu and Kashmir, and insisted on NC contesting all seats in Kashmir region. He won both of his assembly seats from Budgam Assembly constituency and Ganderbal Assembly constituency and later withdrew his Budgam seat and retained Ganderbal seat.
== Chief Ministership ==
After the 2008 Kashmir Elections, the National Conference won the largest number of seats, and formed a coalition government with the Congress party, and Omar was sworn in as the 11th Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir on 5 January 2009 at the General Zoravar Singh Auditorium in the University of Jammu, Jammu, raising hope amongst the people of Jammu and Kashmir who had been reeling under insurgency and violence caused by cross border terrorism since 1989.
In 2009, Omar Abdullah was accused of covering up the rape and murder of two young women in Shopian. Many regarded this as Abdullah's first failure, as even moderates felt Abdullah had bowed to pressure from New Delhi.
At the 2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election, Abdullah's Jammu and Kashmir National Conference and its allies alliance secured 49 seats allowing him to be nominated to be the new Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. Omar Abdullah met with the Lieutenant Governor of Jammu and Kashmir, Manoj Sinha, on 11 October was sworn in as Chief Minister on 16 October 2024.
== Detention ==
On the intervening night of 4 and 5 August 2019, Omar Abdullah was placed under preventive detention by the Indian Government under Section 107 of the CRPC. This came as a backdrop to the government's decision of scrapping Article 370 of the Constitution of India, which gave the state of Jammu & Kashmir semi-autonomous powers.
After the expiry of the six-month detention without any charges, Abdullah was again charged and detained under the Public Safety Act (PSA) which was later revoked on 24 March 2020.
"The capacity of the subject to influence people for any cause can be gauged from the fact that he was able to convince his electorate to come out and vote in huge numbers even during peak of militancy and poll boycotts," the government dossier continues.
Abdullah's sister, Sara Abdullah Pilot has filed a writ petition in the Supreme Court challenging Abdullah's detention calling it "wholly antithetical to a democratic polity and undermines the Indian Constitution" and asking that the SC secure Abdullah's release.
The petition also includes a habeas corpus for Abdullah to be produced before the Supreme Court.
On 10 February 2020, senior advocate Kapil Sibal, appearing for petitioner Sara Abdullah Pilot, mentioned the matter for urgent listing before a bench headed by Justice N V Ramana.
On 14 February 2020, the Supreme Court issued notice to the Jammu & Kashmir administration and set the next date of hearing as 2 March 2020.
On 24 March 2020, Omar Abdullah was released from detention. Following his release, he demanded other people held under detention be released as well.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping_of_Yanfei_Bao#:~:text=background%20in%20sales.-,Disappearance,a%20property%20on%20Trevor%20Street. | Kidnapping of Yanfei Bao | On 19 July 2023, Harcourts real estate agent Yanfei Bao went missing in Christchurch's Wigram suburb. The New Zealand Police mounted a missing person's search in the Christchurch area. On the 24th of July 2023, Tingjun Cao was charged with her kidnapping after attempting to flee to China on the 22nd of July 2023. On 26 July 2023, the Police launched a homicide investigation into Bao's disappearance. More than a year later after her disappearance, Yanfei Bao's remains were found in a shallow grave by police on rural farmland near Lincoln on 30 July 2024.
Following a seven week trial, Cao was convicted of murdering Bao in early December 2024. On 13 June, Cao was sentenced to life imprisonment with a minimum term of 17 years for Bao's murder.
== Background ==
Yanfei Bao had recently joined the real estate company Harcourts as a real estate agent, having a prior background in sales.
== Disappearance ==
Bao was last seen in the suburb of Hornby, Christchurch, New Zealand on the morning of 19 July 2023. It has been reported that she was due to show a potential buyer through a property on Trevor Street. Later in the morning she rang her friend Jin Tian and had a four-minute conversation with her. During the conversation, Bao asked Tian how someone she was working with could transfer NZ$600,000 from China to pay cash for a house.
== Search and investigation ==
Bao was reported missing after she failed to collect her daughter from after school care later that day. Her car was found that evening in the suburb of Wigram. Her cellphone was found two days after her disappearance on the Christchurch Southern Motorway, several kilometres away from where she had last been seen.
52-year-old Tingjun Cao was charged of kidnapping Yanfei Bao and arrested at Christchurch Airport after booking a one-way international plane ticket to China on 22 July 2023. Following his arrest, Cao was interrogated by Detective Sergeant Caroline Johnson, with Detective Constable Wei (David) Zhu providing translation advice. Cao told police that he had lost his job a month earlier and had been traveling around in his car looking for a job at the time of Yanfei Bao's disappearance. Cao said that he had decided to leave New Zealand on the day that Bao disappeared. During the interview, Cao told police that he did not "really" know Bao and had poor eyesight.
On 26 July 2023 the New Zealand Police said that they had launched a homicide investigation into Bao's disappearance.
On 31 July 2023, Police temporarily suspended their search due to high water levels in the Halswell River and Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora. By that time, police had received over 200 pieces of information related to Bao's disappearance and searched three properties as part of "Operation Helo." Detective Inspector Nicola Reeves also told the public they were looking for a silver Mitsubishi sedan, and continued to ask the public for any sightings of one.
On 7 August 2023, police shifted their search to roads and farmland near Christchurch's Greenpark suburb. On 8 August, Reeves confirmed that police had recovered more items of interest.
On 6 September 2023, police confirmed that they were searching several new areas in Christchurch and Rolleston. Authorities continued to focus on the Halswell River and Greenpark area in October. Police asked for public help locating clothing related to the disappearance and a roughly 1 metre long flat-bottomed spade.
On 19 January 2024, Reeves reiterated that police were still searching for Bao. She stated that police were interested in a silver Mitsubishi 380 with the registration DPH101 and sightings in the wider Christchurch area beyond Lake Ellesmere.
On 19 July 2024, Reeves confirmed that the police investigation into Bao's disappearance was still "very active" and that staff were in the process of finalising evidence ahead of the trial. She reaffirmed the police's commitment to recovering Bao's remains in order to provide closure for her family. By July 2024, the police investigation team had been reduced to eight investigators. Reeves confirmed that a new investigative lead had led police to re-establish search activity in a previously-searched area and a newly identified area. Reeves also confirmed that police had searched Christchurch's Greenpark neighbourhood about three weeks previously but failed to find anything relevant to their investigation.
On 30 July 2024, police announced that remains believed to be that of Yanfei Bao were found at a rural property in Greenpark a Neighbourhood in Lincoln. The remains were said to be in a shallow grave just 15cm deep along the treeline at the property. Over 60 police officers were involved in the Tuesday search taking 90 minutes to locate the grave. In a statement Detective Inspector Nicola Reeves said "new information that had come to light that had given us quite a specific direction for a location of we needed to be". Harcourts Gold Chief Executive Operations Manager Jason Wills extended his condolences on behalf of Harcourts.
On 31 July 2024 a post-mortem autopsy took place and on 2 August 2024, police confirmed the remains found on the Greenpark property were that of Yanfei Bao. During the announcement Detective Inspector Nicola Reeves stated, "This news brings to a close a key aspect of our investigation and Yanfei will now be returned to her family". Police confirmed a scene examination had taken place on the involved property.
== Legal proceedings ==
On 15 August 2023, police charged the 52 year old man accused of Bao's kidnapping with a single murder charge. Police also confirmed they were seeking information from the public about a tracksuit, top, and spade. That same day, the suspect pleaded not guilty to the murder charge through his lawyer. The accused was remanded into custody until 1 September 2023.
On 1 September 2023, the murder suspect was identified as Tingjun Cao. His lawyer no longer sought interim name suppression. Cao appeared before the Christchurch High Court via audio-visual link. He was remanded in custody, reappearing at the high court by audio-visual 10 November while his lawyer was granted additional time for preparation. Police custody was continued until his next court appearance in December 2023.
A tentative trial date was set for 24 October 2024, the trial started early on 21 October 2024. Cao opted for a jury trial.
On 23 August 2024, now 53 year old Tingjun Cao appeared via video link before Justice Rob Osborne at the Christchurch High Court. Tingjun Cao's lawyer Joshua Macleod said in a statement, "From our perspective everything is still on track”.
== Trial ==
On 21 October 2024, ahead of schedule the murder trial of Yanfei Bao began with the selection of a jury of six men and six women. The trial was set for six weeks with Justice Lisa Preston presiding at the Christchurch High Court. The court heard from 80 witness including Bao's husband Paul Gooch, family, friends, police officers, forensic experts and medical professionals. Since the defendant Tingjun Cao only spoke Chinese, the court utilised the services of a translator to translate the court proceedings from English into Chinese, and vice versa.
The Crown was represented by prosecutors Cameron Stuart and Pip Currie. Cao was initially represented by defence lawyers Colin Eason and Joshua Macleod. During the third week of the trial, Tingjun Cao sacked his defence team and decided to represent himself during the trial. Justice Preston appointed Eason and Macleod as standby counsel.
=== Opening arguments ===
During the first day, Cao pleaded not guilty through an interpreter. Stuart delivered the Crown's opening address, arguing that Cao had stabbed Yanfei Bao inside a Trevor St property he had intended to buy before putting her body into a car and hiding it on farmland. He said there was possible sexual motive behind Cao's murder of Bao, citing a deleted photo found on the defendant's phone. Stuart also said that forensic evidence confirmed that Bao's blood was found inside the property and that CCTV footage, phone polling and geolocation data were used to track Cao's movements. Stuart also explained that Police had been able to unlock Bao's phone in May 2024, allowing them to use the cellphone data to find Bao's remains and track Cao's movements following her disappearance.
MacLeod delivered the defence's opening address, stating that Cao denied murdering Bao and that the defence position was that the evidence did not support a guilty verdict. He claimed that the evidence was "much muddier than the Crown would lead you to believe" and urged the jury not to let emotions "cloud their judgment." MacLeod also questioned the scope of the Police investigation.
=== Crown testimony and evidence ===
The Crown presented several witnesses including Detective Constable Andrew Calder, Bao's partner Paul Gooch builder Mervin Boclot, several of Bao's colleagues, friends, and relatives, "Home and Castle Hardware and Stuff hardware store" owner Dennis Shrimpton, and Cao's former employer Chun-Chieh (Jason) Li. The Crown also submitted footage of Bao entering the Home and Castle Hardware and Stuff hardware store in New Brighton and buying a spade on the same day that Bao was murdered. In addition, Police detective inspector Joel Syme told the Court that Police were able to track Bao's cellphone movements around Halswell Village and Tai Tapu cell tower.
Other Crown witnesses included Senior Constable Dean Stevenson, Police digital forensic analyst Joshua Locke (who analysed Bao's phone messages), Detective Constables Andrew Calder, Grace Schurgers, Constable Duncan Fosbender, During the court proceedings, Judge Preston warned Cao several times for repeatedly asking the witnesses irrelevant questions, previously-asked questions and questions that were beyond the witnesses' scope. and Detective Leanne Benjamin. ESR forensic scientist Wendy Janes testified about forensic evidence found at the Hornby property that Bao visited prior to her death. The Court also heard testimony regarding Bao's car and injuries from constables Abigail Howe, Clayton Davison and detective Geoff Reid. In addition, the Crown presented a six hour Police interview of Cao following his arrest on 22 July 2023.
=== Defence testimony ===
On 29 November, Cao testified in his own defence. He admitted going to Trevor Street on the day that Bao went missing but claimed that the victim was not inside the property. While walking back to his car, Cao said that he met a stranger called Mr Tang, who asked to test drive his car. Cao allowed Mr Tang to drive the car and even lent him his shoes. Cao also claimed that his phone was in the car while Tang drove.
On 2 December, Tingjun Cao continued his testimony, claiming that Mr Tang communicated with him via a walkie talkie since he had Cao's phone. During his testimony, Cao said he was not suggesting that Tang murdered Yanfei Bao. Cao claimed that he could verify Tang existed because a forensic examination of his shoes showed DNA belonging to more than one person. During cross-examination, Currie challenged the veracity of Cao's testimony, describing it as "completely fictitious and made up." She also referred to Cao's police interview where he had confirmed that he was the only one using the car during the period of Bao's disappearance. She also submitted evidence that Cao had admitted ownership of his cellphone and argued that the defendant had led the victim to the Trevor Street property under false pretenses. Cao accused the Police of planting evidence incriminating him. He also alleged that he had been mistreated and denied sleep by Police following his arrest.
=== Closing arguments ===
On 3 December, Currie delivered the Crown's closing address. She argued that Cao had lured Bao to the Trevor Street property under the pretext of viewing and possibly purchasing it. Currie said that Cao had attacked the victim before transporting her into the boot of his car to MacArtneys Road, where he murdered her. After buying a spade from a hardware store in New Brighton, the defendant buried Bao's remains in a shallow grave at a farm in the Greenpark area. Currie said that the Crown's evidence was supported by an overwhelming amount of video, social media, eyewitness, forensic and cellular phone evidence.
=== Verdict ===
On 4 December, Justice Preston outlined the Crown's case to the jury, who retired to consider their verdict. She told the jury not to infer anything from the Cao's earlier courtroom behaviour and that the burden of proof lay with the Crown. Preston also outlined Cao's case that the Crown had falsified the evidence against him and that another man named Tang had murdered Bao, taken a graphic photo of her with Cao's phone and used Cao's car to dispose of her remains.
That same day, Cao was found guilty of murdering Yanfei Bao by the Christchurch High Court jury, who had deliberated for one and a half hours. Bao's partner Paul Gooch welcomed the verdict and criticised Cao for his lack of remorse and humanity during the trial proceedings.Gooch also thanked the New Zealand Police for bringing Cao to justice and his stepdaughter's school "for helping her navigate the incredibly traumatic experience." Detective Inspector Nicola Reeves also welcomed the resolution of Bao's murder case and expressed empathy with Bao's family. Cao was remanded in custody for sentencing, scheduled for 7 March 2025.
=== Sentencing ===
On 13 June 2025, Cao's sentencing hearing took place at the Christchurch High Court, with Judge Lisa Preston presiding. Cao was removed from the courtroom and sent to another room with a video link after disrupting court proceedings. Cao's lawyer Colin Eason explained that he did not understand it was a sentencing hearing and that he wanted to appeal his conviction. Though Cao had sacked his lawyers, they remained in court to represent him. Cao has maintained his innocence and alleged that a fictional Mr Tang had murdered Bao.
During the sentencing hearing, the court heard victim impact statements from Bao's 11 year old daughter, her husband Paul Gooch, her father-in-law David Gooch and Bao's 74-year old father (who spoke via video link from China). Detective Inspector Nicola Reeves also paid tribute to Bao and her family. Crown prosecutor Cameron Stuart had sought a maximum sentence of life imprisonment of 18 years, citing the "brutal" nature of the crime and Cao's "callous" conduct in the aftermath of the killing. Eason asked Judge Preston to consider "mitigating factors" such as Cao's profound sense of isolation in prison due to his lack of English language skills and his isolation from his wife and teenage sons. He sought a minimum term of 17 years. Judge Preston criticised Cao for sexually violating Bao during the assault and for his lack of remorse. She imposed a life sentence with a minimum non-parole term of 17 years and five months.
== Aftermath ==
By 31 July 2023, a Givealittle fundraising page was established by Bao's friend Vani Liu and by the time it had ended in August 2023, over NZ$50,000 was raised to help her immediate family, and relatives from China.
On 18 November 2024, a public memorial service for Yanfei Bao was held at Our Lady of Victories Church in Sockburn. Bao's partner Paul Gooch, father and sister delivered eulogies during the memorial service.
== See also ==
List of kidnappings
List of solved missing person cases: 2020s
Disappearance of Suzy Lamplugh – 1986 disappearance of woman in London
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)#:~:text=In%20September%202015%2C%20Telegram%20announced,delivering%2015%20billion%20messages%20daily. | Telegram (software) | Telegram (also known as Telegram Messenger) is a cloud-based, cross-platform social media and instant messaging (IM) service. It launched for iOS on 14 August 2013 and Android on 20 October 2013. It allows users to exchange messages, share media and files, and hold private and group voice or video calls as well as public livestreams. It is available for Android, iOS, Windows, macOS, Linux, and web browsers. Telegram offers end-to-end encryption in voice and video calls, and optionally in private chats if both participants use a mobile device.
Telegram also has social networking features, allowing users to post stories, create public groups with up to 200,000 members, and share one-way updates to unlimited audiences in so-called channels.
Telegram was founded in 2013 by Pavel and Nikolai Durov. Its servers are distributed worldwide with several data centers, and its headquarters are in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It was the most downloaded app worldwide in January 2021, with 1 billion downloads globally as of late August 2021. As of 2024, registration to Telegram requires either a phone number and a smartphone or one of a limited number of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) issued in 2022.
As of March 2025, Telegram has more than 1 billion monthly active users, with India as the country with the most users.
== History ==
=== Development ===
Telegram was launched in 2013 by the brothers Nikolai and Pavel Durov. Previously, the pair founded the Russian social network VK, which they left in 2014, saying it had been taken over by the government. Pavel sold his remaining stake in VK and left Russia after resisting government pressure. Nikolai created the MTProto protocol that is the basis for the messenger, while Pavel provided financial support and infrastructure through his Digital Fortress fund. Telegram Messenger denies that its end goal is to profit, but it is not structured as a nonprofit organization.
Telegram is registered as a company in the British Virgin Islands and as an LLC in Dubai. It does not disclose where it rents offices or which legal entities it uses to rent them, citing the need to "shelter the team from unnecessary influence" and protect users from governmental data requests. After Pavel Durov left Russia in 2014, he was said to be moving from country to country with a small group of computer programmers consisting of 15 core members.
While a former employee of VK said that Telegram had employees in Saint Petersburg, Pavel said the Telegram team made Berlin, Germany, its headquarters in 2014, but failed to obtain German residence permits for everyone on the team and moved to other jurisdictions in early 2015. Since 2017, the company has been based in Dubai. Its data centers are spread across a complex corporate structure of shell companies in various jurisdictions to avoid compliance with government subpoenas. The company says this is done "to protect the data that is not covered by end-to-end encryption". Telegram's FAQ page says it does not process requests related to illegal content in chats and group chats, and that "to this day, we have disclosed 0 bytes of user messages to third parties, including governments". But according to Pavel, Telegram disclosed data for 203 legal requests from the Brazilian government in January to September 2024 and 6,992 legal requests from India, its largest market, during that period. Users can use Telegram's transparency bot to check how many legal requests from their country it has processed.
=== Usage ===
In October 2013, Telegram announced that it had 100,000 daily active users.
On 24 March 2014, Telegram announced that it had reached 35 million monthly users and 15 million daily active users. In October 2014, South Korean government surveillance plans drove many of its citizens to switch to Telegram from the Korean app KakaoTalk. In December 2014, Telegram announced that it had 50 million active users, generating 1 billion daily messages, and that it had 1 million new users signing up on its service every week, traffic doubled in five months with 2 billion daily messages. In September 2015, Telegram announced that the app had 60 million active users and delivered 12 billion daily messages.
In February 2016, Telegram announced that it had 100 million monthly active users, with 350,000 new users signing up every day, delivering 15 billion messages daily. In December 2017, Telegram reached 180 million monthly active users. By March 2018, that number had doubled, with Telegram reaching 200 million monthly active users.
On 14 March 2019, Pavel said that "3 million new users signed up for Telegram within the last 24 hours." He did not specify what prompted this flood of new sign-ups, but the period matched a prolonged technical outage experienced by Facebook and its family of apps, including Instagram. According to the US Securities and Exchange Commission, as of October 2019, Telegram had 300 million monthly active users worldwide.
On 24 April 2020, Telegram announced that it had reached 400 million monthly active users.
On 8 January 2021, Pavel announced in a blog post that Telegram had reached "about 500 million" monthly active users. In August, TechCrunch reported that India was Telegram's largest market, with a 22% share of total installs coming from the region. Telegram then gained over 70 million new users as a result of an outage which affected Facebook and its affiliates on 5 October 2021.
On 19 June 2022, Telegram announced that it had reached 700 million monthly active users.
In July 2023, Telegram surpassed 800 million monthly active users, later reaching 900 million in March 2024 and 950 million in July 2024. In March 2025, Pavel Durov announced that Telegram surpassed 1 billion monthly active users.
== Features ==
=== Messaging ===
To use Telegram, a user must sign up with their phone number or an anonymous +888 number purchased from the Fragment blockchain platform. Changing the phone number in the app will automatically reassign the user's account to that number without exporting data or notifying their contacts. Phone numbers are hidden by default, with only a user's contacts able to see them. Sign-ups can be done only on an Android or iOS device.
Messages users send and receive are tied to their numbers and custom usernames, not the device. Telegram content is synced between users' logged-in devices automatically through cloud storage, except for device-specific secret chats. By default, any account that is inactive for 6 months is deleted, but the period can be shortened or extended up to 18 months. Telegram allows groups, bots and channels with a verified social media or Wikipedia page to be verified, but not individual user accounts.
Messages can contain formatted text, media, files up to 2 GB (4 GB with Premium), locations, and audio or video messages recorded in-app. Telegram messages in private chats can be edited for up to 48 hours; an "edited" icon indicates changes. Messages may also be deleted for both sides without a trace. Users may delete messages and whole chats for both themselves and other participants. Chats can be exported to preserve them via Telegram's Desktop client, but the saved data cannot be imported back into the user's account.
Users can import chat history, including both messages and media, from WhatsApp, Line, and KakaoTalk due to data portability, making a new chat to hold the messages or adding them to an existing one.
As users can be logged into many devices at once, starting to type a message on one of them will create a "cloud draft" that syncs with others, so that typing can be started on a phone and finished on a laptop, for example.
Any message can be translated by opening the context menu. Premium users can translate a whole chat with one click. Users can hide the translate button for messages written in specific languages.
Reactions can be used to respond to a message with emoji. Premium users have access to more reaction choices and can leave more reactions per message. Reactions are always on in private chats and can be enabled by admins in groups and channels. Specific reactions can be allowed or excluded. Reaction emoji play an animation with special effects.
Users can also send stickers, which can be static, animated or video. Sticker packs are made by Telegram designers as well as regular users and can be shared via links. They use the WebP or WebM format and do not require special software to create or upload. Some stickers feature full-screen effects that play out when first sent or when tapped.
Users can schedule messages to send at a particular time or when their conversation partner comes online, as well as choose to send a message "without sound" without a notification. Messages from private chats can be forwarded, with an option to hide the original sender's identity or to hide captions from media messages. Forwarded messages also maintain reply formatting, able to show which messages in a thread are replying to others. Any user can also send a message to a special "Saved Messages" chat as a form of bookmarking them. The contents of the chat are only visible to the user.
Chats can be sorted into folders to organize them with preset options like "Unread" and "Muted" or custom separations such as "Work" and "Family". Premium users have the ability to set any chat folder as the default screen in the app while regular users will always see the full chat list when first opening the app.
Users have the option to start a one-on-one, end-to-end-encrypted "Secret Chat", which remains accessible only on the device on which it started and self-destructs upon logging out. Secret Chats restrict screenshotting by Android devices and warn when one is taken on an iOS device, while also hiding the chat contents from the final image. Secret Chats support perfect forward secrecy and switch encryption keys after a key has been used 100 times or a week has passed. Secret Chats are available only on Android, iOS, and macOS clients.
Both in Secret and regular chats, messages can self-destruct after they are read, disappearing for all parties after a period set by the user, ranging from one day to one year.
=== Groups and channels ===
Telegram users can create and join groups and channels. Groups are large multi-user chats that support up to 200,000 members and can be public or private. Users can freely join public chats and find them using the in-app search function, while private chats require an invitation. They support flexible admin rights and can use bots for moderation to prevent spam and unwanted activity. Groups can be split into topics, effectively creating subgroups dedicated to various subjects with separate settings for each.
Admins can choose to hide the list of members in a group, as well as post anonymously themselves. Similarly, groups and channels can have content protection enabled, which prevents screenshots, forwarding and downloading of media. Ownership of channels and groups can be transferred to one of the admins if the owner wishes to give up their rights.
Groups support threaded replies, where bringing up the context menu on a message allows one to open a screen with a thread of replies made to that message and the subsequent ones in the thread. Specific users can be tagged in the group by adding @username to a message, where "username" is that particular user's username.
Groups and channels also support polls, which can be open or anonymous and can support multiple choices. When forwarded, polls retain the answer data and any votes cast in other chats will count toward the overall total.
Channels are one-way feeds where the channel owner or admins can post content while followers can only read, react and comment, if comments have been enabled. Channels can be created for broadcasting messages to an unlimited number of subscribers. The list of those who subscribe to a channel can only be seen by its admins. Posting in the channel is anonymous, though admins can choose to add signatures to their posts. Channels offer detailed statistics on view counts, user growth and interactions, also visible only to admins.
Channel owners are able to use Telegram to create giveaways, randomly awarding channel members with prizes such as Telegram Premium subscriptions to their followers, based on certain criteria. Users with a Telegram Premium subscription have a number of "boosts" that they can give to channels, which allow the channel to "level up" and unlock features, such as the ability to customize messages or post stories as the channel.
In December 2019, Bloomberg News moved their messenger-based newsletter service from WhatsApp to Telegram after the former banned bulk and automated messaging. Other news services with official channels on the platform include the Financial Times, Business Insider and The New York Times.
Channels have also been used by governments and heads of state. Notable examples include Volodymyr Zelenskyy and Emmanuel Macron. Channels have been used by journalists in oppressive regimes to establish independent news networks.
=== Telegram Mini Apps ===
Telegram also provides an open API for the creation of custom bots which can perform various tasks, integrate other services into Telegram chats, or work as mini apps or games. Among the Mini Apps, there are also various infrastructures for working with cryptocurrency, one of the best examples of which is Crypto Office. Most of them work on the 8XR game engine. In July 2024, Telegram Mini Apps reached 500 million monthly active users.
=== Video and voice calls ===
Since 2017, Telegram users have been able to initiate one-on-one calls in private chats. Calls are end-to-end encrypted and prioritize peer-to-peer connections. Video calls were introduced in August 2020. According to Telegram, there is a neural network working to learn various technical parameters about a call to provide better quality of service for future uses.
Telegram added group voice chats in December 2020 and group video chats in June 2021. Group voice and video chats support picture-in-picture video, as well as sharing one's screen, creating a recording of the call, noise suppression and selective muting. In channels, users can start a livestream, that is able to integrate with third-party apps such as OBS Studio and XSplit.
Once launched, a group voice chat will remain active and open to all group members until an admin specifically closes it.
In April 2025, Telegram launched secure group calls with end-to-end encryption by using blockchain-like encryption technology. Group calls can handle up to 200 participants, and provide voice/video calls and screen sharing.
=== Privacy and security features ===
By default, logging into Telegram requires either an SMS message sent to the registered number or a code message sent to one of the active sessions on another device. Users have the option to set a two-step verification password and add a recovery email. In late 2022, options to Sign in with Apple and Sign In with Google or with an email address were added. Whenever a new device successfully logs in to a user's account, a special service notification is sent and a login alert is displayed in the chat list of their other devices.
In the Privacy and Security submenu of Settings, users have the option to hide their "Last Seen" status, which reflects the last time the user opened a Telegram app. Hiding the status obfuscates the exact time the user was online and hides the statuses of other people respectively. Similarly, users can hide their phone number and profile photo from people based on categories such as Non-Contacts or by adding exceptions. When a user chooses to hide their profile photo, they can set an alternative "Public Profile Picture" that will be shown instead.
In the same menu, users can restrict the circle of people who can call them or invite them to groups and channels, while Premium users also have the option to restrict who can send them text and voice messages.
The Devices submenu shows all of the active devices on a user's account and allows them to remotely log out from those devices.
=== Data and storage settings ===
Telegram clients can turn off media autoplay and automatic downloads for both WiFi and mobile data, adjusting them for media type and size. Auto download settings can also be applied based on chat type such as group, channel or private.
Cache settings can be changed to automatically clear the cache once it reaches a certain size or a certain time passes. The interface shows users a visual representation of their storage usage and also lets them sort their cached media by size to clear specific items.
=== Bots ===
In June 2015, Telegram launched a platform for third-party developers to create bots. Bots are Telegram accounts operated by programs. They can respond to messages or mentions directly or can be invited into groups, and are able to perform tasks, integrate with other programs and host mini apps. Bots can accept online payments made with credit cards or Apple Pay. The Dutch website Tweakers reported that an invited bot can potentially read all group messages, when the bot controller changes the access settings silently at a later point in time. Telegram pointed out that it considered implementing a feature that would announce such a status change within the relevant group.
There are also inline bots, which can be used from any chat screen. To activate an inline bot, a user must type the bot's username and a query in the message field. The bot then will offer its content. The user can choose from that content and send it within a chat. Certain approved bots are also able to integrate into the attachment menu, making them accessible in any chat.
Bots can handle transactions provided by Paymentwall, Yandex.Money, Stripe, Ravepay, Razorpay, QiWi and Google Pay for different countries. Bots power Telegram's gaming platform, which utilizes HTML5, so games are loaded on-demand as needed, like ordinary webpages. Games work on iPhone 4 and newer, and on Android 4.4 devices and newer.
People can use Internet Of Things (IoT) services with two-way interaction via IFTTT implemented within Telegram.
In April 2021, the Payments 2.0 upgrade enabled bot payments within any chat, using third-party services such as Sberbank, Tranzoo, Payme, CLICK, LiqPay and ECOMMPAY to process the credit card information.
Bots are also commonly used for businesses to communicate with customers as the bot APIs integrate with communication platforms so that Telegram messages can be sent and received in an omnichannelinbox. These platforms also enable businesses to add Telegram chat widget to their websites and gives them the option to automate conversations or let human agents reply. Examples of platforms providing Telegram bot integration include respond.io, Manychat and Trengo.
In February 2018, Telegram launched its social login feature, Telegram Login. It features a website widget that can be embedded into websites, allowing users to sign into a third party website with their Telegram account. The gateway sends the user's Telegram name, username, and profile picture to the website owner, while the user's phone number remains hidden. The gateway is integrated with a bot, which is linked with the developer's specific website domain.
In June 2021, an update introduced a new bot menu where users can browse and send commands while in a chat with a bot.
In April 2022, bots gained support for customized interfaces and inline page loading. Interfaces can be adjusted to match the app's theme even if it changes while interacting with the bot.
In October 2024, Telegram added increased messaging limits for bots, allowing bots to send up to 1000 messages per second to their users. Messages beyond the free limit of 30 per second are paid for using Telegram Stars.
Telegram introduced affiliate programs in December 2024 that allow developers to create an affiliate program for their bot or mini app. Any Telegram user can join the affiliate program and be rewarded for referring others to the bot or mini app by receiving a commission from purchases made by the people they referred.
=== Stickers, emoji, reactions and effects ===
Telegram has more than 40,000 stickers. Stickers are cloud-based, high-resolution images intended to provide more expressive emoji. When typing in an emoji, the user is offered to send the respective sticker instead. Stickers come in collections called "packs", and multiple stickers can be offered for one emoji. Telegram comes with one default sticker pack, and users can install additional sticker packs provided by third-party contributors.
Sticker sets installed from one client become automatically available to all other clients. Sticker images use WebP file format, which is better optimized to be transmitted over the internet. The Telegram clients also support animated emoji. In January 2022, video stickers were added, which use the WebM file format and do not feature any software requirements to create.
In August 2019, Telegram introduced animated emoji, larger versions of familiar emoji with unique animations. In September 2021, Telegram added interactive emoji, a type of animated emoji which also play a fullscreen effect in the chat. These kinds of effects were later used for Premium Stickers in June 2022 and for message effects in May 2024.
In August 2022, Telegram launched an emoji platform where users could upload their own custom emoji, either in animated or static versions. While any user can upload custom emoji to the platform, the use of custom emoji in chats is only available to users with Telegram Premium.
Reactions were first added to Telegram in 2021 and expanded to include more emoji options for Premium users. In September 2022, Telegram gave free users access to dozens of reactions, even some that were only previously available to Premium subscribers. In order to accommodate the new reactions, the reaction panel was expanded and redesigned.
=== People Nearby and Groups Near Me ===
People Nearby and Groups Near Me were features that helped users contact people in their physical vicinity, using their phone's GPS location. They were removed in 2024, with Durov saying that they had had "issues with bots and scammers".
=== Stories ===
Similar to other social platforms, Telegram users can post stories, a type of short-form content. Telegram stories have several distinctive features, like a dual-camera mode, extra privacy settings, the ability to edit stories after posting them, as well as to rewind and fast-forward them while watching.
=== Premium features ===
Telegram Premium was launched on 19 June 2022 with regional pricing. The optional paid subscription gives users increased limits in the app, such as larger file uploads, faster download speeds, unlimited voice message transcription, as well as numerous other increases such as the number of pinned chats and folders. Premium users have access to extra stickers, emoji, reactions, and customization features like a special badge and the ability to change the look of their messages in chats. Premium users get access to additional settings, like instant chat translation, and the ability to restrict who can send them text and voice messages.
As of 2023, Telegram Premium can be acquired via in-app purchases facilitated by Apple and Google, directly via Telegram's @PremiumBot, or with cryptocurrency on the Fragment platform. Users are able to purchase a subscription for themselves, or purchase a subscription for someone else to send as a gift. Premium subscriptions can also be won through official Channel Giveaways, in which Telegram channels pre-purchase a specific number of Premium subscriptions that are randomly given away to their subscribers.
=== Gifts ===
In October 2024, Telegram launched Gifts, a type of virtual cosmetic item that users can purchase and send to each other in the app using Telegram Stars. In January 2025, Collectible Gifts were released, which are unique collections that contain special artwork and attributes. Specific limited-edition gifts can be upgraded to a collectible version, unlocking a random appearance and other attributes. These collectible gifts are registered on the TON blockchain as a form of NFT and can then be traded or sold both on the Telegram platform via the in-app Gift Marketplace or via outside platforms and marketplaces.
In July 2025, Telegram partnered with the rapper and media figure Snoop Dogg to release a set of limited edition collectible gifts alongside his music video "Gifts". In November 2025, Telegram began using an auction-based system for new sets of collectible gifts and partnered with Khabib Nurmagomedov and with the UFC for two limited-edition releases.
== Related platforms ==
People can use their Telegram accounts to author articles on Telegraph – a minimalistic text editor and publisher. While articles on Telegraph can be published anonymously, tying them to one's account allows one to check their view count and edit them later. Telegraph natively supports Instant View, a feature which lets users read full articles in the chat with no load time and without opening an external browser.
When an article is first published, the URL is generated automatically from its title. Non-Latin characters are transliterated, spaces are replaced with hyphens, and the date of publication is added to the address. For example, an article titled "Telegraph (blog platform)" published on 17 November would receive the URL /Telegraph-blog-platform-11-17.
Text formatting options are also minimal: two levels of headings, single-level lists, bold, italics, quotes, and hyperlinks are supported. Authors could upload images and videos to the page, with a limit of 5 MB, however, it has been disabled since September 2024. When an author adds links to YouTube, Vimeo, or Twitter, the service allows you to embed their content directly in the article.
In February 2018, Telegram launched their social login feature to its users, named Telegram Login. It features a website widget that could be embedded into websites, allowing users to sign into a third party website with their Telegram account. The gateway sends users' Telegram name, username, and profile picture to the website owner, while users' phone number remains hidden. The gateway is integrated with a bot, which is linked with the developer's specific website domain.
In July 2018, Telegram introduced their online authorization and identity-management system, Telegram Passport, for platforms that require real-life identification. It asks users to upload their own official documents such as passport, identity card, driver license, etc. When an online service requires such identification documents and verification, it forwards the information to the platform with the user's permission. Telegram stated that it does not have access to the data, while the platform will share the information only with the authorized recipient. However, the service was criticised for being vulnerable to online brute-force attacks.
In December 2020, Telegram launched a Bugs and Suggestions platform, where users can submit bug reports and suggestion cards for new features. Others can then vote and comment on the cards.
In October 2024, Telegram launched a verification platform, called Telegram Gateway, allowing third-party services to authenticate their users by sending verification codes via Telegram.
== Architecture ==
=== Privacy ===
For encrypted chats (branded as Secret Chats), Telegram uses a custom-built symmetric encryption scheme called MTProto. The protocol was developed by Nikolai Durov and other developers at Telegram and, as of version 2.0, is based on 256-bit symmetric AES encryption, 2048-bit RSA encryption and Diffie–Hellman key exchange.
MTProto 1.0 was deprecated in favor of MTProto 2.0 in December 2017, which was deployed in Telegram clients as of v4.6.
Version 2.0 was proven formally correct in December 2020 by a team from the University of Udine, Italy. The team reviewed the protocol after realizing that they could only find in-depth verifications done of version 1.0, where most criticisms were levied. They used ProVerif, a verifier based on the symbolic Dolev-Yao model. In the published paper, they "provide a fully automated proof of the soundness of MTProto 2.0’s protocols for authentication, normal chat, end-to-end encrypted chat, and re-keying mechanisms with respect to several security properties, including authentication, integrity, confidentiality and perfect forward secrecy...MTProto 2.0 is assumed to be a perfect authenticated encryption scheme (IND-CCA and INT-CTXT)."
However, the team also stated that because all communication, including plaintext and ciphertext, passes through Telegram servers, and because the server is responsible for choosing Diffie–Hellman parameters, the "server should not be considered as trusted." They also concluded that a man-in-the-middle attack is possible if users fail to check the fingerprints of their shared keys. Finally, they qualified their conclusion with the caveat that "properties need to be formally proved in order to deem MTProto 2.0 definitely secure. This proof cannot be done in a symbolic model like ProVerif's, but it can be achieved in a computational model, using tools like CryptoVerif or EasyCrypt."
=== Servers ===
As with most instant messaging protocols, apart from XMPP, Telegram uses centralized servers. Telegram Messenger LLP has servers in a number of countries throughout the world to improve the response time of their service. Telegram's server-side software is closed-source and proprietary. Pavel Durov said that it would require a major architectural redesign of the server-side software to connect independent servers to the Telegram cloud.
For users who signed in from the European Economic Area (EEA) or United Kingdom, the General Data Protection Regulations (GDPR) are supported by storing data only on servers in the Netherlands, and designating a London-based company as their responsible data controller.
=== Clients ===
Telegram has various client apps, some developed by Telegram Messenger LLP and some by the community. Most of them are free and open-source and released under the GNU General Public Licence version 2 or 3. The official clients support sending any file format extensions. The built-in media viewer supports common media formats – JPEG, PNG, WebP for images and H.264 and HEVC in videos in MP4 container and MP3, FLAC, Vorbis, Opus and AAC for audio. This enables the building of clients for non-traditional platforms like KaiOS (supported by Telekram), or S30+/Mocor Feature phones (still in development).
In 2021, the Telegram team announced a direct build of its Android app. Telegram for Android is available directly from the Telegram website. It is automatically updated and will most likely get new versions faster than the apps in the Play Store and App Store. A distinctive feature of this version is the ability to view channels/groups on a specific topic without censorship, which cannot be viewed from an app distributed from Google Play or the Apple Store due to their policies.
Common specifications:
No cloud backup option for secret chat
=== APIs ===
Telegram has public APIs with which developers can access the same functionality as Telegram's official apps to build their own instant messaging applications. In February 2015, creators of the unofficial WhatsApp+ client released the Telegram Plus app, later renamed to Plus Messenger, after their original project got a cease-and-desist order from WhatsApp. In September 2015, Samsung released a messaging application based on these APIs.
Telegram also offers an API that allows developers to create bots, which are accounts controlled by programs. Such bots are used, among other things, to emulate and play old games in the app and inform users about vaccine availability for COVID-19.
In addition, Telegram offers functions for making payments directly within the platform, alongside an external service such as Stripe.
== xAI ==
In 2025, founder of Telegram claimed that xAI had signed a $300mln program with Telegram for Grok to provide full functions within Telegram starting from Summer 2025. The amount was paid using a combination of cash and xAI equity. This seems to have been abandoned though as there has been no new announcement since and the promised features have not been released.
== Business ==
The company was initially supported by founding CEO Pavel Durov's personal funds after the sale of his stake in VK. In January 2018, it launched a private placement and collected $1.7 billion from investors such as Kleiner Perkins, Sequoia Capital, and Benchmark. After the shutdown of the TON project, the company needed to repay the investors the money that was not spent on its development during 2018 and the beginning of 2019, while the project was active.
On 15 March 2021, Telegram conducted a five-year public bonds placement worth $1 billion. The funding was required to cover the debts amounting to $625.7 million, including $433 million to investors who bought futures for Gram tokens in 2018 and included purchasers such as David Yakobashvili. On 23 March, Telegram sold additional bonds worth $150 million to the Abu Dhabi Mubadala Investment Company and Abu Dhabi Catalyst Partners.
A day later, the Mubadala Investment Company stated that Russia's sovereign wealth fund participated in its deal undisclosed through the Russia-UAE joint investment platform to buy convertible bonds. A Telegram spokesperson stated: "RDIF is not in the list of investors we sold bonds to. We wouldn't be open to any transaction with this fund" and "[t]he funds that did invest, including Mubadala, confirmed to us that RDIF was not among their LPs [limited partners]." According to the contract, the holders of the bonds will be provided with an option to convert them to shares at a 10% discount if the company conducts an open IPO.
Durov stated that the move aimed to "enable Telegram to continue growing globally while sticking to its values and remaining independent". According to press reports, prior to the bonds placement, Durov had rejected an investment offer for a 5–10% stake in the company as well as several undisclosed ones, valuing the company in a $30–40 billion range. In March 2024, Telegram sold an additional $330 million in bonds. Durov said the bond sale "will further solidify our position as an independent platform that is able to challenge the 'Goliaths' of our industry".
=== Advertising and monetization ===
Telegram has stated that the company will never serve advertisements in private chats. In late 2020, Durov announced that the company was working on its own ad platform, and would integrate non-targeted ads in public one-to-many channels, that already were selling and displaying ads in the form of regular messages. Ads from Telegram's "Sponsored Messages" platform began to appear in channels with more than 1000 followers in October 2021.
In late 2020, Durov announced that Telegram will consider adding paid features aimed at enterprise clients. According to him, these features will require more bandwidth and the added cost will be covered by the feature prices, in addition to covering some of the costs incurred by regular users.
In June 2024, Telegram launched Telegram Stars to facilitate in-app purchases of digital goods and services, in compliance with policies from the App Store and Play Store. Following the launch of Stars, Telegram released several updates to their functionality, such as allowing Stars to be used to unlock media in channels or to buy gifts for other users.
In December 2024, Telegram CEO Pavel Durov announced that Telegram had reached profitability, due to significant growth in Premium subscriptions and Telegram ad sales, assisted by the other monetization features launched throughout 2024.
=== TON Telegram Open Network ===
In 2017, in an attempt to monetize Telegram without advertising, the company began the development of a blockchain platform dubbed either "The Open Network" or "Telegram Open Network" (TON) and its native cryptocurrency "Gram". The project was announced in mid-December 2017 and its 132-page technical paper became available in January 2018. The codebase behind TON was developed by Pavel Durov's brother Nikolai Durov, the core developer of Telegram's MTProto protocol. In January 2018, a 23-page white paper and a detailed 132-page technical paper for TON blockchain became available.
Durov planned to power TON with the existing Telegram user base, and turn it into the largest blockchain and a platform for apps and services akin to a decentralized WeChat, Google Play, and App Store. Besides, the TON had the potential to become a decentralized alternative to Visa and MasterCard due to its ability to scale and support millions of transactions per second. In January and February 2018, the company ran a private sale of futures contracts for Grams, raising around $1.7 billion. No public offering took place.
The development of TON took place in a completely isolated manner, and the release was postponed several times. The test network was launched in January 2019. The launch of the TON main network was scheduled for 31 October. On 30 October, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission obtained a temporary restrictive order to prevent the distribution of Grams to initial purchasers; the regulator considered the legal scheme employed by Telegram as an unregistered securities offering with initial buyers acting as underwriters.
The judge hearing the Telegram v. SEC case, P. Kevin Castel, ultimately agreed with the SEC's argument and kept the restrictions on Gram distribution in force. The ban applied to non-U.S.-based purchasers as well, because Telegram could not prevent the re-sale of Grams to U.S. citizens on a secondary market, as the anonymity of users was one of the key features of TON. Following that, Durov announced the end of Telegram's active involvement with TON. On 26 June, the judge approved the settlement between Telegram and SEC. The company agreed to pay an $18.5 million penalty and return $1.22 billion to Gram purchasers. In March 2021, Telegram launched a bonds offering to cover the debt and fund further growth of the app.
The TON ecosystem was later developed by others and began offering decentralized domain names and cloud storage solutions via TON DNS.
== Criticism ==
Due to Telegram's mixed nature as both a private communication method and a social media-like platform with mass groups and channels, along with its minimal restrictions on content with only calls to violence, illegal forms of pornography, and scamming forbidden, it has been used by organizations and large groups for recruitment and spreading their agendas. Organized use of the app has been linked to pro-democracy protests in Belarus, Russia, Hong Kong, and Iran, as well as to dissemination of state propaganda and violent rhetoric in oppressive regimes, promotion of extremist views, and digitalization of services provided by government entities and private businesses.
Numerous research institutions and internet monitoring bodies have criticized Telegram because violent organizations like ISIS, Proud Boys, and the Myanmar junta used it to communicate, both privately between members and publicly through channel posts. Telegram made substantial efforts to ban illegal content such as child abuse and pro-terrorist channels, including a partnership with Europol to eliminate IS presence on the platform, but communities of far-right extremist users are still on the app. Such content is usually linked to Telegram allowing misinformation on the platform as, according to Pavel Durov, "conspiracy theories only strengthen each time their content is removed by moderators".
In September 2024, Telegram announced that it would begin to hand over users' IP addresses and phone numbers to authorities who have search warrants or other valid legal requests.
=== Russian use for destabilization activities ===
Martin Jäger, the head of Germany's Federal Intelligence Service (BND), warned that Russia was recruiting saboteurs across Europe through Telegram by monitoring pro-Russian channels to identify potential "low-level agents" for small acts of sabotage, surveillance or provocation in exchange of small payments.
According to a study by the international analysis company OpenMinds published on the eve of the 2025 Moldovan parliamentary election, which was subject to external interference from Russia, a third of all Telegram channels in Moldova systematically spread Russian propaganda and one in eight comments came from bots. Moldovan president Maia Sandu denounced that Telegram refused any collaboration with the Moldovan state authorities against illegal activities taking place in its platform such as vote buying.
=== Use by militant groups ===
In September 2015, in response to a question about the use of Telegram by Islamic State (ISIS), Pavel Durov stated: "I think that privacy, ultimately, and our right for privacy is more important than our fear of bad things happening, like terrorism." Durov sarcastically suggested to ban words because terrorists use them for communication.
ISIS has used Telegram for recruiting attempts with some cells recommending the app to their followers. In France, initial investigations of a terrorist act revealed the perpetrators used Telegram to communicate, though follow-up research suggested that the extent of the app's use was "unclear". Beginning in December 2016, Telegram began publishing daily moderation statistics regarding terror-related content in an official channel named @ISISwatch. Following efforts by Telegram to remove ISIS-related content from the platform, the terrorist organization reportedly moved its recruitment groups to the dark web, with US officials citing the app's purging of terrorist content as particularly effective at deplatforming ISIS.
In 2023, Saudi Arabia's Global Center for Combating Extremist Ideology (Etidal) reported that in collaboration with Telegram, over 59 million pieces of extremist content had been removed from the platform since 2022.
Throughout 2020, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps used groups and channels to dox Iraqi and Iranian citizens, while sharing propagandistic posts on the platform. After the 2021 coup d'état in Myanmar, the junta used Telegram channels to spread propaganda and organize misinformation campaigns against pro-democracy groups. In response to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights call to prevent such abuse, Telegram reportedly banned 13 accounts related to or supporting the Myanmar military.
On 26 April 2023, Telegram was temporarily suspended in Brazil and fined R$1 million (2023) (US$185,528.76) per day for not complying with a Federal Police investigation into neo-Nazi activities on the platform. The company only partially fulfilled a court request for personal data on two antisemitic Telegram groups, which authorities considered an intentional lack of cooperation. The decision was made after a series of violent school attacks, with at least one incident linked to exchanges on an antisemitic group. Telegram's CEO then said that the requested data was technologically impossible to obtain. A federal court lifted the suspension three days later but upheld the daily fine. Twelve days later, Telegram told its users that the Brazilian Congressional Bill No. 2630 against online disinformation, which was about to be approved, would end freedom of speech in the country.
Far-right and white supremacist communities on Telegram have spread videos of the Christchurch and Halle shootings in groups and channels after the original livestreams were taken down by Twitch. British far-right publication TR.news, following multiple deplatformings, launched a Telegram channel to spread its posts and the Institute for Strategic Dialogue reported that Irish far-right groups grew substantially between 2019 and 2020. But research by Oxford University suggests that, because Telegram does not use sorting algorithms in its search function, many such groups remain obscure and small while select others receive a lot of attention.
=== Illegal pornography ===
Telegram has been used to distribute illegal pornography, including child pornography. Telegram's internal reporting system has an option to report content that contains child abuse, including specific messages in groups and channels. The company has a verified channel called "Stop Child Abuse", where daily statistics on the number of groups and channels banned for sharing illegal materials are posted. It also provides an email address dedicated to reports of content related to child abuse.
In January 2021, North Macedonian media outlets reported that a now-banned Telegram group, "Public Room" ("Јавна соба"), with more than 7,000 members, was used to share nude photos of women and young teenage girls. Along with the shared photographs, anonymous accounts shared the women's private information, including phone numbers and social media profiles, encouraging members of the group to contact the women and ask for sexual favors. This was done without the women's agreement or knowledge, causing intense public backlash and demand that the group be shut down. North Macedonia President Stevo Pendarovski and Prime Minister Zoran Zaev demanded an immediate response from Telegram and threatened to completely restrict access to the app in the country if no action was taken. The group was banned, but no public statement was made.
An August 2024 BBC investigation found that Telegram had not responded to requests to join the US–based National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC) or the UK–based Internet Watch Foundation, both nonprofit NGOs. In response, Telegram said that it "proactively moderates harmful content on its platform including child abuse material" and that its moderation is "within industry standards and constantly improving".
In August 2024, journalist Ko Narin of the Hankyoreh exposed Telegram chats of teenagers who used generative AI to deepfake images of their classmates and teachers for porn.
=== Bot abuse ===
Volodymyr Flents, the chairman of the public organization "Electronic Democracy", announced on 11 May 2020 that a Telegram bot appeared on the Web, which sold the personal data of Ukrainian citizens. It is estimated that the bot contains data from 26 million Ukrainians registered in the Diia application. But deputy prime minister and minister of digital transformation Mykhailo Fedorov denied that any data from the app had leaked. The criminal activity of 25 people was confirmed and copies of 30 databases were seized.
In 2020, Apple blocked a Telegram bot after it posted deepfake pornography. The same year, Telegram reportedly banned more than 350,000 bots and channels, including those that contained child abuse and terrorism-related content.
In 2021, a bot was found selling leaked phone numbers from Facebook.
=== Fraudulent jobs ===
Telegram has received criticism for its failure to curb fraud. The most common mode of fraud involves scammers sending messages to unsuspecting users, offering part-time online jobs that comprise a series of tasks. Scammers employ a variety of confidence tricks to entice users into completing "prepaid tasks" in which users deposit money into scammers' accounts with the expectation of receiving high returns.
In July 2023, Hyderabad Police uncovered a fraud wherein 15,000 Indian citizens were duped out of ₹712 crore (US$84 million) in less than a year, all related to "prepaid tasks" on Telegram. A cybercrime police investigation of the money trail revealed that the fraud originated in China and the money was laundered by mules through cryptocurrency wallets.
In September 2023, the Singapore Police Force stated that more than 6,600 Singaporeans had lost over S$96.8 million (US$72.24 million) to prepaid job scams on Telegram and WhatsApp since the start of the year.
=== Copyright infringement ===
In March 2024, a judge of Spain's Audiencia Nacional ordered the temporary blocking of Telegram in Spain. The order came following a complaint from media organizations —Mediaset, Atresmedia and Movistar Plus+— saying the app allowed users to share copyrighted content without their consent. A few days later, following repeated criticism, the same judge suspended his order until the police issue a report on the consequences this measure would have for users. Finally, the judge annulled the order, considering it "disproportionate".
=== Drug trade ===
In recent years, Telegram has become more popular for the purpose of buying and selling illicit drugs. In 2024, Sociology Compass released a paper exploring this trend in drug trade.
=== User numbers ===
In August 2024, an EU probe was launched into Telegram to determine whether the platform breached EU digital rules by failing to provide accurate user numbers. Telegram said in February 2024 that it had 41mn users in the EU. Under the EU's Digital Services Act (DSA), Telegram was supposed to provide an updated number in August but failed to do so, only declaring it had "significantly fewer than 45mn average monthly active recipients in the EU".
=== Advertisements ===
As part of the monetization model, Telegram can display advertisement banners for non-premium users in public channels with more than 1000 subscribers. The revenue of these advertisements is shared with the channel owner in form of Telegram's Toncoin crypto currency. As of August 2025, there was no option for channel owners to opt out of this mechanism. This is seen as an issue for non-profit organizations and similar entities who want to operate a Telegram channel.
In August 2025, the German public media broadcaster NDR closed its tagesschau Telegram channel, which published summaries of news stories from the German television news service by the same name. The TV program and news stories are produced for the joint organization ARD to be simulcast by its members. The editorial staff was made aware of the advertisement by a Telegram user and the online magazine Übermedien. They argued the advertisements could be seen as a violation of the Rundfunkstaatsvertrag (Interstate Broadcasting Agreement), which places strict rules on how German public media broadcasters may generate revenue from advertisements, including an advertisement ban for online media apart from product placement. Additional criticism was expressed as some advertisements were described as "shady" or "fraudulent" offerings on sports bets. The NDR stated that they had not noticed these ads before, but closed the channel, stating that an advertisement-based accumulation of Toncoin, albeit unsolicited and not withdrawn, was unacceptable for a German public media broadcaster.
== Reception ==
Channels have been used by celebrities such as Arnold Schwarzenegger and Snoop Dogg and politicians: President of France Emmanuel Macron, former President of Brazil Jair Bolsonaro, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, President of Moldova Maia Sandu, President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy, former Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, former Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev, former Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen, Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and others.
=== Security ===
Telegram's security model has received notable criticism by cryptography experts. They criticized how, unless modified first, the default general security model stores all contacts, messages and media together with their decryption keys on its servers continuously; and that it does not enable end-to-end encryption for messages by default. Pavel Durov has argued that this is because it helps to avoid third-party unsecured backups, and to allow users to access messages and files from any device. Criticisms were also aimed at Telegram's use of a custom-designed encryption protocol.
In December 2020, a study titled "Automated Symbolic Verification of Telegram's MTProto 2.0" was published, confirming the security of the updated MTProto 2.0 and reviewing it while pointing out several theoretical vulnerabilities. The paper provides "fully automated proof of the soundness of MTProto 2.0's authentication, normal chat, end-to-end encrypted chat, and re-keying mechanisms with respect to several security properties, including authentication, integrity, confidentiality and perfect forward secrecy" and "proves the formal correctness of MTProto 2.0". This partially addresses the concern about the lack of scrutiny while confirming the formal security of the protocol's latest version.
The desktop clients, excluding the macOS client, do not feature options for end-to-end encrypted messages. When the user assigns a local password in the desktop application, data is also locally encrypted. Telegram has defended the lack of ubiquitous end-to-end encryption by saying that online-backups that do not use client-side encryption are "the most secure solution currently possible".
In May 2016, critics disputed claims by Telegram that it is "more secure than mass market messengers like WhatsApp and Line", as WhatsApp claims to apply end-to-end encryption to all of its traffic by default and uses the Signal Protocol, which has been "reviewed and endorsed by leading security experts", while Telegram does neither and stores all messages, media and contacts in their cloud. Since July 2016, Line has also applied end-to-end encryption to all of its messages by default, though it has also been criticized for being susceptible to replay attacks and the lack of forward secrecy between clients.
In 2013, an author on the Russian programming website Habr discovered a weakness in the first version of MTProto that would allow an attacker to mount a man-in-the-middle attack and prevent the victim from being alerted by a changed key fingerprint. The bug was fixed on the day of the publication with a $100,000 payout to the author and a statement on Telegram's official blog.
On 26 February 2014, the German consumer organization Stiftung Warentest evaluated several data-protection aspects of Telegram, along with other popular instant-messaging clients. Among the aspects considered were: the security of the data transmission, the service's terms of use, the accessibility of the source code, and the distribution of the app. Telegram was rated 'problematic' (kritisch) overall. The organization was favorable to Telegram's secure chats and partially free code but criticized the mandatory transfer of contact data to Telegram's servers and the lack of an imprint or address on the service's website. It noted that while the message data is encrypted on the device, it could not analyze the transmission due to a lack of source code.
The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) listed Telegram on its "Secure Messaging Scorecard" in February 2015. Telegram's default chat function received a score of 4 out of 7 points on the scorecard. It received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having its code open to independent review, having the security design properly documented, and having completed a recent independent security audit. Telegram's default chat function missed points because the communications were not encrypted with keys the provider did not have access to, users could not verify contacts' identities, and past messages were not secure if the encryption keys were stolen. Telegram's optional secret chat function, which provides end-to-end encryption, received a score of 7 out of 7 points on the scorecard. The EFF said that the results "should not be read as endorsements of individual tools or guarantees of their security", and that they were merely indications that the projects were "on the right track".
In December 2015, two researchers from Aarhus University published a report in which they demonstrated that MTProto 1.0 did not achieve indistinguishability under chosen-ciphertext attack (IND-CCA) or authenticated encryption. The researchers stressed that the attack was of a theoretical nature and they "did not see any way of turning the attack into a full plaintext-recovery attack". Nevertheless, they said they saw "no reason why [Telegram] should use a less secure encryption scheme when more secure (and at least as efficient) solutions exist". The Telegram team responded that the flaw does not affect message security and that "a future patch would address the concern". Telegram 4.6, released in December 2017, supports MTProto 2.0, which now satisfied the conditions for IND-CCA. MTProto 2.0 is seen by qualified cryptographers as a vast improvement to Telegram's security.
In April 2016, several Russian opposition members' accounts were hijacked by intercepting the SMS messages used for login authorization. In response, Telegram recommended using the two-factor authentication feature. In May 2016, the Committee to Protect Journalists and Nate Cardozo, senior staff attorney at Electronic Frontier Foundation, recommended against using Telegram because of "its lack of end-to-end encryption [by default] and its use of non-standard MTProto encryption protocol, which has been publicly criticized by cryptography researchers, including Matthew Green".
On 2 August 2016, Reuters reported that Iranian hackers compromised more than a dozen Telegram accounts and identified the phone numbers of 15 million Iranian users, as well as the associated user IDs. Researchers said the hackers belonged to a group known as Rocket Kitten. Rocket Kitten's attacks were similar to ones attributed to Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps. The attackers took advantage of a programming interface built into Telegram. According to Telegram, these mass checks are no longer possible because of limitations introduced into its API earlier in 2016.
Login SMS messages are known to have been intercepted in Iran, Russia and Germany, possibly in coordination with phone or telecom companies. Pavel Durov has said that Telegram users in "troubled countries" should enable two-factor authentication by creating passwords in order to prevent this.
In June 2017, Pavel Durov in an interview said that U.S. intelligence agencies tried to bribe the company's developers to weaken Telegram's encryption or install a backdoor during their visit to the U.S. in 2016.
In 2018, Telegram sent a message to all Iranian users stating that the Telegram Talai and Hotgram unofficial clients are not secure.
In March 2014, Telegram promised that "all code will be released eventually", including all the various client applications (Android, iOS, desktop, etc.) and the server-side code. As of May 2021, Telegram had not published their server-side source code. In January 2021, Durov explained his rationale for not releasing server-side code, citing reasons such as inability for end-users to verify that the released code is the same code run on servers, and a government that wanted to acquire the server code and make an instant messaging network that would end competitors.
On 9 June 2019, The Intercept released leaked Telegram messages exchanged between current Brazilian Minister of Justice and former judge Sérgio Moro and federal prosecutors. The hypothesis is that either mobile devices were hacked by SIM swap or the targets' computers were compromised. The Telegram team tweeted that it was either because the user had malware or they were not using two-step verification.
On 12 June 2019, Telegram confirmed that it suffered a denial-of-service attack which disrupted normal app functionality for approximately one hour. Pavel Durov tweeted that the IP addresses used in the attack mostly came from China.
In December 2019, multiple Russian businessmen suffered account takeovers that involved bypassing SMS single-factor authentication. Security company Group-IB suggested SS7 mobile signalling protocol weaknesses, illegal usage of surveillance equipment, or telecom insider attacks.
On 30 March 2020, an Elasticsearch database holding 42 million records containing user IDs and phone numbers of Iranian users was exposed online without a password. The accounts were extracted from not Telegram but an unofficial version of Telegram, in what appears to be a possibly government-sanctioned fork. It took 11 days for the database to be taken down, but the researchers say the data was accessed by other parties, including a hacker who reported the information to a specialized forum.
In September 2020, it was reported that Iran's RampantKitten espionage group ran a phishing and surveillance campaign against dissidents on Telegram. The attack relied on people downloading a malware-infected file from any source, at which point it would replace Telegram files on the device and 'clone' session data. David Wolpoff, a former Department of Defense contractor, has stated that the weak link in the attack was the device itself and not any of the affected apps: "There's no way for a secure communication app to keep a user safe when the end devices are compromised."
In July 2021, researchers from Royal Holloway, University of London and ETH Zurich published an analysis of the MTProto protocol, concluding that the protocol could provide a "confidential and integrity-protected channel" for communication. They also found that attackers had the theoretical ability to reorder messages coming from the client to the server though the attacker would not be able to see the content of the messages. Several other theoretical vulnerabilities were reported as well, in response to which Telegram released a document stating that the MITM attack on the key exchange was impossible as well as detailing the changes made to the protocol to protect from it in the future. All issues were patched before the paper's publication with a security bounty paid out to the researchers.
In September 2021, a Russian researcher published details about a bug with the self-destruct feature that allowed the user to recover deleted photos from their own device. The bug was patched prior to publication and Telegram representatives offered a €1,000 bug bounty. The researcher did not sign the NDA that came with the offer and did not receive the award, opting to disclose the bug.
In March 2023, the Norwegian National Security Authority (NSM) advised against the use of Telegram and TikTok on business devices (especially the ones used for government related activities), the assessment has been commissioned and supported by the Ministry of Justice and Public Security, Emilie Enger Mehl. Regarding Telegram, the report cites its lack of end-to-end encryption by default, its Russian origins and third-party open source intelligence as major critical points.
In July 2024, ESET reported a vulnerability allowed malicious files being sent to users masked in multimedia.
In June 2025, an IStories investigation revealed that key parts of Telegram's technical infrastructure are operated by companies owned by a network engineer who has collaborated with the Russian intelligence services, raising concerns over potential metadata access and user surveillance.
==== Cryptography contests ====
Telegram has organized two cryptography contests to challenge its own security. Third parties were asked to break the service's cryptography and disclose the information contained within a secret chat between two computer-controlled users. A reward of respectively US$200,000 and US$300,000 was offered. Both of these contests expired with no winners.
Security researcher Moxie Marlinspike, founder of the competing Signal messenger, and commenters on Hacker News criticized the first contest for being rigged or framed in Telegram's favor and said that Telegram's statements on the value of these contests as proof of the cryptography's quality are misleading. This was because the cryptography contest could not be won even with completely broken algorithms such as MD2 (hash function) used as key stream extractor, and primitives such as the Dual EC DRBG that is known to be backdoored.
=== Censorship ===
Telegram has been blocked temporarily or permanently by some governments including Iran, China, Brazil, and Pakistan. The Russian government blocked Telegram for several years before lifting the ban in 2020. The company's founder has said he wants the app to have an anti-censorship tool for Iran and China similar to the app's role in fighting censorship in Russia. On 19 April 2024, Apple removed Telegram from the App Store in China.
In September 2024, Ukraine banned the usage of Telegram by government officials, military personnel, and key workers on official devices, citing fears of Russian espionage. The National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine enforced the restrictions following evidence reported to them by Kyrylo Budanov, showing Russia's ability to access messages and user data on the platform. Andriy Kovalenko, head of the security council's centre on countering disinformation, clarified that the ban was limited to official devices and did not extend to personal phones.
==== 2019 Puerto Rico "Telegramgate" ====
Telegram was the main subject surrounding the 2019 Puerto Rico riots that ended up in the resignation of then-Governor Ricardo Rosselló. Hundreds of pages of a group chat between Rosselló and members of his staff were leaked. The messages were considered vulgar, racist, and homophobic, with members of the chat discussing how they would use the media to target potential political opponents.
==== 2021 shutdown of Russian political bots ====
In September 2021, prior to the regional elections in Russia, Telegram suspended several bots spreading information about the election, including a bot run by the opposition party and critics of incumbent president Vladimir Putin's government, citing election silence as the reason, though a blog post by the company's CEO implied the company was following Apple and Google, which "dictate the rules of the game to developers". The blocking of the main Smart Voting bot was criticized by allies of Alexei Navalny, a Kremlin critic and former opposition leader. Navalny's spokeswoman Kira Yarmysh called the block and the deletion of the tactical voting app from app stores "censorship [...] imposed by private companies".
In a later blog post, Durov directly stated that the block was a result of pressure from Google and Apple as refusal to comply with their policies would result "in an immediate shutdown of Telegram for millions of users". The post included a screenshot showing an internal email sent by the App Store to developers, demanding the takedown of content related to Navalny.
==== 2022 Delhi High Court ruling ====
On 24 November 2022, Telegram disclosed the admin names, phone numbers and IP addresses of channels accused of unauthorised sharing of national exam study materials following an order by the Delhi High Court which rejected Telegram's argument that its regional servers were located in Singapore and thus no data could be disclosed as the local laws prohibit it.
==== 2024 arrest of Pavel Durov ====
On 24 August 2024, Pavel Durov, who is both a French and UAE citizen, was arrested in France by French authorities. On 28 August he was charged with a wide array of crimes, including complicity in managing an online platform to enable illegal transactions; complicity in crimes such as enabling the distribution of child sexual abuse material; drug trafficking and fraud; and refusal to cooperate with law enforcement authorities. Durov posted bail of five million Euros, was barred from leaving France, and was released on condition he report to a French police station twice weekly. The case would be handled by a special magistrate with investigative and prosecutorial powers.
== See also ==
Alt-tech – Internet platforms favored by the alt-right
Censorship of Telegram
Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients
Internet privacy – Right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the internet
Secure instant messaging
== References ==
== Sources ==
Espinoza, Antonio; Tolley, William (August 2017). "Alice and Bob, who the FOCI are they?: Analysis of end-to-end encryption in the LINE messaging application" (PDF). Usenix. USENIX Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
Rottermanner, Christoph; Kieseberg, Peter; Huber, Markus; Schmiedecker, Martin; Schrittwieser, Sebastian (December 2015). Privacy and Data Protection in Smartphone Messengers (PDF). Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Information Integration and Web-based Applications & Services (iiWAS2015). ACM International Conference Proceedings Series. ISBN 978-1-4503-3491-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railpower_GG20B | Railpower GG20B | The Railpower GG20B Green Goat is a low-emissions diesel hybrid switcher locomotive built by Railpower Technologies Corp. It is powered by a single Caterpillar C9 six cylinder inline engine developing 300 horsepower (224 kW), which is also connected to a large battery bank where both sources combine for a total power output of 2,000 horsepower (1,490 kW). To date, there have been more than 50 GG20B diesel-electric hybrid switchers manufactured since their first introduction in 2004.
== Original Buyers ==
== Fuel-cell testbed ==
BNSF Railway and Vehicle Projects converted a GG20B to an experimental testbed, for the use of hydrogen fuel cells. The new locomotive is designated HH20B. The locomotive was publicly demonstrated for the first time on June 29, 2009, at Topeka, Kansas.
The locomotive, BNSF 1205, was originally built in 1957 as Canadian Pacific 8637 (renumbered 1544 in the 1980s), a GMD GP9 locomotive. In 2006, it was rebuilt into a GG20B for the Canadian Pacific, but was not delivered, due to the cancellation of the order. It was sold to BNSF in 2008, and shipped to the railroad's shops at Topeka, Kansas for conversion. The diesel generator set was removed, and the fuel cell power unit was installed in its place. Hydrogen storage is in a set of tanks installed in a heavily vented enclosure on top of the locomotive's long hood, above the batteries. To date, it is the largest land vehicle on earth to be powered exclusively by hydrogen fuel cells.
In 2023, the locomotive (without its hydrogen components) was donated to the Oklahoma Railroad Museum, which plans on using it as a control car and for electricity generation on the end of its excursion trains.
== See also ==
List of low emissions locomotives
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_State_Logic#:~:text=SSL%20introduced%20the%20SL%204000%20G%20Series%20at%20the%20AES%20New%20York%20Convention%20in%201987%2C%20which%20again%20offered%20a%20redesigned%20EQ%2C%20among%20other%20improvements. | Solid State Logic | Solid State Logic Ltd. (SSL) is a British company based in Begbroke, Oxfordshire, England that designs and markets audio mixing consoles, signal processors, and other audio technologies for the post-production, video production, broadcast, sound reinforcement and music recording industries. SSL employs over 160 people worldwide and has regional offices in Los Angeles, Milan, New York City, Paris, and Tokyo, with additional support provided by an international network of distributors. Solid State Logic is part of the Audiotonix Group.
== History ==
=== Early history ===
Solid State Logic was founded by Colin Sanders in 1969 as the first manufacturer of solid-state control systems for pipe organs. Sanders coined the company's name to explain the then-modern technology of transistor and FET switching to organ builders.
Sanders also owned and operated Acorn Studios, a recording studio in Stonesfield, Oxfordshire. When he sought a mixing console for recording, with routing flexibility and settings recall unavailable on consoles at that time, Sanders applied his experience to design and built his own, building two mixing consoles with computer control which featured one-button switching between recording, tracking and mixdown modes. The two prototype mixing consoles, given the model designation of SL 4000 A, became the start of a series of large-format mixers that would define and establish SSL as a mixing console manufacturer.
=== Large-format mixing consoles ===
In 1976, SSL combined the SL 4000's in-line mixing console design with a computer that provided fader automation and programmable tape transport auto-location functionality, A total of six B Series consoles were built for and sold to studios, beginning with Abbey Road Studios in London, followed by Le Studio in Morin-Heights, Canada, Virgin Records' Townhouse Studios in London, and Tocano Studio in Copenhagen.
The SL 4000 E Series, introduced in 1979, offered various improvements on the B Series, including a new 4-band EQ section developed in collaboration with George Martin. Most notably, the E Series introduced the ability to save and recall mixer settings, and was the first mixer to feature a compressor/gate on every channel as well as the master bus compressor. SSL introduced the SL 4000 G Series at the AES New York Convention in 1987, which again offered a redesigned EQ, among other improvements. The ability to save and recall mixer settings, along with the inclusion of a dedicated compressor and noise gate on every channel on SL 4000 E Series consoles and its successors and variants drove widespread adoption in professional recording studios, including The Power Station, Sarm Studios, Larrabee Sound Studios, Battery Studios, Record One, Eden Studios, and RG Jones Recording Studios, and used by recording engineers such as Bob Clearmountain, Steve Lillywhite, Tom Lord-Alge, Alan Moulder, and Trevor Horn.
The SL 4000 E Series and G Series consoles were later also made available in 5000 Series, 6000 Series, and 8000 Series formats, which offered various routing and bussing configurations to address the needs of sound for the recording, film, video, and broadcast markets. SSL introduced SuperAnalogue design in the SL 9000 J Series console, which utilized a capacitor-free signal path to achieve very high bandwidth with extremely low distortion.
In 1996 Billboard magazine's Studio Action Chart reported that 83% of number one singles that year had been produced using an SSL mixing console. The company claims that more platinum albums have been recorded on SSL mixing consoles than any other company's equipment combined. By 2004, there were more than 3,000 SSL-equipped facilities worldwide.
In the 1990s, SSL also developed products for the post production and motion picture industry, and introduced the A Series digital mixing consoles. In the 2000s, the company introduced the C Series consoles designed to meet the needs of the broadcast production market.
=== Outboard processors and consoles with DAW control ===
In 2003, SSL introduced outboard signal processors that offered processing previously only available in SSL's large-format mixing consoles. The XLogic family of products included the Logic Channel, the company's first standalone channel strip. 2005 saw the release of additional processors, including the E Series channel strip and G Series Compressor, which utilized SSL's classic G Series center compressor design elements within a SuperAnalogue design topology. The X-Rack offered a modular solution for outboard signal processing.
In late 2004, SSL launched AWS 900, an integrated analogue console and DAW controller, and introduced its successor, the AWS 900+, two years later. SSL eventually listed over 300 studios using the AWS900. SSL later introduced the AWS 916, 924, and 948 with support for SSL's delta control plug-in.
In late 2006, SSL launched Duality, a large-format console that combined mixing console functionality of the XL 9000K with the control surface features of the AWS 900. Duality featured updated signal routing controls, accessible from the console's center section rather than on each channel. The console's channel strips include both E Series & G Series equalization, which is selected via a single button per channel. The console also features 'Variable Harmonic Drive', or VHD microphone/line preamplifiers, which can either be utilised as standard low-distortion preamps, or in a mode which introduces 2nd (even) & 3rd (odd) order harmonic distortion.
Also in 2006 SSL introduced the Duende DSP platform designed to emulate SSL channel strip features for home recording enthusiasts, including filters, SSL E and G Series EQ and dynamics processing. Additionally, the system offers the SSL Stereo Bus Compressor. Based on the digital technology behind SSL's C-Series consoles, Duende was designed to integrate into DAW environments using either a FireWire cable connection or PCI-e card, with the digital processing channels appearing as VST or Audio Units plug-ins. On 25 April 2007, SSL announced the release of another plug-in for the Duende, called Drumstrip, which contained a noise gate, a transient shaper, high frequency and low frequency enhancers, and the Listening Mic Compressor.
The same year, the company announced its expansion into broadcast video content management and delivery with their MediaWAN system.
== Ownership changes ==
Solid State Logic sold its organ division in 2002; it is now known as Solid State Organ Systems. The proprietary aptX-codec was sold in a management buyout, with APT Licensing Ltd. incorporated on 1 March 2005 in Belfast.
In 2005, musician Peter Gabriel and broadcast entrepreneur David Engelke became majority shareholders of the company.
In 2017, Solid State Logic was acquired by the Audiotonix Group, while Gabriel became a major investor in the group following this transaction.
== Awards ==
The company received The Queen's Award for Enterprise: International Trade (Export) in 1981, and The Queen's Award for Enterprise: Innovation (Technology) in 1993 and 2020.
The company received a Special Merit/Technical Grammy Award at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2004 for "contributions of outstanding technical significance to the recording field."
Two of SSL's products were inducted into the TEC Awards TECnology Hall of Fame, which "honors and recognizes audio products and innovations that have made a significant contribution to the advancement of audio technology": the SL 4000 series of mixing consoles was inducted in 2004, and the AWS studio console was inducted in 2018.
== See also ==
Soundscape Digital Technology – acquired by Solid State Logic
Soundscape R.Ed
== References ==
== External links ==
Solid State Logic – official website
Solid State Organ Systems – official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Goldschmidt | Hermann Goldschmidt | Hermann Mayer Salomon Goldschmidt (June 17, 1802 – August 30 or September 10 1866) was a German-French astronomer and painter who spent much of his life in France. He started out as a painter, but after attending a lecture by the famous French astronomer Urbain Le Verrier turned to astronomy. His discovery of the asteroid Lutetia in 1852 was followed by further findings and by 1861 Goldschmidt had discovered 14 asteroids. He received the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1861 for having discovered more asteroids than any other person up to that time. He died from complications of diabetes.
== Life and work ==
Goldschmidt was born in Frankfurt as the son of a Jewish merchant. During a journey to the Netherlands, Goldschmidt visited Dutch picture galleries. The impression of this visit convinced him to become a painter. He studied art in Munich for several years under supervision of such famous painters as Peter von Cornelius and Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld. To complete his education, in 1836 Goldschmidt went to Paris.
In 1820, Goldschmidt discovered shadow bands in total solar eclipses.
Several lectures on astronomy were planned for the occasion of the lunar eclipse of March 31, 1847. Urbain Le Verrier, discoverer of Neptune, held one in the Sorbonne. By pure chance, Goldshmidt attended this lecture, which awakened his interest in astronomy and led him to pursue it as a career.
Goldschmidt bought a telescope with the diameter of 23 lines (52 millimeters (2.0 in)) with the money he got from selling two portraits of Galileo he painted during a stay in Florence. Goldschmidt set up the telescope in his apartment on the sixth floor above the Café Procope. Very soon he started updating the Star charts he had with new stars. During this work he observed the same area several times and was able to detect variable stars and moving objects like planets. He discovered his first new planet (today classified as asteroid) on November 15, 1852. Goldschmidt confirmed his observations with the help of François Arago at the Paris Observatory on November 18. Arago suggested the name Lutetium, based on the Latin name of Paris Lutetia used during the Roman occupation. The discovery of the new planet was published on November 23.
In subsequent years, Goldschmidt bought larger telescopes, one with 30 lines diameter. Despite the limited observational capabilities of his instrument, which was inferior to those of most of his competitors, by May 1856 Goldschmidt had discovered four more asteroids. His next telescope was one with the diameter of 4 inches (10 cm). This technical improvement enabled him to discover nine asteroids between May 1857 and May 1861. During that period, the Academy of Science awarded Goldschmidt the astronomical prize medal several times, and he was made a chevalier of the Légion d'honneur in 1857. By the time of his final discovery in May 1861, the Royal Astronomical Society had awarded him the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society for the discovery of 13 asteroids. At that point, the second most successful astronomers John Russell Hind and Robert Luther had each discovered 10.
Goldschmidt combined his abilities as a painter with his love for astronomy as exemplified by his paintings of the Great Comet of 1858 and of the solar eclipse he observed in Spain July 1860. In April 1861, he announced the discovery of a ninth moon of Saturn between Titan and Hyperion, which he named "Chiron". However, he was mistaken: this moon did not exist; today, "Chiron" is the name of an entirely different object, the unusual asteroid/comet 2060 Chiron. His updated star charts and the discovery of several variable stars were also appreciated by his colleagues.
Goldschmidt was never employed at the Paris Observatory and therefore his income was insecure. However, in 1862 he was awarded a pension of 1500 francs. Because of his diabetes, Goldschmidt moved to Fontainebleau, but his condition did not improve. He stayed in Fontainebleau for three years and died there on April 26, 1866.
== Namesakes ==
The lunar crater Goldschmidt is named after him. The crater is located in the northern polar region.
The outer main-belt asteroid 1614 Goldschmidt, discovered by French astronomer Alfred Schmitt in 1952, was named in his memory.
== Prizes and awards ==
Goldschmidt was awarded the Lalande Prize seven times (1852, 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858, 1860, 1861).
He was awarded chevalier of the Légion d'honneur in 1857.
In 1861, received Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society for the discovery of 13 asteroids (at that time).
In 1869, a commemorative medal honoring the discovery of the 100th asteroid shows the profiles of John Russel Hind, Hermann Goldschmidt and Robert Luther.
== See also ==
List of German painters
== References ==
== External links ==
Karl Christian Bruhns (1879). "Goldschmidt, Hermann". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (in German). Vol. 9. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 338–339. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Thompson#Awards | Kim Thompson | Kim Thompson (September 25, 1956 – June 19, 2013) was an American comic book editor, translator, and publisher, best known as vice president and co-publisher of Seattle-based Fantagraphics Books. Along with co-publisher Gary Groth, Thompson used his position to further the cause of alternative comics in the American market. In addition, Thompson made it his business to bring the work of European cartoonists to American readers.
== Early life ==
Kim Thompson was born in Denmark in 1956. Child of a government contractor father, Thompson spent much of his youth in Europe, living in West Germany and the Netherlands. His mother was Danish, and Thompson grew up speaking the language, a skill which aided his later career as a translator of European comic books. (He was also fluent in French.)
Thompson developed an interest in comics early in life, some of his favorites being the works of André Franquin, Maurice Tillieux,Jacques Tardi, and Jean "Mœbius" Giraud. As a young man, Thompson was a frequent contributor to American superhero comic book letter columns, with letters published in (among others) Amazing Spider-Man, Captain America, Conan the Barbarian, Incredible Hulk, Iron Man, Marvel Spotlight, and Marvel-Two-in-One. Early writing work by Thompson was published in the comics fanzine Omniverse fanzine in 1979.
== Career ==
=== Fantagraphics ===
Thompson moved to the United States in 1977, and soon met Groth through a mutual friend. He joined Fantagraphics' staff in that year, and soon became a co-owner with Groth. In 1978, Thompson saved Fantagraphics from bankruptcy by pouring his inheritance into the company's financial coffers.
Thompson was a regular contributor to the industry magazine The Comics Journal (which is published by Fantagraphics) since 1977. Although soft-spoken in person, as a writer Thompson did not shy from controversy. Even though he personally reviewed Dave Sim's long-running self-published comic Cerebus in early issues of The Comics Journal, Thompson (along with Groth) later took Sim to task in its pages for Sim's controversial statements about feminism and self-publishing.
Thompson was also a regular contributor to the (now defunct) Fantagraphics-published magazine Amazing Heroes, writing for that journal from 1981 to 1987.
Since Fantagraphics began publishing comics in 1982, Thompson edited many of the company's most popular titles, including Peter Bagge's Hate, Chris Ware's Acme Novelty Library, Joe Sacco's Palestine, Stan Sakai's Usagi Yojimbo, Linda Medley's Castle Waiting, and anthologies like Critters and Zero Zero.
Thompson's last major Fantagraphics release was a remastered and expanded new edition of Guy Peellaert's landmark graphic novel The Adventures of Jodelle (1966) for which Thompson also provided a new translation from the French.
==== Translator ====
A long-time champion of European comics, Thompson translated the work of a number of international cartoonists published by Fantagraphics, as well as material used in The Comics Journal. He was also the regular translator of the Ignatz Series co-published by Fantagraphics. Thompson described his translation work for Fantagraphics this way:
I translate pretty much every European foreign-language cartoonist we publish except for Matti Hagelberg who is Finnish (Finnish is well outside of my area of expertise). ... A more or less complete list of cartoonists whose comics I've worked on in the last couple years would be Nikoline Werdelin (Danish); Joost Swarte (Dutch); David B., Emile Bravo, Killoffer, Jacques Tardi, and Lewis Trondheim (French); Nicolas Mahler (German); Gabriella Giandelli, Igort, Leila Marzocchi, and Sergio Ponchione (Italian); Jason (Norwegian or French); Max (Spanish); and Martin Kellerman (Swedish). ... In case you're wondering, I don't actually speak all of those languages, but I can read them, more or less in some cases. ... Danish is my native language. Swedish and Norwegian are so close to Danish ... that with a little work any Dane can read them pretty well, as I do. I learned Spanish in high school and kept up with it. I lived for six years in Germany and also studied German in high school, so that stuck with me too. I lived for three years in Holland. Italian is my weakest language, I sort of plow my way through that thanks to French and Spanish and use of a dictionary — but all my Italian translations I always check with the authors anyway.
=== Illness and death ===
On March 6, 2013, Thompson announced he had lung cancer and was taking a leave of absence from Fantagraphics to pursue treatment. He died on June 19, 2013, at his home, at the age of 56, survived by his wife, Lynn Emmert, as well as his mother, father, and brother.
== Awards ==
Thompson was given an Inkpot Award in 2001.
He was a 1996 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards nominee for Best Editor for The Acme Novelty Library, Palestine, and Zero Zero.
In early October 2021, Kim was posthumously awarded the inaugural Tom Spurgeon Award at the Cartoon Crossroads Columbus’ (CXC) seventh festival. Fellow awardees (both also posthumous) included syndicate manager Mollie Slott and All-Negro Comics founder and publisher Orrin C. Evans. The Tom Spurgeon Award is aimed at recognizing the role of non-cartoonists — living and deceased — in supporting the broader medium.
== Tributes ==
Comics journalist Tom Spurgeon:
. . . Thompson has worked the last several years transforming the longtime alternative comics company he co-owns into a small but potent comics, art book, and graphic novel publishing house. . . . [H]e has been one of North America's most effective advocates for translated books from the rich French-language tradition. He is also a talented editor, a fine interviewer . . . and generally informed and involved when it comes to all aspects of how that company functions. If Fantagraphics were a car, Kim would be the guy in the jumpsuit and dirty fingernails constantly poking around under its hood.
Comics critic R. Fiore:
If he had told you 36 years ago that he would one day be the publisher of Robert Crumb, Charles Schulz, Walt Kelly, Carl Barks, Harvey Kurtzman, Will Elder, Hergé, Jacques Tardi, and EC Comics, together with much of the Mount Rushmore of a comics era yet undreamed of, you would have said, "Will this be before or after you've laid all the Dallas Cowboy cheerleaders?" ... And yet it all came to pass.
Above all, creatively speaking, his loss will be a terrible blow to French comics in English. ... Where even the best translations of comics French, up to and including the renowned work of Anthea Bell and Derek Hockridge on Asterix, will come out somewhat stilted, Kim's come off as idiomatic and natural English. If you were Fantagraphics this skill was just there, like water in the tap.
== Bibliography ==
"Devoured By His Own Fantasies", introduction to Optimism of Youth: The Underground Work of Jack Jackson, Fantagraphics, 1991. (with Gary Groth)
"Introduction". in Mézières, Jean-Claude and Christin, Pierre. Valerian: The New Future Trilogy. New York: iBooks (2004). pp. 1–2. ISBN 0-7434-8674-9.
=== Translated works ===
B, David, 2011. The armed garden and other stories. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA.
B, David, 2006a. Babel. 2 2. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle; [Bologna].
B, David, 2006b. Epileptic. Pantheon Books, New York.
B, David, MacOrlan, P., 2010. The littlest pirate king. Fantagraphics; Turnaround [distributor], Seattle, Wash.; London.
Blanquet, 2010. Toys in the basement. Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.
Corona, M., 2007a. Reflections. 2. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle; [Bologna].
Corona, M., 2007b. Reflections. 3. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle; [Bologna].
Corona, M., 2006. Reflections. 1. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle; [Bologna].
Forest, J.-C., Tardi, J., Kusa, B., Lees, G., 2009. You are There. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA.
Franquin, A., 2013. Franquin's Last Laugh. Fantagraphics Books.
Franquin, Jidéhem, Greg, M., 1995. Z is for Zorglub. Fantasy Flight Pub., [United States].
Ghermandi, F., 2005. Grenuord. 1 1. Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.
Ghermandi, F., 2003. The wipeout. Fantagraphics, Seattle, WA.
Giandelli, G., 2012. Interiorae, 1 edition. ed. Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.; London.
Gipi, 2006. They found the car. Fantagraphics, Seattle, WA.
Gipi, 2005. Wish you were here. 1, 1,. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle; [Bologna].
Igort, 2008. Baobab 3. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle; [Bologna].
Igort, 2006. Baobab 2. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle; [Bologna].
Igort, 2005. Baobab 1. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle, WA; [Bologna, Italy?].
Jason, 2013. Lost Cat.
Jason, 2011. Athos in America.
Jason, 2010. What I did. Fantagraphics Books; Distributed in the U.S. by W.W. Norton, Seattle, WA; [New York].
Jason, 2009a. Almost silent. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle.
Jason, 2009b. Low moon. Fantagraphics Books; Distributed in the U.S. by W.W. Norton, Seattle, WA; [New York].
Jason, 2008a. Pocket full of rain: and other stories. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, Wash.
Jason, 2008b. The Left Bank gang. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, Wash. - Winner of the Eisner Award for Best U.S. Edition of International Material Award in 2007 "The Eisner Awards". Comic Con San Diego. 2 December 2012. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
Jason, 2007. The last musketeer. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA. - Winner of the Eisner Best U.S. Edition of International Material Award in 2009 "The Eisner Awards". Comic Con San Diego. 2 December 2012. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
Jason, 2006a. Meow, baby! Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.
Jason, 2006b. The Living and the Dead.
Jason, 2005. Why are you doing this? Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.
Jason, 2004. You can't get there from here. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle.
Jason, 2001. Hey, wait--. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA.
Jason, Elvestad, S., 2003. The iron wagon. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, Wash.
Kellerman, M., 2005a. Rocky 1. Fantagraphics; Turnaround [distributor], Seattle, Wash.; London.
Kellerman, M., 2005b. Rocky 2. Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.
Kellerman, M., 2005c. Rocky 3. Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.
Kellerman, M., 2005d. Rocky 4. Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.
Lehmann, M., 2006. Hwy 115. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA.
Lopez, F.S., Lopez, G.S., 1991. Ana. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, Wash.
Macherot, R., 2011. Sibyl-Anne vs. Ratticus. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, Wash.
Mahler, 2012. Angelman: fallen angel. Fantagraphics; Turnaround [distributor], Seattle, Wash.; London.
Manara, M., Fellini, F., Pisu, S., 2012a. The Manara library. Volume 3. Dark Horse Books, Milwaukie, Or.
Manara, M., Orzechowski, T., Buhalis, L., 2013. The Manara library. Volume 4. Dark Horse; Diamond [distributor], Milwaukie, Or.; London.
Manara, M., Pratt, H., 2011. The Manara library. Volume 1. Dark Horse Books, Milwaukie, Or. - Winner of the Eisner Best U.S. Edition of International Material Award in 2012 "The Eisner Awards". Comic Con San Diego. 2 December 2012. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
Manara, M., Pratt, H., Milani, M., 2012b. The Manara library. Volume 2. Dark Horse Books, Milwaukie, Or.
Martí, 2007. Calvario Hills. 1 1. Fantagraphics Books : Coconino Press, Seattle.
Marzocchi, L., 2007. Niger # 2. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, Wash.
Marzocchi, L., 2006. Niger. Fantagraphics Books; Coconino Press, Seattle; [Bologna, Italy?].
Mattotti, L., Piersanti, C., 2010. Stigmata. Fantagraphics; Turnaround [distributor], Seattle, WA; London.
Mattotti, L., Zentner, J., 2012. The Crackle of the Frost, 1 edition. ed. Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.
Max, 2006. Bardín the Superrealist: his deeds, his utterances, his exploits, and his perambulations. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA.
Peellaert, G., Bartier, P., Sterckx, P., 2013. The adventures of Jodelle.
Schultheiss, M., 1992. Talk dirty. Eros Comix, Seattle, WA.
Sokal, 1989. Shaggy dog story: from the files of Inspector Carnado. Rijperman / Fantagraphics, [France].
Tardi, J., 2011. The Arctic Marauder. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle.
Tardi, J., 2010a. It was the war of the trenches. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle. - Winner of the Eisner Best U.S. Edition of International Material Award in 2011 "The Eisner Awards". Comic Con San Diego. 2 December 2012. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
Tardi, J., 2010b. The extraordinary adventures of Adele Blanc-Sec. [Volume] 1, [Volume] 1,. Fantagraphics Books; Distributed ... by W.W. Norton, Seattle, WA; [New York].
Tardi, J., Legrand, B., Grange, D., 2012. New York Mon Amour, 1 edition. ed. Fantagraphics, Seattle, WA.
Tardi, J., Malet, L., 2015. Fog over Tolbiac Bridge.
Tardi, J., Manchette, J.-P., 2011. Like a sniper lining up his shot. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA.
Tardi, J., Manchette, J.-P., 2009. West coast blues. Fantagraphics Books; Distributed in the U.S. by W.W. Norton, Seattle, WA; [New York?].
Tardi, J., Thompson, K., 2011. The extraordinary adventures of Adèle Blanc-Sec. The Mad Scientist and Mummies on Parade [Vol.] 2 [Vol.] 2. Fantagraphics Books; Distributed to bookstores in the U.S. by W.W. Norton, Seattle, Wash.; [New York].
Tardi, J., Verney, J.-P., Dascher, H., 2013. Goddamn this war! Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA. - Winner of the Eisner Best U.S. Edition of International Material Award in 2014 "The Eisner Awards". Comic Con San Diego. 2 December 2012. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
Trondheim, L., 2012. Ralph Azham. Volume 1. Fantagraphics; Turnaround [distributor], Seattle, Wash.; London.
Trondheim, L., 1998. The Hoodoodad. Fantagraphics, Seattle, WA.
Trondheim, L., 1997. Harum scarum. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA.
Vehlmann, F., Jason, Hubert, 2011. Isle of 100,000 graves. Fantagraphics Books, Seattle, WA.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Kim Thompson at the Comic Book DB (archived from the original)
Interview, David Anthony Kraft's Comics Interview #14 (1984), (16 p.)
== External links ==
Thompson's Fantagraphics blog
"The Infinite Kim Thompson," A photo comic written by and starring Kim Thompson
Inkstuds: One-hour podcast interview with Gary Groth and Thompson
Spurgeon, Tom. "A Short Interview with Thompson and Gary Groth", Comics Reporter, (December 31, 1999)
Netzer, Michael. "Thinking of Kim Thompson," If Life was a Comic Book blog (May 8, 2013) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chern_Medal | Chern Medal | The Chern Medal is an international award recognizing outstanding lifelong achievement of the highest level in the field of mathematics. The prize is given at the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM), which is held every four years.
== Introduction ==
Named in honor of the late Chinese mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern, the award is a joint effort of the International Mathematical Union (IMU) and the Chern Medal Foundation (CMF) to be bestowed in the same fashion as the IMU's other three awards (the Fields Medal, the Abacus Medal, and the Gauss Prize), i.e. at the opening ceremony of the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM), which is held every four years. The first such occasion was at the 2010 ICM in Hyderabad, India.
Each recipient receives a medal decorated with Chern's likeness, a cash prize of $250,000 (USD), and the opportunity to direct $250,000 of charitable donations to one or more organizations for the purpose of supporting research, education, or outreach in mathematics.
== Laureates ==
== See also ==
Fields Medal
Gauss Prize
International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM)
International Mathematical Union (IMU)
Nevanlinna Prize
List of mathematics awards
== Notes ==
== References ==
[1], International Mathematical Union
Press release, International Mathematical Union
Program Guidelines, International Mathematical Union |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baba_Payam_ud_Din_Reshi#:~:text=Babareshi%20is%20the%20name%20of,saint%20Baba%20Payam%20uddin%20Reshi. | Baba Payam ud Din Reshi | Baba Rishi c. 1411 – c. 1480; born Payam ud-Din, was a revered 15th-century Sufi saint from Kashmir. Born in 1411 CE in Chander-nau-gaon, near Ganderbal, he was the son of a nobleman serving in the court of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin. Initially living a life of luxury, Baba Reshi experienced a spiritual awakening after observing ants diligently gathering food for the winter, prompting him to contemplate the transient nature of worldly possessions and the importance of the afterlife.
Motivated by this reflection, he renounced his wealth and status, he went to Nund Rishi for guidance and was sent to train with Baba Shukur-ud-Din Wali who told him to get water from Wular Lake to the top of Sharikot Hill for 2 years, after his training with Baba Shukur ud-Din Wali was done, he directed him to go to Sakhi Zain al-Din Wali for further training in Aishmuquam. After completing his spiritual training, Baba Reshi was directed by Sakhi Zain al-Din Wali to move to Ramboh village in Baramulla district, where he dedicated himself to prayer and meditation, attracting followers with his piety and wisdom. He spent the remainder of his life in the forested area near Tangmarg, dying in 1480 CE.
Babareshi is also the name of a village, forest area, tourist and religious place in Jammu and Kashmir, India. It is named after the Sufi saint Baba Payam ud din Reshi.
It is located a few kilometres from Tangmarg and near the hill station Gulmarg.
History
== Shrine ==
Situated at an altitude of about 7,000 feet (2,100 meters), the Ziyarat Baba Reshi shrine is a three-storey monument. It is located near Ramboh village in Baramulla District. Built-in 1480, in Mughal and Persian style, the tomb is named after Baba Payam Uddin. The shrine and its surrounding garden is a tourist attraction as well as a destination for pilgrims visiting the shrine.
=== Roza Sharief Baba Payam Uddin ===
Baba Payam Uddin was a courtier of 15th century Kashmir King Zain-ul-Abidin, and he is said to have given up all his belongings in order to serve the common people. He lived and meditated at this location, which became the site of his tomb and a shrine for his disciples.
This shrine has a big minaret and inside the shrine is the Noor Khwan where the grave of the Sufi saint Lies. It is covered with cloth with Quran embroideries. The Noor Khwan is made of glass and wood carvings.
=== Urs ===
The Urs or the anniversary of Baba Payam ud din Reshi is celebrated annually and people from far off places visit the Shrine on the occasion.
=== Damage by fire ===
On 2 September 1989 the 300-year-old Baba Reshi shrine was gutted in a fire under mysterious circumstances.
The place known as daan that Baba Reshi built in the village Ramboh went ablaze and caused severe damage to several buildings surrounding the shrine causing a huge economic loss to the historic place.
== Accommodations and travel ==
There are accommodations for tourists and pilgrims around the shrine. Each building has a Daan or cooking place where the Kashmiris prepare their meals and everyone traditionally contributes some of it to the Langar (collection Place). The Langar staff distribute the food in charity.
== Transport ==
=== Air ===
The nearest airport from Babareshi is Srinagar International Airport which is at a distance of around 2 hours.
=== Road ===
The area is also connected by road via NH-44 from Narbal via Magam. It is linked with various towns such as Kunzer and Tangmarg by Gulmarg Highway. Srinagar is 55 km (34 mi) away by road from Babareshi.
=== Rail ===
The nearest railway station is the Mazhom railway station.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuPaul%27s_Drag_Race_season_10 | RuPaul's Drag Race season 10 | The tenth season of RuPaul's Drag Race began airing on March 22, 2018, on VH1. The premiere was broadcast one week after the finale of the third season of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars, and episodes were followed by RuPaul's Drag Race: Untucked. Contestants were officially announced on February 22, 2018, in a teaser trailer during an episode of All Stars 3 later followed by a special "Meet the Queens" live-stream on Facebook, hosted by season nine winner, Sasha Velour. This season saw the return of season 9 contestant Eureka O'Hara who was removed from her original season after tearing her ACL. The prizes for the winner of this season include a one-year supply of Anastasia Beverly Hills cosmetics and a cash prize of $100,000. This is the first season in which each episode was 90 minutes long.
The theme song played during the runway segment every episode was "Snapshot", and the song played during the closing credits was "Rock It (To The Moon)", both songs from the album Remember Me: Essential, Vol. 1.
Much like the previous season, it featured the top four contestants of the season advance to the finale and compete in the "Lip-Sync for the Crown".
The winner of the tenth season of RuPaul's Drag Race was Aquaria, with Kameron Michaels and Eureka being the runners-up, and Monét X Change being Miss Congeniality.
== Contestants ==
Ages, names, and cities stated are at time of filming.
Notes:
== Contestant progress ==
Legend:
== Lip syncs ==
Legend:
== Guest judges ==
Listed in chronological order:
=== Special guests ===
Guests who appeared in episodes, but did not judge on the main stage.
== Episodes ==
== Ratings ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Broadbent | Ed Broadbent | John Edward Broadbent (March 21, 1936 – January 11, 2024) was a Canadian social-democratic politician and political scientist. He was leader of the New Democratic Party (NDP) from 1975 to 1989, and a member of Parliament from 1968 to 1990 and from 2004 to 2006. He led the NDP through four federal elections. He oversaw a period of growth for the party with its parliamentary representation rising from 17 to 43 seats as of the 1988 federal election.
Broadbent also served as a vice-president of Socialist International from 1979 to 1989 and director of the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development from 1990 to 1996. Returning to politics in the 2004 federal election, he was elected to represent Ottawa Centre. He later chaired the Broadbent Institute, a policy think tank founded in 2011.
== Early life ==
John Edward Broadbent was born in Oshawa, Ontario, the son of Percy, who worked at General Motors, and Mary (Welsh) Broadbent, a homemaker.
In 1961, he married Yvonne Yamaoka, a Japanese Canadian town planner whose family had been interned by the federal government in World War II. They divorced in 1967.
Broadbent received a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in political science from the University of Toronto in 1966, with a thesis titled "The Good Society of John Stuart Mill," under the supervision of C.B. Macpherson.
== Early political career (1968–1975) ==
Broadbent was a university professor when he won a seat in the House of Commons of Canada in the riding of Oshawa—Whitby during the 1968 federal election. He defeated Progressive Conservative MP Michael Starr, a former cabinet minister (under John Diefenbaker) and acting leader of the opposition, by fifteen votes in a close three-way race. He began his parliamentary service in the 28th Canadian Parliament.
After Tommy Douglas retired from the leadership of the party, Broadbent stood to succeed him but was eliminated on the second ballot of the 1971 leadership convention; David Lewis became leader. In 1974, Lewis himself retired as leader, due to a disappointing electoral result for the NDP in that year's federal election and ill health. Broadbent won the 1975 leadership election to succeed Lewis, going on to lead the party through four national elections.
== Leader of the NDP (1975–1989) ==
In the 1979 federal election, the NDP under Broadbent boosted their seat count from 17 to 26 seats. In the 1980 election nine months later, Broadbent's NDP again experienced a boost of support from 27 to 32 seats. Following the election, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau approached Broadbent about the possibility of forming a coalition government even though his Liberals had just won a working majority government. Broadbent declined Trudeau's offer.
In the 1984 federal election, the NDP finished with 30 seats, just ten behind the Liberal Party led by John Turner.
After the election, Broadbent's personal popularity was consistently in first place among the leaders of federal parties. In 1987, he became the first NDP leader who took the party to first place in public opinion polling since it was founded. Some pundits predicted that the NDP could supplant Turner's Liberals as the primary opposition to the Brian Mulroney-led Progressive Conservatives. Like Turner, Broadbent supported Mulroney's proposed Meech Lake Accord (which proposed recognizing Quebec as a distinct society and extending provincial powers), which led to some dissent within the NDP.
In the 1988 federal election, the NDP under Broadbent won 43 seats, a record unchallenged until the 2011 federal election, when it won 103 seats. Despite the polling milestones prior to the election, the NDP was not successful in translating this into a major breakthrough, as they remained in third place (behind the second-place Liberals). Broadbent gained criticism for not making the NDP's opposition to the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement the main issue during the campaign, as the Liberals reaped most of the benefits from opposing the agreement.
On the international front, Broadbent served as a vice-president of Socialist International from 1979 to 1989, during which time Willy Brandt, the former chancellor of West Germany, was its president.
Broadbent stepped down after 14 and a half years as leader of the federal NDP at the 1989 Winnipeg Convention, when he was succeeded by Audrey McLaughlin. He also resigned his Oshawa seat in the House of Commons that year. The 1990 Oshawa federal by-election was held for the NDP by Michael Breaugh.
== Post-leadership (1989–2004) ==
In the decade following Broadbent's retirement from politics, the federal NDP declined in popularity. The party would not come close to the popularity that it had enjoyed under Broadbent until Jack Layton took over the leadership in 2003.
Broadbent was director of the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development from 1990 to 1996. In 1993, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was promoted to Companion in 2001.
Broadbent spent a year as Fellow at All Souls College, University of Oxford, in 1996–1997.
== Member of Parliament (2004–2006) ==
At Layton's invitation, Broadbent returned to politics in 2004. With the aid of a humorous and popular video clip, he successfully ran for Parliament in the riding of Ottawa Centre, where he lived later in life. He defeated the Liberal candidate, Richard J. Mahoney, a close ally of Prime Minister Paul Martin. In the NDP shadow cabinet, Broadbent was Critic for Democracy: Parliamentary & Electoral Reform, Corporate Accountability as well as Child Poverty. On May 4, 2005, he announced that he would not seek re-election in the 39th federal election so that he could spend time with his wife, Lucille, who was suffering from cancer. She died on November 17, 2006.
== After politics ==
In November 2008, Broadbent and former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien came out of retirement to help to negotiate a formal coalition agreement between the Liberals and the New Democratic Party, which the Bloc Québécois would support. It was to replace the Conservative government led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper and would have been the first coalition government in Canada since World War I, when Robert Borden governed as a Unionist. The idea died after Michaëlle Jean, the Governor General of Canada, prorogued Parliament in December 2008 at Harper's request.
Broadbent announced the creation of the Broadbent Institute on June 17, 2011, to explore social-democratic policy and ideas. It provides a vehicle for social-democratic and progressive academics, provides education, and trains activists. It is independent of the New Democratic Party. Three months later, he endorsed Brian Topp in his unsuccessful campaign during the 2012 leadership election.
In 2017, Broadbent voiced his support for the campaign for the establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organization that advocates for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system. Five years later, he published Seeking Social Democracy, a detailed reflection on his life and career, co-authored with academic Francis Abele, policy strategist Jonathan Sas, and journalist Luke Savage.
Until his death, he was a fellow in the School of Policy Studies at Queen's University.
== Personal life ==
In 1971, Broadbent married a Franco-Ontarian widow, Lucille Munroe. Munroe died of cancer on November 17, 2006, at the age of 71. Broadbent married the Marxist historian and political theorist Ellen Meiksins Wood, an old friend, in 2014. She was a political theorist and socialist historian, author of several books, and a professor at York University for three decades. She died of cancer at the couple's Ottawa home at 73 in January 2016.
Broadbent died on January 11, 2024, at the age of 87. His state funeral on January 28 at Carleton Dominion-Chalmers Centre in Ottawa was the first Canadian state funeral for a party leader who was never prime minister nor leader of the official opposition.
== Archives ==
There is an Ed Broadbent fonds at Library and Archives Canada.
== Books ==
The Liberal Rip–off: Trudeauism Versus the Politics of Equality, New Press 1970.
Democratic Equality: What Went Wrong? (as editor), University of Toronto Press 2001. ISBN 9780802083326
Seeking Social Democracy: Seven Decades in the Fight for Equality, with Frances Abele, Jonathan Sas, and Luke Savage, ECW Press 2023. ISBN 9781778522154
== References ==
== External links ==
How'd They Vote?: Ed Broadbent's voting history and quotes
Office of the Governor General of Canada. Order of Canada citation. Queen's Printer for Canada.
Ed Broadbent – Parliament of Canada biography
Ed Broadbent at IMDb
Article at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway_Tram | Runaway Tram | Runaway Tram is a steel family roller coaster located on Morey's Piers' Surfside Pier in North Wildwood, New Jersey. The attraction replaced the aging Flitzer roller coaster and required the reconfiguration of several rides on the pier and represented a total investment of $4 million. Runaway Tram spoofs the Wildwood Sightseer Tramcar, a local yellow-and-blue trackless train service.
== History ==
In September 2018, the Morey family announced that the iconic Flitzer on the Surfside Pier would be retired. Over the years, the aging coaster - which was manufactured in 1969 and opened at the park in 1983 - had undergone numerous refurbishments in order to extend its lifetime, but recent evaluations of the attraction determined that it was simply too old to continue operating safely. The Flitzer had its final day of operation on September 30, 2018, although the park assured that a new coaster was among the plans laid out to replace it.
Preparation began in October 2018, when the Flitzer, Doo Wopper wild mouse coaster, and other attractions were dismantled. The Formula One Raceway, a dormant go-kart track that had closed in 2016 and was located underneath the pier, was also gutted. On January 10, 2019, Morey's Piers formally announced the Runaway Tram coaster as the Flitzer's replacement, which would debut in time for the park's 50th anniversary and require the reconfiguration of seven existing attractions, including the Doo Wopper. Part of the pier was removed and footers poured into the ground below in April 2019, on space formerly occupied by the Raceway. Runaway Tram began vertical construction shortly afterwards, and the coaster train arrived on May 8, 2019.
Runaway Tram first began testing on June 17, 2019. The coaster was originally intended to open on July 2, 2019, in time for the 4th of July long weekend, but an unprecedentedly slow approval process delayed its opening. Once the state signed off on the attraction, Runaway Tram opened to the public on August 9, 2019.
== Characteristics ==
=== Statistics ===
Runaway Tram is 36 feet (11 m) tall, 922 feet (281 m) long, and reaches speeds of up to 28.6 mph (46.0 km/h). The coaster runs a single 10 car train, each car of seats 2 riders in a single row for a total occupancy of 20 riders. In addition, the coaster occupies a 194.6' x 87.9' site. The ride's track is supported by 118 support columns.
=== Model ===
Runaway Tram was manufactured by Zierer, and is one of their Force models. The layout is that of the Force 281 variant, which is composed of a single booster wheel lift hill and helix, as well as various twists and turns. As of 2021, only four of the 281 variant have been built, including Flight School (2019) at Emerald Park in Ireland and Flyvende Ørn (2018) at Legoland Billund Resort in Denmark. The latter coaster served as a direct influence for Runaway Tram's installation, as Morey's representatives had ridden it during a Scandinavia business trip in 2018 and felt that the attraction was the correct fit for their park.
=== Theme ===
Runaway Tram's train is modeled after the local Wildwood Sightseer Tramcar, a trackless train that runs along the Wildwood Boardwalk. The service was originally built for the 1939 New York World's Fair before debuting on the Wildwood Boardwalk in June 1949. Runaway Tram's themed train and station were designed by Cincinnati-based creative firm JRA while the custom LED signage was designed and manufactured by local firm A.B.S. Sign Company.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Procope | Café Procope | The Café Procope (French pronunciation: [kafe pʁokɔp]), also known as Le Procope ([lə pʁokɔp]), on the Rue de l'Ancienne Comédie, is a café in the 6th arrondissement of Paris. The original café was opened in 1686 by the Sicilian chef Procopio Cutò (also known by his Italian name Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli and his French name François Procope); it became a hub of the Parisian artistic and literary community in 18th and 19th centuries. It sometimes is erroneously called the oldest café in the world in continuous operation; (the Queen's Lane Coffee House in Oxford England has been in continuous operation since 1654) however, the original café closed in 1872 and the space was used in various ways before 1957, when the current incarnation (not a café but a restaurant) was opened; so the claim of "oldest café in continuous operation" is not supported.
== Background ==
Procopio Cutò first apprenticed under the leadership of an Armenian immigrant named Pascal who had a kiosk (une loge de la limonade, English: lemonade stand) on rue de Tournon selling refreshments, including lemonade and coffee. Pascal's attempt at such a business in Paris was not successful and he went to London in 1675, leaving the stall to Procopio.
== History ==
Cutò relocated his kiosk in 1686 to rue des Fossés-Saint-Germain-des-Prés. At the beginning, it was referred to as an "antre" (cavern or cave) because it was so dark inside, even when there was bright sunshine outside. Cutò purchased a bath house and had its unique fixtures removed; he installed in his new café items now standard in modern European cafés (crystal chandeliers, wall mirrors, marble tables).
It was a place where gentlemen of fashion might drink coffee, the exotic beverage that had previously been served in taverns, or eat a sorbet, served up in porcelain cups by waiters in exotic "Armenian" garb. The escorted ladies, who appeared at the Café Procope in its earliest days, soon disappeared.
In 1689, the Comédie-Française opened its doors in a theatre across the street from his café – hence the street's modern name. By this stroke of fortune, the café attracted many actors, writers, musicians, poets, philosophers, revolutionaries, statesmen, scientists, dramatists, stage artists, playwrights, and literary critics. It was to the Procope, on 18 December 1752, that Rousseau retired, before the performance of Narcisse, his last play, had even finished, saying publicly how boring it all was on the stage, now that he had seen it mounted.
It was the unexampled mix of habitués that surprised visitors, though no-one remarked on the absence of women. Louis, chevalier de Mailly, in Les Entretiens des caffés, 1702, remarked:
The cafés are most agreeable places, and ones where one finds all sorts of people of different characters. There one sees fine young gentlemen, agreeably enjoying themselves; there one sees the savants who come to leave aside the laborious spirit of the study; there one sees others whose gravity and plumpness stand in for merit. Those, in a raised voice, often impose silence on the deftest wit, and rouse themselves to praise everything that is to be blamed, and blame everything that is worthy of praise. How entertaining for those of spirit to see originals setting themselves up as arbiters of good taste and deciding with an imperious tone what is over their depth!
In 1702, Cutò changed his name to the gallicized François Procope, and renamed the business to Café Procope, the name by which it is still known today. Prior to that, it had been known only as the "boutique at the sign of the Holy Shroud of Turin", which was the name of the previous business at the location.
Throughout the 18th century, the brasserie Procope was the meeting place of the intellectual establishment, and of the nouvellistes of the scandal-gossip trade, whose remarks at Procope were repeated in the police reports. Not all the Encyclopédistes drank forty cups of coffee a day like Voltaire, who mixed his with chocolate, but they all met at Café Procope, as did Benjamin Franklin, John Paul Jones and Thomas Jefferson.
There are words above the door at Cutò's establishment that read: Café à la Voltaire. Voltaire is known to have said, "Ice cream is exquisite. What a pity it isn’t illegal."
The birthplace of the Encyclopédie, conceived by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, is said to be at Café Procope.
Alain-René Lesage described the hubbub at Procope in La Valise Trouvée (1772): "There is an ebb and flow of all conditions of men, nobles and cooks, wits and sots, pell mell, all chattering in full chorus to their heart's content", indicating an increasingly democratic mix. Writing a few years after the death of Voltaire, Louis-Sébastien Mercier noted:
All the works of this Paris-born writer seem to have been made for the capital. It was foremost in his mind when he wrote. While composing, he was looking towards the French Academy, the public of Comédie française, the Café Procope, and a circle of young musketeers. He hardly ever had anything else in sight.
During the Revolution, the Phrygian cap, soon to be the symbol of Liberty, was first displayed at the Procope. The Cordeliers, Robespierre, Danton and Marat all used the café as a meeting place. After the Restoration, another famous customer was Alexander von Humboldt who, during the 1820s, lunched there every day from 11am to noon. The Café Procope retained its literary cachet; Alfred de Musset, George Sand, Gustave Planche, the philosopher Pierre Leroux, M. Coquille, editor of Le Monde, Anatole France and Mikael Printz were all regulars. Under the Second Empire, August Jean-Marie Vermorel of Le Reforme or Léon Gambetta would expound their plans for social reform.
In the 1860s, the Conférence Molé held its meetings at the Café Procope. Léon Gambetta, like many other French orators, learned the art of public speaking at the Molé. Other active members during this period included Ernest Picard, Clément Laurier and Léon Renault.
A plaque at the establishment claims that it is the oldest continually-functioning café in the world.
Café Procope. Here founded Procopio dei Coltelli in 1686 the oldest coffeehouse of the world and the most famous center of the literary and philosophic life of the 18th and 19th centuries. It was frequented by La Fontaine, Voltaire and the Encyclopedistes: Benjamin Franklin, Danton, Marat, Robespierre, Napoleon Bonaparte, Balzac, Victor Hugo, Gambetta, Verlaine and Anatole France.
However, the claim is not entirely true. The original Café Procopes closed its doors in 1872, and the property was acquired by a woman by the name of Baronne Thénard, who leased it to a Théo Bellefonds, under the condition that he preserved the café's atmosphere. Bellefonds opened a private artist's club and established a journal entitled Le Procope, neither of which were very successful. The premises then became the Restaurant Procope, and in the 1920s, it was changed back to a café called Au Grand Soleil. At some point, a new owner realised the marketing value of the original name and rechristened it Café Procope. In 1988–89, the Café Procope was refurbished in an 18th-century style.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of oldest companies
Pompeian Red
== References ==
Notes
Bibliography
David, Elizabeth (20 January 2011). Harvest of the Cold Months: The Social History of Ice and Ices. Faber & Faber. ISBN 9780571275328.
Dejean, Joan (2006). The Essence of Style: How the French Invented High Fashion, Fine Food, Chic Cafes, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-6414-2.
Fitch, Noël Riley (2007). Grand Literary Cafes of Europe. New York: New Holland Publishers (UK) LTD. ISBN 978-1-84537-114-2.
Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bealer, Bonnie K. (2001). "Europe wakes up to caffeine". The World of Caffeine: the science and culture of the world's most popular drug. New York: Routledge. p. 72. ISBN 0-415-92722-6.
== External links ==
Procope.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoido_Full_Gospel_Church | Yoido Full Gospel Church | Yoido Full Gospel Church (Korean: 여의도 순복음 교회) is a Pentecostal church affiliated with the Assemblies of God on Yeouido (Yoi Island) in Seoul, South Korea. With about 480,000 members, it is the largest Pentecostal Christian congregation in South Korea. Founded by David Yonggi Cho and Choi Ja-shil in 1958, the church is presently led by Young Hoon Lee. The church has several satellite locations throughout the city of Seoul. The current building, relocated in 1973, was constructed by Sampoong Construction Industries, the company that built the Sampoong Department Store.
== History ==
The Yoido Full Gospel Church was founded in 1958 by Pastor David Yonggi Cho and his mother-in-law, Choi Ja-shil, both Assemblies of God pastors. On 15 May 1958, a worship service was held in the home of Choi Ja-shil. Apart from the two pastors, only Choi Ja-shil's three daughters (one of whom later married David Yungi Cho) and one elderly woman, who had come in to escape from the rain, attended the first service. The two pastors began a vigorous campaign of knocking on doors, providing spiritual and humanitarian help to the poor, and praying for the sick. Within months, the church had grown to fifty members, too many to accommodate in Choi Ja-shil's living room. Worship services were accordingly moved to a tent pitched in her backyard. As the church continued to grow over the following months and years, the church outgrew one tent after another.
Pastor Cho began preaching on the Three-Fold Blessing (the blessing of the spirit, soul, and body), proclaiming that physical health and financial prosperity are as much a part of God's will for Christians as the salvation of the soul. Inspired by his message of hope and monetary wealth, many previously uncommitted people joined the church, and by the beginning of 1961, membership had grown to a thousand. Having grown too large for its tent, the church purchased its first plot of land, at Seodaemun.
=== The Seodaemun Church: 1961–1973 ===
The church's plans for expansion suffered a setback when Pastor Cho was called up for mandatory military service. Fortunately for the church, he was assigned to an American Army base near Seoul, allowing him to continue with his Sunday preaching, with the help of John Hurston, an American missionary. Cho's spell in the army was short, as ill-health required a major operation and a subsequent discharge from the army. Although ill, Cho continued to pastor the church, and on 15 October 1961, an inaugural service was held in the new auditorium that had been built on the plot of land the church had purchased at Seodaemun. It was named the Full Gospel Revival Center.
Church membership continued to grow, reaching three thousand by 1964 and eight thousand by 1968. Cho continued to be plagued by ill health, and he suffered a physical collapse while leading a baptismal service one Sunday. In 1967, Cho decided to restructure the church. Cho divided the city of Seoul into zones, with church members in each zone comprising a "cell" that would meet on a weekday for worship and Bible study in the home of a "cell leader." Cell members were encouraged to invite their friends to attend cell meetings to learn about Jesus Christ. Each cell leader was instructed to train an assistant. When cell membership reached a certain number, it would be divided, with about half of its members joining the new cell led by the person who had been the assistant.
Cho believed that women would make ideal cell leaders, having both the time and the desire to make home visits to other members, something that many men, for reasons pertaining to Korean culture as it was at that time, were unwilling to do. His decision to appoint women as cell leaders went against the grain of Korean culture, which at that time was not open to the idea of women leading groups that had male members. He persisted, and the cell concept turned out to be an outstanding success. From 125 cells in 1967, the church has grown to several thousand cells in 2015.
Aside from restructuring as a cell-based church, a Women's Fellowship was started in 1960, followed by a Men's Fellowship in 1963, to enable lay members to serve the church in a wide range of volunteer capacities.
Membership continued to grow rapidly, reaching ten thousand in the early 1970s. Having outgrown its Seodaemun premises, the church began looking for a new place to build.
=== The Yoido Church: 1973–present ===
Yeouido (Yoi Island), in the middle of the Han River which winds its way through the heart of Seoul, was at that time little more than sand dunes, without even a bridge to connect it to the city of Seoul. Believing that he had heard from God, Cho and the other leaders of the church decided to purchase a plot of land on Yoi Island, directly across from Korea's National Assembly. Economic problems, including the 1973 "oil shock," which led to spiraling inflation and the loss of jobs for many church members, delayed construction of the new auditorium. However, it was finally finished in 1973, and its inaugural worship service in the auditorium of 12,000 seats was held on 19 August of that year. A month later, Full Gospel Central Church, as it was now known, hosted the 10th Pentecostal World Conference at the Hyochang Stadium.
Membership of Full Gospel Central Church reached fifty thousand by 1977, a figure that doubled in only two years. A special worship service was held to celebrate this milestone, with Demos Shakarian, President of the Full Gospel Businessmen's Fellowship International as the guest speaker.
Beginning in the 1980s, Full Gospel Central Church decided to establish satellite churches throughout the city of Seoul and further afield, as it would not be able to keep on expanding indefinitely. Despite the expansion of the auditorium to seat 12,000 in 1983, seven Sunday services were insufficient to accommodate the entire membership. In 1993, with 700,000 members, the Yoido Full Gospel Church, was the world's largest congregation recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records. Despite the drain of members to the satellite churches, however, new recruits by the mother church – brought in through the vast cell network – have made up for the losses, and membership stood at 780,000 in 2003. The church was renamed Yoido Full Gospel Church in the 1990s. Its founder, Mr David Yonggi Cho, retired as head pastor several times, but the church ran into immediate infighting among the remaining ministers, causing him to come out of retirement, most recently late in 2006. As of 2007, membership stands at 830,000, with seven Sunday services translated into 16 languages.
On 9 January 2009 a Sunday church service was featured in a BBC documentary Around the World in 80 Faiths.
In 2008, Young Hoon Lee became senior pastor.
In 2025, the Church had 480,000 people in Seoul.
== Ministries of the church ==
Yoido Full Gospel Church has established many ministries as part of its outreach program, both locally and internationally. A representative sample of them follows:
In March 1973, the Osanri Choi Ja-sil Memorial Fasting Prayer Mountain was founded. It has over 200 prayer grottoes in which people may lock themselves to fast and pray, Prayer Mountain now receives more than a million visitors a year, including some 50,000 foreigners.
In November 1976, Church Growth International, an organization dedicated to teaching the principles of evangelism and church growth to pastors all over the world, was established.
A ten-story World Evangelical Center, an educational institution attached to the church, was opened on 20 January 1977.
A television studio, opened on 31 December 1981, was built to broadcast the worship services both nationally and internationally.
The Full Gospel Educational Research Institute, now the International Theological Institute, was created to promote evangelism and theological training.
In January 1986, Elim Welfare Town, a facility for the elderly, the young, the homeless, and the unemployed, was set up under the auspices of the church. The latter would be given training and a choice of four occupations. In March of the same year, the church established Hansei University.
Since 2012, anticipating that the low birthrate issue would escalate into a national crisis, the church took immediate action by implementing measures to address it. As the first in the Korean church community, they began providing childbirth incentives to members who had children, distributing a total of 5.4 billion won up until last year. Starting in 2024, the church has increased the incentives, offering 2 million won for the first child, 3 million won for the second, 5 million won for the third, and 10 million won for the fourth child and beyond.
In 2024, as Yoido Full Gospel Church celebrates its 66th anniversary, it has appointed its first six female elders. Following the church's ongoing efforts to strengthen the role of women, this comes after the appointment of female pastors in 2023. Now, women are being given the opportunity to participate in the church's leadership as elders, representing the laity in church administration.
Yeouido Full Gospel Church has proclaimed special prayer meetings and early morning prayer gatherings during critical moments in South Korea's modern history, overcoming challenges through the collective prayers of its congregation.
=== Overseas mission work ===
Yoido Full Gospel Church has sent missionaries to countries worldwide, spreading the "Fivefold Gospel," "Triple Blessing," and the Holy Spirit movement. Overseas missions officially began in 1964 with Pastor Cho Yong-gi's mission work in the United States and have since expanded across continents. Today, the church has sent 657 missionaries to 63 countries, establishing 1,218 churches and guiding over 140,000 people in faith.
== Controversies ==
=== Buddhist temple vandalism ===
A pastor from Yoido Full Gospel Church named Seong vandalized the Dharma hall of Donghwasa Temple on 20 August 2012. The pastor was caught on CCTV urinating in the Dharma hall and vandalizing the Buddhist portraits with a permanent marker.
=== David Yonggi Cho's affair allegations ===
In November 2013, the Church Reform Prayer Meeting exposed allegations of an affair involving David Yonggi Cho, revealing that Cho had allegedly given 1.5 billion won to Jeong Gwi-sun, author of the novel Butterfly Lady of Paris, as hush money. Despite forming a 'Church Investigation Committee,' the inquiry did not address the affair allegations, leaving many questions unanswered. Jeong Gwi-sun, identified as the alleged mistress, supported David Yonggi Cho. In January 2014, Jeong Gwi-sun claimed that the controversial book was fictional and unrelated to Cho, and sued six elders from the prayer meeting. On February 14, Jeong Gwi-sun publicly apologized to the Korean church, Yoido Full Gospel Church, Rev. Cho, and its members for the controversy.
=== Embezzlement charges ===
On 20 February 2014 Pastor Cho and his son (Hee-jun) were convicted of embezzling US$12 million in church funds. The presiding judge once told Cho, "We know that this case is not your problem. You just need to blame it on your son, then you will have no responsibilities," Cho wrote, adding that Cho refused, "My son can be unrighteous to me, but I cannot be unrighteous to my son."
In June 2016, this incident became a non-prosecution because there was "no suspicion."
=== Support for Pastor Jeon Kwang-hoon ===
Young Hoon Lee, who has served as the senior pastor of Yoido Full Gospel Church since 2008, sparked controversy on May 16, 2023, when he attended the opening ceremony of the Liberty Korea Party's headquarters in Yeongdeungpo-gu, Seoul. During the event, he urged attendees to support Jeon Kwang-hoon in his call to "eradicate communist reds," a phrase now regarded as outdated propaganda. The controversy is heightened by the fact that Jeon, whom Pastor Lee supported, has previously made statements like "God, Freeze!" which are seen as blasphemous by the Christian community. Additionally, Jeon has already been labeled a "heretic" by mainstream Protestant groups in South Korea. The incident has drawn criticism, as it appears that the leader of Korea's largest church is publicly endorsing a figure deemed heretical by many within the faith.
== See also ==
Christianity in Korea – an overview of the history and social impact of Christianity in Korea
List of the largest evangelical churches
List of the largest evangelical church auditoriums
Worship service (evangelicalism)
== References ==
== External links ==
Yoido Full Gospel Church English Language website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipacoque | Tipacoque | Tipacoque is a municipality and town in Boyacá Department, Colombia, located on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, part of the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Tipacoque is situated on the western flank of the Chicamocha river canyon. It is part of the Northern Boyacá Province.
== Etymology ==
Tipacoque is derived from Zipacoque, which in Chibcha means "dependency of the zaque", referring to the zaque rule of the village in the times of the Muisca Confederation, the loose confederation of rulers of the Muisca.
== Geography and climate ==
The total area of the municipality is 72 km2. To the north it borders Covarachía and Capitanejo and to the south it borders Soatá. The Chicamocha River separates it from Capitanejo and Boavita in the east. Finally, a branch of the Eastern mountain range separates it from Onzaga (in Santander) in the west. This range varies from 1,200 meters at the base of the Chicamocha Canyon to over 3,000 meters at "Cruz de Roble".
The municipality is located at an altitude of 1,850 metres (6,070 ft) above sea level. Its average temperature is 18 °C (64.4 °F). The warmest months are December and January, when the temperature exceeds 25 °C. The climate is predominantly dry.
The vegetation is varied. The fauna is composed mainly by mammal species like rabbits, armadillos and tinajos, which live in the higher altitudes. In the lowlands, reptiles predominate. The most common birds are garrapateros, hummingbirds, toches, turpiales, gurrias, doves, perdices, pregoneros and cuchicas, native species that can be found in the creeks which feed the Chicamocha river.
Tripacoque is located 174 kilometres (108 mi) from Tunja, the capital of Boyacá. The main highway which connects Tipacoque with Bogotá and the east of Colombia is 174 km long, of which 150 km are paved (87%).
== Trivia ==
The novel Tipacoque: Estampas de provincia (1971) by Eduardo Caballero Calderón describes the Colombian society in this region of Boyacá
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Buchanan | James Buchanan | James Buchanan Jr. ( bew-KAN-ən; April 23, 1791 – June 1, 1868) was the 15th president of the United States, serving from 1857 to 1861. He also served as the 17th United States secretary of state from 1845 to 1849 and represented Pennsylvania in both houses of the U.S. Congress. Buchanan was an advocate for states' rights, particularly regarding slavery, and minimized the role of the federal government preceding the American Civil War.
Buchanan was a lawyer in Pennsylvania and won his first election to the state's House of Representatives as a member of the Federalist Party. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1820 and retained that post for five terms, aligning with Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party. Buchanan served as Jackson's minister to Russia in 1832. He was elected a U.S. senator from Pennsylvania in 1834 and served for 11 years. He was appointed to serve as President James K. Polk's secretary of state in 1845, and eight years later was named as President Franklin Pierce's minister to the United Kingdom.
Beginning in 1844, Buchanan became a regular contender for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination. He was nominated and won the 1856 presidential election. As President, Buchanan intervened to assure the Supreme Court's majority ruling in the pro-slavery decision in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case. He acceded to Southern attempts to engineer the Kansas Territory's entry into the Union as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution, and angered not only Republicans, but also Northern Democrats. Buchanan honored his pledge to serve only one term and supported his Vice President John C. Breckinridge's unsuccessful candidacy in the 1860 presidential election. He failed to reconcile the fractured Democratic Party amid the grudge against Stephen A. Douglas, leading to the election of Republican and former Congressman Abraham Lincoln.
Buchanan's leadership during his lame duck period, before the American Civil War, has been widely criticized. He simultaneously angered the North by not stopping secession and the South by not yielding to their demands. Buchanan supported the Corwin Amendment in an effort to reconcile the country. He made an unsuccessful attempt to reinforce Fort Sumter, but otherwise refrained from preparing the military. His failure to forestall the American Civil War has been described as incompetence, and he spent his last years defending his reputation. Historians and scholars rank him as among the worst presidents in American history.
== Early life ==
=== Childhood and education ===
James Buchanan Jr. was born into a Scotch-Irish family on April 23, 1791, in a log cabin on a farm called Stony Batter, near Cove Gap in the Allegheny Mountains of southern Pennsylvania. He was the second of eleven children with six sisters and four brothers, and the eldest son of James Buchanan Sr. and Elizabeth Speer. James Buchanan Sr. was an Ulster-Scot from just outside Ramelton, a small town in County Donegal, Ireland, who emigrated to the newly formed United States in 1783. He belonged to the Clan Buchanan, whose members had emigrated in large numbers from the Scottish Highlands to Ulster during the Plantation of Ulster in the seventeenth century and, later, largely because of poverty and persecution by the Crown due to their Presbyterian faith, had further emigrated in large numbers to America from the early eighteenth century onwards. Shortly after Buchanan's birth, the family relocated to a farm near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, and later settled in the town in 1794. His father became the area's wealthiest resident, working as a merchant, farmer, and real estate investor. Buchanan attributed his early education primarily to his mother, whereas his father had a greater influence on his character. His mother had discussed politics with him as a child and had an interest in poetry, quoting John Milton and William Shakespeare to Buchanan.
Buchanan attended the Old Stone Academy in Mercersburg and then Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. In 1808, he was nearly expelled for disorderly conduct; he and his fellow students had attracted negative attention for drinking in local taverns, disturbing the peace at night and committing acts of vandalism, but he pleaded for a second chance and ultimately graduated with honors in 1809. Later that year, Buchanan moved to the state capital at Lancaster, to train as a lawyer for two and a half years with the well-known James Hopkins. Following the fashion of the time, he studied the United States Code and the Constitution of the United States as well as legal authorities such as William Blackstone during his education.
=== Early law practice and Pennsylvania House of Representatives ===
In 1812, Buchanan passed the bar exam and remained in Lancaster after being admitted to the bar, even when Harrisburg became the new capital of Pennsylvania. He quickly established himself as a prominent legal representative in the city. His income rapidly rose after he established his practice, and by 1821 he was earning over $11,000 per year (equivalent to $260,000 in 2024). At this time, Buchanan became a Freemason, and served as the Worshipful Master of Masonic Lodge No. 43 in Lancaster and as a District Deputy Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania.
He also served as chairman of the Lancaster chapter of the Federalist Party. Like his father, Buchanan supported their political program, which provided federal funds for building projects and import duties as well as the re-establishment of a central bank after the First Bank of the United States' license expired in 1811. He became a strong critic of Democratic-Republican President James Madison during the War of 1812. While not serving in a militia during the War of 1812, during the British occupation he joined a group of young men who stole horses for the United States Army in the Baltimore area. Buchanan was the last president involved in the War of 1812.
In 1814, he was elected for the Federalists to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, becoming the youngest member, and held this seat until 1816. Since the sessions in the Pennsylvania General Assembly lasted only three months, Buchanan continued practicing law at a profit by charging higher fees, and his service helped him acquire more clients. In 1815, he defended District Judge Walter Franklin in an impeachment trial before the Pennsylvania Senate, over alleged judicial misconduct. Impeachments were more common at the time because the line between abuse of office and a wrong legal decision was determined by the ruling parties' preferences and the popularity of the judge's decision. Buchanan persuaded the senators that only judicial crimes and clear violations of the law justified impeachment.
== Congressional career ==
=== U.S. House of Representatives ===
In the congressional elections of 1820, Buchanan ran for a seat in the House of Representatives. Shortly after his election victory, his father died in a carriage accident. As a young Representative, Buchanan was one of the most prominent leaders of the "Amalgamator party" faction of Pennsylvanian politics, named that because it was made up of both Democratic-Republicans and former Federalists, which transitioned from the First Party System to the Era of Good Feelings. During this era, the Democratic-Republicans became the most influential party. Buchanan's Federalist convictions were weak, and he switched parties after opposing a nativist Federalist bill. During the 1824 presidential election, Buchanan initially supported Henry Clay, but switched to Andrew Jackson (with Clay as a second choice) when it became clear that the Pennsylvanian public overwhelmingly preferred Jackson. After Jackson lost the 1824 election, he joined his faction, but Jackson had contempt for Buchanan due to his misinterpretation of his efforts to mediate between the Clay and Jackson camps.
In Washington, Buchanan became an avid defender of states' rights, and was close with many southern Congressmen, viewing some New England Congressmen as dangerous radicals. Buchanan's close proximity to his constituency allowed him to establish a Democratic coalition in Pennsylvania, consisting of former Federalist farmers, Philadelphia artisans, and Ulster-Scots-Americans. In the 1828 presidential election, he secured Pennsylvania, while Democratic-Republican party split into the "Jacksonian Democrats" and National Republican Party. The Jacksonians won an easy victory in the parallel congressional election.
Buchanan gained most attention during an impeachment trial where he acted as prosecutor for federal district judge James H. Peck; however, the Senate rejected Buchanan's plea and acquitted Peck by a majority vote. He was appointed to the Agriculture Committee in his first year, and he eventually became chairman of the Judiciary Committee. In 1831, Buchanan declined a nomination for the 22nd United States Congress from his constituency consisting of Dauphin, Lebanon, and Lancaster counties. He still had political ambitions and some Pennsylvania Democrats put him forward as a candidate for the vice presidency in the 1832 election.
=== Minister to Russia ===
After Jackson was re-elected in 1832, he offered Buchanan the position of United States Ambassador to Russia. Buchanan was reluctant to leave the country, viewing the distant St. Petersburg as a kind of political exile, but ultimately agreed. That was Jackson's intent, as he considered Buchanan an "incompetent busybody" and untrustworthy. His work focused on concluding a trade and shipping treaty with Russia. While Buchanan was successful with the former, negotiating an agreement on free merchant shipping with Foreign Minister Karl Nesselrode proved difficult. He had denounced Tsar Nicholas I as a despot merely a year prior during his tenure in Congress; many Americans had reacted negatively to Russia's response to the 1830 Polish uprising.
=== U.S. Senator ===
Buchanan returned home and lost the election in the State Legislature for a full six-year term in the 23rd Congress, but was appointed by the Pennsylvania state legislature to succeed William Wilkins in the U.S. Senate. Wilkins, in turn, replaced Buchanan as the ambassador to Russia. The Jacksonian Buchanan, who was re-elected in 1836 and 1842, opposed the re-chartering of the Second Bank of the United States and sought to expunge a congressional censure of Jackson stemming from the Bank War. Buchanan served in the Senate until March 1845 and was twice confirmed in office. To unite Pennsylvania Democrats at the State Convention, he was chosen as their candidate for the Democratic National Convention. Buchanan maintained a strict adherence to the Pennsylvania State Legislature's guidelines and sometimes voted against positions in Congress which he promoted in his own speeches, despite open ambitions for the White House.
Buchanan was known for his commitment to states' rights and the Manifest destiny ideology. He rejected President Martin Van Buren's offer to become United States Attorney General and chaired prestigious Senate committees such as the Committee on the Judiciary and the Committee on Foreign Relations. Buchanan was one of only a few senators to vote against the Webster–Ashburton Treaty for its "surrender" of lands to the United Kingdom, and demanded the entire Aroostook River Valley for the United States. In the Oregon Boundary Dispute, Buchanan adopted the maximum demand of 54°40′ as the northern border and spoke out in favor of annexing the Republic of Texas. During the contentious 1838 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, he chose to support the Democratic challenger, David Rittenhouse Porter, who was elected by fewer than 5,500 votes as Pennsylvania's first governor under the state's revised Constitution of 1838.
Buchanan also opposed a gag rule sponsored by John C. Calhoun that would have suppressed anti-slavery petitions. He joined the majority in blocking the rule, with most senators of the belief that it would have the reverse effect of strengthening the abolitionists. Buchanan said, "We have just as little right to interfere with slavery in the South, as we have to touch the right of petition." He thought that the issue of slavery was the domain of the states, and blamed abolitionists for exciting passions over the issue. In the lead-up to the 1844 Democratic National Convention, Buchanan positioned himself as a potential alternative to former President Martin Van Buren, but the nomination went to James K. Polk, who won the election.
== Diplomatic career ==
=== Secretary of State ===
Buchanan was offered the position of Secretary of State in the Polk administration or, as the alternative, a seat on the Supreme Court, to compensate him for his support in the election campaign but also in order to eliminate him as an internal party rival. He accepted the State Department post and served for the duration of Polk's single term in office. During his tenure, the United States recorded its largest territorial gain in history through the Oregon Treaty and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which included territory that is now Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Colorado. In negotiations with Britain over Oregon, Buchanan initially favored the 49th parallel as the boundary of Oregon Territory, while Polk called for a more northerly boundary line. When Northern Democrats rallied around the popular slogan Fifty-Four Forty or Fight ("54°40′ or war") in the 1844 election campaign, he adopted this position, but later followed Polk's direction, leading to the Oregon Compromise of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary in the Pacific Northwest.
In regards to Mexico, Buchanan maintained a dubious view that its attack on American troops on the other side of the Rio Grande in April 1846 constituted a border violation and a legitimate reason for war. During the Mexican-American War, Buchanan initially advised against claiming territory south of the Rio Grande, fearing war with Britain and France. However, as the war came to an end, Buchanan changed his mind and argued for the annexation of further territory, arguing that Mexico was to blame for the war and that the compensation negotiated for the American losses was too low. Buchanan sought the nomination at the 1848 Democratic National Convention, as Polk had promised to serve only one term, but he only won the support of the Pennsylvania and Virginia delegations, so Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan was nominated.
=== Civilian life and 1852 presidential election ===
With the 1848 election of Whig Zachary Taylor, Buchanan returned to private life. Buchanan was getting older and still dressed in the old-fashioned style of his adolescence, earning him the nickname "Old Public Functionary" from the press. Slavery opponents in the North mocked him as a relic of prehistoric man because of his moral values. He bought Wheatland on the outskirts of Lancaster and entertained various visitors while monitoring political events. During this period, Buchanan became the center of a family network consisting of 22 nieces, nephews and their descendants, seven of whom were orphans. He found public service jobs for some through patronage, and for those in his favor, he took on the role of surrogate father. He formed the strongest emotional bond with his niece Harriet Lane, who later became First Lady for Buchanan in the White House.
In 1852, he was named president of the Board of Trustees of Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, and he served in this capacity until 1866. Buchanan did not completely leave politics. He intended to publish a collection of speeches and an autobiography, but his political comeback was thwarted by the 1852 presidential election. Buchanan traveled to Washington to discuss Pennsylvania Democratic Party politics, which were divided into two camps led by Simon Cameron and George Dallas. He quietly campaigned for the 1852 Democratic presidential nomination. In light of the Compromise of 1850, which had led to the admission of California into the Union as a free state and a stricter Fugitive Slave Act, Buchanan now rejected the Missouri Compromise and welcomed Congress' rejection of the Wilmot Proviso, which prohibited slavery in all territories gained in the Mexican-American War. Buchanan criticized abolitionism as a fanatical attitude and believed that slavery should be decided by state legislatures, not Congress. He disliked abolitionist Northerners due to his party affiliation, and became known as a "doughface" due to his sympathy toward the South. Buchanan emerged as a promising candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination, alongside Lewis Cass, Stephen A. Douglas, and William L. Marcy; however, the Pennsylvania convention did not vote unanimously in his favor, with over 30 delegates protesting against him. At the 1852 Democratic National Convention, he won the support of many southern delegates but failed to win the two-thirds support needed for the presidential nomination, which went to Franklin Pierce. Buchanan declined to serve as the vice presidential nominee, and the convention instead nominated his close friend, William R. King.
=== Minister to the United Kingdom ===
Pierce won the election in 1852, and six months later, Buchanan accepted the position of United States Minister to the United Kingdom, a position that represented a step backward in his career and that he had twice previously rejected. Buchanan sailed for England in the summer of 1853, and he remained abroad for the next three years. In 1850, the United States and the United Kingdom signed the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty, which committed both countries to joint control of any future canal that would connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through Central America. Buchanan met repeatedly with Lord Clarendon, the British foreign minister, in hopes of pressuring the British to withdraw from Central America. He was able to reduce British influence in Honduras and Nicaragua while also raising the kingdom's awareness of American interests in the region. He also focused on the potential annexation of Cuba, which had long interested him.
At Pierce's prompting, Buchanan met in Ostend, Belgium, with U.S. Ambassador to Spain Pierre Soulé and U.S. Ambassador to France John Mason, to work out a plan for the acquisition of Cuba. A memorandum draft resulted, called the Ostend Manifesto, which proposed the purchase of Cuba from Spain, then in the midst of revolution and near bankruptcy. The document declared the island "as necessary to the North American republic as any of its present ... family of states". Against Buchanan's recommendation, the final draft of the manifesto suggested that "wresting it from Spain", if Spain refused to sell, would be justified "by every law, human and Divine". The manifesto was met with a divided response and was never acted upon. It weakened the Pierce administration and reduced support for Manifest Destiny. In 1855, as Buchanan's desire to return home grew, Pierce asked him to hold the fort in London in light of the relocation of a British fleet to the Caribbean.
== Election of 1856 ==
Buchanan's service abroad allowed him to conveniently avoid the debate over the Kansas–Nebraska Act then roiling the country in the slavery dispute. While he did not overtly seek the presidency, he assented to the movement on his behalf. While still in England, he campaigned by praising John Joseph Hughes, who was Archbishop of New York, to a Catholic archbishop. The latter campaigned for Buchanan among high-ranking Catholics as soon as he heard about it. When Buchanan arrived home at the end of April 1856, he led on the first ballot, supported by powerful Senators John Slidell, Jesse Bright, and Thomas F. Bayard, who presented Buchanan as an experienced leader appealing to the North and South. The 1856 Democratic National Convention met in June 1856, producing a platform that reflected Buchanan's views, including support for the Fugitive Slave Law, which required the return of escaped slaves. The platform also called for an end to anti-slavery agitation and U.S. "ascendancy in the Gulf of Mexico". President Pierce hoped for re-nomination, while Senator Stephen A. Douglas also loomed as a strong candidate. He won the nomination after seventeen ballots after Douglas' resignation. He was joined on the ticket by John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky in order to maintain regional proportional representation, placating supporters of Pierce and Douglas, also allies of Breckinridge.
Buchanan faced two candidates in the general election: former Whig President Millard Fillmore ran as the candidate for the anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant American Party (or "Know-Nothing"), while John C. Frémont ran as the Republican nominee. The contrast between Buchanan and Frémont was particularly stark, with opposing caricaturists drawing the Democratic candidate as a fussy old man in drag. Buchanan did not actively campaign, but he wrote letters and pledged to uphold the Democratic platform. In the election, he carried every slave state except for Maryland, as well as five slavery-free states, including his home state of Pennsylvania. He won 45 percent of the popular vote and decisively won the electoral vote, taking 174 of 296 votes. His election made him the first president from Pennsylvania. In a combative victory speech, Buchanan denounced Republicans, calling them a "dangerous" and "geographical" party that had unfairly attacked the South. He also declared, "the object of my administration will be to destroy sectional party, North or South, and to restore harmony to the Union under a national and conservative government." He set about this initially by feigning a sectional balance in his cabinet appointments.
== Presidency (1857–1861) ==
=== Inauguration ===
Buchanan was inaugurated on March 4, 1857, taking the oath of office from Chief Justice Roger B. Taney. In his lengthy inaugural address, Buchanan committed himself to serving only one term. He abhorred the growing divisions over slavery and its status in the territories, saying that Congress should play no role in determining the status of slavery in the states or territories. He proposed a solution based on the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which stated that the principle of popular sovereignty was decisive, and Congress had no say in the matter. Buchanan recommended that a federal slave code be enacted to protect the rights of slaveowners in federal territories. He alluded to a then-pending Supreme Court case, Dred Scott v. Sandford, which he said would permanently settle the issue of slavery. Dred Scott was a slave who was temporarily taken from a slave state to a free territory by his owner, John F. A. Sanford. After Scott returned to the slave state, he filed a petition for his freedom based on his time in the free territory.
Associate Justice Robert C. Grier leaked the decision in the Dred Scott case early to Buchanan. In his inaugural address, Buchanan declared that the issue of slavery in the territories would be "speedily and finally settled" by the Supreme Court. According to historian Paul Finkelman: Buchanan already knew what the Court was going to decide. In a major breach of Court etiquette, Justice Grier, who, like Buchanan, was from Pennsylvania, had kept the President-elect fully informed about the progress of the case and the internal debates within the Court. When Buchanan urged the nation to support the decision, he already knew what Taney would say. Republican suspicions of impropriety turned out to be fully justified.
Historians agree that the court decision was a major disaster because it dramatically inflamed tensions, leading to the Civil War. In 2022, historian David W. Blight argued that the year 1857 was, "the great pivot on the road to disunion ... largely because of the Dred Scott case, which stoked the fear, distrust and conspiratorial hatred already common in both the North and the South to new levels of intensity."
=== Personnel ===
==== Cabinet and administration ====
As his inauguration approached, Buchanan sought to establish an obedient, harmonious cabinet to avoid the in-fighting that had plagued Andrew Jackson's administration. The cabinet's composition had to do justice to the proportional representation within the party and between the regions of the country. Buchanan first worked on this task in Wheatland until he traveled to the capital in January 1857. There, like many other guests at the National Hotel, he contracted severe dysentery, from which he did not fully recover until several months later. Dozens of those who fell ill died, including Buchanan's nephew and private secretary Eskridge Lane.
The cabinet selection was disastrous, with four Southern ministers being large-scale slaveholders who later became loyal to the Confederate States of America. Secretary of the Treasury Howell Cobb was considered the greatest political talent in the Cabinet, while the three department heads from the northern states were all considered to be doughfaces. His objective was to dominate the cabinet, and he chose men who would agree with his views. Buchanan had a troubled relationship with his vice president from the beginning, when he did not receive him during his inaugural visit but referred him to his niece and First Lady, which Breckinridge never forgave him for and saw as disrespectful. He left out the influential Stephen A. Douglas, who had made Buchanan's nomination possible by resigning at the National Convention the previous year, when filling the post. Concentrating on foreign policy, he appointed the aging Lewis Cass as Secretary of State. Buchanan's appointment of Southerners and their allies alienated many in the North, and his failure to appoint any followers of Douglas divided the party. Outside of the cabinet, he left in place many of Pierce's appointments but removed a disproportionate number of Northerners who had ties to Democratic opponents Pierce or Douglas.
==== Judicial appointments ====
Buchanan appointed one Justice, Nathan Clifford, to the Supreme Court of the United States. He appointed seven other federal judges to United States district courts. He also appointed two judges to the United States Court of Claims.
=== Intervention in the Dred Scott case ===
The case of Dred Scott v. Sandford, to which Buchanan referred in his inaugural address, dated back to 1846. Scott sued for his release in Missouri, claiming he lived in service to the proprietor in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory. The case reached the Supreme Court and gained national attention by 1856. Buchanan consulted with Justice John Catron in January 1857, inquiring about the outcome of the case and suggesting that a broader decision, beyond the specifics of the case, would be more prudent. Buchanan hoped that a broad decision protecting slavery in the territories could lay the issue to rest, allowing him to focus on other issues.
Catron replied on February 10, saying that the Supreme Court's Southern majority would decide against Scott, but would likely have to publish the decision on narrow grounds unless Buchanan could convince his fellow Pennsylvanian, Justice Robert Cooper Grier, to join the majority of the court. Buchanan then wrote to Grier and prevailed upon him, providing the majority leverage to issue a broad-ranging decision sufficient to render the Missouri Compromise of 1820 unconstitutional.
Two days after Buchanan was sworn in as president, Chief Justice Taney delivered the Dred Scott decision, which denied the petitioner's request to be freed from slavery. The ruling broadly asserted that Congress had no constitutional power to exclude slavery in the territories. According to this decision, slaves were forever the property of their owners without rights, and no African American could ever be a full citizen of the United States, even if he or she had full civil rights in a state. Buchanan's letters were not made public at the time, but he was seen conversing quietly with the Chief Justice during his inauguration. When the decision was issued, Republicans began spreading the word that Taney had informed Buchanan of the impending outcome. Rather than destroying the Republican platform as Buchanan had hoped, the decision infuriated Northerners, who condemned it.
=== Panic of 1857 ===
The Panic of 1857 began in the summer of that year, when the New York branch of Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company announced its insolvency. The crisis spread rapidly, and by the fall, 1,400 state banks and 5,000 businesses had gone bankrupt. Unemployment and hunger became common in northern cities, but the agricultural south was more resilient. Buchanan agreed with the southerners who attributed the economic collapse to over-speculation.
Buchanan acted in accordance with Jacksonian Democracy principles, which restricted paper money issuance, and froze federal funds for public works projects, causing resentment among some of the population due to his refusal to implement an economic stimulus program. While the government was "without the power to extend relief", it would continue to pay its debts in specie, and while it would not curtail public works, none would be added. In hopes of reducing paper money supplies and inflation, he urged the states to restrict the banks to a credit level of $3 to $1 of specie and discouraged the use of federal or state bonds as security for bank note issues. The economy recovered in several years, though many Americans suffered as a result of the panic. Buchanan had hoped to reduce the deficit, but by the time he left office the federal budget grew by 15%.
=== Utah War ===
In the spring of 1857, the Latter-day Saints and their leader Brigham Young had been challenging federal representatives in Utah Territory, causing harassment and violence against non-Mormons. Young harassed federal officers and discouraged outsiders from settling in the Salt Lake City area. In September 1857, the Utah Territorial Militia, associated with the Latter-day Saints, perpetrated the Mountain Meadows massacre, in which local militia attacked a wagon train and killed 125 settlers. Buchanan was offended by the militarism and polygamous behavior of Young. With reports of violence against non-Mormons, Buchanan authorized a military expedition into Utah Territory in late March 1857 to replace Young as governor. The force consisted of 2,500 men, including Alfred Cumming and his staff, and was commanded by General William S. Harney. Complicating matters, Young's notice of his replacement was not delivered because the Pierce administration had annulled the Utah mail contract, and Young portrayed the approaching forces as an unauthorized overthrow.
Buchanan's personnel decision incited resistance from the Mormons around Young, as Harney was known for his volatility and brutality. In August 1857, Albert S. Johnston replaced him for organizational reasons. Young reacted to the military action by mustering a two-week expedition, destroying wagon trains, oxen, and other Army property. Buchanan then dispatched Thomas L. Kane as a private agent to negotiate peace. The mission was successful, a peaceful agreement to replace Governor Young with Cumming was reached, and the Utah War ended. The President granted amnesty to inhabitants affirming loyalty to the government, and placed the federal troops at a peaceable distance for the balance of his administration.
Buchanan did not comment on the conflict again until his State of the Union Address in December 1857, leaving open the question of whether it was a rebellion in Utah. One of Buchanan's last official acts in March 1861 was to reduce the size of Utah Territory in favor of Nevada, Colorado, and Nebraska. While the Latter-day Saints had frequently defied federal authority, some historians consider Buchanan's action was an inappropriate response to uncorroborated reports.
=== Transatlantic telegraph cable ===
Buchanan was the first recipient of an official telegram transmitted across the Atlantic. Following the dispatch of test and configuration telegrams, on August 16, 1858 Queen Victoria sent a 98-word message to Buchanan at his summer residence in the Bedford Springs Hotel in Pennsylvania, expressing hope that the newly laid cable would prove "an additional link between the nations whose friendship is founded on their common interest and reciprocal esteem". Queen Victoria's message took 16 hours to send.
Buchanan responded: "It is a triumph more glorious, because far more useful to mankind, than was ever won by conqueror on the field of battle. May the Atlantic telegraph, under the blessing of Heaven, prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred nations, and an instrument destined by Divine Providence to diffuse religion, civilization, liberty, and law throughout the world."
=== Bleeding Kansas and constitutional dispute ===
The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 created the Kansas Territory and allowed the settlers there to decide whether to allow slavery. This resulted in violence between "Free-Soil" (antislavery) and pro-slavery settlers, which developed into the "Bleeding Kansas" period. The antislavery settlers, with the help of Northern abolitionists, organized their own territorial government in Topeka. The more numerous proslavery settlers, many from the neighboring slave state Missouri, established a government in Lecompton, giving the Territory two different governments for a time, with two distinct constitutions, each claiming legitimacy. The admission of Kansas as a state required a constitution be submitted to Congress with the approval of a majority of its residents. Under President Pierce, a series of violent confrontations escalated over who had the right to vote in Kansas. The situation drew national attention, and some in Georgia and Mississippi advocated secession should Kansas be admitted as a free state. Buchanan chose to endorse the pro-slavery Lecompton government.
Buchanan appointed Robert J. Walker to replace John W. Geary as Territorial Governor, and there ensued conflicting referendums from Topeka and Lecompton, where election fraud occurred. In October 1857, the Lecompton government framed the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution that agreed to a referendum limited solely to the slavery question. However, the vote against slavery, as provided by the Lecompton Convention, would still permit existing slaves, and all their issue, to be enslaved, so there was no referendum that permitted the majority anti-slavery residents to prohibit slavery in Kansas. As a result, anti-slavery residents boycotted the referendum since it did not provide a meaningful choice.
Despite the protests of Walker and two former Kansas governors, Buchanan decided to accept the Lecompton Constitution. In a December 1857 meeting with Stephen A. Douglas, the chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories, Buchanan demanded that all Democrats support the administration's position of admitting Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution. On February 2, he transmitted the Lecompton Constitution to Congress. He also transmitted a message that attacked the "revolutionary government" in Topeka, conflating them with the Mormons in Utah. Buchanan made every effort to secure congressional approval, offering favors, patronage appointments, and even cash for votes. The Lecompton Constitution won the approval of the Senate in March, but a combination of Know-Nothings, Republicans, and Northern Democrats defeated the bill in the House.
Buchanan never forgave Douglas, as the Northern Democrats' rejection was the deciding factor in the House's decision, and he removed all Douglas supporters from his patronage in Illinois and Washington, D.C., installing pro-administration Democrats, including postmasters. Rather than accepting defeat, Buchanan backed the 1858 English Bill, which offered Kansas immediate statehood and vast public lands in exchange for accepting the Lecompton Constitution. In August 1858, Kansans by referendum strongly rejected the Lecompton Constitution. The territory received an abolitionist constitution, which was bitterly opposed in Congress by representatives and senators from the southern states until Kansas was admitted to the Union in January 1861.
The dispute over Kansas became the battlefront for control of the Democratic Party. On one side were Buchanan, the majority of Southern Democrats, and the "doughfaces". On the other side were Douglas and the majority of northern Democrats, as well as a few Southerners. Douglas' faction continued to support the doctrine of popular sovereignty, while Buchanan insisted that Democrats respect the Dred Scott decision and its repudiation of federal interference with slavery in the territories.
=== 1858 mid-term elections ===
Douglas' Senate term was coming to an end in 1859, with the Illinois legislature, elected in 1858, determining whether Douglas would win re-election. The Senate seat was the primary issue of the legislative election, marked by the famous debates between Douglas and his Republican opponent for the seat, Abraham Lincoln. Buchanan, working through federal patronage appointees in Illinois, ran candidates for the legislature in competition with both the Republicans and the Douglas Democrats. This could easily have thrown the election to the Republicans, and showed the depth of Buchanan's animosity toward Douglas. In the end, Douglas Democrats won the legislative election and Douglas was re-elected to the Senate. In that year's elections, Douglas forces took control throughout the North, except in Buchanan's home state of Pennsylvania. Buchanan's support was otherwise reduced to a narrow base of southerners.
The division between northern and southern Democrats allowed the Republicans to win a plurality of the House in the 1858 elections, and allowed them to block most of Buchanan's agenda. Buchanan, in turn, added to the hostility with his veto of six substantial pieces of Republican legislation. Among these measures were the Homestead Act, which would have given 160 acres of public land to settlers who remained on the land for five years, and the Morrill Act, which would have granted public lands to establish land-grant colleges. Buchanan argued that these acts were unconstitutional. In the western and northwestern United States, where the Homestead Act was very popular, even many Democrats condemned the president's policies, while many Americans who considered education an important asset resented Buchanan's veto of agricultural colleges.
=== Foreign policy ===
Buchanan took office with an ambitious foreign policy, designed to establish U.S. hegemony over Central America at the expense of Great Britain. Buchanan sought to revitalize Manifest Destiny and to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, which had been under attack from the Spanish, French, and especially the British in the 1850s. He hoped to re-negotiate the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty to counter European imperialism in the Western Hemisphere, which he thought limited U.S. influence in the region. He also sought to establish American protectorates over the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora to secure American citizens and investments, and most importantly, he hoped to achieve his long-term goal of acquiring Cuba. However, Buchanan's ambitions in Cuba and Mexico were largely blocked by the House of Representatives. After long negotiations with the British, he convinced them to cede the Bay Islands to Honduras and the Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua.
In 1858, Buchanan ordered the Paraguay expedition to punish Paraguay for firing on the USS Water Witch, ordering 2,500 marines and 19 warships there. This costly expedition took months to reach Asunción, which successfully resulted in a Paraguayan apology and payment of an indemnity. The chiefs of Raiatea and Tahaa in the South Pacific, refusing to accept the rule of King Tamatoa V, unsuccessfully petitioned the United States to accept the islands under a protectorate in June 1858. Buchanan also considered buying Alaska from the Russian Empire, as whaling in the waters there had become of great economic importance to the United States. Buchanan fueled this by spreading the rumor to the Russian ambassador Eduard de Stoeckl in December 1857 that a large amount of Mormons intended to emigrate to Russian Alaska. In the winter of 1859, an initial purchase offer of $5,000,000 (equivalent to $174,980,000 in 2024) was made. Although the project ultimately failed due to the reservations of Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov, the talks formed the basis for the later negotiations to purchase Alaska.
Buchanan sought trade agreements with the Qing dynasty and Japan. In China, his envoy William Bradford Reed succeeded in having the United States included as a party to the Treaty of Tianjin. In May 1860, Buchanan received a Japanese delegation consisting of several princes who carried the Harris Treaty negotiated by Townsend Harris for mutual ratification. Buchanan was offered a herd of elephants by King Rama IV of Siam, though the letter arrived after Buchanan's departure from office and Buchanan's successor Abraham Lincoln declined the offer stating that the U.S. had an unsuitable climate. Other presidential pets included a pair of bald eagles and a Newfoundland dog.
=== Covode Committee ===
In March 1860, the House impaneled the Covode Committee to investigate the Buchanan administration's patronage system for alleged impeachable offenses, such as bribery and extortion of representatives. Buchanan supporters accused the committee, consisting of three Republicans and two Democrats, of being blatantly partisan, and claimed its chairman, Republican Rep. John Covode, was acting on a personal grudge stemming from a disputed land grant designed to benefit Covode's railroad company. The Democratic committee members, as well as Democratic witnesses, were enthusiastic in their condemnation of Buchanan.
The committee was unable to establish grounds for impeaching Buchanan; however, the majority report issued on June 17 alleged corruption and abuse of power among members of his cabinet. The committee gathered evidence that Buchanan had tried to bribe members of Congress in his favor through intermediaries in the spring of 1858 in connection with the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution of Kansas, and threatened their relatives with losing their posts if they did not vote in favor of the Lecompton Constitution. Witnesses also testified that the federal government used public funds to strengthen the intra-party faction of Douglas' opponents in Illinois. The Democrats pointed out that evidence was scarce, but did not refute the allegations; one of the Democratic members, Rep. James Robinson, stated that he agreed with the Republicans, though he did not sign it.
The public was shocked by the extent of the bribery, which affected all levels and agencies of government. Buchanan claimed to have "passed triumphantly through this ordeal" with complete vindication. Republican operatives distributed thousands of copies of the Covode Committee report throughout the nation as campaign material in that year's presidential election.
=== Election of 1860 ===
As he had promised in his inaugural address, Buchanan did not seek re-election. He went so far as to tell his ultimate successor, "If you are as happy in entering the White House as I shall feel on returning to Wheatland, you are a happy man."
At the 1860 Democratic National Convention in Charleston, the party split over the issue of slavery in the territories, damaging Buchanan's reputation as the main person responsible for this issue. Though Douglas led after every ballot, he was unable to win the two-thirds majority required. The convention adjourned after 53 ballots, and re-convened in Baltimore in June. After Douglas finally won the nomination, several Southerners refused to accept the outcome, and nominated Vice President Breckinridge as their own candidate. Douglas and Breckinridge agreed on most issues except the protection of slavery. Buchanan, holding a grudge against Douglas, failed to reconcile the party, and tepidly supported Breckinridge. With the splintering of the Democratic Party, Republican nominee Abraham Lincoln won a four-way election that also included John Bell of the Constitutional Union Party. Lincoln's support in the North was enough to give him an Electoral College majority. Buchanan became the last Democrat to win a presidential election until Grover Cleveland in 1884.
As early as October, the army's Commanding General, Winfield Scott, an opponent of Buchanan, warned him that Lincoln's election would likely cause at least seven states to secede from the union. He recommended that massive amounts of federal troops and artillery be deployed to those states to protect federal property, although he also warned that few reinforcements were available. Since 1857, Congress had failed to heed calls for a stronger militia and allowed the army to fall into deplorable condition. Buchanan distrusted Scott and ignored his recommendations. After Lincoln's election, Buchanan directed Secretary of War John B. Floyd to reinforce southern forts with such provisions, arms, and men as were available. However, Floyd persuaded him to revoke the order.
=== Secession ===
With Lincoln's victory, talk of secession and disunion reached a boiling point, putting the burden on Buchanan to address it in his final speech to Congress on December 10. In his message, which was anticipated by both factions, Buchanan denied the right of states to secede but maintained the federal government was without power to prevent them. He placed the blame for the crisis solely on "intemperate interference of the Northern people with the question of slavery in the Southern States," and suggested that if they did not "repeal their unconstitutional and obnoxious enactments ... the injured States, after having first used all peaceful and constitutional means to obtain redress, would be justified in revolutionary resistance to the Government of the Union." Buchanan's only suggestion to solve the crisis was "an explanatory amendment" affirming the constitutionality of slavery in the states, the fugitive slave laws, and popular sovereignty in the territories. His address was sharply criticized both by the North, for its refusal to stop secession, and the South, for denying its right to secede. Five days after the address was delivered, Treasury Secretary Howell Cobb resigned, as his views had become irreconcilable with the President's. Even as the formation of the Confederacy by the secessionist states became increasingly apparent in the winter of 1860, the president continued to surround himself with Southerners and ignore the Republicans.
South Carolina, long the most radical Southern state, seceded from the Union on December 20, 1860. However, Unionist sentiment remained strong among many in the South, and Buchanan sought to appeal to the Southern moderates who might prevent secession in other states. He met with South Carolinian commissioners in an attempt to resolve the situation at Fort Sumter, which federal forces remained in control of despite its location in Charleston, South Carolina. Buchanan saw Congress, not himself, as responsible for finding a solution to the secession crisis. As a compromise for the southern states, Buchanan envisioned the adoption of amendments to the United States Constitution that would guarantee the right to slavery in the southern states and territories and strengthen the right of slave owners to reclaim escaped slaves as property in the northern states.
He refused to dismiss Interior Secretary Jacob Thompson after the latter was chosen as Mississippi's agent to discuss secession, and he refused to fire Secretary of War John B. Floyd despite an embezzlement scandal. Floyd ended up resigning, but not before sending numerous firearms to Southern states, where they eventually fell into the hands of the Confederacy. Despite Floyd's resignation, Buchanan continued to seek the advice of counselors from the Deep South, including Jefferson Davis and William Henry Trescot. Buchanan's friend Rose O'Neal Greenhow took advantage of the proximity to the president and spied for the Confederacy, which had already established a sophisticated network for gathering information from its eventual opponent before its formation.
Efforts were made in vain by Sen. John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, Rep. Thomas Corwin of Ohio, and former president John Tyler to negotiate a compromise to stop secession, with Buchanan's support. Failed attempts were also made by a group of governors meeting in New York. Buchanan secretly asked President-elect Lincoln to call for a national referendum on the issue of slavery, but Lincoln declined. In December 1860, when the second session of the 36th Congress was convened, The Committee of Thirty-Three was established by the House of Representatives to prevent further states from seceding. They proposed the Corwin Amendment, which would bar Congress from interfering with slavery in states. Despite opposition from Republicans, it passed both houses of Congress and was proposed to states for ratification, but it was never ratified by the requisite number of states.
Despite the efforts of Buchanan and others, six more slave states seceded by the end of January 1861. Buchanan replaced the departed Southern cabinet members with John Adams Dix, Edwin M. Stanton, and Joseph Holt, all of whom were committed to preserving the Union. When Buchanan considered surrendering Fort Sumter, the new cabinet members threatened to resign, and Buchanan relented. On January 5, Buchanan decided to reinforce Fort Sumter, sending the Star of the West with 250 men and supplies. However, he failed to ask Major Robert Anderson to provide covering fire for the ship, and it was forced to return North without delivering troops or supplies. Buchanan chose not to respond to this act of war, and instead sought to find a compromise to avoid secession. He received a March 3 message from Anderson, that supplies were running low, but the response became Lincoln's to make, as the latter succeeded to the presidency the next day.
=== States admitted to the Union ===
Three new states were admitted to the Union while Buchanan was in office:
Minnesota – May 11, 1858
Oregon – February 14, 1859
Kansas – January 29, 1861
== Final years and death (1861–1868) ==
After leaving office, Buchanan retired to private life in Wheatland, where he spent most of his time in his study, reading books and writing letters. The Civil War erupted within two months of Buchanan's retirement. He supported the Union and the war effort, writing to former colleagues that, "the assault upon Sumter was the commencement of war by the Confederate states, and no alternative was left but to prosecute it with vigor on our part." Buchanan supported Lincoln's introduction of universal conscription in the northern states but was an opponent of his Emancipation Proclamation. Although he recognized constitutional violations in some of the president's executive orders, he never criticized them in public. He also wrote a letter to his fellow Pennsylvania Democrats in Harrisburg, urging them and all young men to enlist in the Union army and "join the many thousands of brave & patriotic volunteers who are already in the field."
Buchanan was dedicated to defending his actions prior to the Civil War, which was referred to by some as "Buchanan's War". He received hate mail and threatening letters daily, and stores in Lancaster displayed Buchanan's likeness with the eyes inked red, a noose drawn around his neck and the word "TRAITOR" written across his forehead. The Senate proposed a resolution of condemnation, which ultimately failed, and newspapers accused him of colluding with the Confederacy. His former cabinet members, five of whom had been given jobs in the Lincoln administration, refused to defend Buchanan publicly.
Buchanan became distraught by the vitriolic attacks levied against him, and fell sick and depressed. In October 1862, he defended himself in an exchange of letters with Winfield Scott, published in the National Intelligencer. He soon began writing his fullest public defense, in the form of his memoir Mr. Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of Rebellion, which was published in 1866, one year after the Civil War ended. Buchanan attributed secession to the "malign influence" of Republicans and the abolitionist movement. He discussed his foreign policy successes and expressed satisfaction with his decisions, even during the secession crisis. He blamed Robert Anderson, Winfield Scott, and Congress for the unresolved issue. Two years after the publication of the memoir, Buchanan caught a cold in May 1868, which quickly worsened due to his advanced age. He died on June 1, 1868, of respiratory failure at the age of 77 at his home at Wheatland. He was interred in Woodward Hill Cemetery in Lancaster.
== Political views ==
Buchanan was often considered by anti-slavery northerners a "doughface", a northerner with pro-southern principles. Buchanan's sympathies for the Southern states went beyond political expediency for his path to the White House. He identified with cultural and social values that he found reflected in the honor code and lifestyle of the planter class and with which he increasingly came into contact in his retirement community beginning in 1834. Shortly after his election, he said that the "great object" of his administration was "to arrest, if possible, the agitation of the Slavery question in the North and to destroy sectional parties". Although Buchanan was personally opposed to slavery, he believed that the abolitionists were preventing the solution to the slavery problem. He stated, "Before [the abolitionists] commenced this agitation, a very large and growing party existed in several of the slave states in favor of the gradual abolition of slavery; and now not a voice is heard there in support of such a measure. The abolitionists have postponed the emancipation of the slaves in three or four states for at least half a century." In deference to the intentions of the typical slaveholder, he was willing to provide the benefit of the doubt. In his third annual message to Congress, the president claimed that the slaves were "treated with kindness and humanity. ... Both the philanthropy and the self-interest of the master have combined to produce this humane result."
Buchanan thought restraint was the essence of good self-government. He believed the constitution comprised "... restraints, imposed not by arbitrary authority, but by the people upon themselves and their representatives. ... In an enlarged view, the people's interests may seem identical, but to the eye of local and sectional prejudice, they always appear to be conflicting ... and the jealousies that will perpetually arise can be repressed only by the mutual forbearance which pervades the constitution." Regarding slavery and the Constitution, he stated: "Although in Pennsylvania we are all opposed to slavery in the abstract, we can never violate the constitutional compact we have with our sister states. Their rights will be held sacred by us. Under the constitution it is their own question; and there let it remain."
One of the prominent issues of the day was tariffs. Buchanan was conflicted by free trade as well as prohibitive tariffs, since either would benefit one section of the country to the detriment of the other. As a senator from Pennsylvania, he said: "I am viewed as the strongest advocate of protection in other states, whilst I am denounced as its enemy in Pennsylvania."
Buchanan was also torn between his desire to expand the country for the general welfare of the nation, and to guarantee the rights of the people settling particular areas. On territorial expansion, he said, "What, sir? Prevent the people from crossing the Rocky Mountains? You might just as well command the Niagara not to flow. We must fulfill our destiny." On the resulting spread of slavery, through unconditional expansion, he stated: "I feel a strong repugnance by any act of mine to extend the present limits of the Union over a new slave-holding territory." For instance, he hoped the acquisition of Texas would "be the means of limiting, not enlarging, the dominion of slavery."
== Personal life ==
Buchanan suffered from esotropia. In addition, one eye was short-sighted and the other far-sighted. To cover this, he bent his head forward and leaned it to one side during social interactions. This led to ridicule, which Henry Clay, among others, used ruthlessly during a congressional debate.
In 1818, Buchanan met Anne Caroline Coleman at a grand ball in Lancaster, and the two began courting. Anne was the daughter of the wealthy iron manufacturer Robert Coleman; Robert, like Buchanan's father, was from County Donegal in Ulster. Anne was also the sister-in-law of Philadelphia judge Joseph Hemphill, one of Buchanan's colleagues. By 1819, the two were engaged, but spent little time together. Buchanan was busy with his law firm and political projects during the Panic of 1819, which took him away from Coleman for weeks at a time. Rumors abounded, as some suggested that he was involved with other (unidentified) women. Letters from Coleman revealed she was aware of several rumors, and she accused him of only being interested in her money. She broke off the engagement, and soon afterward, on December 9, 1819, inexplicably died of "hysterical convulsions" resulting from an overdose of laudanum, at the age of 23. It was never established if the drug was taken by instruction, by accident, or by intent. Buchanan wrote to her father for permission to attend the funeral, which was refused. At the time of her funeral, he said that, "I feel happiness has fled from me forever." Afterwards, Buchanan claimed that he remained unmarried out of devotion to his only love, who had died young.
In 1833 and the 1840s, he spoke of plans to marry, but these came to nothing and may merely have been due to his ambitions for a seat in the federal Senate or the White House. In the latter case, the aspirant was 19-year-old Anna Payne, the niece of former First Lady Dolley Madison. During his presidency, an orphaned niece, Harriet Lane, whom he had adopted, served as official White House hostess. There was an unfounded rumor that he had an affair with President Polk's widow, Sarah Childress Polk.
Buchanan had a close relationship with William Rufus King, which became a popular target of gossip. King, like Buchanan, never married. King was an Alabama politician who briefly served as vice president under Franklin Pierce. Buchanan and King lived together in a Washington boardinghouse and attended social functions together from 1834 until 1844. Such a living arrangement was then common, though Buchanan once referred to the relationship as a "communion". Andrew Jackson mockingly called them "Miss Nancy" and "Aunt Fancy", the former being a 19th-century euphemism for an effeminate man. Buchanan's Postmaster General, Aaron V. Brown, also referred to King as "Aunt Fancy", as well as Buchanan's "better half", and "wife". King died of tuberculosis shortly after Pierce's inauguration, four years before Buchanan became president. Buchanan described him as "among the best, the purest and most consistent public men I have known". Biographer Jean H. Baker opines that both men's nieces may have destroyed correspondence between the two men. However, she believes that their surviving letters illustrate only "the affection of a special friendship".
Buchanan's lifelong bachelorhood after Anne Coleman's death has drawn interest and speculation. Some conjecture that Anne's death merely served to deflect questions about Buchanan's sexuality and bachelorhood. Jean Baker suggests that Buchanan was celibate, if not asexual. Several writers have surmised that he was homosexual, including James W. Loewen, Robert P. Watson, and Shelley Ross. Loewen indicated that Buchanan, late in life, wrote a letter acknowledging that he might marry a woman who could accept his "lack of ardent or romantic affection".
== Legacy ==
=== Historical reputation ===
Though Buchanan predicted that "history will vindicate my memory," historians have criticized Buchanan for his unwillingness or inability to act in the face of secession. Historical rankings of presidents of the United States without exception place Buchanan among the least successful presidents. When scholars are surveyed, he ranks at or near the bottom in terms of vision/agenda-setting, domestic leadership, foreign policy leadership, moral authority, and positive historical significance of their legacy. According to surveys taken by American scholars and political scientists between 1948 and 1982, Buchanan ranks every time among the worst presidents of the United States, alongside Warren G. Harding, Millard Fillmore, and Richard Nixon.
Buchanan biographer Philip S. Klein focused in 1962, during the Civil Rights movement, upon challenges Buchanan faced:
Buchanan assumed leadership ... when an unprecedented wave of angry passion was sweeping over the nation. That he held the hostile sections in check during these revolutionary times was in itself a remarkable achievement. His weaknesses in the stormy years of his presidency were magnified by enraged partisans of the North and South. His many talents, which in a quieter era might have gained for him a place among the great presidents, were quickly overshadowed by the cataclysmic events of civil war and by the towering Abraham Lincoln.
Biographer Jean Baker is less charitable to Buchanan, saying in 2004 he was not indecisive or inactive. She wrote:
Buchanan's failing during the crisis over the Union was not inactivity, but rather his partiality for the South, a favoritism that bordered on disloyalty in an officer pledged to defend all the United States. He was that most dangerous of chief executives, a stubborn, mistaken ideologue whose principles held no room for compromise. His experience in government had only rendered him too self-confident to consider other views. In his betrayal of the national trust, Buchanan came closer to committing treason than any other president in American history.
Other historians, such as Robert May, argued that his politics were "anything but pro-slavery". Nevertheless, a very negative view is to be found in Michael Birkner's works about Buchanan. For Lori Cox Han, he ranks among scholars "as either the worst president in [American] history or as part of a lowest ranking failure category".
=== Memorials ===
A bronze and granite memorial near the southeast corner of Washington, D.C.'s Meridian Hill Park was designed by architect William Gorden Beecher and sculpted by Maryland artist Hans Schuler. It was commissioned in 1916 but not approved by the U.S. Congress until 1918, and not completed and unveiled until June 26, 1930. The memorial features a statue of Buchanan, bookended by male and female classical figures representing law and diplomacy, with engraved text reading: "The incorruptible statesman whose walk was upon the mountain ranges of the law," a quote from a member of Buchanan's cabinet, Jeremiah S. Black.
An earlier monument was constructed in 1907–1908 and dedicated in 1911, on the site of Buchanan's birthplace in Stony Batter, Pennsylvania. Part of the original 18.5-acre (75,000 m2) memorial site is a 250-ton pyramid structure that stands on the site of the original cabin where Buchanan was born. The monument was designed to show the original weathered surface of the native rubble and mortar.
Three counties are named in his honor, in Iowa, Missouri, and Virginia. Another in Texas was christened in 1858 but renamed Stephens County, after the newly elected vice president of the Confederate States of America, Alexander Stephens, in 1861. The city of Buchanan, Michigan, was also named after him. Several other communities are named after him: the city of Buchanan, Georgia, the town of Buchanan, Wisconsin, and the townships of Buchanan Township, Michigan, and Buchanan, Missouri.
A residency hall for upperclassmen is named in his honor at Dickinson College. He attended and graduated from Dickinson College, located in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
Buchanan State Forest, located near the Maryland state border, and due South of Bedford, Pennsylvania is also named in honor and memorial of him.
James Buchanan High School is a small, rural high school located on the outskirts of his childhood hometown, Mercersburg, Pennsylvania.
=== Popular culture depictions ===
Buchanan and his legacy are central to the film Raising Buchanan (2019). He is portrayed by René Auberjonois.
== See also ==
Historical rankings of presidents of the United States
List of federal political sex scandals in the United States
List of presidents of the United States
List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
== References ==
=== Works cited ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
United States Congress. "James Buchanan (id: B001005)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
James Buchanan: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
The James Buchanan papers, spanning the entirety of his legal, political and diplomatic career, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
University of Virginia article: Buchanan biography
Wheatland
James Buchanan Archived July 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine at Tulane University
Essay on James Buchanan and his presidency from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
Buchanan's Birthplace State Park, Franklin County, Pennsylvania
"Life Portrait of James Buchanan", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, June 21, 1999
Primary sources
Works by James Buchanan at Project Gutenberg
Works by James Buchanan at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Works by or about James Buchanan at the Internet Archive
James Buchanan Ill with Dysentery Before Inauguration: Original Letters Shapell Manuscript Foundation
Mr. Buchanans Administration on the Eve of the Rebellion. President Buchanans memoirs.
Inaugural Address
Fourth Annual Message to Congress, December 3, 1860 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachid_Lousteque | Rachid Lousteque | Rachid Lousteque is a Moroccan professional football manager, who was last the head coach of the Somalia national team.
== Managerial career ==
In December 2019, following the sacking of Rachid Taoussi, Lousteque was named as interim manager of Olympique de Khouribga after previously working as an assistant coach under Taoussi. On 5 July 2022, Lousteque was appointed as manager of Somalia.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasound | Ultrasound | Ultrasound is sound with frequencies greater than 20 kilohertz. This frequency is the approximate upper audible limit of human hearing in healthy young adults. The physical principles of acoustic waves apply to any frequency range, including ultrasound. Ultrasonic devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz.
Ultrasound is used in many different fields. Ultrasonic devices are used to detect objects and measure distances. Ultrasound imaging or sonography is often used in medicine. In the nondestructive testing of products and structures, ultrasound is used to detect invisible flaws. Industrially, ultrasound is used for cleaning, mixing, and accelerating chemical processes. Animals such as bats and porpoises use ultrasound for locating prey and obstacles.
== History ==
Acoustics, the science of sound, starts as far back as Pythagoras in the 6th century BC, who wrote on the mathematical properties of stringed instruments. Echolocation in bats was discovered by Lazzaro Spallanzani in 1794, when he demonstrated that bats hunted and navigated by inaudible sound, not vision. Francis Galton in 1893 invented the Galton whistle, an adjustable whistle that produced ultrasound, which he used to measure the hearing range of humans and other animals, demonstrating that many animals could hear sounds above the hearing range of humans.
The first article on the history of ultrasound was written in 1948. According to its author,
during the First World War, a Russian engineer named Chilowski submitted an idea for submarine detection to the French Government. The latter invited Paul Langevin, then Director of the School of Physics and Chemistry in Paris, to evaluate it. Chilowski's proposal was to excite a cylindrical, mica condenser by a high-frequency Poulsen arc at approximately 100 kHz and thus to generate an ultrasound beam for detecting submerged objects. The idea of locating underwater obstacles had been suggested prior by L. F. Richardson, following the Titanic disaster. Richardson had proposed to position a high-frequency hydraulic whistle at the focus of a mirror and use the beam for locating submerged navigational hazards. A prototype was built by Sir Charles Parsons, the inventor of the vapour turbine, but the device was found not to be suitable for this purpose.
Langevin's device made use of the piezoelectric effect, which he had been acquainted with whilst a student at the laboratory of Jacques and Pierre Curie. Langevin calculated and built an ultrasound transducer comprising a thin sheet of quartz sandwiched between two steel plates. Langevin was the first to report cavitation-related bioeffects from ultrasound.
== Definition ==
Ultrasound is defined by the American National Standards Institute as "sound at frequencies greater than 20 kHz". In air at atmospheric pressure, ultrasonic waves have wavelengths of 1.9 cm or less.
Ultrasound can be generated at very high frequencies; ultrasound is used for sonochemistry at frequencies up to multiple hundreds of kilohertz. Medical imaging equipment uses frequencies in the MHz range. UHF ultrasound waves have been generated as high as the gigahertz range.
Characterizing extremely high-frequency ultrasound poses challenges, as such rapid movement causes waveforms to steepen and form shock waves.
== Perception ==
=== Humans ===
The upper frequency limit in humans (approximately 20 kHz) is due to limitations of the middle ear. Auditory sensation can occur if high‐intensity ultrasound is fed directly into the human skull and reaches the cochlea through bone conduction, without passing through the middle ear.
Children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, because in humans the upper limit pitch of hearing tends to decrease with age. An American cell phone company has used this to create ring signals that supposedly are only audible to younger humans, but many older people can hear the signals, which may be because of the considerable variation of age-related deterioration in the upper hearing threshold.
=== Animals ===
Bats use a variety of ultrasonic ranging (echolocation) techniques to detect their prey. They can detect frequencies beyond 100 kHz, possibly up to 200 kHz.
Many insects have good ultrasonic hearing, and most of these are nocturnal insects listening for echolocating bats. These include many groups of moths, beetles, praying mantises and lacewings. Upon hearing a bat, some insects will make evasive manoeuvres to escape being caught. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid moth that causes it to drop slightly in its flight to evade attack. Tiger moths also emit clicks which may disturb bats' echolocation, and in other cases may advertise the fact that they are poisonous by emitting sound.
Dogs and cats' hearing range extends into the ultrasound; the top end of a dog's hearing range is about 45 kHz, while a cat's is 64 kHz. The wild ancestors of cats and dogs evolved this higher hearing range to hear high-frequency sounds made by their preferred prey, small rodents. A dog whistle is a whistle that emits ultrasound, used for training and calling dogs. The frequency of most dog whistles is within the range of 23 to 54 kHz.
Toothed whales, including dolphins, can hear ultrasound and use such sounds in their navigational system (biosonar) to orient and to capture prey. Porpoises have the highest known upper hearing limit at around 160 kHz. Several types of fish can detect ultrasound. In the order Clupeiformes, members of the subfamily Alosinae (shad) have been shown to be able to detect sounds up to 180 kHz, while the other subfamilies (e.g. herrings) can hear only up to 4 kHz.
No bird species have been reported to be sensitive to ultrasound.
Commercial ultrasonic systems have been sold for supposed indoors electronic pest control and outdoors ultrasonic algae control. However, no scientific evidence exists on the success of such devices for these purposes.
== Detection and ranging ==
=== Non-contact sensor ===
An ultrasonic level or sensing system requires no contact with the target. For many processes in the medical, pharmaceutical, military and general industries this is an advantage over inline sensors that may contaminate the liquids inside a vessel or tube or that may be clogged by the product.
Both continuous wave and pulsed systems are used. The principle behind a pulsed-ultrasonic technology is that the transmit signal consists of short bursts of ultrasonic energy. After each burst, the electronics looks for a return signal within a small window of time corresponding to the time it takes for the energy to pass through the vessel. Only a signal received during this window will qualify for additional signal processing.
A popular consumer application of ultrasonic ranging was the Polaroid SX-70 camera, which included a lightweight transducer system to focus the camera automatically. Polaroid later licensed this ultrasound technology and it became the basis of a variety of ultrasonic products.
=== Motion sensors and flow measurement ===
A common ultrasound application is an automatic door opener, where an ultrasonic sensor detects a person's approach and opens the door. Ultrasonic sensors are also used to detect intruders; the ultrasound can cover a wide area from a single point. The flow in pipes or open channels can be measured by ultrasonic flowmeters, which measure the average velocity of flowing liquid. In rheology, an acoustic rheometer relies on the principle of ultrasound. In fluid mechanics, fluid flow can be measured using an ultrasonic flow meter.
=== Nondestructive testing ===
Ultrasonic testing is a type of nondestructive testing commonly used to find flaws in materials and to measure the thickness of objects. Frequencies of 2 to 10 MHz are common, but for special purposes other frequencies are used. Inspection may be manual or automated and is an essential part of modern manufacturing processes. Most metals can be inspected as well as plastics and aerospace composites. Lower frequency ultrasound (50–500 kHz) can also be used to inspect less dense materials such as wood, concrete and cement.
Ultrasound inspection of welded joints has been an alternative to radiography for nondestructive testing since the 1960s. Ultrasonic inspection eliminates the use of ionizing radiation, with safety and cost benefits. Ultrasound can also provide additional information such as the depth of flaws in a welded joint. Ultrasonic inspection has progressed from manual methods to computerized systems that automate much of the process. An ultrasonic test of a joint can identify the existence of flaws, measure their size, and identify their location. Not all welded materials are equally amenable to ultrasonic inspection; some materials have a large grain size that produces a high level of background noise in measurements.
Ultrasonic thickness measurement is one technique used to monitor quality of welds.
=== Ultrasonic range finding ===
A common use of ultrasound is in underwater range finding; this use is also called sonar. An ultrasonic pulse is generated in a particular direction. If there is an object in the path of this pulse, part or all of the pulse will be reflected back to the transmitter as an echo and can be detected through the receiver path. By measuring the difference in time between the pulse being transmitted and the echo being received, it is possible to determine the distance.
The measured travel time of Sonar pulses in water is strongly dependent on the temperature and the salinity of the water. Ultrasonic ranging is also applied for measurement in air and for short distances. For example, hand-held ultrasonic measuring tools can rapidly measure the layout of rooms.
Although range finding underwater is performed at both sub-audible and audible frequencies for great distances (1 to several kilometers), ultrasonic range finding is used when distances are shorter and the accuracy of the distance measurement is desired to be finer. Ultrasonic measurements may be limited through barrier layers with large salinity, temperature or vortex differentials. Ranging in water varies from about hundreds to thousands of meters, but can be performed with centimeters to meters accuracy
=== Ultrasound Identification (USID) ===
Ultrasound Identification (USID) is a Real-Time Locating System (RTLS) or Indoor Positioning System (IPS) technology used to automatically track and identify the location of objects in real time using simple, inexpensive nodes (badges/tags) attached to or embedded in objects and devices, which then transmit an ultrasound signal to communicate their location to microphone sensors.
== Imaging ==
The potential for ultrasonic imaging of objects, in which a 3 GHz sound wave could produce resolution comparable to an optical image, was recognized by Sergei Sokolov in 1939. Such frequencies were not possible at the time, and what technology did exist produced relatively low-contrast images with poor sensitivity.
Ultrasonic imaging uses frequencies of 2 megahertz and higher; the shorter wavelength allows resolution of small internal details in structures and tissues. The power density is generally less than 1 watt per square centimetre to avoid heating and cavitation effects in the object under examination. Ultrasonic imaging applications include industrial nondestructive testing, quality control and medical uses.
=== Acoustic microscopy ===
Acoustic microscopy is the technique of using sound waves to visualize structures too small to be resolved by the human eye. High and ultra high frequencies up to several gigahertz are used in acoustic microscopes. The reflection and diffraction of sound waves from microscopic structures can yield information not available with light.
=== Human medicine ===
Medical ultrasound is an ultrasound-based diagnostic medical imaging technique used to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal organs to capture their size, structure and any pathological lesions with real time tomographic images. Ultrasound has been used by radiologists and sonographers to image the human body for at least 50 years and has become a widely used diagnostic tool. The technology is relatively inexpensive and portable, especially when compared with other techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT). Ultrasound is also used to visualize fetuses during routine and emergency prenatal care. Such diagnostic applications used during pregnancy are referred to as obstetric sonography. As currently applied in the medical field, properly performed ultrasound poses no known risks to the patient. Sonography does not use ionizing radiation, and the power levels used for imaging are too low to cause adverse heating or pressure effects in tissue. Although the long-term effects due to ultrasound exposure at diagnostic intensity are still unknown, currently most doctors feel that the benefits to patients outweigh the risks. The ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle has been advocated for an ultrasound examination – that is, keeping the scanning time and power settings as low as possible but consistent with diagnostic imaging – and that by that principle nonmedical uses, which by definition are not necessary, are actively discouraged.
Ultrasound is also increasingly being used in trauma and first aid cases, with emergency ultrasound being used by some EMT response teams. Furthermore, ultrasound is used in remote diagnosis cases where teleconsultation is required, such as scientific experiments in space or mobile sports team diagnosis.
According to RadiologyInfo, ultrasounds are useful in the detection of pelvic abnormalities and can involve techniques known as abdominal (transabdominal) ultrasound, vaginal (transvaginal or endovaginal) ultrasound in women, and also rectal (transrectal) ultrasound in men.
=== Veterinary medicine ===
Diagnostic ultrasound is used externally in horses for evaluation of soft tissue and tendon injuries, and internally in particular for reproductive work – evaluation of the reproductive tract of the mare and pregnancy detection. It may also be used in an external manner in stallions for evaluation of testicular condition and diameter as well as internally for reproductive evaluation (deferent duct etc.).
By 2005, ultrasound technology began to be used by the beef cattle industry to improve animal health and the yield of cattle operations. Ultrasound is used to evaluate fat thickness, rib eye area, and intramuscular fat in living animals. It is also used to evaluate the health and characteristics of unborn calves.
Ultrasound technology provides a means for cattle producers to obtain information that can be used to improve the breeding and husbandry of cattle. The technology can be expensive, and it requires a substantial time commitment for continuous data collection and operator training. Nevertheless, this technology has proven useful in managing and running a cattle breeding operation.
== Processing and power ==
High-power applications of ultrasound often use frequencies between 20 kHz and a few hundred kHz. Intensities can be very high; above 10 watts per square centimeter, cavitation can be inducted in liquid media, and some applications use up to 1000 watts per square centimeter. Such high intensities can induce chemical changes or produce significant effects by direct mechanical action, and can inactivate harmful microorganisms.
=== Physical therapy ===
Ultrasound has been used since the 1940s by physical and occupational therapists for treating connective tissue: ligaments, tendons, and fascia (and also scar tissue). Conditions for which ultrasound may be used for treatment include the follow examples: ligament sprains, muscle strains, tendonitis, joint inflammation, plantar fasciitis, metatarsalgia, facet irritation, impingement syndrome, bursitis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and scar tissue adhesion.
Relatively high power ultrasound can break up stony deposits or tissue, increase skin permeability, accelerate the effect of drugs in a targeted area, assist in the measurement of the elastic properties of tissue, and can be used to sort cells or small particles for research.
=== Ultrasonic impact treatment ===
Ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT) uses ultrasound to enhance the mechanical and physical properties of metals. It is a metallurgical processing technique in which ultrasonic energy is applied to a metal object. Ultrasonic treatment can result in controlled residual compressive stress, grain refinement and grain size reduction. Low and high cycle fatigue are enhanced and have been documented to provide increases up to ten times greater than non-UIT specimens. Additionally, UIT has proven effective in addressing stress corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue and related issues.
When the UIT tool, made up of the ultrasonic transducer, pins and other components, comes into contact with the work piece it acoustically couples with the work piece, creating harmonic resonance. This harmonic resonance is performed at a carefully calibrated frequency, to which metals respond very favorably.
Depending on the desired effects of treatment a combination of different frequencies and displacement amplitude is applied. These frequencies range between 25 and 55 kHz, with the displacement amplitude of the resonant body of between 22 and 50 μm (0.00087 and 0.0020 in).
UIT devices rely on magnetostrictive transducers.
=== Processing ===
Ultrasonication offers great potential in the processing of liquids and slurries, by improving the mixing and chemical reactions in various applications and industries. Ultrasonication generates alternating low-pressure and high-pressure waves in liquids, leading to the formation and violent collapse of small vacuum bubbles. This phenomenon is termed cavitation and causes high speed impinging liquid jets and strong hydrodynamic shear-forces. These effects are used for the deagglomeration and milling of micrometre and nanometre-size materials as well as for the disintegration of cells or the mixing of reactants. In this aspect, ultrasonication is an alternative to high-speed mixers and agitator bead mills. Ultrasonic foils under the moving wire in a paper machine will use the shock waves from the imploding bubbles to distribute the cellulose fibres more uniformly in the produced paper web, which will make a stronger paper with more even surfaces. Furthermore, chemical reactions benefit from the free radicals created by the cavitation as well as from the energy input and the material transfer through boundary layers. For many processes, this sonochemical (see sonochemistry) effect leads to a substantial reduction in the reaction time, like in the transesterification of oil into biodiesel.
Substantial ultrasonic intensity and high ultrasonic vibration amplitudes are required for many processing applications, such as nano-crystallization, nano-emulsification, deagglomeration, extraction, cell disruption, as well as many others. Commonly, a process is first tested on a laboratory scale to prove feasibility and establish some of the required ultrasonic exposure parameters. After this phase is complete, the process is transferred to a pilot (bench) scale for flow-through pre-production optimization and then to an industrial scale for continuous production. During these scale-up steps, it is essential to make sure that all local exposure conditions (ultrasonic amplitude, cavitation intensity, time spent in the active cavitation zone, etc.) stay the same. If this condition is met, the quality of the final product remains at the optimized level, while the productivity is increased by a predictable "scale-up factor". The productivity increase results from the fact that laboratory, bench and industrial-scale ultrasonic processor systems incorporate progressively larger ultrasonic horns, able to generate progressively larger high-intensity cavitation zones and, therefore, to process more material per unit of time. This is called "direct scalability". It is important to point out that increasing the power of the ultrasonic processor alone does not result in direct scalability, since it may be (and frequently is) accompanied by a reduction in the ultrasonic amplitude and cavitation intensity. During direct scale-up, all processing conditions must be maintained, while the power rating of the equipment is increased in order to enable the operation of a larger ultrasonic horn.
=== Ultrasonic manipulation and characterization of particles ===
A researcher at the Industrial Materials Research Institute, Alessandro Malutta, devised an experiment that demonstrated the trapping action of ultrasonic standing waves on wood pulp fibers diluted in water and their parallel orienting into the equidistant pressure planes. The time to orient the fibers in equidistant planes is measured with a laser and an electro-optical sensor. This could provide the paper industry a quick on-line fiber size measurement system. A somewhat different implementation was demonstrated at Pennsylvania State University using a microchip which generated a pair of perpendicular standing surface acoustic waves allowing to position particles equidistant to each other on a grid. This experiment, called acoustic tweezers, can be used for applications in material sciences, biology, physics, chemistry and nanotechnology.
=== Ultrasonic cleaning ===
Ultrasonic cleaners, sometimes mistakenly called supersonic cleaners, are used at frequencies from 20 to 40 kHz for jewellery, lenses and other optical parts, watches, dental instruments, surgical instruments, diving regulators and industrial parts. An ultrasonic cleaner works mostly by energy released from the collapse of millions of microscopic cavitation bubbles near the dirty surface. The collapsing bubbles form tiny shockwaves that break up and disperse contaminants on the object's surface.
=== Ultrasonic disintegration ===
Similar to ultrasonic cleaning, biological cells including bacteria can be disintegrated. High power ultrasound produces cavitation that facilitates particle disintegration or reactions. This has uses in biological science for analytical or chemical purposes (sonication and sonoporation) and in killing bacteria in sewage. High power ultrasound can disintegrate corn slurry and enhance liquefaction and saccharification for higher ethanol yield in dry corn milling plants.
=== Ultrasonic humidifier ===
The ultrasonic humidifier, one type of nebulizer (a device that creates a very fine spray), is a popular type of humidifier. It works by vibrating a metal plate at ultrasonic frequencies to nebulize (sometimes incorrectly called "atomize") the water. Because the water is not heated for evaporation, it produces a cool mist. The ultrasonic pressure waves nebulize not only the water but also materials in the water including calcium, other minerals, viruses, fungi, bacteria, and other impurities. Illness caused by impurities that reside in a humidifier's reservoir fall under the heading of "Humidifier Fever".
Ultrasonic humidifiers are frequently used in aeroponics, where they are generally referred to as foggers.
=== Ultrasonic welding ===
In ultrasonic welding of plastics, high frequency (15 kHz to 40 kHz) low amplitude vibration is used to create heat by way of friction between the materials to be joined. The interface of the two parts is specially designed to concentrate the energy for maximum weld strength.
=== Sonochemistry ===
Power ultrasound in the 20–100 kHz range is used in chemistry. The ultrasound does not interact directly with molecules to induce the chemical change, as its typical wavelength (in the millimeter range) is too long compared to the molecules. Instead, the energy causes cavitation which generates extremes of temperature and pressure in the liquid where the reaction happens. Ultrasound also breaks up solids and removes passivating layers of inert material to give a larger surface area for the reaction to occur over. Both of these effects make the reaction faster. In 2008, Atul Kumar reported synthesis of Hantzsch esters and polyhydroquinoline derivatives via multi-component reaction protocol in aqueous micelles using ultrasound.
Ultrasound is used in extraction, using different frequencies.
== Other uses ==
When applied in specific configurations, ultrasound can produce short bursts of light in a phenomenon known as sonoluminescence.
Ultrasound is used when characterizing particulates through the technique of ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy or by observing electroacoustic phenomena or by transcranial pulsed ultrasound.
=== Wireless communication ===
Audio can be propagated by modulated ultrasound.
A formerly popular consumer application of ultrasound was in television remote controls for adjusting volume and changing channels. Introduced by Zenith in the late 1950s, the system used a hand-held remote control containing short rod resonators struck by small hammers, and a microphone on the set. Filters and detectors discriminated between the various operations. The principal advantages were that no battery was needed in the hand-held control box and, unlike radio waves, the ultrasound was unlikely to affect neighboring sets. Ultrasound remained in use until displaced by infrared systems starting in the late 1980s.
In July 2015, The Economist reported that researchers at the University of California, Berkeley have conducted ultrasound studies using graphene diaphragms. The thinness and low weight of graphene combined with its strength make it an effective material to use in ultrasound communications. One suggested application of the technology would be underwater communications, where radio waves typically do not travel well.
Ultrasonic signals have been used in "audio beacons" for cross-device tracking of Internet users.
== Safety ==
Occupational exposure to ultrasound in excess of 120 dB may lead to hearing loss. Exposure in excess of 155 dB may produce heating effects that are harmful to the human body, and it has been calculated that exposures above 180 dB may lead to death. The UK's independent Advisory Group on Non-ionising Radiation (AGNIR) produced a report in 2010, which was published by the UK Health Protection Agency (HPA). This report recommended an exposure limit for the general public to airborne ultrasound sound pressure levels (SPL) of 70 dB (at 20 kHz), and 100 dB (at 25 kHz and above).
In medical ultrasound, guidelines exist to prevent inertial cavitation from happening. The risk of inertial cavitation damage is expressed by the mechanical index.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Guidelines for the Safe Use of Ultrasound: valuable insight on the boundary conditions tending towards abuse of ultrasound |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_L%C3%B3pez_(serial_killer) | Pedro López (serial killer) | Pedro Alonso López (born 5 October 1948 – disappeared 22 September 1999), also known as the Monster of the Andes, is a Colombian serial killer, child rapist, and fugitive who murdered a minimum of 110 people, mostly pre-teen girls, from 1978 to 1980. López claimed to have murdered over 300 people in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. He is considered by many as one of the most prolific serial killers and rapists in history.
== Early life ==
Pedro Alonso López was born on 5 October 1948 in Tolima Department, Colombia, as the seventh of thirteen children born to Benilda López de Castañeda, a laundry worker. The family formerly lived in Saldaña, where his father Midardo Reyes, a rancher by trade, was murdered six months before López's birth in an ambush shooting while defending a neighbouring hamlet during La Violencia. Benilda stated that Midardo was a local leader of a self-protection group aligned with the Colombian Liberal Party, while later accounts describe him as a member of the Conservative Party. Benilda subsequently fled the area for her mother's home in El Espinal, where, bedridden out of grief, she remained under the care of midwives until her son's birth.
López claimed that he had a difficult childhood due to the violence of the household and the absence of a father. He characterised his mother as a prostitute who "was only good for putting children into this world, each from different men", and that he often saw his mother and stepfather have sex in front of him. Childhood neighbours stated that López's mother was strict and often forbade him from playing with them. His mother stated that her son's hatred of her manifested early on, with López often telling his mother directly that he couldn't stand her while still a young child.
According to López, he was banished from the house at age eight when his mother caught him groping the chest of his sister, subsequently spending time homeless around Tolima for a year, during which time he was raped by a man who had lured him to a house with the false promise of shelter and food. His mother claimed that she never took notice of any abnormal behaviour from López and that he ran away from home on his own accord on 5 April 1958 in an act of rebellion against her, presuming that he did not want to live with his mother any longer.
Regardless of the circumstances, López relocated to Bogotá, aged ten, where he joined a gang of street children for protection, through whom he began using basuco and cannabis to stave off the ill effects of malnutrition. While begging around the city, López was occasionally sexually assaulted. At age twelve, he was adopted by an American immigrant family, but ran away the same year after stealing money from them. López claimed that he fled because a male teacher at the orphan's school had sexually harassed him, while later biographers suggest that no such incident occurred and that López left because he felt unable to trust his adoptive family after previous negative experiences with strangers.
=== First murders ===
In 1969, López was sentenced to seven years in prison for auto theft. Two days after arriving at La Modelo prison, he was raped by four other inmates. López did not report the assault and instead killed three of the rapists with a makeshift knife over the course of two weeks. While the killings were described as self-defence and considered such by prison staff, his sentence was nevertheless extended by two years.
== Serial killings ==
After his release in 1978, López began wandering throughout the northwestern area of South America. According to López, he usually stayed in Bogotá and would traverse the departments of Tolima, Huila, Cauca, and Nariño to enter Ecuador, through which he would pass into Peru. To acquaintances, he claimed to do migrant work in the Llanos on the border to Venezuela.
He later claimed that between 1978 and 1980, he had killed over 100 girls, mainly street children and those from indigenous tribes. While these claims are unverifiable, it is known that López was briefly captured by indigenous Peruvians in the Ayacucho region after attempting to abduct a 9-year-old girl from her village. The Ayacuchoans beat López for several hours before stripping him of his clothes and burying him up to the neck in sand. It's most often reported that their intention was to kill López through live burial, although he would later claim that the tribespeople had poured syrup on him in order for ants to eat him alive. However, an American missionary convinced them to release López and turn him over to the police. The police did not detain López, and he was instead expelled from the country.
After his deportation from Peru, López resumed his killing spree in Ecuador, and although authorities began to notice an increase of missing persons, more specifically young girls, throughout areas where he travelled, they concluded the disappearances were most likely cases of human trafficking.
On 5 May 1979, López met Hortensia Garcés Lozada in Ambato as she was selling newspapers. He gave the girl 100 sucres to follow her and raped and killed her under a nearby bridge. On 14 December 1979, while in his hometown of El Espinal, López raped and murdered Flor Alba Sánchez. Also in El Espinal, there were two other murders of young girls on 21 December 1979 and 3 January 1980. Sánchez was found 20 days later buried on municipal property alongside another girl, Blanca Bautista, both bearing signs of torture. Sánchez is the only Colombian victim for whom López was tried. There were reportedly other criminal cases involving López, but the files were lost in a fire at the El Espinal courthouse. On 10 January 1980, he abducted Ivanova Jácome at a parking lot in Totoras, a suburb of Ambato, as she was heading for school. Jácome was raped and murdered in a nearby shack, with her body being discovered at Ambato's Plaza Urbina on 15 February.
López was frequently spotted at Plaza Urbina, claiming to be a fellow street merchant, but he was instead usually seen frequenting market stalls manned by young girls, offering them a 100 sucre coin if they accompanied him, typically claiming to need a city guide or directions to a bus stop. He was often seen listening to the hawking of newspaper vendors, who read aloud the newest developments on the mounting cases of child disappearances, bearing a "crooked grin". Even when he didn't talk with children at the market, López was easily identified in the crowds due to his tall stature, prominent nose, lack of upper front teeth and a large scar on his right cheek.
In early 1980, two of the young vendors, florist Luz Marina Lozada and beverage vendor Marina Cuenca, were left alone after declining López's money, but they informed merchants of López's behaviour, believing he might be a child trafficker. On 9 March 1980, López tried to abduct 9-year-old Carmen Lozada, but her cries alerted bystanders, with López fleeing without the girl. Carmen identified López as the man who had previously offered her sister Luz Marina money. One of the first people who reached the scene, the plaza's merchant board president, Carolina Román Poveda, ran around the market, trying to rally other merchants to search for the attempted kidnapper. She was ignored because of the heavy business, with some saying she was being paranoid due to the news. She followed López out of the market and caught him talking to another 9-year-old girl, claiming to be a lost visitor and offering 100 sucres to be guided around, which the girl accepted. Román intervened as López was leading the girl to a secluded path, shouting that López was going to sell the child and threw herself on López. Bystanders were first inclined to believe López, who claimed ignorance and called Román crazy, and told her to let him go free. However, due to her insistence and the fact that she said that López already tried to kidnap two other girls, the crowd was convinced to bring López back to the plaza, shoving and punching him along the way. Román's fellow merchants were critical of her accusation and also wanted to release López, but she demanded him to be given to the authorities. López was brought to a police station, but he was released shortly after.
In April, the areas surrounding Ambato were hit by flash flooding, unearthing the remains of four more young girls who had been previously reported missing. As the bodies bore signs of strangulation, the police to reopen their investigations and contributed towards López's ultimate arrest later that same year.
== Arrest and confession ==
Three days after the flood, López approached 12-year-old Marina (or María) Román Poveda, who was working at the Plaza Rosa market on at Plaza Urbina. López flirted with the girl and offered her 100 sucres to show him around the city, but she refused to go with the stranger. She told her mother Carolina of López's advances, and recognising López, she screamed at him and grabbed him by the arm. She told bystanders that López had tried to abduct her daughter and was potentially responsible for the murders of the recently discovered girls. Local merchants were able to overpower López and hold him until the police arrived.
While in police custody after his arrest, López initially refused to cooperate during his interrogation, choosing to remain silent. Eventually, he began to confess his crimes to police captain Pastor Córdova Gudino, who posed as a fellow prisoner and shared a cell with López for 27 days. López boasted that in total, he had murdered a hundred in Colombia, at least 110 in Ecuador and "many more" in Peru. He described his modus operandi as first luring the victim away from public spaces with a trinket, money, candy, or a job offer, before raping and strangling them with his bare hands for around 15 minutes. López would then embrace their corpses, referring to them as "muñequitas" ("dollies"), until they became cold, leaving them at the scene and returning later to cover them up more thoroughly. He additionally claimed that he would occasionally exhume the victim's bodies from their burial site and have "tea parties" with them. When asked about his motive for the murders, López reportedly said: "I lost my innocence at age of eight. So I decided to do the same to as many girls as I could." In a 1992 interview, López admitted that he killed solely for sexual pleasure, saying in regards to why he targeted young girls, "It's like eating chicken. Why have old chicken when you can have young chicken?". He emphasised in several interviews with Colombian and American media that he found it important that the victims stay conscious "until the lights in their eyes go out" during strangulation, calling it a "divine moment" and "terribly exciting".
Because police voiced doubts about the authenticity of his confession, López offered to direct the authorities to sites where he had left some of the victims. In this first instance, he led Ambato police and families of victims west of the city, to a canyon of the Ambato River. Officers recalled that López bore a "childish grin" upon their arrival by car and pointed to a pile of old newspapers held down by rocks beneath a bridge, where they found the body of Hortensia Garcés Lozada. Police had to lock López in the patrol car to prevent angry families from lynching the murderer. While driving to the second location, López explained how he lured Garcés away in broad daylight with several pedestrians nearby. Police were then led to an empty house, where the decomposing body of an unidentified girl was found. López told officers a few days later how he had met the victim in central Ambato, convinced her to accompany him out of town via bus and walked her around the countryside for several hours before finding the abandoned building, where he raped the girl for twelve hours before killing her. Officers under Pastor Córdova maintained an amicable tone with López to ensure his cooperation. López led investigators to several more sites, most located along the highway from Ambato to Quito, and recalled the course of many of the murders before eventually refusing to talk further, claiming his "friendship" with police had been betrayed.
Ultimately, the bodies of 53 girls, aged eight to thirteen, were found, several in a forest near Ambato. While another 28 sites named by López did not yield any human remains, police attributed this to scavenging animals unearthing and scattering the body parts. Given the discovery of the mass grave, his estimate of 110 murders in Ecuador was accepted as legitimate. Authorities did not charge him with the total of 350 confessed murders since most of them took place outside of Ecuador and it was considered too costly to hold additional trials in Colombia and Peru.
In 1980, López's trial began at the court of Ambato through judge José Roberto Cobos Moscoso and charged with 57 counts of murder. On 27 January 1981, he was found guilty of three of the murders and received a sentence of 16 years, the maximum prison sentence available in Ecuador at the time.
== Imprisonment and release ==
López served his prison sentence at the Garcia Moreno prison near Quito. He was frequently subject to knife attacks by fellow inmates, leading to increased security for him. Throughout the early 1990s, López was often interviewed by journalists and usually made contradictory statements about the murders. López bragged about the rush he felt when strangling the victims, but at other times, he claimed that he was only an accomplice to the actual perpetrator, a man named Jorge Patiño. Regarding the latter claim, López stated that he only helped Patiño bury the bodies after being raped by Patiño, and that he eventually murdered Patiño with a knife in Durán.
His projected release date was controversial, with numerous lawyers petitioning an extension of his sentence or additional convictions. He was released from prison two years early, on 31 August 1994. In an interview shortly before his release, López described himself as "the man of the century" and said he was being released for "good behavior". López was transported from Quito to Ibarra, where a judge had ordered for his deportation. Members of the press and the public were present at the court, with López shaking hands with several people on the way. After the deportation order was read, police seized López and took him to a different vehicle for transport to the Colombian border, driving around for five hours until nightfall to lose any potential pursuers, as the families of his victims had placed several bounties on López, the highest being $25,000.
In Colombia, López was received by DAS officers, but since there was no warrant by Colombia against him, police had to temporarily keep López at a hotel in Pasto. While his room was kept under surveillance, the door was left unlocked, though López did not attempt escape for fear of being killed by vigilantes. After a week, an arrest warrant was issued from El Espinal, based on suspicion of over a dozen murders, though there had not yet been any official case filed against López. He was transported to the town, but after the van with López inside was ambushed by an angry mob of 2,000 people, López was transported to Bogotá for a medical examination until the situation had calmed in El Espinal. López again pled with attending doctors to release him, but he was returned to El Espinal, where Alba Sánchez had now filed a complaint to the town's court over the murder of her daughter, as the state of her body was similar to that of the girls murdered in Ecuador. López was convicted of the murder of Flor Alba Sánchez, however, a physician believed there López had signs of psychosis, for which he would need psychological treatment. The diagnosis was challenged and López was designated as having "unhealthy personality traits" rather than a mental disorder, for which he was sent to the psychiatric ward of La Modelo prison. He did not receive medication and was noted as an unremarkable patient, who occupied himself with heavy exercise, reading and watching television. López was reported as keeping a well-groomed appearance, but unlike in Ecuador, he was never interviewed by the Colombian press due to a lack of interest.
In February 1998, López was declared sane and released on bail equivalent to US$70, on the condition that he would periodically report to his authorities and attend appointments with his therapist; he almost immediately absconded. Ecuador's press as well as the country's branch of AFP reported on several alleged sightings in Tulcán and Ibarra, as well as a supposed capture in Cuenca that ended in López's escape, but these claims were never verified. Within the year, López visited his mother to ask for money, but after she rejected this due to her own poverty, her son took her mattress and a chair from the home and sold them on the street before leaving.
The last reported sighting of López was on 22 September 1999, when he visited the National Civil Registry in Bogotá to renew his citizenship card. He had used the identity card of a 60-year-old man from Aipe named Israel Césped to bypass checkpoints.
In 2002, Colombian National Police and Interpol issued warrants for López's arrest over a murder bearing some similarities to his modus operandi. The Interpol warrant was deactivated in 2005, based on a claim by the National Institute of Forensic Medicine that an abandoned corpse had been identified as López, which was accepted by the National Registry, but he remains a fugitive. López has also been named as a possible suspect in the killing of Andrea Marcela García Buitrago in Tunja, Colombia in 2012, due to similarities with his 1979 murder of Flor Alba Sánchez.
== Victims ==
The most commonly reported victim count of 110 (not including the three prisoners killed by López in 1969) is based on López's admission to Ecuadorian authorities, who chose to only pursue those he stated to have killed within Ecuador. Police searches in "almost every province" recovered several remains around Ambato and Santo Domingo, as well as individual gravesites near villages in cantons including La Troncal, Tulcán, Quito, Azogues, Manta, and Salcedo. Of the Ecuadorian victims, only 17 were identified. Although López stated that he killed a hundred victims in Colombia, he only confirmed the murder of two children in El Espinal. There are no known records about the victims murdered in Peru.
=== Ecuador ===
Hortensia Garcés (or García) Lozada (11)
Ivanova Jácome (9)
María Clara Juela Vascurí (10)
María Medina Jordán (12)
María Soledad Arias Ontaneda (10)
Rocío del Pilar Lozada López (11)
Mercedes Verónica Infante Díaz (9)
Isabel Cristina Recalde (11)
Hortensia Jara Sanasano (10)
Wilma Margoth Punina Chicaiza (12)
Leonor Solís Santamaría (13)
María Rosario Morocho Mabanda (13)
María de las Mercedes Valencia Atig (12)
Amada Mireya Naranjo Jeréz (13)
Rita Eulalia Paleón (10)
Juana Lucía Chimaná Pérez (10)
=== Colombia ===
Flor Alba Sánchez (11 or 12)
Blanca Bautista (9 or 12)
== Coverage ==
Colombian journalist Jairo Enrique Gómez Remolina was one of the first authors to write about the case of Pedro López (pseudonymised as Pablo Alonso Lopera). He travelled through Colombia's Andean Region to talk with parents whose daughters had gone missing around the same time of López's murders and confronted him with these accusations during a prison interview in 1981. Gómez Remolina is credited with connecting him to child disappearances and killings in El Espinal, Pasto, Neiva, La Plata, Popayán, and El Bordo, although these were ultimately not definitively proven. He also speculated that López was responsible for the murders of young boys committed by the unidentified Monster of the Mangones (López denied travelling through Cali) as well as those of teenage girls by the Sadist of El Charquito (later attributed to Daniel Camargo Barbosa), later writing about López's prison interactions with Camargo Barbosa. Gómez Remolina was killed in 1986 during the Pozzetto massacre, having sat directly next to the perpetrator, Campo Elías Delgado. In 1992, López was also filmed and interviewed by American journalist Ronald Laytner of the National Examiner.
While media interest outside of Latin America was initially low, he received more coverage in the years building up to his release and disappearance, often being referenced as a comparison to newly discovered serial killers, such as Luis Garavito and Harold Shipman, in the years after due to his high victim count.
Editions of Guinness World Records up to 2005 credited López as being the "most prolific serial killer". The listing was removed in newer editions after complaints that it made a competition out of murder.
== See also ==
List of fugitives from justice who disappeared
List of serial killers in Colombia
List of serial killers by number of victims
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengue_vaccine | Dengue vaccine | Dengue vaccine is a vaccine used to prevent dengue fever in humans. Development of dengue vaccines began in the 1920s but was hindered by the need to create immunity against all four dengue serotypes. As of 2023, there are two commercially available vaccines, sold under the brand names Dengvaxia and Qdenga.
Dengvaxia is only recommended in those who have previously had dengue fever or populations in which most people have been previously infected due to a phenomenon known as antibody-dependent enhancement. The value of Dengvaxia is limited by the fact that it may increase the risk of severe dengue in those who have not previously been infected. In 2017, more than 733,000 children and more than 50,000 adult volunteers were vaccinated with Dengvaxia regardless of serostatus, which led to a controversy. Qdenga is designated for people not previously infected.
There are other vaccine candidates in development including live attenuated, inactivated, DNA and subunit vaccines.
== History ==
In December 2018, Dengvaxia was approved in the European Union.
In May 2019, Dengvaxia was approved in the United States as the first vaccine approved for the prevention of dengue disease caused by all dengue virus serotypes (1, 2, 3, and 4) in people ages nine through 16 who have laboratory-confirmed previous dengue infection and who live in endemic areas. Dengue is endemic in the US territories of American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands.
The safety and effectiveness of the vaccine were determined in three randomized, placebo-controlled studies involving approximately 35,000 individuals in dengue-endemic areas, including Puerto Rico, Latin America, and the Asia Pacific region. The vaccine was determined to be approximately 76 percent effective in preventing symptomatic, laboratory-confirmed dengue disease in individuals 9 through 16 years of age who previously had laboratory-confirmed dengue disease.
In March 2021, the European Medicines Agency accepted the filing package for TAK-003 (Qdenga) intended for markets outside of the EU.
In August 2022, the Indonesian FDA approved Qdenga for use in individuals six years to 45 years of age and became the first authority in the world to approve Qdenga. Qdenga was approved in the European Union in December 2022.
== CYD-TDV (Dengvaxia) ==
CYD-TDV, sold under the brand name Dengvaxia and made by Sanofi Pasteur, is a live attenuated tetravalent vaccine that is administered as three separate injections, with the initial dose followed by two additional shots given six and twelve months later. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted the application for Dengvaxia priority review designation and a tropical disease priority review voucher. The approval of Dengvaxia was granted to Sanofi Pasteur.
The vaccine has been approved in 19 countries and the European Union, but it is not approved in the US for use in individuals not previously infected by any dengue virus serotype or for whom this information is unknown.
Dengvaxia is a chimeric vaccine made using recombinant DNA technology by replacing the PrM (pre-membrane) and E (envelope) structural genes of the yellow fever attenuated 17D strain vaccine with those from the four dengue serotypes. Evidence indicates that CYD-TDV is partially effective in preventing infection, but may lead to a higher risk of severe disease in those who have not been previously infected and then do go on to contract the disease. It is not clear why the vaccinated seronegative population had more serious adverse outcomes. A plausible hypothesis is the phenomenon of antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). American virologist Scott Halstead was one of the first researchers to identify the ADE phenomenon. Dr. Halstead and his colleague Dr. Phillip Russell proposed that the vaccine only be used after antibody testing, to check for prior dengue exposure and avoid vaccination of sero-negative individuals.
Common side effects include headache, pain at the site of injection, and general muscle pains. Severe side effects may include anaphylaxis. Use is not recommended in people with poor immune function. Safety of use during pregnancy is unclear. Dengvaxia is a weakened but live vaccine and works by triggering an immune response against four types of dengue virus.
Dengvaxia became commercially available in 2016 in 11 countries: Mexico, the Philippines, Indonesia, Brazil, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Paraguay, Guatemala, Peru, Thailand, and Singapore. In 2019 it was approved for medical use in the United States. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
In 2017, the manufacturer recommended that the vaccine only be used in people who have previously had a dengue infection, as outcomes may be worsened in those who have not been previously infected due to antibody-dependent enhancement. This led to a controversy in the Philippines where more than 733,000 children and more than 50,000 adult volunteers were vaccinated regardless of serostatus.
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that countries should consider vaccination with the dengue vaccine CYD-TDV only if the risk of severe dengue in seronegative individuals can be minimized either through pre-vaccination screening or recent documentation of high seroprevalence rates in the area (at least 80% by age nine years).
The WHO updated its recommendations regarding the use of Dengvaxia in 2018, based on long-term safety data stratified by serostatus on 29 November 2017. Seronegative vaccine recipients have an excess risk of severe dengue compared to unvaccinated seronegative individuals. For every 13 hospitalizations prevented in seropositive vaccinees, there would be 1 excess hospitalization in seronegative vaccinees per 1,000 vaccinees. WHO recommends serological testing for past dengue infection
In 2017, the manufacturer recommended that the vaccine only be used in people who have previously had a dengue infection as otherwise there was evidence it may worsen subsequent infections. The initial protocol did not require baseline blood samples before vaccination to establish an understanding of increased risk of severe dengue in participants who had not been previously exposed. In November 2017, Sanofi acknowledged that some participants were put at risk of severe dengue if they had no prior exposure to the infection; subsequently, the Philippine government suspended the mass immunization program with the backing of the WHO which began a review of the safety data.
Phase III trials in Latin America and Asia involved over 31,000 children between the ages of two and 14 years. In the first reports from the trials, vaccine efficacy was 56.5% in the Asian study and 64.7% in the Latin American study in patients who received at least one injection of the vaccine. Efficacy varied by serotype. In both trials vaccine reduced by about 80% the number of severe dengue cases. An analysis of both the Latin American and Asian studies at the 3rd year of follow-up showed that the efficacy of the vaccine was 65.6% in preventing hospitalization in children older than nine years of age, but considerably greater (81.9%) for seropositive children (indicating previous dengue infection) at baseline. The vaccination series consists of three injections at 0, 6 and 12 months.
The vaccine was approved in Mexico, the Philippines, and Brazil in December 2015, and in El Salvador, Costa Rica, Paraguay, Guatemala, Peru, Indonesia, Thailand, and Singapore in 2016. Under the brand name Dengvaxia, it is approved for use for those aged nine years of age and older and can prevent all four serotypes. As of February 2025, Sanofi announced that Dengvaxia has been "definitely discontinued" in Brazil due to low demand, which may have been caused by Qdenga being the first choice locally as its safer for individuals with unknown dengue serostatus.
== TAK-003 (Qdenga) ==
TAK-003 or DENVax, sold under the brand name Qdenga and made by Takeda, is a recombinant chimeric attenuated vaccine with DENV1, DENV3, and DENV4 components on a dengue virus type 2 (DENV2) backbone originally developed at Mahidol University in Bangkok and now funded by Inviragen (DENVax) and (TAK-003). Phase I and II trials were conducted in the United States, Colombia, Puerto Rico, Singapore and Thailand. The 18-month data published in the journal Lancet Infectious Diseases, indicate that TAK-003 produced sustained antibody responses against all four virus strains, regardless of previous dengue exposure and dosing schedule.
Data from the phase III trial, which began in September 2016, show that TAK-003 was efficacious against symptomatic dengue. TAK-003 appears to not lack efficacy in seronegative people or potentially cause them harm, unlike CYD-TDV. The data appear to show only moderate efficacy in other dengue serotypes than DENV2.
In February 2024, a clinical trial involving 20,099 healthy children aged 4 to 16 in eight dengue-endemic countries reported that, over 4.5 years, the vaccine was approximately 79% effective in preventing hospitalization and 54% effective against confirmed dengue in individuals with no prior exposure to the virus (seronegative). For all participants combined (seronegative and seropositive), the efficacy was approximately 84% against hospitalization and 61% against confirmed dengue. It protected against all four serotypes in seropositive participants. For seronegative participants, it protected against DENV-1 and DENV-2, but not against DENV-3, and there were too few cases of DENV-4 to allow conclusions.
Qdenga received approval for use in the European Union in 2022 for people aged 4 and above, and is also approved in the United Kingdom, Brazil, Argentina, Indonesia, and Thailand. Takeda voluntarily withdrew their application for the vaccination's approval in the United States in July 2023 after the FDA sought further data from the firm, which the company stated could not be provided during the current review cycle.
== In development ==
=== TV-003/005 ===
TV-003/005 is an attenuated vaccine consisting of a tetravalent admixture of monovalent vaccines, that was developed by NIAID, that were tested separately for safety and immunogenicity. The vaccine passed phase I trials and phase II studies in the US, Thailand, Bangladesh, India, and Brazil.
The National Institutes of Health has conducted phase I and phase II studies in over 1,000 participants in the US. It has also conducted human challenge studies while having conducted NHP model studies successfully.
NIH has licensed their technology for further development and commercial scale manufacturing to Panacea Biotec, Serum Institute of India, Instituto Butantan, Vabiotech, Merck, and Medigen.
In Brazil, phase III studies are being conducted by Instituto Butantan in collaboration with NIH. Panacea Biotec has conducted phase II clinical studies in India. 2024 data from the double-blind, Phase 3 clinical trial has shown 75.3% efficacy in seronegative patients and 89.2% efficacy in seropositive patients, although hospitalization was not assess. The vaccine has demonstrated long-term efficacy in all 4 DENV serotypes in previously exposed individuals but was only effective against types 1 and 2 for those who have never been infected by dengue.
A company in Vietnam (Vabiotech) is conducting safety tests and developing a clinical trial plan. All four companies are involved in studies of a TetraVax-DV vaccine in conjunction with the US NIH.
India is nearing completion of Phase III clinical trials for its first indigenous one-shot dengue vaccine, DengiAll, developed by Panacea Biotec in collaboration with the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). Over 10,000 participants are being enrolled across 20 centres, with 8,000 already dosed. The vaccine, based on the NIH-developed tetravalent strain (TV003/TV005), aims to offer protection against all four dengue serotypes—an essential yet complex goal due to low cross-immunity. Early trial results report no safety concerns, and the vaccine's long-term efficacy is now under two-year evaluation.
=== TDENV PIV ===
TDENV PIV (tetravalent dengue virus purified inactivated vaccine) is undergoing phase I trials as part of a collaboration between GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) and the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR). A synergistic formulation with another live attenuated candidate vaccine (prime-boost strategy) is also being evaluated in a phase II study. In prime-boosting, one type of vaccine is followed by a boost with another type in an attempt to improve immunogenicity.
=== V180 ===
Merck is studying recombinant subunit vaccines expressed in Drosophila cells. As of 2019, it had completed phase I stage and found V180 formulations to be generally well tolerated.
=== DNA vaccines ===
In 2011, the Naval Medical Research Center attempted to develop a monovalent DNA plasmid vaccine, but early results showed it to be only moderately immunogenic.
== Society and culture ==
=== Legal status ===
On 13 October 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Qdenga, intended for prophylaxis against dengue disease. The applicant for this medicinal product is Takeda GmbH. The active substance of Qdenga is dengue tetravalent vaccine (live, attenuated), a viral vaccine containing live attenuated dengue viruses which replicate locally and elicit humoral and cellular immune responses against the four dengue virus serotypes. Qdenga was approved for medical use in the European Union in December 2022.
In February 2023, Qdenga was approved by the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) for people aged four years and older.
In April 2023, the Argentina's National Administration of Drugs, Food and Medical Technology (ANMAT) gave the green light to the use of the tetravalent vaccine TAK-003 known as Qdenga, developed by the Japanese laboratory Takeda Pharmaceutical Company, making it the only vaccine approved to date. to combat dengue in Argentina. It has been used in the 2024 dengue epidemic.
In July 2023, Takeda withdrew its application for Qdenga before the FDA, citing the FDA's requirement for additional data not captured in the phase III studies.
=== Economics ===
In Indonesia, Dengvaxia costs about US$207 for the recommended three doses as of 2016. Indonesia was the first country to approve Qdenga, in late 2022.
=== Controversies ===
==== Philippines ====
The 2017 dengue vaccine controversy in the Philippines involved a vaccination program run by the Philippines Department of Health (DOH). The DOH vaccinated schoolchildren with Sanofi Pasteur's CYD-TDV (Dengvaxia) dengue vaccine. Some of the children who received the vaccine had never been infected by the dengue virus before. The program was stopped when Sanofi Pasteur advised the government that the vaccine could put previously uninfected people at a somewhat higher risk of a severe case of dengue fever. A political controversy erupted over whether the program was run with sufficient care and who should be held responsible for the alleged harm to the vaccinated children.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Dengue Vaccine Vaccine Information Statement". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). December 2021.
Dengue Vaccines at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashraf_Abbasi | Ashraf Abbasi | Ashraf Khatoon Abbasi (Urdu: اشرف عباسی; Sindhi: اشرف عباسي) was a Pakistani politician and the first female Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan. She was a close supporter of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and its leaders Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Benazir Bhutto. She was also a member of the West Pakistan Assembly from 1962 until 1965. She joined the PPP and won from her constituency in 1970.
== Personal life ==
Abbasi was born on January 2, 1925, in Larkana. Her father Saeed Khan Abbasi was a landlord in the area. She received her secondary education from DJ College Sindh in 1940. She also studied at the Lady Hardinge Medical College in Delhi. She obtained her MBBS degree from the Dow Medical College Karachi. Abbasi opened her clinic in Larkana. She also served at Civil Hospital Larkana. She participated in the promotion of education. She died on 4 August 2014 in the village of Waleed, Larkana. She was the mother of three sons, including Safdar Ali Abbasi, who became a PPP senator, Munawar Ali Abbasi (Ex-MPA Sindh Assembly), and Akhtar Ali Abbasi.
== Career ==
Abbasi was a member of the West Pakistan Assembly from 1962 to 1965. Later, she joined the PPP, winning a National Assembly seat in 1970.
She became the first woman deputy speaker of the National Assembly, serving from 1973 to 1977 and again from 1988 to 1990. She also served as the chairperson of the Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, Larkana campus, and was a member of the Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, and University of Sindh, Jamshoro, syndicates. She was also a member of the constitution committee. She established the Mothers Trust in 1996 to help poor women. Abbasi wrote her biography titled Jaikey Halan Haikliyoon ("The Women Who Walk Alone").
== Publications ==
Jaikey Halan Haikliyoon ("The Women Who Walk Alone").
== Death ==
Ashraf Abbasi died on Sunday, 3 August 2014. She was laid to rest in Waleed Muhalla Graveyard, Larkana.
== References ==
== External links ==
Ashraf Abbasi Archived 21 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine at Woman.com.pk |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matvey_Blanter | Matvey Blanter | Matvey Isaakovich Blanter (10 February [O.S. 28 January] 1903 – 27 September 1990) was a Soviet composer, and one of the most prominent composers of popular songs and film music in the Soviet Union. Among many other works, he wrote the famous "Katyusha" (1938), performed to this day internationally. He was active as a composer until 1975, producing more than two thousand songs.
== Childhood and education ==
Blanter, the son of a Jewish craftsman, was born in the town of Pochep, then in the Chernigov Governorate of the Russian Empire. He studied piano and violin at the Kursk Higher Music School. From 1917 to 1919, he continued his education in Moscow, studying violin and composition.
== Career ==
Blanter's first songs were composed in the 1920s. At the time, he wrote light dance and jazz music, including "John Gray" (1923), a foxtrot that became a major hit. In the 1930s, as Soviet culture grew more ideologically strict, Blanter shifted toward writing Soviet propaganda songs. He emerged as one of the creators of the Soviet "mass song".
Some of Blanter's 1930s songs were styled after the Red Army songs of the Russian Civil War (1918–1921) and mythologized the war's Bolshevik heroes. The most famous among these are "The Song of Shchors" (1935), telling the tale of Ukrainian Red Army commander Nikolai Shchors, and "Partisan Zheleznyak" (1936), which combines the energetic rhythms of a military marching song with elements of a mournful ballad as it describes Commander Zheleznyak's heroic death in battle (the song opens and closes with a stanza about Zheleznyak's lonely burial mound in the steppes).
Other notable Blanter songs from that period include "Youth" (1937), a cheerful marching song asserting that "right now, everyone is young in our young, beautiful country"; "Stalin Is Our Battle-Glory" (1937), a widely performed hymn to Joseph Stalin; and "The Football March" (1938), music from which is still performed at the start of every football match in Russia.
In 1938, Blanter began his long-lasting collaboration with the poet Mikhail Isakovsky. Their first song, undoubtedly the most famous of Blanter's works, was the world-renowned "Katyusha". In it, Blanter combined elements of the heroic, upbeat battle song and of a peasant song representing a woman's lamentation for an absent lover. Standing on a high riverbank, a young woman, Katyusha, sings of her beloved (compared to "a gray eagle of the steppes"), who is far away serving on the Soviet border. The theme of the song is that the soldier will protect the Motherland and its people while his girl will preserve their love. While the song is joyful and filled with the imagery of a fertile, blooming land, it also conveys the sense that the motherland is under threat. "Katyusha" gained fame during World War II as an inspiration to defend one's land from the enemy.
In 1937, Pravda published a request for thousands of Soviet girls to go to work in the far east of the county, to help construct military defences. Blanter was commissioned to write the highly-popular operetta On the Bank of the Amur River to celebrate the initiative: the premiere took place at Moscow Operetta Theatre in 1939, and the work was broadcast by Moscow Radio as well as taken up by operatic companies throughout the country.
Blanter accompanied the Red Army to Berlin in early 1945. He was commissioned by Stalin to compose a symphony about the capture of Berlin. However, when Vasily Chuikov was meeting with a German delegation led by Hans Krebs to negotiate their surrender following Hitler's suicide, Chuikov had several uniformed war correspondents pretend to be members of his general staff in order to appear more professional and intimidating at the negotiations. But Blanter was also meeting with Chuikov at the time the delegation arrived and he could not pass as a Red Army officer as he was wearing civilian clothes. Thus, Chuikov shoved him into a closet just before the delegate entered the room. While he remained there for most of the conference, he eventually lapsed into unconsciousness from a lack of air, collapsing out of the closet and into the room just as the delegates were preparing to leave, embarrassing Chuikov and astonishing the Germans.
Blanter wrote several other highly popular wartime songs. His 1945 song, "The Enemy Burned Down His Home", about a soldier who returns from the front to find his entire family dead, became controversial when the authorities deemed it too pessimistic and banned its performance; it was performed for the first time in 1961.
Blanter's postwar songs include "The Migratory Birds Are Flying" (1949), a patriotic Soviet song in which the narrator watches migratory birds fly away and asserts that he can think of no better place to be than the Motherland, and "Dark-Eyed Cossack Girl" (Russian: Черноглазая казачка), written especially for the bass-baritone Leonid Kharitonov.
In 1983, Blanter became a member of the Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public, an organization created by the Soviet Union as an anti-Zionist propaganda tool. He died in Moscow in 1990 and was buried at Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow.
== Awards and honors ==
Stalin Prize (1946) (for the songs "Under the Balkan Stars", "In a way, a path far", "My beloved", "In the forest, front-line")
People's Artist of the RSFSR (1965)
Order of the Badge of Honour (1967)
People's Artist of the USSR (1975)
Hero of Socialist Labour (1983)
== References in popular culture ==
Ayn Rand's 1936 novel We the Living, set in Petrograd between 1923 and 1925, has a passage devoted to the huge popularity of "John Gray."
In the 1966 novel The Last Battle, Cornelius Ryan records that Blanter accompanied the Red Army into Berlin during the last days of the war and the collapse of Nazi power.
In the 2004 film, Downfall, Blanter plays a small role and is portrayed by Boris Schwarzmann. In the film, he is stuffed into the closet of Vasily Chuikov's office, who is in a rush to meet the Nazi general, Hans Krebs.
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge | University of Cambridge | The University of Cambridge is a public collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, the University of Cambridge is the world's third-oldest university in continuous operation. The university's founding followed the arrival of scholars who left the University of Oxford for Cambridge after a dispute with local townspeople. The two ancient English universities, although sometimes described as rivals, share many common features and are often jointly referred to as Oxbridge.
In 1231, 22 years after its founding, the university was recognised with a royal charter, granted by King Henry III. The University of Cambridge includes 31 semi-autonomous constituent colleges and more than 150 academic departments, faculties, and other institutions organised into six schools. The largest department is Cambridge University Press and Assessment, which contains the oldest university press in the world, with £1 billion of annual revenue and with 100 million learners. All of the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, managing their own personnel and policies, and all students are required to have a college affiliation within the university. Undergraduate teaching at Cambridge is centred on weekly small-group supervisions in the colleges with lectures, seminars, laboratory work, and occasionally further supervision provided by the central university faculties and departments.
The university operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum and Cambridge University Botanic Garden. Cambridge's 116 libraries hold a total of approximately 16 million books, around 9 million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library and one of the world's largest academic libraries.
Among the university's notable alumni are Francis Bacon, Lord Byron, Oliver Cromwell, Charles Darwin, Rajiv Gandhi, John Harvard, Stephen Hawking, John Maynard Keynes, John Milton, Vladimir Nabokov, Jawaharlal Nehru, Isaac Newton, Salman Rushdie, Bertrand Russell, Alan Turing, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and 194 Olympic medal-winning athletes. Its alumni, academics, and affiliates have won 126 Nobel Prizes.
== History ==
=== Founding ===
Prior to the founding of the University of Cambridge in 1209, Cambridge and the area surrounding it already had developed a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation due largely to the intellectual and academic contributions of monks from the nearby Ely Cathedral. The founding of the University of Cambridge, however, was inspired largely by an incident at the University of Oxford during which three Oxford scholars, as an administration of justice in the death of a local Oxford-area woman, were hanged by town authorities without first consulting ecclesiastical authorities, who traditionally would be inclined to pardon scholars in such cases. But during this time, Oxford's town authorities were in conflict with King John. Fearing more violence from Oxford townsfolk, University of Oxford scholars began leaving Oxford for more hospitable cities, including Paris, Reading, and Cambridge. Enough scholars ultimately took residence in Cambridge to form, along with the many scholars already there, the nucleus for the new university's formation.
By 1225, a chancellor of the university was appointed, and writs issued by King Henry III in 1231 established that rents in Cambridge were to be set secundum consuetudinem universitatis, according to the custom of the university, and established a panel of two masters and two townsmen to determine these. A letter from Pope Gregory IX two years later to the chancellor and the guild of scholars granted the new university ius non trahi extra, or the right not to be drawn out, for three years, meaning its members could not be summoned to a court outside of the diocese of Ely. After Cambridge was described as a studium generale in a letter from Pope Nicholas IV in 1290, and confirmed as such by Pope John XXII's 1318 papal bull, it became common for researchers from other European medieval universities to visit Cambridge to study or give lectures.
=== Foundation of the colleges ===
The 31 colleges of the present-day University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the university; no college within the University of Cambridge is as old as the university itself. The colleges within the university were initially endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, which were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, and they have left some traces, including the naming of Garret Hostel Lane and Garret Hostel Bridge, a street and bridge in Cambridge.
The University of Cambridge's first college, Peterhouse, was founded in 1284 by Hugh de Balsham, the Bishop of Ely. Multiple additional colleges were founded during the 14th and 15th centuries, and colleges continued to be established during modern times, though there was a 204-year gap between the founding of Sidney Sussex in 1596 and that of Downing in 1800. The most recent college to be established is Robinson, which was built in the late 1970s. Most recently, in March 2010, Homerton College achieved full university college status, making it the university's newest full college.
In medieval times, many colleges were founded so that their members could pray for the souls of the founders. University of Cambridge colleges were often associated with chapels or abbeys. The colleges' focus began to shift in 1536, however, with the dissolution of the monasteries and Henry VIII's order that the university disband the canon law that governed the university's faculty and stop teaching scholastic philosophy. In response, colleges changed their curricula from canon law to classics, the Bible, and mathematics.
Nearly a century later, the university found itself at the centre of a Protestant schism. Many nobles, intellectuals, and also commoners saw the Church of England as too similar to the Catholic Church and felt that it was being used by The Crown to usurp the counties' rightful powers. East Anglia emerged as the centre of what ultimately became the Puritan movement. In Cambridge, the Puritan movement was particularly strong at Emmanuel, St Catharine Hall, Sidney Sussex, and Christ's. These colleges produced many nonconformist graduates who greatly influenced, by social position or preaching, some 20,000 Puritans who ultimately left England for New England and especially the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the Great Migration decade of the 1630s.
=== Mathematics and mathematical physics ===
The university quickly established itself as a global leader in the study of mathematics. The university's examination in mathematics, known as the Mathematical Tripos, was initially compulsory for all undergraduates studying for the Bachelor of Arts degree, the most common degree first offered at Cambridge. From the time of Isaac Newton in the late 17th century until the mid-19th century, the university maintained an especially strong emphasis on applied mathematics, and especially mathematical physics. Students awarded first class honours after completing the mathematics Tripos exam are called wranglers, and the top student among them is known as the Senior Wrangler, a position that has been described as "the greatest intellectual achievement attainable in Britain."
The Cambridge Mathematical Tripos is highly competitive and has helped produce some of the most famous names in British science, including James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, and Lord Rayleigh. However, some famous students, such as G. H. Hardy, disliked the Tripos system, feeling that students were becoming too focused on accumulating high exam marks at the expense of the subject itself.
Pure mathematics at the University of Cambridge in the 19th century achieved great things, though it largely missed out on substantial developments in French and German mathematics. By the early 20th century, however, pure mathematical research at Cambridge reached the highest international standard, thanks largely to G. H. Hardy and his collaborators, J. E. Littlewood and Srinivasa Ramanujan. W. V. D. Hodge and others helped establish Cambridge as a global leader in geometry in the 1930s.
=== Modern period ===
The Cambridge University Act 1856 formalised the university's organisational structure and introduced the study of many new subjects, including theology, history, and Modern languages. Resources necessary for new courses in the arts, architecture, and archaeology were donated by Viscount Fitzwilliam of Trinity College, who also founded Fitzwilliam Museum in 1816. In 1847, Prince Albert was elected the university's chancellor in a close contest with the Earl of Powis. As chancellor, Albert reformed university curricula beyond its initial focus on mathematics and classics, adding modern era history and the natural sciences. Between 1896 and 1902, Downing College sold part of its land to permit the construction of Downing Site, the university's grouping of scientific laboratories for the study of anatomy, genetics, and Earth sciences. During this period, the New Museums Site was erected, including the Cavendish Laboratory, which has since moved to West Cambridge, and other departments for chemistry and medicine. The University of Cambridge began to award PhD degrees in the first third of the 20th century; the first Cambridge PhD in mathematics was awarded in 1924.
The university contributed significantly to the Allies' forces in World War I with 13,878 members of the university serving and 2,470 being killed in action during the war. Teaching, and the fees it earned, nearly came to a halt during World War I, and severe financial difficulties followed. As a result, the university received its first systematic state support in 1919, and a Royal commission was appointed in 1920 to recommend that the university (but not its colleges) begin receiving an annual grant. Following World War II, the university experienced a rapid expansion in applications and enrolment, partly due to the success and popularity gained by many Cambridge scientists. This was not without controversies, however. For example, Cambridge researchers were accused in 2023 of helping to develop weapon systems for Iran.
==== Parliamentary representation ====
The University of Cambridge was one of only two universities to hold parliamentary seats in the Parliament of England and was later one of 19 represented in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The constituency was created by a Royal charter of 1603 and returned two members of parliament until 1950 when it was abolished by the Representation of the People Act 1948. The constituency was not a geographical area; rather, its electorate consisted of university graduates. Before 1918, the franchise was restricted to male graduates with a doctorate or MA degree.
=== Women's education ===
For the first several centuries of its existence, as was the case broadly in England and the world, the University of Cambridge was only open to male students. The first colleges established for women were Girton College, founded by Emily Davies in 1869, Newnham College, founded by Anne Clough and Henry Sidgwick in 1872, Hughes Hall, founded in 1885 by Elizabeth Phillips Hughes as the Cambridge Teaching College for Women, Murray Edwards College, founded in 1954 by Rosemary Murray as New Hall, and Lucy Cavendish College, founded in 1965. Prior to ultimately being permitted admission to the university in 1948, female students were granted the right to take University of Cambridge exams beginning in the late 19th century. Women were also allowed to study courses, take examinations, and have prior exam results recorded retroactively, dating back to 1881; for a brief period after the turn of the 20th century, this allowed the steamboat ladies to receive ad eundem degrees from the University of Dublin. In 1998, a special graduation ceremony was held in which the women who attended Cambridge before admission was allowed in 1948 were finally conferred their degrees.
Beginning in 1921, women were awarded diplomas that conferred the title associated with the Bachelor of Arts degree. But since women were not yet admitted to the Bachelor of Arts degree program, they were excluded from the university's governance structure. Since University of Cambridge students must belong to a college, and since established colleges remained closed to women, women found admissions restricted to the few university colleges that had been established only for them. Darwin College, the first graduate college of the university, matriculated both male and female students from its inception in 1964 and elected a mixed fellowship. Undergraduate colleges, starting with Churchill, Clare, and King's colleges, began admitting women between 1972 and 1988. Among women's colleges at the university, Girton began admitting male students in 1979, and Lucy Cavendish began admitting men in 2021. But the other female-only colleges have remained female-only colleges as of 2023. As a result of St Hilda's College, Oxford, ending its ban on male students in 2008, Cambridge is now the only remaining university in the United Kingdom with female-only colleges; Newnham and Murray Edwards only admit female students. As of the 2019–2020 academic year, the university's male to female enrolment, including post-graduates, was nearly balanced with its total student population being 53% male and 47% female.
In 2018 and later years, the university has come under some criticism and faced legal challenges over alleged sexual harassment at the university. In 2019, for example, former student Danielle Bradford, represented by sexual harassment lawyer Ann Olivarius, sued the university for its handling of her sexual misconduct complaint. "I was told that I should think about it very carefully because making a complaint could affect my place in my department", Bradford alleged in 2019. In 2020, hundreds of current and former students accused the university in a letter, citing "a complete failure" to deal with sexual misconduct complaints.
=== Town and gown ===
The relationship between the university and the city of Cambridge has sometimes been uneasy. The phrase town and gown continues to be employed to distinguish between Cambridge residents (town) and University of Cambridge students (gown), who historically wore academical dress. Ferocious rivalry between Cambridge's residents and university students have periodically erupted over the centuries. During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, strong clashes led to attacks and looting of university properties as locals contested the privileges granted by the British government to the University of Cambridge's academic staff. Residents burned university property in Market Square to the famed rallying cry "Away with the learning of clerks, away with it!". Following these events, the University of Cambridge's Chancellor was given special powers allowing him to prosecute criminals and reestablish order in the city. Attempts at reconciliation between the city's residents and students followed; in the 16th century, agreements were signed to improve the quality of streets and student accommodation around the city. However, this was followed by new confrontations when the plague reached Cambridge in 1630 and colleges refused to assist those affected by the disease by locking their sites.
Such conflicts between Cambridge's residents and university students have largely disappeared since the 16th century, and the university has grown as a source of enormous employment and expanded wealth in Cambridge and the region. The university also has proven a source of extraordinary growth in high tech and biotech start-ups and established companies and associated providers of services to these companies. The economic growth associated with the university's high tech and biotech growth has been labeled the Cambridge Phenomenon, and has included the addition of 1,500 new companies and as many as 40,000 new jobs added between 1960 and 2010, mostly at Silicon Fen, a business cluster launched by the university in the late 20th century.
=== Myths, legends and traditions ===
Partly because of the University of Cambridge's extensive history, which now exceeds 800 years, the university has developed a large number of traditions, myths, and legends. Some are true, some are not, and some were true but have been discontinued but have been propagated nonetheless by generations of students and tour guides.
One such discontinued tradition is that of the wooden spoon, the prize awarded to the student with the lowest passing honours grade in the final examinations of the university's Mathematical Tripos. The last of these spoons was awarded in 1909 to Cuthbert Lempriere Holthouse, an oarsman of the Lady Margaret Boat Club at St John's College. It was more than one metre in length and had an oar blade for a handle. It can now be seen outside the Senior Combination Room of St John's College. Since 1908, examination results have been published alphabetically within class rather than in strict order of merit, which made it difficult to ascertain the student with the lowest passing grade deserving of the spoon, leading to discontinuation of the tradition.
Each Christmas Eve, The Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols, sung by the Choir of King's College, are broadcast globally on BBC World Service television and radio and syndicated to hundreds of additional radio stations in the U.S. and elsewhere. The radio broadcast has been a national Christmas Eve tradition since 1928, though the festival has existed since 1918 and the celebration itself originated even earlier at Truro Cathedral in Cornwall in 1880. The first television broadcast of the festival was in 1954.
== Locations and buildings ==
=== Buildings ===
The university occupies a central location within the city of Cambridge. University of Cambridge students represent approximately 20 percent of the town's population, which was 145,674 as of 2021, resulting in a lower age demographic in the city.
Most of the university's older colleges are located near the city centre, through which River Cam flows. Students and others traditionally punt on the River Cam, which provides views of the university's buildings that surround the river.
A few of the notable University of Cambridge buildings are King's College Chapel; the history faculty building designed by James Stirling; and the New Court and Cripps Buildings at St John's College. The brickwork of several colleges is notable: Queens' College has some of the earliest patterned brickwork in England and the brick walls of St John's College are examples of English bond, Flemish bond, and Running bond.
=== Sites ===
The university is divided into several sites, which house the university's various departments, including:
The university's School of Clinical Medicine is based in Addenbrooke's Hospital, where medical students undergo their three-year clinical placement period after obtaining their BA degree. The West Cambridge site is undergoing a major expansion and will host new buildings and fields for university sports. Since 1990, Cambridge Judge Business School, on Trumpington Street, provides management education courses and is consistently ranked among the top 20 business schools in the world by Financial Times.
Many of the sites are quite close together, and the area around Cambridge is reasonably flat. Furthermore, students are not permitted to hold car park permits except under special circumstances. For these reasons, the favourite mode of transport for students is the bicycle; an estimated one-fifth of journeys in the city are made by bike.
=== Notable locations ===
The University of Cambridge and its constituent colleges include many notable locations, some of which are iconic or of historical, academic, religious, and cultural significance, including:
== Organisation and administration ==
Cambridge is a collegiate university, which means that its colleges are self-governing and independent, each with its own property, endowments, and income. Most colleges bring together academics and students from a broad range of disciplines. Each faculty, school, or department at the university includes academics affiliated with differing colleges. The university is legally structured as an exempt charity and a common law corporation. Its corporate titles include the Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Cambridge.
The college faculties are responsible for giving lectures, arranging seminars, performing research, and determining the syllabi for teaching, all of which is overseen by the university's general board. Together with the central administration headed by the Vice-Chancellor, the college faculties make up the University of Cambridge. Facilities such as libraries are provided on all these levels by the university. The Cambridge University Library is the university's largest and primary library. Squire Law Library is the primary library for the university's students of law. Individual colleges each maintain a multi-discipline library designed for each college's respective undergraduates. College libraries tend to operate 24/7 and their usage in generally restricted to members of the college. Conversely, libraries operated by departments are generally open to all students of the university, regardless of subject.
=== Colleges ===
The colleges are self-governing institutions with their own endowments and property, each founded as components of the university. All students and most academics are attached to a college. The colleges' importance lies in the housing, welfare, social functions, and undergraduate teaching they provide. All faculties, departments, research centres, and laboratories belong to the university, which arranges lectures and awards degrees, but undergraduates receive their overall academic supervision within the colleges through small group teaching sessions, which often include just one student; though in many cases students go to other colleges for supervision if the teaching fellows at their college do not specialise in a student's particular area of academic focus. Each college appoints its own teaching staff and fellows, both of whom are members of a university department. The colleges also decide which undergraduates to admit to the university, in accordance with university standards and regulations. Costs to students for room and board vary considerably from college to college. Similarly, the investment in student education by each college at the university varies widely between the colleges.
Cambridge has 31 colleges, two of which, Murray Edwards and Newnham, admit women only. The other colleges are mixed. Darwin was the first college to admit both men and women. In 1972, Churchill, Clare, and King's were the first previously all-male colleges to admit female undergraduates. In 1988, Magdalene became the last all-male college to accept women. Clare Hall and Darwin admit only postgraduates, and Hughes Hall, St Edmund's, and Wolfson admit only mature undergraduate and graduate students who are 21 years or older on the date of their matriculation. Lucy Cavendish, which was previously a women-only mature college, began admitting both men and women in 2021. All other colleges admit both undergraduate and postgraduate students without any age restrictions.
Colleges are not required to admit students in all subjects; some colleges choose not to offer subjects such as architecture, art history, or theology, but most offer a complete range of academic specialties and related courses. Some colleges maintain a relative strength and associated reputation for expertise in certain academic disciplines. Churchill, for example, has a reputation for its expertise and focus on the sciences and engineering, in part due to the requirement imposed by Winston Churchill upon the college's founding that 70% of its students studied mathematics, engineering, and the sciences. Other colleges have more informal academic focus and even demonstrate ideological focus, such as King's, which is known for its left-wing political orientation, and Robinson and Churchill, both of which have a reputation for academic focus on sustainability and environmentalism. Three theological colleges at the university, Westcott House, Westminster College, and Ridley Hall Theological College, are members of the Cambridge Theological Federation and associated in partnership with the university.
The University of Cambridge's 31 colleges are:
=== Schools, faculties and departments ===
In addition to the 31 colleges, the university maintains more than 150 departments, faculties, schools, syndicates, and other academic institutions. Members of these are usually members of one of the colleges, and responsibility for the entire academic programme of the university is divided among them.
The university has a department dedicated to providing continuing education, the Institute of Continuing Education, which is based primarily in Madingley Hall, a 16th-century manor house in Cambridgeshire. Its award-bearing programmes include both undergraduate certificates and part-time master's degrees.
A school in the University of Cambridge is a broad administrative grouping of related faculties and other units. Each has an elected supervisory body known as a Council, composed of representatives of the various constituent bodies. The University of Cambridge maintains six such schools:
Teaching and research at the university is organised by faculties. The faculties have varying organisational substructures that partly reflect their respective histories and the university's operational needs, which may include a number of departments and other institutions. A small number of bodies called syndicates hold responsibility for teaching and research, including for the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, the University Press, and the University Library.
=== Central administration ===
==== Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor ====
The Chancellor of the university is limitless term position that is mainly ceremonial and is held currently by David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, who succeeded the Duke of Edinburgh following his retirement on his 90th birthday in June 2011. Lord Sainsbury was nominated by the nomination board. The election took place on 14 and 15 October 2011 with Sainsbury taking 2,893 of the 5,888 votes cast, and winning on the election's first count.
The current vice-chancellor is Deborah Prentice, who began her role in July 2023. While the Chancellor's office is ceremonial, the Vice-Chancellor serves as the university's de facto principal administrative officer. The university's internal governance is carried out almost entirely by Regent House augmented by some external representation from the Audit Committee and four external members of the University's Council.
==== Senate and the Regent House ====
The university Senate consists of all holders of the MA or higher degrees and is responsible for electing the Chancellor and the High Steward. Until 1950 when the Cambridge University constituency was abolished, it was also responsible for electing two members of the House of Commons. Prior to 1926, the university Senate was the university's governing body, fulfilling the functions that Regent House has provided since. Regent House is the university's governing body, comprising all resident senior members of the university and the colleges, the Chancellor, the High Steward, the Deputy High Steward, and the Commissary. Public representatives of Regent House are the two Proctors, elected to serve for one year terms upon their nominations by the colleges.
==== Council and General Board ====
Although the University Council is the university's principal executive and policy-making body, the Council reports to, and is held accountable by, Regent House through a variety of checks and balances. The council is obliged to advise Regent House on matters of general concern to the university, which it does by publishing notices to the Cambridge University Reporter, the university's official journal. In March 2008, Regent House voted to increase from two to four the number of external members on the council, and this was approved by Her Majesty the Queen in July 2008.
The General Board of the Faculties is responsible for the university's academic and educational policies and is accountable to the council for its management of these affairs. Faculty boards are accountable to the general board; other boards and syndicates are accountable either to the general board or to the council. Under this organisational structure, the university's various arms are kept under supervision of both the central administration and Regent House.
=== Finances ===
==== Endowment ====
The Cambridge University Endowment Fund is the main vehicle of investment for the university. In the fiscal year ending 31 July 2023, the university group, excluding colleges, reported a total endowment of £3.736 billion. The figure includes both restricted and unrestricted funds. When reported strictly using Statements of Recommended Practice (SORPs) guidelines, which accounted for only donations that meet certain criteria among non-profit organisations in the UK, endowment reserve stood at £2.469 billion. The 31 colleges reported collective endowment reserve of £4.582 billion.
==== Benefactions and fundraising ====
In the fiscal year ending 31 July 2023, the central university, excluding colleges, reported total consolidated income of £2.518 billion, of which £569.5 million was from research grants and contracts. In July 2022, the Dear World, Yours Cambridge Campaign for the university and colleges concluded, raising a total of £2.217 billion in commitments.
The university maintains multiple scholarship programs. The Stormzy Scholarship for Black UK Students covers tuition costs for two students and maintenance grants for up to four years. In 2000, Bill Gates of Microsoft donated US$210 million through the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to endow Gates Cambridge Scholarships for students from outside the United Kingdom to pursue full-time postgraduate study at Cambridge.
In October 2021, the university suspended its £400m collaboration with the United Arab Emirates, citing allegations that UAE was involved in illegal hacking of the university's computer and storage systems using NSO Group's Pegasus software. UAE also was behind the leak of more than 50,000 phone numbers, including hundreds belonging to British citizens. Stephen Toope, the university's outgoing Vice-Chancellor, said the decision to suspend its collaboration with UAE also was a result of additional revelations about UAE's Pegasus software hacking.
==== Bonds ====
The University of Cambridge borrowed £350 million in October 2012 by issuing 40-year security bonds, whose interest rate is approximately 0.6 percent higher than the British government's 40-year bond.
=== Affiliations and memberships ===
The University of Cambridge is a member of the Russell Group of research-led British universities, the G5, the League of European Research Universities, the International Alliance of Research Universities, and it is part of the so-called golden triangle of research intensive universities in the south of England. It is also closely linked to the high tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen and is part of Cambridge University Health Partners, Europe's largest academic health science centre.
== Academic profile ==
=== Admissions ===
==== Process ====
Admission to the University of Cambridge is extremely competitive. In 2022, for instance, around 15% of applicants were admitted. In 2021, Cambridge introduced an over-subscription clause to its offers of admission, which also permits the university to withdraw acceptances if too many students meet its selective entrance criteria. The clause can be invoked in the event of circumstances outside the reasonable control of the university. The clause was introduced following a record number of A-level pupils who obtained the highest grades from teacher assessment, which was introduced due to the cancellation of A-level examinations during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The university's standard offer for most courses is set at A*AA, with A*A*A for science courses, or equivalent in other examination systems, e.g. 7,6,6 or 7,7,6 in IB. Due to a high proportion of applicants receiving the highest school grades, an interview process was introduced as a component of consideration for admission. Interviews are performed by College Fellows, who evaluate candidates on unexamined factors including potential for original thinking and creativity. Prior to 2020 these interviews were normally held in person but moved online during the COVID-19 pandemic and have, at most colleges, remained online since. For exceptional candidates, a matriculation offer is sometimes offered, requiring only two A-levels at grade E or above. Sutton Trust maintains that the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge recruit disproportionately from eight schools, which account for 1,310 Oxbridge places over three years contrasted with 1,220 from 2,900 other schools.
Strong applicants who are not successful in being admitted to their chosen college at the university may be placed in the Winter Pool, where they can be considered for admission to other university colleges, which maintains consistency throughout the colleges, some of which receive more applicants than others.
Undergraduate applications are processed through UCAS, and the deadline for their submission currently is mid-October in the year before prior to beginning. Until the 1980s, candidates for all subjects were required to take special entrance examinations, which have since been replaced by additional tests for some subjects, such as the Thinking Skills Assessment and Cambridge Law Test. The university has at times considered reintroducing an admissions exam for all subjects.
Graduate admission is first decided by the faculty or department responsible for the applicant's respective academic subject. An offer of acceptance effectively guarantees admission to the university, though not necessarily the applicant's preferred choice of college.
==== Winter pool ====
The Winter Pool or inter-College Pool is part of the undergraduate application process intended to ensure that the best applicants are offered admission. Approximately 20–25% of undergraduate admissions are awarded through the Pool. Each college can place applicants in the Winter Pool. These applicants' applications are then considered by Admissions Tutors or Directors of Studies during the pool, which takes place over three days in January prior to the release of the university's admissions decisions.
For each subject, colleges create an ordered list of the pooled applicants they seek to admit, and take turns choosing applicants. Colleges with specific student requirements, such as mature colleges and women-only colleges, are given priority over applicants eligible for their colleges. Some applicants are selected from the pool by the college that originally pooled them. Once all the colleges have selected as many applicants as they need, the pool ends. Some applicants are then interviewed a second time by the colleges before final admissions decisions are made.
Colleges can pool any candidate, either because the college has no space but believes the applicant is strong enough to get a place, or because the college wants to compare that applicant to other pooled applicants. Most applicants in the pool are pooled at their original college's discretion, but some candidates meet the compulsory pooling criteria.
There were, as of the 2020–21 admissions cycle, only two grounds for compulsory pooling. For post-qualified applicants, their achieved grades at A level or equivalent and, for applicants with overseas interviews, an interview score of at least eight is achieved in all interviews. The second criterion does not apply to medicine applicants. Previously, AS-Level UMS have been used as pooling criteria, but after A-levels became linear this was discontinued.
As of 2012, there is only one specifically identified category for pooled applicants, which is known as S, meaning that the application is in special need of reassessment. This is used when candidates whose initial interview scores are of questionable accuracy, such as when a candidate received very different scores from different interviewers, experienced technical issues with interviews conducted over the internet, or was impacted by significant extenuating circumstances such as illness or the loss of a family member.
Pooled applicants who are fished by a college may be offered a place immediately or may be invited for an interview. In 2020, just 89 applicants were invited for second interviews, 34 of whom received offers of admission.
Each year, approximately 3,500 applicants receive offers from their preference college and a further 1,000 to 1,100 applicants are offered admission by another college through the pool. On average, one in five applicants is pooled and around one in four pooled applicants receives an offer of admission.
Statistics released by the university show that some colleges regularly receive particularly high numbers of applicants, and these colleges tend to take fewer applicants from the pool. Other colleges regularly draw a greater proportion of their undergraduate intake from the pool.
==== Access ====
Public debate in the United Kingdom exists over whether admissions processes used at the University of Oxford and Cambridge are entirely merit-based and fair, whether enough students from state schools are encouraged to apply, and whether these students are offered sufficient admission. In 2020–21, 71% of all successful applicants were from state schools compared to approximately 93% of all students in the UK who attended state schools and 82% of post-16 students.
Critics have argued that the relative lower percent of state school applicants with the required grades for admission to Cambridge and Oxford has had a negative impact on Oxford and Cambridge's collective reputation, though both universities have encouraged pupils from state schools to apply to help redress the perceived imbalance. Others counter that government pressure to increase state school admissions constitutes inappropriate social engineering. The proportion of undergraduates drawn from independent schools has dropped over the years, constituting, as of 2020, 26% of total admissions among the university's 3,436 applicants from independent schools compared to 23% of the 9,237 applications from state schools. Cambridge, together with Oxford and Durham, was among those universities that adopted formulae in 2009 to rate the GCSE performance of schools, using data from the Department for Children, Schools and Families, and took this into account when assessing university applicants.
With the release of admissions figures, The Guardian reported in 2013 that ethnic minority candidates had lower success rates in individual subjects even when they had the same grades as white applicants. The university was criticised for what was seen as institutional discrimination against ethnic minority applicants in favour of white applicants. The university denied the claims of institutional discrimination, stating the figures did not take into account other variables. A subsequent article reported that, in the years 2010 to 2012, ethnic minority applicants to medicine with 3 A* grades or higher were 20% less likely to gain admission than white applicants with similar grades. The university refused to provide figures for a wider range of subjects, claiming that assembling and releasing such information was excessively costly.
Given the competitive nature of gaining admission to the University of Cambridge, a number of educational consultancies have emerged to offer support with the application process. Some claim they can improve chances for admission, though these claims have never been independently verified. None of these companies are affiliated with or endorsed by the University of Cambridge. The university informs applicants that all necessary information regarding the application process is publicly available through the university and none of these services is providing any insight not already publicly available to applicants.
The University of Cambridge has been criticised for admitting a lower percentage of Black students, though many apply. Of the 31 colleges at Cambridge, six of them admitted fewer than 10 Black or mixed race students between 2012 and 2016. Similar criticism exists over a relatively lower admission rate for white working class applicants; in 2019, only 2% of admitted students were white working class.
In January 2021, Cambridge created foundation courses for disadvantaged students. While the usual entry requirements are A*AA in A-Levels, the one-year foundation course has 50 places for students who achieve BBB. If successful on the course, students receive a recognised CertHE qualification and can progress to degrees in the arts, humanities, and social sciences at the university. Candidates include those who have been in care, who are estranged from their families, who have missed significant periods of learning because of health issues, those from low-income backgrounds, and those from schools with few students attending universities.
=== Teaching ===
The University of Cambridge academic year is divided into three academic terms determined by the statutes of the university. Michaelmas term lasts from October to December; the Lent term last from January to March; and the Easter term last from April to June.
Within these terms, undergraduate teaching takes place during eight-week periods called full terms. According to university statutes, it is a requirement during these periods that all students live within three miles of the Church of St Mary the Great, which is known as keeping term. Students eligible for graduation must fulfil this condition for nine terms (three years) while pursuing a Bachelor of Arts or twelve terms (four years) when pursuing a Master of Science, engineering, or mathematics degree.
These terms are shorter than those of many other British universities. Undergraduates are also expected to prepare heavily in the three holidays known as the Christmas, Easter, and Long Vacation holiday periods, which are referred to by the university as vacations rather than holidays; students vacate the premises during these periods but are still expected to be pursuing studies and assignments.
The Tripos exam involves a mixture of lectures organised by the university department) and supervised and organised by the colleges. Science subjects involve laboratory sessions organised by the departments. The relative importance of these methods of teaching varies according to the needs of the subject. Supervisions are typically weekly hour-long sessions in which small groups of students, usually between one and three students, who meet with a member of the teaching staff or with a doctoral student. Students are normally required to complete an assignment in advance of this supervision, which they then discuss with the supervisor during the session. The assignment is often an essay on a subject assigned by the supervisor, or a problem sheet set by the lecturer. Depending on the subject and college, students sometimes receive between one and four supervisory sessions each week. This pedagogical system is often cited as being unique to Oxford, where supervisions are known as tutorials, and Cambridge and is sometimes credited with the exceptional nature generally associated with the education at these two world-renowned universities. A tutor named William Farish developed the concept of grading students' work quantitatively at the University of Cambridge in 1792.
=== Research ===
The University of Cambridge has research departments and teaching faculties in nearly every academic discipline, with research and lectures conducted by university departments. The colleges are charged with giving or arranging most supervisions, student accommodation, and funding most extracurricular activities. During the 1990s, the University of Cambridge added a substantial number of new specialist research laboratories on several sites around the city, and major expansion continues. From 2000 to 2006, the University of Cambridge maintained a research partnership with MIT in the United States, known as the Cambridge–MIT Institute, which was discontinued after evolving into what is now called the CMI Partnership Programme.
=== Graduation tradition and ceremony ===
The university's governing body, Regent House, manages and votes on graduations. A formal meeting of Regent House, known as a congregation, is held for this purpose, which is typically the final act during which all university procedures for undergraduate and graduate students and other degrees are finalised. After degrees are approved, candidates for graduation are required to request their respective college presents them during commencement congregation.
Graduates receiving an undergraduate degree wear the academic dress to which they are entitled prior to graduating; for example, most students becoming Bachelor of Arts graduates wear undergraduate gowns and not BA gowns. Graduates receiving a post-graduate degree wear the academic dress that they were entitled to before graduating if their first degree was also from the University of Cambridge; if their first degree was from another university, they wear the academic dress of the degree that they are about to receive. The BA gown without the strings is worn if the graduate is 24 years old or younger, and the MA gown without strings is worn if the graduate is 24 years old or older. Graduates are presented their degrees in Senate House by each respective college in order of foundation or recognition by the university, except for the university's royal colleges.
During the University of Cambridge's congregation ceremony, graduands are brought forth by the Praelector of their respective college, who takes them by the right hand and presents them to the vice-chancellor to receive the degree they have earned. The Praelector presents graduands with the following Latin statement, substituting "____" with the name of the degree and substituting "woman" for "man" if the graduate is female:
"Dignissima domina, Domina Procancellaria et tota Academia praesento vobis hunc virum quem scio tam moribus quam doctrina esse idoneum ad gradum assequendum _____; idque tibi fide mea praesto totique Academiae.
The Latin statement translates in English as, "Most worthy Vice-Chancellor and the whole University, I present to you this man whom I know to be suitable as much by character as by learning to proceed to the degree of ____; for which I pledge my faith to you and to the whole University."
After presentation, the graduate is called by name and kneels before the vice-chancellor and proffers their hands to the vice-chancellor, who clasps them and then confers the degree through the following Latin statement, known as the Trinitarian formula (in nomine Patris), which may be omitted at the request of the graduand:
"Auctoritate mihi commissa admitto te ad gradum ____, in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti, which translates in English as: "By the authority committed to me, I admit you to the degree of ____, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit."
The new graduate then rises, bows, and leaves the Senate House through the Doctor's door in Senate House Passage, where they receive their degree certificate.
=== Libraries and museums ===
The University of Cambridge has 116 libraries. Cambridge University Library, which holds more than eight million volumes, is the central research library. It is a legal deposit library, which entitles it to request a free copy of every book published in the UK and Ireland.
In addition to the University Library and its dependents, almost every faculty or department has a specialised library; for example, the History Faculty's Seeley Historical Library houses in excess of 100,000 books. Every college also maintains a library, partly for the purpose of undergraduate teaching; older colleges often possess many early books and manuscripts in a separate library. For example, Trinity College's Wren Library houses more than 200,000 books printed before 1800 and Corpus Christi College's Parker Library has more than 600 medieval manuscripts, representing one of the largest such collections in the world. Churchill Archives Centre on the campus of Churchill College houses the official papers of former British prime ministers Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher.
The university operates eight arts, cultural, and scientific museums, and a botanical garden. Fitzwilliam Museum is the art and antiquities museum; Kettle's Yard is the university's contemporary art gallery; the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology houses the university's collections of local antiquities along with archaeological and ethnographic artefacts from around the world; Cambridge University Museum of Zoology houses a wide range of zoological specimens from around the world and is known for its iconic finback whale skeleton that hangs outside the museum. Cambridge University Museum of Zoology also holds specimens collected by Charles Darwin, an 1831 University of Cambridge alumnus. Other museums include the Museum of Classical Archaeology, Whipple Museum of the History of Science, Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences, the university's geology museum, which displays some of Darwin's geological specimens and equipment (Darwin had studied under Adam Sedgwick, and wrote "I a geologist" in a notebook in 1838), and Polar Museum, part of the Scott Polar Research Institute, which is dedicated to Captain Scott and his men and focuses on the exploration of the Polar Regions. Cambridge University Botanic Garden, created in 1831, is the university's botanical garden.
=== Publishing and assessments ===
The university's publishing arm, Cambridge University Press & Assessment, is the oldest printer and publisher in the world and the second largest university press in the world. It is also the largest department of the university by financial income, reporting income above £800 million.
The university established its Local Examination Syndicate in 1858, now known as Cambridge University Press & Assessment after its merger with Cambridge University Press. It is the largest assessment agency in Europe. Cambridge University Press & Assessment plays a leading role in researching, developing, and delivering assessments around the world.
=== Awards ===
The University of Cambridge issues a number of prestigious awards and prizes annually to accomplished University of Cambridge faculty and students. It also issues some awards to those of varying global academic accomplishment regardless of whether their recipient is affiliated with the University of Cambridge. Some of these awards and prizes rank among the world's most estimable academic and intellectual accomplishments. Among the most prominent of them are:
Adam Smith Prize, awarded annually to the university's top-performing student in economics
Adams Prize, awarded annually by University of Cambridge mathematics faculty to a UK resident in recognition of distinguished research in mathematics
Browne Medal, awarded annually to students who win the Latin and Greek poetry competition
Carus Greek Testament Prizes, a prize issued to winners of an annual competition of the university's undergraduate and graduate in Greek translation of New Testament passeges
Chancellor's Gold Medal, a prize issued to winners of the university's annual poetry competition
Porson Prize, a prize for students who develop the best Greek composition
Raymond Horton-Smith Prize, awarded annually to the University of Cambridge Medical School student for the best medical school thesis
Seatonian Prize, awarded annually for the best English language poem on a sacred subject
Senior Wrangler, awarded annually to the university's top performing student on the Part II of Mathematical Tripos
Thirlwall Prize, awarded every other year for the best essay about British literature or history
Thomas Bond Sprague Prize, awarded annually to the top performing Part III of the Mathematical Tripos student in the areas of probability, statistics, finance and optimisation.
Tyson Medal, awarded annually to the top astronomy student
Mayhew Prize, awarded annually to the top performing Part III of the Mathematical Tripos student in areas of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics (DAMTP)
=== Reputation and rankings ===
Owing to its age and its social and academic status, the University of Cambridge is considered to be one of Britain's most prestigious or elite universities and to form, along with the University of Oxford, a top two that stand above other UK universities in this regard.
As of 2025, the University of Cambridge was ranked sixth in the world by QS Rankings, the ARWU ranked Cambridge fourth in the world, while Times Higher Education ranked Cambridge fifth in the world in its 2025 rankings (released in 2024).
In 2022, the QS World University Rankings by subject ranked a number of Cambridge's programmes among the world's best: Cambridge's arts and humanities programme was ranked second-best in the world; the engineering and technology programme was ranked second-best in the world; the life sciences and medicine programme was ranked fourth-best in the world; the natural sciences program was ranked third-best in the world; and the social sciences and management programme was ranked fourth-best in the world.
As of 2025, the University of Cambridge has been ranked as the top public university in the world for twelve years straight by the Center for World University Rankings.
== Student life ==
=== Formal halls and May balls ===
One privilege of student life at the University of Cambridge is the opportunity to attend formal dinners at a student's respective college, known as Formal Hall that are held regularly during academic terms and daily at some of the university's colleges. During Formal Hall, students typically sit down for a meal in their gowns while fellows and sometimes guests eat separately at a so-called High Table. The beginning and end of the function is usually marked with grace, which is said in Latin. Special Formal Halls are organised for Christmas and the Commemoration of Benefactors.
After the exam period, May Week is held during which it is customary to celebrate by attending May Balls, which are all-night lavish parties held in the colleges where food, drinks, and entertainment are provided. So-called Suicide Sunday, the first day of May Week, is a popular date for garden parties.
=== JCR and MCR ===
In addition to university-wide representation, students can participate in their own college student unions, which are known as Junior Combination Room (JCR) for undergraduates and Middle Combination Room (MCR) for post-graduates. These serve as a link between college staff and members and include officers elected annually between the fellow students; individual JCR and MCRs also report to Cambridge Students' Union, which offers training courses for some of the positions within the body.
=== Societies ===
Numerous student-run societies exist at the University of Cambridge designed to encourage students who share common passions or interests to periodically meet or discuss these interests. As of 2010, there were 751 registered societies at the university. In addition to these, individual colleges often promote their own societies and sports teams.
Although technically independent from the university, Cambridge Union, a globally renowned debate organisation and the oldest debate organisation in the world, offers students high-level debate and public speaking experience. Drama societies include the Cambridge University Amateur Dramatic Club (CUADC) and the comedy club Footlights, whose alumni include many well-known show business personalities. The university's Chamber Orchestra, composed entirely of university students, offers a range of orchestra programs, including symphonies.
=== Sports ===
Rowing is one of the most popular sports at the University of Cambridge, and there are competitions between colleges, notably the bumps races. The University of Cambridge's rowing competition against Oxford is known as the Boat Race. Varsity matches against Oxford also exist in other sports, including cricket, rugby, chess, and tiddlywinks. Athletes who representing the university in a varsity match are entitled to a Blue or a Half Blue, depending on the sport and other criteria.
The University of Cambridge Sports Centre opened in August 2013. Phase one included a sports hall, a fitness suite, a strength and conditioning room, a multi-purpose room, and Eton and Rugby fives courts. Phase two of its development included five glass-backed squash courts and a team training room. Future phases include indoor and outdoor tennis courts and a swimming pool.
The university also has an athletic track at Wilberforce Road, an indoor cricket school, and Fenner's, the cricket ground for Cambridge University Cricket Club. The university has an ice hockey club called Cambridge University Ice Hockey Club. The Hawks' Club is a private members' club for the university's leading sportsmen. The Ospreys are the equivalent female club.
=== Student newspapers and radio ===
Cambridge's oldest student newspaper is Varsity. Established in 1947, notable figures who have edited the newspaper include Jeremy Paxman, BBC media editor Amol Rajan, and Vogue international editor Suzy Menkes. The student newspaper also has featured the early writings of Zadie Smith, who appeared in Varsity's literary anthology offshoot The Mays, Robert Webb, Tristram Hunt, and Tony Wilson.
Varsity has a circulation of 9,000 and is the only student publication published weekly. News stories from Varsity have appeared in The Guardian, The Times, The Sunday Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Independent, and i.
Other student publications include The Cambridge Student, which is funded by Cambridge Students' Union and is published fortnightly, The Tab, and The Mays Founded by two University of Cambridge students in 2009, The Tab is an online media outlet featuring light-hearted features content. The Mays is a literary anthology including student prose, poetry, and visual art from both University of Cambridge and Oxford students. Founded in 1992 by three Cambridge students, the anthology publishes once a year and is overseen by Varsity Publications Ltd., the same body responsible for Varsity. Another literary journal, Notes, is published roughly twice per term. Additionally, many colleges have their own student-run publications.
The student radio station, Cam FM, is run jointly by University of Cambridge and Anglia Ruskin University students. The station holds an FM licence (frequency 97.2 MHz), and hosts a mixture of music, talk, and sports shows.
=== Student Union ===
All students at the University of Cambridge are represented by Cambridge Students' Union, which was founded in 2020 as a merger of two student unions, Cambridge University Students' Union (CUSU) and the Graduate Union (GU). CUSU previously represented all University students, and GU represented graduate students.
The eight most important positions in Cambridge Students' Union are occupied by sabbatical officers. In 2020, the sabbatical officers were elected with a turnout of 20.88% of the whole student body.
In 2021, Cambridge Students' Union launched a petition opposing the financial collaboration between the university and the government of United Arab Emirates that was worth £400m. The Union cited a "values gap" and threat to "academic freedom and institutional autonomy" following the release of internal UAE documents. Citing UAE's history of violating international human rights laws, it warned that university staff were vulnerable under the partnership to repression by gender, sexuality, or freedom of expression.
In 2023, 72% of the Students' Union voted in favour of hosting talks regarding the removal of all animal products from cafes and canteens operated by the university's catering services. The students backed vegan food in response to threats to the climate and biodiversity. The vote is non-binding since the university controls the catering service. The vote was supported by the student chapter of Plant-Based Universities. After the vote, Darwin College decided to serve only vegan food at its May Ball in 2023.
=== Politics ===
A protest in Cambridge with an attendance of more than a thousand students and residents – the city's largest demonstration – called on the University of Cambridge to divest from Israel over Israel's actions in the Gaza Strip during the Gaza war. Students and staff also walked out of lectures in protest over the same issues.
Students and staff at the University of Cambridge wrote an open letter to the university, with more than 1,400 signatories, demanding it acknowledge the "slaughter of innocent Palestinians", "sever financial ties with Israel" as it had with Russia following the invasion of Ukraine, and demanding it investigate its financial ties with arms manufacturers that potentially supplied to Israel, mentioning, among others, Plasan and Caterpillar.
== Notable alumni and academics ==
The University of Cambridge has produced many distinguished alumni in various fields. As of 2020, 70 alumni have won Nobel Prizes. As of 2019, Cambridge alumni, faculty members, and researchers have won 11 Fields Medals and seven Turing Awards. Highly notable University of Cambridge alumni by specialty include:
=== Education ===
Notable alumni in academia include the founders and early professors of Harvard University, including John Harvard himself; Emily Davies, founder of Girton College at Cambridge, the first residential higher education institution for women, and John Haden Badley, founder of the first mixed-sex public school (i.e. private) in England; Anil Kumar Gain, 20th century mathematician and founder of the Vidyasagar University in Bengal, Siram Govindarajulu Naidu, founder and vice chancellor of Sri Venkateswara University; and Menachem Ben-Sasson, president of Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
=== Humanities, music, and art ===
In the humanities, Greek studies were inaugurated at the University of Cambridge in the early sixteenth century by Desiderius Erasmus; contributions to the field were made by Richard Bentley and Richard Porson. John Chadwick was associated with Michael Ventris in the decipherment of Linear B. The Latinist A. E. Housman taught at the university but is more widely known for his contributions as a poet. Simon Ockley made a significant contribution to Arabic Studies.
University of Cambridge academics include economists such as John Maynard Keynes, Thomas Malthus, Alfred Marshall, Milton Friedman, Joan Robinson, Piero Sraffa, Ha-Joon Chang, and Amartya Sen. Notable philosophers include Francis Bacon, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Leo Strauss, George Santayana, G. E. M. Anscombe, Karl Popper, Bernard Williams, Allama Muhammad Iqbal, and G. E. Moore. Notable alumni historians include Thomas Babington Macaulay, Frederic William Maitland, Lord Acton, Joseph Needham, E. H. Carr, Hugh Trevor-Roper, Rhoda Dorsey, E. P. Thompson, Eric Hobsbawm, Quentin Skinner, Niall Ferguson, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., and Karl Schweizer.
Notable alumni in religion include Rowan Williams, the former Archbishop of Canterbury and his predecessors; William Tyndale, the biblical translator; Thomas Cranmer, Hugh Latimer, and Nicholas Ridley, known as the Oxford martyrs from the place of their execution; Benjamin Whichcote and the Cambridge Platonists; William Paley, the Christian philosopher known primarily for formulating the teleological argument for the existence of God; William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson, largely responsible for the abolition of the slave trade; Evangelical churchman Charles Simeon; John William Colenso, the bishop of Natal who interpreted Scripture and its relations with native peoples that seemed dangerously radical at the time; John Bainbridge Webster and David F. Ford, theologians; and six winners of the Templeton Prize, the highest accolade in the world associated with the study of religion.
Notable University of Cambridge alumni in the field of musical composition include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Charles Villiers Stanford, William Sterndale Bennett, Orlando Gibbons and, more recently, Alexander Goehr, Thomas Adès, John Rutter, Julian Anderson, Judith Weir, and Maury Yeston. The university has also produced world-renowned instrumentalists and conductors, including Colin Davis, John Eliot Gardiner, Roger Norrington, Trevor Pinnock, Andrew Manze, Richard Egarr, Mark Elder, Richard Hickox, Christopher Hogwood, Andrew Marriner, David Munrow, Simon Standage, Endellion Quartet, and Fitzwilliam Quartet. Although the university in music predominantly for its contributions to choral music, university alumni in popular music include members of contemporary bands such as Radiohead, Hot Chip, Procol Harum, Clean Bandit, Sports Team songwriter and entertainer Jonathan King, Henry Cow, and the singer-songwriter Nick Drake.
Artists Quentin Blake, Roger Fry, Rose Ferraby, and Julian Trevelyan, sculptors Antony Gormley, Marc Quinn, and Anthony Caro, and photographers Antony Armstrong-Jones, Cecil Beaton, and Mick Rock are each University of Cambridge alumni.
=== Literature ===
Writers to have studied at the university include the Elizabethan dramatist Christopher Marlowe, his fellow University Wits, Thomas Nashe, and Robert Greene, arguably the first professional authors in England, and John Fletcher who collaborated with Shakespeare on The Two Noble Kinsmen, Henry VIII, and the lost Cardenio and succeeded him as house playwright for The King's Men. Samuel Pepys matriculated in 1650, known for his diary, the original manuscripts of which are now housed in the Pepys Library at Magdalene College. Lawrence Sterne, whose novel Tristram Shandy is judged to have inspired many modern narrative devices and styles. In the following century, the novelists W. M. Thackeray, author of Vanity Fair, Charles Kingsley, author of Westward Ho! and Water Babies, and Samuel Butler, remembered for The Way of All Flesh and Erewhon, are all University of Cambridge alumni.
Ghost story writer M. R. James served as provost of King's College from 1905 to 1918. Novelist Amy Levy was the second Jewish woman to attend the university. Modernist writers to have attended the university include E. M. Forster, Rosamond Lehmann, Vladimir Nabokov, Christopher Isherwood, and Malcolm Lowry. Playwright J. B. Priestley, physicist and novelist C. P. Snow, and children's writer A. A. Milne are each early 20th century alumni of the university. They were followed by postmodernists Patrick White, J. G. Ballard, and early postcolonial writer E. R. Braithwaite. More recently, alumni include comedy writers Douglas Adams, Tom Sharpe and Howard Jacobson, the popular novelists A. S. Byatt, Salman Rushdie, Nick Hornby, Zadie Smith, Louise Dean, Robert Harris, and Sebastian Faulks, action writers Michael Crichton, David Gibbins, and Jin Yong, and contemporary playwrights and screenwriters, including Julian Fellowes, Stephen Poliakoff, Michael Frayn, and Peter Shaffer, as well as musical theatre writers Toby Marlow and Lucy Moss.
Within poetry, University of Cambridge alumni include the poets Edmund Spenser, author of The Faerie Queene, metaphysical poets John Donne, who wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls, George Herbert and Andrew Marvell, and John Milton, who is renowned for Paradise Lost, Restoration poet and playwright John Dryden, pre-romantic poet Thomas Gray best known his Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, William Wordsworth, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whose joint work Lyrical Ballads is often cited as marking the beginning of the Romantic movement, later Romantics including Lord Byron and the post-romantic Lord Tennyson, authors of the best known carpe diem poems, including Robert Herrick known for "To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time" with the first line "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may", and Andrew Marvell, who authored "To His Coy Mistress", classical scholar and lyric poet A. E. Housman, war poets Siegfried Sassoon and Rupert Brooke, modernist T. E. Hulme, confessional poets Ted Hughes, Sylvia Plath, and John Berryman, and, more recently, Cecil Day-Lewis, Joseph Brodsky, Kathleen Raine, and Geoffrey Hill.
At least nine Poets Laureate graduated from the University of Cambridge. University alumni have also made notable contributions to literary criticism, having produced, among others, F. R. Leavis, I. A. Richards, C. K. Ogden, and William Empson, often collectively known as the Cambridge Critics, the Marxists Raymond Williams, sometimes regarded as the founding father of cultural studies, and Terry Eagleton, author of Literary Theory: An Introduction, the most successful academic book ever published, the aesthetician Harold Bloom, new historicist Stephen Greenblatt, and biographical writers including Lytton Strachey, a central figure in the Bloomsbury Group, Peter Ackroyd, and Claire Tomalin.
Actors and directors who attended the University of Cambridge include Ian McKellen, Eleanor Bron, Miriam Margolyes, Derek Jacobi, Michael Redgrave, James Mason, Emma Thompson, Stephen Fry, Hugh Laurie, John Cleese, John Oliver, Freddie Highmore, Eric Idle, Graham Chapman, Graeme Garden, Tim Brooke-Taylor, Bill Oddie, Simon Russell Beale, Tilda Swinton, Thandie Newton, Georgie Henley, Rachel Weisz, Sacha Baron Cohen, Tom Hiddleston, Sara Mohr-Pietsch, Eddie Redmayne, Dan Stevens, Jamie Bamber, Lily Cole, David Mitchell, Robert Webb, Richard Ayoade, Mel Giedroyc, and Sue Perkins. Directors Mike Newell, Robert Icke, Sam Mendes, Simon McBurney, Peter Hall, Trevor Nunn, Stephen Frears, Paul Greengrass, Chris Weitz, and John Madden each are alumni of the university.
=== Mathematics and sciences ===
Isaac Newton, who conducted many of his experiments on the grounds of Trinity College, ranks among the most famed University of Cambridge alumni. Other alumni of the university include Francis Bacon, who developed the scientific method of inquiry, mathematicians John Dee and Brook Taylor, pure mathematicians G. H. Hardy, John Edensor Littlewood, Mary Cartwright, and Augustus De Morgan; Michael Atiyah, a geometry specialist; William Oughtred, inventor of the logarithmic scale; John Wallis, first to explain the law of acceleration; Srinivasa Ramanujan, a genius who made substantial contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series, and continued fractions; and James Clerk Maxwell, who brought about the second great unification of physics (the first being accredited to Newton) with his classical theory of electromagnetic radiation. In 1890, mathematician Philippa Fawcett, a University of Cambridge student, registered the highest score in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos exams but as a woman was then ineligible to claim the title Senior Wrangler.
In biology, University of Cambridge alumni include Charles Darwin, famous for developing the theory of natural selection and explaining evolution, is an alumnus of Christ's College. Biologists Francis Crick and James Watson developed the model explaining the three-dimensional structure of DNA while working at the Cavendish Laboratory; University of Cambridge graduates Maurice Wilkins and especially Rosalind Franklin produced key X-ray crystallography data, which was shared with Watson by Wilkins. Wilkins went on to verify the proposed structure and win the Nobel Prize with Watson and Crick. More recently, Ian Wilmut was part of the team responsible for the first cloning of a mammal (Dolly the Sheep in 1996), naturalist and broadcaster David Attenborough, ethologist Jane Goodall, expert on chimpanzees was a PhD student at the university, anthropologist Dame Alison Richard, former vice-chancellor of the university, and Frederick Sanger, a biochemist known for developing Sanger sequencing and receiving two Nobel prizes.
Despite the university's delay in admitting women to its full degree programs, women associated with the University of Cambridge have been at the heart of scientific research throughout the 20th century. Notable female scientists include biochemist Marjory Stephenson, plant physiologist Gabrielle Howard, social anthropologist Audrey Richards, psychoanalyst Alix Strachey, who with her husband translated the works of Sigmund Freud, Kavli Prize-winner Brenda Milner, responsible for co-discovering specialised brain networks for memory and cognition. Veterinary epidemiologist Sarah Cleaveland has contributed to advances in eliminating rabies in the Serengeti.
The university is widely considered the birthplace of the computer; mathematician and father of the computer Charles Babbage designed the world's first computing system as early as the mid-1800s. Cambridge alumnus Alan Turing devised the basis for modern computing, and Maurice Wilkes later created the first programmable computer. The webcam was also invented at the University of Cambridge, showing the Trojan Room coffee pot in the university's computer laboratories.
In physics, Ernest Rutherford, regarded as the father of nuclear physics, spent much of his life at the university, where he worked closely with E. J. Williams and Niels Bohr, a major contributor to the understanding of the atom, J. J. Thomson, discoverer of the electron, James Chadwick, discoverer of the neutron, and John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, responsible for first splitting the atom. J. Robert Oppenheimer, leader of the Manhattan Project that developed the atomic bomb, also studied under Rutherford and Thomson. Joan Curran devised the chaff technique used during World War II to disrupt radar on Axis powers' planes.
University of Cambridge alumni in astronomy include John Herschel, Arthur Eddington, and Paul Dirac, discoverer of antimatter and one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics; Stephen Hawking, theoretical physicist and the university's long-serving Lucasian Professor of Mathematics until 2009; and Martin Rees, the current Astronomer Royal and former Master of Trinity College. John Polkinghorne, a mathematician before his ordination to the Anglican ministry, received the Templeton Prize for his work reconciling science and religion.
Other significant university alumni in science include Henry Cavendish, who discovered hydrogen; Frank Whittle, co-inventor of the jet engine; William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), who formulated the original Laws of Thermodynamics; William Fox Talbot, who invented the camera, Alfred North Whitehead, Einstein's major opponent; Jagadish Chandra Bose, one of the fathers of radio science; Lord Rayleigh, who made extensive contributions to both theoretical and experimental physics in the 20th century; and Georges Lemaître, who first proposed the Big Bang theory.
=== Politics ===
The University of Cambridge has a strong reputation in the field of politics, having educated:
Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England (1653–58)
14 British Prime Ministers, including Robert Walpole, who is widely regarded as the first British Prime Minister. The last Cambridge graduate to have served as British Prime Minister was Stanley Baldwin.
At least 30 foreign heads of state or government, including presidents of India, Ireland, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, South Korea, Singapore, and Zambia; along with prime ministers of Australia, Bahrain, Burma, France, India, Jordan, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Thailand, Pakistan, Poland, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and New Zealand
At least nine monarchs, including Kings Edward VII, George VI, and (current King) Charles III of the United Kingdom, King Peter II of Yugoslavia, Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, and Queen Sofía of Spain. The university had also educated a large number of royals, including Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex
Three signatories of the United States Declaration of Independence, Thomas Lynch Jr., Arthur Middleton, and Thomas Nelson Jr.
=== Sports ===
By 2016, athletes who are university graduates or attendees had won 194 Olympic medals, including 88 gold medals. Alumni of the university include Chinese six-time world table tennis champion Deng Yaping; sprinter and athletics hero Harold Abrahams; inventors of the modern game of football, H. de Winton and J. C. Thring; Indian cricketer Colonel H. H. Shri Sir Ranjitsinhji Vibhaji II; and George Mallory, the mountaineer.
=== Technology ===
University of Cambridge alumni are responsible some of the world's greatest advances in technology, and several have gone on to found or co-found leading technology companies, including Demis Hassabis, the co-founder and chief executive officer of DeepMind, an artificial intelligence subsidiary company of Alphabet Inc responsible for AlphaGo and Sophie Wilson and Steve Furber, co-founders of ARM, a British semiconductor and software design company based in Cambridge.
=== Notable current academics ===
The academic staff at the University of Cambridge includes several notable scholars, including Sriya Iyer, known for her research in the economics of religion and development; Graham Virgo, specialising in equity and the law of restitution; Aaron Koller, a specialist in Semitic languages and Jewish intellectual history; Mihaela van der Schaar, known for her research in AI-enabled personalised medicine.
== In literature and popular culture ==
Throughout its history, the University of Cambridge has frequently been featured in literature, artistic works, television, and film. Cambridge was mentioned as early as the 14th century in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. In The Reeve's Tale, the two main fictional characters are students at a University of Cambridge college called Soler Halle, which is believed to refer to King's Hall and is now part of Trinity College. The university has been the setting for all or parts of numerous novels, including Douglas Adams' Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, Rose Macaulay's They Were Defeated, and Tom Sharpe's Porterhouse Blue.
Other notable examples of the University of Cambridge in popular culture include:
Xu Zhimo's best-known poem, "On Leaving Cambridge" (simplified Chinese: 再别康桥; traditional Chinese: 再別康橋), published in 1928, is part of China's national curriculum taught to all schoolchildren and has generated a tremendous amount of adoration of the University of Cambridge in China.
In the Psmith series, a collection of novels published between 1908 and 1923 by P. G. Wodehouse, the title character and Mike, his closest friend, study at the University of Cambridge.
The 1981 film Chariots of Fire is partly set at Cambridge between 1919 and 1924 when protagonist Harold Abrahams (played by Ben Cross) was a student there.
The 1983 film Monty Python's The Meaning of Life features Churchill College in the film's church scene.
The film Maurice, based on the 1971 novel Maurice, is partly filmed at the University of Cambridge.
The 1989 film Dead Poets Society features character John Keating (played by Robin Williams), who is a Welton Academy English teacher described in his senior annual as "Cambridge bound".
King's College of the University of Cambridge features prominently in the 1990 short story "The Fenstanton Witch" by M. R. James.
The 1996 film True Blue centres around a mutiny at the time of the 1985 Oxford-Cambridge rowing race.
The television series Frasier (1993–2004) features Niles Crane, portrayed by David Hyde Pierce, who studied as a graduate student at Cambridge.
In the television series The Big Bang Theory (2007–2019), Raj Koothrappali, portrayed by Kunal Nayyar, studied astrophysics at Cambridge, and Priya Koothrappali, portrayed by Aarti Mann, studied law at Cambridge.
In the 2002 film 28 Days Later, a chimpanzee carrying the "Rage" virus is freed from a fictional Cambridge laboratory.
The 2008 film The History Boys is about a group of boys applying to study history at Cambridge and Oxford.
In the 2011 film Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows, Sherlock Holmes is shown meeting his nemesis, Professor Moriarty, in Moriarty's office with a brief stock shot establishing it as King's College, where Moriarty is a professor.
In the 2014 biographical film The Theory of Everything, young Stephen Hawking falls in love with literature student Jane Wilde at the University of Cambridge, where both of them study.
The 2014 film The Imitation Game is a historical drama that features Alan Turing (played by Benedict Cumberbatch), who is referenced as being a Cambridge alumnus and fellow at King's College at Cambridge.
The 2015 film The Man Who Knew Infinity about mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan was filmed at Trinity College, Cambridge, where Ramanujan was a fellow.
Red Joan (2018) was partly filmed at the University of Cambridge. Joan Smith (played by Judi Dench), loosely inspired by Melita Norwood, is depicted as studying physics at Cambridge.
The 2021 film The Dig features multiple archaeologists with ties to the University of Cambridge, including Charles Phillips (played by Ken Stott) and Peggy Piggott (played by Lily James).
The ITV television series Granchester (2014–) is partly set in and filmed at Cambridge.
The television series Professor T (2021–) stars Ben Miller as Professor Jasper Tempest, a genius University of Cambridge criminologist.
The 2023 film Oppenheimer contains establishing shots of King's College filmed by the River Cam. However, J. Robert Oppenheimer actually studied at Christ's College.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Armorial of British universities
Cambridge University Constabulary
Cambridge University primates
Coat of arms of the University of Cambridge
List of medieval universities
List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of Cambridge
List of organisations with a British royal charter
List of professorships at the University of Cambridge
List of universities in the United Kingdom
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
== Bibliography ==
Anonymous (2009) [1790]. A Concise and Accurate Description of the University, Town and County of Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-00065-9.
Brooke, Christopher N. L. (1988–2004). A History of the University of Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, 4 vols., ISBN 0-521-32882-9, ISBN 0-521-35059-X, ISBN 0-521-35060-3, ISBN 0-521-34350-X
Deacon, Richard (1985). The Cambridge Apostles: A History of Cambridge University's Elite Intellectual Secret Society. Cassell. ISBN 978-0-947728-13-7.
Garrett, Martin (2004). Cambridge: A Cultural and Literary History, Signal Books. ISBN 1-902669-79-7
Howarth, T. E. B. (1978). Cambridge Between Two Wars, London: Collins. ISBN 978-0-002-11181-2
Koyama, Noboru; Ruxton, Ian, transl. "Japanese Students at Cambridge University in the Meiji Era, 1868–1912: Pioneers for the Modernization of Japan". Archived from the original on 17 February 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2009., A Translation from a Japanese Original. Lulu Press. 2004. ISBN 978-1-4116-1256-3. Archived from the original on 14 February 2005. This book includes information about the wooden spoon and the university in the 19th century as well as the Japanese students.
Leader, Damien (1988–2004). A History of the University of Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32882-1.
Lee, John S. and Christian Steer, eds, Commemoration in Medieval Cambridge History of the University of Cambridge, Boydell, 2018. ISBN 978-1-78327-334-8
Leedham-Green, Elisabeth (1996). A Concise History of the University of Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43978-7.
Rawle, Tim (2016). Adamson, John (ed.). Cambridge. Oxbridge Portfolio. ISBN 978-0-9572867-2-6.
Smith, J.; Stray, C. (2001). Teaching and Learning in 19th-Century Cambridge. Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-85115-783-2.
Stubbings, Frank (1995). Bedders, Bulldogs and Bedells: A Cambridge Glossary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47978-3.
Webb, Grayden (2005). The History of the University of Cambridge and Education in England. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32882-1.
Willis, Robert (1988). Clark, John Willis (ed.). The Architectural History of the University of Cambridge and of the Colleges of Cambridge and Eton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35851-4.
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981_European_Fencing_Championships | 1981 European Fencing Championships | The first European Fencing Championships were held in 1981 in Foggia, Italy. The competition consisted of individual events only.
== Medal summary ==
=== Men's events ===
=== Women's events ===
=== Medal table ===
== References ==
Results at the European Fencing Confederation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_(Ciara_album)#Jackie_Tour | Jackie (Ciara album) | Jackie is the sixth studio album by American singer Ciara, and was released on May 1, 2015, through Epic Records. Following her departure from her previous record label, and the release of her self-titled fifth studio album, Ciara embarked on a hiatus in order to focus on her relationship with American rapper Future, which provoked Ciara to start work on her sixth album which was predominantly inspired by her then-fiancé. In May 2014, Ciara gave birth to her first child and shortly thereafter called off the engagement. Following the public break-up, Ciara postponed the album and began to record new music, while concentrating on motherhood.
During the recording of the album, Ciara worked with numerous long time collaborators including Harmony "H-Money" Samuels and Polow da Don, as well as less frequent collaborators such as Dr. Luke and Cirkut. The producers' efforts resulted in a predominantly pop and R&B album that took influence from hip hop, dance-pop, house, electropop, trap, drum and bass, and 1990s R&B, with lyrics that revolve around themes of love, betrayal, and motherhood. Entitled after her mother, Ciara called upon numerous artists to be featured on Jackie, including Pitbull and Missy Elliott.
Upon release, Jackie was met with a mixed reception from music critics. The album peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard 200, with just 25,000 album-equivalent units. It was preceded by the release of the lead single, "I Bet", which debuted at number 96 on the US Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 43. The album was further promoted by a second single, "Dance like We're Making Love", and Ciara embarked upon the Jackie Tour.
== Background ==
Following her departure from her previous record label, Ciara signed a new deal with Epic Records, and released her self-titled fifth studio album in July 2013. In late January 2014, Ciara premiered a live version of a song entitled "Anytime" at the Degree Women Grammys Celebration in Los Angeles. On February 2, 2014, Ciara premiered the studio version produced by Boi-1da and Katalyst, featuring her then-boyfriend and rapper Future. After her engagement to Future, Ciara revealed to W in April 2014 that her sixth studio album would be predominantly inspired by her then-fiancé. Ciara gave birth to her first child in May 2014. After claims of Future's infidelity during their relationship had surfaced, it was reported that the couple's engagement had been called off. Following their very public break-up, Ciara's album release was further postponed to 2015, and during this time the singer "quietly" recorded new music, while concentrating on motherhood.
== Recording and production ==
In September 2013, producer Mike WILL Made-It revealed that Ciara had begun work on her sixth studio album. In December 2013, Ciara confirmed she was in the process of making a new album. During an interview with Rap-Up magazine, Ciara revealed that recording for her sixth album began around Thanksgiving of 2013 and she would be releasing new music "really soon". While discussing the album's direction, she claimed: "Sonically I am so content; I had my dream team of producers who I always wanted to work with." In August 2014, Ciara posted on her Instagram account a photo of herself and American record producer Dr. Luke, suggesting they were working on new songs for the album. In another photo, she wrote: "We [are] having an amazing time, making classic music." Luke previous worked with Ciara on the track "Tell Me What Your Name Is" for her third studio album Fantasy Ride (2009).
In October 2014, Ciara posted a photo of her and record producer Polow da Don, who previously worked with her on her 2006 hit "Promise" and on 2009's "Never Ever". In December 2014, she went back to work with Luke, posting another photo along with Epic Records CEO L.A. Reid, teasing the fans with the caption, "Wait 'til u hear what's cooking it's worth the wait." It was rumoured that Luke produced two songs, "Dance like We're Making Love" and "Give Me Love," which was later confirmed. Ciara also worked with American songwriter Diane Warren, she stated: "Warren is a legendary writer. A legendary person. You're going to remember every bit of the session you have with her. She's so vocal – you know that you're with someone who knows what she's doing." In January 2015, it was announced that Ciara was "putting the finishing touches on the lead single with Harmony Samuels." Other producers such as The Underdogs, Lunchmoney Lewis and songwriter Ester Dean also contributed to the album.
== Composition ==
=== Writing and inspiration ===
In an interview for L'Uomo Vogue, Ciara revealed about the album: "It will be an authentic album, real. I talk openly and honestly about my emotions as a woman, mother, about my ambitions, but also my vulnerability, my happy moments and my sad moments." Later, Ciara revealed that the album was going to be called "Jackie" – the name of her mom – since she "felt like it was the best title for where I am in my life right now. Being a mom, I can now see the world through her eyes and fully understand what she was thinking. Being a mom has changed me forever." The singer also commented about the difference between Jackie and her other albums, stating: "I am so much more expressive and confident than I have ever been in my life. Even though there has been musical and personal growth, this album really takes me back in time, to when I didn’t overthink the creative process. Before, I would have said 'Goodies' was my favorite album, but now I believe 'Jackie' is my best body of work." Regarding its sounds, Ciara defined as "urban pop-slash-R&B-hip-hop record." Ciara also spoke about the overall themes of the album, commenting: "Not every song on this album is super autobiographical, but at the heart of it all, it talks about things that are real. Every song is needed, though I felt like ["I Bet"] really stood out because of the timing, with how I wanted to tell my story with my music. I felt like it connected with people, like when I was in the same room with L.A. Reid and Harmony, looking at this list of songs. Music is, really, a way for people to draw some form of strength. You never know what a song can do for someone."
=== Songs ===
The album opens with "Jackie (B.M.F.)" an uptempo trap and drum and bass song with lyrics about "birthing a nine-pound, 10-ounce baby" and "concluding that she's 'a bad motherf**ker.'" The next track, the synth-driven, electro-lite "That's How I'm Feelin'", was considered a "finger-snapping, girls-night-out track" and it features American rappers Pitbull and Missy Elliott – who previously worked with Ciara on "1, 2 Step", "Lose Control" and "Work". "Lullaby" was labelled a "dance-friendly," "old-school bass track," that uses a metaphor "that's unbecoming of a new mom to put her new man to bed tonight." The fourth track "Dance like We're Making Love" was named a sultry and sensual midtempo pop song that has been compared to Janet Jackson. "Stuck on You" is a pop song, where Ciara uses a "brash, unapologetic and borderline cocky" tone.
"Fly" has "'80s electro sample" and a "zwurpingly odd Squarepusher chords", with lyrics where Ciara insists that both her and a former lover should find happiness elsewhere."
The seventh track "I Bet" is an R&B track with lyrical content that are based on subjects of betrayal. It features "liquid acoustic guitar and snapping drums" and co-author Theron Thomas' Migos-like vocal interjections." "Give Me Love" is an EDM and a house song where her voice ventures into "deeper, smoother levels and tones," while the pop "Kiss & Tell" was defined as a "Nile Rodgers-esque retro-soul bounce with lyrics about keeping secrets. "All Good" was named a "disco-lite" and bubblegum pop song, while "Only One" was considered a pop ballad. The dance-pop "One Woman Army", a song written as the title track to the scrapped project of the same name, has "fizzy synths and club sirens" and robo-military march. Lyrically, it is an ode to doing it yourself. The album's regular edition closes with "I Got You", a lullaby for Ciara's year-old son, Future Jr."
== Release and promotion ==
On January 14, 2015, Ciara announced the title of her album would be "Jackie" via her official Twitter account. Then in March 2015, Ciara announced that she would release Jackie in May 2015 and that she planned on touring the US later in the year. The album is titled after her mother, stating, "I can now see the world through her eyes and I know what it's like to be a mom... I am a mini Jackie and it's that simple."
=== Live performances ===
Ciara performed "I Bet" on Live! with Kelly and Michael on April 3, 2015, and during the BET Black Girls Rock! special on April 5, 2015. She performed the "I Bet (R3hab Remix)" with producer, R3hab, at the Coachella Music Festival on April 18, 2015, as well as the song, "Baby Get Up", which will appear on R3hab's upcoming compilation album. On April 24, 2015, Ciara premiered a video snippet for the album's sixth track, "Fly", on social media site, Instagram; the video was filmed by Taylor Cut Films. She went on to premiere video snippets for the album's other tracks, "Give Me Love" and "One Woman Army (Intro)" in the following days. On May 8, 2015, a music video was released for "I Got You" in honor of Mothers Day.
=== Jackie Tour ===
The North American tour dates were announced March 2015. It consisted of 19 shows solely in the United States. In October, Harris announced a second US leg to be sponsored by Topshop. It included dates in Canada. These dates were later postponed to March and April 2016. Ultimately, the tour dates were cancelled. The concert in Silver Springs, Maryland was streamed live via Yahoo! Screen in partnership with Live Nation.
Speaking on the tour, Ciara stated: "I am so excited about this tour. It has been almost 6 years since my last tour. I feel this album is my best body of work. It is important to me that my fans have the greatest show experience possible. On the Jackie tour, fans will get a chance to know me more intimately, jam to good music, and most importantly be entertained. I can not wait!"
=== Set list ===
The following setlist was obtained from the concert held on May 30, 2015, at Club Nokia in Los Angeles, California. It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour.
=== Tour dates ===
== Singles ==
"I Bet" was released as the official lead single from the album on January 26, 2015 in the United States. It officially impacted Rhythmic and Urban contemporary radio in the US the following day. The "I Bet" music video made its television premiere on Extra on March 9, 2015, followed by an immediate release to Vevo and YouTube. On April 24, 2015, Rap-Up magazine reported that the Pitbull and Missy Elliott collab, "That's How I'm Feelin'", would be released as Jackie's second single. Three days later, however, it was announced via Ciara's official social media accounts that "Dance Like We're Making Love" would serve as the album's second single instead. "Dance like We're Making Love" was then made available as a digital download on April 28, 2015, in the United States, along with the pre-order of the album. Following the announcement that "Dance like We're Making Love" would serve as the album's second single, "Give Me Love" was given an official US urban contemporary impact date of June 9, 2015. A new audio upload of "Give Me Love" featuring the official single cover, was uploaded to Ciara's Vevo account following the single's announcement. However, on June 4, Ciara confirmed herself that the aforementioned "Dance like We're Making Love" would be issued as the album's second single as previously planned. The song impacted US urban contemporary radio on June 30, 2015.
== Critical reception ==
Jackie received mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 60, which indicates "mixed or average reviews", based on 8 reviews. Nolan Feeney of Time noted that "'Jackie' rivals 2013's self-titled quasi-comeback as Ciara's most consistent and self-assured record to date." Feeney also approved the album for featuring "her most adventurous production", noting that "nearly every song on the record feels like a companion to at least one other proven track in her back catalog." In a positive note, Jon Caramanica of The New York Times claimed that "'Jackie' is among Ciara's strongest albums, and her most varied." Writing for New York Daily News, Jim Farber claimed that the album "features the most upbeat, and fun, music of Ciara's career." Ian Gittins of Virgin Media described it as "a triumph, an orgy of luscious, sharp-witted R&B and sumptuous soul assembled by a crack team of producers." Dan Weiss of Spin found out that "the strong-heeled 'Jackie' is far from conservative, and possibly more daring, with three of the year's best songs at the very top, middle, and bottom ('Jackie [B.M.F.],' 'I Bet,' 'One Woman Army'), which couldn't be more different from each other." Eyan B. Patrick of Exclaim! named it "a solidly produced effort that features an artist comfortable with who she is both privately and as an artist."
Anupa Mistry of Pitchfork called the album "a serviceable record that gets better with multiple listens", but remarked that "it hints at a storyline, but doesn't go deeper" [...] "[W]hat would've given her the edge that her peers maintain is some insight behind Ciara's redemption songs." Idolator's Christina Lee echoed the same sentiment, stating: "Instead of expanding on how her life has changed, though, Jackie finds Ciara settling into her comfort zone. These songs are good fun, though they aren’t as revelatory or forward-thinking as ‘Body Party’ or the rest of 2013's Ciara, the best album she's made." Stacy Ann-Ellis of Vibe also noted that "[s]onically, it feels all over the place and by album's end, there's no clear cut takeaway message," but ensured that "there are still more positives than negatives to be found on 'Jackie'." Michael Arceneaux of Complex was unsure about Ciara's personality on the album, declaring that she "doesn't know who she wants to be on her new album." In a less enthusiastic review, Andy Kellman of AllMusic wrote that "[t]he album contains fewer highlights than any previous Ciara album," concluding that "the results are mixed." Steven J. Horowitz of Billboard felt that the album was "oddly impersonal" and "a missed opportunity for a talented artist to connect with fans in a new way."
== Commercial performance ==
The album debuted at number 17 on the US Billboard 200 chart with 25,000 album-equivalent units (19,900 in sales) and had the lowest first-week sales amongst her first six albums. Its sales placed it at number 13 on the Top Album Sales chart.
== Track listing ==
Credits adapted from liner notes and iTunes.
Notes
^[a] signifies a vocal producer
^[b] signifies a co-producer
^[c] signifies a remixer
"Jackie (B.M.F)" contains a sample from "Amen, Brother", as performed by The Winstons.
"That's How I'm Feelin'" contains a sample from "Jive Rhythm Trx – 122 BPM", as written by Larry Linn and performed by Willedson Dodgers.
"Lullaby" contains elements of "Love, Need and Want You" written by Kenneth Gamble and Bunny Sigler and contains samples and portions of "Dilemma" written by Cornell Haynes Jr.
== Charts ==
== Release history ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firebrand_(DC_Comics) | Firebrand (DC Comics) | Firebrand is a name of several characters appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics.
== Fictional character biography ==
=== Rod Reilly ===
Published by Quality Comics from August 1941 to November 1942, Rod Reilly was the bored and wealthy socialite son of a steel tycoon, who decided to fight crime with his servant and friend, "Slugger" Dunn. Originally drawn by Reed Crandall, Firebrand appeared in Police Comics, issues #1 through 13, at which time his series was canceled. Firebrand's costume consisted of a transparent shirt and red pants, with a bandana mask covering the top half of his face. He uses a lariat, and can climb buildings using vacuum cups.
After DC purchased Quality Comics, Firebrand was largely left on the sidelines until the mid-1970s, when he joined the Freedom Fighters. He was killed in a fight with the Silver Ghost, but that occurred only in a photocopied issue of Cancelled Comic Cavalcade, which was never released to public and thus unsure as to whether it is considered part of the current DC Universe.
When DC collected most of their characters into the All-Star Squadron, it was retconned that Rod had been injured in the surprise attack and replaced by his sister, Danette Reilly.
In All-Star Squadron #5 (1981), Danette discovers that Rod is Firebrand while staying at his penthouse. Musing about Rod's relationship with his bodyguard, Slugger Dunn, she wonders "though what a confirmed bachelor playboy like my brother needed with a bodyguard, I never understood", and then finds a hidden closet that leads her to think that "from the look of these clothes, I didn't know my brother quite as well as I thought I did!".
=== Danette Reilly ===
Volcanologist Danette Reilly is the sister of Rod Reilly, the first Firebrand. First introduced in a special "All-Star Squadron" preview in Justice League of America #193 (August 1981), Danette was studying volcanos north of Hawaii when she was kidnapped by the time-travelling villain Per Degaton and the sorcerer Wotan. During her escape, Wotan hit her with a magical blast and hurled her into a pit of lava. The combination of his magic and the lava not only allowed her to survive, but gave her the power to control heat and project fire blasts . Her powers surfaced after she discovered her brother Rod's costume and put it on. As Rod had been injured during the attack, Danette decided to become the new Firebrand. Due to Degaton going back to future when he was defeated, the All-Star Squadron forgot his attack. Originally, she was quite racist towards the Japanese, but she visited her brother in hospital and he revealed he had been saved from death by a soldier whose parents were from Japan, and who later died from his wounds. Firebrand realized she had been racist and would show more respect towards those from Japan.
Danette appeared in Crisis on Infinite Earths, wherein she was briefly rejoined by her former lover, the reluctant supervillain Cyclotron. Cyclotron, although deceased, phased into her time to assist her. Danette assumed partial custody of his daughter Terri, along with fellow hero the Atom.
In Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E. (2000), Firebrand was revealed to have been killed by the Dragon King. She has largely remained dead since. During the Absolute Power event (2024), Firebrand's spirit is revealed to be held inside the Well of Souls in Themyscira and is used as a power source by the Amazo android Paradise Lost.
Her name is a homage to creator Roy Thomas' wife, Danette Thomas.
The Quality Comics heroine Wildfire was originally intended to play a major role in the All-Star Squadron but DC objected on the basis of her name, which she shared with the Legion of Super-Heroes member. Instead, Danette Reilly was introduced into the series.
Firebrand was ranked 67th in Comics Buyer's Guide's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list.
=== Alex Sanchez ===
In February 1996, DC introduced a third Firebrand, former police detective Alejandro 'Alex' Sanchez. After nearly dying in an explosion that destroyed his apartment, Sanchez undergoes experimental surgery to restore his mobility. The surgery is paid for by local philanthropist Noah Hightower, who later approaches Sanchez with a special opportunity. Hightower offers Sanchez a suit of advanced armor which, when combined with the implants, gives him enhanced strength and speed for up to four hours. After Sanchez's partner is attacked during an investigation, he agrees to become the superhero Firebrand. In addition to enhanced strength, Sanchez's armor emits green flame, which gives him a demonic appearance.
Sanchez's storyline reflected concerns about racial injustice in America, and violence suffered by people of color.
Sanchez's tenure as Firebrand lasted only nine issues of his self-titled comic. He reappears in JSA: Secret Files #2, where he is killed by a Checkmate knight in Roulette's arena.
=== Andre Twist ===
In April 2006, Andre Twist was introduced in The Battle for Blüdhaven. He gains control over fire after his exposure to Chemo being dropped on the city. He also appears in the limited series, Uncle Sam and the Freedom Fighters, as a member of the new Freedom Fighters. Andre carries a bo staff, and has some measure of athletic and martial arts ability.
In the 2007 Freedom Fighters series, Firebrand strikes up a relationship with Red Bee and is distraught when she is taken over by an alien insectoid race. Together, the Freedom Fighters save Red Bee and repel the insectoid's invasion. In the 2010 Freedom Fighters series, Firebrand is killed by Charles Lane, the grandson of the Jester.
=== Janet Fals ===
The fifth Firebrand, Janet Fals, appeared in The Unexpected, released in June 2018.
Janet was killed during the Dark Multiverse invasion, but her father used his CIA connections to bring her back to life, releasing her remains to Civil Solutions, a futurist arms developer, who resurrected her with a new heart called the "Conflict Engine". The device requires her to start fights to stay alive, meaning she could not return to her old life or identity. She quenches her needs by fighting in underground matches as Firebrand.
She had a flirtation with Joy, a female receptionist at V.A. Hospital in Mammoth City. Janet Fals/Firebrand's creator Steve Orlando has confirmed that she is a lesbian.
== Powers and abilities ==
An olympic-level athlete and superb hand-to-hand combatant, the Rod Reilly Firebrand possessed no true super-powers, but he was personally trained by ex-heavyweight boxer "Slugger" Dunn to the height of physical perfection.
== In other media ==
An amalgamated incarnation of Danette Reilly / Firebrand appears in the Young Justice episode "Humanity", voiced by Vanessa Marshall. This version is an android codenamed Red Inferno that T. O. Morrow created to infiltrate the Justice Society of America in the 1930s, though she overcame her programming and seemingly died taking an energy blast from Dragon King meant for the Flash. In the present, an android double of Morrow rebuilds Red Inferno and sends her alongside Red Torpedo to capture Red Tornado. However, Red Tornado convinces his fellow androids stop Red Volcano before he causes the Yellowstone Caldera to erupt. Red Inferno and Torpedo sacrifice themselves to help Red Tornado avert the eruption.
The Rod Reilly, Danette Reilly, and Alex Sanchez incarnations of Firebrand appear as character summons in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
== References ==
== External links ==
Firebrand I Index
Firebrand I Profile
Rod Reilly at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe
Danette Reilly at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe
Alex Sanchez at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe
Andre Twist at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe
Firebrand (1941) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on July 25, 2016. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_Streamy_Awards | 11th Streamy Awards | The 11th Annual Streamy Awards was the eleventh installment of the Streamy Awards honoring the best in American streaming television series and their creators. The ceremony was held on December 11, 2021, hosted by Larray and livestreamed exclusively to YouTube. Larray hosted the show from a party bus in Los Angeles alongside special guest Issa Twaimz. The show continued the Creator Honor awards, introduced the previous year, which featured past Streamy award winners presenting the award to creators that resonated with them in 2021. It also featured sneak-peaks of YouTube videos by creators such as Dixie D'Amelio, Lexi Rivera, RDCWorld, Safiya Nygaard, and ZHC, including a preview of Markiplier's YouTube Originals interactive special In Space with Markiplier. MrBeast's Team Seas fundraising initiative to clean oceans, rivers and beaches was highlighted during a special segment of the show.
== Performers ==
The 11th Streamy Awards featured the musical performances of the following artists:
== Winners and nominees ==
The nominees were announced on October 20, 2021. Winners were announced during the digital ceremony on December 11, hosted by Larray from a party bus in Los Angeles. Winners of the categories were selected by an independent judging panel.
Winners are listed first, in bold.
Creator Honor awards
Swoop (presented by Bailey Sarian)
Amelie Zilber (presented by Jay Shetty)
Remi Cruz (presented by LaurDIY)
Jeremy Fielding (presented by Mark Rober)
=== Brand Awards ===
=== Social Good Awards ===
== Reception ==
Paul Grein of Billboard said that the show had a "distinctly young vibe" and described Larray and Issa Twaimz as having an "easy rapport" while delivering awards from the Streamys bus. He felt that the return of the Creator Honor awards was the "show's smartest move" because it allowed for genuine moments between the creators presenting the awards and the honorees. International Creator of the Year winner Mythpat praised the Streamys' use of an independent judging panel rather than voting, saying "It is not always about the number of followers but about the quality and type of content. Even someone with 1,000 followers can create path-breaking content while someone with one million followers can create mediocre content. It is always the content that should be valued. I would like to see more award organisers practising this system of judging." The show had a 43% increase in YouTube viewership compared to 2020.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiordland_College | Fiordland College | Fiordland College is a co-educational state secondary school for years 7–13 students. It is one of the two schools in Te Anau, New Zealand. Te Anau is situated on the shores of Lake Te Anau, at the gateway to Fiordland National Park, New Zealand's largest national park. Fiordland College is very involved in environmental education. It has been involved in the Kids Restore the Kepler project for a number of years. Through this, students are offered a vast range of opportunities including wildlife encounters, conservation projects and personal developments opportunities. Fiordland College also has a range of sporting teams such as netball, rugby, field hockey, and kī-o-rahi.
== Notable alumni ==
Ayesha Verrall – physician and politician
== References ==
== External links ==
NZQA Provider details |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong | Louis Armstrong | Louis Daniel Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed "Satchmo", "Satch", and "Pops", was an American jazz and blues trumpeter and vocalist. He was among the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades and several eras in the history of jazz. Armstrong received numerous accolades including the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance for Hello, Dolly! in 1965, as well as a posthumous win for the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972. His influence crossed musical genres, with inductions into the DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame, among others.
Armstrong was born and raised in New Orleans. Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an inventive trumpet and cornet player, he was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance. Around 1922, Armstrong followed his mentor, Joe "King" Oliver, to Chicago to play in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band. Armstrong earned a reputation at "cutting contests", and his fame reached band leader Fletcher Henderson. Armstrong moved to New York City, where he became a featured and musically influential band soloist and recording artist. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an international musical icon, appearing regularly in radio and television broadcasts and on film. Apart from his music, he was also beloved as an entertainer, often joking with the audience and keeping a joyful public image at all times.
Armstrong's best known songs include "What a Wonderful World", "La Vie en Rose", "Hello, Dolly!", "On the Sunny Side of the Street", "Dream a Little Dream of Me", "When You're Smiling" and "When the Saints Go Marching In". He collaborated with Ella Fitzgerald, producing three records together: Ella and Louis (1956), Ella and Louis Again (1957), and Porgy and Bess (1959). He also appeared in films such as A Rhapsody in Black and Blue (1932), Cabin in the Sky (1943), High Society (1956), Paris Blues (1961), A Man Called Adam (1966), and Hello, Dolly! (1969).
With his instantly recognizable, rich, gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer and skillful improviser. He was also skilled at scat singing. By the end of Armstrong's life, his influence had spread to popular music. He was one of the first popular African-American entertainers to "cross over" to wide popularity with white and international audiences. Armstrong rarely publicly discussed racial issues, sometimes to the dismay of fellow black Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation in the Little Rock crisis. He could access the upper echelons of American society at a time when this was difficult for black men.
== Early life ==
Armstrong is believed to have been born in New Orleans on August 4, 1901, but the date has been heavily debated. Armstrong himself often claimed he was born on July 4, 1900. His parents were Mary Estelle "Mayann" Albert and William Armstrong. Mary Albert was from Boutte, Louisiana and gave birth at home when she was about 16. Less than a year and a half later, they had a daughter, Beatrice "Mama Lucy" Armstrong (1903–1987), who Albert raised. William Armstrong abandoned the family shortly after that.
Louis Armstrong was raised by his grandmother until the age of five, when he was returned to his mother. Armstrong spent his youth in poverty in a rough neighborhood known as The Battlefield, on the southern section of Rampart Street. At the age of six, Armstrong started attending the Fisk School for Boys, a school that accepted black children in the racially segregated school system of New Orleans.
Armstrong lived with his mother and sister during this time and worked for the Karnoffskys, a family of Lithuanian Jews, at their home. Armstrong helped their sons Morris and Alex collect "rags and bones" and deliver coal. In 1969, while recovering from heart and kidney problems at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, Armstrong wrote a memoir called Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the Year of 1907, describing his time working for the Karnoffsky family.
Armstrong writes about singing "Russian Lullaby" with the Karnoffsky family when their baby son David was put to bed and credits the family with teaching him to sing "from the heart." Curiously, Armstrong quotes lyrics for it that appear to be the same as the "Russian Lullaby", copyrighted by Irving Berlin in 1927, about 20 years after Armstrong remembered singing it as a child. Gary Zucker, Armstrong's doctor at Beth Israel hospital in 1969, shared Berlin's song lyrics with him, and Armstrong quoted them in the memoir. This inaccuracy may be because he wrote the memoir over 60 years after the events described. Regardless, the Karnoffskys treated Armstrong exceptionally well. Knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured Armstrong.
In his memoir, Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907, he described his discovery that this family was also subject to discrimination by "other white folks" who felt that they were better than Jews: "I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the white folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for." Armstrong wrote about what he learned from them: "how to live—real life and determination." His first musical performance may have been at the side of the Karnoffskys' junk wagon. Armstrong tried playing a tin horn to attract customers to distinguish them from other hawkers. Morris Karnoffsky gave Armstrong an advance toward purchasing a cornet from a pawn shop.
Later, as an adult, Armstrong wore a Star of David given to him by his Jewish manager, Joe Glaser, until the end of his life, in part in memory of this family who had raised him.
When Armstrong was 11, he dropped out of school. His mother moved into a one-room house on Perdido Street with Armstrong, Lucy, and her common-law husband, Tom Lee, next door to her brother Ike and his two sons. Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. Cornetist Bunk Johnson said he taught the eleven-year-old to play by ear at Dago Tony's honky tonk. In his later years, Armstrong credited King Oliver. Armstrong said about his youth, "Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans ... It has given me something to live for."
Borrowing his stepfather's gun without permission, Armstrong fired a blank into the air and was arrested on December 31, 1912. He spent the night at New Orleans Juvenile Court and was sentenced the next day to detention at the Colored Waif's [sic] Home. Life at the home was spartan. Mattresses were absent, and meals were often little more than bread and molasses. Captain Joseph Jones ran the home like a military camp and used corporal punishment.
Armstrong developed his cornet skills by playing in the band. Peter Davis, who frequently appeared at the home at the request of Captain Jones, became Armstrong's first teacher and chose him as the bandleader. With this band, the 13-year-old Armstrong attracted the attention of Kid Ory.
On June 14, 1914, Armstrong was released into the custody of his father and his new stepmother, Gertrude. Armstrong lived in this household with two stepbrothers for several months. After Gertrude gave birth to a daughter, Armstrong's father never welcomed him, so Armstrong returned to his mother, Mary Albert. Armstrong had to share a bed in her small home with his mother and sister. His mother still lived in The Battlefield, leaving Armstrong open to old temptations, but he sought work as a musician.
Armstrong found a job at a dance hall owned by Henry Ponce, who had connections to organized crime. He met the six-foot tall drummer Black Benny, who became Armstrong's guide and bodyguard. Around the age of 15, he pimped for a prostitute named Nootsy. However, that relationship failed after she stabbed Armstrong in the shoulder, and his mother choked her nearly to death.
Armstrong briefly studied shipping management at the local community college but was forced to quit after being unable to afford the fees. While selling coal in Storyville, he heard spasm bands, groups that played music out of household objects. Armstrong listened to the early sounds of jazz from bands that played in brothels and dance halls, such as Pete Lala's, where King Oliver performed.
== Career ==
=== Riverboat education ===
Early in his career, Armstrong played in brass bands and riverboats in New Orleans, in the late 1910s. He traveled with the band of Fate Marable, which toured on the steamboat Sidney with the Streckfus Steamers line up and down the Mississippi River. Marable was proud of Armstrong's musical knowledge, and he insisted that Armstrong and other musicians in his band learn sight reading. Armstrong described his time with Marable as "going to the University" since it gave him a wider experience working with written arrangements. In 1918, Armstrong's mentor, King Oliver, decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. Armstrong also became the second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band.
Throughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At age 20, he could read music. Armstrong became one of the first jazz musicians to be featured on extended trumpet solos, injecting his own personality and style. Armstrong also started singing in his performances.
=== Chicago period recordings ===
In 1922, Armstrong moved to Chicago at the invitation of King Oliver, although Armstrong would return to New Orleans periodically for the rest of his life. Playing second cornet to Oliver in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in the black-only Lincoln Gardens on the South Side of Chicago, Armstrong could make enough money to quit his day jobs. Although race relations were poor, Chicago was booming. The city had jobs for blacks, who made good wages at factories, with some left for entertainment.
Oliver's band was among Chicago's most influential jazz bands in the early 1920s. Armstrong lived luxuriously in his apartment with his first private bath. Excited to be in Chicago, Armstrong began his career-long pastime of writing letters to friends in New Orleans. Armstrong could blow 200 high Cs in a row. As his reputation grew, Armstrong was challenged to cutting contests by other musicians.
Armstrong's first studio recordings were with Oliver for Gennett Records on April 5–6, 1923. They endured several hours on the train to remote Richmond, Indiana, and the band was paid little. The quality of the performances was affected by a lack of rehearsal, crude recording equipment, bad acoustics, and a cramped studio. These early recordings were true acoustic, the band playing directly into a large funnel connected directly to the needle making the groove in the master recording. The much improved Electrical recording system with a better dynamic range was not invented until 1926. Initially, because Armstrong's playing was so loud, Oliver could not be heard on the recording when he played next to Oliver. Armstrong had to stand 15 feet from Oliver in a far corner of the room to remedy this.
Lil Hardin, whom Armstrong would marry in 1924, urged Armstrong to seek more prominent billing and develop his style apart from the influence of Oliver. At her suggestion, Armstrong began playing classical music in church concerts to broaden his skills and dressing more stylishly to offset his girth. Her influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional money that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members. Armstrong's mother, Mayann Albert, came to visit him in Chicago during the summer of 1923 after being told that Armstrong was "out of work, out of money, hungry, and sick"; Hardin located and decorated an apartment for her to live in while she stayed.
=== Fletcher Henderson Orchestra ===
Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong was invited to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. He switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. Armstrong's influence on Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.
Armstrong adapted to Henderson's tightly controlled style, playing the trumpet and experimenting with the trombone. The other members were affected by Armstrong's emotional style. His act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers. The Henderson Orchestra played in prominent venues for white patrons only, including the Roseland Ballroom, with arrangements by Don Redman. Duke Ellington's orchestra went to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances.
During this time, Armstrong recorded with Clarence Williams (a friend from New Orleans), the Williams Blue Five, Sidney Bechet, and blues singers Alberta Hunter, Ma Rainey, and Bessie Smith.
=== The Hot Five ===
In 1925, Armstrong returned to Chicago largely at the insistence of Lil, who wanted to expand his career and income. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed Armstrong as "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player." For a time, he was a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and worked for his wife. Armstrong formed Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five and recorded the hits "Potato Head Blues" and "Muggles". The word "muggles" was a slang term for marijuana, something Armstrong often used during his life.
The Hot Five included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), Lil Armstrong on piano, and usually no drummer. Over a 12-month period starting in November 1925, this quintet produced twenty-four records. Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted: "One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual."
Among the Hot Five and Seven records were "Cornet Chop Suey", "Struttin' With Some Barbecue", "Hotter Than That", and "Potato Head Blues", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. According to Thomas Brothers, recordings such as "Struttin' with Some Barbeque" were so superb, "planned with density and variety, bluesyness, and showiness", that the arrangements were probably showcased at the Sunset Café. His recordings soon after with pianist Earl "Fatha" Hines, their famous 1928 "Weather Bird" duet and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in "West End Blues", remain some of the most influential improvisations in jazz history. Young trumpet players across the country bought these recordings and memorized his solos.
Armstrong was now free to develop his style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as "Whip That Thing, Miss Lil" and "Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, Do That Clarinet, Boy!"
Armstrong also played with Erskine Tate's Little Symphony, mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as "Madame Butterfly", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began scat singing (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it on the Hot Five recording "Heebie Jeebies" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had seldom performed live. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz.
After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers. However, Hines was the music director, and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators. It was at the Sunset Café that Armstrong accompanied singer Adelaide Hall. During Hall's tenure at the venue, she experimented, developed, and expanded her scat singing with Armstrong's guidance and encouragement.
In the first half of 1927, Armstrong assembled his Hot Seven group, which added drummer Al "Baby" Dodds and tuba player Pete Briggs while preserving most of his original Hot Five lineup. John Thomas replaced Kid Ory on the trombone. Later that year, Armstrong organized a series of new Hot Five sessions, which resulted in nine more records. In the last half of 1928, he started recording with a new group: Zutty Singleton (drums), Earl Hines (piano), Jimmy Strong (clarinet), Fred Robinson (trombone), and Mancy Carr (banjo).
=== The Harlem Renaissance ===
Armstrong made a huge impact during the 1920s Harlem Renaissance. His music touched well-known writer Langston Hughes. Hughes admired Armstrong and acknowledged him as one of the most recognized musicians of the era. Hughes wrote many books that celebrated jazz and recognized Armstrong as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance's newfound love of African-American culture. The sound of jazz, along with musicians such as Armstrong, helped shape Hughes as a writer. Just like the musicians, Hughes wrote his words with jazz.
Armstrong changed jazz during the Harlem Renaissance. As "The World's Greatest Trumpet Player" during this time, Armstrong cemented his legacy and continued a focus on his vocal career. His popularity brought together many black and white audiences.
=== Emerging as a vocalist ===
Armstrong returned to New York in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra for the musical Hot Chocolates, an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist Fats Waller. Armstrong made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of "Ain't Misbehavin'." Armstrong's version of the song became his biggest-selling record yet.
Armstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, chief rival to the Cotton Club, a venue for elaborately staged floor shows, and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz. Armstrong had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael. His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the RCA ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted warmth to vocals and became an intrinsic part of the "crooning" sound of artists like Bing Crosby. Armstrong's interpretation of Carmichael's "Stardust" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that were already standards.
Armstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's "Lazy River", recorded in 1931, encapsulated his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo. Then, the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: "Yeah! ..."Uh-huh"..."Sure"..."Way down, way down." In the first verse, Armstrong ignores the notated melody and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza, he breaks into an almost entirely improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong's scat singing.
As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation for jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gravelly coloration of his voice became an archetype that was endlessly imitated. Armstrong's scat singing was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as "Lazy River" greatly influenced younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.
=== Work during hard times ===
The Great Depression of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. After a long downward spiral, the Cotton Club closed in 1936, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix Beiderbecke died, and Fletcher Henderson's band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor, later moving to Paris, and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens.
Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with Lionel Hampton on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish nightlife, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame. He was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence.
Armstrong returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein, and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town, Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome, and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team called Armstrong's Secret Nine and had a cigar named after him. However, Armstrong was on the road again soon. After a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, he fled to Europe.
After returning to the United States, Armstrong undertook several exhausting tours. His agent, Johnny Collins's erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Armstrong hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer who began straightening out his legal mess, mob troubles, and debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, Armstrong branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. Armstrong appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored national broadcast.
=== Reviving his career with the All-Stars ===
After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York, in 1943 with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, Armstrong continued to develop his playing.
Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes. Ballrooms closed, and competition from other types of music, especially pop vocals, became more popular than big band music. Under such circumstances, it became impossible to finance a 16-piece touring band.
A widespread revival of interest in the 1940s in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Armstrong was featured as a guest artist with Lionel Hampton's band at the famed second Cavalcade of Jazz concert held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles, produced by Leon Hefflin Sr., on October 12, 1946. Armstrong also led a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring him with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden. During the concert, Armstrong and Teagarden performed a duet on Hoagy Carmichael's "Rockin' Chair" they then recorded for Okeh Records.
Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser, changed the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947, into a six-piece traditional jazz group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of whom were previously leaders of big bands. The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club.
This smaller group was called Louis Armstrong and His All-Stars and included at various times Earl "Fatha" Hines, Barney Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid "Buddy" Catlett, Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems, Mort Herbert, Joe Darensbourg, Eddie Shu, Joe Muranyi and percussionist Danny Barcelona.
On February 28, 1948, Suzy Delair sang the French song "C'est si bon" at the Hotel Negresco during the first Nice Jazz Festival. Armstrong was present and loved the song. On June 26, 1950, he recorded the American version of the song (English lyrics by Jerry Seelen) in New York City with Sy Oliver and his Orchestra. When it was released, the disc was a worldwide success, and the song was then performed by the greatest international singers.
Armstrong was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of Time magazine on February 21, 1949. He and his All-Stars were featured at the ninth Cavalcade of Jazz concert also at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles produced by Leon Hefflin Sr. held on June 7, 1953, along with Shorty Rogers, Roy Brown, Don Tosti and His Mexican Jazzmen, Earl Bostic, and Nat "King" Cole.
Over 30 years, Armstrong played more than 300 performances a year, making many recordings and appearing in more than 30 films.
=== A jazz ambassador ===
By the 1950s, Armstrong was a widely beloved American icon and cultural ambassador who commanded an international fanbase. However, a growing generation gap became apparent between him and the young jazz musicians who emerged in the postwar era, such as Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, and Sonny Rollins. The postwar generation regarded their music as abstract art and considered Armstrong's vaudevillian style, half-musician and half-stage entertainer, outmoded and Uncle Tomism. "... he seemed a link to minstrelsy that we were ashamed of." Armstrong called bebop "Chinese music". While touring Australia in 1954, he was asked if he could play bebop. "'Bebop?' he husked. 'I just play music. Guys who invent terms like that are walking the streets with their instruments under their arms.'"
After finishing his contract with Decca Records, Armstrong went freelance and recorded for other labels. He continued an intense international touring schedule, but suffered a heart attack in 1959 while in Italy and had to rest.
In 1964, after more than two years without setting foot in a studio, Armstrong recorded his biggest-selling record, "Hello, Dolly!", a song by Jerry Herman, originally sung by Carol Channing. Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1, making him the oldest person to accomplish that feat at 62 years, nine months, and five days. Armstrong's hit dislodged The Beatles from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.
Armstrong toured well into his 60s, even visiting part of the Communist Bloc in 1965. Armstrong also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname "Ambassador Satch" and inspiring Dave Brubeck to compose his jazz musical The Real Ambassadors. His travels included performances in Egypt, Ghana and Nigeria.
By 1968, Armstrong was approaching 70, and his health was failing. His heart and kidney ailments forced him to stop touring, though he continued to record, including "What a Wonderful World", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong did not perform publicly in 1969 and spent most of the year recuperating at home. Meanwhile, his longtime manager, Joe Glaser, died. By the summer of 1970, Armstrong's doctors pronounced him fit enough to resume live performances. Armstrong embarked on another world tour, but a heart attack forced him to take a break for two months.
Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album Disney Songs the Satchmo Way.
== Personal life ==
=== Pronunciation of name ===
The Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:
Judging from home recorded tapes now in our Museum Collections, Louis pronounced his own name as "Lewis." On his 1964 record "Hello, Dolly", he sings, "This is Lewis, Dolly", but in 1933, he made a record called "Laughin' Louie." Many broadcast announcers, fans, and acquaintances called him "Louie", and in a videotaped interview from 1983, Lucille Armstrong calls her late husband "Louie" as well. Musicians and close friends usually called him "Pops".
In a memoir written for Robert Goffin between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong stated, "All white folks call me Louie", suggesting that he himself did not, or that no whites addressed him by one of his nicknames such as Pops. That said, Armstrong was registered as "Lewie" for the 1920 U.S. census. On various live records, he is called "Louie" on stage, such as on the 1952 "Can Anyone Explain?" from the live album In Scandinavia vol.1. The same applies to his 1952 studio recording of the song "Chloe", where the choir in the background sings "Louie ... Louie", with Armstrong responding, "What was that? Somebody called my name?". "Lewie" is the French pronunciation of "Louis" and is commonly used in Louisiana.
=== Family ===
Armstrong was performing at the Brick House in Gretna, Louisiana when he met Daisy Parker, a local prostitute, and started an affair as a client. Armstrong returned to Gretna on several occasions to visit her. He found the courage to look for her home to see her away from work. There, Armstrong found out she had a common-law husband. Not long after that, Parker traveled to Armstrong's home on Perdido Street and they checked into Kid Green's hotel that evening. On the next day, March 19, 1919, Armstrong and Parker married at City Hall. They adopted a three-year-old boy, Clarence, whose mother, Armstrong's cousin Flora, had died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled as a result of a head injury at an early age. Armstrong spent the rest of his life taking care of him. His marriage to Parker ended when they separated in 1923.
On February 4, 1924, Armstrong married Lil Hardin Armstrong, King Oliver's pianist. She had divorced her first husband a few years earlier. Armstrong's second wife helped him develop his career, but they separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938. Armstrong then married Alpha Smith. His relationship with Alpha began while he was playing at the Vendome during the 1920s and continued long after. Armstrong's marriage to her lasted four years; they divorced in 1942. He then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the Cotton Club in New York, in October 1942. They remained married until his death in 1971.
Armstrong's marriages produced no offspring. However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille "Sweets" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club. In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of $400 ($5,869 in 2024 dollars) to mother and child.
=== Personality ===
Armstrong was colorful and charismatic. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians because Armstrong had a habit of telling tales, particularly about his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments lack consistency.
In addition to being an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality. He was beloved by an American public that usually offered little access beyond their public celebrity to even the most significant black performers, and Armstrong was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other black Americans during that era.
Armstrong generally remained politically neutral, which sometimes alienated him from other black Americans who expected him to use his prominence within white America to become more outspoken during the civil rights movement. However, Armstrong criticized President Eisenhower for not acting forcefully on civil rights.
=== Health problems ===
The trumpet is notoriously hard on the lips, and Armstrong suffered from lip damage over most of his life. This was due to Armstrong's aggressive playing style and preference for narrow mouthpieces that would stay in place more easily but tended to dig into the soft flesh of his inner lip. During his 1930s European tour, Armstrong suffered an ulceration so severe that he had to stop playing entirely for a year. Eventually, Armstrong took to using salves and creams on his lips and also cutting off scar tissue with a razor blade. By the 1950s, Armstrong was an official spokesman for Ansatz-Creme Lip Salve.
During a backstage meeting with trombonist Marshall Brown in 1959, Armstrong was advised to see a doctor and receive proper treatment for his lips instead of relying on home remedies. However, Armstrong did not get around to that until his final years, by which point his health was failing, and the doctors considered surgery too risky.
In 1959, Armstrong was hospitalized for pneumonia while on tour in Italy. Doctors were concerned about his lungs and heart, but by the end of June, Armstrong rallied on.
=== Nicknames ===
The nicknames "Satchmo" and "Satch" are short for "Satchelmouth". The nickname origin is uncertain. The most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy in New Orleans dancing for pennies. He scooped the coins off the street and stuck them into his mouth to prevent bigger children from stealing them. Someone dubbed Armstrong "satchel mouth" for his mouth acting as a satchel. Another tale is that because of his large mouth, Armstrong was nicknamed "satchel mouth", which was shortened to "Satchmo."
Early on, Armstrong was also known as "Dipper", short for "Dippermouth", a reference to the piece Dippermouth Blues and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure.
The nickname "Pops" came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them "Pops" instead. The nickname was turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout.
After a competition at the Savoy, he was crowned and nicknamed "King Menelik", after the Emperor of Ethiopia, for slaying "ofay jazz demons."
=== Race ===
Armstrong celebrated his heritage as a black man from a poor New Orleans neighborhood and tried to avoid what he called "putting on airs." Many younger black musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences and for not taking a stronger stand in the American civil rights movement. When Armstrong did speak out, it made national news. In 1957, journalism student Larry Lubenow scored a candid interview with Armstrong while the musician was performing in Grand Forks, North Dakota, shortly after the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas. Armstrong denounced both Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus and President Dwight D. Eisenhower, saying the President had "no guts" and was "two-faced." Armstrong told his interviewer that he would cancel a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department, saying, "The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell"; he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people. The FBI kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration. Armstrong’s outburst drew both praise and backlash; figures like Jackie Robinson and Lena Horne publicly supported him, while a Mississippi radio station banned his records. His longtime road manager, Pierre Tallerie, attempted to walk back Armstrong’s comments to the press, prompting a sharp public rebuke from Armstrong, who nearly fired Tallerie and insisted on speaking for himself going forward.
=== Religion ===
When asked about his religion, Armstrong answered that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, and was friends with the pope. Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnoffsky family who took him in as a child and lent him money to buy his first cornet. Armstrong was baptized a Catholic in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, and he met Pope Pius XII and Pope Paul VI.
=== Personal habits ===
Armstrong was concerned with his health. Armstrong used laxatives to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way. Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water, but when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss, he became an enthusiastic convert, extolling its virtues to anyone who would listen and passing out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British royal family.
Armstrong also appeared in humorous risqué cards that he had printed to send to friends. The cards bore a picture of Armstrong sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan "Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!'" The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss. In a live recording of "Baby, It's Cold Outside" with Velma Middleton, he changes the lyric from "Put another record on while I pour" to "Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour." Armstrong's laxative use began as a child when his mother would collect dandelions and peppergrass around the railroad tracks to give to her children for their health.
Armstrong was a heavy marijuana smoker for much of his life and spent nine days in jail in 1930 after being arrested outside a club for drug possession. Armstrong described marijuana as "a thousand times better than whiskey."
Armstrong's concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as "Cheesecake", "Cornet Chop Suey", and "Struttin' with Some Barbecue", though the latter was written about a fine-looking companion, and not food. Armstrong kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his letters, "Red beans and ricely yours ...".
A fan of Major League Baseball, Armstrong founded a team in New Orleans that was known as Raggedy Nine and transformed the team into his Armstrong's "Secret Nine Baseball."
=== Writings ===
Armstrong's gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. Armstrong avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy "medicinal" marijuana use, and even his bowel movements, which Armstrong gleefully described.
=== Social organizations ===
Louis Armstrong was not, as claimed, a Freemason. Although he has been cited as a Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) member in New York, no such lodge ever existed. In his autobiography, Armstrong stated that he was a member of the Knights of Pythias of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia, an African American non-Masonic fraternal organization. During the krewe's 1949 Mardi Gras parade, Armstrong presided as King of the Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club, for which he was featured on the cover of Time magazine.
== Music ==
=== Horn playing and early jazz ===
In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. Along with his "clarinet-like figurations and high notes in his cornet solos", Armstrong was also known for his "intense rhythmic 'swing', a complex conception involving accented upbeats, upbeat to downbeat slurring, and complementary relations among rhythmic patterns. The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions, as well as those of the Red Onion Jazz Babies. Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song "Potato Head Blues" has long been considered his best solo of that series.
Prior to Armstrong, most collective ensembles playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. He was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.
Often, Armstrong re-composed pop tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, Armstrong's oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. His playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone, and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a piece of collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.
Armstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. Armstrong enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, Armstrong had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio.
=== Vocal popularity ===
As Armstrong's music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, "Heebie Jeebies." At a recording session for Okeh Records, when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor, and the music began before Armstrong could pick up the pages, he simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh President E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs. On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out "I done forgot the words" in the middle of recording "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas."
Such records were hits, and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, and using his voice as creatively as his trumpet. Armstrong once told Cab Calloway that his scat style was derived "from the Jews rockin", an Orthodox Jewish style of chanting during prayer.
=== Composing ===
Armstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than 50 songs, some of which have become jazz standards (e.g., "Gully Low Blues", "Potato Head Blues", and "Swing That Music").
=== Colleagues and followers ===
During his long career, Armstrong played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time, including Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Jimmie Rodgers, Bessie Smith, and Ella Fitzgerald. His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music. Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably "Just One More Chance" (1931). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:
Crosby ... was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech ... His techniques—easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a head voice at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct enunciation, singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of appoggiaturas, mordents, and slurs to emphasize the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers.
Armstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald, Ella and Louis and Ella and Louis Again, for Verve Records. The sessions featured the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio with drummer Buddy Rich on the first album and Louie Bellson on the second. Norman Granz then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record Porgy and Bess.
Armstrong's two recordings for Columbia Records, Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1954) and Satch Plays Fats (all Fats Waller tunes) (1955), were both considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961, the All-Stars participated in two albums, The Great Summit and The Great Reunion (now together as a single disc) with Duke Ellington. The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. Armstrong's participation in Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical The Real Ambassadors (1963) was critically acclaimed and features "Summer Song", one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.
In the week beginning May 9, 1964, Armstrong's recording of the song "Hello, Dolly!" went to number one. An album of the same title was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one, knocking The Beatles off the top of the chart. The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going "Gold" (500,000). His performance of "Hello, Dolly!" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 Grammy Awards.
=== Hits and later career ===
Armstrong had 19 "Top Ten" records including "Stardust", "What a Wonderful World", "When The Saints Go Marching In", "Dream a Little Dream of Me", "Ain't Misbehavin'", "You Rascal You", and "Stompin' at the Savoy". "We Have All the Time in the World" was featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it was featured on a Guinness advertisement. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.
In 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart with "Hello, Dolly!", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song "Bout Time" was later featured in the film Bewitched.
In February 1968, Armstrong appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel, where he performed "Grassa e Bella", a track Armstrong sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label.
In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the UK with "What a Wonderful World", which topped the British charts for a month. Armstrong appeared on the October 28, 1970, Johnny Cash Show, where he sang Nat King Cole's hit "Ramblin' Rose" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel No. 9".
=== Stylistic range ===
Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of "St. Louis Blues" from the WC Handy album, show that the influence went in both directions.
== Film, television, and radio ==
Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a bandleader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical High Society, starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly, Frank Sinatra, and Celeste Holm. Armstrong appears throughout the film, sings the title song, and performs the duet "Now You Has Jazz" with Crosby. In 1947, Armstrong played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film The Five Pennies, Armstrong played himself, sang, and played several classic numbers. He performed a duet of "When the Saints Go Marching In" with Danny Kaye, during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. He had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in The Glenn Miller Story.
In 1937, Armstrong was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show. In 1969, he had a cameo role in Gene Kelly's film version of Hello, Dolly! as the bandleader Louis where he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand. Armstrong's solo recording of "Hello, Dolly!" is one of his most recognizable performances. Armstrong was heard on such radio programs as The Story of Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.
In 1949, Armstrong's life was dramatized by scriptwriter Richard Durham in the Chicago WMAQ radio series Destination Freedom.
Argentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself "Grandísimo Cronopio" (The Great Cronopio).
There is a pivotal scene in Stardust Memories (1980) in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's "Stardust" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany.
In 2022, Armstrong was subject of the documentary film Louis Armstrong's Black & Blues.
== Death ==
Against his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the Waldorf-Astoria's Empire Room. At the end of it, he was hospitalized for a heart attack. Armstrong was released from the hospital in May and quickly resumed practicing his trumpet playing. Still hoping to get back on the road, Armstrong died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971. Armstrong was residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time of his death.
Armstrong was interred in Flushing Cemetery, Flushing, in Queens, New York City.
His honorary pallbearers included Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Benny Goodman, Alan King, Johnny Carson and David Frost. Peggy Lee sang "The Lord's Prayer" at the services while Al Hibbler sang "Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen" and Fred Robbins, a long-time friend, gave the eulogy.
== Awards and honors ==
=== Grammy Awards ===
Armstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the recording field.
=== Grammy Hall of Fame ===
Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance."
=== Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ===
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong's "West End Blues" on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll.
=== Inductions and honors ===
In 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32-cent commemorative postage stamp.
=== Film honors ===
In 1999, Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the American Film Institute's 100 Years ... 100 Stars.
== Legacy ==
In 1950, Bing Crosby, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, "He is the beginning and the end of music in America." Duke Ellington, DownBeat magazine in 1971, said, "If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong. He was and will continue to be the embodiment of jazz." Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters and others preceded his scatting on record in the 1920s according to Gary Giddins and others.
According to literary critic Harold Bloom, "The two great American contributions to the world's art, in the end, are Walt Whitman and, after him, Armstrong and jazz ... If I had to choose between the two, ultimately, I wouldn't. I would say that the genius of this nation at its best is indeed Walt Whitman and Louis Armstrong".
In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Armstrong at No. 39 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
In 1991, an asteroid was named 9179 Satchmo in Armstrong's honor. In the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of his birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport. The entrance to the airport's former terminal building houses a statue depicting Armstrong playing his cornet. In 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. The US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site.
Congo Square was a common gathering place for blacks in New Orleans for dancing and performing music. The park where Congo Square is located was later renamed Louis Armstrong Park. Dedicated in April 1980, the park includes a 12-foot (3.7 m) statue of Armstrong, trumpet in hand.
A Wonderful World, a musical based on his life story, had its world premiere run at Miami New Drama from December 4, 2021, to January 16, 2021, after mounting previews beginning March 5, 2020 and canceling opening night (March 14) due to COVID concerns. Mirroring Armstrong's musical journey, the show stars James Monroe Iglehart and makes "pre-Broadway" stops in New Orleans on October 1–8, 2023, and Chicago on October 11–29, 2023. The new musical charts the rise of Armstrong from the perspective of his four wives. It is conceived by Drama Desk Award winner and Tony Award nominee Christopher Renshaw and novelist Andrew Delaplaine, and directed by Renshaw, A Wonderful World features an original book by Aurin Squire. The show will debut on Broadway in 2024.
== The Louis Armstrong House Museum ==
The house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a National Historic Landmark and opened to the public for guided tours in 2003. The Louis Armstrong House Museum, at 34–56 107th Street between 34th and 37th avenues in Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational programs, operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. The museum is administered by the Queens College, City University of New York, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will and is operated by the nonprofit Louis Armstrong House Museum. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center opened across the street from the Armstrong home in the summer of 2023. The Museum website also includes the digitized Armstrong Archives, searchable to the public 24 hours a day.
== Essential discography ==
The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings
The Complete Louis Armstrong Decca Sessions (1935–1946) (Mosaic Records, 2009)
All Stars (Louis Armstrong's Town Hall Concert) (1947)
Struttin' (1947)
Satchmo Serenades (1950)
Satchmo at Pasadena (1951)
Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1955)
Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo, Vol. 1 (1955)
Satch Plays Fats (1955)
The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve – contains Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, Porgy and Bess (1997)
Louis and the Angels (1957)
Louis and the Good Book (1958)
Satchmo In Style (1959)
Hello, Dolly! (1964)
== See also ==
Black and tan clubs
Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations
Little Satchmo, 2022 documentary film
== References ==
== Works cited ==
Armstrong, Louis (1954). Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans. ISBN 0306802767.
Bergreen, Laurence (1997). Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life. ISBN 0553067680.
Cogswell, Michael (2003). Armstrong: The Offstage Story. ISBN 1888054816.
Elie, Lolis Eric. A Letter from New Orleans. Originally printed in Gourmet. Reprinted in Best Food Writing 2006, ed. by Holly Hughes, Da Capo Press, 2006. ISBN 1569242879.
Teachout, Terry (2009). Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong. ISBN 978-0151010899.
== Further readings ==
Brothers, Thomas (2006). Louis Armstrong's New Orleans, New York, N.Y. W. W. Norton & Company
Brothers, Thomas (2014). Louis Armstrong: Master of Modernism. New York: W. W. Norton & Company
Giddins, Gary (1988). Satchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong. Da Capo Press
Jones, Max, and Chilton, John (1988). Louis: The Louis Armstrong Story, 1900–1971. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306803246.
Riccardi, Ricky (2012). What a Wonderful World: The Magic of Louis Armstrong's Later Years. New York: Vintage. ISBN 9780307473295. OCLC 798285020.
—— (2020). Heart Full of Rhythm: The Big Band Years of Louis Armstrong. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190914110. OCLC 1137836373.
—— (2025). Stomp off, Let's Go: The Early Years of Louis Armstrong. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197614488. OCLC 1427941152.
Storb, Ilse (1999). Louis Armstrong: The Definitive Biography. ISBN 0820431036.
Willems, Jos (2006). All of Me: The Complete Discography of Louis Armstrong. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810857308.
== External links ==
Louis Armstrong House Museum
Louis Armstrong at IMDb
Louis Armstrong discography at Discogs
Louis Armstrong collected news and commentary at The New York Times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandipore | Bandipore | Bandipore (English: ) or Bandipora (Urdu pronunciation: [bɑːnɖiːpoːɾɑː] ; Kashmiri pronunciation: [banɖɨpuːr]) is the headquarters of district of Bandipore in the Indian-administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, in disputed Kashmir region. It is located on the northern banks of Wullar Lake—the second-largest freshwater lake in Asia. From baramulla the gateway of bandipora is Kehnusa where bando Bandipora the distanceis 15
== History ==
In 1963, the town of Bandipore was gutted by a fire, which destroyed hundreds of shops and houses. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, ex-Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir, visited the town soon after the fire and said that the fire took place at the wrong time.
== Geography ==
Bandipore is situated on the banks of the Wular, a large fresh-water lake that is home to a lot of migratory birds. Inadvertent dumping of the polluted river waters and sewage affluence has led to a pandemic growth of algae in the waters of the Wular which is threatening the lake and its supporting life itself. The main source of pollution to Wular is Jhelum River. The Jhelum River carries all the waste from Srinagar city and other surrounding areas and deposits it in Wular. Despite being the richest wetland of South Asia and the largest freshwater lake in Asia, no steps have been taken to save Wular. Bandipore is also a stepping town to the higher reaches of Razdan, Gurez and Tragbal.
The Lolab Valley in Kupwara district is adjacent to the Bandipore. It is just 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Bandipore via Aloosa village. Once this road is upgraded it will become a lifeline of the Lolab valley and it will provide an additional route to the Kupwara district.
Bandipore was the connecting link between North India and Central Asia via the Silk Road. At Pazalpora village there was a customs and immigration department which is now a forest check-post. Due to this fact, Bandipore is also known as the gateway to Central Asia. There are strong links between Skardu, Gurez and Bandipore.
== Demographics ==
As of 2011 Indian census, Bandipore had a population of 37,081. Males constitute 54% of the population and females 46%. Bandipore has an average literacy rate of 66.53%, lower than the national average of 74%, with 75% of the males and 55% of females literate. Twelve percent of the population is under 6 years of age.
It is a Muslim-majority region, though there were few villages where Pandits also lived before they mass migrated in the early 1990s. The Pandit population was in large numbers at Ajar, Sonerwani, Kaloosa, Kharapora, Mantrigam, Aragam, etc. Some Pandit families at Ajar and Kaloosa did not migrate. The temple at Kaloosa, known as Sharda Mandir, dates back to old times. It has a very big and old tree which is a few hundred years old and is a rare tree of its type. This is popularly known as Bran, a revered tree. There are many villages in this newly formed district named after Hindu gods and goddesses such as Chakreshipora, named after Chakerishwar. The famous Ziariat of Kausar Sahab Afghani is located near Chekreshipora. The forest training school of Kashmir is located in Bandipore. It was established in 1905. This institute is a premier body in the conservation process of the forest department.
The majority of the population speak Kashmiri, some speak Gojri and Pahari, Also Tehsil Gurez and Tulail is Shina-speaking and has a Shina majority. There are few Pashtun villages on the Line of Control. The Kishan Ganga Hydro Electric Power Project is also located in the Gurez Tehsil of Bandipore. The project is worth INR 15000 Crores. Presently it generates 330 MW of electricity for the neighbouring states of Jammu and Kashmir (state).
== Education ==
The literacy rate in the main town of Bandipore and adjoining areas is quite high. However, as per the 2011 census, for the whole district which includes rural area, the literacy rate is one of the lowest in Jammu and Kashmir.With high hopes and great expectations it was only in 2005 that a degree college was granted. It started functioning in higher secondary school Kaloosa. Named after Hassan Khoyihami, the college was established on a hilltop near Putushai village, approximately 6 km distance from the main market.
== Attractions ==
=== Nishat Park ===
The famous Nishat Park in Bandipora was constructed in 1954 under the supervision of the then Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir, Bakhshi Ghulam Mohammad.Nishat park Bandipora is built in accordance with the Nishat Garden Srinagar and is in the outskirts of main market Bandipora,It features Beautiful and various Flowers and Trees and provide with a quite and relax environment place for the tourists and people of Bandipora.
=== Forest Training and Research Institute ===
Bandipore is the location of the Forest Training and Research Institute in Jammu and Kashmir [established in 1911]. It is 3 km distance from the main town.
Wular Lake
Wular Lake (Urdu pronunciation: [ʋʊlər]), also known as Wolar (Kashmiri pronunciation: [ʋɔlar]) in Kashmiri, is one of the largest fresh water lakes in South Asia. It is located near Bandipora town in the Bandipora district of Jammu and Kashmir, India.The lake basin was formed as a result of tectonic activity and is fed by the Jhelum River and stream Madhumati and Arin.
The lake's size varies seasonally from 30 to 189 square kilometres. In addition, much of the lake has been drained as a result of willow plantations being built on the shore in the 1950s
=== Shrine of Hazrat Syed Jaffar Ud Din Bukhari (RA) ===
Located in Ajas, on the Bandipora–Srinagar Road -Hazrat Syed Jaffar Ud Din Bukhari (RA) was born in the 12th century in the historic city of Bukhara, in present-day Uzbekistan. Coming from a noble lineage known for its piety and deep spiritual roots, he became a towering figure in the spiritual history of the region. His life, marked by devotion and wisdom, left an enduring impact on generations of seekers.
Hazrat Jaffar Ud Din Bukhari (RA) died in the 13th century. His final resting place in Ajas, Bandipora, along the Srinagar Road, has since become a revered shrine. Today, it stands as a serene place of devotion, attracting pilgrims and spiritual seekers who come to draw inspiration and solace from his legacy.
The Darul Uloom Raheemiyyah (School for Philosophers) is the largest religious institution in Jammu and Kashmir. It is the largest Islamic institution of valley headed by Moulana Mohammad Rahmatullah Mir Qasmi.
Bandipore is known for trekking, mountaineering and fishing. Langmarg is one of the beautiful meadows. The famous Arin Nallah is home to one of the most exotic trout (rainbow trout, silver trout and gray trout).
A centuries-old shrine in the hilly Butho village of Bandipora, has till recently attracted visitors from around the world, because it's rumored that Moses, a prophet revered in Abrahamic religions, is buried inside it near an old tree. This shrine of Hazrat Bibi Sang Arifa, is locally known as Ded Mouj. This widespread rumor is a myth.
=== Mount Harmukh ===
For mountaineers, Mount Harmukh remains the main attraction. It is located on the eastern side of the town. Commercial cabs ply on that route till Kudara that is the farthest point where the cabs stop, and from there onwards the terrain becomes hilly and one has to trek 17 kilometres (11 mi) to the higher reaches of Mount Harmukh. Sheera Sar [Lake of Spirits] acts as a base camp for all the mountaineering expeditions for Mt Harmukh.
To the north lies Gurez, 86 kilometres (53 mi) from Bandipore. Commercial cabs ply on this route during summers, however, in winters the route remains closed due to heavy snowfall.
The place is surrounded by ranges such as Sirandar, Kudara, Vewan, Mowa and Tresangam, all of which are inhabited by the Gujjars and Bakarwals.
=== Road ===
Bandipore is well-connected by road to other places in Jammu and Kashmir and India by the Bandipora–Srinagar and Bandipora Sopore road.
=== Rail ===
Bandipora is not connected with railways. The nearest railway station is Sopore railway station located at a distance of 34 kilometres.
=== Air ===
The nearest airport is Srinagar Airport located at a distance of 65 kilometres.
== Prominent Personalities ==
Qazi Ghulam Nabi Jan, Chairman Land Development Bank & Social Activist )
Qazi Ghulam Ali Jan, Assistant Conservator Forest (ACF), Government of Jammu and Kashmir
Hassan Khoehami (Historian)
Naeem Akhtar (Politician)
Nizam Uddin Bhat, (Politician)
Faisal Ali Dar (Social Activist)
Prof. Manzoor Fazili (Academician and Writer)
Prof. Mohd Amin Malik (Academician and Columnist).
Dr. Maroof Shah (Writer)
Masood Samoon (IAS and Writer)
Asgar Samoon (IAS)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Johnson_(artist) | George Johnson (artist) | George Henry Johnson (18 August 1926 – 26 December 2021) was a New Zealand artist who made his name in Australia.
== Artistic career ==
=== Early career ===
Johnson studied art under the emigre artist Theo Schoon, who confirmed an early commitment to modernist art, especially Geometric Abstraction. He graduated from Wellington Technical College in 1947.
Johnson took influence from Dutch De Stijl, otherwise known as Neoplasticism. This Dutch art movement was based around architecturally structured pieces, similar to how you may view many of Johnson's works. Growing up, this artistic influence was significant as it was at the height of its popularity during Johnson's most impressionable years.
=== Move to Australia ===
Johnson relocated to Melbourne, Australia, in 1951 where he was soon drawn into contemporary art circles, mixing with Leonard French, Roger Kemp, Inge King, Julius Kane, Peter Graham, Clement Meadmore and others. He held his first solo exhibition there at the age of 30 in 1956, a selection of boldly geometric abstractions that set the art scene buzzing. By this time he was sharing a studio with French and the pair experienced increasing friction from the Heide Circle, a rival group of figurative modernists—including Arthur Boyd, John Perceval, Charles Blackman and Robert Dickerson—who were still trying to control the Contemporary Art Society. The latter artists eventually formed the Antipodeans Group, staging an exhibition in August 1959, initially to make a stand against Johnson, French, Kemp and a growing number of non-objectivist followers, although increasingly to express their opposition to American Abstract Expressionism, which they feared was about to overwhelm Australian art.
Johnson was represented by the Charles Nodrum Gallery in Richmond. He remained unwaveringly committed to geometric abstraction, producing paintings that were stylistically and intellectually indebted to Russian Constructivism.
== Personal life ==
Johnson was the father of noted Pasifika artist Vanya Taule'alo, and the brother of poet and author Louis Johnson. He died on 26 December 2021, at the age of 95.
== See also ==
Art of Australia
== References ==
Johnson, George H. 'Art and the World Around Us: An Essay on Experimental Art', Parent and Child (Wellington, N.Z.) Vol. 3, No. 6, August 1957.
Johnson, George H. 'Art Education: A Viewpoint', Art Craft Teachers' Association Magazine, (Victoria) No. 16, August 1973
Zimmer, Jenny, George Johnson and ineluctable abstraction, Art and Australia Vol 24, No.2, Summer 1986.
McCulloch, Allan, Encyclopedia of Australian Art, Hutchinson, Melbourne 1987.
Heathcote, Christopher & Zimmer, Jenny, George Johnson: World View, Macmillan Publishers Australia, Melbourne 2006.
== External links ==
George Johnson at the Charles Nodrum Gallery
Mount of the Blue Triangle 1986 at the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chutak_Hydroelectric_Plant | Chutak Hydroelectric Plant | The Chutak Hydroelectric Plant is a run-of-the-river power project on the Suru River (a tributary of Indus) in Kargil district in the Indian union territory of Ladakh. The barrage of the project is at Sarze village and the powerhouse is located on the right bank of the Suru near Chutak village. The project construction began on 23 September 2006, and the first three generators were commissioned in November 2012. The fourth was commissioned in January 2013.
The project included construction of a 47.5-metre-long (156 ft) barrage, having 15 m height above the crest level, an underground powerhouse, and 3.3 m dia and 10.02 km long head race tunnel and installation of four nos. of vertical Francis turbine of 11 MW each.
The project utilises a gross head of 63.4 m (208 ft) to generate 216.41 GWh in a 90% dependable year with an installed capacity of 44 MW. Each 11 MW underground generating unit was designed to operate under a rated head of 52 m and a rated discharge of 24.05 cubic metres per second. The barrage diverts water from the river and involves a flooding of only 0.135 km2 (0.052 sq mi). Thus the power density is 44 MW per 0.135 km2, i.e. very high 326 W/m2, compared to dam-based hydroelectric projects. The project will be connected to the Northern Grid by the 220 kV Leh-Srinagar transmission line, which is to be scheduled for commissioning along with project’s commissioning.
The project was developed by M/s National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Ltd. The generating equipment was supplied, erected and commissioned by M/s Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. The generator/turbine was manufactured by BHEL's Bhopal unit whereas the controls were supplied by BHEL's Bangalore unit. The erection and commissioning was done by BHEL's Power Sector. As of date all four generating units of this project are running successfully.
The project, along with the Nimoo Bazgo Hydroelectric Plant, was certified as compliant with the Indus Waters Treaty by the Indian Central Water Commission, with the project information passed over to Pakistan.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathima_Beevi# | Fathima Beevi | M. Fathima Beevi (30 April 1927 – 23 November 2023) was an Indian judge who was a justice of the Supreme Court of India. Appointed to the apex Court in 1989, she became the first female judge of the Supreme Court of India, and the first Muslim woman to be appointed to any of the higher judiciaries in the country. On her retirement from the court, she served as a member of the National Human Rights Commission and later as the Governor of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu from 1997 to 2001. In 2023, she was honoured with Kerala Prabha Award, the second-highest honour given by the Government of Kerala. In the 2024 honours list, she was posthumously awarded the Padma Bhushan.
== Early life and education ==
M. Fathima Beevi was born on 30 April 1927 at Pathanamthitta in the Kingdom of Travancore, now in the Indian state of Kerala, as the daughter of Annaveettil Meer Sahib and Khadeeja Beevi into the Rowther family.
Beevi attended Town school and Catholicate High School, Pathanamthitta and got her BSc in chemistry from women's college, Thiruvananthapuram. She obtained her LL.B. from Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram.
== Career ==
Beevi was enrolled as Advocate on 14 November 1950. She topped the Bar Council exam in 1950. She began her career in the lower judiciary in Kerala. She was appointed the Munsiff in the Kerala Sub-ordinate Judicial Services in May 1958. She was promoted as the Sub-ordinate Judge in 1968 and as the Chief Judicial Magistrate in 1972, as District & Sessions Judge in 1974.
In January 1980, Beevi was appointed the Judicial Member of the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal. She was then elevated to the High Court as a Judge on 4 August 1983.
Beevi became permanent Judge of the High Court on 14 May 1984. She retired as the Judge of the High Court on 29 April 1989 but was further elevated to the Supreme Court as a Judge on 6 October 1989 where she retired on 29 April 1992.
== Governor of Tamil Nadu ==
Beevi later went on to become the Governor of Tamil Nadu on 25 January 1997. Appointing her as the Governor of Tamil Nadu and Justice Sukhdev Singh Kang, former Chief Justice of Jammu and Kashmir High Court, as Governor of Kerala, the then President of India, Shankar Dayal Sharma said "Their experience of and insights into the working of the Constitution and the laws comprise valuable assets."
As the Governor of the state, she rejected the mercy petitions filed by the four condemned prisoners in the Rajiv Gandhi assassination case. The prisoners had sent the mercy petitions to the Governor, pleading for her to exercise her power under Article 161 of the Constitution (the Governor's power to grant pardon).
=== Controversy ===
Beevi was embroiled in controversy when she gave a clean chit to the law and order situation in Tamil Nadu that prompted the ire of the Central government. The Minister for Law, Arun Jaitley asked for her resignation. Later she left her office as Governor of the state under controversial circumstances of her accepting Jayalalithaa's assembly majority after the elections and over the arrest of Karunanidhi, who pitched for her appointment four years ago. Jayalalitha defended the state Governor's decision to invite her to form the government. She said "She is a former supreme court judge. She herself is a legal expert. Nobody need teach her about law or the constitution. Her decision is not justiciable."
Jayalalitha's party had received the simple majority (131 seats out of total 234 seats in the Tamil Nadu Assembly) after elections in May 2001. Fathima Beevi, the then Governor of Tamil Nadu administered the oath of office to J Jayalalitha as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu on 14 May 2001 in spite of the fact that Jayalalitha could not contest the election and would not be able to get herself elected by the people to the assembly within six months as per the constitution. There were a few Public Interest Litigations (PIL) filed in the Supreme Court questioning the validity of her appointment as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Fathima Beevi justified her decision by saying that the majority party in the state assembly had elected Jayalalitha as their leader.
Fathima Beevi submitted her resignation after the Union Cabinet decided to recommend to the President to recall the Governor for having failed to discharge her constitutional obligation. The centre was peeved with Fathima Beevi for not having furnished an independent and objective assessment of the sequence of events after the arrest of the former Chief Minister, M. Karunanidhi, and the two Union Ministers, Murasoli Maran and T. R. Baalu. The centre had accused her of toeing the official line verbatim. The then Andhra Pradesh Governor, Dr C. Rangarajan, took charge as the acting Governor of Tamil Nadu, following her resignation.
Subsequently, the Supreme Court of India overturned her appointment of Jayalalithaa as Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Referring to the case, the Court Bench ruled that "The Governor cannot, in the exercise of his/her discretion or otherwise, do anything that is contrary to the Constitution and the laws. Therefore, the Governor, having due regard to the Constitution and the laws, must decline to exercise the discretion in appointing as Chief Minister a non-member who was not qualified to become a member of the legislature."
=== Other duties ===
As the Governor of the state she had also served as the Chancellor of Madras University. It was reported by university sources that the Vice-Chancellor, P.T. Manoharan, had decided to quit his office in the wake of the Chancellor allegedly withholding her approval to the Syndicate's decision to establish a new department for contemporary Tamil literature. She had also served as the Chairman of Kerala Commission for Backward Classes (1993) and member of National Human Rights Commission (1993). She received Hon. D. Litt. and Mahila Shiromani Award in 1990. She was also awarded Bharat Jyoti Award.
The left parties also discussed the nomination of the prospects of Fathima Beevi as the President of India, during which the NDA Government proposed the name of Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam.
== Death ==
Fathima Beevi died on 23 November 2023, at the age of 96.
== See also ==
Anna Chandy
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiko | Seiko | Seiko Group Corporation (セイコーグループ株式会社, Seikō Gurūpu kabushiki gaisha), commonly known as Seiko ( SAY-koh, Japanese: [seːkoː]), is a Japanese maker of watches, clocks, electronic devices, and semiconductors. Founded in 1881 by Kintarō Hattori in Tokyo, Seiko introduced the world's first commercial quartz wristwatch in 1969.
Seiko is widely known for its wristwatches. Seiko and Rolex are the only two watch companies considered to be vertically integrated. Seiko is able to design and develop all the components of a watch, as well as assemble, adjust, inspect and ship them in-house. Seiko's mechanical watches consist of approximately 200 parts, and the company has the technology and production facilities to design and manufacture all of these parts internally.
The company was incorporated (K. Hattori & Co., Ltd.) in 1917 and renamed Hattori Seiko Co., Ltd. in 1983 and Seiko Corporation in 1997. After reconstructing and creating its operating subsidiaries (such as Seiko Watch Corporation and Seiko Clock Inc.), it became a holding company in 2001 and was renamed Seiko Holdings Corporation on July 1, 2007. Seiko Holdings Corporation was renamed Seiko Group Corporation as of October 1, 2022.
Seiko watches were originally produced by two different Hattori family companies (not subsidiaries of K. Hattori & Co); one was Daini Seikosha Co. (now known as Seiko Instruments Inc., a subsidiary of Seiko Holdings since 2009) and the other was Suwa Seikosha Co. (now known as Seiko Epson Corporation, an independent publicly traded company). Having two companies both producing the same brand of watch enabled Seiko to improve technology through competition and hedge risk. It also reduced risk of production problems, since one company can increase production in the case of decreased production in the other parties. Seiko remains as one of the world's most recognised watchmaking brands.
In Ginza, where the company was founded, there are several Seiko-related facilities in addition to Seiko House Ginza, including the Seiko Museum and Seiko Dream Square. Several Seiko boutiques and department stores in the area frequently offer Ginza-exclusive models.
== History ==
=== 1881 founding to 1929 ===
In 1881, Seiko founder Kintarō Hattori opened a watch and jewelry shop called "K. Hattori" (服部時計店) in Tokyo. Kintarō Hattori had been working as clockmaker apprentice since the age of 13, with multiple stints in different watch shops, such as “Kobayashi Clock Shop”, run by an expert technician named Seijiro Sakurai; “Kameda Clock Shop” in Nihonbashi; and “Sakata Clock Shop” in Ueno, where he learned how to both sell and repair timepieces.
Around the time of Seiko's founding, watchmakers in Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya were studying and producing pocket watches based on Western products. Japanese wholesalers needed to purchase all the imported timepieces from foreign trading companies established in Yokohama, Kobe, and other open port areas.
In 1885, Hattori began dealing directly with these foreign trading firms in the Yokohama settlement focused on the wholesaling and retailing of western (imported) timepieces and machinery.
Over the years, Hattori developed a close partnership with multiple foreign trading firms, including C&J Favre-Brandt, F. Perregaux & Co., Zanuti & Cie. and Siber & Brennwald, allowing him to obtain exclusive imported timepieces and machinery, which was not available elsewhere at that time.
Hattori's shop became increasingly popular due to the rarity of the imported watches the shop was selling, which were not found anywhere else in Japan. The growing success allowed him to relocate the company to the main street of Ginza (Tokyo), still the epicenter of commerce in Japan to this day.
In 1891, 10 years after the establishment of K. Hattori & Co., the 31-year-old Kintaro was appointed director of the Tokyo Clockmaker and Watchmaker Association and member of Tokyo Chamber of Commerce.
In 1892, Hattori began to produce clocks under the name Seikosha (精工舎, Seikōsha), meaning, roughly, "House of Exquisite Workmanship." According to Seiko's official company history, titled A Journey In Time: The Remarkable Story of Seiko (2003), Seiko is a Japanese word meaning "exquisite" (精巧, Seikō); it is homophonous with the word for "success" (成功, Seikō).
In 1895, the watch dealer purchased the corner of Ginza 4-chome (the present-day location of WAKO), and constructed a building with a clock tower (16 meters from top to bottom), setting up shop at the new address.
Seiko launched its first in-house pocket watch, the Timekeeper, in 1895; the first Japanese-made wristwatch, the Laurel, in 1913; and the first Seiko-branded wristwatch in 1924. Wristwatches and pocket watches completed in 1923 were provisionally given the name "Glory." However, since its pronunciation was similar to "gorori" (ゴロリ), a Japanese onomatopoeia for tumbling, which was considered unlucky, it was decided that the brand name for watches to be mass-produced from 1924 would be "Seiko."
In 1929, the Seiko pocket watch was adopted as the official watch for the drivers of Japanese Government Railways.
=== 1930 to 1990 ===
Military watches, notably the "Seikosha Type 93 Tensoku-Dokei" produced for Japanese troops during World War II were manufactured by Seiko, which by 1938, produced 1.2 million timepieces a year. The scarcity of raw materials during the war diverted much of Seiko's production to on-board instruments for military aircraft and ships. In contrast to Japan, Germany utilized both domestically produced and Swiss-produced watches. Japan's isolation in the Pacific meant the country could not rely on importing foreign timepieces.
In 1951, Seiko broadcast its first radio commercial in Japan, and when Japan's first commercial television station opened in 1953, it broadcast Japan's first television commercial. The first Japanese commercial was supposed to be broadcast as a time signal at noon, but the video technician mishandled the equipment and the commercial lasted only three seconds, and it was rebroadcast at 7:00 p.m. the same day.
In 1956, Seiko launched Japan's first automatic wristwatch, the Automatic. The retail price at the time was 13,500 yen, more than three times the price of men's wristwatches, which were generally in the 4,000 yen range. In the same year, the company released the Marvel, which represented a significant improvement in accuracy, quality, and productivity over the previous model. This was achieved by increasing the outer diameter of the movement compared to the previous model.
In 1958, Seiko developed the 'Dia-Shock' anti-shock device.
In 1959, Seiko launched the Gyro Marvel, which featured a revolutionary self-winding mechanism, the Magic Lever, developed by Seiko. The Magic Lever was simple in structure and had high winding performance, and popularized automatic watches among the general public.
In 1960, Seiko released the Grand Seiko, aimed to be the most accurate wristwatch in the world.
Seiko quickly developed quartz technology in preparation for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, and in 1963 launched the Seiko Crystal Chronometer, a dramatically smaller version of its previous quartz clock. The quartz clock Seiko had supplied to a broadcasting station in 1959 was about the size of a wardrobe, but this new product ran on two batteries and was portable. At the Tokyo Olympics, Seiko's mechanical stopwatches were selected as the official Olympic watches due to their high accuracy.
Seiko launched Japan's first chronograph wristwatch, the Crown Chronograph, in 1964, Japan's first world time wristwatch in the same year, and Japan's first diver's wristwatch in 1965. In 1967, Japan's first diver's watch with 300m water resistance was launched.
In 1967, Seiko won second and third place in a watch accuracy competition at a Neuchâtel Observatory competition; the competition was canceled after that year.
In 1968, Seiko took first place in a Geneva Observatory competition with a score of 58.19, surpassing all previous records. Swiss companies ranked first to third for their quartz movements and Seiko ranked fourth to tenth for its mechanical movements. In the competition, there were special movements for the competition.
In 1969, Seiko released several wristwatches that the company now regards as historically significant models. The Astron became the world’s first commercially available quartz wristwatch, with a price tag comparable to that of a mid-sized car at the time. The release of the Astron triggered what became known as the "Quartz Revolution" or "Quartz Crisis," during which the Swiss watch industry suffered a major decline from the 1970s through the early 1980s. The 5 Sports Speed Timer was the world’s first commercially available automatic chronograph, achieving great success due to its compact design and practical functionality. Although Zenith had previously unveiled a prototype automatic chronograph, Seiko was the first to bring one to market. Seiko also introduced the Grand Seiko V.F.A., a mechanical watch with ultra-high accuracy rated at ±2 seconds per day, and the U.T.D., a mechanical watch with an exceptionally thin movement measuring just 1.98 mm.
Since the 1970s, Seiko has introduced a variety of wristwatches with various world firsts: in 1973, Seiko introduced the world's first wristwatch with a LCD display capable of displaying six digits for hours, minutes and seconds; in 1975, Seiko introduced the world's first digital watch with a stopwatch function and a diver's watch with a titanium case. In 1978, Seiko introduced the world's first quartz diver's watch with a water resistance of 600 meters; in 1982, the world's first wristwatch with a television; in 1983, the world's first wristwatch with a record-and-play function and an analog quartz chronograph; in 1984, the world's first wristwatch computer; and in 1986, the world's first diver's watch with a ceramic case water-resistant to 1000 meters.
In 1974, Seiko launched Credor, a luxury brand using precious metals and jewelry, and in 1979, Alba, a low-priced brand for young people.
In 1985, Orient and Seiko established a joint factory.
In 1986, Baselworld allowed non-European manufacturers to participate, and Seiko began exhibiting that year.
In 1988, Seiko invented the world's first wristwatch with an innovative mechanism called "Auto Quartz", in which a rotating oscillating weight rotates in response to the wearer's arm movements, generating electricity to power the quartz. This mechanism was developed with the aim of creating a quartz watch that does not require battery replacement. This mechanism was adopted as Seiko's core movement and later renamed "A.G.S.". (Automatic Generating System). In 1991, to increase popularity, the watches were relaunched under the name "Seiko Kinetic".
=== Recent development ===
In 1998, Grand Seiko was released with the first new mechanical movement in 20 years.
In 1999, Seiko launched Spring Drive, the world's first mechanical wristwatch with the accuracy of quartz.
In 2004, the Astron, launched in 1969, was selected as an IEEE milestone. In the same year, Seiko began operating the Shizukuishi Watch Studio, which specializes in high-end watches.
In 2005, Seiko launched the world's first solar-powered analog watch that adjusts its accuracy by receiving three radio signals from Japan, Germany, and the United States.
In 2006, Seiko launched the world's first wristwatch based on microcapsule E-ink technology. This watch was the first Seiko watch to win an award at the Grand Prix de Genève for its innovative ability to bend the display part, in addition to providing more contrast and a wider viewing angle than conventional LCD displays.
In 2010, Seiko launched the world's first solar radio-controlled digital watch based on the active matrix EPD system, advancing the expression of information in digital watches.
In 2012, Seiko launched the world's first GPS solar watch, the Seiko Astron GPS Solar. Seiko positioned this watch as the second revolutionary wristwatch after the Astron, which was launched in 1969, and described that it had the ultimate practical functionality, being able to instantly display extremely accurate time anywhere in the world and working as long as there is light. Seiko's low power consumption GPS receiver contributed to the practical application of this watch.
In April 2025, Seiko announced the Grand Seiko SLGB001 and SLGB003, the most accurate mainspring-driven watches in history. The Spring Drive Caliber 9RB2 dramatically improved the accuracy of mainspring-driven watches from the previous Spring Drive calibers' record of ±15 seconds per month to ±20 seconds per year.
== Seiko Group ==
Hattori Tokeiten (K. Hattori & Co., currently Seiko Group Corporation) was one of the three principal companies of the former Seiko Group. The group was mainly composed of Hattori Tokeiten (K. Hattori), Daini Seikosha (currently Seiko Instruments Inc., SII), and Suwa Seikosha (currently Seiko Epson Corporation, Epson). Although they shared activities in the manufacturing and marketing of clocks and watches, the three companies were not formally affiliated as parent and subsidiary, nor as sibling companies under the Seiko Group; each was managed and operated independently, despite having some common shareholders, including key members of the Hattori family (posterity of Kintarō Hattori). Manufacturing was handled by three "Seikosha": Seikosha, the factory division of Hattori Tokeiten (K. Hattori), and two separate companies, Daini Seikosha and Suwa Seikosha. While there were no direct capital links among the three companies, they were connected through personal networks, centered around Hattori Tokeiten (K. Hattori), which managed sales.
=== Corporate evolution within the Seiko Group ===
In 1892, Kintarō Hattori established Seikosha in Ishiwara, Honjo Ward, Tokyo City (now Sumida, Tokyo), as the first factory of Hattori Tokeiten (K. Hattori & Co.), beginning with the production of wall clocks. The following year, the factory was relocated to Yanagishima, Honjo Ward, and in 1895 pocket watch production commenced, followed by wristwatch production in 1913. In 1917, Hattori Tokeiten (K. Hattori & Co.) was incorporated with a capital of five million yen, and its English name became K. Hattori & Co., Ltd.
After Hattori's death, the pocket watch and wristwatch manufacturing division was spun off from K. Hattori in 1937 to establish Daini Seikosha as an independent company, and in 1939 a new factory for Daini Seikosha was completed in Kameido (now Kōtō, Tokyo). This established a division of labor in which Seikosha manufactured clocks and Daini Seikosha manufactured watches.
In 1942, Hisao Yamazaki founded Daiwa Kogyo in Suwa, Nagano Prefecture, as a cooperative factory for Daini Seikosha, which produced and assembled watch components. In 1943, to avoid air raids by the U.S. military, Daini Seikosha established a wartime relocated factory near Daiwa Kogyo in Suwa. After the war, in 1959, Daini Seikosha's relocated factory was merged with Daiwa Kogyo to form Suwa Seikosha. In 1960, Suwa Seikosha developed the first Grand Seiko.
In 1961, Suwa Seikosha established a subsidiary, Shinshu Seiki, for the manufacture of watch components. Ahead of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, Seikosha focused on the development of quartz technology for time measurement, while Suwa Seikosha concentrated on printer technology to output recorded times. This allowed Suwa Seikosha to establish its own research and development system, and from around 1968 it began producing and selling printers and electronic components. Suwa Seikosha developed the Astron, the world’s first commercial quartz watch. In 1985, Suwa Seikosha merged with Shinshu Seiki, which had been renamed Epson in 1982, to become Seiko Epson.
In 1970, Daini Seikosha established Morioka Seiko Kogyo (Morioka Seiko Instruments) in Shizukuishi, Iwate Prefecture, as a watch manufacturing factory, which began operations in 1971. In 1974, Ninohe Tokei Kogyo was founded in Ninohe, Iwate Prefecture, to supply parts for Morioka Seiko Instruments. In 1983, Daini Seikosha was renamed Seiko Denshi Kogyo (Seiko Instruments & Electronics Ltd). In 1996, Tono Seiki, a watch component manufacturer, became a subsidiary. With this addition, Seiko Denshi Kogyo established an integrated watch production system in Iwate Prefecture, centered on Morioka Seiko Instruments. The company was renamed Seiko Instruments Inc. (セイコーインスツルメンツ, Seiko Insutsurumentsu) in 1997. In 2004, its Japanese name was slightly modified to セイコーインスツル (Seiko Insutsuru), while the English name remained unchanged.
In 1970, Seikosha, which had remained as the factory division of K. Hattori, was spun off as a separate corporation. Seikosha ceased to exist in 1996 with the establishment of Seiko Clock and Seiko Precision.
In 1983, Hattori Tokeiten (K. Hattori) was renamed Hattori Seiko (Hattori Seiko Co., Ltd). In 1997, Hattori Seiko was renamed Seiko (Seiko Corporation). In 2001, Seiko Corporation became a holding company, and Seiko Watch Corporation was established to take over the watch business. In 2007, Seiko Corporation was renamed Seiko Holdings Corporation.
On January 26, 2009, Seiko Holdings and Seiko Instruments announced the two companies would merge on October 1, 2009, through a share swap. Seiko Instruments became a wholly owned subsidiary of Seiko Holdings as of 1 October 2009.
In 2020, the watch business of Seiko Instruments was transferred to Seiko Watch Corporation, a subsidiary of Seiko Holdings Corporation. Seiko Watch Corporation operates multiple subsidiaries engaged in the manufacture, maintenance and repair, and sales of watches. Its regional sales and distribution companies are organized separately for Seiko and Grand Seiko. For example, in the United States, Seiko Watch Corporation manages two subsidiaries: Grand Seiko Corporation of America and Seiko Watch of America LLC.
On October 1, 2022, Seiko Holdings Corporation was renamed Seiko Group Corporation.
Epson still develops and manufactures some of Seiko's highest-grade watches, but is managed and operated completely independently from Seiko Group. As of March 2025, Epson's revenue is more than four times greater than that of Seiko Group Corporation, and its number of employees is over six times larger. Epson fully acquired Orient Watch, originally founded in 1901, in 2009, and integrated its operations into Epson's business in 2017.
In October 2025, Tono Seiki and Ninohe Tokei Kogyo, subsidiaries of Morioka Seiko Instruments, were renamed Tono Seiko and Ninohe Seiko, respectively.
During the era of K. Hattori & Co., Ltd., the company's headquarters was located in Ginza 4-chome, at the site of the present-day Seiko House Ginza, from 1932. During the period it was known as Seiko Holdings Corporation, the headquarters was located in Toranomon until 2016, after which it moved to Ginza 1-chome. The headquarters has remained in Ginza 1-chome since the company was renamed Seiko Group Corporation.
=== Subsidiaries ===
Seiko Watch Corporation — Planning, development and manufacturing of watches and other products and domestic and overseas sales. Product planning and sales of clocks—including wall clocks, desk clocks, and alarm clocks–for both domestic and international markets
Seiko Instruments Inc. — Development, manufacturing and sales of electronic components, precision components and printing devices
Seiko Solutions Inc. — Development, manufacturing, sales, maintenance, services and consultations for the hardware and the software relating with information systems and network services
Seiko Time Creation Inc. — Development, manufacturing, and sales of facility clocks, sports timing systems, digital signage, and large-scale display boards, including related installation services and timekeeping support for sporting events
Wako Co., Ltd. — Sales of watches, jewelry, accessories, interior supplies, art goods and crafts, glasses and foodstuffs
Seiko NPC Corporation — Design, development, manufacturing, and sales of semiconductor products
Seiko Future Creation Inc. — Group-wide R&D and production technology development, plus provision of FA systems and Provision of analytical instrumentation and microfabrication services
=== Manufacturing sites ===
Seiko watches and their components are manufactured in Japan and several other countries in Asia. In Japan, watches are produced at Morioka Seiko Instruments, Tono Seiko, and Ninohe Seiko in Iwate Prefecture, as well as at the Seiko Epson's Shiojiri facility in Nagano Prefecture. Morioka Seiko Instruments is a subsidiary of Seiko Watch Corporation, while Tono Seiko and Ninohe Seiko are subsidiaries of Morioka Seiko Instruments. Grand Seiko mechanical watches are made at Morioka Seiko Instruments' Grand Seiko Studio Shizukuishi, while quartz and Spring Drive watches are produced at the Shinshu Watch Studio within Epson's Shiojiri facility. The highest-end Grand Seiko Masterpiece Collection is produced in limited quantities: Spring Drive models at Epson's Micro Artist Studio in Shiojiri, and mechanical models at Atelier Ginza, located on the 7th floor of Seiko House Ginza in Tokyo. The Micro Artist Studio also manufactures Credor's high-complication watches. Additionally, Orient brand watches, owned by Epson, are manufactured at Epson's facility in Akita Prefecture.
Seiko has manufacturing facilities for watch parts and movements in Singapore, Malaysia, and China. In the late 1990s, the company transferred half of its movement production to a subsidiary in Singapore. Since the late 2010s, certain plastic component molding processes have been consolidated in China, while some metal processing operations have been consolidated in Malaysia. In 2020, these overseas manufacturing operations were reorganized as subsidiaries under Seiko Watch Corporation.
== Brands and product lines ==
Seiko produces watches with quartz, kinetic, solar, mechanical, and Spring Drive movements of varying prices, ranging from around ¥4,000 (US$45) to ¥50,000,000 (US$554,000). Seiko has created many different brands in Japan and the international market including Lorus, Pulsar, and Alba.
In 2015, the Financial Times reported that the enthusiastic reception of the Spring Drive movement prompted Seiko to launch higher-end pieces. Harvard Business School reported: "In 2003, Shinji Hattori, a great-grandson of Seiko's founder, became Seiko Watch Company's president and CEO and felt that Seiko should raise its perceived image outside Japan. In management's view, Seiko could claim distinction as the only 'mechatronic manufacturer' in the world – a vertically integrated watchmaker that excelled in both mechanical watchmaking and micro-electronics."
In 2017 and 2019, Seiko separated its two highest-end brands, Grand Seiko and Credor, from its other brand lines, establishing them as independent brands with their own operations and distribution networks.
As of 2025, Seiko positions Grand Seiko, King Seiko, Seiko Prospex, Seiko Astron, Seiko Presage, and Seiko 5 Sports as global brands with worldwide distribution. In contrast, some brands such as Credor are marketed primarily in specific countries, such as Japan.
=== Seiko 5 ===
Seiko 5 is a sub brand that spawned with the introduction of the Seiko Sportsmatic 5 in 1963. Since then, many models have been introduced into the lineup, comprising a variety of different styles.
The name of the Seiko 5 sub brand is a reference to 5 attributes that any watch belonging to it would typically exhibit, those being:
An automatic watch movement
The day and the date displayed on the dial
Water resistance to an acceptable degree
A recessed crown at the 4 o'clock position
A durable case and bracelet
In spite of their association with the brand, not all of these characteristics are universal across the lineup, as certain models have omitted the Day-Date display (such as the SSA333) and/or the 4 o'clock positioning of the crown (such as the SRPG31K1 and the aforementioned SSA333).
Seiko released many models under the Seiko 5 sub brand, including large and small divers; watches featuring different strap options, such as leather, nylon, or steel; transparent, or sterile case-back versions; and many other variations.
=== Seiko Lord Matic ===
Seiko Lord Matic line of watches was introduced in 1968 and became popular in the 1970s. It featured design innovations such as faceted crystals, colorful dials and sporty bracelets.
=== Seiko Astron ===
The Seiko Astron series is a quartz watch which receives time information and location information from GPS satellites. These watches also have a solar panel which means that the battery does not need to be replaced.
=== Seiko Presage ===
The Seiko Presage series is an all-mechanical lineup, a step up from the entry-level Seiko 5 models. It has slightly more elaborate designs and complex movements, such as urushi-lacquer dials, and self-winding movements with power reserve indicators. The Presage line watches are usually priced between US$200 to US$3,000.
Seiko entered a cooperation with the traditional cloisonné maker Ando Cloisonné Company from Nagoya to produce the dial for the limited edition in 2018.
=== Seiko Prospex ===
The Seiko Prospex series includes their professional series of watches such as their diving watches, which are typically ISO 6425 rated from 200 to 1000 metres of water resistance. Other watches in the Prospex line include field and pilot style watches.
In 2021, Akio Naito, President of the Seiko Watch Corporation, said that enthusiasts' respect for the brand can "influence the wider range of consumers." This influence can be seen in the Prospex range, where Seiko fans' nicknames resulted in the company eventually adopting these product names. For example, Seiko's own London boutique identifies the Prospex SPB191J1 watch using the fans' sobriquet: "Nicknamed 'Shogun' by fans, meaning Japanese 'Commander-in-chief', because of its strong looks."
In 2025, Seiko announced an boutique exclusive watch, Seiko Prospex 1968 Heritage Diver GMT. The latest “Seashadow” Black Boutique Edition (SPB534) is a 500-piece limited run, exclusive to select boutiques like Seiko Bond Street, London.
=== Grand Seiko ===
Prior to 1960, to challenge the status of Swiss watches and change the perception of Japanese watches, Daini Seikosha and Suwa began the discussion of a product line that could match the quality of Swiss watches under the suggestion of the parent company. At the time, Suwa Seikosha Co. was in charge of manufacturing men's watches, so it was decided that Suwa would produce the first Grand Seiko.
The first Grand Seiko, released in 1960, was based on Seiko's previous high-end watch, CROWN. This Grand Seiko has a 25-jewel, manual-winding, 3180 caliber, and its production was limited to 36,000 units. The watch was also the first chronometer-grade watch manufactured in Japan and was based on Seiko's own chronometer standard.
Some Grand Seiko timepieces also incorporate the company's Spring Drive movement, a movement that is a combination of both automatic and quartz timekeeping methods, leading to unparalleled accuracy in the world of automatic wristwatches. The most famous example is the SBGA011 Grand Seiko "Snowflake", housing the 9R Spring Drive movement.
With the repositioning of Grand Seiko from a Seiko subbrand to an independent brand in 2017, Grand Seiko aimed to transition to a true luxury brand. In 2022, 'Kodo Constant-Force Tourbillon SLGT 003', featuring the world's first combination tourbillon and constant-force mechanism on the same axis, was released, priced at 370,000 euros.
As of 2025, Grand Seiko is guided by the brand philosophy "The Nature of Time" and is composed of five collections: the Masterpiece Collection, Evolution 9 Collection, Elegance Collection, Heritage Collection, and Sport Collection. The Masterpiece Collection is produced in special workshops staffed by Seiko's most elite watchmakers. The mechanical models are crafted at Atelier Ginza, located on the 7th floor of Seiko House Ginza in Tokyo, while the Spring Drive models are manufactured at the Micro Artist Studio within Seiko Epson's facility in Shiojiri, Nagano. The Micro Artist Studio has also been responsible for creating Credor's complicated timepieces since 2000.
At Seiko House Ginza, customers can place custom orders for one-of-a-kind Grand Seiko timepieces, provided they meet certain conditions such as a high budget and the use of precious metals.
==== Design style ====
The design language of the Grand Seiko was set in 1967, with the creation of Grand Seiko 44GS. The 44GS set the ground for all future Grand Seiko with nine elements. These elements help improve the legibility of the watch under different situations, and create a sharp, crisp visual impression:
Double width index at 12 o'clock
Multi-faceted rectangular markers
Highly polished bezel
Highly polished planes and two-dimensional surface
Half recessed crown
Flat dial
Multi-faceted hour and minute hands
Curved side line
Reverse slanted bezel wall and case side
Dress style with simple but beautiful design
Zaratsu polishing
=== King Seiko ===
The King Seiko line was created by Daini Seikosha to compete directly with Grand Seiko. The first King Seiko was released the year after the first Grand Seiko, in 1961. The first King Seikos were made with unmarked, manual winding, 25 jewel movements, that were not internally tested chronometers. This was followed by the release of the '44KS' movement in 1964, a remake of the 44GS, a manual winding, 18,000 bph, movement with a screwdown case back. In 1968, the 45KS was introduced with a manual winding, 36,000 bph hi-beat movement – again meant to compete with the 45GS but generally less accurate and with less finishing. King Seiko Certified Chronometer and Superior Certified Chronometers were released between 1968 and 1970. These first two were produced by Daini Seikosha but one of the most impressive King Seikos, the 56KS, was actually made by the Suwa Seikosha. The King Seiko 56KS movements were the same as those used in Grand Seiko’s 56GS series, Seiko Lord Matic watches, and Seiko chronometers. It was also introduced in 1968 and featured an automatic, 28,800 bph movement with 25 jewels and a 47-hour power reserve. These watches were all marked ‘Hi-Beat’ on the dial despite being only 28,800 bph (instead of 36,000). The 56KS was made until 1975, when the King Seiko line was discontinued by the company.
The last King Seiko collection was made by Daini, and was the 52KS, starting off in 1971 and made until 1975. This line used the 5245 and 5246 movement. These were meant to be high-end chronometers, with some even marked ‘V. F. A.’ (Very Fine Accuracy) or ‘Special’ on the dial. Many of these were of the "Vanac" sub-line and featured colorful dial faces and faceted crystals.
In 2021, Seiko released a reissue model inspired by the design of the second-generation King Seiko KSK, originally introduced in 1965, and in 2022, the company fully revived the King Seiko brand.
In the summer of 2025, Seiko plans to bring back the 1972 King Seiko VANAC using modern technology. The watch will be powered by the Caliber 8L45, which offers an accuracy of +10 to -5 seconds per day and a power reserve of 72 hours. Seiko claims that this caliber represents the highest-grade mechanical movement within the Seiko brand (excluding calibers used in the independent Grand Seiko and Credor lines).
=== Credor ===
Credor is Seiko's highest-end brand alongside Grand Seiko. Seiko positions Grand Seiko as watches for everyday use, while Credor is intended for special occasions. The brand name is derived from the French words Crête d'Or, meaning "Crest (or Pinnacle) of Gold." Its logo symbolizes the peak of a mountain.
Credor was established in 1974 as a low-volume production line specializing in watches made with precious metals such as gold and platinum. In 2019, it was reorganized as an independent brand, like Grand Seiko, separate from Seiko's main lineup. As of 2022, Credor remains primarily a domestic (Japanese) brand with limited international distribution.
During Japan's economic bubble in the late 1980s and early 1990s, high-end jeweled watches priced over 10 million yen sold well, and Credor's jeweled watches experienced a golden era.
Since the 1990s, in addition to quartz jeweled watches, Seiko began incorporating mechanical watches into the Credor line, featuring intricate engravings based on traditional Japanese aesthetics. In 1996, the brand released its first skeleton watch, the GBBD998, which featured the ultra-thin 1.98 mm Caliber 6899 and a caliber engraved with motifs of swaying bamboo and chrysanthemums.
In 2000, Seiko established the Micro Artist Studio at Epson's facility in Shiojiri, Nagano, to begin producing haute horlogerie, which refers to high-end, artisanal Spring Drive watches, under the Credor name. Notable creations by the studio include the Credor Node Spring Drive Sonnerie (2006), Credor Node Eichi (2008), Credor Node Spring Drive Minute Repeater (2011), and Credor Eichi II (2014). Because Seiko had largely lost its capacity for high-end mechanical watchmaking by the late 1990s due to the quartz revolution, the release of the Spring Drive Sonnerie only six years after the studio's founding surprised many watch journalists.
Credor is also known for its artistic watches decorated with traditional Japanese lacquer techniques such as maki-e, raden, kirikane (gold leaf cutting), and zōgan (metal inlay). In 1987, Credor released its first pocket watch featuring lacquer decoration. In 2016, the brand launched the Fugaku Tourbillon, the first Seiko watch with a tourbillon, priced at 50 million yen, featuring a dial adorned with Hokusai's The Great Wave off Kanagawa rendered in engraving and lacquer art. In 2025, Credor released a new Goldfeather Tourbillon priced at 25.3 million yen, featuring a newly developed caliber that succeeds the one used in the Fugaku. The watch is adorned with engravings and urushi lacquer art depicting birds and feathers.
=== TimeTron ===
In the late 1990s, Seiko introduced, Seiko TimeTron, a line of digital watches with retrofuturistic design aimed at the young audience. It had an unconventional PC-inspired appearance, a dot-matrix display (and a button to change the size of the characters), was produced in a variety of colors for the case and the strap. Several models of TimeTron have been produced in limited numbers compared to other Seiko lines.
=== Other ===
Seiko produces electronic devices as well; during the 1980s, the company produced a notable range of digital synthesizers, such as the DS-202 and DS-250, for use in electronic music. Today the music division (part of Seiko Instruments Inc.) produces metronomes and tuning devices.
Seiko was previously engaged in the manufacturing and sale of jewelry, but exited the business in 2008. The company also sold its eyewear business to Hoya Corporation in 2014. However, eyewear products under the Seiko brand have continued to be sold by Hoya. In addition, Wako has continued to sell jewelry and eyewear from companies other than Seiko.
== Movements ==
=== Mechanical movement ===
Seiko developed the Caliber 60, which at the time was the world’s thinnest center-seconds movement at 2.95 mm, and in 1960 released the Seiko Goldfeather, a slim dress watch housing this caliber. The origin of the still-ongoing Caliber 68 series lies in the Caliber 6800, which measured just 1.98 mm in thickness and was first used in the Seiko U.T.D., released in 1969. After a period of discontinuation, the 68 series was revived in the 1990s, and as of the 2020s, updated versions such as the Caliber 6890 continue to be produced for ultra-thin dress watches, including Credor's Goldfeather line.
In 1968, Seiko introduced three ten beat (ten ticks per second) calibers, the automatic caliber 61GS, the manual winding 45GS and 19GS for women's watch. The 61GS was Japan's first automatic ten beat watch, and it was the most accurate mechanical watch due to the high beat calibers. The calibers are considered high beat because normal mechanical movements beat six to eight times per second, and higher beat makes the watch more resistant to shock, thus achieving the high accuracy.
Seiko developed the Caliber 6139, featuring a Magic Lever, column wheel, and a groundbreaking vertical clutch mechanism, and in 1969 released the Seiko 5 Sports Speed Timer, the world’s first commercially available automatic chronograph. The vertical clutch system, used to transmit power for the start and stop functions of the stopwatch, had a significant impact on the subsequent development of chronographs worldwide.
In 2009, Seiko released the new ten beat caliber 9S85, which is a completely new design from the previous high beat caliber. The new caliber also met the Grand Seiko Standard, a chronometer certification that the company claims to be more strict than the Chronometer Certificate in Switzerland.
Seiko developed the Caliber 6830 and, in 2016, released the Credor Fugaku, its first watch featuring a tourbillon, priced at 50 million yen. The company later developed the Caliber 9ST1 and, in 2022, launched the Grand Seiko Kodo, the world's first timepiece to integrate both a tourbillon and a constant-force mechanism on a single axis, priced at 44 million yen. In 2025, Seiko announced the Caliber 6850 as the successor to the Caliber 6830, increasing the power reserve from 37 to 60 hours. The new movement was introduced in the Goldfeather Tourbillon, released under the Credor brand at a price of 25.3 million yen.
Seiko developed the innovative Dual Impulse Escapement and introduced it in 2020 with the Caliber 9SA5. This escapement is the second non-lever escapement to be produced on an industrial scale, following George Daniels' Co-Axial escapement, which is used in Omega watches. It provides both a long power reserve and strong resistance to external disturbances that may affect timekeeping accuracy.
List of selected Seiko mechanical watch calibers
=== Quartz movement ===
On 25 December 1969, Seiko released the world's first quartz watch, the Seiko Quartz ASTRON, marking the beginning of the quartz revolution. The watch used a crystal oscillator for accuracy, where the crystal generates steady vibration when voltage is applied to it. During the ten years of development at Suwa Seikosha, Seiko managed to create many parts which enabled the viable application of quartz in wristwatches. For example, Seiko cut the crystal oscillator into the shape of a tuning-fork, and developed an integrated circuit and step motor to operate with the signals from the crystal oscillator.
Although creating the parts that enabled quartz watches, Seiko did not monopolize the patent rights for the unique pieces, but decided to open them.
In 1973, Seiko announced the world's first LCD quartz watch with six-digit digital display.
In 1975, Seiko launched the world's first multi-function digital watch, the 0634.
In 1978, Seiko released the Twin Quartz watch to address the effect t of temperature on the frequency of the quartz crystal oscillator, which put a limitation on the accuracy of quartz watches. Seiko put a second crystal in the watch that is linked with a processor that detects the change in temperature and signals the main oscillator to compensate. The result was a huge improvement in the watch's accuracy from five seconds per month to five seconds per year.
Kinetic watches were introduced by Seiko in 1986 at the Basel Fair Trade Show. These quartz watches use the motion of the wearer's wrist to charge their battery.
=== Grand Seiko 9F quartz movement ===
The 9F quartz movement is used in Grand Seiko quartz watches.
The Grand Seiko's 9F quartz movement is assembled entirely by hand by two expert craftsmen.
Features include:
Backlash auto-adjust mechanism
Twin pulse control motor
Instant date change mechanism – it can change the date display in 1/2000th of a second
Accuracy within +-10 seconds per year
=== Spring Drive ===
The Spring Drive was announced in 1997, developed by Yoshikazu Akahane and his team, and inspired by Yoshikazu's vision: "a watch wound by a mainspring and with one-second-a-day accuracy, a precision that only the finest electronic watches could deliver." The movement achieved high accuracy with one second per day, long power reserve (72 hours) with its unique developed alloy, fast winding with the "Magic Lever" design and glide-motion movement with the watch hands. In December 1999, Seiko began selling watches equipped with the Spring Drive movement. The initial models included two Seiko watches priced at ¥250,000 and ¥500,000, and one Credor watch priced at ¥1,000,000. All three were released as limited editions.
Spring Drive combines a precision-regulating mechanism that uses a quartz crystal oscillator with a mainspring-driven mechanical watch, making it far more accurate than traditional mechanical watches. As of 2025, the Caliber 9RB2 has achieved an impressive accuracy of ±20 seconds per year. Spring Drive calibers are often superior not only in accuracy but also in power reserve compared to mechanical movements. The Caliber 9R01 offers a power reserve of 192 hours (eight days), while the 9RA2 and 9RA5 provide 120 hours (five days), and the 9R02 delivers 84 hours. These significantly exceed the 80-hour power reserve of Grand Seiko's longest-running mechanical movements, the 9SA4 and 9SA5.
The movement uses a mainspring as a source of energy and transmits it through a gear train, just like a traditional mechanical watch, but instead of an escapement and balance wheel, Seiko used the newly developed "Tri-synchro regulator", which acts like a quartz movement. The Tri-synchro regulator has three main functions: controlling the mechanical energy of the mainspring, generate electricity for the low consumption (~25 nanowatts) quartz crystal oscillator and generate a magnetic force to regulate the glide wheel. By replacing the traditional escapement with a magnetic brake, the Spring Drive operates with lower noise and presents a glide motion hand that shows the continuous flow of time. The Spring Drive movement was also used as the basis for the first-ever watch designed to be worn by an astronaut during a space walk, the aptly named Seiko Spring Drive Spacewalk.
== Sponsorships ==
Seiko previously sponsored Honda F1 (formerly known as BAR [British American Racing] Honda). The Honda team driver, Jenson Button, was the brand ambassador of Seiko. The company name appeared on the team's clothing, Button's helmet, and on the pitstop lollipops. The sponsorship lasted until the end of the 2008 season, when Honda discontinued participating in F1 racing.
Seiko was an official sponsor of FC Barcelona from 2011 to 2014.
Seiko was the official timekeeper of the North American Soccer League during the 2014 season.
On January 10, 2014, on the eve of the Australian Open in Melbourne, Shinji Hattori, President of Seiko Watch Corporation, presented to Novak Djokovic a Seiko Astron GPS Solar limited edition worth $1700. It was launched worldwide with a million units, symbolizing Seiko's partnership with the world's no.1 professional tennis player.
Since 2014, Seiko has been a sponsor of the Australian motorsport team Team 18, and serves as the primary sponsor of the No. 20 Holden ZB Commodore driven by Scott Pye in the 2022 Supercars Championship.
Seiko developed a digital watch styled after Venom Snake's timepiece in Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain under its Wired brand. It was launched on September 2, 2015, with the Metal Gear installment. It was limited to 2,500 pieces worldwide and was sold out via pre-orders within 5 minutes of launch. The box of the watch was designed by Metal Gear Solid artist Yoji Shinkawa. Seiko is also named as the official timekeeper of the Gran Turismo racing game series, published by Sony Computer Entertainment.
Since 2018, Shohei Ohtani has had a sponsorship agreement with Seiko and has served as a global brand ambassador. In Japan, various Grand Seiko models he wore at press conferences and formal events attracted considerable attention, while several Prospex models he wore in television commercials became so popular that they were frequently out of stock, despite being regular production items. Seiko has also released a number of limited-edition models associated with Ohtani.
=== Official timekeeper ===
Seiko has been the official timekeeper of many major sporting events:
==== Olympic Games ====
1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan
1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo, Japan
1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain
1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway
1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan
2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States
==== FIFA World Cup ====
1978 FIFA World Cup in Argentina
1982 FIFA World Cup in Spain
1986 FIFA World Cup in Mexico
1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy
Seiko also released official products for the 2002 FIFA World Cup held in Japan and South Korea, without being the official timekeeper.
==== IAAF World Championships ====
Currently, Seiko has an agreement with World Athletics to act as the timekeeper for the latest editions of the World Athletics Championships. The agreement started in 1985 and is set to continue until at least 2029.
==== Tennis tournaments ====
Throughout the history, Seiko has been the official timekeeper for many tennis tournaments.
Seiko Super Tennis in Tokyo, Japan (1978–1995)
French Open in Paris, France (1980–1991)
Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo and later in Osaka, Japan (1984–present)
== References and footnotes ==
== Further reading ==
Donzé, Pierre-Yves. "Dynamics of innovation in the electronic watch industry: a comparative business history of Longines (Switzerland) and Seiko (Japan), 1960-1980." Essays in Economic & Business History 37.1 (2019): 120-145. online
Dahlman, Chris (2021). This Is Gyachung: The Story of Seiko's First Professional Mountaineer's Watch.
== External links ==
Seiko Group Corporation website
A Journey in Time: The Remarkable Story of Seiko (PDF).
New research in This Is Gyachung proves that Seiko's first professional watch came earlier than we had previously thought. (hodinkee.com) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Oglethorpe,_Georgia | Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia | Fort Oglethorpe is a city predominantly in Catoosa County with some portions in Walker County in the U.S. state of Georgia. As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 10,423. It is part of the Chattanooga, Tennessee–Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is home to Lakeview – Fort Oglethorpe High School.
== History ==
The United States Army established a cavalry post at the site of Hargrave, Georgia, an unincorporated town situated next to the Chickamauga National Battlefield. The existing settlement was named for a Confederate soldier, William Hamilton Hargrave, who along with his wife Amelia Cecilia Strange-Hargrave owned most of the land in the area. The couple was well known in the 19th century to travellers heading to Ross's Landing on the Tennessee River from LaFayette, Georgia. William Hargrave and other landowners in the area were forced to sell their property to the Army to be used as a base for the 6th Cavalry. The Chickamauga Post established in 1902 by the U.S. Army was later named Fort Oglethorpe after James Oglethorpe, the founder of the Colony of Georgia. During and after World War I, the fort served between 1917 and 1920 as an detention camp for civilian internees and prisoners of war. During World War II, the area served as a war-time induction and processing center, and again housed prisoners of war. Fort Oglethorpe was a major training center for the Women's Army Corps during World War II. The post land was declared surplus in 1947 and returned to civilian hands, forming the nucleus for a town that was incorporated in 1949.
== Geography ==
Fort Oglethorpe is located in western Catoosa County and northeastern Walker County at 34°56′44″N 85°14′44″W (34.945683, -85.245653). It is 9 miles (14 km) south of Chattanooga, Tennessee, by U.S. Route 27, which also leads south 18 miles (29 km) to LaFayette, Georgia. The Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park takes up the southern two-thirds of the city's area.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.9 square miles (36.0 km2), all land.
== Demographics ==
=== 2020 census ===
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 10,423 people, 3,994 households, and 2,240 families residing in the city.
Circa 2024, of the Fort Oglethorpe residents, 9,013 of them lived in Catoosa County and 250 of them lived in Walker County.
=== 2000 census ===
As of the 2000 U.S. census, there were 6,940 people, 2,873 households, and 1,881 families residing in the city. The population density was 532.6 inhabitants per square mile (205.6/km2). There were 3,108 housing units at an average density of 238.5 units per square mile (92.1 units/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 93.14% White, 2.38% African American, 0.19% Native American, 2.07% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.56% from other races, and 1.63% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.41% of the population.
There were 2,873 households, out of which 29.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0% were married couples living together, 15.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.5% were non-families. 30.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.86.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.8% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 19.6% 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 76.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $32,095, and the median income for a family was $40,643. Males had a median income of $28,160 versus $21,141 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,288. About 11.5% of families and 17.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.8% of those under age 18 and 11.3% of those age 65 or over.
== Education ==
The portion in Catoosa County is in the Catoosa County School District. Lakeview Fort Oglethorpe High School is in the Catoosa County district.
The portion in Walker County is in the Walker County School District.
== References ==
== External links ==
City of Fort Oglethorpe official website
6th Cavalry Regiment Museum
Chickamauga & Chattanooga National Military Park |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale_David_Award | Florence Nightingale David Award | The Florence Nightingale David Award is an award given every two years (in odd-numbered years) jointly by the Committee of Presidents of Statistical Societies and Caucus for Women in Statistics to a distinguished female statistician.
== Description ==
The award's purpose is to "recognize a female statistician who exemplifies the contributions of Florence Nightingale David" and who "has advanced the discipline and proven herself to be an outstanding role model". Since the founding of the award, it has become a "prestigious hallmark of achievement" among female statisticians.
== Winners ==
The Florence Nightingale David Award was first given in 2001, with David herself being given the award retroactively, dated to 1994. The winners of the award have been:
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_We_Do_in_the_Shadows_(TV_series)#:~:text=Gregor%20goes%20to%20the%20house,Nadja%2C%20and%20Gregor%20stands%20down. | What We Do in the Shadows (TV series) | What We Do in the Shadows is an American comedy horror mockumentary fantasy television series created by Jemaine Clement, first broadcast on FX on March 27, 2019, until concluding its run with the end of its sixth season on December 16, 2024. Based on the 2014 New Zealand film written and directed by Clement and Taika Waititi, both of whom act as executive producers, the series follows four vampire roommates on Staten Island, and stars Kayvan Novak, Matt Berry, Natasia Demetriou, Harvey Guillén, Mark Proksch, and Kristen Schaal.
What We Do in the Shadows is the second television series in the franchise after the spin-off Wellington Paranormal (2018–2022). Both shows share the same canon as the original film, with several characters from the film making appearances, including Clement's and Waititi's. The show received critical acclaim, particularly for its cast and writing, and 35 Emmy Award nominations, including four for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2020, 2022, 2024, and 2025, for its second, third, fifth and sixth season, respectively.
== Premise ==
Traditional vampires Nandor, Laszlo, and Nadja, together with energy vampire Colin Robinson, share a Staten Island residence, maintained by Nandor's familiar Guillermo. The vampires routinely clash with the modern world, other supernatural beings, and each other, while Guillermo earnestly endeavors to balance his loyalty to Nandor with his desire to become a vampire, complicated by his ancestry as a descendant of vampire hunter Van Helsing.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Kayvan Novak as Nandor the Relentless – Once the bloodthirsty leader of the fictional kingdom of Al-Quolanudar in southern Iran and a warrior serving the Ottoman Empire. At age 760, he is the oldest of the group and their self-proclaimed leader, though it is obvious he has little to no authority. Although he genuinely cares for his human familiar Guillermo, he has difficulty expressing it. Nandor is also quite naïve to the ways of modern society and humans, which often results in Guillermo becoming frustrated with him.
Matt Berry as Leslie "Laszlo" Cravensworth – A 310-year-old vampire from British nobility who was turned by Nadja and is now married to her. A pansexual and former porn actor who is often preoccupied with sexual thoughts, he enjoys sexual encounters with both Nadja and Nandor. His interests are more varied and intellectual than the other characters. He frequently performs scientific experiments on the humans killed by him and the other vampires. According to Nadja, he once forgot to eat for an extended period of time because he was "writing poetry and wanking". He and Nadja were at one time prolific songwriters, and, it seems, wrote what eventually became "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", "Come on Eileen" and "Kokomo". Laszlo also enjoys making topiary sculptures of vulvas in the yard, including those of his wife, and mother.
Natasia Demetriou as Nadja of Antipaxos – A 500-year-old Greek Romani vampire who turned Laszlo into a vampire and later married him. Abrasive and aggressive, she is frequently frustrated with her male housemates and nostalgic about her human life. The only character she shows any affection for is Laszlo, often wrathfully lashing out at Guillermo. She has entertained an affair with a reincarnated knight named Gregor for hundreds of years, only for him to be decapitated in every reincarnation. She later becomes manager of her own vampire nightclub.
Demetriou also plays Nadja's human ghost, split from its corporeal form when Nadja was turned into a vampire, who inhabits a doll which has appeared since the second season.
Harvey Guillén as Guillermo de la Cruz – Nandor's long-suffering Latino familiar. Despite his frustration with his unreasonable workload and Nandor's disregard for his mortality, he has served his master for more than a decade in the hope of being made a vampire. Guillermo discovers that he is a descendant of the famous vampire hunter Abraham Van Helsing and proves to be very skilled at killing vampires, giving him conflicting feelings about his desire to become a vampire. Guillermo's skill as a vampire slayer leads to him becoming a bodyguard for Nandor, Nadja, and Laszlo. He comes out as gay to his family but reveals his desire to become a vampire at the same time, prompting Nadja to erase their memories of his confession.
Mark Proksch as Colin Robinson (and Baby Colin / "The Boy") – An energy vampire who lives in the basement. He sustains himself by draining humans and fellow vampires of their life force by being extremely boring or frustrating. As a "day walker", he is not harmed by sunlight or entry into churches, and thus holds a regular job in an office where he feeds on his coworkers' frustrations. This also means that he financially supports the group. Unlike the others, he shows no outward signs of vampirism and appears as a regular human, with the only hints being his glowing irises and demonic facial expression when he feeds on energy, and his reflection showing a pale and decrepit version of himself. Following his 100th birthday, he dies and his infant offspring bursts out of his chest. Having rapidly grown to adulthood, Colin Robinson's son discovers a hidden room filled with Colin Robinson's diaries and regains Colin Robinson's memories as a result, forgetting his time as a child and essentially becoming a reincarnation of Colin Robinson.
Kristen Schaal as The Guide (also known as the "Floating Woman") – An envoy of the Vampiric Council who is able to teleport short distances and sometimes speaks in a demonic voice. She frequently expresses her desire to be socially accepted by the other vampires, yet is almost always rejected. She later works for Nadja as the latter turns the Vampiric Council's headquarters into a nightclub. (seasons 5–6; guest season 1; recurring seasons 3–4)
=== Recurring ===
Doug Jones as Baron Afanas – An ancient vampire from the Old Country who believes vampires should rule the world. Both Nadja and Laszlo had secret affairs with the Baron despite his lack of genitals. Later it is disclosed that he is not actually a Baron, but simply "barren" because he was unable to have children. In the first season, Guillermo inadvertently kills the Baron by opening a door and exposing him to sunlight. In the third season, however, it is revealed that he barely survived, albeit reduced to his head, torso and left arm. In later seasons, The Baron chooses to live a quaint, suburban lifestyle with The Sire, another legendary vampire. (seasons 1, 3–6)
Anthony Atamanuik as Sean Rinaldi – The human next-door neighbor. He sometimes witnesses Laszlo doing something vampiric but is easily hypnotized into forgetting everything. The vampires spare him because he brings their trash cans in when they forget, and Laszlo considers Sean his best friend. In season 5, it's implied that Sean is slowly, yet consistently, becoming dumber due to experiencing a constant stream of hypnosis and his rampant alcoholism.
Beanie Feldstein as Jenna – a LARPer and virgin whom Guillermo lured for the vampires to feast on. She was later transformed into a vampire by Nadja who witnessed her being treated poorly by her peers. During her vampire training with Nadja, she discovers she has the rare ability to turn invisible, which fits the tendency of people to ignore her, yet she struggles with turning into a bat. (season 1)
Veronika Slowikowska as Shanice – Jenna's college roommate who witnesses her transformation into a vampire. Shanice later joins the Mosquito Collectors of the Tri-State Area, a secret team of amateur vampire hunters. (seasons 1–2)
Nick Kroll as Simon the Devious – A vampire who rules over the Manhattan vampires and owns the Sassy Cat nightclub. He was initially a close friend to the Staten Island vampires when they first arrived in America, but he quickly became their shared enemy thanks to his willingness to trick and betray the trio. He is obsessed with Laszlo's cursed hat made out of witch skin and is often surrounded by a posse of vampires called "The Leatherskins". (guest seasons 1–2, 4)
Jake McDorman as Jeff Suckler – A reincarnation of Nadja's former human lover, Gregor, a knight who has been killed by decapitation in each of his lives. Nadja eventually restores Jeff's memories of his previous lives so that he can be more like his former self, leading to him falling into insanity and being committed to a mental institution. It is later revealed to Nadja and Gregor that Laszlo had been causing each of his deaths throughout history, which he does again. (season 1; guest season 2)
Vanessa Bayer as Evie Russell – Colin Robinson's co-worker. He discovers that she is an advanced form of energy vampire — an emotional vampire — who feeds off of the pity and sadness generated by her outlandish stories of suffering and misfortune. She and Colin Robinson date for a short time, feeding together on bored and pitying humans until he begins to feel the relationship is unhealthy. In season 5, she becomes Staten Island's City Comptroller, taking over for Colin Robinson's campaign after he intentionally exposed his penis in a video meeting. Her first name is a homophone of "E.V.", for Emotional Vampire. (guest seasons 1, 5)
Marceline Hugot as Barbara Lazarro – The president of the Staten Island Council. She was going to be the vampires' way of taking over Staten Island until Laszlo left a pile of dead raccoons on her doorstep in an attempt to win her trust, resulting in her believing it was a form of terrorist threat. She later appears running against Colin Robinson in the comptroller election. (guest seasons 1, 5)
Chris Sandiford as Derek – A vampire hunter turned vampire and convenience store clerk. (seasons 2–5, guest season 6)
Myrna Cabello as Silvia de la Cruz – Guillermo's mother (seasons 2, 4–5)
Haley Joel Osment as Topher – Nadja and Laszlo's familiar who is accidentally killed and revived as a zombie. Unlike Guillermo, Topher has no interest in becoming a vampire. He is energetic, fun-loving, and charismatic, and he is well-liked by all other members of the household, except Guillermo. (guest seasons 2, 5)
Benedict Wong as Wallace – A necromancer and tchotchke salesman whom Lazlo views as a fraud and con artist and often feuds with him. (guest seasons 2, 5)
Marissa Jaret Winokur as Charmaine Rinaldi – Sean's wife. (guest seasons 2–6)
Anoop Desai as Djinn – Nandor's magical genie, who is indebted to grant him a large number of wishes. (season 4; guest season 5)
Parisa Fakhri as Marwa – Nandor's resurrected ex-wife, now fiancée (season 4, guest season 6)
Frankie Quiñones as Miguel – Guillermo's cousin (guest seasons 4–6)
Mike O'Brien as Jerry the Vampire – The house's fifth roommate who has been in a "super slumber" since 1976, and intended to be awoken on New Year's Eve, 1996. (season 6)
Tim Heidecker as Jordan – Senior partner at Cannon Capital Strategies, the private equity firm where Guillermo, Nadja, and Nandor have been hired. (season 6)
Andy Assaf as Cravensworth's Monster – A Frankenstein-like creature assembled and animated by Laszlo. (season 6)
=== Guests ===
==== Season 1 ====
Arj Barker as Arjan – The pack leader of the Staten Island Werewolf Support Group. He entered into a truce between his kind and the vampires (which was created in 1993).
Dave Bautista and Alexandra Henrikson as Garrett and Vasillika the Defiler – A duo of vampires imprisoned by the council after Garrett was framed by Laszlo for turning a baby into a vampire (which is very illegal), and Vasillika for too much defiling.
Mary Gillis as June – Nadja and Laszlo's familiar. She appears to be an ill old woman who communicates through grunts. She is killed when the Baron sucks all her blood when he arrives on Staten Island.
Jeremy O. Harris as Colby – A human familiar to Dantos the Cruel and Radinka the Brutal, two 400-year-old vampires who appear to be children while Colby portrays as their father.
Gloria Laino as The Baron's Familiar – The Baron's familiar, who maintains a silent, watchful eye on the vampires of Staten Island as her master awakes. Guillermo says that she pops out of nowhere and hears "everything".
Paul Reubens as Paul – A member of the council.
Tilda Swinton as a fictionalized version of herself who is the leader of the Vampiric Council.
Wesley Snipes as Wesley the Daywalker / Wesley Sykes – A half-vampire member of the Council who could not participate in person but only video chat through Skype. Danny despises him, claiming he is a vampire hunter, which he denies.
Hayden Szeto as Jonathan – A LARPer college student that Guillermo lured for the vampires to feast on. However, Colin Robinson beat them to it by draining his energy instead.
Danny Trejo as Danny – A Hispanic tattooed member of the council. He has an open dislike towards Wesley.
Taika Waititi, Jonathan Brugh, and Jemaine Clement reprise their roles as Viago von Dorna Schmarten Scheden Heimburg, Deacon Brucke, and Vladislav the Poker from the original film. Three vampires arrived from New Zealand to participate in the Vampiric Council.
Bobby Wilson as Marcus – The actual Native American member of the Werewolf Pack. He is Native American, and a werewolf but, as he explains, "Not a werewolf because" he is Native American. "It's not an ethnic thing."
Evan Rachel Wood as Evan the Immortal Princess of the Undead – A member of the Council who just goes by her first name.
Hannan Younis as Ange – An African American werewolf and part of Arjan's group. She undermines Arjan's rules and is openly hostile towards Nadja due to Nadja's insulting the werewolves by assuming they are all "Indian" (as in, Native Americans).
==== Season 2 ====
James Frain as the voice of Black Peter – A goat and witch's familiar
Mark Hamill as Jim the Vampire – A vampire who claims that Laszlo owes him rent money from the 1800s and demands retribution.
Greta Lee as Celeste – A familiar who pretends to be a vampire
Lucy Punch as Lilith – A witch and rival of Nadja
Craig Robinson as Claude – The leader of the Mosquito Collectors of the Tri-State Area, a secret team of amateur vampire hunters.
==== Season 3 ====
Julie Klausner and Cole Escola as The Gargoyles – A duo of gargoyles who gossip and give tips to The Guide.
Lauren Collins as Meg – A gym receptionist on whom Nandor has a crush.
Tyler Alvarez as Wes Blankenship – The leader of a group of rebellious young vampires that refuse to follow the council's orders.
Aida Turturro as Gail – Nandor's on-again, off-again werewolf-turned-vampire girlfriend.
Catherine Cohen as Sheila – The siren
Scott Bakula as himself
Cree Summer as Jan – A vampire scam artist who is head of the Post-Chiropteran Wellness Center cult
Donal Logue as a fictionalized vampire version of himself
Khandi Alexander as Contessa Carmilla De Mornay
David Cross as Dominykas the Dreadful
==== Season 4 ====
Affion Crockett as Richie Suck, superstar vampire rapper
Fred Armisen as Doctor DJ Tom Schmidt, Richie Suck's familiar who is manipulating him for financial gain.
Sal Vulcano as himself
Sklar Brothers as Toby and Bran
Al Roberts as Freddie, Guillermo's boyfriend
Sofia Coppola as herself
Thomas Mars as himself
Jim Jarmusch as himself
Michael McDonald as Gustave Leroy
==== Season 5 ====
Robert Smigel as Alexander, a man Nandor befriends at the gym
Hannibal Buress as a member of the energy vampire council
Aparna Nancherla as a member of the energy vampire council
Martha Kelly as the chair of the energy vampire council
Gregg Turkington as a member of the energy vampire council
Jo Firestone as a member of the energy vampire council
John Slattery as himself
Wayne Federman as a vampire urgent care doctor
Kerri Kenney-Silver as Helen "The Magic Woman" Johnson
Patton Oswalt as himself
==== Season 6 ====
Steve Coogan as Lord Roderick Cravensworth, Laszlo's father
Jon Glaser as a demon
Kevin Pollak as Cal Bodian, the lead actor of the TV series P.I. Undercover: New York
Zach Woods as Joel, an old office work friend of Colin Robinson
Alexander Skarsgård as Eric Northman, reprising his role from the TV series True Blood
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2019) ===
=== Season 2 (2020) ===
=== Season 3 (2021) ===
=== Season 4 (2022) ===
=== Season 5 (2023) ===
=== Season 6 (2024) ===
== Production ==
=== Development ===
On January 22, 2018, it was announced that FX had given the production a pilot order. The pilot was written by Jemaine Clement and directed by Taika Waititi, both of whom are also executive producers alongside Scott Rudin, Paul Simms, Garrett Basch, and Eli Bush. On May 3, 2018, it was announced that FX had given the production a series order for a first season consisting of ten episodes, which premiered on March 27, 2019.
According to Clement: "We stay pretty basic '70s/'80s vampire rules, with a little bit of '30s. They can turn into bats. They can't go in the sunlight; they don't sparkle in the sun, they die. They have to be invited in; in a lot of literature vampires have to be invited into private buildings, but this is a documentary so it's the real rules which means they have to be invited into any building." Clement has also stated that the part of Laszlo was written specifically for Berry. The main influences on the series are Fright Night, Martin, The Lost Boys, Nosferatu, Interview with the Vampire, Vampire's Kiss, and Bram Stoker's Dracula. The character Nadja was named after the 1994 film of the same name.
The song used in the opening credits is "You're Dead" by Norma Tanega (1966), which was used during the opening credits sequence in the original film.
The second season premiered on April 15, 2020. On May 22, 2020, FX renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on September 2, 2021. On August 13, 2021, FX renewed the series for a fourth season, ahead of the third-season premiere. Upon the fourth season's renewal, it was reported that Rudin would no longer be an executive producer, beginning with the third season, due to allegations of abusive behavior. On June 6, 2022, FX renewed the series for a fifth and sixth season, ahead of the fourth season premiere. On December 19, 2023, it was announced that the sixth season would be its last.
=== Filming ===
Principal photography for the first season took place from October 22 to December 18, 2018, in Toronto, Ontario. Filming for the third season began on February 8, 2021, and finished on May 3, 2021.
The writer/producer Paul Simms said that series does not use CGI effects: "There's no fully digital characters or anything like that. One of the movies we really talked about a lot when we were conceiving the show was Francis Ford Coppola's Dracula where he went back to really doing as many effects as possible in camera and figuring out ways to do that. One of my favorite supernatural moments is completely in camera. It's where Beanie Feldstein's character is walking along in the park and Nadja appears walking next to her. That was all just done completely the old fashioned way where Natasia was hiding behind a tree and the camera was tracking along and at the right moment, she walked out from behind a tree. I think there's something about that old fashioned way that makes things more interesting than when you can tell it's digital and rubbery and fake looking".
Among the cinematographers D.J. Stipsen and Christian Sprenger's influences for the series was the work of Michael Ballhaus and production designer Thomas E. Sanders on the Coppola-directed Bram Stoker's Dracula: "We referenced that film for the general sumptuousness of the vampires' mansion, which was our main set. Our take, however, was that the Staten Island vampires have let their place go. The former glory is evident but now exists in a worn, faded and distressed state. Production designer Kate Bunch and I had a lot of conversations about striking the right balance between sumptuousness and neglect. There are strong reds, but also yellow that has faded to the point of being a warm brown."
Filming for the sixth and final season concluded in May 2024.
== Release ==
=== Marketing ===
On October 31, 2018, a series of teaser trailers for the series were released. On January 10, 2019, another teaser trailer was released. On February 4, 2019, the official trailer for the series was released.
=== Premiere ===
On October 7, 2018, the series held a panel at the annual New York Comic Con moderated by Rolling Stone's Alan Sepinwall and featuring co-creators Taika Waititi and Jemaine Clement, along with fellow executive producer Paul Simms. Before the panel began, the first episode of the series was screened for the audience. The world premiere for the series was screened during the 2019 South by Southwest film festival in Austin, Texas as a part of the festival's "Episodic Premieres" series.
== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
All six seasons of What We Do in the Shadows received critical acclaim. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the overall series holds a 96% approval rating. On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the overall series has received a score of 83 out of 100.
==== Season 1 ====
The first season received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 94%, based on 72 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Delightfully absurd and ridiculously fun, What We Do in the Shadows expands on the film's vampiric lore and finds fresh perspective in its charming, off-kilter cast to create a mockumentary series worth sinking your teeth into." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.
==== Season 2 ====
The second season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 98%, based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Bat! What We Do In the Shadows loses no steam in a smashing second season that savvily expands its supernatural horizons while doubling down on the fast flying fun." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.
==== Season 3 ====
The third season was also praised. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 100%, based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 9/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Carried on the wings of its cast's incredible chemistry and the strongest writing of the series so far, What We Do in the Shadows' third season is scary good." On Metacritic, the third season has an average score of 96 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
==== Season 4 ====
The fourth season also received acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 100%, based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Aside from turning this demonic household into Three Vampires and a Baby, What We Do in the Shadows doubles down on what it does best without drastically changing the formula – and remains fang-tastic all the same." On Metacritic, the fourth season has an average score of 84 out of 100, based on eight critics, indicating "universal acclaim". However, some critics complained of the reductive treatment of Nandor's wife, Marwa, in season 4. Comic Book Resources complained of the show "stripping a woman of her identity – physically and mentally – for laughs" and The Mary Sue stated that "What We Do in the Shadows missed hard with its treatment of Marwa."
==== Season 5 ====
The fifth season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 95%, based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 7.65/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Displaying a comedic longevity that'd make even a vampire blush, What We Do in the Shadows enters its fifth season showing no signs of getting long in the fang." On Metacritic, the fifth season has an average score of 85 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
==== Season 6 ====
The sixth season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 91%, based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "What We Do in the Shadows wisely chooses to stick a stake in it before the Staten Island shenanigans become stale, preserving its integrity as one of television's best sitcoms." On Metacritic, the sixth season has an average score of 79 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
=== Ratings ===
Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, reported that from June 1, 2024, to May 31, 2025, What We Do in the Shadows was streamed for a total of 55.6 million hours.
==== Season 1 ====
==== Season 2 ====
==== Season 3 ====
=== Accolades ===
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
What We Do in the Shadows at IMDb
What We Do in the Shadows at epguides.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atul_Gawande#:~:text=Early%20years%20and%20education,-Gawande%20was%20born&text=As%20a%20Rhodes%20Scholar%2C%20he,College%2C%20Oxford%2C%20in%201989. | Atul Gawande | Atul Atmaram Gawande (born November 5, 1965) is an American surgeon, writer, and public health researcher. He practices general and endocrine surgery at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. He is a professor in the Department of Health Policy and Management at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and the Samuel O. Thier Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School.
In public health, he was chairman of Ariadne Labs, a joint center for health systems innovation, and chairman of Lifebox, a nonprofit that works on reducing deaths in surgery globally. On 20 June 2018, Gawande was named CEO of healthcare venture Haven, owned by Amazon, Berkshire Hathaway, and JP Morgan Chase, and stepped down as CEO in May 2020, remaining as executive chairman while the organization sought a new CEO.
He is the author of the books Complications: A Surgeon's Notes on an Imperfect Science; Better: A Surgeon's Notes on Performance; The Checklist Manifesto; and Being Mortal: Medicine and What Matters in the End.
In November 2020, he was named a member of President-elect Joe Biden's COVID-19 Advisory Board. On 17 December 2021, he was confirmed as Assistant Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development, and was sworn in on 4 January 2022. He left this position on January 20, 2025, when Donald Trump began his second presidential term.
== Early life and education ==
Gawande was born on 5 November 1965 in Brooklyn, New York, to Marathi Indian immigrants to the United States, both doctors. His family soon moved to Athens, Ohio, where he and his sister grew up, and he graduated from Athens High School in 1983.
Gawande earned a bachelor's degree in biology and political science from Stanford University in 1987. As a Rhodes Scholar, he earned an M.A. in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) from Balliol College, Oxford, in 1989. He graduated with a Doctor of Medicine from Harvard Medical School in 1995, and earned a Master of Public Health from the Harvard School of Public Health in 1999. He completed his general surgical residency training, again at the Harvard-affiliated Brigham and Women's Hospital, in 2003.
== Political advocacy ==
As an undergraduate, Gawande was a volunteer for Gary Hart's campaign for the presidency of the United States. After graduating, he joined Al Gore's 1988 presidential campaign. He worked as a health-care researcher for Representative Jim Cooper (D-TN), who was author of a "managed competition" health care proposal for the Conservative Democratic Forum. Gawande entered medical school in 1990, leaving after two years to become Bill Clinton's healthcare lieutenant during the 1992 campaign.
== Public service ==
Gawande later became a senior advisor in the Department of Health and Human Services after Clinton's first inauguration. He directed one of the three committees of the Clinton administration's Task Force on National Health Care Reform, supervising 75 people and defined the benefits packages for Americans and subsidies and requirements for employers. But the effort was attacked in the press, and Gawande later described this time in his life as frustrating, saying that "what I'm good at is not the same as what people who are good at leading agencies or running for office are really good at."
Gawande led the "Safe surgery saves lives checklist" initiative of the World Health Organization, which saw around 200 medical societies and health ministries collaborating to produce a checklist, which was published in 2008, to be used in operating theaters. The Lancet welcomed the checklist as "a tangible instrument to promote safety", adding "But the checklist is not an end in itself. Its real value lies in encouraging communication among teams and stimulating further reform to bring a culture of safety to the very centre of patients' care."
== Journalism ==
Soon after he began his residency, his friend Jacob Weisberg, editor of Slate, asked him to contribute to the online magazine. Several articles by Gawande were published in The New Yorker, and he was made a staff writer for that publication in 1998.
In January 1998, Gawande published an article in Slate – "Partial truths in the partial-birth-abortion debate: Every abortion is gross, but the technique is not the issue" – discussing how abortion policy should "hinge on the question of when the fetus first becomes a perceiving being" and "not on techniques at all – or even on when the fetus can survive outside the womb".
A June 2009 New Yorker essay by Gawande compared the health care of two towns in Texas to show why health care was more expensive in one town compared to the other. Using the town of McAllen, Texas, as an example, it argued that a corporate, profit-maximizing culture (which can provide substantial amounts of unnecessary care) was an important factor in driving up costs, unlike a culture of low-cost high-quality care as provided by the Mayo Clinic and other efficient health systems.
The article "made waves" by highlighting the issue, according to Bryant Furlow in Lancet Oncology. It was cited by President Barack Obama during Obama's attempt to get health care reform legislation passed by the United States Congress. According to Senator Ron Wyden, the article "affected [Obama's] thinking dramatically", and was shown to a group of senators by Obama, who effectively said, "This is what we've got to fix." After reading the New Yorker article, Warren Buffett's long-time business partner Charlie Munger mailed a check to Gawande in the amount of $20,000 as a thank-you to Dr. Gawande for providing something so socially useful. Gawande returned the check and was subsequently sent a new check for $40,000. Gawande donated the $40,000 to the Brigham and Women's Hospital Center for Surgery and Public Health, where he had been a resident.
In 2012, he gave the TED talk "How Do We Heal Medicine?" which has been viewed more than 2.3 million times, as of April 2025. The talk draws on his books and articles, particularly his 2009 book The Checklist Manifesto, and cites the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist (13:30-).
== Books ==
Gawande published his first book, Complications: A Surgeon's Notes on an Imperfect Science, containing revised versions of 14 of his articles for Slate and The New Yorker, in 2002. It was a National Book Award finalist.
His second book, Better: A Surgeon's Notes on Performance, was released in April 2007. It discusses three virtues that Gawande considers to be most important for success in medicine: diligence, doing right, and ingenuity. Gawande offers examples in the book of people who have embodied these virtues. The book strives to present multiple sides of contentious medical issues, such as malpractice law in the US, physicians' role in capital punishment, and treatment variation between hospitals.
Gawande released his third book, The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right, in 2009. It discusses the importance of organization and preplanning (such as thorough checklists) in both medicine and the larger world. The Checklist Manifesto reached the New York Times hardcover nonfiction bestseller list in 2010.
Being Mortal: Medicine and What Matters in the End was released in October 2014 and became a #1 New York Times bestseller. It discusses end of life choices about assisted living and the effect of medical procedures on terminally ill people. The book was the basis of a documentary for the PBS television series "Frontline", which was first broadcast on February 10, 2015.
== Later career ==
Gawande founded the Lifebox charity with Pauline Philip. He chaired the non-profit from its foundation in 2011 until 2022. Lifebox provides training and equipment for safer surgery.
In 2018, he was named the CEO for the new, Boston-based company, Haven Healthcare, formed by billionaire investor Warren Buffett, Amazon's Jeff Bezos, and JPMorgan Chase CEO Jamie Dimon. He stepped down from the position in May 2020, remaining as executive chairman while the organization sought a new CEO. In January 2021, Haven announced that it was to cease operations. According to CNBC, sources associated with the company claimed that "while the firm came up with ideas, each of the three founding companies executed their own projects separately with their own employees, obviating the need for the joint venture to begin with."
=== Biden administration ===
In 2020, he was named a member of President-elect Joe Biden's COVID-19 Advisory Board.
==== USAID nomination ====
In 2021, President Biden nominated Gawande for the post of Assistant Administrator of U.S. AID for the Bureau of Global Health. Hearings were held on Gawande's nomination in the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on September 29, 2021. Florida Senator Marco Rubio delayed Gawande's committee vote in October 2021, claiming, "Atul Gawande's defense of infanticide is disqualifying... President Biden should withdraw Gawande's nomination and replace him with someone who is committed to upholding the agency's mission of saving lives." Senator Rubio's statement stems from a 1998 article Gawande wrote defending particular methods of late-term abortion and post-delivery infanticide. On November 3, 2021, the committee favorably reported Gawande's nomination to the Senate floor. The entire Senate confirmed Gawande on December 17, 2021, by a vote of 48–31.
== Awards and honors ==
In 2004, Gawande was selected as one of the "20 Most Influential South Asians" by Newsweek. In 2006, he was named a MacArthur Fellow for his work investigating and articulating modern surgical practices and medical ethics. In 2007, he became director of the World Health Organization's effort to reduce surgical deaths, and in 2009 he was elected a Hastings Center Fellow.
In the 2010 Time 100, he was included, in fifth place in the "Thinkers" category. The same year, he was he was included by Foreign Policy magazine on its list of top global thinkers. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2012. In 2014, he presented the BBC's annual radio Reith Lectures, delivering a series of four talks titled The Future of Medicine. These were delivered in Boston, London, Edinburgh and Delhi. Also that year, he won the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science. In November 2016, he was one of three recipients of the Massachusetts Governor's Award in the Humanities for his contributions to improving civic life in Massachusetts. In May 2022 he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Sciences by the University of Pennsylvania at their annual commencement ceremony.
== Bibliography ==
=== Books ===
Gawande, Atul (2002). Complications: a surgeon's notes on an imperfect science. Picador.
— (2008). Better: a surgeon's notes on performance. Picador.
— (2009). The checklist manifesto. Metropolitan Books.
— (2014). Being mortal: medicine and what matters in the end. Metropolitan Books.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
McBain, Sophie (November 21, 2014). "Rock doctor". New Statesman. 143 (5237): 17.
== External links ==
Interviews and Talks
Charlie Rose – interviews 2007–2010
The Daily Show – guest on February 3, 2010
Atul Gawande on Real Healthcare Reform and His New Book, The Checklist Manifesto – video report by Democracy Now!
Atul Gawande at TED
30 Minute interview on his book, Complications. With Hugh LaFollette, On "Ideas and Issues" WET-FM.
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSLV-D1 | SSLV-D1 | The SSLV-D1 was the first mission of the Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV). Due to a sensor fault during separation of second stage and subsequent initiation of Open Loop Guidance by onboard computer to salvage the mission, the upper stage did not fire for planned duration and payloads were ultimately injected into a decaying orbit not achieving the objectives of mission.
== Details ==
ISRO developed a small satellite launch vehicle (SSLV) to cater the launch of up to 500 kg satellites to Low Earth Orbits on ‘launch-on-demand’ basis.
SSLV-D1 mission launched EOS 02, a 135 kg satellite, with a planned Low Earth orbit of about 350 km altitude, at an inclination of about 37 degrees.
EOS-02 was an Earth observation satellite designed and realised by ISRO. This microsat-type satellite offered advanced optical remote sensing operating in infrared band with high spatial resolution. The bus configuration was derived from IMS-1 bus.
The mission also carried the AzaadiSAT satellite. AzaadiSAT was a 8U Cubesat weighing around 8 kg. It carried 75 different payloads each weighing around 50 grams and conducting femto-experiments. Girl students from rural regions across the country were provided guidance to build these payloads. The payloads were integrated by the student team of “Space Kidz India”. The payloads included a UHF-VHF Transponder working in ham radio frequency to enable voice and data transmission for amateur radio operators, a solid state PIN diode-based Radiation counter to measure the ionising radiation in its orbit, a long-range transponder and a selfie camera. The ground system developed by ‘Space Kidz India’ was to be utilised for receiving the data from this satellite.
== Launch ==
SSLV launched on its maiden flight at 03:48 UTC / 09:18 IST on 7 August 2022, from the First Launch Pad, but failed to reach the intended orbit. Due to an anomaly detected with accelerometers after second stage separation the stage as well as the two satellite payloads were injected into an unstable elliptical orbit measuring 356km × 76km and subsequently destroyed upon reentry. According to the ISRO, the mission software failed to identify and correct a sensor fault and switched to Open Loop Guidance to salvage the mission. This led to the VTM stage firing only briefly (0.1s) and payloads were injected to a very low perigee.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanhui_Shi_Weixing | Fanhui Shi Weixing | The Fanhui Shi Weixing (simplified Chinese: 返回式卫星; traditional Chinese: 返回式衛星; pinyin: Fǎnhuí Shì Wèixīng; lit. 'recoverable satellite') series of satellites was China's first reconnaissance satellite program. The satellites were used for military reconnaissance and civilian imagery tasks and completed 23 missions between November 1974 and April 2016. There were four generations of the Fanhui Shi Weixing (FSW) satellites: FSW-0 from 1974 to 1987; FSW-1 from 1987 to 1993; FSW-2 from 1992 to 1996; and FSW-3 from 2003 to 2005. Two derivative models, the Shijian-8 (SJ-8) and Shijian-10 (SJ-10), were developed and launched as 'seed satellites' conducting bioastronautic experiments for the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture. All FSW-series satellites were launched into orbit using Long March rockets from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (JSLC).
The successful recovery of an FSW-0 recoverable satellite in 1974 established China as the third nation to launch and recover a satellite following the United States and the Soviet Union. This success served as the basis for the second Chinese crewed space program, the third crewed program (Project 863) during the late 1980s, and the current Shenzhou program (active since 1992). A novel feature of the spacecraft's re-entry module was the use of impregnated oak, a natural material, as the ablative material for its heat shield.
The Fanhui Shi Weixing (FSW) imagery reconnaissance satellite program was succeeded by the ongoing Yaogan Weixing satellite program which began in 2006 and consists of imagery, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), and ocean surveillance payloads.
== History ==
=== Fanhui Shi Weixing-0 ===
The beginnings of the FSW-0 (military designation "Jianbing-1") recoverable satellite began in 1965 when Qian Xuesen conceived and proposed the idea and, after significant and tragic setbacks, finally completed it in 1974.
Having returned to mainland China from the United States after pressure from FBI and Ku Klux Klan during the Second Red Scare, "father of the Chinese missile program" Qian Xuesen began a remarkably successful career in rocket science, boosted by the reputation he garnered for his past achievements, and eventually rose through the Party's ranks to become a Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party member. Purportedly out of his dream of crewed spaceflight but also recognizing the military value, Qian Xuesen urged the Chinese Central Planning Committee to invest in the development of recoverable satellite technologies, similar to those the United States and Soviet Union had been successfully operating since the early 1960s. Interested more in the military value recoverable satellites would provide, the committee accepted and tasked space physicist and engineer Zhao Jiuzhang (who is today known as the "father of the Chinese satellite program" for his work as the chief designer of China's first satellite, Dong Fang Hong 1) to head the project. Earnest work on the project began in 1965 after Jiuzhang's team submitted a preliminary analysis of requirements having toured military and civilian organizations to assess potential applications of a recoverable satellite program. Wang Xiji, an American-educated rocket scientist and designer of the Long March 1 rocket which would launch the Dong Fang Hong 1 satellite in 1970, was named chief designer of the recoverable satellite program.
In May 1966, Mao Zedong, with the help of the Cultural Revolution Group, launched the Cultural Revolution with the stated goal of preserving Chinese communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society and to re-impose Mao Zedong Thought (known outside China as Maoism) as the dominant ideology in China. Among other groups, the purges of Mao's Red Guards focused heavily on academics and intellectuals regarded as the "Stinking Old Ninth" which included the seizure of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the persecution of 131 of the 171 senior members and the killings of 229 members. Zhao Jiuzhang was killed (though some sources say he committed suicide under the pressures of persecution), Qian Xeusen was reduced to the role of a common worker, and Wang Xiji was accused of sabotaging an FSW test parachute for which he fought to prove his innocence. Later in 1971, when Mao's successor Lin Biao died in a plane crash following an abortive coup d'état, Mao initiated an immense witch-hunt to oust potential supporters of Lin Biao. As a result, many departments of the Academy were closed to include the Shuguang project, China's proposed first crewed spacecraft, which had shared much of its technology with the recoverable satellite program costing the team valuable development money and time. Only after several months of persistent attack by Mao's Red Guards did Premier of the PRC Zhou Enlai intervene to put fifteen key scientists in critical missile programs under state protection while others did their best to survive the violence.
Despite the challenges and four years past its goal, the China Association for Science and Technology (CAST) completed the FSW-0 satellite which weighed 1,800 kilograms and carried photographic film and two cameras intended to support both military and civilian needs. FSW-0 carried a prism-scanning panoramic camera and a stellar camera both designed by the Changchun Institute of Optics and tested on two T7A rockets in July 1967.
In 1972, several technician teams were dispatched to Laiyang in Shandong, Xinhua in Hunan, Lhasa in Tibet, and Kashgar in Xinjiang to establish the nation's first satellite control, tracking, and telemetry stations. Having established four fixed stations and two mobile, technicians tested the control network with Soviet-made Il-14 aircraft flying at high-altitudes.
On 8 September 1974, FSW-0 No. 1 was transported to the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (JSLC) for launch on a Long March 2 rocket (derived from the Dongfeng 5 ballistic missile). The first attempt to launch an FSW-0 satellite into orbit on 5 November 1974 failed with the rocket exploding approximately twenty seconds after launch and debris crashing 300 meters from the launch pad. Analysis of the recovered debris led Chinese scientists to blame copper wire damage in the rocket during the second stage.
==== Maiden launch ====
The first successful FSW-0 launched on 26 November 1975 from Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center in Inner Mongolia Pad 138, Launch Complex 2. Immediately after launch, it became apparent the satellite would be irrecoverable due to a loss of pressure in the gas orientation system. Qian Xeusen estimated the chances of recovery to be near zero while Yang Jiachi (developer of the FSW-0's attitude control system) believed the seeming loss of pressure was only the result of the gasses cooling (Charles's law) as the spacecraft cooled exiting the atmosphere. Despite Yang's adamance that the mission should continue, the decision was made and Xian Ground Station commanded the satellite to reenter the atmosphere after only three days flight time.
With observers waiting in the mountains of Sichuan, four coal miners seated in a mess hall in Guizhou Province about 400 kilometers away watched a red-hot object crash into a nearby grove of trees around noon. Venturing out to see the crashed object, one reportedly threw a rock and was relieved to hear a metallic sound confirming the object was of terrestrial origin. The miners reported the object to local authorities and the recovery team eventually arrived to find the spacecraft intact and the imagery undamaged. The reentry vehicle was damaged by reentry and the parachute partially burned; however, the film was declared undamaged and the mission was deemed a success, making China the third nation to capture space-based imagery after the United States' CORONA satellite in 1960 and the Soviet Union's Zenit satellite in 1962.
The extracted imagery was in extremely low resolution and suffered significant distortion from in-orbit movements; however, the FSW-0 was launched eight more times on an imagery mission with the final mission purposed to conduct microgravity experiments. The microgravity experiments of the last mission tested the smelting and recrystallization of alloys and semiconductor materials including gallium arsenide and would continue as part of the larger FSW satellite program.
=== Fanhui Shi Weixing-1 ===
The FSW-1 series of reconnaissance satellites represents the application of lessons learned from the FSW-0 series, particularly in stabilizing the imagery obtained in-orbit. Launched one month following the last launch of the FSW-0 series, changes made with the new series included an increased in-orbit time (three days to five days) and precision while imaging was improved from 1° to 0.7°. The mass of the newer satellite increased from 1,800 kilograms to 2,100 kilograms and the FSW-1 series was launched into a more circular orbit with a slightly increased orbital perigee and reduced orbital apogee. These improvements reportedly improved the accuracy and stability of the collected imagery to improve the quality of maps produced. Unlike its contemporaries, American and Soviet (later Russian) photographic reconnaissance satellites, and like its predecessor the FSW-0, FSW-1 series satellites had no in-orbit maneuvering capabilities to enable prolonged observations over areas of interest.
FSW-1 satellites, though believed to be fulfilling a secondary military purpose, were primarily cartographic in purpose featuring a higher-resolution (10–15 meter resolution) camera system and a lower-resolution charge-coupled device (CCD) camera (50 meter resolution) that transmitted images to the ground in near-real-time to avoid squandering the limited on-board film used by the higher-resolution camera. The lower-resolution camera was reportedly used to image when unfavorable environmental conditions such as cloud cover prevented the collection of high-quality imagery.
FSW-1 4 carried in an open trunk below the imaging capsule the Swedish Freja magnetospheric research payload. The nineteen million USD 214 kilogram Freja payload was designed by the Swedish Space Corporation on behalf of the Swedish National Space Board and carried eight experiments in the subjects of electric fields for Sweden's Royal Institute of Technology, magnetic fields for Johns Hopkins University in the United States, cold plasma for the National Research Council of Canada, hot plasma and waves for the Swedish Institute of Space Physics, auroral imagery for the University of Calgary in Canada, and electron beams and particle correlators for the Max-Planck Institute in Germany. FSW-1 5 carried, in addition to its earth-imaging payload and microgravity research equipment, a diamond-studded medallion commemorating the 100th anniversary of Chairman Mao Zedong's birth.
Satellites of the FSW-1 series were developed by the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST), used a celestial camera for positional information, were stabilized by a 3-axis system, powered by a FG-23 retro motor, battery powered, and communicated at 179.985 MHz (VHF). After atmospheric reentry, the reentry capsule deployed a single drogue at high velocities 10–20 kilometers above the ground followed by a main parachute deployed at a more arrested speed of 5 kilometers altitude to slow the capsule's descent to around 10 meters per second by the time the reentry capsule struck the ground.
All five FSW-1 series satellites were launched using a Long March-2C rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (JSLC) and controlled via the Xi'an Satellite Monitor and Control Center (XSCC) in Shaanxi Province. With five successful launches and four successful recoveries, the FSW-1 program was largely a success; however, the failure of the final FSW-1 satellite, in part, marred the legacy of the series by gaining worldwide attention for its uncontrolled orbital decay.
==== Uncontrolled decay ====
FSW-1 No. 5, the last satellite of the series, launched on 8 October 1993, experienced a failure in the satellite's attitude control system which rendered it unable to properly reenter the atmosphere. The failure of the attitude control system when the satellite was instructed to return on 16 October 1993 tilted the spacecraft 90° from its intended position causing the reentry capsule to enter a highly elliptical orbit of 179 km × 3,031 km instead of returning to Earth. The re-entry capsule entered the atmosphere on 12 March 1996 over the South Atlantic, in a tumbling fashion which exposed much of the spacecraft unprotected by the heat shield to extreme heat and friction during reentry. Although the extent of the destruction is unknown, U.S. Space Command reported that some fragments had survived the conditions of reentry that had fallen into the Pacific Ocean near the coast of Peru. The loss of the FSW-1 5 was the only failed recovery of the larger FSW program.
Although in the end only a few fragments had likely reached the ocean's surface, the abortive reentry was widely reported on American and European television and in newspapers. Five days before the satellite's atmospheric reentry, the orbit was so unpredictable that studies could guess its reentry time with no less than a 10-hour error and could not predict where the fragments would land nor if it would strike a populated area. Western news followed the updates and predictions released by Air Force Major Don Planalp of U.S. Space Command in Colorado and was concerned largely with the novel and potential dangers of heavy metal fragments striking residential areas. News on the satellite frequently likened the satellite's decay to that of the Soviet Salyut-7 and become uniquely enamored with the onboard diamond-studded medallion celebrating the 100th birthday of the late Mao Zedong. Press organizations were unable to receive a comment from the Chinese Embassy in Washington on the satellite's fall as the Chinese government was still tight-lipped on the satellite's existence. Although experts stressed the low probability that the decaying satellite would strike of in a place of significance, some governments did issue be-prepared orders to law enforcement in the case of the potential disaster, most prominently the United Kingdom's Home Office.
== Specifications ==
The FSW-0 was the first generation of China's returnable satellites. Its primary use was for the inspection of national land and natural resources. First-generation FSW-0 satellites all carried prism-scan panoramic cameras. The FSW-0 did not have a complete orbit control system, so its decay or attenuation of orbit was quick, and it had a relatively short orbital duration. Its landing or return location accuracy was also relatively low.
The next generation, the FSW-1, carried more powerful cameras than its predecessor and was mainly used for drawing maps. Its spatial resolution was as high as 10m (able to discern objects 10 meters apart). The next two generations were called FSW-2 and FSW-3.
== Satellites ==
Notes: FSW-3 No. 2 and No. 4 are sometimes referred to as FSW-4 1 and 2 owing to design variations and the military designation's transition from Jianbing-2 to Jianbing-4; however, most sources retain the original FSW-3 name. Because Jianbing-4 No. 1 and No. 2 are differently designed, some sources refer to them as Jianbing-4A (JB-4A) and Jianbing-4B (JB-4B), respectively.
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
《返回式卫星》 (Returnable Satellite); Author: Lin Baohua (林华宝); Press: Tsinghua University Press, Jinan University Press; (ISBN 7302048827)
《太空情报与国家安全》 (Space Intelligence & National Security); Author: Lin Ziyang (林子洋); Press: Youshi Press; (ISBN 9575744721)
== External links ==
FSW at Astronautix.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Almy#Works | Mary Almy | Mary Almy (1883–1967) was an American architect, and a partner at Howe, Manning & Almy, Inc., one of the first architecture firms founded by women in the United States and specializing in domestic architecture. She studied architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1917 to 1919.
== Early life and education ==
Almy grew up in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She had polio as a child and walked with crutches throughout her life. In 1905 she graduated from Radcliffe College. She worked as a teacher before developing an interest in architecture. She earned a Bachelor of Science degree in architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1919 after three years of study. Due to academic policies in place at the time, female students were not accepted into the four-year program in Architecture, but limited to the two-year degree program in architectural drafting at MIT. Prior to her education at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Almy designed a summer home for her family on Cape Cod.
== Career ==
Almy worked as a drafter at a London based architectural firm called Collcutt and Hamp, for two years. In the 1920s, she became a drafter for the Boston firm owned by Lois Lilley Howe and Eleanor Manning, who had also attended MIT. In 1926, she became a member of the American Institute of Architects and a partner at Howe, Manning & Almy, Inc. Upon becoming partner at the firm, she took over the position of chief draftsman. Despite surviving the Great Depression, the firm closed in 1937 after Howe retired. Manning and Almy continued in private practice. Almy also worked with landscape architect Henrietta Pope.
== Works ==
== Legacy ==
Mary Almy's papers reside in the collection for Howe, Manning and Almy at MIT. The Almy family papers are located at the Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe College. Howe, Manning, and Almy were the subject of a dissertation defended in 1976 at Boston University by Gail Morse.
== References == |
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